§ #; º: # ºš sº § §§ łºżf - º º º § § º: £3. ; 3. ſº § §: ##### ğ. … §º x w § #: gº .# º § §§ sº :ºº & ººººººººº. ºš. ºś § #: º: §§ º §§ ides the mºn topic this book also treats of º §§ #. ; º º ***** **rºssrººrg & -** * , Y • T.’ $ *:::::: jº : * * * ... **s, * 3. º * * r −" •. 3& 3. & 1 # * g. * . .2% * * * * * * % r * * * * sº & $: j wº $ *, * - & * s: º 3& * A. & º, J. *; * * * 27 § Aº ‘s * © * * * 4. Yº # º 3º gº 4' * † * * A_ Zzzº-2-c. -g * 2% ºn- Js - 22.22% **. * 3. Ža. *g __ __- ...smºs--nºmmº-ºr - "| T |-|| W. º - | | - - | | | | - | | | | º º - | - \ ^ - | º | | | |||||| | | | | | |||| | | | | | | | ||| ||||| | | | |||||||||| - - - - - - - U.R. G. Null Cºlº Jo H M C A lºw tº THEOL) ORE BESA | 1 || GH LA II MEF roºm won. IF Nº O. A. RILLEY. º ºw * _º yº" tº ºucº -Hº, Kloº rºos oranmºn *Hi!. IE ME LANGTHºlſ * - M H Lºº. - Tºº TER MART YE. - - - - - - U “Tºlºſ E tº º º/, º º ( / º — ) - ( Brattleborº it.) - ENCYCLOPEDIA OF * @ e s > , , , • A. R E LIGIOU S K N 9.W.E., E D G E: ob, "...”.” ‘. . .” ! † DICTIGYNARY . . . * * *...* ºr : . . . . . . . . . . . -A º THE BIBLE, THE OLOGY, RELIGIOUS BIOGRAPHY, ALL RELIGIONS, ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, A ND MISSIO N S ; CONTAINING DEFINITIONS OF ALL RELIGIOUS TERMS; AN IMPARTIAL ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL CHRISTIAN DEN O MINATIONS THAT HAVE ExISTED IN THE world FROM THE BIRTH of cHRIST TO THE PRESENT DAY, W I TH THEIR DOCTRINES, RELIGIOUS RITES AND CEREMONIES, AS WELL AS THOSE OF THE J E W S, M O HA M M E D A N S, A N D H E AT H E N N ATION S ; TOGETHER WITH T H E MAN NERS AND - CU STOM'S OF THE EAST, ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, A DESCRIPTION OF THE QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, FISHES, REPTILES, INSECTS, TREES, PLANTS, AND MINERALS, MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE: A STATEMENT OF THE MOST REMARKABLE TRANSACTIONS AND EVENTS IN E C C L E SIASTICAL HISTORY ; BIOGRAPHICAR, NOTICES OF THE EARLY MARTYRS AND DISTINGUISHED RELIGIOUS WRITERS AND CHARACTERS OF ALL AGES. To WHich Is ADDED A MISSIONARY GAZETTEER, CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE WARIOUS MISSIONARY STATIONS THROUGHOUT THE GLOBE; B Y R. E. W. B., B. E. D. W. A R D S, EDITOR OF QUARTERLY OBSERVER. The whole BRought Down To THE PRESENT TIME, AND EMBRACING, UNDER ONE ALPHABET, THE MOST VALUABLE PART of CALMET's AND BROWN’s DICTIONARIES OF THE BIBLE, BUCKS THEOL, DICTIONARY: ABBOTT'S SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY; WELLS’ GEOGRAPHY OF THE BIBLE; JONES BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY; AND NUMEROUS OTHER SIMILAR WORKS. DESIGNED AS A COMPLETE BOOK OF REFERENCE ON ALL RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS; AND C O M P A NION TO THE BIBLE ; FORMING A CHEAP AND COMPACT LIBRARY OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE. * * * *- S - ºn tºp B Y IR E W . J N N E W T ON B R O W. N. . =; #! Iu strately 5 p & 0 ou Cuts, ſå a ps, attu 33 u q r a bf m gs on Qt opper a t t stat 1. B RATTLE BORO”, W T.: P U B L I S H E D B Y J O S E P H S T E E N & C O. P H I L A D E L PHI A : J. B. L I P P I N C O T T & C O. 184 6. © C e C g * * * * * • * : * : *: © º © © © O O © tº e e o e e e C & © © tº © © © o e C & e - e. e. e º 'º "e e e e o e º © o ° e • e s "e ... • & te © tº © © e a tº e e° e o • * * * * * * ...” •." * * *e a e * e e © : • A • , e. © e - © • * , tº © *e © e © * e - e. © T © tº e Ç º © º , º • * * * * © •e • * * * * ‘º • *e e "e 9 e°e : : ... • • © e e & e O © º © © e tº e e © e Q º º © e Q e e " © O © & © e e C • ? O e G © tº e C Q º & © º e & © © • s • * * * * *, * * © •. . . e. e. ... " ... •. • * * : *, * * tº e º C e e e º e º 'º e o e o © Entered according to Act of Congress in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-five, by Jo H. N. C. Ho LB Roo K and L E M U E L S HAT Tuck, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Vermont. P U B L I S H E R S ' A D W E R T I S E M E N T . The present is an age, and ours is a country, demanding great condensation and orevity in writers who would secure attention. So active and busy are the habits of the mass of our countrymen, that they have neither time nor patience to turn and peruse the pages of the cumbersome quartos and ſolios of the 17th century; while a tolerable competency would scarcely suffice for the purchase of the numerous works of which the modern press is so fruitful, on the subjects embraced in this volume...The work then, combining and condensing the most valuable results of the researches of the best writers on any subject, while it will be most likely to be received with favor, will at the same time be best calculated º facilitate the acquisition, and consequently the diffusion of knowledge. With these views the “CoMPRRHENsive CoMMENTARY on the Bible” was projected; and its unprecedented sale has encouraged the same publishers to offer to the public the present volume. The subjects embraced in this work are interesting to ALL, and as it is not †: to be in the least sectarian, or denominational, it cannot fail to be desirable for all, whether professedly religious or not, at least as a book of reference. The following are some of the peculiarities of the plan:— º 1. It is designed to be a standard and permanent work; and here it is believed will be found collected and compressed in, one super-royal octavo volume of upwards of twelve hundred pages, in a shape combining convenience and cheapness, and in a style blending the sweetness of the popular with the richness of the profound, what has heretofore been scattered through more than fifty volumes, and mixed with much of little or no value. Anong the works, all the valuable matter of which will be found in this, together with some from which copious extracts have been made, are the following:— BIBLICAL II, LUSTRATION. Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible ; Brown's o, ; , Barr's do ; Wells' Scripture Geo- raphy; Horne's Introduction ; Harris' §. Natural History: Abbott's edi- tion of Carpenter's do ; Pavton's Illus- trations of Scripture; Draper's do ; Har- mer's Observations: Jahn's Archæology; Mrs. Sherwood's Dictionary of Types and Emblema; Burder's Oriental Customs; Jo- sephus'Jewish Customs; Keith's Evidence of Prophecy; Cogswell's Harbinger of the Millennium : #. Biblicaſ Reposi- tory ; Crabbe's Engiish Synonymes. Prº- Many articles are ori fourth paragraph below. 2. It is designed for a complete book of reference on ALL religious subjects; to which a or conversation connected with Religion which he does not understand, or in regard to which a dictionary for a definition of a word. Nearly every subj which are of minor importance are ECCI, ESIASTICAL HISTORY. Mosheim’s History of the Christian Church; Milner's do ; Jones' do. ; Waddington's do. : Neander's do ; Murdock's Elements of Dogmatic History; Lord King's His- tory of the Primitive Church ; Robinson's History of Bapuism ; Sismondi's History of the Crusades against the Albigenses. RELIGIOUS BIOGRAPHY. Fox's Lives of the Martyrs; Middleton's Evangelical Biography; Jones' Christian Biog. : Davenport's Dictionary of Biogra- hy; Universal Biographical Dictionary; Étº: Female Biography; Clissold’s very brieſ, and those of here; but it is not burdened with any thing that is altogether useless. 3. In Theology, the general plan of Buck's Dictionary is illustrations of important topics, and its valuable references to th ever, have º us occasionally with articles of superior value. ;Iº- The e nearly five hundred new articles, 4. The accounts of the History, Where it was practicable some leading man o ing to it, and where it has not been, the matter Žiº, authority. The work Does Not AIM. To Effect A compromise of opinions amon present the views of each fully, and in their own words, leaving the reader to form his o must be a truly acceptable course mº amica v ERITAs.” he BAPTISM. Pedobaptist Views, Rev. Editor of the Boston Recorder. Views, Rev. J. D. KNow Les, Professor in the Newton Theological Institution. BAPTISTs. sanction of Rev. Dr. SHARP, B CongregATIONALists. Prepared under the revision and OSton. Prepared b ber, and revised and sanctioned by EMERson, of Andover Theological Seminary, ition of Buck which has been used is the new one lately which will be found incorporated in this. }; of different denominations, have been prepared with an aim at the strictest impartiality the principal sects existing in this country has been employed to prepare the article reiðt. has been drawn from some one or more prominent writer of the denomination, of acknow- g the different denominations of Christians, but to wn conclusions as to which is most correct. the sentiment quoted by Robert Hall, “Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed Doctrines, to all who can respond to following are some of the contributors under this head:— J. TRAcy, Baptist and Rev. Dr. WISNER of, Boston. * 5. To adapt it to popular use, all 6. Scriptwre ing only the characteristic outlines, Z. In consequence of the space thus gained, the new d believed, every distinguished religious writer, preacher, were actuated by religious principles. died in this country, ſulfilment of the Prophecies regard 9. The object of the EncyclopediX being and practical, as well as a critical, imagination. 10. Maps and EnghAvinas, as well as Wood Cuts, have been added to enrich and adorm, On the whole, the amount of information embodied in and addition, has been very greatly desire to acquire general Knowledge, to the SABBATH School. Teaches and from its settlement to this time. a reſerence to the best biographies of the individual. 8. As a Dictionary and Gazetteer of the Bible, adapting it to the wants of the Pulpit and of SABBAth Schools. words ng them, so far as developed, are greater utility handled more at length. CliftistiANs. Rev. J. W. HIMEs, Boston. Disciples of CHRIST, or Reformers. ALEx- ANDER CAMPBELL, of Bethany, Virginia. FREE WILL BAPrists. Rev. S. BEede, Editor ton Theological Seminary. th9 work will be found, it is believed, e to do good on º picturesque, and popular character, Last Houra of Eminent Christians; Ivi- mey's Hualory of the Buptists; Benedict's do. ; Mather's Magnalia; Elliot's Ameri- can Biography; Allen's do. ; Memours of American Missionaries; Encyclopædia Americana. THEOLOGY. Buck's Theological Dictionary, enlarged by Dr. Henderson; Jones' Biblical y- slopedia ; Hawker's Biblical Dictionary; Watson's Biblical and Theological Dic- tionary; Christian Examiner; Canapbell's Dissertations; Dwight's Theology; Spirit of the Pilgrims; Works of Andrew Fuller; do, of Robert Hall; Douglas on the Ad- DEAN. PROTESTANT Episcopal. Church. Boy LE, presbyter, of Boston. PROTESTANT METHooist Church. Rev. T. F. Norris, President of the New England Con. UNIVERSAL RESTORATIonists. vancement of Society in Knowledge and Religion. CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS. Evans' Sketch of Religious Denonlina- tions; Jones' Dictionary of Religious Opinions; Hannah Adams' do. ; Robbins' do, ; Douglas on Errors regarding Reli- ion ; Benedict's History of All Religions ; illiams’ Dictionary of do. : Ward's Fare: well Letters; Edwards' Quartelly Regis- ter. MISSIONS. Edwards' Missionary Gazetteer ginal, especially those relating to the principal denominations in this country, as will be seen on reference to the Fº can turn when any thing occurs in reading e wishes to refresh his memory, as he would to ect treated in the books which form the basis of this, is touched upon; but those Articles rarely recurred to will be ſound followed; especially in its evangelical cast and Christian candor, in its copious e best works on both sides of the question. Watson, Jones, and others, how- published in England, edited by Prof. HENDERson, who has added This Rev. Mr. of the Morning Star, Dover, N. H ference. MºHopist Episcopal Chufigh. . Rev. S. W. UNITArians. From an article prepared by a mem: ... Willson, Editor of Zion's Herald, Boston. Rev. Prof. PALFREY. ev. Prof. PRESBYTERIANs. Rev. Dr. MILLER, of Prince. Univers Aſſists. Rev. L. R. PAIGe. Rev. PAvl, g 3- * in foreign languages have been omitted; or where Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek terms unavoidably occur, they are given in English characters. *śſºphy, ºch occupies a large space in most Bible Dictionaries, is handled here in the briefest manner possible—giv. except when difficulties occur which require to be cleared up. epartment of Religious Biography and character, including the most distin Dvery denomination will find here notices of its most ſi To every notice of an author a list of his pr is made full and ertensive; embracing, it is guished females, and those philanthropists who llustrious men, especially such as have lived and incipal writings (so far as possible) is given, with g more copious and accurate than any other now in use, In the notices of the various cities and countries mentioned in the Bible, the articularly noticed. principles, the work preserves throughout, as far as that it may minister to the heart, no less than to t ssible, a devotional e judgment and the as well as illustrate, the work. this work is immense, and it is hoped the matter, by collation, arrangement, abridgment, improved; and while it will be ſound interesting and valuable to Families, and those individuals who only Bidis Class LRADrh it cannot but prove an invaluable treasure, rºº º --- ***, *, *...* a ...sº ſºvº. º P R. E. F. A. C. E. Few words are necessary to set forth the advantages of a work like this. A mind of ordinary intelli- gence must see them at a glance. It is not known that a similar attempt has heretofore been made, to bring together so wide a range of information from every department of religious knowledge. The works which have been most used in the compilation of this, and whose separate advantages are here combined, are far more limited and partial in design. For comprehensiveness of plan, therefore, the present work stands alone, and without a rival, in the wide field of theological literature. Nor does any single work in either of the departments of religious knowledge here embraced, contain an equal number of articles in that depart- ment, or an equal variety and amount of valuable information. In the labor which he has expended on this work, therefore, the Editor has been cheered by the hope of presenting an acceptable offering to the religious public, of performing a service of real and lasting utility to the cause of Christ, which he believes and feels to be, in the language of the eloquent Buckminster, “the cause of human happiness forever and ever.” Although, as stated in the Advertisement of the Publishers, this work is prepared with special adaptation to the wants of this country and of this age, the Editor begs that the nature of this adaptation may not be mis- understood. To some minds it may possibly suggest the idea that it is merely “got up” for temporary purposes, and that it consists of light and undigested materials, thrown loosely and hastily together, a mere book- selling speculation. The best answer to such a supposition will be found in a careful examination of the book itself. It claims not however to be faultless. It would be singular indeed if, in a work of some ten thousand different articles, the eye of even candid criticism could not detect deficiencies, minor mistakes, positive errors even. No diligence, no research, no comparison of statements, however careful, no sifting of authori- ties, however severe, no sincerity of aim at the most rigid accuracy and impartiality, he apprehends, can wholly avoid these things. It is something however to have aimed aright. The true critic will feel this. He is not qualified for the task of criticism who has not himself passed through a course of mental trial and discipline in the pursuit of truth, and especially of religious truth, which has taught him the difficulties of the pursuit, and imbued his heart with a generous sympathy. For the judgment which such men shall form of his labors, the Editor shall entertain the sincerest deference. If any shall assail the work in a different spirit, he shall feel little affected by their censure, otherwise than to beseech of God their better illumina- tion; while he cheerfully confides in the real value of the work itself, and the favoring providence of the great Author and Finisher of our faith, (not unbesought to this end, so far as it may be connected with his glory,) for its ultimate popularity and success. It is necessary, however, that the Editor should bespeak the attention of his readers, and of all such especially as shall use this work, to some of the principles by which he has been guided in its preparation. The most important of these were named in the Prospectus, and are now embodied in the Advertisement; yet some of minor consequence it is necessary to mention here. In compilations of this nature it has not generally been thought of importance to give the names of the authorities consulted or employed, in connexion with each article. Various reasons have been assigned for this omission. But the Editor, after proceeding some little way in his work, became dissatisfied with the prescriptive course on this point, and judged it best in all cases to refer to the sources from which the several articles were compiled or selected. Various advantages seem to him to attend this method. It is certainly more ingenuous. It renders due honor to those who have previously labored in the field, and where, as in some instances, but a single name appears, it shows to whom the Encyclopedia is indebted either for the best original article, the most judicious selection, or the most valuable compilation. In many cases too, where the article is abridged to adapt it to this work, it enables the reader to consult the works in which it is treated more at length. Yet even in abridged articles, it is believed, he will often confess with pleasure, that “ the half is better than the whole.” - w At the same time, in justice both to himself and to others, the Editor would remark, that no writer from whom he has compiled or selected, and whose name appears at the end of a particular article, is to be held responsible for its precise form or language, unless his language is expressly quoted. In all other cases the Editor of the Encyclopedia has felt himself at liberty to modify not only the arrangement, but the diction - & - S_* *...” S. sº *…* IV PR E F A C E . and sentiments, to bring an article nearer to that state of order, accuracy, clearness, and completeness, which the most recent information, and the habits of his own mind, led him to think desirable and useful to his readers. Such only as will take the trouble to compare article by article as they stand here, with the same articles as they appear in the works referred to, will be able to judge of the amount of labor expended in this manner, or of the degree of improvement by this means attained. It is perhaps unnecessary to say, that the original articles on the different CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONs, furnished for this work by the several gentlemen whose names are attached to them, are to be exempted from the above remarks. It has been an invariable rule with the Editor to insert them as prepared by their authors, without the slightest alteration; except in a single instance, the omission of a name, which justice to the individual would not suffer to appear in the connexion where it stood. For whatever appears in those articles, the respective authors or revisers are alone responsible. To this they have cheerfully con- sented by giving their names to the public. And the Editor cannot but feel himself happy in having been able to secure to each denomination so able an organ and representative. No better pledge of authenticity and impartiality could have been given by the Publishers, or have been desired by the community. Those articles alone stamp unequalled authority and value upon the Encyclopedia, as a standard work of reference on those points; which, amidst the mis-statements and colorings of party spirit, it is always so difficult to ascertain with any thing like precision and certainty. The Editor regrets that in two or three instances his applications for similar articles on other denominations, proved unsuccessful. In these cases he has done the best he could. It may be proper also to observe here, that the article Baptists, to which no name is attached, as in the case of others, was drawn up by the Editor, under the revision of the Rev. Dr. Sharp, and actually printed, before the arrangement followed in the remainder of the work was finally adjusted. In the preparation of the whole work, the Editor has been governed by a single idea—the aim to make it, to the utmost of his ability, what he should judge most desirable as a companion of the Bible; a compa- nion, however, not in the sense of a master or equal, but of a ministering attendant. He is not one of those who regard the word of God without note or comment, so far as relates to the great doctrine of salvation, as either defective, equivocal, or obscure. On the contrary, he believes that notwithstanding all the disad- vantages of a translation, a foreign idiom, and an oriental drapery, it is, in every really important point, full, unambiguous, and clear. A distinction should ever be made between its history and its poetry, between its doctrine and its allusions. The transparent and vigorous simplicity of the former, requires little aid from learned labors; the wayfaring man, though a fool, shall not err therein. But besides its history and its doc- trine, or, in other words, its facts, and its moral principles, precepts, and promises connected with those facts, the Bible abounds in allusions, geographical, historical, and analogical, and these, together with prophecy and its accomplishment, form the proper field for BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATION. Accordingly, the Editor has made it a point to collect every ray of light within his reach, and concentrate it on the geography, history, scenery, sects, customs, and manners, peculiar to every spot of interest referred to on the sacred page, that the reader may be able to surround himself with the very associations of the sacred writers, or the persons present in the scenes they describe. Yet while, with the feeling of a poet, he has prosecuted these re- searches, he deems it right to warn his readers that this kind of knowledge is but the literature, “the letter,” not the vital spirit of religion; and that the most learned critic in these matters is but on a level in point of real information with the humblest peasant in Judea, or the busiest citizen of Greece and of Rome, into whose hands at first, without note or comment, the sacred writings came. The same remarks apply, also, to the articles of Biblical Introduction, which treat of the age, origin, contents, and character of the several books of the Old and New Testament, including the Higher Criticism, which examines their authenticity; though great attention has been paid to these points, as well as to Biblical Interpretation, in the Encyclopedia. Physiology, also, and Natural History, together with Intellectual and Moral Philosophy, have been made tributary to Biblical Exposition. - After a knowledge of the sacred documents of our Religion, comes the history of its progress and effects in the world, together with the changes it has undergone from the neglect or misinterpretation of those documents; and this is the province of EccLESIASTICAL History. The Editor hopes that his attention to this subject has enabled him to throw a clearer light over some articles in this department. He also owns himself much indebted to the candor and research of Mr. Williams, in the last English edition of his valua- ble Dictionary of all Religions. - - Closely connected with this is the department of RELIGIOUs Biography, in which the Editor has aimed to pursue a liberal course, embracing the most noted writers for and against Natural Religion, for and against Revelation, for and against Orthodoxy, as generally understood. He has thus enabled his readers to form just ideas of the character of each, and to feel the benefits of comparison between men of opposite views PR EFACE. V. on the greatest of all subjects. He has also included many whose writings have exerted an influence, favorable or unfavorable to Religion, on intellect and morals in Christian lands. But chiefly he has de- lighted to dwell on characters eminent for piety and philanthropy, and to preserve some of their most me- morable sayings, together with glimpses of their dying hours. No collection of Religious Biography of equal extent and value probably exists in the English, or any other language. It is brought down also to the present year. The Editor regards this department alone as worth the whole cost of the book. In the department of Theology, strictly speaking, he has taken no little pains to set every important subject in the clearest light, and to state it in the most scriptural manner. And as he has had the advantage of drawing upon authors of different sentiments, who have preceded him in similar works, but with more partial views, he has sought, as far as he could with a clear conscience, to select and combine what seemed to him true, and good, and edifying in each, to enrich the present work. All the bibliographical references in Buck's Theological Dictionary are retained, with copious additions, chiefly, however, of writers of more recent date, of standard merit, and whose writings are generally accessible in this country. These refe- rences are rarely made to particular volumes and pages, as these can be of little service where various. editions abound, in various forms, and especially when the topic can be so readily found by turning to an index. No valuable work, unless alphabetically arranged, is now published without an index. The copious topical references also introduced throughout this work, the Editor trusts will greatly augment its value. Although it has been a general rule to exclude from the Encyclopedia all foreign languages, yet in a few instances, for the sake of the scholar, a Latin quotation has been retained, on account of its aptness or beauty of illustration. The English reader can pass over these, or get the sense of them from a friend who understands the language. Of the MissionARY GAZETTEER, he needs only to say, that it is wholly prepared by Mr. B. B. Edwards, whose name is a sufficient pledge of its proper execution. Articles not found in the body of the work, must be looked for in the Appendix; where also will be found brief historical articles on the various Religious and Benevolent Societies of the age. - After all, the Editor wishes the present work, however satisfactory to the general reader, to be looked upon by the student, not as a full view of any one subject, but rather in the light of ground already gained and made good, as a starting point for fresh investigations. Each article should be regarded as an organized nucleus, a living root, around which he is to accumulate the stores derived from his future reading and reflections. - * . - - Especially does he wish to apply this remark to his junior brethren in the Christian ministry. While we glory only in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, and justly value all objects by their relation to Him, it is not for us to standstill, amidst the mighty stream of advancementin human affairs. The best movements of society should always find us in the front ranks. Such is our commission. What high and generous, yet gentle courage do we need for its fulfilment. The present, is, not without reason, denominated an age of inquiry. How far profound, how far impartial, how far governed by the meekness of wisdom, how far springing from the fervent love of truth and righteousness, we will not say—but still it is an age of inquiry. All who are acquainted with the movements of the civilized world, must be aware that within the last fifty years, the prevailing systems of metaphysics and morals, and the most important doctrines of Christianity, as well as the evidence of Christianity itself, have undergone a rigorous investigation, by some of the ablest minds of an age, than which none perhaps has been more fruitful in great men. The whole structure of theology, as well as of politics, has been re-examined from its foundations, by the searching spirit of the times. And it is well. The spirit that is moving on these troubled elements, we verily believe, is the Spirit of God. It is a spirit that is at once purifying our faith at home, and extending it abroad among all the nations. Under its quickening influence, Biblical Literature and Criticism have been greatly advanced. The Laws of sound Interpretation have become better understood, and are more generally applied in the investigation of the Sacred Volume; though on this point there is still much to be desired. The Baconian method is by no means universal yet. Preconceived notions, abstract speculations, illogical reasonings, and partial unduc- tions of Scripture, still too much abound. And even where these lead not astray, there is far too im- Perfect a faith in the simple word of God. In Religion, reason makes no real discoveries except as she walks in the clear light of Divine revelation. “The use of reason in religion is to enlarge our minds to the amplitude of truth; but the abuse of reason is more common, which would contract truth to the narrowness of our understandings.” - . Some advantages have certainly been gained by the recent spirit of inquiry and free discussion. If few new truths have been discovered, many old ones have been better settled and defined; and some crude and impure mixtures purged away. The practical applications of truth have also been more ably illustrated, vi PR E R A C E . and we may hope henceforth to see more and better fruit spring from their belief and inculcation. Besides this, good men of different communions are becoming every day better acquainted with each other; and a gradual approximation of sentiment and feeling is taking place, through the agency of spiritual revivals, of benevolent institutions and associations, and of the religious periodical press. This fact affords a cheer- ing augury for the future. The Editor entertains hopes that this work will be found to participate in some good degree of this spirit of the age, and that it will help to diffuse its quickening and healing influence still more widely. No object, he can truly say, has throughout been dearer to his bosom, than the hope of hastening the triumphs of truth and charity—the charity and truth of the blessed Gospel—over the whole world. Unless his heart has de- ceived him, he has labored in the spirit of that fundamental Christian prayer—HALLowed BE THY NAME ; THY KINGDoM come; THY will BE DONE, AS IN HEAVEN, so IN EARTH. In that spirit he would wish the work to be read; and if any thing has been inserted not in harmony with this, he can most heartily wish it were expunged. - - - - - - Should any reader be staggered at the multifarious forms of human belief here presented, especially among professed Christians, a brief but full solution may be found in the following remarks of Mr. Douglas. “Er- rors, though they appear infinite at first view, may be reduced to a few classes and to a very few principles. Errors regarding religion, while they have their original cause in the dimness of the divine image in the fallen mind, and the consequent obscurity of heavenly truth, may be traced in their proximate causes either to pre- conceived opinions or to partial views. Thus the old errors of the ancient world, after the coming of our Savior, re-appeared in a Christian disguise, giving rise to as many heresies in religion as there had formerly been sects in philosophy; and the good seed of the word had almost been stifled by the indigenous weeds which revived along with it in the mind; as they rushed up with all the strength and advantage which they derived from being the natural and previous occupants of the soil. More lately, in religion, as in philo- sophy, imperfect induction has been the stumbling-block, instead of preconceived theories; and a part of divine truth, separated from its proper place, and exaggerated beyond its just dimensions, has been opposed to the whole.” \ . . - , - If any, question the propriety and use, of perpetuating in this form the various crudities and abortions of error in the human mind, we reply in the words of the same eloquent and philosophic writer: “Thus we complete the ‘intellectual globe,' (to use an expression of Bacon,) when we add the darkened to the enlight- ened hemisphere of thought. Then our belief has its highest and perfect repose, when we ascend to that - point of view which discloses at once the foundations of truth and the outlets of error; as the wanderings of the planets are explained away, and disappear with all their epicycles, and nothing remains but the im- mutable order of the heavens, when contemplated from their centre and point of rest.” The Editor cannot conclude without returning his most grateful acknowledgments to the Publishers, who have furnished him with the opportunity and materials, and to those gentlemen who have assisted him in making the Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge what it is—the most recent, comprehensive, illustra- tive, and trust-worthy work of reference on all denominational points, as he hopes it will be found, also, on the various topics adverted to above. He would particularly express his obligations to the Rev. David Benedict, for permission to use his valuable History of all Religions, and to President Allen, for the assistance derived from his copious collection of American Biography. But, above all, would he devoutly acknowledge the kindness of that gracious Being, who has enabled him to perform this service for the cause of Christ, and for his fellow-men, and to finish a task of such magnitude and solemn import, at least in his own view from the first, that he would not have deemed the sacrifice too great had it cost his life. To the favor of that most glorious of Beings, whose approbation he chiefly covets, to whom he owes the rich gift of an intelligent, moral, and immortal existence, redeemed too by an inestimable price, as well as to the use of the public for whom it is prepared, he humbly commends this work.” - - - J. N. J3. Boston, January 1, 1835. E N C Y C L O PAE DIA OF R E L I G I O U S K N O W L E D G E. A, The first letter in almost all alphabets. ... In the Hebrew it is called Aleph. This, and all the other letters of the Hebrew alphabet, are found in the 119th Psalm, prefixed to the several sections of that richest of all devotional compositions. Both the Hebrews and Greeks used their letters as numerals. Hence A. (Aleph,) came to signify the first ; as did also the Greek Alpha, a distinguishing title assumed by our Lord, Rev. 1: 8, 11. 21: 6. 22: 13. Alpha, in connection with Omega, the former the first, and the katter the last letter in the alphabet, are beautiful symbols of that glorious Being, of whom, and through whom, and to whom are all things. Rom. 11 : 36. As appropriated to himself, by our Savior, it is a sublime affirmation, from his own lips, of his essential deity, and all comprehending fulness. Perhaps the best exposition ever given of this glorious title, is found in Col. 1: 15–20. AARON, son of Amram, and the elder brother of Moses. He was a prince of the tribe of Levi ; and his name, derived from Har, a mountain, is by some supposed to signify a mountaineer ; but by others, to denote eminent, as if prophetic of his lofty designation; he being called of God, not only to take part in the redemption of his people from Egypt, but also to be the first HIGH PRIEST of Israel. In this most high and sacred relation, he was in several respects an illustrious type of Christ; who is the body and substance of all the Levitical shadows and sacrifices; through whose mediation alone, the guilty can have access to God. Col. 2: 17. The history of Aaron is found in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers; it is unne- cessary, therefore, to repeat it here. He died in mount Hor, A. M. 2552, aged 123 years. The seeming contra- diction as to the place of his death, (Num. 20: 22– 29, with Deut, 10: 6,) is removed by the fact mentioned by Burckhardt, that Mosera is the name of the valley at the foot of mount Hor—(See articles HIGH PRIEST; flººrºº: ; EPHOD; URIM; CALF; TYPE ; SHADow; OR.) Calmet, in reviewing the history of Aaron, remarks, 1. A striking instance of divine sovereignty in the prefe- rence given to Moses, his younger brother.—2. A strong confirmation of their divine mission in the peculiar cir- cumstances of their meeting at mount Horeb.-3. Proba- ble evidence that Aaron was chief of his people in Egypt, though under the authority of Pharaoh.-4. That his consent to make the golden calf in the wilderness pro- ceeded from exhausted faith and patience, joined with unjustifiable weakness and timidity.—5. That the sedition of Aaron and Miriam against Moses affords another argument against the supposition of collusion between the brothers.-6. That in the general character of Aaron there was much of the excellence, and especially of the meek- Hess, of Moses.—7. That he probably assisted his brother in writing out some parts of the books which now bear the name of Moses.—And, lastly, that his death presents onc of the most singular and impressive scenes in the history of our race. The last idea is thus enlarged upon by Jones: “Neither the purity of his character, nor the honor of his high priesthood, could exempt him from the common lot of mor- tals, or confer a perpetuity upon his office. The law of Moses perfected nothing, as the apostle tells the Hebrews. It served only to the introduction of a better hope. Under that dispensation ‘the priests were many, because they were not suffered to continue by reason of death.’ Heb. 7: 23. The continual succession of mortal men, of which the Aaronic priesthood was made up, while it strikingly evinced its imperfection and its temporary duration, was evidently designed to serve as “an ex- ample and shadow of heavenly things,’ and to lead the Israelites to look forward to ‘better things to come’— when ‘ANoTHER PRIEST should arise, after the order of Melchisedek, and not after the order of Aaron—a priest who should spring out of the tribe of Judah, and who should be constituted not after the law of a carnal commandment, but after the power of an endless life' —whose priesthood should be unchangeable in , the heavens. In reference to this view of things, the death of Aaron, and all its train of attendant circumstances, are replete with instruction. In the sight of all the congre- gation, at the command of Moses, he quits the camp of Israel, accompanied by his brother and his son Eleazer, and ascends the mountain where he is to die. Here the father is stripped of his priestly vestments, one by one, which Moses immediately places upon his son Eleazer, his successor in the office of the high priest. Thus disrobed of the insignia of his office, with a gentle but melancholy grandeur, the venerable old man resigns him- self to death, and is ‘gathered to his people, according to the word of the Lord.’” AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil year, and the fifth of their sacred year; corresponding to our July. —(See MoRTH, and Jewish CALENDAR, at the end of this volume.) Should not Christians, every month, in special prayer, remember this singular and unhappy people, who, though rejected for their unbelief, maintain still the forms of religion in the absence of its power? Yet again they shall be restored to God in Christ. Rom. 11. ABADDON, (Hebrew, corresponding to Apollyon, Greek, and signifying Destroyer,) the angel of the bottomless pit, and king over the symbolic locusts. Rev. 9 : 11–(See Locust.) Le Clerc, Grotius, and Hammond interpret these locusts of the zealots and robbers, who, under John of Gischala, desolated Judea before the destruction of Jeru- salem. But Mr. Mede remarks, that the title Abaddon alludes to Obodas, the common name of the ancient monarchs of that part of Arabia from which Mahomet came ; and considers the passage as descriptive of the inundation of the Arabians or Saracens under Mahomet and his successors. Mr. Lowman, and, after him, Bishop Newton, adopts and confirms this interpretation. He shows that the rise and progress of the Mahometan reli- gion and empire exhibit a signal accomplishment of this prophecy. All the circumstances correspond to the cha- racter of the Arabians, and the history of the period that extended from A. D. 612 to A. D. 762, being five prophetic months, or one hundred and fifty years. The title of Destroyer given to their king, was peculiarly suitable to a succession of caliphs, who, in propagating the Mahome- tan imposture by fire and sword, destroyed at once both the bodies and the souls of men; and seemed to be the visible representatives of Satan himself, who was “a murderer from the beginning, and abode not in the truth.” John, 8: 44. Brown, Bryant, and others have given different inter- pretations of the passage; but as Dr. Scott observes, “Every circumstance of this emblematical prediction so exactly accords to the Saracens, and so little suits the church or hierarchy of Rome, or any of their religious orders, (who gained their advantage by priestcraft, not A B B A B B [ 8 J by arms,) that there can be no propriety in attempting to explain it of them; especially as they are described with sufficient precision in what follows. Prophecies have a determinate meaning; but by giving loose to a lively imagination, to find distant resemblances, we are more like to perplex, than to satisfy the inquirer.”—Jones. Watson; Brown; Newton on the Prophecies; Scott's Notes on Rev. ix.; Fuller's Lectures on the Apocalypse. ABANA, (called also AMANA,) and PHARPAR; rivers of Damascus, in Syria, memorable from the words of Naaman the leper, 2 Kings 5: 12. The Abana is sup- posed to be the Burada, or Chrysorrhoas, which, rising in the eastern declivity of Anti-libanus, flows to the south- east through Damascus, and is lost in the lake El Heijäny. About four miles above the city, it divides into several branches, which, after fertilizing that delightful plain, unite again before entering the lake. The Pharpar, Gesenius supposes to be a small, rapid stream, which descends from Anti-libanus and unites with the Burada nearly opposite to El Fíjeh. Some suppose it to be one of the branches of the Burada, flowing without the walls of the city, and Watering the surrounding gardens. See AMANA.—T. The language and conduct of Naaman afford a strik- ing illustration of man's natural disaffection to the gos- pel, which is God's chosen method of healing the leprosy of our fallen nature. Its simplicity, and gratuitous character, as well as the self-denial it demands, are alike unpalatable to the self-indulgent, the superstitious, and the self-righteous. Yet it is invariably found, that with- out submission to God’s appointment, without washing in the “fountain which He has opened in the house of Judah for sin and uncleanness,” there is no healing for us.—Calmet ; Bronyn ; Hanoker ; Watson. ABARIM, a range of mountains or hills beyond Jor- dan, in the country of Moab. Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor, were in the number. Nebo is chiefly memorable as the sacred spot where Moses died. Num. 33: 48. Deut. 32: 49, 50.34: 1. ABASE, to treat with contempt; to reduce to mean- ness and wretchedness. It comes from a Hebrew word which signifies the bottom. It is inserted here chiefly with a view to illustrate that emphatic and oft repeated maxim of our Lord, (Mat. 23: 12. Luke, 14: 11. 18: 14,) “Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased; and he that shall humble himself shall be exalted.” ABAUZIT, (FIRMIN,) was born in Languedoc, 1679. In consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, his mother, who was a Protestant, took refuge with her son in Geneva. He engaged with such eagerness in his studies, that he made great proficiency in languages, theology, antiquity, and the exact sciences. At the age of nineteen, he travelled into Holland, where he became acquainted with Boyle and Basnage. Thence he passed into England, where he was favorably noticed by New- ton, and invited to remain by King William, on very advantageous conditions. He determined, however, to return to Geneva, and, devoting himself to study, he rendered important assistance to a society engaged in translating the New Testament into French. In 1727, he was appointed public librarian in Geneva, and was presented with the freedom of the city. He died in 1767. A. was a profound scholar, a true philosopher, and a sincere Christian. His conversation was unostentatious, but instructive and animated. He was simple in his manners, independent and decided in his opinions, but a friend to universal toleration. He defended the Principia, and even detected an error in that work, when very few Yılen could understand it. Newton declared him “a fit man to judge between Leibnitz and himself.” Rousseau describes him as the “wise and modest Abauzit,” and Voltaire pronounced him “a great man.” His know. ledge was extensive in the whole circle of antiquities, in ancient history, geography, and chronology. In theology his researches were deep, and his moderation enabled him to avoid, the violence of theological parties. His works are chiefly on theological subjects. An Essay on the Apocalypse, Reflections on the Eucharist, and On the Mys. teries of Religion, are his principal writings.—Davenport. ABBA ; an Aramaean or Syriac word of endearment, signifying My Father. (See ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE.) Daº vid Levi, in his Lingua Sacra, derives it from a root, denoting desire, delight, complacency, Satisfaction. The learned Mr. Selden has proved from the Babylonian Gemara, that a slave or menial servant was not permitted to employ this appellation in addressing the ab, that is, the lord and head of the family; because it was indica- tive of the closest relationship and the tenderest reciprocal affection. Its use was restricted to such as sustained this intimate relationship, and was regarded as the appropri- ate language of children, whether by birth or adoption. Its use in the New Testament seems to correspond exactly with the facts here stated. It is employed by our Lord himself during his agony in the garden of Gethse- mane—“when he offered up prayers and supplications, with strong crying and tears, and said, ABBA, Father, all things are possible to thee; let this cup pass from me.” Mark, 14:36. What filial adoration, submission, tender- ness, confidence, breathe in these words! So, when recounting to the Roman and Galatian churches, the peculiar privileges of those in whom the Spirit of Christ dwells, the apostle describes this as their peculiar distinc- tion—above such as still continue slaves to sin or in the bondage of a legal state—that through that Spirit they cry, “ABBA, Father l’” In other words, true believers address God in a language of filial love and confidence, corresponding to that new and endearing relation, which they sustain as “children of God by faith in Christ Jesus.” Rom. 8: 15. Gal. 4: 6. Hence it appears that all Christians, by virtue of their relation to God in Christ, are authorized, (if not, indeed, enjoined) to employ this language of filial hope and ten- derness in their approaches to their Heavenly Father. And if the reader of this page is enabled to see his own personal privilege herein, and can enter into a proper apprehension of the word, in this most endearing view, he will be led to discover the sweetness and blessedness of it; and may find it yield him not only a daily assist- ance in the exercises of devotion, but special support and comfort in the most dark and trying hour. He will know that his access into his Father's presence is at all times free; and, instead of “the spirit of bondage again unto fear,” will feel the force of the encouragement, (Phil. 4: 6, 7,) “in every thing by prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving, to make known his requests unto God.” —Jones ; Hanker ; Watson. The word Abba in after ages came to be used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, in an improper sense, as a title given to their bishops. The bishops themselves bestow the title Abba more eminently upon the bishop of Alexandria; which gave occasion for the people to call him Baba, or Papa, that is, grandfather; a title which he bore before the bishop of Rome.—Buck. ABBADIE, (JAMEs, D.D.) an eminent Protestant divine, was born at Nay, in Berne, in the year 1658. He prosecut- ed his studies at Saumer, at Paris, and at Sedan, at which last place he was honored with the degree of doctor in divinity. He proceeded thence to Holland, and afterward to Berlin, where he was made minister of the French church, then lately established by the elector of Bran- denburg. In this city he resided during several years, and was in high favor with the elector. The French congregation at Berlin was at first but thin; but upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, great numbers of the exiled Protestants retired to Brandenburg, where they were received with the greatest humanity; so that doctor Abbadie had in a little time a great charge, of which he took all possible care; and by his interest at court, did many services to his distressed countrymen. The elector dying in 1688, Abbadie accepted a proposal from marshal Schomberg to go with him to Holland, and afterwards to England, with the prince of Drange. In the autumn of 1689, he accompanied the marshal to Ire- land, where he continued till after the battle of the Boyne, in 1690, in which his great patron was killed. This occasioned his return to London, where he was appointed minister of the French church, in the Savoy. He sometime afterward was promoted to the deanery of Killaloe, in Ireland, which he enjoyed for many years. Having made a tour to Holland, in order to publish one of his books, he returned to London, where he was taken ill, A B B A B B [9] and died in the parish of Mary-le-bone, Sept. 23, 1727– He was a firm and decided Protestant, and strongly at- tached to the cause of king William, as appears by his elaborate defence of the Revolution, and his history of the Assassination plot. He had very superior faculties, well cultivated with useful learning. His doctrinal Sentiments were Calvinistic, and he was a most zealous defender of the Protestant religion. His writings are characterized by strong nervous eloquence, for which he was distin- guished, and which enabled him to enforce the objects of his ministry with great spirit and energy from the ulpit. - - p §. principal work of Dr. Abbadie is a “Treatise on the Christian Religion,” which has gone through seven editions. It consists of three parts; in the first he com- bats the Atheists; the Deists in the second; and, in the last, the Socinians. This work met with almost unexam- pled praise, on its first publication. The Abbe Houte- ville pronounces it, “the most splendid treatise in defence of the Christian Religion, published by the Protestants.’— The late Mr. Abraham Booth, about the middle of the last century, when the Socinian controversy was warm- ly agitated in England, published in a 12mo, volume, that portion of Dr. Abbadie's work which relates to the Socinians, somewhat abridged, under the title of “The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion;” and it met with a very favorable accep- tance from the public.” Among the other productions of Dr. Abbadie's pen may be mentioned, “Sermons on several Texts of Scripture;” “The Art of knowing One’s-selſ, or an Inquiry into the Sources of Morality;” “The Truth of the Reformed Religion;” and “The Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the Opening of the Seven Seals by the Son of God.” Amsterdam, 1723.−Jones's Religious Biography; Biographia Britan- 717C(!. - + ABBE, the name of those literary men in France, who have passed through a regular course of theological study; but have as yet obtained no fixed settlement in church or state, though very willing to accept of either.— They are generally employed as public or private instruc- ters of youth, and enjoy many privileges. As a class, their writings have exerted a powerful influence on so- ciety.—Buck ; Ency. Amer. - - ABBES, (JAMEs,) an English martyr of the sixteenth century. During the persecution under Queen Mary, this young man was arrested, and brought before Dr. Hopkins, bishop of Norwich; who, by means of threats and fair speeches, gained a temporary victory over his conscience. But after his discharge, his inward anguish Gf remorse forced him to return to the bishop, and profess his hearty repentance that he had ever yielded to his per- suasions and denied his faith. Being now proof against all efforts of the adherents of Rome, he was condemned to the stake; which for the sake of Christ he cheerfully endured, until his body was consumed to ashes, in Bury, Aug. 2, 1555–Fox's Book of Martyrs. ABBESS, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The abbess has the same right and authority over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their monks. The Sex, indeed, does not allow her to perform the spiritual functions annexed to the priesthood, wherewith the abbot is usually invested ; but there are instances of some ab- besses who have a right, or rather a privilege, to com- mission a priest to act for them. They have even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction, as well as some abbots who }. sempted from the visitation of their diocesan.— 110/5. ABBEY; a monastery, governed by a superior under the title of Abbot or Abbess. Monasteries were at first nothing more than religious houses, whither persons re- tired from the bustle of the world to spend their time in Solitude and devotion : but they soon degenerated from their original institution, and procured large privileges, exemptions, and riches. They prevailed greatly in Bri. tain before the reformation, particularly in England; and * An American edition of this admirable work was Charlestown (Mass.) in 1818, 2. published in as they increased in riches, so the state became poor, for the lands which these regulars possessed could never re- vert to the lords who gave them. These places were wholly abolished by Henry VIII. He first appointed vi- sitors to inspect into the lives of the monks and nuns, which were ſound in some places very disorderly; upon which the abbots, perceiving their dissolution unavoida- ble, were induced to resign their houses to the king, who by that means became invested with the abbey lands; these were afterwards granted to different persons, whose descendants enjoy them at this day: they were then valu- ed at £2,853,000 per annum; an immense sum in those days.-Though the suppression of these houses, consider- ed in a religious and political light, was a great benefit to the nation, yet it must be owned, that, at the time they flourished, they were not entirely useless. Abbeys were then the repositories as well as the seminaries of learning: many valuable books and national records have been preserved in their libraries; the only places wherein they could have been safely lodged in those tur- bulent times. Indeed, the historians of England are chiefly beholden to the monks for the knowledge they have of former national events. Thus a kind Providence over- ruled even the institutions of superstition for good. (See MonASTERY.)—Buck. - ABBOT, the chief ruler of a monastery or abbey. At first they were laymen, and subject to the bishop and or- dinary pastors. Their monasteries being remote from cities, and built in the farthest solitudes, they had no share in ecclesiastical affairs; but, there being among them several persons of learning, they were called out of the deserts by the bishops, and fixed in the suburbs of the cities, and at length in the cities themselves. From that time they degenerated, and, learning to be ambitious, as- pired to be independent of the bishops, which occasioned some severe laws to be made against them. At length, however, the abbots carried their point, and obtained the title of lord, with other badges of the episcopate, particu- larly the mitre. Hence arose new distinctions among them. Those were termed mitred abbots who were privileged to wear the mitre, and exercise episcopal authority within their respective precincts, being exempted from the juris- diction of the bishop. Others were called crosiered abbots, from their bearing the crosier, or pastoral staff. Others were styled accumenical or universal abbots, in imitation of the patriarch of Constantinople; while others were termed cardinal abbots, from their superiority over all other abbots. At present, in the Roman Catholic coun- tries, the chief distinctions are those of regular and com- néndatory. The former take the vow and wear the habit of their order; whereas the latter are seculars, though they are obliged by their bulls to take orders when of proper ages.—Buck. ABBOT, (Robert, D. D. S. T. P.) bishop of Salisbu- ry. He was born in 1550, at Guildford in Surry, of pious parents; was educated at Oxford; and soon became very popular as a preacher. He was a great scholar, a deep divine, and an amiable Christian. Gravity was said to from n in his brother George, but to smile in him. In 1594, he began to be eminent as a polemic writer, particularly in the Catholic controversy. In 1597, he received his dé- gree of D. D. He was soon after chosen chaplain in or- dinary to James I, who did him the honor to print his own Commentary on the Apocalypse along with Abbot's Anti- christi Demonstratio. In 1609, he was elected master of Baliol college, , where he distinguished himself, not only by promoting diligence in study, but by restoring piety, peace, and temperance, which had been almost Wholly extinguished. In 1610, he was nominated by the king among the first fellows of the Royal college at Chel- Sea, then newly founded, and designed as a kind of for- tress of controversial divinity. The same year he was made prebendary of Normanton. In 1612, his majesty named him successor of Dr. Thomas Holland in the thé. ºlogical chair at Oxford, which he modestly refused, until forced by a mandate from the king. This important Station he filled with great honor, until transferred to the See of Salisbury, Dec. 3, 1615. Here also his labors were indefatigable to build up his congregation, both by doc- trine and discipline; but they were interrupted soon by A B B A B B [ 10 an agonizing attack of the gravel and stone, brought on by his ... close application to study. Amidst the tears of his flock, but in the triumph of peace, patience, love, and heavenly hope, he died March 2, 1617, in the 58th year of his age. His last words were, “Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly. Finish in me the work which thou hast begun ſ” Dr. Abbot had the character of being a profound di- wine; most admirably well read in the fathers, councils, and schoolmen. As a theological professor, he was more moderate in his Calvinistic views than either of his two predecessors, Humphrey and Holland, though decidedly opposed to the Arminianism of Laud. He is classed in the same rank with Jewell, Bilson, and Reynolds, among the prime worthies of the English church, though by some suspected to favor the Puritans. His writings were more numerous than his publica- tions. The latter are, 1. The Mirror of Popish Supersti- tion, 1594; 2. A Sermon on the Exaltation of the King- dom and Priesthood of Christ, 1601; 3. Antichristi Demon- stratio, 1603—of this a new edition was issued in 1608, and it is much commended by Scaliger; 4. Defence of the Reformed Catholic of Mr. W. Perkins, against the Bastard counter-Catholic of Dr. Wm. Bishop—in three parts, 1606, 1607, 1609, a most elaborate and comprehen- sive work; 5. The Old Way, a Sermon, at St. Mary’s, Oxford, 1610; 6. The true ancient Roman Catholic, be- ing a Reply to Dr. Bishop, 1611; 7. Antilogia, 1613; 8. Degratić et perseverantić Sanctorum, &c., 1618; 9. In Ri- cardi Thomsoni, &c., 1618; 10. De Supremá Potestate Re- giá, &c., 1610. The three last, were printed after his death. Among his unpublished writings is a Commenta- ry in Latin on the whole Epistle to the Romans; which is called “an accurate work, in which he has handled all the controversial points of religion, and inclosed the whole magazine of his learning.” The MS. in 4 vols. folio, is in the Bodleian library.—Middleton's Biograph. JEvan. ABBOT, (George, D. D., brother of Robert,) arch- bishop of Canterbury and primate of England, was born 1562. Their father was a clothier. George, as well as Robert, was educated at Oxford. There in 1598 he pub- lished a Latin work, which did him great honor, and was reprinted in Frankfort by the celebrated Scultetus. His talents were very soon known, and he became a celebrat- ed preacher in the university. In 1597 he was made doctor of divinity, and the same year was chosen master of University college. Here the first difference began between him and the intolerant Dr. Laud; a difference which continued through life. , Dr. Abbot being at all times the firm and enlightened friend both of civil and re- ligious liberty. In 1599, he was installed dean of Winchester; and in 1600 vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford. This year, he published his sermons on the prophet Jonah, which were received with great applause. - In 1604, Dr. Abbot was the second of eight learned divines at Oxford, chosen by king James, to whom the care of translating all (but the Epistles of) the New Testa- ment was committed. In 1608, he assisted in a design to unite the churches of England and Scotland; in which his prudence and moderation raised him high in the favor of the king, who bestowed upon him successively the bish- oprics of Litchfield, and of London. In 1610, his majesty elevated him to the see of Canterbury, the highest dignity in the church. In this elevated station, he showed him- self the temperate yet zealous friend of the Protestant cause against the Romanists, and of Calvinism against the Arminians; while he adorned his place by learnung, piety, eloquence, and indefatigable diligence. - His enemies had imputed his promotion to his flattering the king; but archbishop Abbot had the courage to dis- please the king, by opposing the Book of Sports, the di- vorce of the Countess of Essex, and the Spanish Match— exhibiting certainly a rare instance of conscientious mag- nanimity in a courtly prelate. In perfect consistency of character, he, nine years after, ventured the displeasure of Charles I. by refusing to license a slavish sermon, which Dr. Sibthorpe had preached, to justify one of Charles's unconstitutional proceedings. For this last ho- norable act he was suspended from his functions, but was soon, though not willingly, restored to them. Laud and Buckingham were his inveterate enemies; but the good archbishop pursued his course of Christian duty, as in the sight of God to the last, without favor or fear. A cause of deep sorrow to hm in his latter days, was his having accidentally, while aiming at a deer, shot one of lord Touch’s keepers. In consequence of this he kept a monthly fast while he lived, and settled an annuity of twenty pounds on the widow. He died in 1633, at the age of 71; and was buried at Guildford, his native town, for which he ever retained a strong regard, and where he had generously endowed a hospital for the poor. He published a number of works, but the most impor- tant are the three already named.—Middleton ; Daven- port ; Ency. Amer. - ABBOT, (SAMUEL,) one of the founders of the theo- logical Seminary, Andover, (Mass.) Most of his life he was a merchant in Boston. He was a humble, conscien- tious, pious man; remarkable for prudence, sincerity, and uprightness; charitable to the poor, and zealous for the interests of religion. He gave several thousand dol- lars to poor ministers of the gospel, and other objects of charity. His donation for establishing the seminary Aug. 31, 1807, was 20,000 dollars; he also bequeathed to it more than 100,000 dollars.—He died in Andover, his native town, April 30, 1812, aged 80; leaving a widow with whom he had lived more than 50 years, and one son. It was a maxim with Mr. Abbott, to ‘praise no one in his presence, and to dispraise no one in his absence.” In his last sickness he enjoyed a peace which the world cannot give. “I desire to live,” he said, “if God has any thing more for me to do, or to suffer.” When near his end he said, ‘There is enough in God. I want nothing but God?—Allen's Amer. Biog. ABBOT, (ABEL, D. D.) minister in Beverly, (Mass.) He was born at Andover, Aug. 17, 1770, and graduated at Cambridge, 1787, with an unsullied character and ele- vated scholarship. After assisting in the academy at Andover, and studying theology with Mr. French, he was settled in 1794, at Haverhill. Here he continued Éight years, when an inadequate support for his family induced him reluctantly to take a dismission, and he removed to Beverly, where he succeeded Mr. McKeen, (who had been chosen president of Bowdoin college,) in 1802–In 1827 he visited the south for his health, and passed the winter in Charleston. Early the following spring he embarked for Cuba, where he remained three months, and recorded the fruits of his inquiries and observations in letters to his family and friends. He died on his return, January 7, 1828, just as the vessel came to anchor at the quarantine ground near New-York, and was buried Cn Staten island. Dr. Abbot was very courteous and interesting in social intercourse, and eloquent as a preacher. His biographer says that “he belonged to no sect, but that of good men.” Happy are all who truly belong to that sectſ who “are God’s workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works!”—His interesting and valuable letters from Cuba were published after his death, 8vo., Boston, 1829. He published also, an Artillery Election Sermon, 1802; Ser- mon to Mariners, 1812; Address on Intemperance, 1815; Sermon before the Salem Missionary Society, 1816; before the Bible Society of Salem, 1817; Convention Sermon, 1827–Allen's Am. Biog. ; Flint's Sermon ; Sketch in let- ters from Cuba. A B E A B E [ 11 J ABBREVIATIONS, (called by the Romans notá, hence notarius, a shorthand writer). The desire of Sav. ing time and space, or of secrecy, led to the invention of abbreviations in writing.—Every written language has them. Many of them are indeterminate and uncertain, and the contents of many old writings and inscriptions re- main on that account ambiguous. These abbreviations often give rise to different readings.--They have been much less used since the invention of printing. The Ger- mans employ them ſor ordinary words in greater propor- tion than other civilized nations.—The following occur most frequently: -- -- Roman Abbreviations on Coins, &c. A. U.C. or AB. U. C. ab urbe condita, from the foundation of the city: C. cen- tum ; CIO. or CX.O. 1000 : 00. 5000 : CCCI000. 100,000: C. M.L. centum millia ; COS. consul; COSS. tonsuls: C. R. civis Romanus: D. O. diis optimis, vel deo optimo: I. H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator: , IMP in- perator : K. kalenda: ; M. S. manu scriptum : NON. APR. nomis Aprilis : PON. M. pontifex maximus: PRID. KAL. pridie Kalendas: QUIR. Tuirites : RESP. respublica : S. C. senatus consultum : S. P. Q. R. Senatus populusque Romanus : WL. videlicet. - Abbreviations in common use. A. B. or B. A. bachelor of arts: Abp. archbishop : A. C. ante Christum, before Christ : A. D. anno Domini, in the year of our Lord: Aſſº. Affec- tionately : A. M. anno mundi, in the year of the world; and artium magister, master of arts * B. C. before Christ: B. D. bachelor of divinity: Bp. bishop : B. V. blessed virgin : C. or Chap. chapter: D. D. doctor of divinity: D. F. defender of the faith: D. G. Dei gratia, by the grace of God: D. T. doctor of theology : E. G. exempli gratia: Ex. example: Exr. executor: F. A. S. fellow of the antiquarian society: F. L. S. fellow of the Linnaan society: F. R. S. and A. S. fellon and associate of the royal society: F. S. A. fellon of the society of arts : H. M. S. his majesty's ship : Ib. or ibid, ibidem, in the same place: i. e. id est, that is: I. H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus, the Savior of men: I. H. S. in hac cruce salus, in this cross is salvation : Kt. knight: Ldp. lordship: L L. D. legum doctor, doctor of laws: M. A. master of arts: M. C. member of congress: M. D. doctor of medicine : Messrs. messieurs, gentlemen: M. P. member of parliament: MS. manuscript: MSS. manuscripts: N. B. nota bene, take notice: Nem. con. or Nem-diss, nemine contradicente or nemine dissentiente, unanimously: N. S. new style : Obt. obe- dient : O. S. old style : Oxon. Oxford : Parl. Parliament : P. S. postscript: Q. Question : Q. V. Quod vide, which see: R. N. royal navy: Sec. Secretary : Sh. shillings : ss. Scilicet: U. S. United States: W. D. M. minister of God's word : viz. videlicet, namely: W. or WK. Iveek: Xmas. Christmas: Xn, Christian : Ye. the : Ym. them: Yn. then : Yr. your, and year : Ys. this ; Yt. that. The above list embraces all the abbreviations usually ſound in religious books, needing explanation; except those of societies, &c. prefixed to the Missionary Gazetteer in this book; which see.—Ency. Amer. - ABEDNEGO ; the Chaldean name given to Azariah, one of the three noble Hebrew youths, who, animated by an unshaken attachment to the true religion, refused to render homage to the idol of Nebuchadnezzar. They were therefore cast into the fiery ſurnace, heated through the wrath of the tyrant seven times hotter than usual.-- The splendid miracle by which it pleased God to honor this consistent and fearless piety, together with its pow- erful effect upon the mind of the Chaldean monarch, is recorded in the third chapter of Daniel.—There is a circumstance connected with the change of name, which is worthy of attention. It has been thought that the mo- tive of the Chaldeans in giving the new name, was, in fact, more religious than political. The Hebrew and the Chaldee languages were very similar. The Chaldeans perfectly understood the Hebrew names. And they knew, also, how tenacious Hebrew parents were to give names to their children, which bore some relation to Jehovah, the Gop of their fathers. In changing their names, there- fore, did they not design to make them forget their be- loved Jerusalem, and all the patriotic feelings which were associated with their vernacular tongue? and yet more, to ‘letach them from the remembrance of Jettovalſ, the GoD of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob? The name before us - is a striking example. The Hebrew Azariah, or more literally Azar-Jah, denotes, My help is Jehovah; from Azar, help, and Jah, Jehovah. But the Chaldean Abed-nego signifies the servant of Nego; Abed or Obed being the Chaldee for servant, and Nego, the sun or morn- ing star, so called from its brightness, and hence adored among the idolatrous Chaldeans as a god. So that from being reminded, as often as he heard himself called, that JEiſovah was his help, he was now to be brought into remembrance whenever he heard his name, that he is the servant of an idol, in whom there is no help. If such were the design of this new appellation, its ultimate end was in the case of Azariah most mercifully defeated; but the design itself will serve to set in a more striking light the danger alluded to by the Psalmist (Psalm 106: 35) of “mingling with the heathen, and learning their works.” See DANIEL ; SHADRACH ; NEBUCHADNEzzAR. ABEL; he was the second son of Adam and Eve, and born probably in the second or third year of the world,— His name signifies mourning, and might be given either because our first parents now began so to feel the empti- ness and vanity of all earthly things, that the birth of an- other son reminded them painfully of it, although in itself a matter of joy; or it was imposed under prophetic im- pulse, and obscurely referred to his premature death. His employment was that of a shepherd; Cain followed the occupation of his father—and was a tiller of the ground. “At the end of the days,”—which is a more literal ren- dering than “in process of time,” as in our translation, that is, on the Sabbath,--both brothers brought an offering to the Lord. Cain “brought of the ſruit of the ground;” Abel “the firstlings of his flock, and the fat thereof.”— “And the Lord had respect unto Abel and to his offering; but unto Cain and his offering he had not respect.” The respect which God was pleased to bestow to Abel's offer. ing, appears from the account to have been sensibly de- clared; for Cain must have known by some token that the sacrifice of Abel was accepted, the absence of which sign to his own offering, showed that it was rejected.— Whether this was by fire going forth “from the presence of the Lord,” to consume the sacrifice, as in later instan- ces recorded in the Old Testament, or in some other way, it is in vain to inquire;—that the token of acceptance was a sensible one is however an almost certain inference.— The effect of this upon Cain was not to humble him before God, but to excite anger against his brother; and being in the field with him, or, as the old version has it, having said to him, “Let us go out into the field,” “he rose up against Abel his brother, and slew him;” and for that crime, by which the first blood of man was shed by man upon the earth, a murder aggravated by the relationship, and the “righteous” character of the sufferer, and having in it also the nature of religious persecution, he was pro- nounced by the Lord, “cursed from the earth.” 2. . As the sacrifice of Abel is the first on record, and has given rise to some controversy, it demands particular attention. It was offered, says St. Paul, “in faith,” and it was “a more excellent sacrifice” than that of Cain.— Both these expressions intimate that it was expiatory, and prefigurative. . As to the matter of the sacriſice, it was an animal offer. ing. , Cain brought of the fruit of the ground; and Abel also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and of the fat thereof; or, more literally, “the ſat of them,” that is, ac- cording to the Hebrew idiom, the fattest or best of his flock; and in this circumstance consisted its specific cha. racter as an act of faith. This is supported by the import of the phrase, “pleiona thesian,” used by the apostle in the Epistle to the Hebrews, when speaking of the sacrifice of Abel. Our translators have rendered it, “a more excellent sacrifice.” Wickliffe translates it, as Archbishop Magee says, uncouthly, but in the full sense of the original, “a much more sacrifice;” and the controversy which has arisen on this point is, whether this epithet of “much more” or “fuller,” refers to quantity or quality; whether it is to be understood in the sense of a more abundant, or of a better, a more excellent sacrifice. Dr. Kennicott takes it in the sense of measure and quantity, as well as quality; and supposes that Abel brought a double offering, of the firstlings of the flock, and of the fruit of the ground also. A B E A B E [ 12 J His criticism has been very satisfactorily refuted by arch- bishop Magee. The sacrifice of Abel was that of animal victims, and it was indicative not of gratitude but of “faith:” a quality not to be made manifest by the quanti- ty of an offering, for the one has no relation to the other. 3. This will more fully appear if we consider the im- port of the words of the apostle, “By FAITH Abel offered unto God a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain, by which he obtained witness that he was RIGHTEous, God testifying of his gifts; and by it, he, being dead, yet speaketh.”— Now what is the meaning of the apostle, when he says that it was witnessed or testified to Abel that he was 'righteous 2 His doctrine is that men are sinners; that all consequently need pardon; and to be declared, nitnessed, and accounted righteous, are, according to his style of writing, the same as “to be justified, pardoned, and dealt with as righteous.” Thus he argues that Abraham believed God, “and it was accounted to him for righteousness,”—“that he received the sign of circumcision, a real, a visible con- firmatory, declaratory, and witnessing work of the right- eousness which he had by faith.” In these cases we have a similarity so striking, that they can scarcely fail to ex- plain each other. In both, sinful men are placed in the condition of righteous men ; the instrument, in both cases, is faith ; and the transaction is, in both cases also, public- ly and sensibly witnessed,—as to Abraham, by the sign of circumcision ; as to Abel, by a visible acceptance of his sacrifice, and the rejection of that of Cain. Abel had faith, and he expressed that ſaith by the kind of sacrifice he offered. It was in this way that his faith “pleased God;” it pleased him as a principle, and by the act to which it led, which act was the offering of a sacri- fice to God different from that of Cain. faith, whatever might be its object; and Cain, according- ly, did not bring an offering to which God had “respect.” That which vitiated the offering of Cain was the want of this faith; for his offering was not significant of faith: that which “pleased God,” in the case of Abel, was his faith; and he had “respect” to his offering, because it was the expression of that faith; and, upon his faith so ex- pressing itself, God witnessed to him “that he was right- eous.” So forcibly do the words of St. Paul, when com- menting upon this transaction, show, that Abel's sacrifice was accepted, because of its immediate connection with his faith, for by faith he is said to have offered it; and what- ever it might be, which made Abel's offering differ from" that of Cain, whether abundance, or kind, or both, this was the result of his faith. So evident also is it from the apostle, that Abel was witnessed to be “righteous,” not with reference to any previous “habit of a religious life,” as Some say, but with reference to his faith ; and to this faith as expressing itself by his offering “a more excellent sacrifice.” . . . . - $ 4. If, then, the faith, of Abel had an immediate connec- tion with his sacrifice; and both, with his being accepted as “righteous,”—that is justified, in St. Paul's use of the term, to what had his faith respect? The particular ob- ject of the faith of the elders, celebrated in Hebrews 11, is to be deduced from the circumstances mentioned by St. Paul as illustrative of the existence and operation of this great principle, and by which it manifested itself in them. Let us explain this, and then ascertain the object of Abel's faith also from the manner of its manifestation, from the acts in which it embodied and rendered itself conspicuous. Faith, in this chapter, is taken in the sense of affiance and trust in God, and, as such, it can only be exercised towards God, as to all its particular acts, in those respects in which we have some warrant to confide in him. This supposes revelation, and, in particular promises or decla- rations on his part, as the ground of every act of affi- ance. When, therefore, it is said that “by faith Enoch was translated that he should not see death,”, it must be supposed that he had some promise or intimation to the effect, on which, improbable as the event was, he nobly re- lied; and in the result God honored his faith in the sight of all men. The faith of Noah had immediate respect to the threatened flood, and to the promise of God to preserve him in the ark which he was commanded to prepare. The chapter is filled with other instances, expressed or implied; and from the whole, as well as from the nature of things, Cain had not this it will appear, that, when the apostle speaks of the faith of the elders in its particular acts, he represents it as hav- ing respect to some promise, declaration, or revelation of God. , This revelation was necessarily antecedent to the faith; but it is also to be observed, that the acts by which the faith was represented, whenever it was represented by particular acts, and when the case admitted it, had a na- tural and striking conformity and correspondence to the previous revelation. So Noah built the ark, which indicat. ed that he had heard the threat of the world's destruction by water, and had received the promise of his own pre- servation, and that of his family, as well as that of a part of the beasts of the earths ...When Abraham went into Canaan at the command of God, and upon the promise that that country should become the inheritance of his de- scendants, he showed his faith by taking possession of it for them in anticipation, and his residence there indicated the kind of promise he had received. ces show, that when the faith that the apostle commends exhibited itself in some particular act, that act had a cor- respondency to the previous promise or revelation which was the ground of faith. We must therefore interpret the acts of Abel's faith so as to make them also correspond with an antecedent revelation. His faith had respect to Some previous revelation, and the nature of the revelation is to be collected from the significant manner in which he declared his faith in it. . . Now that which Abel did “by faith,” was generally to perform an act of solemn worship, in the confidence that it would be acceptable to God. tion, immediate or by tradition, that such acts of worship were acceptable to God, or his faith could have had no warrant, and would not have been faith, but fancy. But the case must be considered more particularly. 'His faith led him to offer “a more excellent sacrifice” than that of Cain; but this as necessarily implies, that there was Some antecedent revelation to which his faith, as thus ex- pressed, had respect, and on which that peculiarity of his offering, which distinguished it from the offering of Cain, was founded; a revelation which indicated that the way in which God would be approached acceptably, in solemn worship, was by animal sacrifices. faith to which his offering, which was an offering of the firstlings of his flock, had a special fitness and adaptation, could have had no warrant in divine authority. But this revelation must have included, in order to its being the ground of faith, as “the substance of things hoped for,” a promise of a benefit to be conferred, in which promise Abel might confide. But if so, then this promise must have been connected, not with the worship of God in ge- neral, or performed in any way whatever indifferently, but with his worship, by animal oblations; for it was in this way that the faith of Abel specially and distinctively indi- cated itself. The antecedent revelation was, therefore, a promise of a benefit to be conferred, by means of animal sacrifice; and we are taught what this benefit was, by that which was actually received by the offerer,-" He ob-, tained witness that he was righteous;” which must be in- terpreted in the sense of a declaration of his personal jus-" tification and acceptance as righteous by the forgiveness of his sins. The reason of Abel's acceptance and of Cain's rejection is hereby made manifest; the one, in seeking the divine favor, conformed to his established and appointed method. of being approached by guilty men; and the other not only neglected this, but profanely and presumptuously substituted his own inventions. 5. It is impossible, then, to allow the sacrifice of Abel, in this instance, to have been an act of FAITH, without sup- posing that it had respect to a previous revelation, which agreed with all the parts of that sacrificial action by which, he expressed his faith in it. Had Abel's sacrifice been * eucharistic merely, it would have expressed gratitude, but not faith; or iſ faith in the general sense of confidence in God that he would receive an act of grateful worship, and reward the worshippers, it did not more express faith than the offering of Cain, who surely believed these two points, or he would not have brought an offering of any kind.— The offering of Abel expressed faith which Cain had not ; Thus these instan- This supposes a revela-" Without this, the, * A B E A BE [ 13 J and the doctrinal principles which Abel's faith respected were such as his sacrifice visibly embodied. If it was not an eucharistic sacrifice, it was an expiatory one; and in fact, it is only in a sacrifice of this kind, that it is possible to see that faith exhibited which Abel had, and Cain had not. If then we refer to the subsequent sacrifices of ex- piation appointed by Divine authority, and their explana. tion in the New Testament, it will be obvious to what doctrines and principles of an antecedent revelation the faith of Abel had respect, and which his sacrifice, the ex: hibition of his faith, proclaimed: confession of the fact of being a sinner, acknowledgment that the demerit and penalty of sin is death, submission to an appointed mode of expiation,-animal sacrifice offered vicariously, but, in itself, a mere type of a better sacrifice, “the Seed of the woman,” appointed to be offered at some future period,— and the efficacy of this appointed method of expiation to obtain forgiveness, and to admit the guilty into the divine favor. “Abel,” Dr. Magee justly says, “in firm reliance on the promise of God, and in obedience to his command, of. fered that sacrifice which had been enjoined as the reli- gious expression of his faith; whilst Cain, disregarding the gracious assurances that had been vouchsafed, or at least disdaining to adopt the prescribed mode of manifest- ing his belief, possibly as not appearing to his reason to possess any efficacy or natural fitness, thought he had suf- ficiently acquitted himself of his duty in acknowledging the general superintendence of God, and expressing his grati- tude to the Supreme Benefactor, by presenting some of those good things which he thereby confessed to have been derived from his bounty. In short, Cain, the first- born of the fall, exhibits the first fruits of his parents’ dis- obedience, in the arrogance and self-sufficiency of reason rejecting the aids of revelation, because they fell not with- in its apprehension of right. He takes the first place in the annals of deism, and displays, in his proud rejection of the ordinance of sacrifice, the same spirit, which, in later days, has actuated his enlightened followers, in'reject- ing the sacrifice of Christ.” - Abel was killed about the year of the world, 130. His death was that of a martyr. His case presents the first example of persecution for conscience sake; a point of view in which it is held up to us, both by our Lord, and his beloved disciple. Mat. 23:35, 1 John 3: 12. Thus was the divine prediction apparent from the beginning, “I will put elimity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed;”, a constitution of things which has been made manifest in every age of the world, and which continues to this day, John 15: 18–20. “If ye were of the world,” said our Savior to his disciples, “the world would love its own; but because ye are not of the world, but I have chosen you out of the world, THEREFORE the world hateth you.” 2 Tim. 3: 12.—Watson ; Jones. ABEL, pasture, meadon, grassy plain, occurs frequently in Hebrew proper names of places. - 1. ABEL, called also Abel-beth-Maachah, and Abel- Maim, a fortified city in the north of Israel, Maachah was a region east of the Jordan, and on the eastern de- clivity of Anti-libanus, Abel-Maim signifies, Abel of the waters, which leads us to look for it in connexion with the Jordan and its lakes. In every invasion of the north of Israel by the Kings of Damascus, it shared the fate of Ijon, Dan, and the cities of Naphtali. A single glance at a good map will shöw, that it could not have been Abila, now Sük, on the Burada, or the other Abila, now Yebla, south of the Hieromax. Perhaps it was the Abela mentioned by Eusebius, between Paneas and Damascus, the site of which is now unknown; but more probably, Abil el Kamh, or Abil el Hawa, a few miles south-west from Häsbeiya. If So, Maachah extended across the Jordan, westward. . 2. ABET-CARMAIM, Plain of the Vineyards, a village of the Ammonites, about six miles north-west from Rabbath Ammon. Judges 11: 33. - 3. ABEL-MemoLAir, meadow of dancing, a village of Issaghar, south from Bethshean; the birth-place of the Prophet Elisha. Judges 7:22; 1 Kings 4: 13; 19: 16. 4, ABEL-Mizraim, meadow of the Egyptians, or perhaps Ebel-Mizraim, mourning of the Egyptians, Gen. 50: 11. Jerome places it between Jericho and the Jordan–T. - 5. ABEL-SHITTIM was in Moab, about eight miles east of the Jordan, and opposite Jericho. Eusebius says it was in the neighborhood of Mount Peor. It is oſten called Shittim only : Shittim probably being the name of the town, and Abel of the plain on which it stood. Here Moses encamped, Num. 25: 1; 33: 49. Here, seduced by Balak, the people ſell into idolatry, and worshipped Baal Peor: for which they were severely punished. Num. 25. 6. ABEL-Bohan, the boundary between the tribes of Benjamin and Judah. Josh. 18; 17. So named from Bohan, a descendant of Reuben. ABELARD, (PETER,) the author of what has long been known under the name of the “Scholastic Theology,” was born in Palais, near Nantes, in France, in 1079. “He was a man,” says Mosheim, “of the most subtle genius, whose public lectures in philosophy and divinity had raised him to the highest summit of literary renown.” His lec- tures were attended by more than three thousand pupils of all nations. He was successively canon of Paris, and monk, and abbot of Ruys. His character however is stained by his treatment of his patron’s niece, the celebrated Heloise. He was impeached by St. Bernard, for various errors, be- fore the councils of Soissons, 1121, and Lens, 1140, and was finally condemned as a heretic; though it cannot be doubted that in talent and erudition he was superior to any one of his judges; and that, like men of extraordinary and erring genius in all ages, he mixed up with his crude fancies some bold and brilliant truths. Unhappily the ſame which Abelard acquired by his new method of treating theological truths, engaged many am- bitious divines to adopt it; and hence the race of scholas- tic or philosophical divines, who multiplied so prodigiously not only in France, but also in England and Italy; and in whose hands the pure and peaceable wisdom of the gospel, was perverted into a science of mere sophistry and chi- cane. The method of the scholastics exhibited an impos- ing aspect of learning; and as they seemed to surpass their adversaries in sagacity and genius, they excited the admiration of the studious youth, who flocked to their schools in multitudes; while the more simple Biblici, or “doctors of the sacred page” as they were called, had the mortification and grief to behold their auditories unfre. quented, and almost deserted. The “subtle doctors” meanwhile continued in high repute in all the European colleges until the time of Luther. * t * - The life of Abelard, taken in connection with the history of Christianity, affords a most instructive lesson.—His latter days were embittered by personal and domestic tri- als, as well as by persecution; and he closed a tempestu. ous existence at the monastery of St. Marcellus, near Cha- lons, in 1142, aged 63 years. ABELIANs, or ABEionIANs, a sect in the diocese of Hippo in Africa, who professed to regulate marriage after the example of Abel, who they pretended was mar. rjed, but lived in a state of continence: they therefore al- lowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined them to live in the same state. To keep up the sect, when a man and woman entered into this society, they adopted a boy and girl, who were to inherit their goods, and to mar- ry upon the same terms of not having children, but of adopting two of different sexes. As might be supposed, a sect, originating on principles so false, and opposed to the divine institution of marriage, was not of long conti- nuance. It arose in the reign of Arcadius, and ended in that of Theodosius; but its memory remains among the A B E A B I ſ 14 ) proofs of human weakness, when affecting to be wiser and purer than the revealed wisdom and purity of the word of God.—Buck. Williams. ABERNETHY, (John,) an eminent Protestant divine, was born in Coleraine, Ireland, in 1680. He was the son of a dissenting minister in that town. He continued to enjoy the care of his pious parents until he was nine years of age; when he was carried by a relation into Scotland. By this event he providentially escaped the hardships of the siege of Derry, in which Mrs. Abernethy lost all her other children. After three years he was restored to his pa- rents at Coleraine. At thirteen he entered the College at Glasgow, where he resided till he had taken his degree of master of arts. His first inclination was to the study of physic, but being dissuaded from that by his friends, he determined to apply himself to divinity; in pursuance of which design he went to the university of Edinburgh, and was sometime under the care of professor Campbell.— He prosecuted his studies with such success, that he was licensed to preach before he was one and twenty. In 1703, being invited to settle in Antrim, Dublin, and Cole- raine, the synod decided in favor of Antrim, where he was accordingly ordained. - The native Irish in the neighborhood were almost uni- versally of the popish persuasion; a great field was there- fore opened for his diligence and zeal, beyond the bounds of his immediate flock. Into this field he entered; he vi- sited, conversed, and lectured among them, in a manner which showed how much his heart was set upon their con- version to God and truth; and although his success was not equal to his hopes, yet his labors were not in vain.— Numbers renounced popery, and several gave permanent evidence of sincere piety, as well as of the adoption of the Protestant faith. At the time the Bangorian controversy raged in Eng- land, a considerable number of ministers, and others in the north of Ireland, formed themselves into a society for mu- tual improvement. Their professed object was to bring things to the test of reason and scripture, without servile regard to any human authority. Abernethy went into this plan with much zeal, and constantly attended their meetings at Belfast, whence it was called the Belfast society. The discussions here took a range which ended in a rupture with the general synod, in 1726. Even the reputation of Abernethy was no security for him. Some of his people forsook his ministry, and such was the rapid increase of disaffection, that a distinct congregation was erected, and a minister settled over them, by the synod. Being about this time invited by the congregation of Wood-street, Dub- lin, to become their pastor, he accepted. In Dublin he applied himself to his studies with renewed energy, and for fen years labored with increasing reputation. But while from the strength of his constitution, and his great temperance, his friends promised themselves a longer en- joyment of him, he was attacked by the gout to which he had been subject, in a vital part, and died December, 1740, in the 60th year of his age. - Mr. Abernethy’s character justly entitled him to the re- spect and esteem of all who had the happiness of his ac- quaintance; for his private and public virtues were equally conspicuous. His piety was manly and rational, ſervent and exalted. He was exactly temperate—even to abste- miousness; yet his manners were pervaded by a most amiable cheerfulness, ease, and freedom: so thai in his character and deportment it was seen that religion is in reality the very perfection of reason. His disposition was full of sensibility, delicacy and kindness; his wit keen, but chastised; his passions naturally strong, but subdued by wise and constant discipline, into singular meekness and submission to the divine will. . In the family his piety was most exemplary. As a preacher his first efforts were very promising; but his subsequent attainments exceeded all the anticipations even of his friends. Indeed, he took uncommon pains to qualify himself for every part of the public service of the sanctuary, and success corresponded to his diligence. The most celebrated of his works are his “Discourses concerning the Being and Perfections of God,” in two vol. umes; the ſirst of which only was published in his lifetime. They excited general attention and admiration. Four volumes of his posthumous sermons were likewise pub. lished; the first two in 1748, and the others in 1757, with a large preface, containing the life of the author. ABESTA, the name of one of the sacred books of the Persian Magi, which they ascribe to their great founder Zoroaster. The Abesta is a commentary on two others of their religious books, called Zend and Pazend; the three together including the whole system of the Ignicold, or worshippers of fire. ABETTORS, Access ARIES, Accomplices, in criminal cases, such as support another in his designs by conni- vance, encouragement, or help. In these cases the abettors are universally regarded as involved in the guilt of the principal. Ps. 50: 18. Prov, 13:20, 2 John 11. Abet- ting evil by connivance is a thing far too common in prac- tical questions of morals and religion. Our Lord has determined a point of great importance in the final judg- ment of character, and one in which we are decply inte- rested, when he says “He that is not with me, is against me,” (Mat. 12:30.) i. e. is abetting the evils I came to abolish from the world. ABIAH, see ABIJAH. ABIATHAR, the son of Ahimelech, and the tenth high priest among the Jews, being the fourth in descent from Eli. 2 Sam. 8: 17. 1 Chron. 18: 16, YWhen Saul sent to Nob to murder all the priests, Abiathar escaped the massacre, and fled to David in the wilderness. There he continued in the quality of high priest; but Saul out of aversion to Ahimelech, whom he imagined to have be- trayed his interests, transferred the dignity of the high priesthood from Ithamar’s family into that of Eleazer, by conferring this office upon Zadok. Thus there were at the same time two high priests in Israel, Abiathar with Da- vid, and Zadok with Saul. In this state things continued until the reign of Solomon, when Abiathar being attached to the party of Adonijah, was by Solomon divested of his priesthood, A. M. 2989; and the race of Zadok alone per- formed the functions of that office during the reign of So- lomon, to the exclusion of the family of Ithamar, according to the word of the Lord to Eli, 1 Sam. 2:30, &c. - “A difficulty arises from the circumstance that in 1 Kings 2: 27, Abiathar is said to be deprived of the priest’s office by Solomon; while in 2 Sam. 8: 17. 1 Chron, 18: 16, 24: 3, 6, 31. Ahimelech the son of Abiathar, is said to be high priest along with Zadok. The most probable so- lution is, that both father and son each bore the two names Ahimelech and Abiathar; as was not at all unusual among the Jews. In this way also we may remove the difficulty arising from Mark 2: 26, where Abiathar is said to have given David the shew-bread, in allusion to 1 Sam. 21: 1. &c., where it is Ahimelech.”—Robinson's Bible Dic- tionary ; Horne’s Introduction, Vol. I. p. 538. ABIB, the name of the first month in the Jewish sacred year. Exod. 13: 4. This month was afterwards called Nisan ; it contained thirty days, and answered to our March. It signifies green ears, and was so named because grain, particularly barley, was in ear at that time. It was . an early custom to give names to months from the ap- pearances of nature; and the custom is still in force among many nations. The year among the Jews com- menced in September, and consequently their jubilees and other civil matters were regulated in that way, Lev. 25: 8 —10; but their sacred year began in Abib, according to the divine command, Exod. 12; 2. “This shall be to you the beginning of months.” See MonTIIs. - ABIDE; this word in the scriptures means more than mere passive or temporary residence. It is used for vo- luntary vital attachment, dependence and adherence, the result of the most intimate and permanent union. Thus John 15:4. Our Savior says, “Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself except it abide in the vine; so neither can ye, except ye abide in me.” See also 2 Tim. 2: 13. 1 John 2: 17, 28. John.15: 4,9. 14: 16; but particularly, Col. 2: 6,7. Christians often speak of living near to Christ; the Bible speaks of living IN HIM.– What force is there in this idea “Return unto thy rest IN HIM, O my soul.” If this term then be used to signify a settled residence, how awful is that passage, John 3: 36. “He that believ- eth not the Son, shall not see life, but the wrath of God A B I A B O [ 15 J ABILETH on him.” Withering idea! that a human soul should be a home for the residence of the wrath of God! ABIGAIL, a woman of excellent understanding, and of great beauty, the wife of Nabal, the Carmelite, and af. terwards of David, 1 Sam. 25: 14–42. - latter marriage, is called in one place Chiliab, and in an- other Daniel, (2 Sam. 3; 3. 1 Chron. 3: 1.) and is one ex- ample among many, of the same person bearing two names; a fact which solves several seeming contradictions in the Öld and New Testament. 2. A sister of David, and mother of Amasa. 1 Chron. 2: 16, 17. ABIHU, one of the sons of Aaron, who with his brother Nadab, was destroyed by fire from God for presuming to offer incense to Him with strange fire, instead of that from his altar. Lev. 10: 1,2. This awful event occurred only eight days after their consecration; and their sin seems to have been occasioned by wine, which was afterwards for- bidden to priests, when about to minister in the sanctuary. A punishment so sudden and severe, was designed to im- press all God’s ministers with the immense importance of fidelity in discharging the duties of their office; observing his will in every particular, that He may be glorified.— But had it not also a deeper meaning 2 May it not be re- garded as a standing example of that divine wrath which shall consume all who pretend to serve God, except with incense kindled from the one altar and offering by which he forever perfects them that are sanctified ?—Jones. ABIJAH, or ABIA, a priest of the posterity of Aaron, and founder of a family. When the priests were divided into twenty-four classes, the eighth was called from him the class of Abia. 1 Chron. 24; 10. Luke 1: 5. ABILA, or ABELA. The name of several towns. 1. Abila of Lysanias, the capital of Abilene, now Såk Wady Burada, on the River Burada, about 18 miles north- west from Damascus. 2. A town between Paneas and Damascus, mentioned by Eusebius. 3. A town in the tribe of Manasseh, about eighteen miles east of the outlet of the Jordan from the lake of Tiberias. It is now called Yebla.-T. ABILENE. A district of country on the eastern de- clivity of Anti-libanus, of which Lysanias was tetrarch. I.uke 3: 1. It corresponded, at least in part, with the more ancient Syria-Maachah. 1 Chron. 19: 6.-T. ABILITY; see INABILITY. ABIMIELECH, My father the King : from Abi, my fa- ther, and Melech, king, 1. The title of the kings of Phi- listia, as Caesar was of the Roman emperors, and Pha- raoh of the Sovereigns of Egypt. Two kings under this name are mentioned in Genesis, one of whom appears to have been the son of the other. Gen. 20. Gen. 36. In regard to the first, it has been thought strange that a miraculous interference should have been necessary (as in the case of Pharaoh, Gen. 12: 14–20.) to convincé him of his criminality in detaining the wife of Abraham; and equally Strange that Abraham could not procure Sarah's release by proper application and request. But such thoughts arise only from ignorance of the customs of the east. Whenever a woman is taken into the harem of an eastern prince with the design of making her his wife, she is secluded without a possibility of coming out, at least during the life of the prince on the throne. Nor is com- \munication with women in the harem in ordinary cases to be obtained The late editor of Calmet has given an af. ſecting instance in the case of colonel Pitt, an officer of the Russian army, whose wife and daughter, both beautiful Women, fell into the hands of the Tartars, and were pre- Sented to the grand signior at Constantinople. The ef. forts of the distracted father and husband to procure their release, only resulted in his own imprisonment in a dun. §eon, with the dreadful assurance that when any of the ser * ºnce taken into the seraglio, they were never suffered to ºil it more. Critical Review, vol. iii. p. 332. This anec. dote places the propriety of some exertion of Providence iſ behalf of Abraham in the strongest light. It seems also to explain the fears of both Abraham and Isaac, aris- ing from the remarkable beauty of Sarah and Rebecca, and tempting them both to use culpable dissimulation.— . life of a husband, it may be easily understood, had ut a small chance of being preserved when it stood in the Way of despotic indulgence. Yet the Abimelechs of Ge. Her son by the .*** rar, at that time seem to have retained something of the fear of God. A. M. 2200. B. C. 1804. 2. The son of Gideon, a usurper and murderer, to ex- pose whose infamous character to the infatuated people of Israel, Jotham pronounced his celebrated fable of the trees. Judg. 9:1–54. This is the oldest fable on record, and shows with what power the reason and conscience can be addressed through the medium of the imagination. A. M. 2771. B. C. 1233. ABISHAG; the young and beautiful wife of David, selected to cherish him in his old age. After David’s death, his son Adonijah demanded her in marriage; but Solomon justly supposing that this was only a step to- wards his assumption of the regal power, refused his soli- citation, and punished his treasonable design with death. 1 Kings 1: 3. 2: 13–27. ABISHAI, son of Zuri and Zeruiah, David's sister, was one of the most valiant men of his time and a chief gene- ral in David's armies. Some of his exploits are mention- ed in 2 Sam. 21: 16. and 23: 18. He was brother to Joab and Asahel; but in his character and services to his uncle the king, he seems to have surpassed them both, and to have been through life David's favorite general and friend. 1 Sam. 26: 7–11. 2 Sam. 2: 18, 24. 10: 10. 16:9. 18: 2. 20: 6. 21: 16. 23: 18. 1 Chron. 11:20, 21. 18: 12, 19: 11, 15. ABISHUA, the son of Phineas. He was the fourth in succession who filled the office of high priest among the Hebrews. The Chronicon of Alexandria places him in the days of Ehud, judge of Israel. Judg. 3. 1 Chron. 6; 50. Josephus calls him Abiezer. * ABLUTION, a ceremony in use among the ancients, and still practised in several parts of the world. It con- sisted in washing the body, which was always done be. fore Sacrificing, or even entering their houses. Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremonies, and external wor- ship itself. Moses enjoined them, the heathens adopted them, and Mahomet and his followers have continued them. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Jews, all had them. The ancient Christians had their ablutions before communion, which the Romish church still retain before their mass, and sometimes after. The Syrians, Copts, &c. have their solemn washings on Good Friday; the Turks also have their ablutions, their Ghast, their Wodou, Aman, &c.—Buck. ABNER, the son of Ner, uncle to king Saul, and general of his armies. After the death of Saul, he sup- ported Ishbosheth for seven years; but conceiving himself injured by him, he went over to David. He was treach- erously slain by Joab under the pretence of his being a spy; but more probably either from jealousy of his influ- ence, or to revenge the death of his brother Asahel. Da- vid, highly disapproved the conduct cf Joab, (see JoAB,) and composed an elegy on the death of Abner. 2 Sam. 2d and 3d chs.—A. M. 2956. ABOMINATION, or ApoMINABLE ; these terms always denote things which are hateful and detestable to the last degree. Genesis 43: 32. Lev. 7: 18. Deut. 7: 25, 26. They are the strongest terms the language affords. Hence, 1: SIN IN GENERAL, being the reverse of the divine per- fections and law, and the object of God's most awful and unchangeable displeasure, is frequently styled AN ABoMI- NATION. Prov. 3:32. 8: 7. 17: 15. Jer. 7: iO. 44; 22. To be holy as he is holy, we must penitently view it in the Same light ; and hate, avoid, and oppose it, with the same inflexible constancy. This is in fact the precise sense of the precept, (Rom. 12; 9.) “Let love be without dissimu- lation : ABHOR THAT which is Evil; cleave to that which is gºod.” That is, the proof of the sincerity of your love, whether to God or man, lies in its being invariably attended *ith a lively abhorrence of sin, and an ardent attachment to holiness. 2. PARTICULAR SINs are in various passages of scrip. ºre Stigmatized as ABOMINATIONs. For example, pride, Prov, 16: 5. Lawlessness, or a contentious, unteachable, ungºvernable spirit, Prov. 3: 32. False doctrine, Rev. Hypocrisy, Prov. 15: 8. 21:27. 28; 9. Scorning, 24; 9. False swearing or perjury, Jer. 7: 9, 10. Murder; adultery, and theft, Jer. 7: 9, 10. Falsehood, Prov. 12:22: Things that are highly esteemed among men, particularly A B O A B O [ 16 J €ovetousness, Luke 16: 14, 15. Idolatry, with all its in- struments and appendages, IEx, 8; 26. Deut. 17: 2–7, 12; 31. 18: 9–14, - 8. WARIous Forms of PARTICULAR SINs, especially when of a very gross description, are marked out as ABOMINA- TIONs—as, offering blemished or deformed sacrifices, Deut. 17: 1.5 eating forbidden kinds of food, Lev. 11.; every species of unchastity, Lev. 18: 29, 30.; wearing the dress of the opposite sex, Deut. 22: 5.; a false ba- lance, false weights, and measures, Prov. 11: 20, 20:10, 23; a proud look, a lying tongue, murderous hands, a heart of wicked imaginations, feet swift to mischief, a false witness, and he that soweth discord among breth- ren, Proy, 6: 16–19, 4. EMPHAses, or distinctive uses of the term. To “make an abomination,” is to make an idol, Deut. 27: 15.; to “commit abomination,” is to practise idolatry, or un- natural crimes, Ez. 16:50. Rev. 21:27. “Abominable works,” are actions tainted and corrupted by impiety, Ps. 14: 1. “The abominable,” mentioned as a distinct class, Rev. 21:8. are probably such as are guilty of unnatural crime; a character mournfully prevalent throughout the heathen world. Rom. 1: 26–32. 1 Cor. 5: 9–11. In reference therefore not to idolatry alone, but to every sin, in every form, and especially the sin that most easily besets us, let us act as though we heard perpetually those most affecting words, ever uttered by the All Holy, Oh, do not this abominable thing which I hate.,, , , , , , , , . ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION ; this phrase seems to be used (Dan. 11:31.) as a general designation, for whatever denotes the triumph of idolatrous power over the sanctuary of God. Its more particular reference in the New Testament, is to the Roman armies under Titus. Dan. 9: 27. 12: 11. compared with Mat. 24: 15. The images of their gods and emperors were delineated on the ensigns of the Romans; and the ensigns themselves, especially the eagles which were carried at the heads of the legions, overe objects of norship ; and therefore, accord- ing to the style of scripture, an abomination. The horror with which the Jews regarded them, sufficiently appears from two facts mentioned by Josephus—Pilate's attempt to put his troops in winter quarters at Jerusalem, and Vitellius’ proposing to march through Judea to attack Aretas, king of Petra. The people supplicated and re- monstrated against both, on religious accounts, to such a degree, that Pilate was obliged to remove his army, and Vitellius to march his troops another way. Jerome in- forms us that the Jews themselves applied, Dan. 9: 27. to the Romans. The appearance of their idolatrous banners therefore at Jerusalem, was the prophetic sign that “the desolation thereof was nigh.” The evangelists Matthew and Mark add to our Lord's prediction in a parenthesis, “Whoso readeth, let him understand;” hereby intimating that this event was approaching, though yet future when their histories were published, and that the reader who consulted his own safety, would do well to retire seasona- bly from the devoted city. Mat. 24: 15. Mark 13: 14.— In forty years from the time “the Messiah was cut off.” by wicked hands, (to use the sublime language of Bos- suet,) ‘the Roman eagle descended, and Judea was no imore '' ABORIGINES ; the earliest inhabitants of a country; those of whom no original can be traced. It is used among us in this country, to denote the Indian tribes, in distinction from the present civilized inhabitants who are of European descent. - Upon this country, it has been said with equal elo- quence and truth, rests a responsibility in relation to the Indian tribes, of deep and tremendous import. Sovereigns from time immemorial of the interminable forests which overshadow this vast continent, this injured race have gradually been driven within the limits of their present precarious possessions. One after another of their favo- rite rivers has been reluctantly abandoned, until the range of the hunter is bounded by lines prescribed by his invad- er, and the independence of the warrior is no more. Of the innumerable tribes which, a few centuries since, roamed fearless and independent their native forests, how many have been swept into oblivion, and are with the generations before the ſlood." Of others, not a trace re- mains but in tradition, or in the person of some solitary wanderer, the last of his tribe, who hovers like a ghost among the sepulchres of his fathers—a spark still ſaintly glimmering in the ashes of an extinguished race Alas! shall the corrupt arts of avarice, or the strong arm of civilized power still pursue this unhappy people? Shall the increasing and relentless force of emigration drive them from forest to forest, until the last remnant strug- gling for existence, shall fall on the verge of the western ocean, or perish in its flood? Will not the voice of hu- manity prompt us to arrest this unremitting progress of extermination? But how 2 Not certainly by breaking down the restrictions on Indian trade; for this would let loose upon them a horde of selfish and unprincipled ad. venturers. But continue and enforce those restrictions, and at the same time encourage and increase the mission- ary institutions of our country; and the time is not far distant, when the savage shall be converted into the citi- zem, and the hunter be changed into the agriculturist and mechanic ; when throughout that vast extent of country from the Mississippi to the Pacific, the red man and the white man shall be found in every place, mingling in the same society, cherishing the same benevolent and friendly views, fellow citizens of the same social and religious community, and fellow hèirs to one eternal inheritance in the kingdom of heaven. For particulars respecting the Aborigines of this coun- try, and the efforts now in progress for their Christianiza- tion, see the Missionary Gazetteer, in the latter part of this volume. - ABOUND ; the peculiar force of this emphatic word has never yet been sufficiently illustrated. It is generally taken to be equivalent with to increase, or to be full ; but if so, why does so accurate a writer as St. Paul, in 1 Thess. 3: 12. add the word abound to the word increase, and in Phil. 4: 18. after saying, “I have all,” immediately sub- join, “and abound f* This use of the word evidently im- plies, that, in the apostle's own mind, it conveyed some additional, or stronger idea. What that idea is, may be ascertained by turning to Prov. 8:24, where the word first occurs, in a connection that clearly unfolds its exact meaning, “fountains abounding with water.” This pe. culiarly rich and beautiful idea of the exuberant and overflowing fulness of a fountain, a fulness rising and spreading from deep and inexhaustible springs, is the ap propriate meaning of this word, as any one may per ceive who will carefully consult all the passages where it occurs in the bible. In this light what new force is added to our conceptions of such expressions as the following. Rom. 5: 20. “Moreover the law entered that the offence might abound.” This may be taken either positively, or in relation to our conceptions; since the introduction of clearer light, by the written law, did not only manifest with more distinctness the extent, the power, the criminal nature, pollution, and punishment of sin; but by encoun- tering the opposition of the human heart, and operating as a test of its sinfulness, did occasion an incalculable in- crease in the number and aggravations of human trans- gression. In its light, sin seemed already to have over. flowed the whole world, like the waters of the deluge when the fountains of the great deep were broken up; pervading, filling, overflowing every human heart, lip, and life; while new disobedience to its commands, new violations of its restrictions, new excuses, evasions or blasphemous objections to its threatened penalties, conti- nually rising into existence, swelled yet more and more the appalling and apparently endless flood of guilt and Tū1I]. “But where sin abounded, grace did much more abound.” Even where the introduction of the written law had charged human guilt with its heaviest aggravations, had so immensely extended men's conceptions of the univer- sality and evil of sin, and proved its power to be beyond the influence of any light, authority, or sanctions of mere law to repress and subdue ; there the introduction of the gospel unfolded a depth of contrivance, power, and compas- sion in the Divine Mind, fully and abundantly adequate to the exigencies of the case. He therefore who receives and relies upon the gospel of Christ, though the very chief of sinners, shall find that the grace of God therein reveal. A Bo A. B. R. ſ 17 J ed as flowing through the cross, infinitely exceeds his most enlarged conceptions, wants, and desires; that springing from sources not only apparently, but absolutely even inexhaustible, “the unsearchable riches of Christ,” it overflows, prevails, and triumphs over all his aggrayat- edguilt, corruption, and unworthiness; not only pardoning, but purifying, not only saving from endless ruin, but exalting to endless joy! ... “That as sin had reigned” under the administration of law “ UNTO DEATH,” even so under the administration of the gospel, “might grace reign through righteousness UNTO ETERNAL LIFE by Jesus Christ our Lord.” Eph. 1:8. “Wherein he hath abounded towards us in all wisdom and prudence.” The apostle here suggests to us that God, in the method of dispensing the riches of his grace, has pursued a course in which his prudence and wisdom appear equally conspicuous as his unfathomable love—in bestowing his grace on sinners only through a redeeming mediation, lest the law should be dishonored and made of no effect, Rom. 3:31.; in selecting the only fit person to be a mediator between God and man, John 3: 16. 1 Tim. 2: 5.; in appointing him his proper work, its several offices, and periods, Gal. 4: 4, 5. Isa. 53: 10–12. Heb. 3: 1, 2. 8: 6–12. ; in arranging the circumstances of his incarnation, sufferings, and glory, Isa. 42: 1–4. 52: 13–15. John 10: 18. 12:49, 50. 14; 31. Acts 4: 27, 28.; in the time, instruments, and manner of publishing the gospel, Eph. 3: 1–11. 4: 7–16. ; in the measure and mi- nisters of its success, and the glory of its ultimate issues, 1 Cor. 1: 26–31. 3: 5–9. 2 Cor. 2: 12–16. Gal. 3: 8. 1 John 3: 8. Rev. 11:15. 20: 1–6. 21: 1–27.; and lastly, in ordering all the allotments, advantages, afflictions, and deliverances of individual believers, so as to work out their spiritual and everlasting good. Rom. 8:28–39. 1 Cor. 3: 21—23. 2 Cor. 4: 15. Rom. 3: 7. “If the truth of God hath more abounded through my lie unto his glory, why yet am I also judged as a sinner?” In this objection to the doctrine of human responsibility, the truth of God is represented under the image of a perennial and majestic stream, whose depth and force become more visible by means of the obstruc- tions raised against it; which, however formidable in ap- pearance, it surmounts with the utmost ease in conse- quence of its own overflowing fulness. This objection— commonly urged on the admitted fact, that the declara- tions of God in his word touching human depravity, are seen to be true with more abundant evidence in every fresh instance of sin, and especially in the false assump- tions of those who deny the divine testimony—is repelled by the apostle, by appealing to its monstrous consequen- ces. The principle of the objection is, that whatever con- duct serves in any way, even by way of contrast, to illus- trate the glory of the divine attributes, cannot be criminal, and worthy of punishment. The apostle says, if such a principle be true, (inasmuch as it is certain that the divine perfections will appear more glorious by opposition to human depravity, and the very lie of him who denies it, but confirms the truth of that God who affirms it,) then that depravity might be justified and indulged to any extent, under the specious pretext of “doing evil that good might come”—an abominable maxim, confounding the very distinction between good and evil, scorning every restraint of virtue, sanctioning every crime, and subvert- ing the moral government of God from its foundation.— The apostle therefore pronounces the final condemnation of such as adopt it, to be just. Prov. 29:22. “A furious man aboundeth in transgres- Sion;” and Mat. 24: 12. “because imiquity shall abound, the love of many shall wax cold.” In both these passa- ges we may remark the allusion to an overflowing foun- tain or stream, which breaks over its ordinary limits, and spreads and deepens on every side. - 1 Cor. 15:58, “Always abounding in the works of the Lord.” The addition of the word & always,” adds to the beautiful idea of this passage the utmost force and magni- ficence. This, then, is the only scriptural measure, that we be continually rising above measure; not resting in present attainments or usefulness; not satisfied with the standard of our predecessors and contemporaries; but as circum- stances wºrronunity, and experience gives facility, t pleasure and skill, breaking away from the limits of the past, and seeking a wider sphere of action in the future, in the fulness of a heart exuberant with zeal and affection, and “always overflowing in the work of the Lord.”— Philippians 1:9–11. 1 Thessalonians 4: 1. 2 Corinthi- ans 9: 8. - - ABRAHAM, originally called ABRAM, the son of Terah, born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, A. M. 2008, only two years after the death of Noah, though there were nine ge- nerations between them. He descended from that patri- arch in the line of Shem, upon whose family the promised blessing of giving birth to the Messiah appears to have been entailed by his father's prophecy, and was the tenth person from him in lineal descent, Gen. 9:26. His history claims the attention of the biographer under two distinct points of view; first, as the founder of the Jewish nation, God’s peculiar people, who all descended from his loins, and are termed Israel after the flesh; and secondly, as “the father of the faithful,” or head of the true Israel, that innumerable company consisting of both Jews and Gentiles, who imitate his faith, and are consequently made participators of that blessedness wherewith Abraham himself was blessed, Rom. 2: 28, 29. 9: 4–8. 1. A word upon the call of the patriarch. Chaldea, the native country of Abraham, was inhabited by a pasto- ral people, who were almost irresistibly invited to the study of the motions of the heavenly bodies, by the pecu- liar serenity of the heavens in that climate, and their habit of spending their nights in the open air in tending their flocks. The first rudiments of astronomy, as a science, are traced to this region; and here, too, one of the earliest forms of idolatry, the worship of the host of hea- ven, usually called Tsabaism, first began to prevail. Du ring the three hundred and fifty years which elapsed be. tween the deluge and the birth of Abraham, this and other idolatrous superstitions had greatly corrupted the human race, perverted the simple forms of the patriarchal religion, and beclouded the import of its typical rites.— The family of Abraham was idolatrous, for “his fathers served other gods beyond the flood,” that is, the great river Euphrates; but whether he himself was in the early period of his life an idolater, we are not informed by Moses. The Arabian and Jewish legends speak of his early idolatry, his conversion from it, and of his zeal in breaking the images in his father's house; but these are little to be depended on. Whilst Abraham was still so- journing in Ur, “the God of glory" appeared to him, and said unto him, “Get thee out of thy country and from thy kindred, and go into the land which I shall show thee;” and so firm was his faith in the providence and care of God, that although the place of his future abode was not indicated, nor any information given of the nature of the country, or the character of its inhabitants, he neverthe- less promptly obeyed, “and went out not knowing whith er he went.” Terah his father, Nahor his brother, and Lot his nephew, the son of Haran, his deceased brother, accompanied him; a circumstance which indicates that if the family had formerly been idolatrous, it had now received the faith of Abraham. They first migrated to Haram, or Charan, in Mesopotamia, a flat, barren region westward of Ur; and after a residence there of a few years, during which Terah had died, Abraham left Haran to go into Palestine, taking with him Sarah his wife, who had no child, and Lot, with his paternal property. Nahor appears to have been left in Haran. To this second mi- gration also he was incited by a divine command, accom- panied by the promise of a numerous issue, that his seed should become a great nation, and, above all, that “in him all the families of the earth should be blessed;” in other words, that the Messiah, known among the patri- archs, as the promised “seed of the woman,” should be born in his line. Palestine was then inhabited by the Canaanites, from whom it was called Canaan, Abraham, leading his tribe, first settled at Sechem, a valley between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim, where God appeared to him and promised to give him the land of Canaan, and where, as in other places where he remained any time, he built an altar to the Lord. He then removed to a hilly region on the north of Jericho; and, as the pastures were shortened, migrated southward, till a famine drove A B R A. B. R. [ 18 J Abraham and his sons, show the manner in which the earth was gradually covered with people. In those ages, some cities had been built, and the country to some extent about them cultivated; but wide spaces of unoccupied land lay between them. A part of society following therefore the pastoral life, led forth their flocks, and, in large family tribes, of which the parent was the head, uniting both the sovereign power and the priesthood in himself, and with a train of servants attached to the tribe by hereditary ties, pitched their camps wherever a fertile and unappropriated district offered them pasture. A few of these nomadic tribes appear to have made the circuit of the same region, seldom going far from their native seats; which would probably have been the case with Abraham, had he not teceived the call of God to depart to a distant country. Others, more bold, followed the track of rivers, and the sweep of fertile valleys, and at length some built cities and formed settlements in those distant regions; whilst others, either from attachment to their former mode of life, or from necessity, continued in their pastoral occupations, and followed the supplies afforded for their flocks by the still expanding regions of the fertile earth. Wars and violences, droughts, famines, and the constant inerease of population, continued to impel these innumerable, but, at first, Small streams of men into parts still more remote. Those who settled on the seacoast began to use that ele- ment, both for supplying themselves with a new species of food, and as a medium of communication by vessels with other countries, for the interchange of such commo- dities as their own lands afforded, with those offered by maritime states more or less distant. Thus were laid the foundations of commerce, and thus the maritime cities were gradually rendered opulent and powerful. Colonies were in time transported from them by means of their ships, and settlers on the coasts of still more distant and fertile countries. Thus the migration of the three princi- pal families proceeded from the central regions of Ar- menia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria ; and in succession they established numerous communities, the Phenicians, Arabians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Lybians, south- ward;—the Persians, Indians, and Chinese, eastward;— the Scythians, Celts, and Tartars, northward;—and the Goths, Greeks, and Latins, westward, even as far as the Peruvians and Mexicans of South America, and the In- dians of North America. 3. Abraham, knowing the dissolute character of the Egyptians, directed Sarah to call herself his sister, which she was, although by another mother; fearing that if they knew her to be his wife, they would not only seize her, but kill him. This circumstance indicates the vicious state of morals and government of lègypt at this early period. In this affair Abraham has been blamed for want of faith in God; but it was perhaps no more than an act of common prudence, as the seraglio of the Egyptian monarch was supported by any means, however violent and lawless. Sarah, upon the report of her beauty, was seized and taken into his harem; and God sent great plagues upon his house, which, from their extraordinary character, he concluded to be divine judgments. This led to inquiry, and on discovering that he was detaining an- other man’s wife by violence, he sent her back, and dis. missed Abraham, laden with presents. 4. After the famine, Abraham returned to Canaan, and pitched his tents between Bethel and Hai, where he had previously raised an altar. Here, as his flocks and herds, and those of Lot, had greatly increased, and strifes had arisen between their herdsmen as to pasturage and water, they peaceably separated, Lot returning to the plain of the Jordan, which, before the destruction of Sodom, was as the garden of God,” and Abraham to Mamre, near Hebron, after receiving a renewal of the promise, that God would give him the whole land for a possession. The separation of Abraham and Lot still further secured the unmingled, descent of the Abrahamite family. The territories of the kings of the cities of the plain, were a few years afterward invaded by a confederacy of the petty kings of the Euphrates and the neighboring coun. tries, and Lot and his family were taken prisoners. This intelligence being brought to Abraham, he collected the men of his tribe, three hundred and eighteen, and falling upon the kings by night, near the ſountains of Jericho, he defeated them, retook the spoil, and recovered Lot. On his return, passing near Salem, supposed to be the city af. terwards called Jerusalem, he was blest by its king Mel- chisedek, who was priest of the most high God; so that the knowledge and worship of Jehovah had not quite departed at that time from the Canaanitish nations. To him Abraham gave a tithe of the spoil. The rest he gene. rously restored to the king of Sodom, refusing, in a noble spirit of independence, to retain so much as “a shoe latchet,” except the portion which, by usage of war, fell to the young native sheiks, Aner, Eschel, and Mamre, who had joined him in the expedition. 5. After this he had another encouraging vision of God, Gen. 15: 1; and to his complaint that he was still childless, and that his name and property would descend to the stranger Eliezer, who held the next rank in his tribe, the promise was given, that he himself should have a son, and that his seed should be countless as the stars of heaven. And it is emphatically added, “He believed in the Lord, and he counted it to him for righteousness.” He was then fully assured, that he stood before God, a pardoned and accepted man, “whose iniquities were forgiven,” and to whom “the Lord did not impute sin.” Still the fulfilment of the promise of a son was delayed; and Sarah, perhaps despairing that it would be accomplished in her person, and the revelation which had been made merely stating that this son should be the fruit of Abra- ham's body, without any reference to her, she gave to him, according to the custom of those times, one of her handmaids, an Egyptian, to be his secondary wife, who brought forth Ishmael. Children born in this manner had the privileges of legitimacy; but, fourteen years after- wards, when Abraham was a hundred years old, and Sarah ninety, the Lord appeared to him again, established his covenant with him and with his seed, changed his name to Abraham, “the father of many nations,” pro- mised that Sarah herself should bring forth the son to whom the preceding promises had referred, instituted circumcision as the sign of the covenant; and changed the name of his wife from Sarai, my princess, to Sarah, the princess, that is, of many people, to descend from her. 6. At this time Abraham occupied his former encamp- ment near Hebron. Here, as he sat in the door of his tent, three mysterious strangers appeared. Abraham, with true Arabian hospitality, received and entertained them. The chief of the three renewed the promise of a son to be born from Sarah, a promise which she received with a laugh of incredulity, for which she was mildly re- proved. As Abraham accompanied them towards the valley of the Jordan, the same Divine Person, for so he manifestly appears, announced the dreadful ruin impend- ing over the licentious cities among which Lot had taken up his abode. No passage, even in the sacred writings, exhibits a more exalted view of the divine condescension, than that in which Abraham is seen expostulating on the apparent injustice of involving the innocent in the ruin of the guilty: “Shall the city perish, if fifty, if forty-five, if forty, if thirty, if twenty, if ten righteous men be found within its walls?” “Ten righteous men shall avert its doom.” Such was the promise of the Celestial Visitant: but the guilt was universal, the ruin inevitable; and the violation of the sacred laws of hospitality and nature, which Lot in his horror attempted to avért by the most revolting expedient, confirmed the justice of the divine Sentence. 7. Sarah having conceived, according to the divine promise, Abraham left the plain of Māmre, and went South, to Gerar, where Abimelech reigned; and again fearing lest Sarah should be forced from him, and himself be put to death, her beauty having been, it would appear, preternaturally continued, notwithstanding her age, he here called her, as he had done in Egypt, his sister. Abimelech took her to his house, designing to marry her; but God having, in a dream, informed him that she was Abraham's wife, he returned her to him with great pre- sents; This year Sarah was delivered of Isaac, and Abraham circumcised him according to the covenant stipulation; and when he was weaned made a great en- tertainment. Sarah, having observed Ishmael, son of ABR A BR [ 19 J Hagar, mocking her son Isaac, said to Abraham, “Cast out this bondwoman and her son, for Ishmael shall not be heir with Isaac.” Aſter great reluctance Abraham complied; God having informed him that this was ac- cording to the appointments of his providence, with respect to future ages. About the same time, Abimelech came with Phicol, his general, to conclude an alliance with Abraham, who made that prince a present of seven ewe lambs out of his flock, in confirmation that a well he had opened should be his own property; and they called the place Beersheba, or “the well of swearing,” because of the covenant there ratified with oaths. Here Abraham planted a grove, built an altar, and for some time resided, Gen. 20. and 21. - - -8. More than twenty years after this, (A. M. 2133,) God, for the final trial and illustration of Abraham's faith, directed him to offer up his son Isaac. Abraham took his son and two servants, and went towards mount Moriah. When within sight of the mountain, Abraham left his servants, and ascended it with his son only; and there having bound him, he prepared for the affecting sacrifice; but when he was about to give the blow, an angel from heaven cried out to him, “Lay not thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou any thing to him. Now I know that thou fearest God, since thou hast not withheld thine only son from me.” Abraham turning, saw a ram entangled in the bush by his horns; and he offered this animal as a burnt-offering, instead of his son Isaac. This memorable place he called by the prophetic name, Jehovah-Jireh or, the Lord will see—or provide, (Gen. 22: 1–14.) having respect, no doubt, to the true sacrifice, which, in the fulness of time, was to be offered for the whole world upon the same mountain. 9. Twelve years afterwards, Sarah, wife of Abraham, died in Hebron. Abraham came to mourn and to per- form the funeral offices for her. He addressed the people at the city gate, entreating them to allow him to bury his wife among them; for, being a stranger, and having no land of his own, he could claim no right of interment in any sepulchre of that country. He, therefore, bought of Ephron, one of the inhabitants, the field of Machpelah, with the cave and sepulchre in it, at the price of four hundred shekels of silver, about forty-five pounds sterling. And here Abraham buried Sarah, with due solemnities, according to the custom of the country, Gen. 23. This whole transaction impressively illustrates the dignity, courtesy, and honor of those ancient chiefs; and wholly disproves the notion that theirs was a rude and unpolished age. - 10. Abraham having grown old, sent Eliezer, his Steward, into Mesopotamia, with directions to obtain a young woman of his own family, as a wife for his son Isaac. Eliezer executed his commission with fidelity, and brought back Rebecca, the daughter of Bethuel, granddaughter of Nahor, and consequently Abraham's ncice, whom Isaac married. Abraham afterwards mar- ried Keturah, by whom he had six sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah; who became heads of different people, which dwelt in Arabia and around it. He died, aged an hundred and seventy-five years, and was buried with Sarah, his wife, in the cave of Machpelah, which he had purchased of Ephron, Gen. 24, and 25. A. M. 2183, before Christ, 1821. 11. Abraham himself, with his family, may be regarded as a type of the church of God in future ages. They in- deed constituted God's ancient church. Not that many scattered patriarchal and family churches did not remain : such was that of Melchisedek; and such probably was that of Nahor, whom Abraham leſt behind in Mesopota- mia. But a visible church relation was established be- tween Abraham's family and the Most High, signified by the visible and distinguishing sign of circumcision, and followed by new and enlarged revelations of truth. 'Two purposes were to be answered by this, the preservation of the true doctrine of salvation in the norld, which is the great and solemn duty of every branch of the church of God, and the manifestation of that truth to others. Both were done by Abraham. Wherever he Sojourned he built his altars to the true God, and publicly celebrated his worship; and, as we learn from St. Paul, he lived intents in prefe- 2 rence to settling in the land of Canaan, though it had been given to him for a possession, in order that he might thus proclaim his faith in the eternal inheritance, of which Canaan was a type; and in bearing this testimony, his example was followed by Isaac and Jacob, the “heirs with him of the same promise,” who also thus “confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims,” and that “they looked” for a continuing and eternal city in heaven. So, also, now is the same doctrine of immortality committed to the church of Christ; and by deadness to the world ought its members to declare their own faith in it. 12. The numerous natural posterity promised to Abra- ham, was also a type of the spiritual seed, the true mem- bers of the church of Christ, springing from the Messiah, of whom Isaac was the symbol. Thus St. Paul expressly distinguishes between the fleshly and the spiritual seed of Abraham; to the latter of which, in their ultimate and highest sense, the promises of increase as the stars of heaven, and the sands of the seashore, are to be referred, as also the promise of the heavenly Canaan. 13. The intentional offering up Isaac, with its result, was probably that transaction in which Abraham, more clearly than in any other, “saw the day of Christ, and was glad.” He received Isaäc from the dead, says St. Paul, “in a figure.” This could be a figure of nothing but a resurrection of our Lord; and, if so, Isaac's being laid upon the altar, was a figure of his sacrificial death, scenically and most impressively represented to Abraham. The place, the same ridge of hills on which our Lord was crucified; the person, an only son, who dies for no offence of his own ; the sacrificer, a father; the receiving back, as it were, from death to life; the name impressed upon the place, importing, the Lord will provide, in allusion to Abraham's own words to Isaac, “The Lord will provide a lamb for a burnt-offering;” all indicate a mystery, or at least supply an illustration of that which Abraham, as the reward of his obedience, was permitted to behold. “The day” of Christ’s humiliation and exaltation was thus opened to him; and served to keep the great truth in mind, that the true burnt-offering and sacrifice for sin was to be something higher than the immolation of lambs and bulls and goats, nay, something more than what was merely human. 14. The transaction of the expulsion of Hagar was also a type. It was an allegory in action, by which St. Paul teaches us to understand that the son of the bondwoman represented those who are under the law; and the child of the freewoman those who by faith in Christ are super- naturally begotten into the family of God. The bondwo- man and her son being cast out, represented also the ex- pulsion of the unbelieving Jews from the Church of God, which was to be composed of true believers of all nations, all of whom, whether Jews or Gentiles, were to become “fellow-heirs.” 15. Abraham is also exhibited to us as the representative of true believers; and in this especially, that the true nature of faith was exhibited in him. This great principle was marked in Abraham with the following characters: An entire, unhesitating belief in the word of God;—an unfaltering trust in all his promises;–a steady regard to his almighty power, leading him to overlook all apparent difficulties and impossibilities in every case where God had explicitly promised; and habitual and cheerful and entire obedience. The apostle has also described faith in Heb. 11: 1; and that faith is seen living and acting in all its energy in Abraham. * A few miscellaneous remarks are suggested by some of the circumstances of Abraham’s history:- 1. The ancient method of ratifying a covenant by sacri- fice is illustrated in the account given in Gen. 15: 9,10. The beasts were slain and divided in the midst, and the per- sons covenanting passed between the parts. Hence, after Abraham had performed this part of the ceremony, the Symbol of the Almighty's presence, “a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp, passed between the pieces,” versé 18, and so both parties ratified the covenant. 2. As the beauty of Sarah, which she retained so long as quite to conceal her real age from observers, attracted SQ much notice as to lead to her forcible seizure, once by Pharaoh, in Egypt, and again by Abimelech, in Palestine, ~. A B S A B S [ 20 J it may appear strange that, as in the east, women are generally kept in seclusion, and Seldom appear without veils, she exposed herself to observation. But to this day the Arab women do not wear veils at home in their tents; and Sarah’s countenance might have been seen in the tent by some of the officers of Pharaoh and Abimelech, who reported her beauty to their masters. . 3. The intentional offering up of Isaac, is not to be sup- posed as viewed by Abraham an act sanctioning the pa- gan practice of human sacrifice. The immolation of human victims, particularly of that which was most precious, the favorite, the first-born child, appears to have been a com- mon usage among many early nations, more especially the tribes by which Abraham was surrounded. It was the dis- tinguishing rite among the worshippers of Moloch; it was in unison with the character of the religion, and of its deity. It was the last act of a dark and sanguinary super- stition, which rose by regular gradation to this complete triumph over human nature. The god, who was propi- tiated by these offerings, had been satiated with more cheap and vulgar victims; he had been glutted to the full with human suffering and human blood. In general, it was the first work of the subjugation of the rational mind to an inhuman and domineering priesthood. But the Mosaic religion held human sacrifices in abhorrence; and the God of the Abrahamic family, uniformly beneficent, had imposed no duties which entailed human suffering, had demanded no offerings which were repugnant to the better feelings of our nature. The command to offer Isaac as “a burnt-offering,” was, for these reasons, a trial the more severe to Abraham’s faith. He must therefore have been fully assured of the divine command; and he left the mystery to be explained by God himself. His was a sim- ple act of unhesitating obedience to the command of God; the last proof of perfect reliance on the certain accom. plishment of the divine promises. Isaac, so miraculously bestowed, could be as miraculously restored; Abraham, such is the comment of the Christian apostle, “believed that God could even raise him up from the dead.” 4. The wide and deep impression made by the character of Abraham upon the ancient world, is proved by the reverence which people of almost all nations and countries have paid to him, and the manner in which the events of his life have been interwoven in their mythology, and their religious traditions. Jews, Magians, Sabians, Indians, and Mahometans, have claimed him as the patriarch and founder of their sects; and his history has been embel- lished with a variety of fictions. One of the most pleas- ing of them is the following, but it proceeds upon the Suppo- sition that he was educated in idolatry: “As Abraham was walking by night from the grotto where he was born, to the city of Babylon, he gazed on the stars of heaven, and among them, on the beautiful planet Venus, ‘Behold, said he within himself, ‘the God and Lord of the universe,' but the star set and disappeared, and Abraham felt that the Lord of the universe could not thus be liable to change. Shortly after, he beheld the moon at the full; ‘Lo,” he cried, ‘the Divine Creator, the manifest Deity,” but the moon sank below the horizon, and Abraham made the same reflection as at the Setting of the evening star. All the rest of the night he passed in profound rumination; at sunrise he stood before the gates of Babylon, and saw the whole people prostrate in adoration. “Wondrous orb,” he ex- claimed, ‘thou Surcly art the Creator and Ruler of all na- ture; but thou, too, settest like the rest to thy setting neither then art thou my Creator, my Lord, or my God.” —Calmet ; Jones ; Watson. ABRAHAM'S BOSOMI; a figurative mode of describing the happiness of heaven. Luke 16: 22. The allusion is to a magnificent feast, at which the redeemed out of every nation, are represented as sitting down in the kingdom of God. Matt, 8: 11, Luke 13: 29, To be, or lie on one's bosom, refers to the oriental mode of reclining at table. In this manner, John, as the disciple whom Jesus loved, is said to have leaned on his bosom. John 13: 23. ABRAHAMITES; an order of monks exterminated for idolatry by Theophilus, in the ninth century. Also the name of another sect of heretics, who had adopted the errors of Paulus. See PAULIcIANs. ABSALOM; the son of David by Maccah, daughter of of the Sacrament to lie in the words of absolution. the king of Geshur; distinguished for his fine person, his vices, and his unnatural rebellion. Of his open revolt; his conduct in Jerusalem; his pursuit of the king his father; his defeat and death; see 2 Sam. 16–18. at large. . Risalows PILLAR. Absalom, like many other vain mortals, was ambitious of posthumous fame. At an early period of life, he caused a pillar to be erected in the king's valley for the purpose of perpetuating his name ; “for” said he, “I have no son, and this shall be my monu- ment,” 2 Sam. 18: 18. It seems he either lived to have three sons and a daughter, 2 Sam. 14:27, after that time, or they were all dead when he erected the pillar, which is not very probable. True glory has been said to consist “in doing what deserves to be written, or in writing what deserves to be read.” Absalom's reputation has indeed survived him; and it will continue while time shall last; but if estimated by that standard, it would be difficult to fix upon any recorded action of his life that would stand the teSt. - ABSOLUTION signifies acquittal. It is taken also from that act whereby the priest declares the sins of such as are penitent remitted. The Romanists hold absolution a part of the sacrament of penance, and the council of Trent, and that of Florence, declare the form or essence “I absolve thee of thy sins.” According to this, no one can receive absolutions without the privity, consent, and de- claration of the priest; except, therefore, the priest be willing, God himself cannot pardon any man. This is a doctrine as blasphemous as it is ridiculous. The chief passage on which they ground their power of absolution is that in John 20:23: “Whosoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them, and whosoever sins ye retain, they are retained.” But this is not to the purpose; since this was a special commission to the apostles themselves, and the first preachers of the Gospel, and mcst probably referred to the power he gave them of discerning spirits. By virtue of this power, Peter struck-Ananias and Sapphira dead, and Paul struck Elymas blind. But, supposing the passage in question to apply to the successors of the apos- tles, and to ministers in general, it can only import that their office is to preach pardon to the penitent, assuring those who believe that their sins are forgiven through the merits of Jesus Christ; and that those who remain in un- belief are in a state of condemnation. Any idea of au- thority given to fallible, uninspired men to absolve sinners, different from this, is unscriptural ; nor can I see much utility in the terms ministerial, or declarative absolution, as adopted by some divines, since absolution is wholly the prerogative of God; and the terms above-mentioned may, to say the least, have no good influence on the minds of the ignorant and Superstitious.—Buck. - ABSTEMII; a name given to such persons as could not partake of the cup of the eucharist, on account of their natural aversion to wine. - . ABSTINENCE; in a general sense, is the act of re- fraining from something to which we are accustomed, or in which we find pleasure. It is more particularly used for fasting or forbearing of customary food. Among the Jews, various kinds of abstinence were ordained by their law. Among the primitive Christians, some denied them. selves the use of such meats as were prohibited by that law; others looked upon this abstinence with contempt: as to which Paul gives his opinion, Rom. 14:1, 3. The council of Jerusalem, which was held by the apostles, enjoined the Christian converts to abstain from meats Strangled, from blood, from fornication, and from idolatry, Acts 15. Upon this passage, Dr. Doddridge observes, “that though neither things sacrificed to idols, nor the flesh of strangled animals, have, or can have, any moral evil in them, which should make the eating of them abn. solutely and universally unlawful; yet they were forbid. den to the Gentile converts, because the Jews had such an aversion to them, that they could not converse freely with any who used them. This is plainly the reason which James assigns in the very next words, the twenty-first verse, and it is abundantly sufficient. This reason is now ceased, and the obligation to abstain from eating these things ceases with it. But were we in like circumstances A B Y A-B Y [ 21 J again, Christian charity would surely require us to lay ourselves under the same restraint.” • The spiritual monarchy of the western world introduc. ed another sort of abstinence, which may be called ritual, and consists in abstaining from particular meats at certain times and seasons, the rules of which are called rogations. If I mistake not, the impropriety of this kind of absti- mence is clearly pointed out in 1 Tim. 4: 3–In England, abstinence from flesh has been enjoined by statute, even since the reformation; particularly on Fridays and Satur- days, on vigils, and on all days commonly called fish. days. The like injunctions were renewed under queen Elizabeth; but at the same time it was declared, that this was done, not out of motives of religion, as if there were any difference in meats, but in favor of the consumption of fish, and to multiply the number of fish- ermen and mariners, as well as to spare the stock of sheep. . - - Thore important abstinence, is that referred to by the apostle, Thess. 5; 22. “Abstain from all appearance of evil.” “How much more then, from every thing which is proved to be really evil; as some things are, in which, alas, many indulge 1 See FASTING ; ANIMALs ; BLOOD. ABSTINENTS, or ABSTINEs ; a set of heretics that appeared in France and Spain, about the end of the third century. They are supposed to have borrowed part of their opinions from the Gnostics and Manichaeans, because they opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh meat, and placed the Holy Ghost in the class of cre. ated beings.-Buck. - - ABUMA; the same as Rumah, 2 Kings 23: 36. ABUNDANCE ; an overflowingfulness. See ABOUND.” Those who receive the abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness, Rom. 5; 17. are such as in cordial faith and iove, accept the Gospel of Christ, and receive free jus: tification thereby; not excluding, however, the fact, that faith and love are themselves, wherever they are found, tº the fruits of the Spirit,” and therefore “the gift of God.” Gal. 5: 22. Ephes. 2: 8. - - ABUSE; to use things or persons from wrong motives to wrong ends, in a sinſul or dishonorable manner. Judg. 19:25. Children abuse their parents, when by disobedience of any kind, or, by neglecting to support or comfort them, they shorten or embitter their existence. Such as do these things are called murderers of fathers, and murderers of mothers. 1 Tim. 1:9. Men abuse the norld when they use the good things of it to dishonor God, and grafify their own lusts, forgetful of eternity. , 1 Cor. 7: 31. ABYSS, or DEEP, without bottom. The chaos; the deep- est parts of the sea; and, in the New Testament, the regions of the dead, Rom, 10: 7. also the place of punish- ment. The devils besought Jesus that he would not send them into the abyss, a place they evidently dreaded. Luke 8: 31. where it seems to mean that part of Hades in which wicked spirits are in torment. See HELL. In the conception of the ancient Hebrews, and of the generality of eastern people at this day, the abyss, the sea, or waters, encompassed the whole earth. This was supposed to float upon the abyss, of which it covered a small part. According to the same notion, the earth was ſounded on the waters, or at least, its foundations were on the abyss beneath. Ps. 24; 2. 136: 6. Under these waters, and at the bottom of this abyss, they represented the wicked as groaning, and suffering the punishment of their sins. The Rephaim were confined there, those old giants, who, whilst living, caused surrounding nations to tremble, Prov. 9. 18. 21:16, &c. Lastly, in these dark dungeons, the kings of Tyre, Babylon, and Egypt, are described by the prophets as suffering the punishment of their pride and cruelty. Jer, 26; 14. Ezek. 28: 10, &c. The Abyss is represented in the book of Revelation, as the abode of evil spirits, and powers opposed to God: “I saw,” says St. John, “a star fall from heaven unto the earth, and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit. And he opened the bottomless pit; and there arose a Smoke out of it, as the smoke of a great furnace; and "" The abundance of the seas,” Deut. 33:19, means the opulence derived from commerce; but the same expression in Isa. 60: 5, seems to refer to the immense multitudes of seamen, engaged in carrying on Commercial intercourse between all mations, the sun and the air were darkened by reason of the Smoke of the pit. And there came out of the smoke, locusts upon the earth. And they had a king over them, which is the angel of the bottomless pit,” Rev. 9:1–11. See ABADDon. In another place, the beast is represented as ascending out of the bottomless pit, and waging war against the two witnesses of God, Rev. 11; 7. Lastly, St. John says, “I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit, and a great chain in his hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old Ser- pent, which is the devil, and Satan, and bound him a thou- sand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should de- ceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled; and after that he must be loosed a little sea- son.” Rev. 20: 1–3. The original word is abyss. ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. Very little is known of the present state of Christianity among the oriental nations; and for this little we are chiefly indebted to various tra- vellers, who were far from making it an immediate object of research : of course our information on this subject must be attended with some degree of uncertainty. The seven churches of Asia, existing in the primitive times, appear to have vanished from the page of history, without leaving scarcely a vestige behind; and nothing remains in their place but the various mutilated forms of Chris- tianity. See Seven CHURCHES. - Abyssinia, or Ethiopia Superior, is an ancient kingdom of Africa, whose inhabitants are supposed to have receiv- ed the Gospel from the Ethiopian eunuch, or prime minister of their queen Candace, though their general conversion was not effected before the middle of the fourth century. Their emperor, who is nominally a Christian, exercises a kind of supremacy in ecclesiastical matters, and confers all benefices, except that of their chief prelate. The Abyssinians boast themselves to be of Jewish ex- traction, and assume to imitate the service of the taber- nacle and temple of Jerusalem; so that their doctrines and ritual form a strange compound of Judaism, Chris- tianity, and superstition. They practise circumcision, and are said to extend the ceremony to females as well as males. They observe both the first and the seventh day as a Sabbath, and eat no meats prohibited by the law of Moses. They take off their shoes, before they enter their churches, and sit on the bare floor. Their worship is said wholly to consist in reading the Scriptures, administering the eucharist, and hearing some homilies of the fathers. They read the whole of the four Gospels every year in their churches, beginning with Matthew, and proceeding to the rest in their order. And when they speak of any event, they say, “It happened in the days of Matthew ;” that is, while they were reading Matthew’s Gospel in their churches. They observe four fasts in a year with much severity; and on their grand festivals they begin their music and dancing before daylight, in imitation of David, who danced before the ark. They pray for the dead, have a great veneration for the Virgin Mary, invoke saints and angels, and have at least as many miracles and legends of saints as the church of Rome. The supreme ruler of the Abyssinian church is a bishop, who receives his appointment from the patriarch of Alex- andria; but the inferior clergy are appointed by the emperor. The primate has an order of men under him, whom they style Kymos. Every parochial church has one of these, who is a kind of arch-presbyter, and has all the inferior priests and deacons, as well as the secular affairs of the parish, under his care and government. The office of the inferior priests is to supply that of the kymos in their absence, and to assist them in the public service. They have another order of ecclesiastics, called Debtaris, who are a kind of Jewish Levites or chanters, and assist at the public offices of the church. All these orders are allowed to marry, even after they have been Ordained priests; and, which is more singular, even some of their religious orders or monks, who are numerous, are allowed the same privilege; but those who observe celiba- cy, are commonly in greater esteem. The distinguishing doctrine of the Abyssinian church, relates to the person of Christ. They maintain that the divine and human nature are united in him, without A CA A C. C [ 22 ) either confusion or mixture; yet though the nature of Christ is really one, it is at the same time twofold and compound. They disown the pope's Supremacy, and transubstantiation, though they believe the real presence of Christ in the sacrament. They believe in a middle state, in which departed souls must be purged from their sins; use confession, and receive penance and absolution from the priests. Various attempts have been made to bring this church under the papal yoke, but without success. The Portu. guese having opened a passage into Abyssinia in the fif. teenth century, an emissary was sent to extend the influ- ence and authority of the Roman pontiff, clothed with the title of Patriarch of the Abyssinians. The same impor- tant commission was afterwards given to several Jesuits, when some circumstances seemed to promise them a successful and happy ministry; but the Abyssinians stood so firm to the faith of their ancestors, that towards the end of the sixteenth century the Jesults had lost nearly all hope in that quarter. - About the beginning of the seventeenth century; the Portuguese Jesuits renewed the mission to Abyssinia, when the emperor created one of them patriarch ; and not only swore allegiance to the Roman pontiff, but also obliged his subjects to forsake the rites and tenets of their ancestors, and to embrace the doctrine and worship of the Romish church. At length the emperor became so exas- perated at the arrogant and violent proceedings of the patriarch, in subverting the established customs of the empire for the purpose of confirming the pope's authority, especially in imposing celibacy on some and requiring divorce of others who had married more than one wife, that he annulled the orders formerly given in favor of popery, banished the missionaries from his dominions, and treated with the utmost severity all who had any connec- tion with the undertaking. From this period the very name of Rome, its religion, and its pontiff, have all along been objects of peculiar aversion among the Abyssinians; and so lately as about the middle of the last century, the edict prohibiting all Europeans to enter into Ethiopia was still in force, and executed with the greatest rigor. The present state of the church of Abyssinia, however, is such, that little besides the name of Christianity is to be found among them. Their religion is a motley collection of traditions, tenets, and ceremonies, derived partly from Judaism and partly from Christianity in its most corrupt- ed ſorm. In their ritual of worship the former seems to predominate; but, like the Catholics, they have festivals and saints innumerable. One day is dedicated to Ba- laam’s ass; another to Pontius Pilate and his wife, to Pilate, because he washed his hands before he pronounc- ed sentence on Christ:—to his lady, because she warned him to have nothing to do with the blood of that just person. In legends and miracles, too, they are Scarcely inferior to the church of Rome. And, upon the whole, it may truly be affirmed, that the religion of the Abyssin- ians is a monstrous compound of superstitions, unwor- thily dignified with the name of Christianity.—Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History; Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile ; Jones's Dictionary of Religious Opinions. ACACIANS ; a sect of heretics in the fourth century; so named from Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, who denied the Son to be of the same substance with the Father, though some of them allowed that he was of a similar substance. Also, the name of another sect, named after Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the fifth century, who favored the opinions of Eutychus. See EUTycIIIANs. ACADEMICS; a name given to such philosophers as adopted the doctrines of Plato. They were called so from the Academia, a grove near Athens, where they frequently indulged their contemplations. Academia is said to derive its name from one Academus, a god or hero, so called. Thus Horace,—Atque inter sylvas Academi quarere verum. The Academics are divided into those of the first acade- my, who taught the doctrines of Plato in their original purity; those of the second or middle academy, who dif. fered materially from the first, and inclined to scepticism; and those of the new academy. The middle school laid it down as a principle, that neither our senses, nor our Teason, are to be trusted : but that in common affairs we are to conform to received opinions. The new academy maintained, that we have no means of distinguishing truth, and that the most evident appearances may lead us into error; they granted the wise man opinion, but denied him certainty. They held, however, that it was best to follow the greatest probability, which was sufficient for all the useful purposes of life, and laid down rules for the attainment of felicity. The difference between the middle academy and the new seems to have been this; that though they agreed in the imbecility of human nature, yet the first denied that probabilities were of any use in the pur- suit of happiness; and the latter held them to be of use in such a design; the former recommended a conformity with received opinions, and the latter allowed men an opinion of their own. In the first academy Sprusippus filled the chair; in the second, Arcesilaus; and in the new or third academy, Caneades. w Among the Academics, the existence of God, the immor- tality of the soul, the preferableness of virtue to vice, were all held as uncertain. This sect, and that of the Epicure- ans, were the chief that were in vogue at the time of Christ's appearance, and were embraced and supported by persons of high rank and wealth. A consideration of the principles of these two sects, (see EPICUREANs,) will lead us to form an idea of the deplorable state of the world at the time of Christ's birth; and the necessity there was of some divine teacher to convey to the mind true and cer- tain principles of religion and wisdom. Jesus Christ, therefore, is with great propriety called the Day Spring from on High, the Sun of Righteousness, that arose upon a benighted world to dispel the clouds of ignorance and error, and discover to lost man the path of happiness and heaven. But as we do not mean to enlarge much upon these and some other sects, which belong rather to philoso- phy than theology, we shall refer the reader to Buddarus' Introduction to the History of Philosophy; Stanley's Lives; Brucker's History of Philosophy, or (which is more mo- dern) Enfield's Abridgment; Buck's Theological Dictiona- ry; Watson's do. ACCAD; one of the four cities builded by Nimrod, the founder of the Assyrian empire. Gen. 10; 10. It was contemporary with Babylon, and was one of the first ſour great cities of the world. Jerome and others say it is the same as Nisibis, and the Targums read Nisibin. It is not mentioned under its ancient name by any proſame author. But modern travellers inform us, that about six miles from Bagdad is a gigantic pile of ruins, called, by the Arabs and Turks, the Hill of Nimrod; in which the materials and style of building are so perfectly similar to those of ancient Babylon, as to make it certain that here was the site of one of the four cities built by Nimrod. It was not Babylon; it was not Erech; it was not Calneh. The unavoidable inference, is, that it was Accad; an in- ference strengthened by the name of the place Akarkouff, especially when it is recollected that the Syrian name for Accad was Achar.—Calmet ; Walson. ACCEPT, AccEPTABLE, ACCEPTED. To accept is not only to receive, but to receive with pleasure and kindness. Gen. 32: 20. It stands opposed to reject, which is a direct mode of refusal, and implies a positive sentiment of dis- approbation. Jer. 6: 30.7:29. To receive, says Crabbe, is an act of right, we receive what is our own; to accept, is an act of courtesy, we accCept what is oſſered by another. Hence, “an acceptable time,” or “accepted time,” Ps. 69: 13. 2 Cor. 6: 2, signifies, the mollia tempora fandi, a favorable opportunity, a time when acceptance is grant. ed, and favors are bestowed. Luke 4: 24. “No prophet is accepted in his own country.” That is, his countrymen do not value and honor him as they ought; as we say, “familiarity brecds contempt.” Luke 22: 21. “Neither acceptest thou the person of any.” The word person, here, and in similar connections, signifies the outward appearance, in distinction from inward character. See RespecTER of PERsons. ACCEPTANCE WITH GOD; a point of Christian doc. trine, which is of such great importance, that indeed it may be said to lie at the foundation of all revealed reli- gion; and probably, iſ the subject were fully investigated. it would be found that most of the erroneous systems A C C A C C [ 23 J which prevail in the religious world, originate in mistaken views respecting the Scripture doctrine of a sinner's ac: ceptance with God. The term “accept” in its original import, implies to receive favorably, and indicates that divine regard which stands opposed to “hiding of the face, or the divine frown,” but to have a proper view of the subject, we must keep in mind the Scripture doctrine of the fall of man; his natural alienation from God; the consequent loss of the divine favor through sin; and the revealed medium of his restoration. See ADAM ; FALL OF MAN; ORIGINAL SIN. - & This general view of things is always supposed, in whatever the Scriptures teach regarding man’s acceptance with God. The mediation of the Son of God is founded upon it; and the Gospel of divine grace has no meaning but in reference to it. Had there been no revelation of mercy to sinners, no call to repentance, or to return to God, no proclamation of pardon to guilty rebels, there is too much reason to believe that all the posterity of fallen Adam would have proceeded, like the angels that fell, in one undeviating course of rebellion against God, without manifesting a wish to be reconciled to their offended Sovereign, or seeking to be restored to his favor. But, “there is forgiveness with Him, that He may be feared,” Ps. 130: 4. The great proof of this delightful truth, is the mission of his Son into the world, John 3: 16. with the declared ends of his incarnation and death. 1 John 3: 5–8. ch. 4: 9–14. the good pleasure of God in his work, manifested by raising him from the dead, 1 Pet. 3:19–21. and the numerous calls and invitations of the Gospel, wherever it comes, to men of all ranks and degrees, to sinners of all descriptions, to every one that hears it; to forsake their evil ways and return unto God, who will have mercy upon and abundantly pardon them. Isa. 55: 1—9. But though the Gospel be glad tidings of great joy to all who hear it; though it gives the fullest revelation of the divine character, and displays all the perfections of Deity, as gloriously harmonizing in the economy of redemption; though it presents the most powerful in- ducements for sinners to return to God, by promising the full remission of sins, and eternal life to every one who believes the testimony of God concerning his Son; it must ever be carefully kept in view, that Jesus Christ alone, is “the way, the truth, and the life;” and that no man cometh unto God but by Him, John 14: 6. He is the “beloved Son of God, in whom the Father is well pleased,” Matt. 3:17. ch. 17: 5. In him, “the beloved,” sinners are accepted, Eph. 1: 6. they have redemption in his blood, verse 7, their sins are forgiven them only for his name's sake, 1 John 2: 12. The sacrifice he offered When he gave himself for them, is to God a sweet smell- ing savor, Eph. 5: 2. And “HE is made of God unto us, wisdom, and righteousness, and sanctification, and re. demption, that, according as it is written, he that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord,” 1 Cor. 1: 30, 31. The virtue of this perfect sacrifice of the Son of God, by which alone sin is put away, extended back to the first age of the world; and will continue its efficacy until all the elect of God are called into his kingdom, Rom. 3: 25. Heb. 9:15. The promise of this sacrifice, which was made to our first parents immediately after the fall, was the great thing that encouraged them to return to God and hope in his mercy, Gen. 3: 15. Sacrifices were instituted to prefigure it; but it was only with such as were offered in the faith of this great atonement effected by the High Priest of our profession, that Jehovah had any delight, or that he deigned to accept; and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and the rest of the Old Testament saints, obtained acceptance be- fore God only through faith in the divine promise, that, in the fulness of time, God would raise up unto Israel a Savior, Heb. 11: ...And now that the promise is fulfilled, and the work of human redemption fully accomplished, sinners can only find acceptance with God, for their per. Sons, their prayers, and their imperfect services, through faith in the all perfect sacrifice of the Son of God, for in that alone the Father is well pleased. See Justifica- TION. w - - It is no objection to the statement now given of the doc- trine of acceptance with God, that the apostle Peter hath said, “In every nation, he that feareth him and worketh righteousness is accepted with him,” Acts 10: 35. because it is never supposed in the Scriptures, that any truly fear God and work righteousness, who are not regenerated by the Holy Spirit, 1 John 2: 29. and influenced thereunto by hope in the divine mercy; which hope can only arise from faith in the divine testimony, or promise. Such in- deed is the explanation that Peter himself gives of the subject, verse 36–43. Accordingly, it is written, “The Lord taketh pleasure in them that fear him, in those that hope in his mercy.” Ps. 147: 11. The subject is beauti- fuſly illustrated by Christ himself, in the Parable of the Prodigal Son, who left his father's house, took his journey into a far country, and there, having wasted his patrimo- ny in riotous living, was at last ready to perish with hunger, Luke 15: 11. He indeed returned to his father's house, and met with the most welcome reception; but then the motive or spring of his conduct was a persua- sion of the abundant stores that were there to be found, answerable to all his exigencies; and that even the hired servants of his father had bread enough and to spare, while he was perishing with hunger. We have also an- other striking illustration of the subject, in the Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican. The pharisees, who despised the Gospel, trusted in themselves that they were righteous; and in all their approaches to God, had respect to the excellency of their characters over other men; vainly presuming, that what entitled them to distinction among their fellow-creatures, would also avail them in the divine presence. But Christ showed them that, in this in- stance, they were greatly deceiving themselves. “Ye are they that justify yourselves before men,” said the Savior, “but God knoweth your hearts; for that which is highly esteemed among men, is an abomination in the sight of God.” Luke 16:15. And in the parable just mentioned, while the pharisee, confidently advancing with his prayers to the divine throne, would thank God that he was not as other men, who were. extortioners, unjust, or adulterers; that he was not like the publican; that he even fasted twice in a week, and gave tithes of all he possessed: the publican, guilty and self condemned, stood afar off, Scarcely daring to lift up his eyes towards heaven, but, Smiting upon his breast, implored the divine clemency, saying, “God be merciful to me a sinner,” Luke 18:9, 14. The persuasion that there is mercy with God, through the propitiatory sacrifice of his beloved Son, en- couraged him to draw migh, and, praying in faith, he was heard and accepted ; for he went down to his house justi- fied, while the pharisee was rejected.—Jones's Biblical Cy- clopedia. We mistake the terms of acceptance with God, when ºve trust in, 1. The superiority of our virtues to our vices, Rom. 3:20. James 2: 10. 2. A faith in Christ which does not produce good works, James 2: 14. 3. The atone- ment, without personal repentance from sin, Luke 13: 5. 4. The hope of future repentance, or conversion on a dying bed, Prov. 1: 24–31. - ACCESS; the privilege of approaching a superior, with freedom. It is distinguished from admittance, thus: “we have admittance where we enter; we have access to him whom we address. There can be no access where there is no admittance ; but there may be admittance with- out access. Servants or officers may grant us admittance into the palaces of princes; the favorites of princes only have access to their persons.”—Crabbe's Synonymes. In Scripture this important word occurs but three times, and Clways in connection with our reconciliation to God through Christ. In Romans 5: 2. where it first occurs, it signifies our introduction into a state of settled friendship with God; a state in which we are permitted to enjoy the freest intercourse and communion with him, and can re- joice in hope of his eternal glory, through his Son as our Mediator. “IN whoM,” says the apostle, in that exquisite passage, Eph. 3: 12. “WE HAVE BOLDNess, AND Access with CONFIDENCE, BY THE FAITH OF HIM.” . Under the law, the High Priest alone had access to the divine presence within the mysterious veil of the Holy of Holies; but when at the death of Christ the veil of the temple was rent in twain, it was declared that a new and living way of access was laid open to every true worship- per. By his death, also, the middle wall of partition was A C C A C C [ 24 J broken down, and God became equally accessible to Gen- tile and to Jew; whereas before, the Gentiles had no nearer access in the temple worship than to the gate of the court of Israel. Thus the grace and privileges of the Gospel are alike bestowed on true believers of all na- tions. - - The apostle Paul, in one short but comprehensive verse, not only explains this most fully; but at the same time shows how, in the economy of redemption, each glorious person of the GoDHEAD executes a harmonious part in this most sweet and gracious transaction, Eph. 2: 18. For THRough HIM, (the Son of God) we (Jewish and Gentile believers) Both HAVE Access, By one SPIRIT, UNTO THE FA- THER. Here we see, in the clearest manner, how fun- damental to the Christian faith, is the view which it re- veals to us of the sacred Trinity; since it is only by the conduct of the Holy Spirit, through the mediation of the Son, that we are enabled to approach the Father, seated on the throne of grace. And it behooves us further to re- mark the blessedness of this access to God. For we are not simply introduced by Christ, but beheld and accepted also in Christ. He is our peace: the author both of our access and acceptance: for to the praise of the glory of his grace, God hath made us “AccEPTED IN THE BELoved.” Eph. 1: 6. 1 Pet. 3: 18. And those words of our Lord cannot be too well remembered, John 14: 6. “I am the way, the truth, and the life; No MAN comeTH UNTO THE FATHER BUT By Me.”—Watson ; Hanuker; Watts's Sermons. ACCHO, a seaport of Palestine; 1: 31.) called afterwards Ptolemais, (Acts 21: 7.) from the first of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and beautified it. Its site enjoys, says Dr. Wells, all possible advantage by sea and land. It is situated on the coast of the Mediterranean sea, thirty miles south of Tyre, on the north angle of a bay to which it gives its name, and which extends in a semicircle of three leagues, as far as the point of mount Carmel. The town was originally surrounded by triple walls, and a fosse, or ditch cut of the rock, from which, at present, it is a mile distant. On the north and east, was a spacious and fertile plain. On the south and west sides it was washed by the sea ; and Pococke thinks that the river Belus, which flows from Carmel into the Mediterra- mean, was brought through the fosse, which ran along the ramparts on the north; thus making the city an island. In the first partition of the Holy Land under Joshua, Accho belonged to the tribe of Ashur; but it proved to be one of the places out of which the Israelites could not drive the primitive inhabitants. Accho, and all beyond it north- wards, was considered as the heathen land of the Jews. When Syria was subjected by the Romans, it was made a colony by the emperor Claudius. Y Mr. Taylor has collected several medals of Accho, or Ptolemais. Those bearing its Phenician name, Ok or Akko, have dates, of the era of Alexander; whence it may be inferred that it received favors from that prince, probably at the time he was detained in Syria by the siege of Tyre. From others it appears, that the city assumes the privilege of asylum and of sanctity, and that it possess- ed a temple of Diana. Establishments for the purposes of commerce, seem also to have been formed here by merchants from Antioch; not unlike the English factories in Smyrna, and other cities of the east, at the present. There was also a bath of Venus here, of great antiquity. Such was Ptolemais in the days of the apostles. Chris- tianity was planted here at an early period, and here Saint Paul visited the saints in his way to Jerusalem. Acts 21: 7. - This city, now called Acre, which, from the convenience of its port, is one of the most considerable on the Syrian coast, was during almost two centuries (A. D. 1000, to A. D. 1290,) the principal theatre of the holy wars, and the frequent scene of the perfidies and treacheries of the crusaders. By them it was named Acre, or St. John of Acre, from a magnificent church which was built within its walls, and dedicated to St. John. It was the last fortified lace wrested from them by the Turks; who, exasperated i. the length of the siege, wreaked a dreadful vengeance in its desolation and ruin. From this fatal overthrow it has never, under the go. (Josh. 19:25. Judg. vernment of the Turks, been able fully to recover; though since the time of its memorable siege by Buonaparte, in 1799, it has been considerably improved and strengthened, and may now be considered the strongest place in Pales- tine. Vast ruins of churches, palaces, monasteries, forts, &c., may be seen extending more than half a mile in length; in all which, says Dr. Wells, you may discern such marks of strength, as if every building in the city had been contrived for war and defence. - Mr. Buckingham, who visited Acre in 1816, says, “Of the splendor of Ptolemais no perfect monument remains, but throughout the town are seen shafts of red and gray granite, and marble pillars. The Saracenic remains are only to be partially traced in the inner walls of the town; which have themselves been so broken down and repaired as to leave little visible of the original work; and all the mosques, fountains, bazaars, and other public buildings, are in a style rather Turkish than Arabic, excepting only an old, but regular and well built khan, or caravansera, which might, perhaps, be attributed to the Saracen age. Acre now contains about ten thousand inhabitants; about three thousand of whom are Turks, and the remain- der chiefly Catholics.-Calmet ; Wells ; Watson. - Acre, called by the natives 'Akka, was taken from the Turks by the Egyptian forces, after a long and bloody siege, in 1832. In 1840, it was attacked by the combined lºnglish and Austrian fleets, sent to restore Syria to the Sultan. On the third of November it was bombarded for several hours, until the explosion of a magazine destroyed the garrison and laid the town in ruins.—Robinson's Bib, Ičesearches. - - - ACCLAMATIONS, ecclesiastical, were shouts of joy which the people expressed by way of approbation of their preachers. It hardly seems credible to us that prac. tices of this kind should ever have found their way into the church, where all ought to be reverence and solemni- ty. Yet so it was in the fourth century. The people were not only permitted, but sometimes even exhorted, by the preacher himself, to approve his talents by clapping of hands, and loud acclamations of praise. The usual words they made use of were, “Orthodox,” “Third apos- tle,” &c. These acclamations being carried to excess, and often misplaced, were frequently prohibited by the ancient doctors, and at length abrogated. Even as late, however, as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we find practices that were not very decorous; such as loud humming, frequent groaning, strange gestures of the body, &c. See articles DANCERs, SHAKERs.-Buck. ACCOMMODATION. A technical term in theology, , used in relation to several different subjects. 1. Accommodation To PopULAR PREJUDICEs. A theory adopted by certain modern writers, and applied to the in- terpretation of the New Testament. It supposes (what has never been proved) that our Lord in his teaching con- nived at many false notions, prevalent among the Jews, and derived by them originally from intercourse with the heathen, without designing to sanction them by his own infallible authority. Among these false notions some reckon the existence and influence of good and evil angels, demoniacal possession, &c., while others include in the same class of popular prejudices, the immortality of the Soul, its separate existence in the unseen world, a future state of retribution, &c. It is sufficient to say of this theory, by whomsoever advanced, and by whatsoever show of learning imposed upon the uninformed, 1. That it is unproved. 2. That its application is perfectly unset- tled and arbitrary, and therefore it can determine nothing; besides being liable to the worst abuses. 3. That those who adopt it, in the use of it contradict one another. 4. That could it be proved, it would ruin the character of Our Lord, as a safe and infallible guide to truth; since, if he taught any thing clearly, he taught clearly the doc- trines which are produced as examples of mere accommo- dation. And 5. That this theory is at total variance with every, thing recorded of our Lord's freedom of speech, sincerity, and fidelity. So far was he indeed from accom- modating his sentiments to the errors of his age, that he is distinguished not only, as Dr. Paley remarks, by a per- fect freedom from popular errors himself, unparalleled by any other teacher of any nation and age; but by the A C C A C C [ 25 unshrinking and martyr courage with which he perpetu- ally confronts and censures them. Hence, on one occa- sion, when informed that his exposure of a popular error had given offence to the leading sect among his country- men, he unfolded the great maxim of his ministry, in these decisive words, “Every plant nwhich my heavenly Father hath not planted, shall be rooted up.” Matt. 15: 13. 2. Accommodation of PHRASEs. A species of Sophism, in which there is an artful employment of Scripture terms and phraseology, in a sense very different from that which they usually have in the Scriptures, or in the minds of men, in order to give sanction and currency to the indi- vidual opinions of the writer. It seems to be this practice which St. Paul in 2 Cor. 2: 17. stigmatizes as corrupting or adulterating the Word of God; a practice which violates the fundamental laws of sound interpretation; and by evaporating the vital truths and spirit of the divine oracles, and substituting human theories in its stead, tends direct- ly to subvert and ruin the souls of men. The most per- nicious errors have been made in this way to glide into treacherous conjunction with Christianity; retaining their own quality under the sanction of its name, and reducing it to surrender every thing distinctive of it, but that dis- honored name. An intimate acquaintance with every part of the sacred volume will, however, generally ena- ble the humble and pure hearted believer to detect the fundamental fallacies which such writers would impose upon the world, for the faith once delivered to the saints. The writings of Dr. Taylor, of Norwich, (England,) es- pecially his “Key to the Apostolic Writings,” are shown by Dr. Magee to be full of this subtle species of sophism, by which the learned author perhaps deceived himself, as much as he has his numerous and misguided followers. For a thoroughly learned and masterly exposure of this seductive school, see Magee's Discourses and Dissertations on Atonement and Sacrifice. 3. AccomMoDATION of Scripture, the application of certain passages, not according to their literal meaning, but to something analogous by way of illustration. Preach- ers who are fond of doing this, in the choice of texts, are religiously bound to state clearly, in the first place, the literal sense of the passage; lest they fall under the con- demnation of “handling the word of God deceitfully,” and train their hearers to habits of arbitrary and fanciful interpretation. “We may observe, however,” says the profound Foster, “that it seems to the honor of religion, that so many things can be accommodated to its illustration, without any re- course to that perverted ingenuity which fancifully des- cries or invents resemblances. It is an evident and re- markable fact, that there is a certain principle of corres- pondence to religion, throughout the economy of the World. Things bearing an apparent analogy to its truths, Sometimes more prominently, sometimes more abstrusely, present themselves on all sides, to a thoughtful mind. He that made all things for himself, appears to have willed that they should be a great system of emblems, reflecting or shadowing that system of principles, which is the true theory concerning Him, and our relations to Him. So that religion, standing up in grand parallel to an infinity of things, receives their testimony and homage, and speaks with a voice which is echoed by the creation.” ACCORD ; the consent of different parts to one re- sult. The word is borrowed from music, and literally de- notes the tuning together of the strings of an instrument, to produce a “concord of sweet sounds.” Thus, when all the desires and emotions of the soul harmonize in one purpose, without foreign inducements, a man is said to act of his own accord. 2 Cor. 8: 17. Whatever moves without the application of external or visible force, is hence said to move of its own accord. Acts 12: 10. The Christian church at Jerusalem is said to have been “of one accord,” that is, the different members, amidst all the Variety of age, sex, endowments, &c., &c., were actuated by the same spirit, and brought into a most perfect and delightful harmony of judgment, views, aims, and affec- tions. Acts 1: 14. 2: 46. 5: 12. ACCOUNTABILITY; the obligation under which every man lives of giving an account of himself to God, in order to future rºution Rom. 14: 12. 2 Cor. 5: 10. The wisdom of God in this constitution of things, may be un- derstood by a very little reflection. There manifestly wants some husbanding and equalizing power, to make the faculties of man turn to the most account. Powers are slumbering for want of a call, instruments rusting for want of an occupation, and energies of every kind are lavished upon idle or evil doing, that should be occupied in doing good. A full conviction of accountability to God, firmly seated in the soul, would change the aspect of the world. See RESPONSIBILITY. ACCUBATION ; the posture used at table, by the an- cients. The old Romans sat at meat as we do, till the Grecian luxury and softness had corrupted them. The same custom of lying upon couches at their entertain- ments, prevailed among the Jews, also, in our Savior’s time; for having been lately conquered by Pompey, they conformed in this, and many other respects, to the exam- ple of their masters. The manner of lying at meat among the Romans, Greeks and more modern Jews, was the same in all respects. The table was placed in the middle of the room, around which stood three couches, covered with cloth or tapestry, according to the quality of the master of the house ; upon these they lay, inclining the #|ſº #. * # # § #| || |liſii) º | º ##### º º "tº ". ºft; Tºm & f liſh lºliliği º # | |# ſºul § lº | l i t º | Q | à | \\liº iſſºlº * # ſºft Willillºſ. §§ º º: # #i ''. ºf e |º sºlº º º ºilº º ºlh º ºt;" - *------ºº::==== superior part of their bodies upon their left arms, the lower part being stretched out at full length, or a little bent. Their heads were supported and raised with pillows. The first man lay at the head of the couch ; the next man lay with his head toward the feet of the other, from which he was defended by the bolster that supported his own back, commonly reaching over to the middle pf the first man, and the rest after the same manner. The most honorable place was the middle couch—and the middle of that. Fa- vorites commonly lay in the bosom of their friends; that is, they were placed next below them : see John 13: 23. where St. John is said to have lain in our Savior's bosom. The ancient Greeks sat at the table; for Homer observes, that when Ulysses arrived at the palace of Alcinous, the king dispatched his son Laodama, to seat Ulysses in a magnificent chair. The Egyptians sat at table anciently, as well as the Romans, till towards the end of the Punió war, when they began to recline at table.—Watson's Bibl. and Theo. Dictionary. ACCURSED; the word in Hebrew is CHEREM, in Greek ANATHEMA, and always denotes, in Scripture, something devoted ; , but generally, things devoted to destruction. Among the ancient Hebrews, every thing that was idola- trous, was a CHEREM, that is, it was “devoted to destruc- tion.” Not only were idols themselves an abomination to the Lord, but whatever had been employed in idolatrous worship, became so detestable to the Divine Majesty, that he would not have it converted to any ordinary or com- mon use ; even the silver and gold which had belonged to idols, the Jews were not permitted to bring into their houses, or convert to any private purpose. It was to be regarded as a cursed thing, Deut. 9: 26, which no person might meddle with, ch. 13:17. if he did, he himself be- came a cursed thing, that is, he became devoted to destruc- tion. This was exemplified in the case of Achan, who took 9 wedge of gold, and a Babylonish garment, to his own private use, when it had been made accursed (che- rem) by express divine command; on which account he was stoned to death. Compare Josh. 6: 17, 18, with ch. A C E A CIH [ 26 J 7:21–26. The cities of king Arad, the seven mations of Canaan, and the sacrifices of idols, were accursed. Num. 21: 2, 3. Deut. 7: 2, 26. Exod. 22: 19. This sufficiently explains the general acceptation of the term; there is, however, an exception to it, which must be noticed. The Hebrew word cherem, is sometimes used to denote any sacred gift, which was devoted to God or to holy purposes, as in Levit. 27:28. “No devoted thing that a man shall devote to the Lord, of all that he hath, both of man and beast, and of the field of his possession, shall be sold, or redeemed; every devoted thing (cherem) is most holy unto the Lord.” Again, we find that although the city of Jericho was a cherem, (devoted to destruction,) Josh, 6:17, yet the metals in it were a cherem, that is, sacred to the Lord, and set apart to holy purposes. Let it be remembered, however, that this use of the word is very rare, and forms an exception to its general signification. It has been considered very difficult to decide in what sense Paul uses this term, in Rom. 9: 3. where he says, according to our version, I could “wish that myself were accursed from Christ.” A more exact version of the ori- ginal will perhaps remove this difficulty. The verb euchomen, rendered “I could wish,” is in the indicative, im- perfect tense, and is used, Acts 27: 29, where it is proper- ly translated, “and wished for day.” The pronoun autos, rendered myself, is in the nominative case, and is not governed by euchomen, as it must be, according to the pre- sent translation. The whole grammatical construction, therefore, requires that the passage should be translated, “For I myself did wish a curse from Christ.” We must regard him, therefore, as expressing, not the present pur- bose or wish of his mind, but what it formerly was; while e was a mad and furious persecutor of Christ in his members. Upon this latter principle, the words will run thus: “I have great heaviness and continual sorrow in my heart, on account of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh, (for I myself once imprecated a curse from Christ,”) that is, I myself was formerly actuated by the same spirit of opposition to Christ, that now actuates them; and therefore I know how to pity their blindness, ignorance, and enmity towards the Savior. Possibly he might refer to that dreadful imprecation of our Lord’s murderers, “His blood be upon us and on our children,” Matt. 27: 25. It would appear from the above view, that we are to understand the language of the apostle, Gal. 1: 8, 9. as a solemn form of malediction pronounced with apostolical authority, and not merely a sentence of excommunication after the mammer of the Jews. “But, though we or an angel from heaven preach any other Gospel than that which we have preached unto you, let him be accursed.” And how are our conceptions of the awful criminality of perverting the Gospel heightened by the apostle's repeti- tion of this sentence in the next verse. “As we said be- fore, so say I now again, if any man preach any other Gospel unto you than that ye have received, let him be accursed.” See ANATHEMA MARANATHA ; CURSE. ACCUSE ; to charge with a crime, Dan. 3: 8, in a formal or solemn manner. The word literally signifies to bring to trial. An accusation is made for the sake of ascertaining the fact, or bringing to punishment. Luke 19: 8. 1 Tim. 5: 19. Men’s thoughts accuse them when their conscience charges their sins on them, and fills them with pain, shame, and fear, on account thereof. Rom. 2: 15 Moses accused the Jen's in Christ's time; his law pointed out and condemned them for their transgressions, and for their unbelief in the promised Messiah. John 5: 45. ACCUSER OF THE BRETHREN; a title given to Satan, in Rev. 12; 10. because he without ceasing, in every age, accuses the Saints of manifold crimes towards God, mankind, and their own consciences. ACELDAMA, the Field of Blood, is pointed out to trav- ellers on, the side of the hill south of the Valley of Hin- nom, and about 500 feet west from the fountain £n-rogel. The tradition which fixes it to this spot, has been uniform since the time of Jerome, Dr. Robinson says:—“The field or plat is not now marked by any boundary to dis- tinguish it from the rest of the hill-side; and the former charnel-house, now a ruin, is all that remains to point out the site. It is a long, massive building of stone, erected in front, apparently, of a natural cave; with a roof arched the whole length, and the walls sunk deep below the ground outside, forming a deep pit or cellar within. The opening at each end enabled us to look in ; but the bottom was empty and dry, except a few bones, much decayed. This plat of ground, originally bought ‘to bury strangers in,’ seems early to have been set apart by the Latins, and even by the crusaders themselves, as a place for the burial of pilgrims. Sir J. Maundeville, in the fourteenth century, * * * * is the first to mention the charnel-house, which then belonged to the hospital of St. John.”—T. ACEPHALI; such bishops as were exempt from the discipline and jurisdiction of their ordimary bishop or pa- triarch. It was also the denomination of certain sects; 1. of those who, in the affair of the council of Ephesus, refused to follow either St. Cyril or John of Antioch; 2. of certain heretics in the fifth century, who at first follow- ed Peter Mongus, but afterwards abandoned him, upon his subscribing to the council of Chalcedon, they them- selves adhering to the Eutychian heresy; and, 3. of the followers of Severus of Antioch, and of all, in general, who held out against the council of Chalcedon.— Buck. ACEPSIMUS; a Christian martyr of some eminence in Persia, who suffered death for refusing to worship the sun, in the beginning of the fourth century, under the reign of the emperor Sapores.—Fox. ACHAIA; a province of ancient Greece, now called Peloponnesus, of which Corinth was the capital. Paul not only preached the Gospel in the latter city, where he col. lected a numerous Christian church; but, during the eighteen months that he was stationed there, he made ex- cursions throughout the province, and converted many to the faith of Christ. Comp. Acts 18: 1. 9–11. In writ- ing his second epistle to the Corinthian church, he in- cludes “the saints in all Achaia,” among those to whom he addressed it, 2 Cor. 1: 1. and ch, 11: 10. “It is worthy of remark,” says Calmet, “that Luke, Acts 18: 12, calls Gallio the deputy, that is, the proconsul, of Achaia, which indeed was the proper title for the chief magistrate there, at the time he wrote ; but it had not long been so, nor did it long continue to be the case. The propriety of the application, however, confirms, in no small degree, the au- thenticity of his narrative.” Achaia, taken in a larger . sense, comprehended the whole region of Greece, or Hellas, now called Livadia. See GREece. { - ACHAN; the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, who purloined a costly Babylonish garment, an ingot of gold, and two hundred shekels of silver, from among the spoils of Jericho, against the express injunction of God, who had accursed, devoted to utter destruction, the city and all that it contained, Josh, 6: 17. On being taken by lot, he was condemned to be stoned to death. The whole history is recorded, Josh. 7, and is a perpetual warning against the Spirit of covetousness. It would appear that Achan's family were also stoned; for they were led out with him, and all his property, “And all Israel stoned him with stones, and burned them with fire, after they had stoned them with stones.” Some of the critics have made efforts to confine the stoning to Achan, and the burning to his goods; but not without violence to the text. It is proba- ble, therefore, that his family were privy to the theft, Seeing he hid the accursed things which he had stolen, in the earth, in his tent. By concealment, they therefore became partakers of his crime, and so the sentence was justified. A. M. 2553. B. C. 1451–Calmet; Taylor; Watson ; Jones. ACHMETHA. See ECBATANA. - ACHOR, valley of, between Jericho and-Ai, so called from the trouble brought upon the Israelites by the sin of Achan ; Achor, in the Hebrew, denoting trouble. ACHSAH ; the daughter of Caleb. Josh. 15. ACHSHAPH; the same as Achrib, Josh. 12:20. ch. 19:25. - ACHISH ; king of Gath, the protector of David. 1 Sam. 21 : 19. - ACHZIB; a city on the coast of the Mediterranean, in the tribe of Asher, and one of the cities out of which that tribe did not expel the inhabitants, Judg. 1: 31. It was called Ecdippa by the Greeks, and is at present termed Zib. It is situated about ten miles north of Accho, or Plotemais, Mr. Buckingham, who passed by this place A C T A C T [ 27 | says that it is small, and situated on a hill near the sea; having a few palm trees showing themselves above its dwellings. * ACI(NOWLEDGE ; to own, or confess. Gen. 38:26. To observe, take notice of. Isa. 33: 13. To esteem and respect. Isa. 61:9. , 1 Cor. 16. 18. To approve of 2 Cor. 1: 13. Philem. 6. To recognise, worship, profess, and own as a God. Dan. 11:39. We acknowledge the Lord in all our ways, when in every matter we request and wait for his direction and assistance; when we observe what direction or encouragement his word and providence afford us in our affairs, temporal or spiritual. Prov. 3: 6: , “I call it atheism by establishment,” says Burke, “when any state, as such, shall not acknowledge the existence of God, as the moral governor of the world.”—Crabbe. ACQUAINT; to get a familiar knowledge and intimacy. Ps, 139; 3. To acquaint one's self with, or accustom, to God, is by repeated endeavors to get spiritual knowledge of, and intimacy with him. Job 22: 20.—Bromwn. ACOEMETAE, or AcoMeTI; an order of monks at Con- stantinople, in the fifth century, whom the writers of that and the following ages called Akoimetai, that is, Watchers, because they performed divine service day and night without intermission. They divided themselves into three classes, who alternately .succeeded one another, so that they kept up a perpetual course of worship. This practice they founded upon that passage—“pray without ceasing,” 1 Thess. 5: 17.—Buck. • - ACOLYTHI, or AcoluTHI; young people who, in the primitive times, aspired to the ministry, and for that pur- pose continually attended the bishop. In the Romish church, Acolythi were of longer continuance; but their functions were different from those of their first institu- tion. Their business was to light the tapers, carry the candlesticks and the incense pot, and prepare the wine and water. At Rome there were three kinds; 1. those who waited on the pope; 2. those who served in the churches; 3. and others, who, together with the deacons, officiated in other parts of the city.—Buck. ACRA, a citadel. King Antiochus built a citadel at Jerusalem, north of the temple, on an eminence, which commanded the holy place; and for that reason was called Acra. Josephus says that this eminence was semicircu- lar, and that Simon Maccabeus, having expelled the Syrians, who had seized Acra, demolished it, and spent three years in levelling the mountain on which it stood; that no situation in future should command the temple. On mount Acra were afterwards built the palace of Hele- na; Agrippa's palace, the place where the public records were lodged; and that where the magistrates of Jerusalem assembled. - ACRABATENE, a toparchy in Judea, so called from its principal town, Acrabi. Also, a district on the frontier of Idumea, near the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. ACRABI, mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome, proba- bly occupied the site of the modern Akrabeh, nine or ten miles South-east from Nabulus and north-east from Gophna.-T. ACRE. The English acre is four thousand eight hun- dred and forty square yards; the Scotch, six thousand one hundred and fifty and two fifths; the Roman, three thousand two hundred; and the Egyptian aroura, three thousand six hundred and ninety-eight and seven eighths; but the Hebrew tzemed, appears to mean what one plough tilled at one time. Ten acres of vineyard yielding one bath, and the seed of a homer an ephah, import excessive barrenness; that the best ground should scarce produce the tenth part of the seed. Isa. 5: 10.—Bronyn. ACROSTIC. See PoETRy of THE HEBREws. . . ACT OF FAITH; (Auto da Fe,) in the Romish church, is a solemn day held by the Inquisition for the punishment of heretics, and the absolution of the innocent accused. They usually contrive the Auto to fall on some great festi- Val, that the execution may pass with the more awe; and it is always on a Sunday. The Auto da Fe may be called the last act of the inquisitorial tragedy: it is a kind of jail- delivery, appointed as often as a competent number of risoners in the inquisition are convicted of heresy, either °y, their own voluntary or extorted confession, or on the evidence of certain witnesses. The process is this:—In the morning they are brought into a great hall, where they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear in the procession, and by which they know their doom. The procession is led up by Dominican friars, after which come the penitents, being all in black coats without sleeves, and barefooted, with a wax candle in their hands. These are followed by the penitents who have narrowly escaped being burnt, who, over their black coats have flames painted, with their points turned downwards. Next come the negative and relapsed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their habits pointing upwards. After these come such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, besides flames pointing upwards, have their picture painted on their breasts, with dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed, about it. Each prisoner is at- tended with a familiar of the Inquisition; and those to be burnt have also a Jesuit on each hand, who are continual- ly preaching to them to abjure. Aſter prisoners, comes a troop of familiars on horseback; and after them the inquisitors, and other officers of the court, on mules: last of all, the inquisitor-general on a white horsersled by two men with black hats and green hatbands. A scaffold is erected big enough for two or three thousand people; at one end of which are the prisoners, at the other the in- quisitors. After a sermon, made up of encomiums of the inquisition, and invectives against heretics, a priest ascends a desk near the scaffold, and, having taken the abjuration of the penitents, recites the final sentence of those who are to be put to death, and delivers them to the secular arm, earnestly beseeching at the same time the secular power not to touch their blood, or put their lives in danger | 1 | The prisoners being thus in the hands of the civil magis- trate, are presently loaded with chains, and carried first to the secular jail, and from thence, in an hour or two, brought before the civil judge; who, aſter asking in what religion they intend to die, pronounces sentence on such as declare they die in the communion of the church of Rome, that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to ashes; or such as die in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of execution, where there are as many stakes set up as there are prisoners to be burnt, with a quantity of dry furze about them. The stakes of the professed, that is, such as persist in the heresy, are about four yards high, having a small board towards the top for the prison- ers to be seated on. The negative and relapsed being first strangled and burnt, the professed mount their stakes by a ladder, and the Jesuits, after several repeated exhor- tations to be reconciled to the church, part with them ; telling them that they leave them to the devil, who is standing at their elbow, to receive their souls, and carry them with him to the flames of hell. On this a great shout is raised; and the cry is, “Let the dogs' beards be made #" which is done by thrusting flaming furzes fastem- ed to long poles against their faces, till their faces are burnt to a coal, which is accompanied with the loudest acclamations of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the stake, over which the professed are chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat they sit on ; so that they rather seem roasted than burnt. There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle; the sufferers continually cry out, while they are able, “Pity, for the love of God!”. Yet it is beheld, by all sexes and ages, with transports of joy and satisfac- tion. , O merciful God! is this the benign, humane religion thou hast given to men? Surely not. If such were the genius of Christianity, then it would be no honor to be a Christian. Let us, however, rejoice that the time is coming, when the demon of persecution shall be banished out of this our world, and the true spirit of benevolence and candor pervade the universe; when none shall hurt or destroy, but the earth be filled with the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea See INQUISITſon. ACTION FOR THE PULPIT. See Declamation ; ELoquence of THE PULPIT. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book in the very beginning, professes itself to be a continuation of the Gospel of St. Luke; and its style bespeaks it to be written by the same person. The external evidence is also very Satisfactory; for besides allusions in earlier authors, and A C T A D A [ 28 J º in Clement of Rome, Polycarp, and Justin artyr, the Acts of the Apostles are not only quoted by Irenaeus, as written by Luke the evangelist, but there are few things recorded in this book which are not mentioned by that ancient father. This strong testimony in favor of the genuineness of the Acts of the Apostles, is Sup- orted by Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Jerome, usebius, Theodore, and most of the later fathers. It may be added, that the name of St. Luke is prefixed to this book in several ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, and also in the old Syriac version. 2 This is the only inspired work which gives us any historical account of the progress of Christianity after our Savior's ascension. It comprehends a period of about thirty years, but it by no means contains a general history of the church during that time. The principal facts re- corded in it are, the choice of Matthias to be an apostle in the room of the traitor Judas; the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of pentecost; the preaching, miracles, and sufferings of the apostles at Jerusalem; the death of Stephen, the first martyr; the persecution and dispersion of the Christians; the preaching of the Gospel in different parts of Palestine, especially in Samaria; the conversion of St. Paul; the call of Cornelius, the first Gentile convert; the persecution of the Christians by Herod Agrippa; the mission of Paul and Barnabas to the Gentiles, by the express command of the Holy Ghost; the decree made at Jerusalem, declaring that circumcision and a conformity to other Jewish rites and ceremonies, were not necessary in Gentile converts; and the latter part of the book is confined to the history of St. Paul, of whom St. Luke was the constant companion for several €3.Y.S. y 3. As this account of St. Paul is not continued beyond his two years’ imprisonment at Rome, it is probable that this book was written soon after his release, which hap- pened in the year 63; we may therefore consider the Acts of the Apostles as written about the year 64. 4. The place of its publication is more doubtful. The probability appears to be in favor of Greece, though some contend for Alexandria in Egypt. This latter opinion rests upon the subscriptions at the end of some Greek manuscripts, and of the copies of the Syriac version ; but the best critics think, that these subscriptions, which are also affixed to other books of the New Testament, deserve but little weight, and in this case they are not supported by any ancient authority. - 5. It must have been of the utmost importance in the early times of the Gospel, and certainly not of less impor- tance to every subsequent age, to have an authentic account of the promised descent of the Holy Ghost, and of the success which attended the first preachers of the Gospel, both among the Jews and Gentiles. These great events completed the evidence of the divine mission of Christ, established the truth of the religion which he taught, and pointed out in the clearest manner the com- prehensive nature of the redemption which he purchased by his death. CEcumenius calls the Acts, the “Gospel of the Holy Ghost;” and St. Chrysostom, the “Gospel of our Savior's resurrection,” or the Gospel of Jesus Christ risen from the dead. Here, in the lives and preaching of the apostles, we have the most miraculous instances of the power of the Holy Ghost; and in the account of those who were the first believers, we have received the most excellent pattern of the true Christian life.—Watson. ACTS OF PILATE; a relation sent by Pilate to the emperor Tiberius, concerning Jesus Christ, his death, resurrection, ascension, and the crimes of which he was convicted before him. It was a custom among the Ro- mans, that the proconsuls and governors of provinces should draw up acts or memoirs of what happened in the course of their government, and send them to the emperor and senate. The genuine acts of Pilate were sent by him to Tiberius, who reported them to the senate; but they were rejected by that assembly, because not immediately addressed to them ; as it is testified by Tertullian, in his Apol. cap. 5, and 20, 21. The hereties forged acts in imitation of them; but both the genuine and the spurious are now lost, ADAD RIMNON, or HADAD RIMNoN ; a city in the valley of Jezreel, where the fatal battle between Josiah, king of Judah, and Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, (2 ICings 23:29. Zech. 12: 11.) was fought. Adad Rimnon was afterwards called Maximianopolis, in honor of the emperor Maximinian. It is seventeen miles from Caesarea, in Palestine, and ten miles from Jezreel. - ADALBERT; bishop of Prague, a martyr of the tenth century. He was a native of Bohemia. His parents were of high rank and great wealth, but sincere piety. From the early exhibition of talent given by Adalbert, his parents conceived the hope that he might become an orna: ment to his family, and determined to do all in their power, by giving him the advantages of education. For this purpose they sent him to Magdeburg, to the arch- bishop of that city, who completed his education, and confirmed him in piety and virtue. At the death of the archbishop, he returned to his own country, and entered himself among the clergy of Prague. The bishop of Prague died soon after, and Adalbert, though very young, had gained such reputation for piety and learning, that he was elected to fill the vacant see. He was inducted into this office, in 983, and received at Prague with all possible demonstrations of joy. He divided the revenue of his See into four parts. The first was employed in the fabric and ornaments of the church ; the second, in the main- tenance of the clergy; the third, in relieving the poor; and the fourth, in supporting his own family, which was always made to consist of twelve poor persons. He was very faithful in the performance of his duty; but there were some things customary among the people, which gave him great uneasiness, but which he could not reme- dy; he therefore determined to leave them and spend the remainder of his days in a monastery. In this, however, he was disappointed, for after being absent five years, he was ordered by the pope to return to Prague, but had permission to leave the people if they proved as incorrigi- ble as before. The inhabitants of Prague received him with great joy, and promised reformation; but they soon forgot those promises, and returned to their vices, which obliged him again to leave them. The archbishop of Mentz sent another deputation to Rome, to request of the pope that he might again be ordered back to his diocese. The Bohemians, however, had now began to look upon him as the cause of their faults, and threatened him with death upon his arrival. They actually murdered several of his friends, Adalbert hearing of these things, thought it prudent, before going there, to find how he should be received; but all the answer he could get was, “that they were sinners, hardened in iniquity; and Adalbert a saint, and consequently not fit to live among them.” He now felt himself discharged from all obligation to them, and turned his attention to the conversion of the infidels. For this purpose he went to Dantzic, where he converted and baptized many; but this enraged the pagan priests, who killed him with darts, the 23d of April, 997.-Fox. ADAM; the name of the first man, the progenitor of the human race. It is derived from Adamah, which, in Hebrew and in all the oriental languages, originally sig- nifies vegetable earth, or mould ; and there seems to be an allusion to this derivation, in 1 Cor. 15:47–49. where, in relation to the two great heads of the human race, the natural and the supernatural, the apostle says, “The first man is of the earth, earthy; the Second man is the Lord from heaven.” - ... The history of Adam, especially to us his descendants, is full of intense, and, from incidental circumstances, melancholy interest. It is given with great simplicity in the first four chapters of Genesis. In reading them, it is 9f the utmost importance to remember that we are read. ing a history, not an allegory-an outline of events, not an exposition. ... The veil of time is removed by the Spirit of revelation, and the past appears just as it once appeared ; but the vision is distant, and therefore dim. We see the surface of the scene, not the interior, the prominent points, not all the particulars. No explana- tions are.offered, though our curiosity is often ready to ask them : facts of the most interesting character, and deepest import, are stated without the slightest coloring of emotion; and we are left to judge of causes from their A D A A D A [ 29 J effects, of principles from actions, just as we judge of the qualities of a soil from the aspect of its productions. Many subsequent allusions of the inspired writers, however, serve to throw additional light upon the history; and give greater definiteness and certainty to our conclusions, while they operate as a check upon the tendency to be wise above what is written. - In reviewing the concise history of Adam, several things appear worthy of particular remark. * 1. The time at which he was created, is strongly ex- pressive of the importance of his character. It has been pertinently remarked concerning the Divine Providence in the creation of the world, (which indeed is true of every human plan, concerted with wisdom and foresight,) that what was first in intention, was last in execution. Man, for whom all other things were made, was himself made last of all. In the Mosaic narrative, the only rational account that was ever given of the origin of things, we are taught to follow the heavenly Artist, step by step, first in the production of the inanimate elements, next of vege- tables, and then of animal life, till we come to the master- picce of the creation, man endowed with reason and intellect. The house being built, its inhabitant appeared, the feast being set forth, the guest was introduced; the theatre being decorated, and lighted up, the spectator was admitted to behold the splendid and magnificent scenery in the heavens above and the earth beneath ; to view the bodies around him, moving in perfect order and harmony, and every creature performing the part allotted it in the universal drama; that seeing he might understand, and, understanding, adore its Supreme Author and Direc- tor. - 2. The manner in which the creation of Adam is nar- rated, indicates something peculiar and eminent in the being to be formed. Not that it could be a matter of more difficulty to Omnipotence to create man, than any thing besides; but principally, it is probable, because he was to be the lord of the whole, and therefore himself accounta- ble to the original proprietor; and was to be the subject of another species of government, a moral administra- tion ; and to be constituted an image of the intellectual and moral perfections, and of the immortality of the common Maker. Every thing, therefore, as to man's creation, is given in a solemn and deliberative form, and contains, also, an intimation of a Trinity of Persons in the Godhead, all equally possessed of creative power, and therefore Divine ; to each of whom, man was to stand in relations the most sacred and intimate:—“And God said, Let Usmake man in our image, aſter our likeness; and let them have dominion,” &c. 3. It may be next inquired, in what that image of God, in which man was made, consists. - It is manifest from the history of man, that human nature has two essential constituent parts, the Body, formed out of pre-existent matter, the earth; and a Living soul, breathed into the body by an inspiration from God. “And the Lord God formed man out of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils (or face) the breath of life, (lives,) and man became a living soul.” Whatever was thus imparted to the body of man, already “formed,” and perfectly finished in all its parts, was the only cause of life; and the whole tenor of Scripture shows that this was the rational spirit itself, which, by a law of its Crea- tor, was incapable of death, even after the body had fallen under.that penalty. The “image” or likeness of God, in which man was made, has by some been assigned to the body; by others, to the soul. It has, also, been placed in the circumstance of his having “dominion” over the other creatures. As to the body, it is not necessary to prove that in no sense can it bear the image of God; that is, be like God. An up- right form has no more likeness to God, than a prone or reptile one; God is incorporeal, and cannot be the arche- type of any thing material. , Equally unfounded is the notion that the image of God In man, consisted in the “dominion” which was granted to him over this lower world. Limited dominion may, it As true, be an image of large and absolute dominion; but man is not said to have been made in the image of God's dominion, which is an accident merely, for, before of God in man comprised immortality also. creatures existed, God himself could have no dominion :- he was made in the image and likeness of God himself. Still further, it is cvident that man, according to the history, was made in the image of God, in order to his having dominion, as the Hebrew particle imports; and, therefore, his dominion was consequent upon his forma- tion in the “image” and “likeness” of God, and could not be that image itself. - - The notion that the original resemblance of man to God must be placed in some one essential quality, is not consistent with holy Writ, from which alone we can de- rive our information on this subject. We shall, it is true, find that the Bible partly places it in what is essential to human nature; but that it should comprehend nothing else, or consist in one quality only, has no proof or rea- son; and we are, in fact, taught that it comprises also what is so far from being essential, that it may be both lost and regained. When God is called “the Father of spirits,” a likeness is suggested between man and God, in the spirituality of their nature. This is also implied in the striking argument of St. Paul with the Athenians: “For- asmuch as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and men's device;” plainly referring to the idolatrous statues by which God was represented among the heathen. If likeness to God in man consisted in bodily shape, this would not then be an argument against human representations of the Deity; but it imports, as Howe well expresses it, that “we are to understand that our resemblance to him, as we are his offspring, lies in some higher, more noble, and more excellent thing, of which there can be no figure; as who can tell how to give the figure or image of a thought, or of the mind or think- ing power?” In spirituality, and consequently immateri- ality, this image of God in man, then, in the first instance, consists. Nor is it any valid objection to say, that imma- teriality is not peculiar to the soul of man; that we have reason to believe that the inferior animals are actuated by an immaterial principle. This is as certain as analogy can make it: but though we allow a spiritual principle to animals, its kind is obviously inferior; for that spirit which is incapable of induction and moral knowledge, must be of an inferior order to the spirit which possesses these capabilities; and this is the kind of spirit which is peculiar to man. The sentiment expressed in Wisdom 2:23. is an evi- dence that, in the opinion of the ancient Jews, the image * For God created man to be immortal, and made him to be an image of his own etermity;” and though other creatures were made capable of immortality, and at least the material human frame, whatever we may think of the case of animals, would have escaped death, had not sin entered the world; yet, without admitting the absurdity of the “natural immortality” of the human soul, that surely must have been constituted immortal, in a high and pecu- liar sense, which has ever retained its prerogative of continued duration, amidst the universal death, not only of animals, but of the bodies of all human beings. There appears, also, a manifest allusion to man’s immortality, as being included in the image of God, in the reason which is given in Genesis, for the law which inflicts death on murderers: “Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of God made he man.” The essence of the crime of homicide is not coafined here, to the putting to death the mere animal part of man; and it must, therefore, lie in the peculiar value of life to an immortal being, accountable in another state for the actions done in this, and whose life ought to be specially guarded for this very reason, that death introduces him into changeless and eternal relations, which were not to be left to the mercy of human passions. To these we are to add the intellectual powers, and we have what divines, in perfect accordance with the Scrip. tures, have called, “the NATURAL image of God in his creatures,” which is essential and ineffacable. Man was made capable of knowledge, and he was endowed with liberty of will. This natural image of God was the foun- dation of that MoRAL image, by which also man was distinguished. Unless he had been a spiritual, knowing, A D A A D A. [ 30 ) and willing being, he would have been wholly incapable of moral qualities. To discover wherein such image and likeness consisted, we can adopt no safer course than to inquire, wherein the Scriptures fix that divine image and likeness, in which man is created anew, through the redemption which came by Christ Jesus. The image restored, was the image lost; and the image lost, was that in which Adam was created. The expressions used by the apostle Paul, clearly point out to us this method of proceeding. Hence we read of “the new man, which after God is created;” and also of man “being renewed after the image of him that created him.” Ephes. 4: 24. Col. 3: 10. This application of the term created, refers us to man’s first creation, and leads us to form a parallel between that and his renova- tion, or new creation, by which he, in a measure, re-obtains those excellencies, of which Adam was possessed before the fall. And these are summed up in “knowledge, in righteousness, and in true holiness.” The divine image, then, is to be found in the mind, that is, in the under- standing, the will, and the affections. In Adam's under- standing there was no error; nor was there any obliquity in his will. His knowledge was according to truth, and all the affections of his soul moved in the pursuit and practice of it. - . Man, therefore, in his original state, was sinless, both in act and in principle. Hence it is said that “God made man UPRIGHT.” That this signifies moral rectitude, can- not be doubted ; but the import of the word is very exten- sive. It expresses, by an easy figure, the exactness of truth, justice, and obedience. Such, then, was the condi- tion of primitive man ; there was no obliquity in his moral principles, his mind, or affections; none in his conduct. He was perfectly sincere and exactly just, ren- dering from the heart all that was due to God and the creature. Tried by the exactest plummet, he was upright; by the most perfect rule, the law of God, he was faultless. The soul of the first man was also possessed of spiritual enjoyment. By this is intended, that enjoyment which springs from affectians, harmonizing with the conscience, and nvith each other. In such a soul, every affection is delight- ful; and all its views, purposes, and pursuits are just, be- nevolent, and lovely. Love, the controlling affection, how- ever varied may be its exercises, is only a succession of varied pleasure. Its two great constituents are, delight in the objects beloved, and a desire to do them good. The more excellent, dignified, and enduring the objects are, the more noble, pure, and rapturous is the enjoyment which it derives from them. Love to God, therefore, to transcen- dently the greatest and most excellent of all objects, is capable of becoming in itself, and in its consequences, higher enjoyment than any other. At the same time, every other affection is, in such a mind, perfectly accor- dant with the commanding one. Other objects are all duly loved, and every exercise of the heart is attended by the delightful sense of rectitude. This is, indeed, the proper life of man. And thus the happiness which dwells in the blessed God, was reflected upon man, and formed a trait of that divine likeness in which he was created. A modern writer, Mr. H. Ballou, in his “Treatise on Atonement,” has advanced a different theory respecting the image of God, in which man was created, and made it. the foundation of his scheme of universalsalvation. Because Christ is in the New Testament called emphatically “the im- age of the invisible God,” Mr. Ballou contends that this is the meaning of the phrase in the first chapter of Genesis. Hence he derives the conclusion, that all mankind are in Christ, because, according to his theory, Adam was created in Christ. The reader will easily sce that this theory is founded on a gross misconception of the language of Moses; and is in absolute opposition to all those passages which speak of men in an unconverted state, as tº without Christ.” (Ephes. 2: 12, Rom. 16. 7. , 8; 9.) and of being “in Christ,” as the distinguishing characteristic of real Christians, (Rom. 8: 1. 12: 5. 1 Cor. 15: 18. 2 Cor. 12: 2. 1 Thess. 4: 16.) especially to the decisive declaration of St. Paul, 2 Cor. 5: 17. “If any man be in Christ, he is a men, creature.” After such a specimen of Mr. Ballou's skill in interpretation as the above, judicious minds will appreciate, at their just value, his claims to guide his fellow-men to the correct knowledge of the Word of God, But (to use the cutting language of the apostle, 1 Cor. 14:38.) if any man be ignorant, let him be ignorant. -- 4. In the complex constitution of Adam, the soul, bear- ing as it did the divine image, was united to a far inferior element, the body. Yet, even in this, whether we consider its materials, or its organization, we find much which merits attention, much which marks the Superiority of man over the other animal races around him. The human body was not made of the celestial elements, light and air; but of the more gross terrestrial matter, as being designed to receive and communicate notices of terrestrial objects, through the medium of organs similar to them. “The Lord God formed man out of the dust of the ground;” he moulded or modelled him as a potter does the clay under his hand; we see the work, as it were, upon the wheel, gradually rising and growing under the hands of the divine Artificer; and at length producing, from the dust of the ground, a frame Superior in rank and dignity to the heavens and all their host. They whose profession has led them to examine the structure of this astonishing piece of mechanism, contemplate the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the formation of the human body. An examination of its parts, and the admirable skill with which they are disposed, brought Galen upon his knees in adoration of the wisdom with which the whole is con- trived, and incited him to challenge any one, upon a hun- dred years' study, to show how the least fibre or particle, could be more commodiously placed, either for use or beauty. And while the world shall last, genius and dili- gence will be producing fresh proofs that we are “fearful- ly and wonderfully made ;” that ‘marvellous are the works;' and, above all, this capital work of the Almighty, demonstrating that the hand which made it must indeed be divine. See Physiology. - - Adam differed from all his descendants in this particu- lar, that he was not to attain the maturity of his intellectual powers, by a gradual process from infancy, but came into being in full stature and vigor of mind, as well as body. He found creation, likewise, in its prime; it was morning with man and the world. How long he was allowed to make his observations upon the different objects with which he found himself surrounded, we are not told ; but it should seem, either that sufficient time was allowed him for that purpose, or that he was enabled, in some extraor- dinary manner, to pervade their nature, and discover their properties. For we are inſormed, that God brought the creatures to him, that he might impose upon them suitable names, The use of names is to express the na- ture of the things named; but in the knowledge of those natures, at the beginning, God, who made them, must have been man's instructer. Without such an instructer, indeed, it is not likely that man could ever have formed a language at all, since it is a task that requires much thought, and the great masters of reason seem to be agreed, that without language we are incapable of think- ing to any purpose. However this may be, from the original imposition of names, by our first parent, we may infer that his knowledge of natural objects must have been very eminent and extensive; nothing inferior, we may suppose, to that of Solomon, who “spake of trees from the cedar to the hyssop, and of beasts, and fowls, and creeping things, and fishes.” It is, therefore, probable, that Plato asserted no more than the truth. when, according to the traditions he had gleaned up in. Egypt and the east, he affirmed that the first man was, of all men, “the greatest philosopher.” - But Adam was made for nobler ends than merely to rule Over the creatures of the lower world. He was formed for the contemplation of God here, and for the enjoyment of him hereafter. We cannot, therefore, suppose that his knowledge would terminate on earth, though it took its rise there. Jike the patriarch's ladder, its foot was on earth, but its top reached to heaven. His mind ascended from the creatures to the Creator, and descended from the Creator to the creatures. It was the golden chain which connected matter and spirit, preserving a communication between two worlds. To point out to us the munificence of heaven towards his favorite creature. it is said, “The Lord God planted a A D A A D A [ 31 J garden eastward in Eden, and there he placed the man whom he had formed.” Gen. 2:8. When we think of paradise, we think of it as the seat of delight. Its very name, EDEN, which signifies PLEASURE, authorizes us so to do. The garden of Eden had, doubtless, all the perfection it could receive from the hands of him, who ordained it to be the residence of the noblest of his works. We may reasona- bly presume it to have been the earth in miniature; and to have contained specimens of all natural productions, as they appeared without blemish, in an unfallen world; disposed, too, in admirable order for the purposes intend- ed. And it may be observed, that when, in after-times, the penmen of the Scriptures have occasion to describe any remarkable degree of fertility and beauty, of gran- deur and magnificence, they take their similitudes from . garden of Eden. Gen. 13: 10. Joel 2: 3. Ezek. 28: 12. To complete the happiness of man, God created him with a social nature ; and this not only for the multiplication of his species, but also for the interchange of those amiable affections, and those offices of kindness, which arise from the parental and filial relations, as well as from the inherent diversity of character in the sexes. In the emphatical language of the Scriptures, they were made for each other; and were designed to furnish, mutually, a social and superior happiness, of which soli- tude is incapable. A more delicate and beautiful form was united in the woman, to a mind, possessing gentler and lovelier affections, a more refined taste, and more elegant sentiments. frame was joined to a mind more robust, more patient of toil, and more equal to difficulties. In each, the other was intended to find that which was wanting in itself; and to approve, love, and admire, both qualities and actions, of which itself was imperfectly capable; while in their reciprocations of tenderness, and good-will, each beheld every blessing mightily enhanced, and intensely endeared. From the circumstances related by Moses, concerning the placing of Adam in the garden of Eden; from his causing the creatures to come before him; from his bringing Eve to him ; and from his communicating to him a law which he was strictly to observe, we may judge of the familiar intercourse to which the blessed God conde- scendingly admitted him. He conversed with him, pro- bably, under some visible appearance, as he afterwards did with Moses, “as a man converseth with his friend;” no doubt, instructing him, as far as was necessary, in the knowledge of his Maker, of his own immortal spirit and de- stiny, of the temptations he had to encounter, of the conse- quences to which disobedience would subject him, and probably of those invisible glories, a participation of which was to be the reward of his obedience. - 5. The trial of Adam, by a special prohibition, it has been justly remarked, was singularly adapted to the end proposed. To conform to his Creator's will, he must be trained to habits of implicit obedience ; satisfied in ab- staining from a thing, on the mere ground of its being forbidden of God, though he were unable to perceive the reason of his being required so to do. It was, in reality, that he might continue in the sweet spirit of a child of God, that should have no will of his own and this is still the Spirit of true religion. t In considering the trial, temptation, and fall of Adam, the greatest difficulty is, to divest ourselves of ideas received from the present state of things. We can- not sufficiently dismiss from our minds, that knowledge, (rather that subtilty,) which we have acquired by experi- ence. We should, nevertheless, remember, that however Adam might be a man in capacity of understanding, yet, in experience, he could be but a child. He had no cause to distrust any, except what he found in the warning voice of his Heavenly Father. Had he still relied on that warn- ing voice, he could not have been deceived by an artful combination of appearances; by fraud and guile, exerted against it. The same remark is true, also, of Eve. The Subtilty of the tempter beguiled her away from her confi- dence in her Heavenly Father; and relying on her onn judgment, instead of His Word, she fell. Adam, indeed, the apostle assures us, “was not deceived.” 1 Tim. 2: 14. 4gainst his better knowledge, he yielded to his social affections. In the man, a firmer and stronger The sin of both was voluntary, and therefore inexcusable. It was nothing less than “PREFERRING THE CREATURE. To THE CREATOR, who is BLESSED For EveRMoR.E.” Rom. 1: 25. This, this is the bitter root of all the evil in creation 1 Because, as was man's situation, such was the test given to him. It was not an active, but a passive duty; not something to be done, but something to be forborne; a negative trial. Nor did it originally regard the mind, but the appetite; nor was that appetite without fit, yea, much fitter supply, in abun- dance all around it. Ungrateful distrust of God, unwar- rantable presumption, unrestrained desire, liberty extended into licentiousness, were the first principles of human transgression. And observe, they neglected PRAYER! The aggravating circumstances of the offence may well be adduced from the tremendous consequences which followed. Gen. 3: 22–24. Rom. 5:12–21. 6. It has been remarked by commentators, that the threatening denounced on the serpent, does not so much respect the person of the grand adversary of God and man, as it does his cause and kingdom in this world. He will be personally punished at the appointed time; but this respects the manifestation of the Son of God, to destroy his works. It contains an intimation that Satan’s cause shall be ruined, and that its ruin shall be accomplished by one in human nature; by the Seed of the Woman; which must have been not a little mortifying to his pride. And more especially will this latter appear to be the case, if we consider, what the Scriptures strongly intimate, that his own fall was the effect of envy, at the rejoicings of eternal wisdom over man, when first made known in heaven, and that his present attempt to ruin the human race, was an act of revenge. John 8: 44. 1 John 3: 8–12. The breaking of a beautiful vase, may afford some idea of Adam after his sin. The integrity of his mind was violated; the first compliance with sin opened the way to future compliances; grosser temptations might now expect success; and thus spotless purity becoming impure, perfect uprightness becoming warped, lost that integrity which had been its glory. Hereby, Adam relin- quished that distinction, which had fitted him for immedi- ate communion with supreme holiness, and was reduced to the necessity of soliciting such communion, mediately, not immediately; by another, not by himself; in pros- pect, not instant; in hope, not in possession; in time future, not in time present; in another world, not in this. It is worthy of notice, how precisely the principles which infatuated Adam, have ever governed his posterity; how suitable to the general character of the human race, was the nature of that temptation, by which their father fell! Who is not self-convicted of lust and pride? Surely when Adam in after-ages was giving advice to his descendants; when his sacred hands, stained with the blood of the vic- tim recently offered to Jehovah, were extended in benedic- tion over his worshipping family, he would say, “My sons, behold in me the sad example of disobedience to re- straint; had I constañtly honored that sIMPLE prohibition, I had been happy : how many restraints, now necessary for human welfare, had never been known Now is man restrained from this—because to this he is prone; and from that—because that seems good to him; but, under seeming good, lurks real evil. Such was the character of my temptation . It offered pleasure, but I found it anguish; it allured the sense, but the sense was depraved by it; before I sinned, I was serene, delighted, happy; afterwards, I was gloomy, turbulent, miserable. Where. fore ? Because I violated the divine restraint; because, having abundance, I craved superfluity; because, being a man, I must needs wish to be as God; because, knowing only, good, I would know evil also, “good lost, and evil got It is presumable that only, or chiefly, in the garden of Paradise, were the prime fruits and herbage in perfec- tion. The land around the garden might be much less finished, and only fertile to a certain degree. To pro- mote its fertility, by cultivation, became the object of Adam's labor; so that in the sweat of his brow, he him- self did eat bread. But the sentence passed on our first parents, doubtless, regarded them as the representatives, the very concentration of their posterity, the whole human race; and attaching to themselves, it seems, prophetically ADA A D A [ 32 1 also, to suggest the condition of the sexes in future ages. “The female sex, which has been the means of bringing death into the world, shall also be the means of bringing life—posterity—to compensate the ravages of death;- and, to remind the sex of its original transgression, that which shall be its greatest honor and happiness, shall be accompanied by no slight inconveniences. But the male sex shall be under the necessity of laboring for the sup. port, not of itself only, but of the female and her family: so that if a man could, with little exertion, provide for himself, he should be stimulated to far greater exertions, to toil, to sweat, for the advantage and support of those to whom he has been the means of giving life.” Death, the vages of sin, closes the sentence passed on man- kind ; and the dread privation it involves, is common to Adam, and to all his descendants. “The poison in your blood, though slow, is sure ; though latent, yet it will operate in time. I do not think proper to exert my Almighty power in curing this malady directly; I shall remedy its effects another way; I leave you uncertain of ruhen you may die; every day brings you nearer to the period at which you must die : be this anxious suspense the commencement of your punishment; it is one of the bitternesses of death. But this is not all. Paradise, the tree of life, your happy immortality, all is for- feited! Having simmed, you have come short of the glory of God ; the hope of which, nothing but mercy can restore. (Comp. Rom. 3: 23. with Rom. 5: 1, 2.) The privation of all your primitive and prospective felicity—not of immortal existence, but of all that makes immortal existence happy and desirable—this is the full import of your sentence— DEATH !” But see how the mercy of God mitigates the conse- quences announced in this whole sentence. It inflicts pain on the woman, but that pain is connected with the dearest comforts, and with the great Restorer of the human race it assigns labor to the man, but then that labor is to support himself, and others dearer to him than himself, repetitions of himself! it denounces death, but death in- definitely postponed, and to the believer the path to life . It may be well to remark, that the Hebrew expression, in the day, which is used in the threatening announced to man, is of a rather loose and general signification; much like our English expressions, when speaking of time, long past, or long to come, as “the people of that day,” mean- ing of that time, with great latitude. There is another phrase which expresses a fixed or instant day, but that is not used here. 7. Our first parents were divinely clothed with skins: no doubt one SKIN SERVED THEM BOTH, for the word is in the singular form. They had endeavored to cover themselves with fig leaves; but the intertwining, the laiting of leaves, of boughs or branches, recalled no image of death; it shed no blood; it expressed nothing that included the idea of restitution or atonement, and therefore it was rejected. The skin of an animal, however, was not to be procured, without first taking away the life of the animal; and the life of the animal could not be taken away, without reminding Adam of the penalty threatened—DEATH ! What a subject does this offer to the imagination | What a scope might it not here take How would Adam tremble, when he first selected the creature to be slain ; when he led it towards the place appointed for its death ; with what heavy reluctance, what hesita- tion, would he bind it, wreath around it the confining twigs, and then proceed to slaughter it! What would be his reflections when its blood streamed, when its limbs quiver- ed, and at length, when they ceased to quiver! Its last gasp would thrill through his soul, and give him to feel, by sympathy, what death was. How would the peniten. tial tears stream from his eyes, to think that to this he must eventually submit; that to this he had subjected his descendants to the very latest posterity What, then, could be the import of sacrifice, but a memorial, a repre: sentation of death—deserved by the principal, but transfer- red, for merciful purposes, to a substitute See Eden; DEATH ; LANGUAGE ; FALL of MAN ; SACRIFICE. 8. The Rabbinical and Mahometan traditions and fables, respecting the first man, are as absurd as they are nume. rous. Some of them, indeed, are monstrous, unless we suppose them to be allegories, in the exaggerated style of the orientals. Some say that he was nine hundred cubits high; whilst others, not satisfied with this, affirm that his head touched the heavens. The Jews think that he wrote the ninety-first Psalm, invented the Hebrew letters, and composed several treatises; the Arabians, that he preserved twenty books which fell from heaven; and the Mussulmen, that he himself wrote ten volumes. . 9. That Adam is a type of Christ, is plainly affirmed by St. Paul, who calls him “the figure of him, who was to come.” Hence our Lord is sometimes called, not inaptly, the second Adam. 1 Cor. 15:45–49. This relation stands some- times in SIMILITUDE, sometimes in contRAST. Adam was formed immediately by God, as was the humanity of Christ. In each, the nature was spotless, and richly en- dowed with knowledge and true holiness. Both are seen invested with dominion over the earth and all its creatures; and this may explain the eighth Psalm, where David seems to make the sovereignty of the first man over the whole earth, in its pristine glory, the prophetic symbol of the dominion of Christ over the world restored. Beyond these particulars, fancy must not carry us; and the typi- cal contRAST must also be limited to that which is stated in Scripture, or supported by its allusions. Adam and Christ were each a public representative, a federal head, to all in connection with them ; but the connection in the first case, is that of nature, in the last, it is of grace, through faith. 1 Cor. 1: 30. The one was the fountain of sin and death, the other of righteousness and life, Rom. 5:12–19. The first man communicated a living soul to all his pos- terity; the other imparts to his, that quickening Spirit, which restores them now to newness of life, and will raise them up at the last day. Rom. 8:1–11. 1 Cor. 15:22. By the communication of his fatally injured nature, death reigned, even over those who had not simmed after the similitude of Adam's transgression; and through the righteousness of the second Adam, and the communica- tion of a new and divine nature, by the Holy Spirit, whom He sends forth, grace shall much more abound, and reign in Christ's true followers unto eternal life. Rom. 5: 19– 21.—Calmet ; Jones ; Watson ; Divight's Theology, vol. i. Sermons, xxvi. to xxxiv. See DEPRAVITY OF MAN. - ADAMAH. See ADMAH. - ADAMANT; a stone of impenetrable hardness. Some- times this name is given to the diamond; and so it is rendered, Jer. 17: 1. But the Hebrew word, rather means a very hard kind of stone, probably the smiris, which was also used for cutting, engraving, and polishing other hard stones and crystals. The word occurs, also, Ezek. 3: 9. and Zech. 7: 12. In the former place, the Lord says to the prophet, “I have made thy forehead as an adamant, firmer than a rock ;” that is, endued thee with undaunted courage. In the latter, the hearts of wicked men are declared to be as adamant; neither broken by the threaten- ings and judgment of God, nor penetrated by his pro- mises, invitations, and mercies. See DIAMond. - ADAMITES; a sect that sprang up in the second century. Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adam- ites, from their pretending to be re-established in the state of innocence, such as Adam’s was at the moment of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him in going naked. They detested marriage; maintaining that the conjugal union would never have taken place upon earth, had sin been unknown. This obscure and ridiculous sect did not last long. It was, however, revived with additional ab- surdities in the twelfth century. About the beginning of the fifteenth century, these errors spread in Germany and Bohemia: it found also some partisans in Poland, Hol- land, and England. They assembled in the night; and, it is said, one of the fundamental maxims of their society was contained in the following verse : Jura, perjura, secretum prodere moli. Swear, forswear, and reveal not the secret. But Lardner doubts their existence in ancient, and Beausobre in modern times. - - - ADAIR, (JAMEs ;) a trader with the Indians of the southern states, who, in 1775, published a “History of the American Indians,” in which he points out various customs of the Indians, having a striking resemblance to those of the Jews. His arguments to prove them descend- ed from the Jews, are founded on their division into the A D A A D A I as tribes; their worship of Jehovah; their festivals, fasts, and religious rites; their daily sacrifice; their prophets and high priests; their cities of refuge; their marriages and divorces; their burial of the dead, and mourning for them; their language, and choice of names adapted to circumstances; their manner of reckoning time; and vari- ous other particulars. Some distrust, says president Allen, seems to have fallen upon his statements, although he himself says, that his account is “neither disfigured by fable nor prejudice.” Dr. Boudinot, in his “Star in the West,” has adopted the opinions of Adair.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ADAMS, (ELIPHALET ;) an eminent minister of New Iondon, Connecticut, was graduated at Harvard college, in 1694. Ordained, February, 1709, and died April, 1753. Dr. Chauncey speaks of him as a great Hebrician. His publications were chiefly sermons.—Allen. ADAMS, (John;) a poet and preacher of the Gospel, was the only son of Hon. John Adams, of Nova Scotia, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1721. He died at Cambridge, in 1740. He was much distinguished for his learning, genius, and piety. He was master of nine lan- guages. A small volume of his poems was published at Boston, in 1745.—Allen. ADAMS, (MATTHEw;) a distinguished writer of Boston. He was a mechanic, but devoted much time to literature, and possessed a handsome library, for access to which, Dr. Franklin acknowledges his obligation. He died poor, in 1753, but with a reputation of more worth than an estate. Rev. John Adams, minister of Durham, New Hamp- shire, from 1748 to 1778, was his son.—Allen. ADAMS, (ZARDIEL ;) was born in Quincy, 1739. He was graduated at Harvard college, 1759, ordained, 1764, and died, 1801. He was an eminent preacher, and pub- lished several sermons.—Allen. ADAMS, (SAMUEL;) governor of Massachusetts, and a most distinguished patriot of the American revolution, was born in Boston, September 27, 1722, and graduated at Harvard college, 1740. Early distinguished by his talents as a writer, his first efforts are monuments of his filial piety. At this early period, also, he laid the founda- tion of public confidence and esteem, which he retained through life. He was at first a public collector in the town of Boston. In 1774, he was elected a member of the general congress, in which station, for several years, he rendered the most important services to his country. The act of the British government, dated June 12, 1775, which proscribed only Samuel Adams and John Hancock, is sufficient evidence of what Americans owe to the denounc- ed patriot. - - - In 1776, he united with J. Adams, Hancock, Franklin, Jefferson, and a host of worthies, in declaring the United States no longer an appendage to a monarchy, but FREE AND INDEI’ENDENT, When the constitution of Massachusetts was adopted, he was elected president of the senate. A disturbance rising in the western counties, he was sent to quiet it, and succeeded. He was a member of the convention for examining the constitution of the United States, and had the happiness of seeing it altered in several points, to his views and wishes, in its present excellent form. In 1789, he was chosen lieutenant-governor, and was in this office till 1794, when he was elected governor, as suc- cessor to Mr. Hancock. In 1797, he resigned, from age and infirmity, and retired from public life. He died, October 2, 1803, in the 82d year of his age. To a majestic countenance, and dignified manners, Mr. Adams added a suavity of temper, which conciliated uni- versal affection; to an unconquerable love of liberty, an integrity, firmness, and decision, which commanded, even from his political opponents, reverence and esteem. Though somewhat reserved among strangers, at home and among his friends, he could readily relax in the pleasures of cheerful conversation, chaste wit, and apposite anec- dote, from the severer studies and cares of public life. Relative duties he faithfully discharged. His house was the seat of domestic peace, regularity, and method. He was poor. While occupied abroad in the most im- portant and responsible duties, the partner of his cares Supported ºnly at home, by her industry. Though his resources were very small, yet, such were the economy and dignity of his house, that those who visited him, found nothing mean, or unbecoming his station. He was a sage and a patriot. The independence of the United States of America is, perhaps, to be attributed as much to his exertions as to those of any one man. His contemporary, John Adams, the second president of the United States, thus speaks of him: “The talents and vir- tues of that great man were of the most exalted, thcugh, not of the most showy kind. His love of his country, his exertions in her service, through a long course of years, through the administrations of the governors Shirley, Pownall, Barnard, Hutchinson, and Gage, under the royal government, and through the whole of the subsequent revolution, and always in support of the same principles; his inflexible integrity, his disinterestedness, his invariable resolution, his sagacity, his patience, perseverance, and pure public virtue, were not exceeded by any man in America. A collection of his writings would be as curi- ous as voluminous. It would throw light upon Ameri- can history for fifty years. In it would be found speci- mens of a nervous simplicity of reasoning and eloquence, that have never been rivalled in America.” Above all, Mr. Adams was a Christian. Christianity was the living spring and law of his virtues, and stamped the character of the saint on the sage and the patriot. It is this fact which gives him a place in the present work, among the glorious band who have been public benefac- tors of their race on Christian principles. His mind was early imbued with piety, as well as cultivated by science. He early approached the table of the Lord, and the purity of his life witnessed the sincerity of his profession. The Sabbath found him constantly among the worshippers in the house of God, and the retirement of his family circle was hallowed by the steady flame of his morning and evening devotions. His religious sentiments were strictly Calvinistic. The discipline and order of the Con- gregational churches had his cordial approbation. The last production of his powerful pen, was a letter to Thomas Paine, in defence of that glorious Gospel in the faith of which he lived, and in the enjoyment of whose blessed hopes he died.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ; Elliot's do.; Ency. Amer. ADAMS, (JoHN, LL. D.;) president of the United States, was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 30, 1735. His father was a deacon of the church in that town, a farmer and a mechanic. Mr. Adams, while a mem- ber of Harvard college, where he was graduated, in 1755, was distinguished for diligence in his studies, boldness of thought, and intellectual power. His subsequent life is too well known to need to be repeated here. In April, 1756, when deliberating about the choice of a profession, some friends advised him to study theology; but he preferred the profession of law, on grounds which strikingly develop the character of his mind. The sub- stance of them is, that he was more ambitious of being an eminent, honorable lawyer, than (as he expressed it,) of “heading the whole army of orthodox preachers.” No one can question, that, in this respect, he gained the object of his ambition. Providence even exceeded the measure of his desires, by enabling him to serve his country for a long Series of years in the most conspicuous and able manner. His name will be transmitted to future generations among the very first patriots and sages of this or any other land. Much as it is to be lamented that his mind was so early disposed to regard the evangelical principles venerated by Samuel Adams, with contempt; and to follow the specula- tions of Dr. S. Clarke, Emlyn, &c., as he confessedly did, through a long life filled with public labors; no one can doubt his sincere belief of the divine origination of Christianity. For this reason it seems not improper to enroll his name among those eminently great and use- ful men, who from age to age have added the weight of their judgment to the truth of the Gospel. - “Perhaps, (it has been well observed,) the religious sentiments of most men become settled at an early period of their lives. If, therefore, the cherished views of Christianity have any relation to practice, and to one's destiny hereafter, with what sobriety, candor, and dili- gence, and with what earnestness of prayer, for light and A D A A D A [ 34 guidance from above, ought every young man to investi- gate revealed truth.” Here, as in all other departments of real knowledge, “there is no royal road to learning.” Minds of the greatest energy come under the same fixed law—“Except a man receive the kingdom of Heaven as a little child, he shall in no wise enter therein.” Mr. Adams died, July 4, 1826, aged 90 years. DAMS, {º HANNAII;) author of the celebrated Dictionary of Religions; was born in Medfield, Massa- chusetts, 1755. From infancy she had a very slender constitution, and was thereby prevented from acquiring even the little education that was then to be had at a country School. Possessing a great thirst for knowledge, she found means to gratify her taste by extensive read- ing, though not of the most solid kind. Her natural sensibility was extreme, and it was early aggravated by the influence of poetry and novels. In her tenth year she lost her excellent mother, and soon after a favorite aunt. These events made a deep impression on her sensitive mind. Her father's failure in business a few years later, conspired with the deep melancholy of her feelings to prevent her from entering into general society. Hence arose a timidity and awkwardness of manners which was never wholly removed. Through the kindness of some literary gentlemen, who boarded awhile at her father's, She became acquainted with the Latin and Greek lan. guages, with geography and logic; and pursued these Studies with such ardor and success, that she not long after actually fitted three young men for college. One of these young men was the Rev. Pitt Clark, of Norton. The incident which gave occasion to her dictionary, is thus related by herself. “While I was engaged in learn- ing Latin and Greek, one of the gentlemen who taught me, had by him a small manuscript, from Broughton's Dictionary, giving an account of Arminians, Calvinists, and several other denominations which were most com. mon. This awakened my curiosity, and I assiduously engaged myself in perusing all the books I could obtain, which gave an account of the various sentiments describ. ed. I soon became disgusted with the want of candor in the authors I consulted, in giving the most unfavorable descriptions of the denominations they disliked, and apply- Ing to them the names of heretics, fanatics, enthusiasts, &c. I therefore formed a plan for myself, made a blank book, and wrote rules for transcribing, and adding to my com. pilation. But as I was stimulated to proceed, only by curiosity, and never had an idea of deriving any profit from it, the compilation went on but slowly; though I was pressed by necessity to make every exertion in my power for my immediate support.” The first edition of this work was published under the name of a “View of all Religions.” . This was in 1784, when she was twenty-nine years of age. It was in part transcribed for the press by her oldest sister Elizabeth, whom she calls her “friend, counsellor, and guide.” This beloved and pious sister, not long after, sunk into the grave, in a state of mind indicative of the ripeness of her Christian character; constantly expressing her “entire submission to the divine will, and laying all her burdens at the foot of the Cross.” Her death involved Miss Adams in the deepest affliction. To use her own lam- guage— “Dearer than life, or aught beneath the skies, The bright ideas and romantic schemes 9f perfect love and friendship, fancy paints, In her were realized, “To describe the excess of my grief would be altogether impossible. Every thing appeared gloomy in my situa- tion. My health was feeble; I was entirely destitute of property; my father's circumstances were very low; and I had no other relation or friend, from whom I might ex- pect to derive assistance. But notwithstanding all the difficulties in my situation, I determined to use every exertion to help myself; considering that if I was un- successful in attempting to extricate myself from poverty, my efforts would awaken the activity of my mind, and preserve me from sinking under the weight of affliction I sustained in losing the best of sisters. It Was; perhaps, a happy circumstance, that necessity stimulated me to exertion, in this most gloomy period of my existence.” ready for publication, in 1799. Those who knew her, might indeed wonder that any motive could at any time induce her to publish a book. Her humility, her diffidence, her want of early advan- tages, her total ignorance of business, were obstacles that appeared insurmountable. She tried various other methods to earn a subsistence, such as spinning, weaving, making lace, and braiding straw; but in vain. “It was despera- tion, therefore, and not vanity,” said she, “that induced me to publish.” Four editions of her “View of Religions,” were published in her lifetime in this country; besides an English edition, with improvements, by the excellent Andrew Fuller. These improvements she adopted in her fourth edition; changing the title, and adding much from other sources to the value of the work. t Her next work was the “History of New England.” The difficulties she encountered in compiling this work may be estimated by the fact, that at the time “there was not any history of New England extant, except Mather's Magnalia, and Neale's History; and these extended only to an early period in the annals of our country. If there had been only one work which reached to the acceptance of the Federal Constitution, my task had been far less laborious.” In executing it, she so injured her eyes as to be threatened with the total loss of sight; but by applying laudanum and sea water several times a day for two years, she recovered so far as to resume her studies; and by the assistance of an amanuensis, the history was got About this time she found essential assistance in a pecuniary way from the kind attention of the Rev. Dr. Freeman in making the contract with the publishers of her work. - Soon after she published a concise “View of the Chris- tian Religion,” Selected from the writings of eminent laymen; a work which deserves to be better known. Necessity still urging her to write, she, in 1810, entered upon the compilation of her well known “History of the Jews,” at Dedham. Here her eyes again failing, she came to Boston for relief; when several benevolent gen- tlemen united in rewarding and animating her efforts, by Settling upon her an annuity for life. She now had a home in Boston, with new literary advantages, and nu- merous literary friends; among whom, the most distin- guished was the Rev. J. S. Buckminster. Without the assistance of his large and valuable library, she says she should never have been able to finish the work. It was published in 1812, a few months only before his death. After this, Miss Adams continued to reside in Boston until her death, which took place, on a visit to Brookline, November 15, 1831, at the age of 76. An intimate friend gives the following interesting sketch of her character. “To an almost childlike simplicity and singleness of heart, she united a clear and just con- ception of character; to a deep and affecting humility, a dignity and elevation of thought, that commanded the respect and veneration of those around her. Amidst many infirmities, she retained the freshmess and enthu. siasm of youth. Her love of nature was exhaustless. It was her delight to gather around her images of natural and moral beauty. In many respects her mind seemed so truly constituted for enjoyment, that to those who knew her but slightly, she might have appeared to be exempted from that mental discipline, which is gradually leading the pilgrim on to the land of promise. But her friends knew otherwise. They knew how keen was her religious sensibility, how tremblingly alive her conscience, how high her standard of excellence, how great her timidity and self-distrust; and they felt that this was not her haven of rest. Though her faith was fervent and devout, it partook of the constitution of her sensitive mind, rather than gave the tone to it. Yet, amidst moments of doubt and despondency, a passage from Scripture, or a judicious observation, would disperse the clouds that gathered round her, and the brightest Sunshine would diffuse itself over her mind and countenancé. Many in whom she delighted, had passed away. To those she has gone, and to the Father and Savior whom she loved.” Her life is in many respects full of instruction. Among those who have struggled against peculiar difficulties in the pursuit of knowledge, she deserves a high rank. She became a literary woman, when literature in our country A D D A D D T 35 was a rare accomplishment. Her name will hereafter live with those of Mrs. Barbauld and Hannah More; had she enjoyed their advantages, she possibly might have rivalled even them. •. Besides the works already mentioned, Miss Adams pub- lished an Abridgment of her History of New-England, and Letters on the Gospels.-Memoir of Miss Hannah Adams. - - ADAN ; the twelfth month of the sacred, and the sixth of the civil, year among the Hebrews. It contains but twenty-nine days, and answers to our February, and some- times enters into March, according to the course of the moon, by which they regulated their seasons. As the lu- nar year which the Jews follow in their calculations, is shorter than the solar year by eleven days, which after three years make about a month, they then insert a thir- teenth month, which they call We-Adan, or a sacred Adan, to which they assign twenty-nine days. - ADD; Gal. 2: 6. They added nothing to me: they gave me no new information or authority which I had not be- fore. To be added to the Lord and to the church, is to be converted and united to the Lord Jesus and his church as new members of his mystical body, both vitally and visibly. Acts 7: 14. 11: 24. 2: 41, 47. In 2 Peter 1 : 5–11. this word occurs twice, in a sense far more significant than is usually apprehended. “The precise value of the principal terms employed in this re- markable passage it is important to understand; our Eng- lish version is here less happy and exact than usual.” The original word (epichoregesate) is a compound, which conveys the sense of bringing into combination and corres- pondence the several virtues enumerated, in order to make up the full and harmonious choir of Christian graces. It is an allusion to the chorus of the Grecian theatre. The spirit, beauty, and force of the original, no single word in our language can convey. It is not merely the adding of one virtue to another as So many unconnected items, or as so many new strangers added to a crowd, where nothing de- pends upon the number or adjustment; but every part in the apostle's enumeration of virtues bears an inseparable relation to any other part, and also to the whole, and the entire effect depends upon their due combination. It were surely a rude style of exposition, it has been well remarked, to regard the catalogue of virtues now before us, as merely a vague and fortuitous series of moral quali- ties, each of which, though singly important, is not specifi- cally linked to its neighbor, and does not derive any defi- nite significance from its location in the list. To convey the full sense of the apostolic language, it is necessary to resort to a paraphrase, beginning with the third verse. “Divinely endowed (says the apostle to all Christian be- lievers) with whatever is important to the life of piety; enriched also with those inestimable promises which insure to us a participation of the Divine Nature in its holiness and happiness, a participation flowing from an intimate knowledge of Him who has called us to so high a glory; and having by the same means gained a freedom from the defilement and weakness of worldly passions, apply all your diligence, my brethren, to this point—the filling up of the defects yet remaining in your Christian character. For this purpose, gather into one harmonious choir the whole train of holy graces of which faith naturally and properly takes the lead; and give to each its due place in your soul, as in the temple of the living God, consecrated to his glory and filled with his praise. Let your FAITH in his inestimable promises, (that it be not pusillanimous,) be always associat- ed with (arete) ENERGY IN HIS SERVICE; let your energy be duly informed by (gnosis) KNowLedge of EvangelicAL PRINCIPLES; and let your knowledge be (not abused to li- centiousness, but) united with (engkratia) The control of EVERY BoDILY APPETITE. This firm self-control will pre- Pare you to suffer whatever God may please to appoint, With (eupoinone) THE PATIENCE of humility, meekness and Submission. Hence to your patience, (that it be not fanati- cal, stoical, nor brutal,) you must add (eusebia) Piety, or the reWerential and filial observance of all the means of grace and offices of devotion. Yet remember that your piety is 99% (not unsocial, ascetic or anchoretic, but) fraught with (philadelphia) BROTHERLY AFFECTION ; and lastly, that your affection towards your fellow Christians is to be (not secta- rian and exclusive, but) ever connected with (agape) chari- Ty, the divine and expansive principle of universal love. 1 Cor. 13. For if these virtues be thus united in you, gº filling and overflowing your souls as streams rom a fresh and copious fountain, they will render you neither inactive nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. For he in whom these things are wanting is blind, closing his eyes, and has forgotten his having received purification from his former sins. For this reason therefore, brethren, I exhort you the rather to use diligence to make your calling and election sure, that is, past all doubt and danger; for if ye do these things I have recommended, if ye apply yourselves assiduously to the means of perfecting your Christian character, you will never err from the path to heaven; for so shall be furnish- ed you richly, by the glorious choir of Saints and angels, in full harmony, an entrance into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.” Almost every excellence in the science of morals, says a late eloquent writer, has been attained by sages—except completeness and consistency: the completeness and con- sistency of its morality is the peculiar praise of the ethics which the Bible has taught. Every one who is conversant with history will readily call to mind abundant illustrations of our meaning. The ancient world often enough display- ed (and in some instances which justly demand admiration) a stern subjugation of the animal appetites; or an arrogant fortitude ; or a proud public virtue ; or an ambitious pat- riotism; or a bland and gay, but dissolute humanity, and a voluptuous elegance. Or after that Christianity had ex- ploded the philosophic and polytheistic virtues, and hadim- parted the power and solemnity of the future life to ethics, mankind were called upon to admire a new order of ex- travagance in morals, while saints and anchorets, instead of heroes and statesmen, ran the course of glory. Mean- while, the completeness and consistency of true virtue, as taught by the apostles, was wholly lost sight of. Our own times, theugh it be after a new model, have shown as notable examples of the brilliancy and vigor that may belong to partial systems of piety and morals; and we have now as great need as ever to resort to the source —the only source of a consistent morality. The absolute symmetry, the exact counterpoise of parts, in the apostolic ethics, Sometimes conspicuous and some- times occult, is eminently exhibited in the epistles of Peter. And he moreover shows himself, especially in the passage above illustrated, to be master of that PRAcTICAL HARMONY of PRINCIPLEs, which, on difficult occasions and under pe- culiar excitements, adheres to the nice line of moderation, humility, and firmness. Nothing so great had been seen in the world before Christ imparted to his disciples the ele- ments of true magnanimity. We venture to affirm that the passage is fraught, at once, with philosophical justness of classification, and with prophetic truth.—Saturday Eve- ning ; Bronn's Dict. - ADDER. The adder was known to the ancient He- brews under various names. It is the opinion of some in- terpreters, that the word Shachal, which in some parts of Scripture denotes a lion, in others means an adder, or some kind of serpent. Thus, in the ninety-first Psalm, they render it the basilisk, “Thou shalt tread upon the adder and the basilisk, the young lion and the dragon thou shalt trample under foot.” Verse 13. Indeed, all the ancient ex- positors agree, that some species of serpent is meant; and as the term Shachal, when applied to beasts, denotes a black lion; so, in the present application, it is thought to mean the black adder. The wonderſul effect which music produces on the ser- pent tribes, is confirmed by the testimony of several re- spectable moderns. Adders swell at the sound of a flute, raising themselves up on the one half of their body, turn. ing themselves round, beating proper time, and following the instrument. Their head, naturally round and like an eel, becomes broad and flat like a fan. The tame ser- pents, many of which the Orientals keep in their houses, are known to leave their holes in hotweather, at the sound of a musical instrument, and to run upon the performer. Dr. Shaw had an opportunity of seeing a number of ser- pents keep exact time with the dervishes in their circula- tory dances, running over their heads and arms, turning A D D A D D [ 36 J when they turned, and stopping when they stopped. The rattlesnake acknowledges the power of music as much as any of his family; of which the following instance is a de- cisive proof. When Chateaubriand was in Canada, a snake of this species entered their encampment; a young Canadian, one of the party, who could play on the flute, to divert his associates, advanced against the serpent with his new species of weapon. “On the approach of his ene- my, the haughty reptile curled himself into a spiral line, flattened his head, inflated his cheeks, contracted his lips, displayed his envenomed fangs, and his bloody throat; his double tongue glowed like two flames of fire; his eyes were burning coals; his body, swoln with rage, rose and fell like the bellows of a forge; his dilated skin assumed a dull and scaly appearance; and his tail, which sounded the de- nunciation of death, vibrated with so great rapidity as to resemble a light vapor. The Canadian now began to play upon his flute; the serpent started with surprise, and drew back his head. In proportion as he was struck with the magic effect, his eyes lost their fierceness, the oscillations of his tail became slower, and the sound which it emitted became weaker, and gradually died away. Less perpen- dicular upon their spiral line, the rings of the fascinated serpent were by degrees expanded, and sunk one after an- other upon the ground, in concentric circles. The shades of azure, green, white, and gold, recovered their brilliancy on his quivering skin, and slightly turning his head, he re- mained motionless, in the attitude of attention and plea- sure. At this moment, the Canadian advanced a few steps, producing with his flute sweet and simple notes. The rep- tile, inclining his variegated neck, opened a passage with his head through the high grass, and began to creep after the musician, stopping when he stopped, and beginning to follow him again, as soon as he moved forward.” In this manner he was led out of the camp, attended by a great number of spectators, both Savages and Europeans, who could scarcely believe their eyes, when they beheld this wonderful effect of harmony. The assembly unanimously decreed, that the Serpent which had so highly entertained them, should be permitted to escape. But on some serpents, these charms seem to have no power; and it appears from Scripture, that the addersome- times takes precautions to prevent the fascination which he sees preparing for him ; for the deaf adder shutteth her ear, and will not hear the voice of the most skilful charmer. Psalm 59 : 5, 6. The same allusion is involved in the words of Solomon : “Surely the serpent will bite, without enchantment; and a babbler is no better.” Eccl. 10:11. The threatening of the prophet Jeremiah proceeds upon the same fact; “I will send serpents (cockatrices) among you, which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you.”. Jer. 8 : 17. In all these quotations, the sacred writers, while they take it for granted that many serpents are disarmed by charming, plainly admit that the powers of the charmer are in vain exerted upon others. To account for this ex- ception it has been alleged, that in some serpents the sense of hearing is very imperfect, while the power of vision is exceedingly acute; but the most intelligent natural histo- rians maintain, that the reverse is true. The sense of hearing is much more acute than the sense of vision. Un- able to resist the force of truth, others maintain, that the adder is deaf not by nature, but by design; for the Psalm- ist says, she shutteth her ear, and will not hear the voice of the charmer. But the phrase, perhaps, means no more than this, that some adders are of a temper so stubborn, that the various arts of the charmer make no impression; they are like creatures destitute of hearing, or whose ears are so completely obstructed, that no sounds can enter. The same phrase is used in other parts of Scripture, to signify a hard and obdurate heart: “Whoso stoppeth his ears at the cry of the poor, he also shall cry himself, but shall not be heard.” Prov. 21 : 13. It is used in the same sense of the righteous, by the prophet: “That stoppeth his ears from the hearing of blood, and shutteth his eyes from Seeing evil.” Isaiah 33 : 15. He remains as unmoved by the cruel and sanguinary counsels of the wicked, as if he had stopped his ears.--Calmet ; Harris ; Abbot. ADDINGTON, (Isaac ;) secretary of Massachusetts, was born in 1645, and died in Boston in 1715, aged 70. He sustained a high character (says president Allen) for talents, learning, integrity, and diligence in the public Ser- vice. He was secretary more than twenty years, and for many years a magistrate and member of council elected by the people. He was also useful as a physician and sur- geon. Mr. Addington was a Christian, and adorned his profession by singular meekness, humility, and disinte- rested kindness. In his family he was a daily worshipper of God. Religion shed its peace on his heart as he went down to the dead.—Allen's Biog. Dict. tº * * ADDISON, (Joseph;) so highly celebrated in English literature, was the son of Dr. Launcelot Addison, dean of Litchfield. He was born May 1, 1672, at his father's rec- tory, Milston, Wilts. After receiving the rudiments of his education at home, at Salisbury, and at Litchfield, he was removed to the Charter House, then under the direction of Dr. Ellis, where he contracted his first intimacy with Mr. afterwards Sir Richard Steele. At the age of fifteen, he was entered of Queen’s college, Oxford, where he soon be- came distinguished for the ardor with which he cultivated classical literature, and for his skill in Latin poetry. He early began to distinguish himself as an author; and in 1695, he addressed a complimentary poem on one of the campaigns of king William to the lord keeper Somers, who procured him a pension from the crown of 300l. per annum, to enable him to travel. In 1701, he wrote his epistolary poem from Italy, addressed to lord Halifax, which is esteemed by many, the most finished and elegant of his poetical productions. On his return home, he pub- lished his travels, which he dedicated to lord Somers. The death of king William deprived Mr. Addison of the benefit of a small appointment, as a confidential resident about the person of prince Eugene, then commanding the armies of the emperor of Germany in Italy, and also of his pension : so that on his return to England he found all his patrons displaced, and himself in a state approaching to indigence. This depression, however, was happily not lasting : for lord Godolphin, applying to lord Halifax, to recommend him a poet capable of celebrating the recent splendid victory of the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, the latter named Mr. Addison, who produced his celebrated poem, “The Campaign,” for which he was rewarded with the place of commissioner of appeals, in which he suc- ceeded Mr. Locke. In 1705, he attended lord Halifax in his mission to Hanover; and, in the year following, was made under secretary of state. These employments, however, did not engross him from the pursuits of litera- ture. He assisted Steele in the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian, in the course of which appeared the series of papers afterwards collected, and subsequently often re- printed, under the title of “Addison's Evidences of the Christian Religion.” In his latter years he projected a paraphrastical version of the Psalms of David, of which he gave a beautiful specimen in his metrical translation of Psalm 23–" The Lord my portion shall prepare,” &c. But a long and painful illness prevented the completion of this pious design : and it is the more to be regretted, as the few compositions of this kind which he has left us ex- hibit proofs of his piety, and his competency for the under- taking. Mr. Addison died at Holland House, ſensington, on the 17th of June, 1719, in the forty-ninth year of his age. His complaint appears to have been that of asthma, aggravated by dropsy. During his lingering decay, he sent for a young nobleman of very irregular life and of loose opinions, to attend him; and when the latter, with A D O A ſ () [ 37 J great tenderness, requested to receive his last injunctions, Mr. Addjzon told him, “I have sent for you that you may see how a Christian can die.” What effect this impressive scene had upon the young nobleman's behavior is not known; but he himself died in a short time.—Jones's Rel. Biog.; Biog. Brit. ADESSENARIANS; a branch of the Sacramentarians; so called from the Latin Adesse, to be present, because they believed the presence of Christ's body in the Eucha- rist, though in a manner different from the Romanists. ADIAPHORISTS; a name given in the sixteenth cen- tury to the moderate Lutherans who adhered to the senti- ments of Melancthon; and afterwards to those who sub- scribed the interim of Charles W. [See INTERIM.] The word is of Greek origin (adiaphoros) and signifies indiffe- rence or lukewarmness. -- - ADJURE; to bind by oath, as under the penalty of a fearful curse. Josh. 6: 26. Mark 5: 7.—2. To charge so- lemnly, as by the authority, and under pain of the displea- sure of God. Matt. 26: 63. Acts 19 : 13. St. Paul uses this word in 1 Thess. 5: 27. I adjure you by the Lord that this epistle be read unto all the holy brethren. What an idea does this solemn adjuration give us of the importance of the knowledge of the Scriptures . See OATH ; SweARING. ADMAH; the most easterly of the five cities of the plain, destroyed by fire from heaven, and afterwards over- whelmed by the waters of the Dead Sea. Gen. 19: 24. There is some probability that Admah was not entirely sunk under the waters; or, more probably, the inhabitants of the country built a city of the same name on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, for Isaiah, 15. according to the Seventy, says, “God will destroy the Moabites, the city of Ar, and the remnant of Adama.” Gen. 14: 2. Deut. 29: 23. To be made as Admah, and set as Zeboim, Hos. 11: 8. is to be made a distinguished monument of the fearful Vengeance of God.—Calmet. & - ADMINISTER ; to manage and give out as stewards. 2 Cor. 8: 19. - ADMINISTRATION ; a public office and the execution thereof. 1 Cor. 12 : 5. ADMIRATION ; is that passion of the mind which is ex- cited by the discovery of any great excellence in an object. It has, by some writers, been used as synonymous with surprise and wonder; but it is evident they are not the same. Surprise refers to something unexpected; wonder, to something great or strange; but admiration includes the idea of a high esteem or respect. Thus we say, we ad- mire a man’s excellencies; but we do not say that we are surprised at them. We wonder at an extraordinary object or event, but we do not always admire it.—Buck. ADMONITION; instruction, warning, reproof. 1 Thess. 5 : 14. The admonition of the Lord, is warning, instruc- tion, and reproof, given in the Lord's name, from his word, in a way becoming his perfections, and intended for his honor. Eph. 6 : 4. Heretics are to be rejected or cast out of the church, after a first and second admonition, that is, solemn warning and reproof. Tit, 3 : 10, Admonition was a part of the discipline much used in the ancient church : it was the first act or step towards the recove- ry or expulsion of delinquents. In case of private of. fences, it was performed according to the evangelical rule, privately ; in case of public offence, openly before the church. If either of these sufficed for the recovery of the fallen person, all farther proceedings in a way of censure, ceased; if they did not, recourse was then had to excommu- nication. Tit. 3: 10. 1 Thess. 5: 14. Eph. 3: 4. Matt. 3: 18–Buck; Brown. - - ADONAI; one of the names of the Supreme Being in the Scriptures. The proper meaning of the word is “my Lords” in the plural number; as Adoni is my Lord, in the singular. The Jews, who, either out of respect or super- Stition, do not pronounce the name of Jehovah, read Adomai in the room of it, as often as they meet with Jehovah in the Hebrew text. But the ancient Jews were not so scru- pulous; nor is there any law which forbids them to pro- nounce the name of God.—Buck. - - ADONIBEZEK; a powerful and cruel king of the city Bezek, seventeen miles east from Nabulus. Judg. 1: 7. Cruelties similar to those recorded of Adonibezek are by no means uncommon in the wars of the East. Undoubt- edly war is shocking at all times, but it cannot be denied that the influence of Christianity has abated its horrors. To see its true picture, it should be examined in the East; and there as practised by Mussulmen heroes.—Calmet. . . . ADONIJAH ; the fourth son of David and Haggith. His history is found 1 Kings, chap. 1: 2. . . . . ADONIS; the text of the Vulgate in Ezek. 8: 14. says, that the prophet saw women sitting in the temple, and weeping for Adonis; but according to the reading of the Hebrew text, they are said to weep for Tammuz, the hid. den one. - Fabulous history gives the following account of Adonis: he was a beautiful young shepherd, the son of Cymras, king of Cyprus, by his own daughter Myrrha. The god- dess Venus fell in love with this youth, and frequently met him on mount Libanus. Mars, who envied this rival, transformed himself into a wild boar, and as Adonis was hunting, struck him in the groin and killed him. Venus lamented the death of Adonis in an inconsolable manner. The eastern people, in imitation of her mourning, generally established some solemn days for the bewailing of Adonis. After his death Venus went to the shades, and obtained from Proserpina, that Adonis might be with her six months in the year, and continue the other six in the infernal re- gions. Upon this were founded those public rejoicings. which succeeded the lamentations of his death. Some say , that Adonis was a native of Syria ; some, of Cyprus; and others, of Egypt. Among the Egyptians Adonis was adored under the name of Osiris, the husband of Isis. But he was some- times called by the name of Ammuz, or Tammuz, the con- cealed, probably to denote his death or burial. The He- brews, in derision, sometimes call him the dead, Psalm 106: 28. Lev. 19: 28. because they wept for him, and represented him as dead in his coffin; and at other times they denominate him the image of jealousy, Ezek. 8: 3, 5. because he was the object of the jealousy of Mars. The Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians, called him Adonis; and Calmet is of opinion that the Ammonites and Moabites designated him by the name of Baal-peop. - The manner in which they celebrated the festival of this false deity was as follows: they represented him as lying dead in his coffin, wept for him, bemoaned themselves, and sought for him with great eagerness and inquietude. After this they pretended that they had found him again, and that he was still living. At this geod news they exhibited marks of the most extravagant joy, and were guilty of a thousand bad practices, to convince Venus how much they congratulated her on the return and revival of her favorite, as they had before condoled with her on his death. The Hebrew women, of whom the prophet Ezekiel speaks, cele- brated the feasts of Tammuz, or Adonis in Jerusalem ; and God showed the prophet the women weeping for this infa- mous god, even in his temple.—Calmet ; Watson. ADONISTS; a party among divines” and critics, who maintain that the Hebrew points ordinarily annexed to the consonants of the word Jehovah, are not the natural points belonging to that word, nor express the true pronunciation of it; but are the vowel points belonging to the words Adonai and Elohim, applied to the consonants of the ineffa- ble name Jehovah, to warn the readers, that instead of the word Jehovah, which the Jews were forbid to pronounce, and the true pronunciation of which had long been un- known to them, they are always to read Adonai. They are opposed to Jehovists, of whom the principal are Drusius, Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland.—Buck, ADONIZEDEK; king of Zedek or Jerusalem ; for this city is believed to have been called by four different names, Salem, Jerusalem, Jebus, and Zedek. For his history, see Josh. 10. A. M. 2554. ADOPTION. The nature of adoption may be explain- ed in the following manner. A child is, in this act, taken by a man from a family not his own ; introduced into his own family; regarded as his own child, and entitled to all the privileges and blessings belonging to the relation. To adopt children in this manner has, it is well known, been a Custom generally prevailing in all nations. Thus children Were adopted among the Egyptians, Jews, Romans, and other ancient nations ; and the same custom exists in the Christian nations of Europe, in our own country, among A D O A D O [ 38 ) the American aborigines, and, so far as my knowledge ex- tends, throughout the world. Of the same general nature is that transaction in the divine economy, by which mankind become the children of God. It is easy to conceive the pro- priety of the term as used by the apostle in reference to this act, though it must be confessed there is some difference be- tween civil and spiritual adoption. Civil adoption was al- lowed of and provided for the relief and comfort of those who had no children; but in spiritual adoption this reason does not appear. The Almighty was under no obligation to do this; for he had innumerable spirits whom he had created, besides his own Son, who had all the perſections of the di- vine nature, who was the object of his delight, and who is styled the heir of all things. Heb. 1: 3. When men adopt, it is on account of some excellency in the persons who are adopted; thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses because he was exceeding fair, Acts 7: 20, 21; and Mordecai adopted Esther because she was his uncle's daughter, and exceeding fair, Est. 2: 7; but man has nothing in him that merits this divine act, Ezek. 16 : 5. In civil adop- tion, though the name of a son be given, the nature of a son may not: this relation may not necessarily be attended with any change of disposition or temper, But in spiritual adoption we are made partakers of the divine nature, and a temper or disposition given us becoming the relationship we bear, Jer. 3: 19. Much has been said as to the time of adoption. Some place it before regeneration, because it is supposed that we must be in the family before we can be partakers of the blessings of it. But it is difficult to conceive of one beſore the other; for although adoption may seem to precede re- generation in order of nature, yet not of time ; they may be distinguished, but cannot be separated. “As many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name ;” John 1: 12. There is no adoption, says the great Charnock, with- out regeneration. “Adoption,” says the same author, “is not a mere relation ; the privilege and the image of the sons of God go together. A state of adoption is never without a separation from defilement.” 2 Cor. 6: 17, 18. The new name in adoption is never given till the new creature be formed. “As many as are led by the spirit of God, they are the sons of God.” Rom, 8: 14. Yet these are to be distinguished. Regeneration, as a physical act, gives us a likeness to God in our nature; adoption, as a legal act, gives us a right to an inheritance. Regeneration makes us formally his sons, by conveying a principle, 1 Pet, 1 ; 23; adoption makes us relatively his sons, by con- veying a power, John 1: 12. By the one we are instated in the divine affection; by the other we are partakers of the divine nature.” The privileges of adoption are every way great and exten- sive. 1. It implies great honor. They have God's name É. upon them, and are described as “his people, called by his name.” 2 Chron. 7: 24. Eph. 3: 15. They are no longer slaves to sin and the world; but, emancipated from its dreadful bondage, are raised to dignity and honor. Gal. 4: 7. 1 John 3: 1. 2.—2. Inexhaustible provision and riches. They inherit all things. Rev. 21 : 7. All the blessings of a temporal kind that are for their good shall be given them. Psalm 84 : 11. All the blessings of grace are treasured up in Jesus Christ for them. Eph. 1: 3. All the blessings of glory shall be enjoyed by them. Col. 1: 27. “All things are yours,” says the apostle, “whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present or things to come, all are yours.” 1 Cor. 3: 22–3. Divine protection. “In the fear of the Lord is strong confidence, and his children shall have a place of refuge.” Prov. 14: 26. As the master of a family is engaged to defend and secure all under his roof, and committed to his care, so Jesus Christ is engaged to protect and defend his people. “They shall dwell in a peaceable habitation, and in sure dwellings and quiet resting places.” Isa. 32: 18. Heb. 1: 14–4. Unspeaka- ble felicity. They enjoy the most intimate communion with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ. They have access to his throne at all times, and under all cir- cumstances. They see divine wisdom regulating ever affair, and rendering every thing subservient to their good. Heb. 12: 6–11. The laws, the liberties, the privileges, the relations, the provisions, and the security of this family, are all sources of happiness; but especially the presence, the approbation, and the goodness of God, as the governor . thereoſ, afford joy unspeakable and full of glory. 1 Pet. 1 : 8. Prov. 3 : 17. Heb. 4: 16.-5. Eternal glory. In some cases, civil adoption might be made null and void, as among the Romans, when against the right of the pon- tifex, and without the decree of the college; but spiritual adoption, as it is divine as to 1ts origin, so it is perpetual as to its duration. “The Son abideth in the house for ever.” John 8: 35. “The inheritance of the saints is incorruptible, undefiled, and never fadeth away.” 1 Pet. 1: 4. “Now are we the sons of God, and it doth not yet appear what we shall be : but we know that when he shall appear, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is.” 1 John 3: 2. In the present state we are as children at school ; but in heaven we shall be as children at home, where we shall always behold the face of our heavenly Father, for ever celebrating his praises, admiring his per- ſections, and enjoying his presence. “So shall we be ever with the Lord.” 1 Thess. 4: 17. The evidences of adoption are, 1, Renunciation of all former dependencies. When a child is adopted, he relinquishes the object of his past confidence, and submits himself to the will and pleasure of the adopter ; so they who are brought into the family of God will evidence it by giving up every other object, so far as it interferes with the will and glory of their heavenly Father. “Ephraim shall say, what have I to do any more with idols?” . Hos. 14: 8. “Other lords have had dominion over us; but by thee only will we make mention of thy name.” Isa, 26 : 13. Matt. 13:45, 46. Phil. 3: 8–2. Affection. This may not always apply to civil adoption, but it always does to spiritual. The children of God feel a regard for him above every other object. His own excellency, his un- speakable goodness to them, his promises of future bles- sings, are all grounds of the strongest love. “Whom have I in heaven but thee ? and there is none upon earth that I desire besides thee.” Psalm 73: 25. “Thou art my portion, saith my soul, therefore will I hope in thee.” Lam. 3: 24. Luke 7: 47. Psalm 18: 1.-3. Access to God with a holy boldness. They who are children by adop- tion are supposed to have the same liberty of access as those who are children by nature; so those who are par- takers of the blessings of spiritual adoption will prove it by a reverential, yet familiar address to the Father of spirits : they will confess their unworthiness, acknowledge their dependence, and implore the mercy and favor of God. “Because ye are sons, God hath sent forth the Spirit of his Son into your hearts, crying Abba, Father.” Gal. 4: 6. “Through Jesus Christ we have access by one Spirit unto the Father.” Eph. 2: 18. Having such a privilege, “they come boldly to the throne of grace, that they may obtain mercy and find grace to help in time of need.” Heb. 4: 6.-4. Obedience. Those who are adopt- ed into a family must obey the laws of that family ; so be. lievers prove themselves adopted, by their obedience to the word and ordinances of God. “Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you.” John 15 : 14. “Whoso keepeth his word, in him verily is the love of God perſect- ed: hereby know we that we are in him. He that saith he abideth in him, ought himself also to walk even as he walked.” 1 John 2: 4, 5–5. Patient yet joyful expecta. tion of the inheritance. In civil adoption, indeed, an in- heritance is not always certain ; but inspiritual adoption it is. “To them, who, by patient continuance in well doing, seek for glory, and honor, and immortality, eternal life.” Rom. 2: 7. “We look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen; for the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal.” 2 Cor. 4: 18. Rom. 6: 23. Heb. 11: 26, 27. From the consideration of the whole of this doc- trine, we may learn that adoption is an act of free grace through Jesus Christ. Eph. 1 : 5. Applied to believers. by the Holy Spirit. Gal. 4: 6. Rom. 8: 15, 16. A blessing of the greatest importance. 1 John 3: 1. and, lay us under an inviolable obligation of submission, Heb. 12: 9. imitation, Eph. 5: 1. and dependence, Matt. 5: 32. See Dwight's Theology, vol. iii.; Buck's Theo. Dic. ; Jones's Bib. Cyc.; Ridgley's and Gill's Body of Divinity, art. Adoption; A DO A DO [ 39 J Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 32–72; Flavel's Works, vol. ii. p. 601 ; Brown's System of Nat, and Rev. Religion, p. 442; TWitsii Econ. Fad. p. 165. - - . foºrs, or Adoptioni ; the followers of Felix and Elipardas, two bishops, in Spain, who, towards the close of the eighth century, are said to have maintained that Jesus Christ, in his human nature, was not the natti- ral, but adopted Son of God. . . . . ADORAIM, now Dāra, about four miles and a half west by south from Hebron, on the eastern slope of a cul- tivated hill. It is the largest village in that district.—T. ADORAM; the officer, who, under the government of David, was receiver-general of the tribute money. 2 Sam. 20: 24. A person of the same name is also mentioned as sustaining the same office under the reign of Rehoboam. 1 Kings 12: 18. When Rehoboam, by his imprudent con- duct, had exasperated the ten tribes against him, and pro- voked them to separate from the house of David, he sent Adoram to exert his efforts in trying to appease them. It does not seem very certain whether his object was to re- duce the people by gentle or by harsh methods; , or whether he designed to make some concessions by putting Adoram into their hands, who, by his vexatious exactions, had probably been the principal cause of their dissatisfac- tion; but, however that maybe, the people, who had been ex- tremely irritated, fell upon Adoramandstoned him to death. ADORATION ; an act of worship, strictly due to God alone, but performed to other objects also, whether idols or men. The forms, times, objects, and places of adora- tion, are different in different countries, according to their prevailing religious customs. is to be found in the universal and just opinion, that the sentiments of the heart ought to be expressed by articulate language and external actions. The term, being derived from the Latin ad and orare, signifies, to apply the hand to the mouth, i. e. to kiss the hand, and there is a very striking allusion to it in the book of Job, chap. 31: 26– 28. “If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my hearthath been secretly en- ticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand, this also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge, for I should have denied the God that is above.” To understand the mean- ing of this passage, we must consider that, in the times of Job, it was the practice of the Persians to worship the sun and moon ; and some learned writers understand those heavenly luminaries to be intended by the terms Adram- melech and Anammelech, in 2 Kings 17 : 31. the former referring to the sun and the latter to the moon ; the first signifying “the magnificent king,” and the second “the gentle king.” As all idolatry consists in transferring that worship to the creature which is due only to the adorable Creator, so it was not merely prohibited by the Jewish law, but also made a capital offence to be punished with death. Deut. 13 : 6–11. To this Job refers ; and his argument is, that if at any time when he had been con- templating the two great lights of heaven, his heart had been enticed to transfer to them that adoration which was due to their great Creator, he should have been guilty of idolatry, have denied the God that is above, and would have deserved to be put to death as a criminal. The following account of this mode Óf adoration in In- dia, may serve as a further illustration. “At Surat is seen a great and fair tree, which is held in great veneration. On high there hangs a bell, which those that come to make their foolish devotions, first of all ring out, as if thereby to call the idol to hear them; then they fall to their adoration, which is commonly to extend both hands downwards, as much as possible, being joined together in a praying posture; which lifting up again, by little and little, they bring to their mouths as if to kiss them ; and lastly, extend them so joined together, as high as they can over their heads, which gesticulation is used only to idols and sacred things. This ceremony being performed, some make their prayers standing; others prostrate themselves with their whole bodies grovelling on the earth, and then rise again; others only touch the ground with their head and forehead, and perform similar acts of humility.”—De La Valle's Travels in India, p. 20. * - In the east it is still considered as a mark of the highest respect, to take off the shoes, and approach barefooted to The origin of this practice perform adorations. See Exod. 3 : 5. and Josh. 5: 15. The Egyptians were particularly attentive to this practice ; and the Mahometans observe it whenever they enter their mosques. When Mr. Wilkins wished to enter the inner hall of the college of Seeks at Patna, he was told that it was a place of worship, open to him and to all men; but that it was necessary for him to take off his shoes, (Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 289.) and Ives, in his Travels, p. 75, says, that “at the doors of an Indian Pagoda, are seen as many slippers and sandals as there are hats hanging up in our churches.” - The Romans, when practising adoration, having their heads covered, applied their hand to their lips, with the forefinger resting on the thumb, which was erect, and thus bowing the head, turned themselves from left to right, Sometimes standing was the attitude of adoration; some- times the body was inclined forward, and the eyes fixed on the ground ; kneeling was also a common practice, and frequently complete prostration. Sitting with the under parts of the thighs resting on the heels, seems to have been customary among the Egyptians; almost all the figures of worshippers discovered in their sacred buildings being represented in this posture. The Persians, when performing their acts of adoration, always turned their faces towards the sun, or to the east, and among them the practice of kissing the hand is said to have originated. It was at first done as a token of re- spect and submission to their monarchs and great men, and was easily and naturally transferred to idolatrous worship. Among them the homage paid to their kings was very extravagant. Cyrus introduced the custom, when adoring their prince, of bending the knee before him; falling on the face at his feet; striking the earth with the forehead ; and even kissing the ground. The kings of Persia indeed, never admitted any one into their presence, gave audience, or conferred favors without ex- acting this ceremony; and the history of Haman and Mordecai, in the Book of Esther, shows that similar reve- rence was paid to the favorites of princes. The Roman emperors borrowed this extravagant and impious homage from the kings of Persia; and the popes from the empe- rors. The common practice among their abject flatterers, was to express their adoration by bowing or kneeling at their feet, laying hold of their purple robe, then presently withdrawing the hand and applying it to the lips; though this was an honor to which none were admitted but per- sons of rank and dignity. The usual mode of adoration consisted in falling on the ground and kissing the feet of the emperor. This humiliating reverence was exacted from all that entered the royal presence, from the princes invested with the diadem and purple, and from the ambas- sadors who represented their independent sovereigns. (Gibbon's Roman History, vol. x. p. 124.) Even in the pre- sent day, when any one pays his respects to the king of Sumatra, he first takes off his shoes and stockings, and leaves them at the door. . The Jewish forms of adoration were various: standing, bowing, kneeling, prostration, and kissing the hand Hence in their language kissing is properly used for adora- tion. 1 Kings 19 : 18. Hosea 13: 2. Job 31 : 27. This illustrates that important passage in Psalm 2 : 12. “Riss the Son, (that is, pay him homage and worship,) lest he be angry and ye perish from the way, when his wrath is kindled but a little.” The first Christians generally kneeled down in private; but stood during public worship on the Lord's day. It was evidently the practice also, both among Jews and Christians, in offering up their prayers and supplications, to lift up their hands and spread them forth towards heaven. To this Isaiah alludes, chap. 1: 15. and Paul enjoins it upon Christians, 1 Tim. 2: 8. But whatever may be the external forms of worship, nothing can be plainer from the Scriptures than that God has peculiar re- spect to the state of the heart. Hence the complaint of old, “This people draw near unto me with their lips, while their hearts are far from me.” “I will be sanctified in them that come nigh me.” For “God is greatly to be feared in the assembly of the saints, and to be had in reve- rence of all them that are about him.” If we examine the short notices which the Scriptures A D R A D U [ 40 A give us of the worship of the heavenly state, we may at least learn from them this important truth, that the holi- est beings, though honored with a residence in the imme- diate presence of the blessed God, where they are permit- ted to surmound his throne, and to contemplate his glories without a veil, are, at the same time, filled with the most profound adoration of his glorious Majesty. “I saw JE- Hovah sitting upon a throne,” says the prophet, “high and lifted up, and his train filled the temple. Above it stood the Seraphim ; each one had six wings; with twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly. And one cried to another, and said, Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God of hosts; the whole earth is full of his glory.” Isa. 6: 1–3. “I beheld,” says the writer of the Apocalypse, “and lo, a great multitude which no man could number of all na- tions, and kindreds, and people, and tongues, stood before the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed with white robes, and palms in their hands, and cried with a loud voice, saying, Salvation to our God which sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb.” And all the angels stood round about the throne, and about the elders and the four living creatures, and fell before the throne on their faces, and worshipped God, saying, “Amen; Blessing, and glory, and wisdom, and thanksgiving, and honor, and power, and might, be unto our God for ever and ever. AMEN.” Rev. 7: 9–12.—Watson; Jones. ADORN ; to deck, to make beautiful. 1 Tim. 2: 9. Holiness of heart and life is the appropriate adorning of Christian females. Much care, pains, and attention to the glass of God’s word are necessary in attaining it; and it renders our nature and character truly amiable and glori- ous. 1 Pet. 3: 4, 5. 1 Tim. 4: 9, 10. By a holy con- versation we adorn the doctrine of God; practically show to the world the purity, power, glory, and usefulness of his truths, laws, promises, threatenings. Tit. 2: 10. The church is adorned when her ordinances are pure and effi- cacious; her officers faithful and zealous; her members clothed with the imputed righteousness of Christ and his Sanctifying grace. Isa. 61 : 10. Rev. 21 : 2. ADRA. See ARAD. ... - ADRAMMELECH ; mighty king, son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. This monarch returning to Nineveh, after the unhappy expedition which he had made into Judea against king Hezekiah, was put to death by his two sons Adrammelech and Sharezar, while worshipping in the temple of his god Nisroch. 2 Kings 19:37, and Isa. 37:38. It is not said what induced these princes to com- mit this parricide; but having accomplished it, they fled for safety to the mountains of Armenia, and their brother Esarhaddon succeeded to the throne. ADRAMMELECH was also the name of an idol worship- ped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, who settled in the country of Samaria, in the room of those Israelites who were carried beyond the Euphrates. 2 Kings 17:31. See ANAMELECH.-Calmet. r ADRAMYTTIUM ; a maritime town of Mysia, in Asia Minor, opposite the island of Lesbos. In a vessel belong- ing to this port, Paul embarked at Caesarea, on his first voyage to Rome, intending, says the historian, “to sail by the coasts of Asia.” The town was situated at the foot of Mount Ida, and was founded by a colony of Athenians. It had formerly a dock and harbor, and was noted for both its trade and shipping, but is now a wretch- ed village, inhabited by only a few fishermen. It gave name to the Sinus Adramyttenus, or bay of Adramyttium, which is an arm of the AEgean sea. Acts 27: 2. ADRIA ; the name given by Luke to the Adriatic sea, or, as it is now called, “the Gulf of Venice,” in which Paul and his companions, in their voyage to Italy, were so severely driven up and down during fourteen days and nights. Acts 27:27. ... It is an arm of the Mediterranean, about two hundred miles long, and fifty broad, stretching along the east of Italy, on one side, and the west of Dal. matia, Sclavonia, and Turkey, on the other. The domi- nion of it now belongs to the Venetians; and the sea extends from South-east to north-west, between twelve and nineteen degrees of east longitude, and between forty and forty-five of north latitude.—Jones. ADRIEL; the son of Barzillai, married Merab, the daughter of Saul, who had previously been promised to Javid. 1 Sam, 18; 19. Adriel had five sons by her, who were delivered up to the Gibeonites to be put to death before the Lord, in revenge for the cruelty which their grandfather Saul had exercised against the Gibeonites. It would seem from 2 Sam. 21:8. that Michal, “who had no child to the day of her death,” ch. 4: 23, had adopted the five sons of her sister Merab, whom she is said to have “brought up for Adriel, the son of Barzillai, the Meho- lathite.”—Jones. - ADULLAM. The cave of Adullam, shown by the monks, is an immense natural cavern, two or three miles north-east from Tekoa. But Joshua, 15: 35, mentions. Adullam with Socoh and Azekah, which are in the plain of Judah, west of the mountains, and on the border of the Philistines; and Jerome and Eusebius place it a few miles east of Eleutheropolis, in the same region. It was there- fore conveniently situated as a place of refuge for David, when he escaped from Achish, king of Gath, but could not safely trust himself within the uncontested dominions of Saul. 1 Sam. 22: 1. Adullam was a royal city in the days of Joshua, who put its king to death. Josh. 12:15. It was fortified by Rehoboam. 2 Chron. 11:7, 8.—T. ADULTERY ; a violation of conjugal faith, by crimi. mal intercourse with any person, whether married or single. When God at the beginning, to complete the work of his creation, had, as it were, put the finishing touch to the whole by the formation of Adam, to perfect his happiness, and that nothing might be wanting to con- summate his bliss, we are told that Jehovah said, “It is not good that man should be alone; I will make him an hel meet for him.” In consequence of this, Eve was created, and when the Lord brought her unto him, Adam said, “This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh; therefore, shall a rman leave his father and his mother, and cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh.” Gen. 2. 16–24. These words lead us to the original in- stitution of marriage, and show it to have been of divine appointment, intended for the happiness of the human race. It may also be remarked that the sameness of proportion between the numbers of each sex, which has obtained in every age of the world, while it furnishes a convincing argument against the practice of polygamy, carries with it a strong intimation, Independent of the positive testimony of revelation, that a promiscuous in- tercourse between the sexes is both unnatural, and contra- ry to the will of God. Accordingly we find the practice of adultery condemned in the divine word, in the most pointed manner. It is one of the ten precepts of the law which the Most High gave to the children of Israel at Mount Sinai. “Thou shalt not commit adultery;” and the crime, when it took place with a married woman, was punished with the death of both the parties that were detected in the commission of it. Lev. 20: 10. In the New Testament writings, adultery is always ranked among the works of flesh, or of corrupt nature; and while “marriage” is expressly said to be “honorable in all, and the marriage- j undefiled,” it is added, “whoremongers and adulter- ers God will judge,” that is, he will condemn them in the judgment. Heb. 13: 4. Hence it is enumerated among those vices, which, if persevered in, will exclude from the kingdom of heaven. Gal. 6: 19—21. Eph. 5: 3–6. Col. 3: 5, 6. The heinousness of the sin consists not only in its being contrary to the divine law, but also in its coun- teracting the will of God in the institution of marriage and fraught with the most baneful consequences to our neighbor. “To avoid fornication, therefore, let every man have his own wife, and every woman her own husband.” It is an alarming view which Christ gives us with regard to the extent of the divine law in reference to this sin, when he describes it as comprehending every species of unchastity, and even the very emotions of the heart : “Whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her, hath committed adultery with her already in his heart.” Matt. 5 : 28. and ch. 15 : 19. - . . ADULTERY is frequently charged upon the Israelites i their national capacity; and is them to be considered as used figuratively by the prophets. Isaiah terms them— “ the seed of the adulterer and the whore.” Ch. 57: 3, Jeremiah complains of them, that “they were all adul- A D U A D U [41 J terers.” 9 : 2. Hosea uses similar language, chap. 7: 4. and Christ repeatedly calls them, “an adulterous genera- tion.” Matt. 12: 39. and 16 : 4. Mark 8: 38. To per- celve the import of this, we must take into consideration that, as a nation, they had entered into covenant with God ; that those covenant engagements are alluded to under the metaphor of a marriage contract; and hence their violation of the covenant is charged home upon them as the sin of adultery. Thus Isaiah speaks of the Jewish church, of which all the natural descendants of Abraham were members, as “the married wife.” Isaiah 54 : 1. And Jeremiah exhorting them to repentance, says, “Turn, O backsliding children, saith the Lord; for I am married unto you.” Ch. 3: 14. Hence their backslidings from the worship of the true God, and reverting to idolatry, to which they were remarkably prone about the period of the Babylonish captivity, is reprobated by the prophets under the strong figurative expressions of adultery and whore- dom. “Through the lightness of her whoredom she defiled the land, and "committed adultery with stones and stocks.” Jer. 3: 9. Thus, also, the prophet Ezekiel re- proaches them—“Thou hast forgotten me, saith the Lord God, and cast me behind thy back; therefore, bear thou also thy lewdness and thy whoredoms.”—“They have “committed adultery, with their idols have they committed adultery.” Ch. 23: 35–37. Hence God compares himself to a husband jealous of his honor; and their adoption of vile opinions and practices is in his eye the worst kind of prostitution. It is, says Calmet, an argument ad hominem, not merely to the Jews, but to human nature at large, against the flagitious wickedness of forsaking God for the sake of any other object which would rival him in our affections. 2 James 3: 4. 1 Cor. 10 : 21, 22. It is necessary to keep in view these principles, in order to enter properly into the meaning of the prophetic writings. See further on this subject under the article MARRIAGE. One of the most singular institutions that is to be found in all the Mosaic economy, is the law which was given to the Hebrews for the trial of a wife whose husband was jealous of her having an adulterous connection with another man. It is contained in Numbers 5: 11–31. to which the reader must be referred for the particulars. It consisted in obliging the suspected wife, either to make a public avowal of her guilt before the whole Sanhedrim and assembled congregation, in which case she was repudiated and might go where she pleased; or if she persisted in affirming her innocence, compelling her to drink waters which were rendered metaphorically bitter by the infusion of the divine curse on adultery; which waters, by divine interposition, had the extraordinary effect of greatly im- proving her health, beauty, and fruitfulness in case of her innocence, while, on the contrary, if guilty, she immedi- ately grew pale, her eyes started out of her head, her thighs putrified, and she immediately died under the most shocking circumstances that are conceivable ! This was called—“The Law of Jealousies,” ver. 29. and hereby Jehovah strikingly manifested that he was privy to their most secret sins,—that he was the preserver of conjugal faith and chastity, as well as the protector of innocence. On this law of Moses, Michaelis has the following re- marks –“This oath was, perhaps, a relic of some more severe and barbarous consuetudinary laws, whose rigor Moses mitigated; as he did in many other cases, when an established usage could not be conveniently abolished altogether. Among ourselves, in barbarous times, the ordeal, or trial by fire, was, notwithstanding the purity of our married people, in common use; and this, in point of equity, was much the same in effect, as if the husband had had the right to insist on his wife submitting to the hazardous trial of her purity, by drinking a poisoned po- tion; which, according to an ancient superstition, could never hurt her if she was innocent. And, in fact, such right is not altogether unexampled; for, according to Qldendorp's History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brethren, in the Caribbee Islands, it is actually in use &mong Some of the savage nations in the interior parts of West Africa. “Now, when in place of a poisoned potion like this, Which very few husbands can be very willing to have administered to their wives, we see, as among the He- brews, an imprecation-drink, whose avenger God himself promises to become, we cannot but be struck with the contrast of wisdom and clemency which such a contrivance manifests. In the one case, (and herein consists their great distinction,) innocence can only be preserved by a miracle; while on the other, guilt only is revealed and punished by the hand of God himself. “By one of the clauses of the oath of purgation, (and had not the legislator been perfectly assured of his divine mission, the insertion of any such clause would have been a very bold step indeed,) a visible and corporal punish- ment was specified, which the person swearing impre- cated on herself, and which God himself was understood as engaging to execute. To have given so accurate a definition of the punishment God meant to inflict, and still more, one that consisted of such a sore disease, would have been a step of incomprehensible boldness in a legislator who pretended to have a divine mission, if he was not, with the most assured conviction, conscious of its reality. “Seldom, however, very seldom, was it likely that Providence would have an opportunity of inflicting the punishment in question. For the oath was so regulated, that a woman of the utmost effrontery could scarcely have taken it without changing color to such a degree as to betray herself. - “In the first place, it was not administered to the wo- man in her own house, but she was under the necessity of going to that place of the land where God in a special manner had his abode, and take it there. Now, the Solem- nity of the place, unfamiliarized to her by daily business or resort, would have a great effect upon her mind. In the next place, there was offered unto God what was termed an execration-offering, not in order to propitiate his mercy, but to invoke his vengeance on the guilty. Here the pro- cess was extremely slow, which gave her more time for reflection than to a guilty person could be acceptable, and that, too, amidst a multitude of unusual ceremonies. For the priest conducted her to the front of the sanctuary, and took holy water, that is, water out of the priest’s laver, which stood before it, together with some earth off its floor, which was likewise deemed holy; and having put the earth in the water, he then proceeded to uncover the woman’s head, that her face might be, seen, and every change in her countenance during the administration of the oath accurately observed : and this was a circum- stance which, in the east, where the women are always veiled, must have had a great effect; because a woman accustomed to wear a veil, could on so extraordinary an occasion, have had far less command of her eyes and her countenance than an European adulteress, who is gene- rally a perfect mistress in all the arts of dissimulation, would display. To render the scene still more awful, the tresses of her hair were loosened, and then the execration- offering was put into her hand, while the priest held in his the imprecation-water. This is commonly termed the bitter water; but we must not understand this, as if the water had really been bitter; for how could it have been so 2 The earth of the floor of the tabernacle could not make it bitter. Among the Hebrews and other oriental nations, the word bitter was rather used for curse : and, strictly speaking, the phrase does not mean bitter water, but the water of bitternesses, that is of curses. The priest now pronounced the oath, which was in all points so framed that it could excite no terrors in the breast of an innocent woman; for it expressly consisted in this, that the impre- cation-water could not harm her if she was innocent. It would seem as if the priest here made a stop, and again left the woman some time to consider whether she would proceed with the oath. This I infer from the circum- stance of his speech not being directly continued in verse 21, which is rather the repetition of what goes before ; and from the detail proceeding anew in the words of the historian, Then shall the priest pronounce the rest of the oath and the curses to the woman ; and proceed thus.-After this stop he pronounced the curses, and the woman was obliged to declare her acquiescence in them by a repeated Amen. Nor was the solemn scene yet altogether at an end ; but rather, as it were, commenced anew. For the priest had yet to write the curses in a book, which I Sup- pose he did at great deliberation; having dome SQ, he 6 A D U .* A D U [42 washed them out again in the very imprecation-water, which the woman had now to drink; and this water being now presented to her, she was obliged to drink it, with this warning and assurance, in the name of God, that if she was guilty, it would prove within her an absolute curse. Now, what must have been her feelings, while drinking, if not conscious of purity. In my opinion she must have conceived that she already felt an alteration in the state of her body, and the germ, as it were, of the disease springing up within her. Conscience and imagination would conspire together, and render it almost impossible for her to drink it out. Finally, the execration-offering was taken out of her hand, and burnt upon the altar. I cannot but think that, under the sanction of such a purga- torium, perjury must have been a very rare occurrence indeed. If it happened but once in an age, God had bound himself to punish it; and if this took place but once, (if but one woman who had taken the oath was attacked with that Sore disease which it threatened,) it was quite enough to serve as a determent to all others for at least one gene- ration.” . . This procedure had also the effect of keeping in mind, among the Jews, God’s high displeasure against this viola- tion of his law; and though some lax moralists have been found, in modern times, to palliate it, yet the Christian will always remember the solemn denunciations of the New Testament against a crime so aggravated, whether considered in its effects upon the domestic relations, upon the moral character of the guilty parties, or upon socie- ty at large.—“Whoremongers and adulterers God will judge.”—Heb. 13: 14. - It is evident, observes Paley, that, on the part of the man who solicits the chastity of a married woman, it certainly includes the crime of seduction, and is attended with mis- chief still more extensive and complicated: it creates a new sufferer, the injured husband, upon whose affection is inflicted a wound the most painful and incurable that human nature knows. The infidelity of the avoman is aggravated by cruelty to her children, who are generally involved in their parents' shame, and always made un- happy by their quarrel. The marriage vow is witnessed before God, and accompanied with circumstances of solem- nity and religion, which approach to the nature of an oath. The married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little short of perjury, and the seduction of a married woman is little less than the subornation of perjury. But the strongest apology for adultery is, the prior transgression of the other party; and so far, indeed, as the bad effects of adultery are anticipated by the conduct of the husband or wife who offends first, the guilt of the second offender is extenuated. But this can never amount to a justification, unless it could be shown that the obligation of the marriage vow depends upon the condition of reciprocal fidelity; a con- struction which appears ſounded neither in expediency, nor in the terms of the vow, nor in the design of the legislature, which prescribed the marriage rite. To consider the offence upon the footing of provocation, therefore, can by no means vindicate retaliation. “Thou shalt not commit adultery,” it must be ever remembered, was an interdict delivered by God himself. . This crime has been punished in almost all ages and nations. By the Jewish law it was punished with death in both parties, where either the wo. man was married, or both. Among the Egyptians, adul. tery in the man was punished by a thousand lashes with rods, and in the woman by the loss of her nose. The Greeks put out the eyes of the adulterers. Among the Romans, it was punished by banishment, cutting off the ears, noses, and by sewing the adulterers in sacks, and throwing them into the sea, scourging, burning, &c. In Spain and Poland they were almost as severe. The Sax. ons formerly burnt the adulteress, and over her ashes erected a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was hanged. Ring, Edmund, in his kingdom, ordered adultery to be punished in the same manner as homicide. Canute or. dered the man to be banished, and the woman to have her nose and ears cut off. Modern punishments, in different nations, do not seem to be so severe. In Britain it is reck. oned a spiritual offence, and is cognizable by the spiritual courts, where it is punishable by fine and penance.—See Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy. In John 8: 3, we read that the Jews having surprised a woman in adultery, brought her to our Savior, and asked him what they should do with her; Moses having ordered women guilty of this crime to be stoned. This they said, tempting him, to find accusation against him. From our Lord's manner of treating their application, and its results, Calmet and others have supposed that the woman’s accus- ers were themselves guilty of the crime which they alleged against her; and as it was not just to receive the accusa- tions of those who are guilty of the evil of which they accuse others, our Lord dismissed them with the most ob- vious propriety. But, as Mr. Taylor suggests, it seems enough to suppose, that the consciences of these witnesses accused them of such crimes as restrained their hands from punishing the adulteress, who, perhaps, was guilty, in this instance, of a less enormous sin than they were conscious of, though of another kind. He also suggests that their malevolent design to entrap our Lord, was ap- pealed to by him, and was no slight cause of their confu- sion, if they wished to found a charge which might affect his life. Their intended murder was worse than the wo. man’s adultery; especially if, as there is room to believe, the woman had suffered some violence. But the whole transaction may be viewed in another light. The law was, that both the culprits should be brought before the council, where, if condemned, the whole audience, council, INCLUDED, were to stone them. By bringing this woman only to Jesus, the Jews were guilty, 1... of partiality, as they ought to have brought the adulterer also ; 2. they desired Jesus to take on himself the office of the council, which would have been assuming political power, and would have endangered his life. This plot he retorts on themselves, by saying, “Do you, on your own proposals, assume that conduct which you well know the council would pursue in such a case ; consider the prisoner as ipso facto condemned by the circumstances in which she was apprehended, therefore do you cast stones at her, as the council would cast stones at a person so condemned.” This they declined, being aware of its tendency, and shrunk from that action to which they had urged Jesus. To this his words seem more particularly to allude, “Let him who is without sin, not moral guilt merely, but politi- cal offence—he who can be innocent in assuming that pow- er of life and death, which is legally lodged elsewhere, let him act the judge, and stone her.” And so, speaking to the woman, “has nobody officially condemned thee—execut- ed the condemnation of the law on thee, by stoning thee ?— Neither do I officially condemn thee;—I do not execute condemnation on thee by stoning thee : Remember the narrow escape thou hast now experienced : Go and sin no more.” . - The genuineness of this narrative has been much disputed, in consequence of its having been omitted in many ancient MISS., and being much varied in its position, in others. The arguments in its favor, however, are generally admit- ted to preponderate. It is found in the greater part of the MSS. extant, of all the recensions or families; and Tatian and Ammonius (A. D. 172, and 220) inserted it in their harmonies. The author of the Apostolical Constitutions, (lib. 2. cap. 24.) and the Synopsis ascribed to Athanasius, have it. Jerome, Justin, Ambrose, and the Latin fathers received it, though they were not unacquainted with the differences among the Greek copies. Justin conjectures, that some Christian of weak judgment expunged it, lest Our Savior should be thought to authorize the crime of adultery, by forgiving it so easily. Many Syriac manu- scripts, of good antiquity, read it; and it is found in all printed copies, Greek and Latin. Griesbach prints the pºsage between [ ] as dubious; yet on the whole admits ll. But admitting its truth, there is scarcely any of the Savior’s miracles that sets forth in a more striking man- ner his divine authority over the consciences of men, in flashing conviction upon their guilty minds, and compel- ling them to speak out to their own confusion. And, in this view, it may serve to show us what will be the real state of things in the great day of awful retribution, when the books shall be opened and every man's sins set in array against him.—Calmet ; , Watson ; Jones. - ADUMMIM ; a city and mountain near Jericho, and A DV A D W [ 43 | in the lot of the tribe of Benjamin. It was situated in the way from Jerusalem to Jericho, and is said to have been greatly infested with robbers. Hence, Christ is supposed to have taken it for the scene of the parable of the good Samaritan, who so humanely relieved the man that ſell among thieves. ADVANTAGE ; 1. Profit, gain. Job 35 : 3.−2. A fair opportunity to excel, or prevail over another; a privilege, or pre-eminence of privileges, in a good sense. Rom. 3: 1.—3. Actual prevalence or superiority, in a bad sense. 2 Cor. 2: 11. wº ADVERSARY; (in the Hebrew Satan, in the Greek Antidikos,) one who carries on a controversy with another under the color of justice; and usually with the forms and processes of law. Luke 18: 3. Matt. 5: 25. The use of the term both in the Old and New Testament shows that it differs from enemy in this, that it imports (whether truly or not) a claim of right to oppose. Hence the appel- lation is with equal propriety given, as we have seen, to men, 1 Sam. 29: 4—to God, Exod. 23: 22—to a good angel, Num. 22: 22—and to the evil spirit, Job 1: 6. It is more commonly used absolutely for the latter, “that old serpent, which is the Devil and Satan.” Rev. 20: 2. Ps. 109 : 6. Zech. 3: 1. 1 Pet. 5: 8. From an ADvTERSARY so powerful, sagacious, experienced, artful, indefatigable, and withal so malicious ; from an AdvertsARY equally skilled in the wiles which lead to presumption, and that afterwards plunge into despair; from an ADVERSARy who assaulted even the Son of God himself; what have we not to fear ! Especially when we consider that, although not himself omnipresent, yet his servants, emissaries, and agents are at all times, on every side of us; acting in his name, upon his schemes, and in the same spirit as him- self. Matt. 25 : 41. 2 Cor. 11 : 13–15. 2: 11. Ephes. 6 : 10–16. Faith in the crucified Savior is the only im- pregnable shield against his assaults. Whom resist, says the apostle, steadfast in the faith ; knowing that the same (ſlictions are accomplished in your brethren that are in the world. But the God of all grace who hath called us unto his cternal glory by Christ Jesus, after that ye have suffered anhile, make you perfect, establish, strengthen, settle you. To him be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen. 1 Pet. 5: ADVERSITY; the opposite of prosperity. Ecc. 7: 14. It is that state in which the train of providential circum- stances is contrary to our wishes. Gen. 42 : 36. The duties of this trying state are Fortitude. Prov. 24: 10. Consideration. Ec. 7: 14. Devout acknowledgment. Prov. 3: 6: Prayer. James 5: 13. Submission. 1 Sam. 3: 18. Faith in the promises, perfections, and providential go- Vernment of God. Rom. 8: 28.-See AFFLICTION. ADVOCATE ; (parakletos, a patron,) one who pleads the cause of another. It is a title appropriated to our Lord Jesus Christ, as the exclusive Mediator between God and man. . It designates one important branch of his high priestly oſice—a branch most essential to our daily com- fort, as well as to our peace with God. As a deep im- pression of the divine majesty and purity, (1 John 1: 5–10.) is essential to guard us against sin; so, under the awful consciousness of having sinned against that purity and majesty, and all the affecting manifestations of infi- nite love in the Gospel, nothing short of a lively recollec- tion and reliance upon the tender and eſticacious interces- Sion of our holy Redeemer, could save us from despair. Hence the exquisite propriety and beauty of the words of the appstle. (1 John 2: 1.) My little children, these things turtle I writo you, that ye sin not. But if any one sin, we have &n advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous ; and he is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world. And hereby we do know that we KNow HiM, (that is, that our reliance upon him is Singere and successful,) if we keep his commandments. The understanding of this point is so vital, both to our Peace of conscicnce and purity of character, that we must be pºdoned for dwelling more particularly upon it; es: Tecially as it reveals one of the sweetest features in the “haracter of our Lord, and one that comes home with all the wºm of the most endearing tenderness to our (*ºurtS. - That our poor nature universally stands in need of an Advocate before the tribunal of divine justice, it is un- necessary to insist upon ; since “all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God.” Rom. 3: 23. But where shall that Advocate be found? He who undertakes to plead the cause of the sinner, must himself be sinless. He must not only possess sufficient ability for the office of a special pleader; but he must know every person and every case, with all the disadvantages of all the causes for which he undertakes. He must thoroughly understand the law and the government under which he pleads; and be equally solicitous to uphold the claims of righteousness as to secure the safety of the client, who has resorted to him for protection. He must know the true ground on which to rest his plea with the certainty of success, Neither is it sufficient that he possess all these qualifications, and more than these, unless that he be lawfully constituted to the Office. It is not enough, in our common courts of justice, between man and man, that many an able and feeling heart could stand up for poor guilty criminals, and plead their cause. He that advocates for them, must have a legal call to the office, and be sworn into it according to the laws of the court. How delightful is it to see that all these qualifications meet and centre in the person of our Lord Jesus Christ, and invest him with all their soft and attractive splendors. The Redeemer’s claim to this office is founded on the express call of Jehovah. We are told by God the Holy Ghost, (Heb. 5: 5, 6.) that “Christ glorified not himself to be made an High Priest; but was called of God, as was Aaron.” And he was not only called to the office, but sworn into it with the solemnity of an oath, “The LoRD sware and will not repent; thou art a priest forever, after the order of Melchisedek.” Christian let this be kept in perpetual remembrance. Your Jesus, your Advo- cate with the Father, is your sworn Advocate. And as in consequence of sin, God our Father is of necessity the legal adversary of every sinner, (Luke 12: 58, 59.) so for every believer Christ is the legal advocate, fully and law- fully appointed to this office by the Father himself. Well might he say when about to ascend to Heaven, “Let not your heart be troubled; ye believe in God, believe also in me.” John 14 : 1. Nor is this all. Christ is our Advocate by virtue of his being the propitiation for our sins. Not only the infinite dignity of his person, and the infinite merit of his pro. pitiation, give him this claim, but also he is the very “pro- pitiation” which God himself “hath set forth, through faith in his blood.” Consult Job 33: 24. Isaiah 42: 21, Matt. 17: 5. Rom. 3: 25. Here then is laid the founda tion of his great argument on our behalf. It is not that we, according to the law of God, are not found guilty: the reverse of this is the admitted fact. (Rom. 3: 19. Isa. 53: 12.) But may he not plead for his own rights, and those of his people in him 2 May he not plead the abso- lute promise of the covenant of redemption, that if he should make his soul an offering for sin, he should see of the travail of his soul, and be satisfied? Isai. 53 : 10, 11. And can he rest satisfied till he hath brought all his redeemed people around him in glory 2 We know from his own words º 17: 24.) that he cannot. Nor will he rest till all the ends of his incarnation, as far as they relate to this world, are accomplished; although the uni- versal establishment of his kingdom, (Ps. 2: 8–12.) in- volves the overthrow of the empire of Satan, and the destruction of his own and his people's enemies. Isa. 63 : 4. 1 John 3: 8, Isa. 42 : 4. - Time would fail to describe here, what the Scriptures largely set forth, the various qualifications of our Lord, his ability, his readiness, his grace, and a thousand en- dearing things beside, which render him so peculiarly suited to the office. Indeed, indeed, it is most blessed to behold him in this endeared character: All he undertakes is free, altogether free, “without money and without price.” No ease, however desperate, he refuseth; and none that he undertakes can fail. Other advocates may, and indeed must, often disappoint the expectations placed in them; Jesus never.—And then the gracious manner in which he carries on the cause intrusted to his hands, is most blessed to think upon ; for he makes every case which he takes up his own. He enters into all their con- AE L I A FA [ 44 ) cerns; gives them to see how much he sympathizes with them in all their exercises; and supports their souls with the abiding assurance of his everlasting attention, Not all the hallelujahs of heaven can make him for a moment intermit his regard to the persons or the causes of his re- deemed on earth. Their wants, their sorrows, their de- sires are all numbered before him. For it is not their deservings, but his love ; not what they have done, or can do for themselves; but what they need, and what he can do for them, which regulates the bestowment of his grace. If they “ have not,” then, it is “because they ask not,” or ask not in a way which will promote their highest good. What they are, and what they merit, comes not into the account. That they are his; that he has purchased their redemp- tion, and received them as the gift of the Father, (John 6 : 37–40. 10: 27–30. 17: 2–26.) these are the mo- tives that operate in the heart of Christ. Not vain then is the apostle's triumphant challenge. Rom. 8: 33–39. Seeing we have such an advocate, “Who shall lay any thing to the charge of God's elect " Oh, were his power- ful recommendations known to sinners through faith, not a Soul earnest for its everlasting welfare could hesitate a moment to commit all its concerns into the hands of an advocate so wise, so tender, and successful. Sinners in Zion! here bring all your causes. Come at once to Jesus, and put your trust in him. Blessed are such as do this. He is waiting to be gracious. He can and will save even to the uttermost all that come to God by him, seeing he ever liveth to make intercession for them, (Heb. 7: 25.) and be their glorious, gracious, lawful and successful Advocate, Friend and Forerunner, in the heavens to which he has ascended. ADYTUM ; a Greek word, signifying inaccessible, by which is understood the most retired and secret place of the heathen temples, into which none but the priests were allowed to enter. The adytum of the Greeks and Romans answered to the Holy of Holies of the Jews, and was the place from whence oracles were delivered. AELIA CAPITOLINA; the name given to Jerusalem, when the emperor Adrian, (whose ſamily name was AElius,) about A. D. 134, settled a Roman colony there, and banished the Jews, prohibiting their return upon pain of death. We are assured, that Tinnius Rufus, or, as the Rabbins call him, Turannus, or Turnus Rufus, ploughed up the spot of ground on which the temple had stood. There are medals of Adrian extant, struck upon this oc. casion; on the reverse of which Judea is represented as a woman, holding two naked children by her, and sacrificing upon an altar. On another medal, we see Judea kneeling, submitting to the emperor, and three children begging mercy of him. Jerome states, that in his time the Jews bought from the Roman soldiers permission to look on Jerusalem, and to shed tears over it. (Paulin. ad. Sever. Ep. 11.) Old men and women, loaded with rags, were seem to go weeping up the mount of Olives, (see Mark 13: 3.) to lament from thence the ruin of the temple. - The city was consecrated by Adrian to Jupiter Capito. linus, after whom it was named Capitolina, and a temple was built to him on the spot where Jesus rose from the dead. A statue of Venus was also set up at Calvary, a marble hog was placed on the gate leading toward Beth- lehem, and at this place a grove was planted in honor of Adonis, to whom was dedicated the cave in which our Lord was supposed to have been born. Notwithstanding these degradations, however, the places consecrated by the birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus, continued to be held in repute, and were, in fact, identified by the very means employed to destroy their locality and put out their remembrance. But see CALVARY. It appears that Adrian's order for expelling the Jews from Jerusalem did not extend to the Christians. These remained in the city, and the church which had been pre- viously composed chiefly of converted Jews, who had con- nected many of the legal ceremonies with the Christian worship, was now formed exclusively of Gentile converts, who abolished the Jewish observances. Fron this period the name Ælia became so common, that Jerusalem was preserved only among the Jews, and better informed Christians, In the time of Constantine, however, it resumed its ancient name, which it has retained to the present day.—Calmet. - - - - - . AEONS, (aiones, ages or eternities;)immortal beings, or virtues.—See Basilidians. - AERA ; a series of years, commencing from a certain point of time called an epocha ; thus we say, the Christian aera ; that is, the number of years elapsed since the birth of Christ. The generality of authors use the terms ara and epocha in a synonymous sense; that is, for the point of time from which any computation begins. * * The ancient Jews made use of several aeras in their computation; sometimes they reckoned from the deluge, sometimes from the division of tongues; sometimes from their departure out of Egypt; and at other times from the building of the temple ; and sometimes from the restora- tion after the Babylonish captivity: but their vulgar acra was from the creation of the world, which ſalls in with the year of the Julian period 953; and consequently they supposed the world created 294 years sooner than accord- ing to our computation. But when the Jews became sub- ject to the Syro-Macedonian kings, they were obliged to make use of the aera of the Seleucidae in all their contracts, which from thence was called the aera of contracts. This aera begins with the year of the world 3692, of the Julian period 4002, and before Christ 312. The aera in general use among the Christians is that from the birth of Jesus’ Christ, concerning the true time of which chronologers differ; some place it two years, others four, and again others five, before the vulgar aera, which is fixed for the year of the world 4004: but archbishop Usher, and after him the generality of modern chronologers, place it in the year of the world 4000. - The ancient heathens used several aeras: 1. The aera of the first Olympiad is placed in the year of the world 3228, and before the vulgar aera of Jesus Christ 776. 2. The taking of Troy by the Greeks, in the year of the world 2820, and before Jesus Christ 1884. 3. The voyage undertaken for the purpose of bringing away the golden fleece, in the year of the world 2760. 4. The foundation of Rome, in 2856. 5. The aera of Nabonassor, in 3257. 6. The aera of Alexander the Great, or his last victory over Darius, in 3674, and before Jesus Christ 330.—Waison. AERIANS ; a sect which arose about the middle of the fourth century, being the followers of Aërius, (who must be distinguished from Arius and Aëtius,) a monk and a pres- byter of Sebastia, in Pontus. He is charged with being an Arian, or Semi-Arian; but the heaviest accusation against him is an attempt to reform the church; and, by rejecting prayers for the dead, with certain fasts and festi- vals then superstitiously observed, to reduce Christianity as nearly as possible “to its primitive simplicity; a pur. pose, indeed, laudable and noble,” says Dr. Mosheim, “when considered in itself; though the principles from ºvhence it springs, and the means by which it is executed, are sometimes, in many respects, worthy of censure, and may have been so in the case of this reformer.” This gentle rebuke probably refers to a report that the zeal of Aërius originated in his being disappointed of the bishop- ric of Sebastia, (conferred on Eustathius,) which led him to affirm that the Scriptures make no distinction between a presbyter and a bishop, which he founded chiefly on 1 Tim. 4: 14. Hence he is considered by many, as the father of the modern Presbyterians.—“For this opinion, chiefly,” says, Dr. Turner, “he is ranked among the here. tics, by Epiphanius, his Contemporary, who calls it a no- tion full of folly and madness. His followers were driven from the churches, and out of all the towns and villa ges, and were obliged to assemble in the woods, caverns, and open defiles.”— Williams. AETIANS; another branch (as it is said) of Arians, S9 called from Aëtius, bishop of Antioch, who is also charged with maintaining “faith without works,” as “suf. ficient to salvation,” or rather justification; and with maintaining “that sin is not imputed to believers.” It is added, that he taught that God had revealed to him things which he had “concealed from the apostles;” which per- haps, is only a misrepresentation of what he taught on the doctrine of divine influences. - - - AFAſ'; joined with off, signifies, 1. The distance be. tween two places. Gen. 37: 18-2. To be estranged from A. F. F A F F | 45 J God. Ps. 38; 11–3. Absent from God. Ps. 10 : 1–4. Ungodly, not only out of the visible church, but alienated from God. Eph. 2: 17. . . . . - . AFFECTIONS. With many, says Buckminster, there is, perhaps, too much of a disposition to reduce Christian: ity to a barren system of rational truths. They are apt to make it a mere collection of specific statutes, like a civil or criminal code, in which the precise amount of obliga- tion, and limit of transgression may be clearly ascertained. Men of inquisitive and speculative minds are in peculiar danger of preferring the exercise of the understanding to that of the heart, and thus of rendering the light of re- ligion little more than a cold coruscation, which imparts no warmth to the region of the affections. But, (he adds,) when we consider how important a part of our constitution the affections are, and how much they do in ultimately determining the character of the man, you cannot suppose that religion is the only subject, from which the exercise of them is to be excluded. When we con- sider, too, the infinite sublimity of religious truths, the influence they have on human happiness here, and on man's expectations for eternity, Surely it cannot be, that he, who is impassioned on every other subject, may be al- ways lukewarm on this; that the affections, which glow in every other sphere, must lose all their warmth, as soon as they touch the region of theology. If it were enough merely to believe, we might believe as well in a malevo- lent, as in a gracious being. If it were enough to know the sanctions, and admit the obligations of a law, the char- acter of the lawgiver would be of no consideration. If it were enough to keep the commandments according to the barren letter of the moral code, surely the first command- ment would have been more than superfluous—Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, with all thy heart, soul, mind, and strength. But it is not sufficient that the affections be merely admitted into religion. If they are allowed to enter it at all, they must enter it largely. If God is to be loved, he is to be loved supremely. If Jesus, though absent and invisible, is yet our Savior and friend, he demands an at- tachment, on our part, stronger than death, which many waters cannot quench, nor floods drown. If the soul is worth any thing, it is inestimable; you cannot love it too dearly. If the interest of any reaches beyond this earthly scene, it spreads throughout eternal duration. It should move our feelings, as well as our thoughts. There cannot be awakened too deep a sensibility for the immortal wel- fare of a being, who is susceptible of innumerable grada- tions of bliss and wretchedness. Let it be admitted that the Scriptures are written in the language of orientals, and abound in phrases and expres- sions of such passionate hyperbole, as seem, to the colder and more chastised imaginations of the western world, like the language of exaggerated feeling. But, with all this allowance, and it is great, they cannot be made to describe a religion which exists only in the head. There is not a worthy passion, which silently pervades, or tu- multuously agitates the breast of man, that has not been enlisted in the cause of God, and encouraged in the Scrip- tures. Hope, the most animated of the affections, is, in our religion, the ruling spring of ineffable happiness. “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who, according to his abundant mercy, has begotten us again into a lively hope, by the resurrection of Jesus from the dead.” The most impatient desires of religious im- provement are represented, as a part of the Christian cha- racter: “Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness.” “Let him that is athirst come, and I will give unto him the waters of life freely.” Joy enters largely into the Christian temper, “For the fruit of the Spirit is love and joy.” Sorrow, deep, piercing, and humiliating, is not excluded. “Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted;” and “The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit.” Gratitude is a vital principle of religious obedience ; and compassion is a sentiment so essential to religion, that it has even given a name to the righteous; and a merciful is equivalent to a good man. “I will have mercy and not sacrifice,” was the passage so dear to our compassionate Savior. Zeal, too, is not to be rejected for its abuses, if Christ, when he gay a himself for us, in- tended, not only to redeem us from iniquity, but “to pu- rify unto himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works.” To these Christian affections need not be added the com: prehensive one of love, for it is not only represented as the source, attendant, and result of true religion, but it is, in numerous passages, commended as the substance and epitome of duty, the fulfilling of the law, the end of the commandment. From this enumeration we may under- stand, that religion is not a bare comprehension of truths, not the knowledge and remembrance of facts, not the con- fession of a faith, or the observation of duties formally defined; but it is a celestial spirit, which mingles with and informs all our duties, in secret and in public, which agitates the mass of our intellectual and moral faculties, which discovers itself in fears and hopes, joys and sor- rows, gratitude and humiliation, earnestness and all- hallowed love. And why is it that in religion alone, things spiritual and invisible are to have no command over the affections? Is not this theory perpetually disproved by every observation of man's ruling passions? The metaphysician becomes. extravagantly fond of his obscure and lofty speculations. The mathematician is in raptures with the beauty of a theorem, of which the world sees nothing but the lines and angles. The artist glows with imaginations of ideal beauty. The man of taste has his fancies and his fondnesses, and discerns and loves a thousand inexpressi- ble delicacies, impalpable to ordinary minds. And has religion nothing to elevate the soul, nothing to absorb the thoughts, to summon the passions, to make men feel? Because God cannot be seen, shall he be, therefore, ex- cluded from our affections? The single circumstance, that God is not the object of any one of our senses, is abundantly compensated by the consideration, that he is never absent from us; that he compasseth continually our path and our lying down, and that we cannot remove a step from the sphere of his presence; that every sigh which escapes us reaches his ear, and not an affectionate movement springs up in our hearts, to which he is not intuitively attentive. The faintest glow of gratitude, which lights up the countenance, shines before his eyes; and the least cloud of godly sorrow, which passes over the brow, sends its shade to the throne of God, encom- passed as it is with “undiminished brightness.” That man may well be suspected, who takes an active interest in every event that transpires, is busy in every project that is ever undertaken, but in religion only is idle, imattentive, and incredulous. Such a man is not to plead, that his feelings are not easily excited, or that his constitu- tional temperament is lukewarm ; and one would think, that, if he were dead to every other sentiment, the im- mense interest, which he himself has at stake in eternity, and the still greater interest of a whole world of living souls, to whom religion is all important, would rouse every latent spark of passion in his breast, and suffer him not to rest in the cause of God, till the affections themselves were quenched in the flood of death, The causes that modify the exercise of the affections in different minds, are extremely numerous, and some of them we proceed to consider. § The external exhibition of a man's religious feelings depends much on his original tem- perament. (2.) The religious affections are also considera- bly modified by the difference of the doctrines embraced. (3.) The affections, also, are modified by the metaphysical direction of religious inquiries. But there are pursuits of life, and habits of mind, which repress, and others, which utterly destroy the religious af. fections; which freeze the current of the soul's best feel- ings, and leave us but a name to live, while we are dead. Among these last must be reckoned worldly and avaricious pursuits. “If any man love the world, the love of the Father is not in him.” Another destroyer of the religious affections, is the love of pleasure. There are two classes of men that are go- verned by the love of pleasure; the gay and fickle, who are ever lost in the rapid succession of amusements; and the sensual, who are forever plunged in gross and criminal enjoyments. But the love of pleasure and the love of God are irreconcilable. They are at continual war; and they never can divide the empire of the same breast. “She that liveth in pleasure is dead while she liveth.”–1 Tim. 5; 6. A F F A F F [46 | 2. In Rom, 8: 5, the apostle divides all mankind into two great classes, carnal and spiritual : “They that are after the flesh, do mind the things of the flesh ; but they that are after the spirit, the things of the spirit.” Franck, in his Guide to the reading and study of the Scriptures, lays down the following characteristics. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPIRITUAI, AFFECTIONS. 1. A spiritual affection has for its source, the Holy Spirit, and is the fruit of His influence. 2. A spiritual affection tends to a holy end, 3. A spiritual affection is engaged on objects that are divine, eternal, spiritual, and invisible. 4. A spiritual affection, when engaged on sensible ob- jects, is not employed on them as such; but only so far as they have relation to those which are unseen, - 5. A spiritual affection is grounded on faith and love. When these do not operate, affections cease to be spiritual. 6. A spiritual affection influences the subject of it, to seek, not himself nor his personal convenience, as such, but God and His glory. 7. A spiritual, overcomes a carnal affection, though the latter be otherwise very violent. * 8. A spiritual affection is always connected with humili- ty. The instant the mind is elated, affections become carnal. 9. A spiritual affection excites no perturbation in the mind, nor does it leave behind it any bitterness. It rather assists in the regulation of the soul, receiving every dispen- sation with complacency, and acquiescing in God with Joy. 10. A spiritual affection tends to the amelioration of na- ture, the increase of grace, and the edification of mankind; having no object but the glory of God. CHARACTERISTICS OF CARNAL AFFECTIONS. 1. A carnal affection, as it is opposed to those which are spiritual, so, it has nature for its source, and is destitute of grace. 2. A carnal affection has, for its end, the temporal pre- servation and amendment of nature, or, it refers all things to pleasure; and, particularly, seeks such pleasure not in mental peace, but personal convenience; and this, often under a pretext of duty. 3. A carnal affection is engaged on objects that are corporal, local, temporal, and sensitive. * 4. A carnal affection, if engaged upon spiritual objects, does not dwell on them as such ; neither with righteous views, nor in a consistent manner; but only so far as they have relation to private gratification or convenience. 5. A carnal affection receives its existence and support from perverse self-love. 6. A carnal affection gives the preference to things naturally pleasing, though others may approximate more nearly to real excellence. 7. A carnal affection gradually disturbs the mind when it is at all indulged, rendering it incapable of investigating truth, or of performing righteous actions; and it leaves a degree of bitterness in the mind, proportioned to the strength of the affection. Cicero justly used to term them “the perturbations of the mind.” 8. A carnal affection has always a degree of pride in it, though it is oſten very subtle. As long as this has place in the mind, carnal affections are not put off. 9. A carnal affection often induces a visible change of the body. Although the carnal affections are, by these characteris- tics, separated from the spiritual affections, we are not thence to conclude, that they are so separated in the heart of a renewed person, as that the former never min- gles with the latter. On the contrary, the believer's daily strife is to be more and more delivered from the sinful af. fections of carnal nature. . It is according to the reigning affection, that a man is denominated carnal or spiritual. It were impious to ascribe any mixture of good and bad affections to the Holy Spirit; though we cannot deny that sacred affections show themselves in a sanctified nature, by external and natural indications. 3. That an acquaintance with the doctrine of the aſſec. tions, is an essential requisite in the exposition of the Scrip. tures, may be proved from reason: for (1.) the affections of love, hatred, desire, hope, fear, joy, sorrow, &c. are fre- quently to be met with in holy writ. It is evident, there. fore, that were we ignorant of these affections, we should be inadequate to the exposition of no inconsiderable part of the sacred writings. (2.) When no affections are ex- pressed, we must necessarily consider them implied ; and that every sentence is of their dictation. (3.) Without a knowledge of these emotions, who can inspect the abyss of the human heart, and the depth of those feelings by which it is agitated? And without forming correct ideas of the affections which it is proposed to imitate, how shall man, who is carnal, “put them on ?” (4.) The nature of dis- course confirms the position. The words of Christ in Matt. 12: 34, 35. decidedly evidence, that, unless some affection influenced the heart, language would not be ut- tered; so that a man's words are, in fact, the index of his feelings or affections. Since then the affections are so intimately connected with all language, none will suppose that they are ba- nished from the writings of the inspired penmen: and, be- cause they are closely united with the language of inspira- tion, it follows that the sacred records cannot be adequately expounded, by those who are satisfied with the mere shell, and contemn the precious kernel of Scripture; who watch the lips, but never enter into the feelings of the inspired penmen. - It forms no solid objection to our view of the subject, that many commentators neglect this point of exposition, and pass it over in silence. This consideration is abun- dantly overruled, by opposing to it the high authorities that have advocated the study of the affections. Luther, ſor example, says, “Whoever adopts it, will, I am satisfied, learn more himself, than he can gather from all commen- taries united.” “An expositor should, as it were, invest himself with the author's mind, in order that he may in- terpret him as another self.” It might be added, that those persons are usually but indifferent examiners of the Scriptures, who, in searching into their meaning, depend, partially, or entirely, on authority. It evidences, as Ber- nard has observed, that they do not read the Word in the Spirit, under whose influence it was written. Besides, a consequence deduced from the ignorance or negligence of commentators, can avail nothing against the doctrine. It is, Indeed, to be lamented, that very few are solicitous to ascertain the spiritual meaning of the Sacred writings; but are anxious rather to be diffuse on critical, controverted, and difficult points, where there is a wider field for the range of natural intellect. This inattention to the affections is a main reason, why some commentaries are so meagre and unsatisfactory to spiritual readers, who, with a view to personal edification, search after the mind of the Spirit, and the revelation of the divine image. A com- ment, written without adverting to the affections, is so only in name and form.—Buckminster's Sermons, vol. i. Ser. 15; Franck's Guide ; Wilberforce's Vien'. cap. 3; McLaurin's Essays ; Ednyards on the Affections ; Watts's Use and Abuse of the Passions; Pike and Haynard's Cases of Conscience ; Spring’s Essays on the Christian Character. A:FFINITY. There are several degrees of aſfinity, wherein marriage was prohibited by the law of Moses : . thus the son could not marry his mother, nor his father's wiſe. Lev. 17: 7, &c. The brother could not marry his sister, whether she were so by the father only, or only by the mother, and much less if she were his sister both ly the same father and mother. The grandfather could not marry his granddaughter, either by his son or daughter, No one could marry the daughter of his ſather's wife ; nor the sister of his ſather or mother; nor the uncle, his nicce ; nor the aunt, her nephew ; nor the nephew, the wife of his uncle by the fathcr's side. The father-in-law could not marry his daughter-in-law; nor the brother, the wife of his brother, while living ; nor even after the death of his brother, if he left children. If he left no children, the sur- viving brother was to raise up children to his deceased brother by marrying his widow. It was forbidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one time, or the daughter of the mother's son, or the daughter of her daughter, or two sisters, together. Similar regulations are adopted in the laws of this country. A. F. R. A GA | 47 J It is true the patriarchs, before the law, married their sisters, as Abraham married Sarah, who was his father's daughter by another mother; and two sisters together, as Jacob married Rachel and Leah; and their own sisters, both by father and mother, as Seth and Cain. . But these cases are not to be proposed as examples; because in some they were authorized by necessity; others, by cus- tom; and the law as yet was not in being. If some other examples may be found, either before or since the law, the Scripture expressly disapproves of them; as Reuben’s in- cest with Bilhah, his father's concubine; and the action of Amnon with his sister Tamar; and that of Herod An- tipas, who married Herodias, his sister-in-law, his brother Philip's wife, while her husband was yet living; and that which St. Paul reproves and punishes among the Corinthi- ans. 1 Cor. 5: 1. AFFLICTION ; that which causes a sensation of pain. Calamity or distress of any kind. The afflictions of the saints are represented in the Scriptures, as appointed, 1 Thess. 3: 3. Job 5: 6, 7, numerous, Ps. 34: 19. tran- sient, 2 Cor. 4: 17. Heb. 10: 37. and when sanctified, beneficial, 1 Pet. 1: 6. Ps. 119: 67, 71. They wean from the world ; work submission; produce humility; excite to diligence; stir up to prayer; and conform us to the divine image. To bear them with patience, we should consider our own unworthiness; the design of God in sending them ; the promises of support under them; and the real good they are productive of. The afflictions of a good man, says an elegant writer, never befel without a cause, nor are sent but upon a proper errand. These storms are never allowed to rise, but in order to dispel Some noxious vapors, and restore salubrity to the moral atmosphere. Who that for the first time beheld the earth in the midst of winter, bound up with frost, or drenched with floods of rain, or covered with snow, would have imagined that na- ture, in this dreary and torpid state, was working towards its own renovation in the spring? Yet we by experience know that those vicissitudes of winter are necessary for fertilizing the earth; and that, under wintry rains and snows, lie concealed the seeds of those roses that are to blossom in the spring; of those fruits that are to ripen in the summer; and of the corn and wine which are in har- vest to make glad the heart of man. It would be more agreeable to us to be always entertained with a fair and clear atmosphere, with cloudless skies, and perpetual sun- shine; yet in such climates as we have most knowledge of, the earth, were it always to remain in such a state, would refuse to yield its fruits; and, in the midst of our imagined scenes of beauty, the starved inhabitants would perish for want of food. Let us, therefore, quietly submit to Providence. Let us conceive this life to be the winter of our existence. Now the rains must fall, and the winds must roar around us; but, sheltering ourselves under him who is the “covert from the tempest,” let us wait with pa- tience till the storms of life shall terminate in an everlast- ing calm.—Blair's Ser. vol. v. Ser. 5; Vincent, Case, and Ad- dington, on Affliction ; Willison’s Afflicted Man's Companion. AFGHANS; a people of Asia, inhabiting the province of Cabeel, (or Cabeelistan;) and owe their introduction into this work to the opinion of sir William Jones, who considers them as a remnant of the ten tribes of Israel. In recommending an inquiry into the history and litera- ture of this people, he says, we learn from Esdras that the ten tribes, after a wandering journey, came to a country called Arsareth, where we may suppose they settled. Now the best Persian historians affirm that the Afghans are descended from the Jews, and they have among them- selves traditions of the same import. It is even asserted that their families are distinguished by the names of Jewish tribes ; though since their conversion to Islamism they have studiously concealed their origin. The language they use has a manifest resemblance to the Chaldaic; and a considerable district under their dominion is called Ha- Zareth, which might easily have been changed from Arsa- reth-Williams's Dict, of All Religions. AFRICA, (Libya;) one of the four principal divisions of the globe, and the third in magnitude. Africa is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean sea; on the east by the Indian ocean, the Red sea, and Part of Asia; on the south by the Southern ocean; and on the west by the North Atlantic. Its general form is triań. gular, the northern part being the base, and the southern extremity the vertex. Its length may be reckoned about seventy degrees of latitude, or four thousand nine hundred and ninety miles; and its greatest breadth something morè than fourthousand and ninety miles. Africa was peopled principally by Ham, or his descetic dants; hence it is called the “land of Ham,” in several of the Psalms. Mizraim peopled Egypt, (Gen. 10 : 6, 13, 14.) and the Pathrusim, the Naphtuhim, the Casluhim, and the Ludim, peopled other parts; but the situations they occupied are not now known distinetly. Neverthe- less, we may place Lehabim in Libya, and Phut between Numidia and Libya, along the Mediterranean sea. It is thought that many of the Canaanites, when expelled by Joshua, retired into Africa, and the Mahometans believe that the Amalekites, who dwelt in ancient times in the neighborhood of Mecca, were forced from thence by the kings descended from Zioram.—See CANAANITEs. The Gospel is thought to have been carried to Africa by the eunuch of Candace, whom Philip baptized; and pro- bably also by some of those who, from different parts of it, attended the feast of pentecost. Acts 2: 10. In after- times very flourishing churches were situated on various points of the Mediterranean shore of Africa; but, at pre- sent, Mahometanism or idolatry involves , almost the whole continent, as has been the case ever since its con- quest by the Saracens. See Missionary department of this work.-Calmet. AGABUS; a prophet of the primitive church, and one of the seventy disciples of our Savior. Acts 11: 28. Acts 21: 10. The Greeks say that he suffered martyrdom at Antioch. AGAG. This seems to have been a common name of the princes of Amalek, one of whom was very powerful as early as the time of Moses. Num. 24: 7. On account of the cruelties exercised by this king and his army against the Israelites, as they returned from Egypt, a bloody and long contested battle took place between Joshua and the Amalekites, in which the former was victorious. Exod. 17: 8–13. At the same time, God protested with an oath to destroy Amalek. Verses 14–16. Deut. 25: 17—19. A. M. 2513. About four hundred years after this, the Lord remembered the cruel treatment of his people, and his own oath ; and he commanded Saul, by the mouth of Samuel, to destroy the Amalekites. Saul mustered his army, and found it two hundred thousand strong. 1 Sam. 15: 1, &c. Having entered into their country, he cut in pieces all he could meet with from Havilah to Shur. Agag their king, and the best of their cattle, were however spared, an act of disobedience on the part of Saul, probably dictated by covetousness. But Agag did not long enjoy this reprieve ; for Samuel no sooner heard that he was alive, than he sent for him ; and, notwithstanding his insinuating ad- dress, and the vain hopes with which he flattered himself that the bitterness of death was past, he caused him to be hewed to pieces in Gilgal before the Lord, saying, “As, (in the same identical mode as,) thy sword hath made women childless, so shall thy mother be childless among women.” This savage chieftain had hewed many prisoners to death; and, therefore, by command of the Judge of the whole earth, he was visited with the same punishment which he had inflicted upon others.-Calmet. AGAPAE, or THE FEAST OF Love; from the Greek word agape, love, was a religious festival practised among the first Christians, with a view of cultivating mutual affection and friendly intercourse among each other. It was early intro- duced into the church, and, as some think, is referred to in Acts2: 46. Jude, verse 12. 2 Pet. 2: 13. It consisted of an entertainment prepared by the richer members, to which the poor were invited, and was commonly held in the place of worship when the worship of the Lord's day was over. There they testified their love by mutual acts of kindness, by partaking of the same fare, and by liberally supplying the necessities of their indigent brethren. From what Pliny in his epistle to the emperor Trajan says, con- cerning the meetings of the Christians in his day, it would appear that the feast of charity was generally attended to in the evening of the Lord's day, at least in those churches that were in Bithynia, the seat of his jurisdiction. “Their practice is,” says he, “to meet before day and sing a A G. A. A G. A [ 48 | hymn to Christ, and to bind themselves by a solemn oath, or sacrament, to do no wickedness: these things performed, they separate and meet again to partake of a common and innocent meal.” But the most particular account that we have of these Agapa, is that given us by Tertullian, in his Apology for the Christians, chap. 39: “We Christians,” says he, “ look upon ourselves as one body, actuated, as it were, by one soul ; and being thus incorporated by love, we can never dispute what we are to bestow upon our own members. And is it any great wonder that such charita- ble brethren as enjoy all things in common, should have such frequent love-feasts? It is for this you traduce us, and reflect upon our little frugal suppers, not only as infa- mously wicked, but as exceedingly scandalous. The na- ture of this supper you may understand by its name, for it is the Greek word for love. We Christians think we can never be too expensive, because we consider all to be gain that is laid out in doing good. When therefore we are at the charge of an entertainment, it is to refresh the bowels of the needy. We feed the hungry, because we know God takes a peculiar delight in seeing us do it. If there- fore we feast only with such excellent and noble designs, I leave you from thence to guess at the rest of our disci- pline in matters of pure religion. Nothing earthly, noth- ing impure, has any admittance here. Our souls ascend in prayer to God before we sit down to meat. We eat only what suffices nature, and drink no more than is strictly becoming chaste and regular persons. We Sup like servants who know that we may awake in the night to the service of our Master; and we discourse as those who recollect that God hears them. When supper is ended, every one is invited forth to sing praises to God, and by this you may judge of the measure of drinking at a Christian feast. As we begin, so we conclude all with prayer, and depart with the same degree of temperance and modesty with which we came ; as men who have not so properly been drinking as imbibing religion.” Christians, in the present day, are much divided in their judgment regarding the Agapa: ; and different parties ap- pear to have run into different extremes upon the subject. By some they are exalted to the rank of apostolic institu- tions, and classed with those ordinances of divine worship, which were delivered by the apostles of Christ to be stated- ly observed by the churches on every Lord's day. But it is not easy to make out this point without taking undue liberties with the word of God. But if those err, on the one hand, who identify the primitive Agapas, with the stated ordinances of public wor- ship, it is scarcely less censurable to discard them wholly, as is too much the case with multitudes of Christians in the present day, and to consider them as matters alto- gether undeserving of their regard. It is demonstrable from the passages already adduced from the writings of Pliny and Tertullian, that they were observed at a very early period of the Christian church, and that they were continued so long as the Christian profession was preserv- ed in its original purity. But when, through the general corruption of morals, and the prevailing laxity of disci- pline, the abuse of these feasts became notorious; and eyen the heathens took occasion from them to tax the Christians with impurity, they were laid aside ; and in the year 397, the council of Carthage ordained that they should not be held in churches except in cases of particular necessity. But since the abuse of a thing can never be fairly quoted as an argument against the thing itself, it merits the consideration of Christians of the present day, whether the revival of this ancient practice might not pos. sibly be rendered, under proper regulations, productive of beneficial results, and made subservient to a restoration of that “fervent love of the brethren,” which so eminently distinguished the first churches of the saints. 1 Thess. 1 : 9. 1 Pet, 1 ; 22. Jer. 6: 16.—Edinb. Ency. article AGAP AE. Fleury's Eccles. Hist. tom. 1 : 54. and Hallett's Notes on Scripture Texts ; Jones's Bib. Cyc. AGAPE, CHIONE, and IRENE ; three sisters who suffered martyrdom in the beginning of the fourth century, at Thessalonica. . It was during the persecution under Dio. clesian, A. D. 304, that these heroic Christian females sub- mitted to be buried alive, rather than give up the Scrip- tures and sacrifice to idols in violation of their love to God and Christ, “who commanded us,” said they, “to love him to the last.”—Fox, - AGAPETAE; a name given to certain virgins and widows, who in the ancient church associated themselves with and attended on ecclesiastics out of a motive of piety and charity.—See Deaconesses. - AGAPETUS; a Christian youth of Praeneste, in Italy, who, in the persecution under Severus, in the third century, though but fifteen years of age, suffered the most excru- ciating torments for his decided adherence to Christianity. He was first severely Seourged; then hung up by the feet; then scalded with boiling water; afterwards worried by wild beasts; and at last beheaded. The officer who di- rected his execution, while it was performing, fell suddenly from his judicial seat, crying out that his bowels burnt him, and expired; “feeling miraculously in this world,” says Fox, “a foretaste of the punishment due to such cru- elty; while the youthful martyr patiently suffered in hope of a glorious resurrection.” - AGARENIANS, or HAGARENIANs ; a name applied by Stockman and others to some persons, who, in the Seventh century, apostatized from Christianity to Mahometanism, the religion of the Arabians, who are deseended ſrom Is- mael, the son of Agar.—Bell's Wanderings, p. 105. AGATE, (shebo;) Exod. 28:19, 29: 12. In the Sep- tuagint and Vulgate, achates. A precious stone, semi-pel- lucid. Its variegations are sometimes most beautifully disposed, representing plants, trees, rivers, clouds, &c. Its Hebrew name is, perhaps, derived from the country whence the Jews imported it; for the merchants of Sheba. brought to the market of Tyre all kinds of precious stones. Ezek.27:22. The agate was the secondstone in the third row of the pectoral of the high priest. Exod.28: 19. and 39:12. AGATHA; a distinguished Christian martyr of the third century. She was a Sicilian lady, of surpassing beauty, accomplishments, and piety. Quintian, the pagan gover- nor of Sicily, captivated with her charms, and incensed by her rejection of his illicit overtures, wreaked upon this innocent and accomplished woman a revenge, at the bare recital of which humanity shudders. By his order, she was first scourged with rods; then burnt with red-hot irons, and cruelly torn with sharp hooks; after which she was laid upon a bed of live coals mingled with glass. After enduring inconceivable agonies with a sweet forti- tude, derived from her holy faith, the lovely victim was removed to her prison, and there expired, February 5, A. D. 251; her released spirit doubtless triumphantly mingling with the great multitude before the throne, who came out of great tribulation ; having washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Rev. 7: 9–17.—Foz. AGATHO; a Christian of Greece, who, in company with three Christian females, Cassia, Philippa, and Eu- tychia, suffered martyrdom in the fourth century, under Dioclesian.—Foz. AGATHUS, (VETIUs;) a young man of Lyons, in France, who, during the persecution under Antoninus Pius, having one day boldly pleaded the Christian cause was asked if he was a Christian 2 The confession o Christ at such a time was costly. Matt, 10: 28–39. Having answered in the affirmative, he was condemned to death, and received the crown of martyrdom accordingly. Many, animated by this young man's intrepidity, boldly owned their faith, and suffered in like manner for their attach- ment to the Savior.—Foz. - AGE ; duration. It sometimes signifies an indefinite period; at others it is used for, 1. a generation of the hu- man race, or thirty years; 2. as the Latin sacculum, a hun- dred years; 3. maturity of life, John 9: 21. ; 4. the latter end of life, Job 11: 17.—See CHRONoLogy. - The whole duration of the life of man is divided into four ages, viz. 1. Infancy; extending from the first to the fourteenth year. 2. Youth, adolescence, or the age of puberty; commencing at fourteen, and terminating at about twenty-five. 3. Manhood, or the virile age; con- cluding at fifty ; and the last ending at the close of life. Some, however, divide the first period into infancy and childhood; and the last likewise into two stages, calling that which succeeds the age of seventy-five, decrepit old. age.—Watson - - A G. R. A. G. R. [49] AGENDA ; among divines and philosophers, signifies the duties which a man lies under an obligation to per- form; thus we meet with the agenda of a Christian, or the duties he ought to perform, in opposition to the credenda, or the things he is to believe. It is also applied to the service or office of the church, and to church books com- piled by public authority, prescribing the order to be ob- served; and amounts to the same as ritual, formulary, directory, missal, &c.—Buck. AGENT; that which acts; opposed in philosophy to patient, or that which is acted upon. - AGENTS, (MoRAL;)—See MoRAL AGENCY. AGNUS DEI, (the Lamb of God ;), a name impiously applied to certain consecrated cakes of white wax, en- stamped with the figure of a lamb bearing a flag, which are borne ºn the processions of the church of Rome, or worn about the neck as amulets, and supposed to possess great virtues; they are at least very profitable to the clergy, and form a considerable source of income. This custom appears to have been borrowed from the heathen in the seventh or eighth century, and distinguished the nu- merous converts made by the sign of the cross in bap- tism.—Claude's Defence of the Reformation ; Robinson's Dictionary. - AGONISTICI, (combatants ;) a name given to certain Donatist preachers, who used to attend the public mar- kets, fairs, &c. to promulgate their principles; or rather, probably, the general principles of pure Christianity. (See Donatists.) They were a kind of itinerant polemics, or mis- sionaries; and are sometimes called circuitores, circelliones, &c.; and, at Rome, Montenses, probably from their preach- ing on the hills in the open air-Encyclopedia Britannica. AGONY, (agonia.) This term, expressive of the strong- est internal conflict of emotions, is used by the evangelist Luke to describe our Lord's sufferings in the garden of Gethsemane. Crabbe, with his usual accuracy and pre- cision, defines this word “a severe struggle with pain and suffering. Anguish,” he says, “arises from the reflection on evil that is past; agony springs from witnessing that which is immediate, or before the eye. Anguish and agony are species of distress of the severer kind, which spring altogether from the maturity of reflection, and the full consciousness of evil. Anguish is pain arising from severe pressure; agony the pain arising from an intense struggle.” The shade of difference is illustrated thus: “Parents suffer the deepest anguish, when a child disap- points their dearest hopes, by running a career of vice, and finishing its wicked course by an untimely and some- times ignominious end; but not unfrequently they are doomed to suffer the agony of seeing a child encircled in flames from which he cannot be snatched, or sinking into a Watery grave, from which he cannot be rescued.” Let the reader pause and reflect. What was the ago- nizing spectacle before the Savior’s eye in Gethsemane? What was that agonizing spectacle, at the sight of which, as it opened upon his view, “he began to be sore amazed and very heavy, and said, ‘My soul is exceeding sorrow- ful, even unto death?’” What was that sight of horror, whose appalling impression roused every faculty and feel- ing in prayer, “with strong crying and tears;” wrung every fibre of his frame with agony, and bathed his whole body in a bloody sweat? Was it merely a death of mar- tyrdom ? It were little less than blasphemy to affirm it. No: we are told what it was, in those affecting words of the apostle, (1 Cor. 15: 3.) “Christ died for our sins.” AGONYCLITAE, (not bending the knee;) a sect of Christians in the seventh century, who prayed always standing, as thinking it unlawful to kneel. - AGRICULTURE. When God placed Adam in paradise, he instructed him “to dress and keep it;” to work and labor the ground, let in the influences of heaven, prune the trees, cherish the plants, preserve the fruits from the beasts of the field, and the fowls of heaven, which had access to the garden; and to keep all his abode, and the domain around it, in good order. This was the first employment of man, which, by the wise and benevolent arrangements of his Maker, was to cheer and accelerate the hours of innocence and peace. After his expulsion from the garden on account of his transgressions, the command which he had received at his formation, to cul- Lord thy God giveth thee to possess.” marks are still used : in the journey from Arzroun to tivate the ground, was renewed; and the curse under which it was laid, rendered his exertions more necessary than before. This may be one reason that Adam initiated his eldest son in the art of cultivating the soil, which now refused to produce the necessaries of life in sufficient abundance and perfection, without the skill and industry of man; while he devoted Abel, his younger son, to the easier and more simple occupation of a shepherd. In the first ages of the world, men were chiefly em- ployed in digging and throwing up the earth, by means of rude and inconvenient implements; but Noah made important advances in the art of husbandry, and found out fitter instruments of cultivation than were known be- fore his time. This patriarch, the second father of our family, is called a man of the ground—in our translation, a husbandman, because of his improvement in agriculture, and his inventions for subduing and fertilizing the soil. In consequence of the divine malediction, useless or ob- noxious plants gained the ascendancy, and obstructed the growth of esculent vegetables. These obstructions were to be removed, which required great pains and labor; and the sterility of the ground was to be corrected, and its productive energy excited and improved, by the operations of the plough. The surface of the ground was probably divided into fields, and recurred to individual proprietors long before the flood. By that dreadful catastrophe, the whole earth reverted to its natural, undivided, unappropriated state; but how long it continued in common we have no means of ascertaining. In the days of Abraham, who lived at no great distance of time from the flood, the lands of Ca- naan had become in some degree the exclusive property of the nation by whom they were occupied; and been even subdivided into small fields, and claimed as the legal inheritance of private individuals, except the pastures which appear to have remained in common through many preceding ages. The patriarch bought a field from Ephron the Hittite, for a possession of a burying-place ; and the transaction shows, that the property was perfectly well- defined; that Ephron had the same absolute right to it, as any landed proprietor of our times has to his estate. And upon the purchase-money being paid, the sacred his- torian says, “The field of Ephron, which was in Machpe- lah, which was before Mamre, the field and the cave which was therein ; and all the trees that were in the field, that were in all the borders round about, were made sure unto Abraham for a possession, in the presence of the children of Heth, before all that went in at the gate of his city.” The minute division of landed property in Egypt, is at- tested by the same infallible authority; for, under the ad- ministration of Joseph, the people of that country were compelled by the famine to sell “every man his field;” and “Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh.” When the sons of Israel had conquered the land of pro- mise, it was, by the divine command, Surveyed and divided by lot, first among the twelve tribes; and then the portion of each tribe was laid out in separate inheritances, accord- ing to the number of the families composing the tribe; and thus every man in the nation had his field, which he was directed to cultivate for the support of himself and his family. To prevent mistake and litigation, these fields were marked off by stones set up on the limits, which could not be removed without incurring the wrath of heaven. The divine command in relation to this matter, runs in these terms: “Thou shalt not remove thy neigh- bor’s landmark, which they of old time have set in thine inheritance, which thou shalt inherit in the law which the In Persia, land Amasia, Morier found the boundaries of each man’s pos- sessions, here and there, marked by large stones. Land- marks were used in Greece long before the age of Homer; for when Minerva fought with Mars, she seized, with her powerful hand, a piece of rock, lying in the plain, black, rugged and large, which ancient men had placed to mark the boundary of the field. - - - Their inheritances were again divided into parts, which the Hebrews distinguished by measure into acres. The dis. tribution of a field into acres, is ascertained by a passage in the first boo of Samuel which is couched in these A. G. R. A G. U [ 50 | terms: “And that first slaughter which Jonathan and his armor-bearer made, was about twenty men, within as it were a half acre of land, which a yoke of oxen might plough.” - - The land of promise was distinguished by extraordinary fruitfulness : Jehovah was pleased, in a special manner, to bless the springing of the earth, and to crown the year with his goodness; yet this peculiar favor did not super- sede the vigilance and activity of the husbandman. The prophet Isaiah intimates, that his countrymen began their operations in the field by erecting fences, and gathering out the stones, and clearing away other incumbrances: “My well-beloved has a vineyard in a very fruitful hill; and he fenced it and gathered out the stones thereof.” Thorns or other useless plants were either dug up by the roots, or consumed by fire. “For thus saith the Lord, to the men of Judah and Jerusalem, break up your fallow- ground, and sow not among thorns.” Rich as the soil of Palestine certainly is, it refused at no time the aid of manure, which travellers and historians tell us is the case in some countries. This fact we discover in several parts of Scripture, but particularly in the parable of the barren fig-tree: “Let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about it, and dung it; and if it bear fruit, well; and if not, then shall we cut it down.” Thus we find the Jewish farmer, however highly favored, was obliged to follow the rule which Virgil prescribed to his countrymen, to saturate the parched soil with rich dung, and scatter sordid ashes upon the exhausted lands. Geor. lib. 1, 1.79. Not satisfied with cultivating the rich plains and fertile valleys of his native land, he reduced the barren rocks and rugged moun- tains under his dominion, and compelled them to minister to his necessities. For this purpose he covered them with earth, or, where this was impracticable, he constructed walls of loose stones in parallel rows along their sides, to support the mould, and prevent it from being washed down by the rains. On these circular plots of excellent soil, which gradually rose one above another, from the base to the very summits of the mountains, he raised abundant crops of corn and other excellent vegetables; or where the declivity was too rocky, he planted the vine and the Olive, which delight in such situations, and which rewarded his toil with the most picturesque scenery, and the richest products. Thus the places where only the wild goat wan- dered and the eagle screamed, which appeared to be doomed to perpetual nakedness and sterility, were con- verted by the bold and persevering industry of the Syrian husbandman into cornfields and gardens, vineyards and Olive plantations, the manifest traces of which, in all the mountains of Palestine, remain to this day. The inhabi- tants of that “good land,” literally sung from the top of the rock, when it flowed with the blood of the grape, and poured them out “rivers of oil.”—Paxton, vol. ii. AGRIPPA; surnamed Herod, the son of Aristobulus and Mariamne, and grandson of Herod the Great, was born A. M. 3997, three years before the birth of our Sa- vior, and seven years before the vulgar era. After the death of his father Aristobulus, Josephus informs us that Herod, his grandfather, took care of his education, and sent him to Rome to make his court to Tiberius. Agrip- pa, having a great inclimation for Caius, the son of Ger- manicus, and grandson of Antonia, chose to attach himself to this prince, as if he had some prophetic views of the future elevation of Caius, who at that time was beloved by all the world. The great assiduity and agreeable be- havior of Agrippa. So far won upon this prince, that he was unable to live without him. Caius being killed in the beginning of the year A. D. 41, Agrippa, who was then at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which he had been advanced by the army. The emperor, as an acknowledgment for his kind offices, gave him all Judea, and the kingdom of Chalcis, which had been possessed by Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa became of a sudden one of the greatest princes of the east, and was possessed of as much, if not more territory, than had been held by Herod the Great, his grandfather. He returned to Judea, and governed it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. But the desire of pleasing them, and a mistaken zeal for their religion, induced him to put to death the apostle James, and to cast Peter into prison with the same design; and, but for a miraculous interposition, which, however, pro- duced no effect upon the mind of the tyrant, his hands would have been imbrued in the blood of two apostles, the memory whereof is preserved in Scripture. At Caesarea, he had games performed in honor of Claudius. Here the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue for peace. Agrippa being come early in the morning into the theatre, with a design to give them audience, Seated himself on his throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue, worked in the most admirable manner. The rising Sun darted his golden beams thereon, and gave it such a lustre as dazzled the eyes of the spectators; and when the king began his speech to the Tyrians and Sidonians, the para- sites around him began to say, it was “the voice of a god, and not of a man.” Instead of rejecting these impious flatteries, Agrippa received them with an air of compla- cency; and the angel of the Lord Smote him, because he did not give God the glory. Being, therefore, carried home to his palace, he died, at the end of five days, racked with tormenting pains in his bowels, and devoured with worms. Such was the death of Herod Agrippa, A. D. 44, after a reign of seven years. He left a son of the same name, and three daughters—Bernice, who was married to her uncle Herod, her father's brother; Mariamne, betrothed to Julius Archelaus; and Drusilla, promised to Epiphanius, the son of Archelaus, the son of Comagena.—Watson. AGRIPPA; Son of the former Agrippa, was at Rome with the emperor Claudius when his father died. The emperor, we are told by Josephus, was inclined to give him all the dominions that had been possessed by his father, but was dissuaded from it, Agrippa being only seventeen years of age ; and he kept him therefore at his court four years. - Three years after this, Herod, king of Chalcis, and uncle to young Agrippa, dying, the emperor gave his dominions to this prince, who, notwithstanding, did not go into Judea till four years after, A. D. 53; when, Claudius taking from him the kingdom of Chalcis, gave him the provinces of Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Paneas, and Abilene, which formerly had been in the possession of Lysanias. After the death of Claudius, his successor, Nero, who had a great affection for Agrippa, to his other dominions added Julias in Peraea, and that part of Galilee to which Ta- richaea and Tiberias belonged. Festus, governor of Judea, coming to his government, A. D. 60, king Agrippa and Bernice, his sister, went as far as Caesarea to salute him ; and as they continued there for some time, Festus talked with the king concerning the affair of St. Paul, who had been seized in the temple about two years before, and within a few days previous to his visit had appealed to the emperor. Agrippa wishing to hear Paul, that apostle delivered that noble address in his presence which is re- corded, Acts 26, and which drew from the astonished monarch that memorable exclamation, “Almost thou per- suadest me to be a Christian.” After the destruction of Jerusalem, in which he took part with the Romans, Agrippa retired with Bernice to Rome, where he died A. D. 90, aged seventy years. The suspicion of habitual incest rests as a deep shade upon his character; which, if it be well grounded, may show, among other reasons, why he was not “altogether” persuaded to be “a Christian.”— Watson ; Calmet. AGUE ; a periodical disease of the ſever kind, consist. ing of a cold shivering fit, succeeded by a hot one. It is Occasioned by want of perspiration, and is said to be most obstinate in the harvest season. A burning ague is one of the most terrible kind. Lev. 26: 16. AGUR ; the name of the writer of a collection of pro- verbs, which have been added to those of Solomon, and are now contained in the thirtieth chapter of that book. He is called the son of Jakeh, and is said to have addressed them originally to Ithiel and to Ucal; but it is a remarka- ble circumstance, that, of the four persons whose names are introduced on this occasion, we find not the slightest mention in any other part of the inspired writings; and it would be trifling with the reader's patience to lay before him the reveries of the Jewish Rabbins respecting them, which indeed are remarkable for nothing so much as their extravagance and absurdity. Let us respect the silence of A H A A IC [ 51 ) revelation. What should hinder. us from supposing that though we are unable to give any particular account of Agur, and his father Jakeh; of Ithiel and Ucal; they were, nevertheless, persons well known in their day and generation; that Agur was a prophet or seer, who was in- spired to deliver certain parables or important sayings for the use of the church of God,—that he addressed them to two of his particular friends or perhaps pupils, and that their importance induced the Hebrews to attach them, by way of appendix, to the Proverbs of Solomon? Prov. 30. AGYNIANS, or AGINIAN1; a small sect about the end of the seventh century. They condemned the use of cer- tain meats, and marriage, whence their name. AHAB; the son and successor of Omri. He began his reign over Israel, A. M. 3086, and reigned twenty-two years. In impiety he far exceeded all the kings of Israel. He married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Zidon, who introduced the whole abominations and idols of her country, Baal and Ashtaroth. 1 Kings 17, &c. 2, AHAB the son of Kolaiah, and Zedekiah the son of Maaseiah, were two false prophets, who, about A. M. 3406, seduced the Jewish captives at Babylon with hopes of a speedy deliverance, and stirred them up against Jere- miah. The Lord threatened them with a public and ignominious death, before such as they had deceived ; and that their names should become a curse; men wishing that their ſoes might be made like Ahab and Zedekiah, whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon roasted in the fire. Jer. 29: 21, 22.— Watson. AHASUERUS ; was the king of Persia, who advanced Esther to be queen, and at her request delivered the Jews from the destruction plotted for them by Haman. Arch- bishop Usher is of opinion that this Ahasuerus was Darius Hystaspes; and that Atossa was the Washti, and Artys- toma the Esther, of the Scriptures: But, according to Herodotus, the latter was the daughter of Cyrus, and therefore could not be Esther; and the former had four sons by Darius, besides daughters, born to him after he was king; and therefore she could not be the queen Vashti, divorced from her husband in the third year of his reign, nor he the Ahasuerus who divorced her. Besides, Atossa retained her influence over Darius to his death, and obtained the succession of the crown for his son, Xerxes; whereas Washti was removed from the presence of Ahasuerus by an irrevocable decree. Esther 1: 19. Joseph Scaliger maintains that Xerxes was the Ahasue- rus, and Hamestris his queen, the Esther, of Scripture. The opinion is founded on the similitude of names, but contradicted by the dissimilitude of the characters of Hamestris and Esther. Besides, Herodotus says, that Xerxes had a son by Hamestris that was marriageable in the seventh year of his reign; and therefore she could not be Esther. The Ahasuerus of Scripture, according to Dr. Prideaux, was Artaxerxes Longimanus. Josephus posi- tively says that this was the person. The Septuagint, through the whole book of Esther, uses Artaxerxes for the Hebrew Ahasuerus wherever the appellation occurs ; and the apocryphal additions to that book every where call the husband of Esther Artaxerxes; and he could be no other than Artaxerxes Longimanus. The extraordinary favor shown to the Jews by this king, first in sending Ezra, and afterwards Nehemiah, to relieve this people, and restore them to their ancient prosperity, affords strong presumptive evidence that they had near his person and high in his re- gard such an advocate as Esther. Ahasuerus is also a name given in Scripture, Ezra 4:6. to Cambyses, the son : Cyrus; and to Astyages, king of the Medes. Dan. 3: 1. - - - AHAVA ; the name of a river of Babylonia, or rather of Assyria, where Ezra assembled those captives whom he afterwards brought into Judea. Ezra 8: 15. The river Ahava is thought to be that which ran along the Adabene, where a river Diava, or Adiava, is mentioned, and on which Ptolemy places the city Abane or Aavane. This is probably the country called Ava, whence the kings of Assyria translated the people called Avites into Palestine, and where they settled some of the captive Israelites. 2 Kings 17:24, 18; 34. 19:13, 17:31. Ezra, intending to collect as many Israelites as he could, who might return to Judea, halted in the country of Ava, or Aahava, whence he sent agents into the Caspian mountains, to invite such Jews as were willing to join him. Ezra 8: 16. The histo- ry of Izates, king of the Adiabenians, and of his mother Helena, who became converts to Judaism some years after the death of Jesus Christ, sufficiently proves that there were many Jews still settled in that country.—Watson. AHAZ; succeeded his father Jotham, as king of Israel, at the age of twenty years, reigned till the year before Christ, 726, and addicted himself to the practice of idola- try. After the customs of the heathen, he made his chil- dren to pass through fire; he shut up the temple, and jºf its vessels. He became tributary to Tiglath- pileser, whose assistance he supplicated against the kings of Syria and Israel. Such was his impiety, that he was not allowed burial in the sepulchres of the kings of Israel. 2 Kings 16: 2 Chron. 28.—Watson. AHAZIAH; the son of Ahab, king of Israel. Ahaziah reigned two years, partly alone, and partly with his father Ahab, who appointed him his associate in the kingdom a year before his death. Ahaziah imitated his father’s im- pieties. 1 Kings 22:52, &c. 2 Kings 1: 1–17.—Watson. 2. AHAzIAH; king of Judah, the son of Jehoram and Athaliah. He succeeded his father in the kingdom of Judah, A. M. 3119 ; being in the twenty-second year of his age. 2 Kings 8:26, &c.; and he reigned one year only in Jerusalem. He walked in the ways of Ahab's house, to which he was related, his mother being of that family. 2 Kings 9.-Watson. - AHIJAH ; the prophet of the Lord, who dwelt in Shi- loh. He is thought to be the person who spoke twice to Solomon from God, once while he was building the tem- ple. 1 Kings 6: 11. at which time he promised him the divine protection: and again, 1 Kings 11: 11. after his falling into his irregularities, with great threatenings and reproaches. Ahijah was one of those who wrote the his- tory or annals of this prince, 2 Chron. 9:29, . The same prophet declared to Jeroboam, that he would usurp the kingdom, 1 Kings 9: 29, &c., and, about the end of Jero- boam’s reign, he also predicted the death of Abijah, the only pious son of that prince, as is recorded 1 Kings 14: 2, &c. Ahijah, in all probability, did not long survive the delivery of this last prophecy; but we are not informed of the time and manner of his death.-Watson. AHIMAAZ; the son of Zadok, the high priest. Ahi- maaz succeeded his father under the reign of Solomon. He performed a very important piece of service for David during the war with Absalom. He was succeeded in the priesthood by his son Azariah.—Jones. AHITHOPHEL; a celebrated character in Scripture. He was at one time David’s most intimate friend and counsellor; but afterwards became his most inveterate enemy : for, after Absalom had succeeded in exciting a general disaffection to his father's government, Ahithophel instantly joined him, and became the most active of all the conspirators. David was more alarmed by the de- ſection of this experienced politician, than by all the thousands who crowded round the standard of rebellion; and he earnestly prayed, that the Lord might turn his counsel into foolishness. It was not without reason that David was thus alarmed; for we find Ahithophel instantly recommending the most prompt and effectual measures to destroy the power and authority of his former friend.— Jones. . AHOLIBAH AND AHOLAH; are two fictitious names adopted by the prophet Ezekiel, to denote the two king- doms of Judah and Samaria. They are represented as two sisters of Egyptian extraction, Aholah being put for Samaria, and Aholibah for Jerusalem, the first importing a tent, and the second my tent is in her. As both those kingdoms prostituted themselves to the Egyptians and Assyrians, by imitating their idolatrous practices, the Lord abandoned them to those very people for whom they had shown so passionate and so impure an affection. They were by them carried into captivity, and subjected to the severest servitude. Ezekiel 33: 4.—Calmet's Dict. AI, a city near Bethel, and farther to the east. Per- haps a few ruins, just South of Deir Diwān, and about two miles south-east from Bethel, mark the spot. The three thousand men, first sent by Joshua to reduce this city, were repulsed, on account of the sin of Achan, who had A IN A I O [ 52 violated the anathema pronounced against Jericho, by ap- propriating a part of the spoil. After the expiation of this offence, the whole army of Israel marched against Ai, with orders to treat that city as Jericho had been treated, with this difference, that the plunder was to be given to the army. Joshua, having appointed an ambush of thirty thousand men, marched against the city, and, by a feigned retreat, drew out the king of Ai with his troops; and upon a signal given by elevating his shield on the top of a pike, the men in ambush entered the city and set fire to it. Thus the soldiers of Ai, placed between two divisions of Joshua's army, were all destroyed; the king alone be- ing preserved for a more ignominious death on a gibbet, where he hung till sunset. The spoil of the place was afterwards divided among the Israelites. The men ap- pointed for ambush, are, in one place, said to be thirty thousand, and in another five thousand. For reconciling this apparent contradiction, most commentators have gene- rally supposed, that there were two bodies placed in am- buscade between Bethel and Ai, one of twenty-five thou- sand and the other of five thousand men; the latter being probably a detachment from the thirty thousand first sent, and ordered to lie as near to the city as possible. Masius allows only five thousand men for the ambuscade, and twenty-five thousand for the attack. Josh. 8.—Watson. AICHMALOTARCH ; signifies the prince of the captivi. ty, or chief of the captives. The Jews pretend that this was the title of him who had the government of their people during the captivity of Babylon; and they believe these princes or governors to have been constantly of the tribe of Judah, and family of David. But they give no satisfac- tory proof of the real existence of these Aichmalotarchs. There was no prince of the captivity before the end of the second century, from which period the office continued till the eleventh century. The princes of the captivity resided at Babylon, where they were installed with great cere- mony, held courts of justice, &c., and were set over the eastern Jews, or those settled in Babylon, Chaldea, Assyria, and Persia.-JVatson. AIJALON, or Ajalon, now Yalo, thirteen miles from Jerusalem, a little to the right of the road to Yāſa, was a Levitical city assigned to the tribe of Dan; of which, however, the Amorites long retained possession, Judges 1: 35. The neighboring valley is memorable for the miracle of Joshua, in arresting the sun and moon in their course. There was another Ajalon in the tribe of Zebu- lon. Judges 12: 12.- T. AIJELETH ; a Hind. The twenty-second Psalm is en- titled Aijeleth Shahar, which is translated in the margin the hind of the morning : now the morning which this Psalm celebrates is the morning of the resurrection. The hind of the morning is perhaps one of the most striking characte- ristics of the resurrection of the dead that language can furnish-Bronyn. AINSWORTH, (HENRy, D. D.;) a celebrated noncon- formist divine of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but both the time and place of his birth are unknown. In the year 1590, he greatly distinguished himself among a sect of dissenters called Bronmists; and in early life gained great reputation by his knowledge of the learned languages, and particularly of Hebrew. The Brownists having fallen into great discredit in England, Ainsworth was involved in their diſficulties and troubles; and at length he was compelled to quit his native land, and retire into Holland. In conjunction with Johnson, he erected a church at Amsterdam ; and published a confession of faith of the Brownists, in the year 1602, which caused much contention, and a division between him and Mr. Johnson was the result; the latter removing to Embden with half the congregation, and Ainsworth remaining at Amsterdam ; but Johnson soon after died, and his con. gregation was dissolved. Ainsworth also left his people for a short time, and went to Ireland, but returned to Amsterdam, and continued there till the time of his death. Nothing could persuade him, however, to return home. and he died, as he lived, in exile. This circumstance was at that time very prejudicial to the Protestant cause, in general, and especially to the Puritans; and it has ever been a matter of regret, that through a too rigorous ad. ministration, the church excluded this great and able man from the public exercise of his ministry in his native country. Very few authors are more quoted than Ains. worth, by the literati of all countries; and not only at a considerable distance of time but by all sects and parties. To them the celebrated Bishop Hall paid much atten- tion. Ainsworth was a man of profound learning, well versed in the Scriptures, and deeply read in the works of the Rabbins. He published several treatises, many of which excited great interest; particularly that entitled, “A counter Poison against Bernard and Crashaw.” Ainsworth is much celebrated for his “Annotations on several Books of the Bible.” These were printed at various times and in many sizes. In those on the five Books of Moses, Psalms, and the Canticles, the Hebrew words are com- pared with and explained by the ancient Greek and Chaldee versions, and other records and monuments of the Hebrew. Mr. Ainsworth's death was sudden; and suspicion of his having been poisoned was raised by his having found a diamond, of great value, belonging to a Jew, and his refusing to return it to him till he had confessed with some of the Rabbins on the prophecies of the Old Testament, relating to the Messiah, which was promised; but the Jew not having sufficient interest to obtain one, it is thought he was the instrument of his death. Mr. Ains- worth was a great, a learned, and a pious man; and his name will be justly handed down to posterity, as worthy not only of praise but imitation. In addition to the works referred to in this life, he was the author of “A Treatise on the Communion of Saints;” “A Treatise on the Fellowship that the Faithful have with God, his angels, and one with another in this present life:” and “An Arrow against Ido. latry.”—Jones's Christian Biography; Neal's History of the Puritans ; Heylin's History of the Presbyterians; Wendler: Diss. de Lib. Rar. Sect. 23. ; Vogt. Catalogues, Historius Crit- icus Librorum Rariorum ; Light's Treatise of Religion and Learning ; Calamy's Life of Baxter; and Memoirs of Ains- 7vorth. . - AION AND AIONIOS. These important Greek words, in consequence of recent discussions, have become so far naturalized in our language as to claim notice here. In 1826, Mr. Balfour of Charlestown, (Mass.) in a work en- titled, “An Inquiry, &c.” endeavored to prove that these words in the usage of Scripture do not denote unlimited or ‘endless existence, but the reverse. Aión he regards as equivalent to age ; and aionios, which is the adjective formed from aion, as equivalent to age-lasting, or lasting for a considerable but temporary period. Two years after, Mr. Goodwin, of Sandwich, (Mass.) in an article publish. ed in a periodical of high reputation, (the Christian Ex aminer,) advanced a new theory; that aion in scriptural as well as in classical usage, bears no reference whatever to time or duration, but simply conveys the idea of spiritu- ality. Hence he proposes to render aionios by the term Spiritual; regarding it as equivalent to the Greek pneu. malikos. Both these writers agree, however, in one point, that of setting aside the signification of eternity from the words in question, especially in relation to future punish- ment. - In 1829, professor Stuart, of Andover, published an “FX. egetical Essay,” in “the Spirit of the Pilgrims,” in which he professes to settle the true sense of these terms on the principles of strict philological interpretation. This Essay, which completely subverts the positions of Mr. Balfour and Mr. Goodwin, of course called forth animadversions; and the public discussion was kept up by further investiga- tions, letters, replies, and rejoinders, until 1833; since which time nothing new has appeared. The result of this discussion has been undoubtedly salutary; as the public are now in possession of far better means of forming an accurate judgment of the meaning of these important words than at any former period. It is not improbable that some have been stumbled by the speculations which aim to expunge from the Bible all intimations of a future - and final state of retribution; but the conscientious inqui. rers after truth will now, we trust, be satisfied that no efforts of theological audacity, or learned ingenuity, can avail to obscure the revelation of that solemn truth, or to make it appear that the retribution which awaits the wicked, is A T O A I O [ 53 ] not equal in duration to that which awaits the right- €OUIS. - - Mr. Balfour has carried the argument for the limitation of these words, as far as it can ever be carried, and has shown himself an acute and pains-taking investigator. His errors, (and they are fundamental ones,) seem to re- sult not so much from want of honesty of purpose, as from want of learning and skill in the philosophy of lan- guage, falling in with some unfortunate bias against orthodoxy. This state of mind, working on undigested materials, naturally led to doubt; doubt passed rapidly into disbelief; and disbelief into honest and determined opposition; in which the apparent contempt of his writ- ings by the orthodox has unhappily confirmed him. . Mr. Goodwin with much superior learning, urbanity, and lite- rary taste, has thrown strong light on the etymology and classical usage of aion, though in his translations he has sometimes “darkened counsel by words without know- ledge.” He has probably done all that ever will be done to sustain the meaning of simple spirituality. But as re- lates to Old or New Testament usage, his effort must be pronounced a total failure; the reference to duration in all cases being uniform and unequivocal. Professor Stu- art's little work is not without faults, some of which have been roughly handled by Mr. Balfour in his Letters to Mr. Stuart; but on the whole, it may be safely said to be one of the most able and satisfactory specimens of philo- logical investigation, comprehension, and discriminating classification ever presented to the world. The reader, to do justice to the subject, should go through the discussion in the order in which it occurred. From an impartial col- lation of the evidence furnished by each of these three able writers, he can hardly ſail of gaining a correct and comprehensive knowledge of the determinate sense of this fundamental word ; whose frequent recurrence in the sa- cred writings in the most important connections, makes it worthy of the most serious and profound investigation. The following is here set down as the result of such an investigation by the compiler of this work. It will be seen that he differs somewhat, though seldom, from the results of professor Stuart. - Aión is a derivative from aei, always, and on the present particle of the verb eimi, to be. Its primary and proper signification, therefore, is always-being, or, which is the same thing, everlasting. It may be defined strictly, dura- tion without interruption and nithout end. Lennep, in his “Etymologium Linguae Grecae,” says, “it is a noun of that kind, which in its own nature denotes collection and multitude of things, as appears from the termination on.” Phavorinus also calls it “the comprehension of many times and periods;” a definition which Saurin might have had in his eye when he speaks of the “absorbing periods of eternity.” Nothing therefore can be more glaringly unsound than the statement of Mr. Goodwin, that “this word expresses the ExistENCE or BEING alone ;” a defini- tion which gives us the force of but one half the com- bound; the on, but not the aei. And yet he himself says in another place, with singular inconsistency, “Aet on is a form of speech which is used at times, and indeed not un- frequently, by ancient Greek writers, to signify eternal;” and quotes Phavorinus as saying, “Aion is formed from aei and Ön, in the same manner as aeikizien plainly is from aiekizien.” When, therefore, after again quoting Phavori- nus as saying in his definition after the Etymological Magnum, “Aion is also the eternal and endless as it is re- garded by the theologian,” we find Mr. Goodwin adding, “Here I strongly suspect is the true secret brought to light of the origin of the sense of eternity in aion : the theolo- gian first thought he perceived it, or else he placed it there; the theologian keeps it there now; and the theolo- gian will probably retain it there longer than any one else;” we are almost equally shocked at the palpable mis- representation of facts, and the wanton violation of Chris- tian charity. “For,” to use his own language, “it is a word on whose true meaning a doctrine of religion depends, embracing one of the most important principles of the Divine administration; the most momentous interests of the Soul; and the entire character of the Christian reli- gion. It is one of those cases in which a city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. And the trumpet of a watchman, on an elevated watch-tower in Zion, ought to utter a full, clear, and certain sound ; the distinct echoes of which he will be listening for in the depths of the spirit, and will be glad to be hearing, in every region and every period, through all eternity.” With these last sentiments we do most cordially coincide, and shall endeavor to be governed by them in practice. We have already seen that the primary and proper sig- nification of aion is, that nihich always exists. But in this word, as in all others, usage always modifies the original meaning. Hence it is of the utmost consequence to un- derstand how far the meaning of aion was affected among the Greeks by usage; and more especially how it was understood at the time the Old Testament was first trans- lated into Greek. That version called the Septuagint, which was in common use among the Jews in the time of our Lord, it is well known was made from the original Hebrew, about 300 years before Christ. The Hebrew word oulm, or olim, which occurs three hundred and eight times; is, with the exception of about twenty instances, in- variably translated by the word aion, in some one of its various forms. Hence the two words were evidently re- garded by the learned translators as equivalent in signifi- cation, or at least more nearly so than any other. If, therefore, we can ascertain how aion was then understood among the Greeks, we shall be able to ascertain what sense the translators attached to the Hebrew oulm. Hap- pily, we have one of the best of witnesses to the usage of aion, at that time, and by the earlier Greek writers, in Aristotle, the illustrious preceptor of Alexander the Great. In his treatise De Caelo, in describing the highest heaven as the residence of the gods, he says, “It therefore is evi- dent that there is neither place, nor vacuum, nor time beyond. Wherefore the things there, are not by nature adapted to exist in place; nor does time make them grow old; neither under the highest [heaven] is there any change of any one of these things, they being placed be- yond it; but unchangeable and passionless, having the best, even the self-sufficient life, they continue through all (aiona) eternity. For indeed the word itself, according to the ancients, divinely expressed this. For the period which comprehends the time of every one’s life, beyond which according to nature nothing exists, is called his (aion) eternity. And for the same reason also, the period of the whole heaven, even the infinite time of all things, and the period comprehending that infinity, is (aion) eternity; de- riving its name from (gei einai) always being, immortal and divine. Whence also it is applied to other things, to some indeed (akribesteron) accurately, but to others (amauroteron) in the law signification of (to einai te kai zen) being and even life.”—Aristotle, De Caelo, Lib. 1. Cap. 9. Nothing can be more explicit or satisfactory than this testimony, as to the origin and usage of aion ; and a more competent witness never lived than Aristotle. Such, then, we may say with certainty, was the meaning attached to this word, at the very time the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament was made. When used in the sense of eternity, it was used accurately ; when used in a modi- fied sense, it was used figuratively, or improperly. In exact accordance with this representation, we find Taylor, in his Hebrew Concordance, gives to loulm, (eis aiona,) in one hundred and seventy-five instances, the sense of forever; and Gesenius, in the last edition of his celebrated Lexicon, assigns, as its primary and proper signification, the sense of (envigkeit,) eternity. Indeed, this prince of Hebrew lexi- cographers gives it no other definition ; only remarking, that it is often with the Hebrews, as with us, in common speech, used inaccurately. The same signification, of course, belongs to aion in the Septuagint. And in this sense of unlimited duration must it always be taken, unless some- thing appears in the subject or connection in which it oc- curs, to limit its signification; that is, to show that it is used figuratively, and not in its proper acceptation. Now, in all the cases relied upon by #. Balfour and others, to disprove its endless signification, it is clear that something of this extraneous evidence exists, to modify the meaning of the word. But this evidence by no means disproves its endless signification, when properly employed. It only proves that, in certain cases, the word is used hyperboli- cally. And this is no more than is true of all words, even A 1 O A [, B [ 54 J those of the best established meaning.” A little care and candor will suffice to prevent any mistake from such an occasional use of the word. It is only the caviller that is caught in the snare of his own skepticism, or in the par- tiality of his prejudiced investigation; and held, perhaps, in the pride of his self-consistency, and of his publicly committed character. 2 Tim. 2: 23–26. But God has said, “the meek mill he guide in judgment; the meek will he teach his way.” Ps. 25: 9. * To the established meaning of unlimited duration be- longing to aion, it has been objected, 1. That the Greek term will admit of a plural, which the English word eter- nity will not. But it might as well be contended, that forever cannot properly mean unlimited duration, because another ever may be added to it, as that aion must neces- sarily mean a limited duration on account of its admitting a plural form of expression. The truth is, such expressions are merely intensives, as every scholar skilled in the use of language must know, and as every man of plain common Sense, unbiassed by a peculiar theological system, at once perceives and feels. See 1 Tim. 1: 17. - 2. But it has been said, that aion admits the pronouns this and that before it, which the English words eternity and forever do not. See Luke 20:35. In this case, how- ever, and others of a parallel description, the admission of the pronoun is owing to a peculiar usage of the term aion in the sense of moorld ; and it designates, not, as some have absurdly rendered it, the Mosaic age in distinction from that of the Messiah; but the entire present state of existence in distinction from the future, which is to follow resurrection of the dead.” The whole context fixes this meaning beyond the possibility of mistake. 3. The advocates of a limited meaning to this and its kindred words, adopt a rule of interpretation to this effect, “That where a word is used in relation to different things, the subject itself must determine the meaning of the word.” But this rule, as it here stands, and as used by them, in- volves a gross sophism. It supposes that words have no proper meaning of their own, and that they are to stand for nothing in the decision of any question; but are to mean any thing that the subject to which they relate can be proved to mean without them. The sound rule of inter- pretation in all such cases is, “That the subject—including the connection, or scope of the passage—must commonly de- termine whether a word should be taken in a literal or figurative sense.” This rule allows every word to have a proper meaning of its onwn, only modified by the connection in which it is introduced; while the other rule reduces words to mere ciphers, and, if adopted universally, would annihilate language, as the vehicle of communicating ideas. From the nature of things, it may be safely affirmed, that endless punishment can be neither proved on the one hand, nor disproved on the other. The subject in- volves the adjustment of relations too complicated and vast for human decision. Every truly reasonable man, believing in Divine Revelation, will therefore yield all his speculations on this awful subject, to the authoritative an- nouncements which come to us all from the throne of God. Without seeking to evade the proper meaning of the lan- guage in which these divine discoveries are made known, he will, amid a world of conflicting opinions, cleave stead- fastly “to the law and the testimony,” saying, with the greatest of apostles, “LET GoD BE TRUE, AND EVERY MAN A LIAR.” Rom. 3: 4. He will imitate the example of Noah, who “being warned of God of things not seen as yet, moved with fear, prepared an ark for the saving of his house; by which he condemned the world and became heir of the righteousness nihich is by faith.” Heb. 11:7. 4. But the evidence on this subject is attempted to be discredited, by alleging the few instances in which aiān and its kindred terms are used in the Scriptures in relation to future punishment. It should be remembered, however, that these terms are employed in Scripture in relation to at least twenty different subjects; so that, to be applied in numerous instances to this one in particular, is by no means to be expected. Besides, other phrases equally expressive • Take, for example, the word endless, in our language. No word has a more determinate meaning. Yet it is equally liable, with the Greek aion, to the charge of ambiguity. For how often do we read of ‘endless talkers,’ ‘endless disputes,’ &c. of the same thing, are often employed. And even if there were no other terms than these, and these were used but five or six times, surely five or six solemn repetitions of such a truth, from the mouth of God, ought to be enough to fix it in our hearts. “Por THE THINGs THAT ARE SEEN are (proskaira) TEMPORAL ; BUT THE THINGs THAT ARE NOT SEEN ARE (aionia) ETERNAL.” 2 Cor. 4: 18,-Fuller's Let- ters to Mr. Vidler; Balfour's Second Inquiry, and Letters to Professor Stuart ; Christian Examiner; Stuart's Exegetical Essays. - - . - AIR ; that thin, fluid, elastic, transparent, ponderous, compressible body which surrounds the terraqueous globe to a considerable height. In Scripture it is sometimes used for heaven; as “the birds of the air;” “the birds of heaven.” To “beat the air,” and “to speak to the air,” 1 Cor. 9:. 26. signify to fatigue ourselves in vain, and to speak to no purpose. “The prince of the power of the air” is the head and chief of the evil spirits, with which both Jews and heathens thought the aif was filled.—See ADVERSARY ; BEELZEBUB ; HEAVEN. - ALABASTER ; the name of a genus of fossils nearly allied to marble. It is a bright, elegant stone, sometimes of a snowy whiteness. It may be cut freely, and is capa- ble of a fine polish; and, being of a soft nature, it is wrought into any form or figure with ease. Wases or cruises were anciently made of it, wherein to preserve odoriferous liquors and ointments. Pliny and others rep- resent it as peculiarly proper for this purpose ; and the druggists in Egypt have, at this day, vessels made of it, in which they keep their medicines and perfumes. In Matthew 26: 6, 7. we read that Jesus being at table in Bethany, in the house of Simon the leper, a woman came thither and poured an alabaster box of ointment on his head. St. Mark adds, “She brake the box,” which merely refers to the seal upon the vase which closed it, and kept the perfume from evaporating. This had never been removed, but was on this occasion broken, that is, first opened.—Watson. X- ALAMOTH ; the title of the forty-sixth Psalm. The Septuagint translates this “the song of hidden things,” be- cause, says Ainsworth, this song declares the secret pur. poses of God to his church. . ALARM; a broken quivering sound of the Hebrews' silver trumpets. It warned them to take their journey in the wilderness, and to attack their enemies in battle. Num. 10: 4–9. (2.) A noise or bustle, importing the near approach of danger and war. Joel 2: 1. . ALASCANI; the followers of John Alasco, a Polish Catholic bishop, uncle to the king of Poland; but who, embracing the principles of the Reformation, came to England in the reign of Edward VI. and was numbered among our reformers, and was much esteemed by them, though he differed from them, it is said, in applying the words, “This is my body,” to both the elements. He was superintendent of the first Dutch church in Austin Friars, with four assistant ministers. He died in 1560, and his peculiar opinions probably died with him.—Ency. Perth ; Robinson's Dict. - ALBAN ; an English martyr of the third century, was originally a pagan, but his humanity led him in time of severe persecution to conceal a Christian minister, by whose means he was converted.— Foſc. ALBANENSES AND ALBANOIS ; petty sects of the eighth century, probably the remains of the Gnostics and the Manichaeans, which see. - ALBATI; hermits of the end of the fourteenth century, who wore long white garments; whence their name.— Broughton. - ALBERT, (JANE D';) queen of Navarre. This illus- trious woman, the daughter of Albert II. king of Na- varre, and Margaret de Valois, and the mother of Henry IV., was a pious Protestant. At twenty years of age, she was married to Anthony de Bourbon, duke de Vendome, by whom she had three sons. On the death of Albert II. in 1555, she became queen of Navarre ; and, in unison with her husband, showed all the countenance the spirit of the times would permit, to the Reformed religion, which then began to gain ground. Some time after this, her zeal suffered a temporary relaxation, but upon the death of her husband, 1652, her faith and views became decided A L B A LC I & and understood. She provided for the safety of her king- dom, put her son under the care of a Huguenot professor, and adopted the most vigorous means to preserve her au. thority against the insurrections of her Catholic subjects, and the menaces of the court of Rome, before which, in 1653, she was in vain cited to appear. She declared herself, in 1566, the protectress of the Pro- testants, and went to Rochelle, where she devoted her son to the defence of the reformed religion, and caused medals to be struck with these words, a safe peace, a complete vic- tory, a glorious death 1 She did every thing in her power for the advancement of the cause of religious liberty; and used to say, that liberty of conscience ought to be preferred be- fore honors, dignities, and life itself She caused the New Testament, the Catechism, and the Liturgy of Geneva, to be translated and printed at Rochelle. She abolished popery, and established protestantism in her own domi- nions. In her leisure hours, she expressed her zeal by working tapestries with her own hands, in which she rep- resented the monuments of that religious liberty she sought to establish. One suit consisted of twelve pieces: on each was represented some Scripture history of deliverance ; Is- rael's coming out of Egypt; Joseph’s release from prison, or something of the like kind. On the top of each were these words, Where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty and, in the corners, broken chains, fetters, and gibbets. They were worked in fashionable patterns; and dexterously directed the needles of the ladies to help forward the re- formation. Brave and eloquent, Jane neglected nothing that heroism or prudence could dictate. Her jewels were mortgaged without reluctance, for the support of her troops: and a peace, very advantageous to the Protestants, was concluded in 1570. . - - She died in Paris, June 10th, 1572, at the age of forty- four, thus escaping the horrors of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, which proved fatal to many of her friends. She was at first thought to have been poisoned; but on opening her body nothing was found to corroborate the suspicion. - During her sickness, she said, “I take all this as sent from the hand of God, my most merciful Father; nor have I during this extremity been afraid to die, much less have I murmured against God for inflicting this chastise- ment upon me, knowing that whatsoever he doth, he so ordereth it, as that in the end it shall turn to my everlast- ing good.” Again she said, “that as to what concerned herself, her life was not dear unto her, since as long as she lived in this frail flesh, she was still prone and apt to sin against God, only she said she had a concern for the children God had given her, as they would, if she were now to die, be deprived of her in their earlier years;” yet, said she, “I doubt not though he should see fit to take me from them, but that he himself would be a Father to them, and a Protector over them, as I have ever experienced him to be to me, in my greatest afflictions, and therefore I commit them wholly to his government and fatherly care.” She declared to her minister, “that death was not terrible to her, because it was the way to pass to her eter- nal rest.” He afterwards proposed to her the following questions: “Do you verily believe that Jesus Christ came into the world to save you? and do you expect the full for- giveness of your sins by the shedding of his blood for you?” “Yes,” replied she, “I do, believing that he is my only Savior and Mediator, and I look for salvation from none other, knowing that he hath made abundant satisfaction for the sins of his people, and therefore I am assured that God, for his sake, according to the gracious promise in him, will have mercy upon me.” Being asked, “if it should please God by this sickness to call her to himself, whether she were willing:” she answered, “with all my heart; much more willing than to linger here be- low in this world, where I see nothing but vanity.” When she saw the ladies and gentlemen with her, weeping about her bed, she blamed them for it, saying, “I pray you do not weep for me, since God doth by this sickness call me hence to the enjoyment of a better life, and I am now entering the desired haven, towards which this frail vessel of mine has been so long steering.” During all the time of her sickness, she ceased not such edifying and comfortable discourses; sometimes inter- *- mixing them with most affectionate aspirations to God as a testimony of the hope and desire she had of enjoying him; often uttering these words, “O my God! in thy due time deliver me from this body of death, and from the miseries of the present life, that I may no more offend thee, and that I may attain to that felicity, which thou, in thy word, hast promised to bestow upon me.” Neither did she manifest her pious affection by words only, but by her serene and cheerful countenance, as far as the decrease of her strength would allow, thereby giving a full evi- dence to all who beheld her, that no apprehensions of death could unhinge the steadfastness of her faith. This princess left many writings, both in prose and verse. The greatness of her mind and talents have been acknowledged even by her enemies; and the Protestant religion has seldom had so firm and conscientious a friend. The character and fate of her son is well known. She left, likewise, a daughter, who inherited her mother's heart and talents, and continued faithful to the religion in which she had been instructed. Jane d' Albert desired to be buried, without pomp, in the tomb of her father.—Betham's Biography. ALBERT, (THE GREAT ;) one of the scholastic divines, so called on account of his extraordinary acquirements. He was born 1194, died 1280. Most of his life was spent in Germany, where he was provincial of the order of Do- minicans. He endeavored, in his theological writings, to unite the devotion of the Mystics with the logic and ethics of Aristotle.—Mosheim. ALBERT, (PIERRE ANTONIE ;) rector of the French Protestant Episcopal Church, in New York, was the de- scendant of a highly respectable family in Lausanne, Switzerland. Being invited to receive the charge of the church in the city of New York, which was founded by the persecuted Huguenots, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he commenced his labors July 26, 1797, and died July 12, 1806, in the forty-first year of his age. He was an accomplished gentleman, an erudite scholar, a profound theologian, and a most eloquent preacher. A stranger of unobtrusive manners, and invincible modesty, he led a very retired life. His worth, however, could not be concealed. He was esteemed and beloved by all his acquaintance.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ALBIGENSES; a body of reformers about Toulouse and the Albigeois in Languedoc, who sprung up in the twelfth century, and distinguished themselves by their opposition to the church of Rome. They were charged with many errors by the monks of those days; but from these charges they are generally acquitted by the Protes. tants, who consider them only as inventions of the Romish church to blacken their character. The Albi- genses grew so formidable, that the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or crusade against them. Pope Innocent III, desirous to put a stop to their progress, stirred up the great men of the kingdom to make war upon them. After suf. fering from their persecutors, they dwindled by little and little, till the time of the reformation; when such of them as were left, fell in with the Vaudois, and conformed to the doctrine of Zuinglius, and the disciples of Geneva. The Albigenses have been frequently confounded with the Waldenses; from whom it is said they differ in many respects, both as being later far in point of time, as having their origin in a different country, and as being charged with divers heresies, particularly Manicheism, from which the Waldenses were exempt.—See Waldenses. ALCUIN, or ALBINUS, (FLAccus;) an Englishman, renowned in his age for learning. The confidante, in- structer, and adviser of Charlemagne. He was born in York, or, according to some, near London, 732; educated under the care of the venerable Bede and bishop Egbert: and was made abbot of Canterbury. Being in 782, at the French court, he exerted himself for the promotion of the sciences. Most of the schools of France were either founded or improved by him. He understood the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He died 804. He left be. sides many theological writings, several elementary works, in the branches of philosophy, rhetoric, and philology; also poems, and a large number of letters, the style of which, however, is not pleasing, and plainly betrays the uncultivated character of the age; nevertheless, he is ac- A L E A LE [ 56 ) knowledged as the most learned and polished man of his time. - ALDEN, (John;) a magistrate of Plymouth colony, was one of the first company, which settled New England. He arrived in 1620, and his life was prolonged till Sep- tember 12, 1687, when he died, aged about eighty-nine }. He was a very worthy and useful man, of great humility, and eminent piety. He was an assistant in the administration of every governor for sixty-seven years. A professed disciple of Jesus Christ, he lived in accor- dance with his profession. In his lastillness he was patient and resigned, fully believing that God, who had imparted to him the love of excellence, would perfect the work which he had began, and would render him completely holy in heaven.—Allen's Biog. Dict. - - ALEWORTH, (John ;), an English martyr, who died in prison, on account of his religion, during the reign of queen Mary, about the year 1558. ‘ALEPH ; the name of the first letter of the Hebrew al- phabet, from which the Alpha of the Syrian and Greeks was formed. The word expresses a leading number, and sometimes signifies Prince or Chief—See A. - ALEXANDER, (THE GREAT ;) son and successor of Philip, king of Macedon, is denoted in the prophecies of Daniel by a leopard with four wings, signifying his great strength, and the unusual rapidity of his conquests, Dan. 7. 6. ; and by a one-horned he-goat running over the earth so swiftly as not to touch it, attacking a ram with two horns, overthrowing him, and trampling him under foot, without any being able to rescue him, Dan. 8: 4–7. The he-goat prefigured Alexander; the ram, Darius Co- domanus, the last of the Persian kings. In the statue beheld by Nebuchadnezzar in his dream, Dan. 2:39. the belly of brass was the emblem of Alexander. He was appointed by God to destroy the Persian empire, and to substitute in its room the Grecian monarchy. Alexander succeeded his father Philip, A. M. 3668, and B.C. 336. He was chosen, by the Greeks, general of their troops against the Persians, and entered Asia at the head of thirty-four thousand men, A. M. 3670. In one cam- paign he subdued almost all Asia Minor; and afterwards defeated, in the narrow passes which led from Syria to Cilicia, the army of Darius, which consisted of four hun- dred thousand foot, and one hundred thousand horse. Darius fled, and left in the hands of the conqueror, his camp, baggage, children, wife, and mother. After subduing Syria, Alexander came to Tyre; and the Tyrians refusing him entrance into their city, he be- º it. At the same time he wrote to Jaddus, high E. of the Jews, that he expected to be acknowledged y him, and to receive from him the same submission which had hitherto been paid to the king of Persia. Jad- dus refusing to comply, under the plea of having sworn fidelity to Darius, Alexander resolved to march against Je- rusalem, when he had reduced Tyre. After a long siege, this city was taken and sacked ; and Alexander entered Palestine, A. M. 3672, and subjected it to his obedience. As he was marching against Jerusalem, the Jews became greatly alarmed, and had recourse to prayers and sacrifices. The Lord, in a dream, commanded Jaddus to open the gates to the conqueror, and, at the head of his people, dressed in his pontifical ornaments, and attended by the riests in their robes, to advance and meet the Macedonian ing. Jaddus obeyed; and Alexander perceiving this company approaching, hastened towards the high priest, whom he saluted. He then adored God, whose name was engraven on a thin plate of gold, worn by the high priest upon his forehead. The kings of Syria who accompanied him, and the great officers about Alexander, could not comprehend the meaning of his conduct. Parmenio alone ventured to ask him why he adored the Jewish high priest; Alexander replied, that he paid this respect to God, and not to the high priest. “For,” added he, & whilst I was yet in Macedonia, I saw the God of the Jews, who appeared to me in the same form and dress as the high priest at present, and who encouraged me, and command-- ed me to march boldly into Asia, promising that he would be my guide, and give me the empire of the Persians. As soon, therefore, as I perceived this habit, I recollected the vision, and understood that my undertaking was favored by God, and that under his protection Imight expect prosperi- ty.” Having said this, Alexander accompanied Jaddus to Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices in the temple ac- cording to the directions of the high priest. Jaddus, is said to have showed him the prophecies of Daniel, in which the destruction of the Persian empire by. Alexander is de- clared. The king was therefore confirmed in his opinion, that God had chosen him to execute this great work. At his departure, Alexander bade the Jews ask of him what they would. The high priest desired only the liberty of living under his government according to their own laws, and an exemption from tribute every seventh year, be- cause in that year the Jews neither tilled their grounds, nor reaped their fruits. With this request Alexander readily complied. Having left Jerusalem, Alexander visited other cities of Palestine, and was every where received with great tes- timonies of friendship and submission. The Samaritans who dwelt at Sichem, and were apostates from the Jewish religion, observing how kindly Alexander had treated the Jews, resolved to say that they also were by religion Jews. For it was their practice, when they saw the affairs of the Jews in a prosperous state, to boast that they were de- scended from Manasseh and Ephraim; but when they thought it their interest to say the contrary, they failed not to affirm, and even to swear, that they were not related to the Jews. They came, therefore, with many demonstrations of joy, to meet Alexander, as far almost as the territories of Jerusalem. Alexander commended their zeal; and the Sichemites entreated him to visit their temple and city. Alexander promised this at his return; but as they peti- tioned him for the same privileges as the Jews, he asked them if they were Jews. They replied, they were He- brews, and were called by the Phoenicians, Sichemites. Alexander said that he had granted this exemption only to the Jews, but that at his return he would inquire into the affair, and do them justice. This prince having conquered Egypt, and regulated it, gave orders for the building of the city of Alexandria, and departed thence, about spring, in pursuit of Darius. Pass- ing through Palestine, he was informed that the Samari- tans, in a general insurrection, had killed Andromachus, governor of Syria and Palestine, who had come to Sama- ria to regulate some affairs. This action greatly incensed Alexander, who loved Andromachus. He therefore com, manded, all those who were concerned in his murder to be put to death, and the rest to be banished from Samaria; and settled a colony of Macedonians in their room. What remained of their lands he gave to the Jews, and exempt. ed them from the payment of tribute. The Samaritans who escaped this calamity, retired to Sichem, at the foot of mount Gerizim, which afterwards became their capital. Lest the eight thousand men of this nation, who were in the service of Alexander, and had accompanied him since the siege of Tyre, if permitted to return to their own country, should renew the spirit of rebellion, he sent them into Thebais, the most remote southern province of Egypt, where he assigned them lands. Alexander after defeating Darius in a pitched battle, and subduing all Asia and the Indies with incredible rapidity, gave himself up to intemperance. Having drunk to ex- cess, he fell sick and died, after he had obliged “all the world to be quiet before him.” 1 Macc. 1: 3. Being sensi- ble that his end was near, he sent for the grandees of his court, and declared that “he gave the empire to the most deserving.” Some affirm that he regulated the succession by a will. The author of the First Book of Maccabees says, that he divided his kingdom among his generals while he was living. 1 Macc. 1: 7. This he might do; or he might express his foresight of what actually took place after his death. . It is certain, that a partition was made of Alexander's dominions among the four principal officers of his army, and that the empire which he founded in Asia subsisted for many ages. Alexander died, A. M. 3684, and B. C. 323, in the thirty-third year of his age and the twelfth of his reign. . The above particulars of Alexander are here introduced because, from his invasion of Palestine, the intercourse of the Jews with the Greeks became intimate, and influenced many events of their subsequent history. - A LE A L E [ 57] On the account above given of the interview between Alexander and the Jewish high priest, by Josephus, many doubts have been cast by critics. But the sudden change of his feelings tewards them, and the favor with which the nation was treated by him, render the story not impro- bable.—Watson. . . ALEXANDER ; a martyr of the second century.—See EPIPodius. a 1 ALEXANDER ; a martyr who suffered at Alexandria for acknowledging himself a Christian. After many tor- ments he was burnt, A. D. 249. ALEXANDER ; a martyr of the third century, who with several others was devoured by tigers, A. D. 257. ALEXANDER, (CALEB, D. D.;) a native of Northfield, Mass., and a graduate of Yale college in 1777, was or- dained at New Marlborough, Mass. in 1781. He died at Onondaga, state of New York, in 1828. He published an Essay on the Deity of Jesus Christ, with Strictures on Em- lyn, 1791; a Latin Grammar, 1794; an English Gram- mar, and Gram. Elements.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ALEXANDRIA; a martyr of the fourth century, one of seven Christian women who suffered death at Ancyra in Dalmatia for refusing to worship idols-See TecusA. ALEXANDRIA ; a famous city of Egypt, and long the grand seat of commerce and of wealth. It was founded or enlarged, about three hundred and thirty-three years before Christ, and is now the only remaining monument of the widely extended conquests of that great and renown- ed warrior after whom it was mamed. The long and se- were check which he met with before the city of Tyre, in the career of his victories, would, no doubt, convince him of the vast resources of a maritime power, and of the immense importance of commerce; and it was this which is supposed to have induced him, after the subjection of Egypt, to avail himself of the favorable commercial situ- ation of that country, and to lay the foundation of that city, which from its vicinity to the Mediterranean sea, and the Arabian gulf, has, amidst all the successive revolu- tions of Egypt, from the time of the Ptolemies till the dis- covery of the navigation by the cape of Good Hope, com- manded the trade of both the east and the west. From that period, however, which begins a new era in the histo- ry of commerce, the trade of India has flowed in other channels; and the streams of its former wealth being dried up, Alexandria has gradually decayed, and is now deserving of notice only on account of its past greatness and celebrity. Alexander himself drew the plan of the new city; and as there were no instruments at hand proper for the purpose, he traced out the course of the walls, by scattering meal along the ground; a circum- stance which his soothsayer interpreted as a presage of future abundance. The execution of the plan was in- trusted to Democrates, the celebrated architect, who rebuilt the temple of Diana at Ephesus, whilst Alexander ad- vanced to survey the wonders of Upper Egypt. Upon his return, about a year afterwards, the city was nearly finished; and having peopled it with inhabitants from the neighboring towns, he pursued the course of his conquests. Ancient Alexandria stood about twelve miles from the Canopic branch of the Nile, with which it was united by a canal. The lake Mareotis bathed its walls on the south, and the Mediterranean on the north. It was divided into straight parallel streets, cutting one another at right an- gles. One great street, two thousand feet wide, ran through the whole length of the city, beginning at the gate of the sea, and terminating at the gate of Cano- pus. It was intersected by another of the same breadth, which formed a square at their junction half a league in circumference. From the centre of this great place, the two gates were to be seen at once, and vessels arriving under full sail from both the north and the south. In these two principal streets, the noblest in the universe, stood their most magnificent palaces, temples, and public buildings, in which the eye was never tired with admiring the mar- ble, the porphyry, and the obelisks, which were destined at some future day to embellish the metropolis of the world. The chief glory of Alexandria was its harbor. It was a deep and secure bay in the Mediterranean, form- ed by the shore on the one side, and the island of. Pharos on the other, and * numerous fleets might lie in com- plete safety. Without the walls of Alexandria, and stretching along the shores of the Mediterranean, near to the promontory of Lectreos, was situated the palace and gardens of the Ptolemies. They contained within their inclosure the museum, an asylum for learned men, groves and buildings worthy of royal majesty, and a temple where the body of Alexander was deposited in a golden coffin. It were endless to enumerate the many palaces, temples, theatres, and other buildings with which Alexandria and its suburbs were adorned. Alexandria owed much of its glory to the Ptolemies. Ptolemy Soter, the first of that line of kings, and one of the captains of Alexander, who, on the death of his mas- ter, seized on his Egyptian dominions, fixed the royal residence in this city, about three hundred and four years before Christ. This prince instituted the academy called the Museum, in which a society of learned men devoted themselves to the study of the sciences. He likewise. founded for their use the Alexandrian library, which was afterwards so prodigiously increased, and one of the great- est ornaments of this celebrated city. It is said to have amounted to no less than seven hundred thousand vo- lumes, before its destruction. With these advantages, and under the continued patronage of its sovereigns, Alexan- dria soon became one of the most distinguished seats of learning and philosophy, and preserved its celebrity till it was plundered of all its literary treasures by the barba- rous hands of the Saracens. Ptolemy Philadelphus, the son of Soter, completed the tower of Pharos, which his father had already begun. This was the famous light- house which was built on the island of that name, for the direction of the innumerable vessels which entered the harbor, and was reckoned amongst the Wonders of the world. - Alexandria continued for nearly three hundred years in the possession of the Ptolemies; but at the death of Cleo- patra, it passed into the power of the Romans, and was the theatre of several memorable events in the history of that people. It sometimes might receive a favor at the hands of its masters; but it as frequently obtained its full share of all the calamities which the tyranny, the cruelty, or weakness of the Roman emperors inflicted on the rest of the empire. The first inhabitants of Alexandria were Egyptians and Greeks, to whom must be added numerous colonies of Jews, transplanted thither B. C. 336, 320, and 312, to in- crease the population, who, becoming familiar with the Greek language and learning, were called HELLENISTs. It was they who made the well-known translation of the Old Testament under the name of the Septuagint. (See SEPTUAGINT.) - - The modern Alexandria does not occupy the site of the ancient city, of which only the ruins remain. The town has now two citadels and harbors, and its commerce is improving; but the population, which formerly amounted to three hundred thousand, is now reduced to thirteen thou- sand. It is the seat of a Christian patriarch, but under a Mohammedan power. The history of its conquest and consequent decay, according to the best historians, is as follows: A. D. 638, the Saracens invaded Egypt, and the follow- ing year Amrou, their general, commenced the siege of Alexandria, which was perhaps the most arduous enter- prise in the annals of his conquests. After a vigorous re- sistance of about fourteen months, the Saracens, however, prevailed, and the standard of Mahomet was planted on the walls of the capital of Egypt. It was at this time that the Alexandrian library met with its memorable fate; although this fact, has been recently controverted in the Encyclopædia Americana, we know not on what authority. (See ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY.) - . Under the Roman and Greek emperors, as well as un- der the Ptolemies, for nearly a space of one thousand years, Alexandria continued to maintain its reputation for power and wealth, and likewise for literature and science: but from the period when it came under the dominion of the Saracens, all its glories have declined, till it has gradu- ally arrived at its present degradation. When commerce revived in the thirteenth century, it naturally looked out for its former well-known channel; and the condition of A L E A. L. E [ 58 J Alexandria began again for a short time to brighten; but the discovery of the cape of Good Hope, which happened about that time, soon crushed its returning prosperity, and forever diverted the sources of its wealth into a different COURTSe. - The present state of this city presents a scene of mag- nificent ruin and desolation. For the space of two leagues, nothing is to be seen but the remains of pilasters, of capi- tals, and of obelisks, and whole mountains of shattered monuments of ancient art, heaped upon one another to a greater height than that of the houses. The famous tow- er of Pharos has been long since demolished, and a square castle, without taste, ornament, or strength, erected in its stead. The lake Mareotis, through the carelessness of the Turks in preserving the canals which conveyed the waters of the Nile, no longer exists; but its place is now occupied by the sands of Lybia.-Edin. Ency. article ALEXANDRIA. But it is the ecclesiastical history of Alexandria, in which the biblical student is chiefly interested; and there- fore it may be proper to follow up the preceding account with a few of the more important particulars of that kind which are upon record. - & When Alexander the Great had finished this renowned city, he gave considerable encouragement to the Jews to settle in it; and to induce them so to do, he endowed it with peculiar privileges and immunities, allowed them the free exercise of their religion, and admitted them to a share of the same franchises and liberties which he grant- ed to his own Macedonian subjects. Not long after the death of that ambitious and enterprising monarch, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, invaded Judea, laid siege to Jerusalem, of which he took possession about three hundred and twenty years before Christ, and carried an hundred thousand of the Jews captive into Egypt; to whom he confirmed all the immunities and privileges which had been formerly granted to their brethren by Alexander the Great, and spared no encouragement to allure others to settle in Egypt. The consequence of this was, that multitudes of them were continually flocking thither from Judea and Sa- maria, preferring rather to live under so generous and friendly a prince in a foreign country, than to be subject to the incessant changes of government which were occa- Sioned by So many contending tyrants in their own. Ac- cordingly the city of Alexandria was in a great measure peopled by Jews, and it is chiefly this circumstance which connects its history with the elucidation of the Scriptures, Hence we read, Acts 2: 10. that among those who came up to Jerusalem to keep the feast of pentecost, there were Jews, devout men, from Egypt and the parts of Libya about Cyrene, in which Alexandria was situated. Of this city, Apollos, the companion of Paul, was a native, Acts 18: 24, ; and of the Jews that disputed with Stephen and ut him to death, many were Alexandrians, who, it seems, }. a synagogue at that time in Jerusalem. Acts 6: 9. But to form an estimate of the number of Jews that sta-. tedly resided at Alexandria, it may be sufficient to mention that about the year of Christ 67, while the quarrel was going on between that people and the Romans, which ended in the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, the subversion of their ecclesiastical polity and their ruin as a nation, fifty thousand of them were put to death at one time in the city of Alexandria! It is said that at the time this terrible event took place, there were not less than a million of Jews dispersed throughout the whole province of Egypt, in which they had a vast number of synagogues, and Oratories which were either demolished or consumed by fire, for refusing to set up the statues of the Roman emperor, Caius Caligula, See Anc. Univ. Hist. Appen- dix to vol. xiv. octavo edition. Christianity was planted in Alexandria at a very early period; and it is very probable that it was first carried there by some of the Jews who were converted by the preach- ing of Peter on the day of Pentecost, Acts 2.; for nothing can be more natural than to suppose, that those who had themselves been blessed with the knowledge of the Savior, should carry the glad tidings with them to their own homes and make known the way of salvation to others. For several ages, the light of the glorious Gospel shone conspicuously in this great city, which gave birth to many eminent men, particularly to Clemens, to Origen, and oth. • CPS. This city is also famous for having given rise to the Arian controversy, respecting the doctrine of Christ's Sonship; a subject, however, upon which it is neither proper nor necessary here to enter. See Jones' Hist. of the Christian Churdh vol. i. p. 314, &c. ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This celebrated collection of books was first founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use of the academy, or Society of learned men, which he had founded at Alexandria. Besides the books which he pro- cured, his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added many more, and left in this library at his death a hundred thousand volumes; and the succeeding princes of this race enlarged it still more, till at length the books lodged in it amounted to the number of seven hundred thousand volumes. The method by which they are said to have collected these books was this : they seized all the books that were brought by the Greeks or other foreigners into Egypt, and sent them to the academy, or museum, where they were tran- scribed by persons employed for that purpose. The tran- scripts were then delivered to the proprietors, and the origi- nals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for in- stance, borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and AEschylus, and only returned them the copies, which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible; the originals he retained for his own library, presenting the Athenians with fifteen talents for the exchange, that is, with three thousand pounds ster- ling and upwards. As the museum was at first in the quarter of the city called Bruchion, the library was placed there; but when the number of books amounted to four hundred thousand volumes, another library, within the Serapeum, was erected by way of supplement to it, and, on that account, called the daughter of the former. The books lodged in this increased to the number of three hundred thousand volumes; and these two made up the number of seven hundred thousand volumes, of which the royal libraries of the Ptolemies were said to consist. In the war which Julius Caesar waged with the inhabitants of Alexandria, the library of Bruchion was accidentally, but unfortunately, burnt. But the library in Serapeum still remained, and there Cleopatra deposited the two hun- dred thousand volumes of the Pergamean library with which she was presented by Mark Antony. These, and others added to them from time to time, rendered the new library more numerous and considerable than the former; and though it was plundered more than once during the revolutions which happened in the Roman empire, yet it was as frequently supplied with the same number of books, and continued, for many ages, to be of great fame and use, till it was burnt by the Saracens, A. D. 642. Abul- pharagius, in his history of the tenth dynasty, gives the following, account of this catastrophe; John Philoponus, surnamed the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philoso. pher, being at Alexandria when the city was taken by the Saracens, was admitted to familiar intercourse with Am. rou, the Arabian general, and presumed to solicit a gift, inestimable in his opinion, but contemptible in that of the barbarians; and this was the royal library. Amrou was inclined to gratify his wish, but his rigid integrity scru. pled to alienate the least object without the consent of the caliph. He accordingly wrote to Omar, whose well known answer was dictated by the ignorance of a fanatic : « If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Ioran or book of God, they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be de- stroyed.” The sentence of destruction was executed with blind obedience : the volumes of paper or parchment were distributed to the four thousand baths of the city; and Such was their number, that six months were barely suſ. ficient for the consumption of this precious fuel.-IWatson. ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT; a famous copy of the Scriptures, in four volumes quarto. It contains the whole Bible in Greek, including the Old and New Testa- ment, with the Apocrypha, and some smaller pieces, but not quite complete. It is preserved in the British muse- 'um : it was sent as a present to king Charles I, from cy. rillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to the Grand Seignior, about the year 1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from Alexandria, where probably it was written. In a schedule --- A.I. F A L K [ 59 ) annexed to it, he gives this account:—That it was written, as tradition informed them, by Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about thirteen hundred years ago, not long after the council of Nice. But this high antiquity, and the authority of the tradition to which the patriarch refers, have been dis- puted; nor are the most accurate biblical writers agreed about its age. Grabe thinks that it might have been written before the end of the fourth century; others are of opinion that it was not written till near the end of the fifth century, or somewhat later. See Mr. Bubeer and Dr. Woide’s edition. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. No sooner had Alexan- der built a city, and called it after his own name, than he endeavored to make it the seat of philosophy and the arts; and here were collected the most considerable professors from Greece, Egypt, and the East; and the mixture of the different systems introduced a confusion of opinions, which not only affected materially the state of the heathen world, but even of the Christian, and produced most of the heresies which disfigured and tormented the church in its first ages, particularly those of the Gnostics and Manichaeans. - But the chief manufacturer of these absurdities was Ammonius Saccas, the founder of the new Platonics in the second century, whose followers were sometimes called Am- monians. “To this philosophy (says Dr. Mosheim) we may trace, as to their source, a multitude of vain and foolish ceremonies, proper only to cast a veil over truth, and to nourish Superstition; and which are, for the most part, re- ligiously observed by many, even in the times in which we live. It would be endless to enumerate all the perni- cious consequences that may be justly attributed to this new philosophy; or rather, to this monstrous attempt to reconcile falsehood with truth, and light with darkness. Some of its most fatal effects were—its alienating the minds of many, in the following ages, from the Christian religion; and its substituting, in the place of the pure and sublime simplicity of the Gospel, an unseemly mixture of Platonism and Christianity.”—Mosheim, vol. i. p. 169—176. ALEXANDRIAN WERSION. See BIBLE. ALEXIANS ; in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, brothers and sisters of St. Alexius, commonly called Cellites, which see. ALFORD, (John ;) founder of the professorship of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity, in Harvard college, died at Charlestown, Sept. 29, 1761, aged 75. He had been a member of the council. His execu- tors determined the particular objects to which his bequest for charitable uses should be applied, and divided it equally between Harvard college, Princeton college, and the Society for the propagation of the Gospel among the Indians. To the latter, ten thousand six hundred and seventy-five dol- lars were paid in 1787. Levi Frisbie was the first Alford professor.—Allen's B. Dict. ALFRED, justly denominated the GREAT ; the young- est son of Ethelwolf, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849, and succeeded to the English throne in 871, on the death of Ethelred, the last survivor of his brother. From his accession to the year 877, he was engaged in almost continual contests with the Danes, who at last compelled him to abandon the throne, and conceal himself in dis- guise in the cottage of one of his herdsmen. It was while he was thus concealed, that he was harshly reproved by his hostess, for having allowed some cakes to be burned, the baking of which she had directed him to watch. He next retired with a few followers to the isle of Athelney. In this situation he formed the design of freeing his coun- try. He ordered his subjects to hold themselves in readi. ness against the enemy, gave the intelligence of his re- treat, and informed himself of the condition of the Danes. He went disguised as a harper;into the camp of king Guthurn, and, having ascertained that the Danes felt themselves secure, hastened back to his troops, led them against the enemy, and gained such a decided victory, that the Danes begged for peace. Those who were already in the coun- try he allowed to remain there, on the condition that they and their king should embrace Christianity. During a part of the remainder of his reign, he had to eontend against repeated invasions, but was uniformly successful in repelling them. By sea or land he fought no less than fifty-six battles. As soon as he resumed his authority he began to cultivate the arts of peace. He reformed the laws; established trial by jury; divided the country into shires and hundreds; encouraged commerce and maritime dis- covery; invited learned men from all quarters; endowed seminaries; restored, if not founded, the university of Ox- ford; and gave lustre to literature in the eyes of the people, by himself composing and translating numerous works, on a variety of subjects. Scotus and Grimbald, from abroad; Asserius, Wenfred, Plegmund, Dunwuf, Wulfsig, and the abbot of St. Neot's, deserve the first rank among the lite- rativho adorned the age of Alfred. He himself acquired an immortal name by the admirable progress he made in all kinds of elegant and useful knowledge. Among his other pious and learned labors, he translated into English Bede’s Ecclesiastical History, Boetius De Consolatione, and the Book of Psalms. He died A. D. 900. The history of Alfred, says the Encyclopedia Americana, considering the times in which he lived, presents one of the most perfect examples on record of the able and pat- riotic monarch united with the virtuous man. “If the soul of Alfred,” says Foster, “could return to the earth !”—“Were Alfred,” says Mr. Douglas in his Ad. vancement of Society, “restored to life, (as it was believed of the just that they should again tread the earth in the latter days, and enjoy the fruits of that which in their first life they planted in equity and righteousness,) that peerless king could, at this moment, with a touch set the social ma. chine in movement.” ALGUM. See ALMUG. ALGERIUS. In the year 1555, Algerius, a student in the university of Padua, and a man of great learning, having embraced the reformed religion, did all he could to convert others. For these proceedings he was accused of heresy to the pope, and being apprehended, was committed to prison at Venice, when being allowed the use of pen, ink, and paper, he wrote to his converts at Padua, the following celebrated epistle:– * DEAR FRIENDs—I cannot omit this opportunity of letting you know the sincere.pleasure I feel in my confinement; to suffer for Christ is delectable indeed; to undergo a littlé transitory pain in this world, for his sake, is cheaply purchas- ing a reversion of eternal glory, in a life that is everlasting. Here I have found honey in the entrails of a lion; a para- dise in a prison; tranquillity in the house of sorrow ; when others weep, I rejoice; when others tremble and faint, I find strength and courage. The Almighty alone confers these favors upon me; be his the glory and the praise. How different do I find myself from what I was before. I embraced the truth in its purity; . I was then dark, doubtful, and in dread; I am now enlightened, certain, and full of joy. He that was far from me is present with me; he comforts, my spirit, heals my griefs, strengthens my mind, refreshes my heart, and fortifies my soul. Learn, therefore, how merciful and amiable the Lord is, who sup. É. his servants under temptation, expels their sorrows, ightens their afflictions, and even visits them with his glorious presence, in the gloom of a dungeon. Your sincere friend, ALGERIUs. The pope being informed of Algerius's great learning, and surprising natural abilities, thought it would be of infinite importance to the church of Rome, if he could induce him to forsake the Protestant cause. But finding all his endeavors ineffectual, he ordered him to be burnt, which sentence was exeeuted accordingly.-Fox. ALKORAN. See KoRAN. A L L A L I, | 60 | ALL;-2-1. Every creature. Prov. 16: 4. Ps. 119: 91. or every part. Song 4: 7–2. Every man. 2 Cor. 5; 10– 3. Plentiful, perfect. Rom, 15: 13. 1 Cor. 13: 2–4. Men of all nations, ranks, and degrees. 1 Tim. 2: 4-Tit. 2: 11–5. Many, or the greatest part. Matt, 3: 5. Phil. 2: 21. Thus it is said, ALL the cattle of the land of Egypt died; the hail brake EveRy tree of the field. Exod. 9: 6, 9. ALL the people brake off the gold ear-rings which were in their ears. Exod. 32: 3. ALL the beasts of the nations lodged in the lintels of Nineveh. Zeph. 2: 14. The fame of David went forth into ALL lands. 1 Chron. 14: 17. ALL Judea, and ALL the region round about Jordan, went out to John and were baptized of him. ALL men held John as a prophet. The apostles were hated of ALL men. Matt. 3: 5, 6. 21: 26. 10: 32, ALL men came to Jesus. John 3: 26. Then were at Jerusalem, Jews of EveRy nation under heaven. Acts 2: 5. See WoRLD. How evident then the folly of such as found their universal re- demption on this word, that must be so often restricted and which is frequently limited by the context, by the nature of the thing spoken of, or by the objects of it ! Thus ser- vants are required to please their masters well in ALL things. Tit. 2:9. ; and the Lord is said to uphold ALI, that fall, and raise up ALL that are bowed down. Ps. 145: 14. The ALL men of Asia that turned away from Paul, denote a great many professed Christians there. , 2 Tim. 1: 15. As the ultimate design of Christianity is the conversion of the world, and as this will be its actual effect during the glorious ages of the millennium, Dan. 2. Rev. 11; 15. 20: 1–6. it is no wonder that the sacred writers delight in the use of the most comprehensive and magnificent ex- pressions when speaking of the influence of the Gospel on mankind. Hence those who are chosen to Salvation may without impropriety be called ALL, or EVERY man; ALL THE ENDs of the earth; ALL THE world; because they spring from all nations, Jews and Gentiles; dwell in all places; are of every rank and condition; and are the substance of the earth; for whose behalf it is chiefly preserved and favored. Tom. 11; 32. Heb. 2:9, Ps. 22: 27. 1 John 2: 2. ALL DENOMINATIONS: May 28, 1821, the society of freemasons of the United States, with the grand mas- ter at their head, founded a new church at Cherokee hill, eight miles ſtom Savannah, Georgia, for all denominations, “expressive of the universal love of the great architect to all his creatures.” See Gospel Advocate, (Boston,) June, 1821.-- Williams. ALLEGORY ; a figurative mode of speech or composi- tion, which consists in selecting something analogous to a subject, instead of the subject itself; and describing at length the particulars belonging to the former, in such a manner as to illustrate what we mean to enſorce respect- ing the latter. It may be compared to an emblematical painting, in which we are left to discover the intention of the artist by our own meditation ; with this difference, that in the one, colors and forms are employed, in the other, words only. Both exercise the judgment, as well as the Imagination, by pointing out some striking relation be- tween objects which may nevertheless be very different in many respects; but which agree so well in the circum- stances brought before us, that though the representative object is alone placed in our view, the resemblance leads us at once to apply all the particulars to the subject repre- sented. Our ingenuity is thus exercised in a pleasing manner, and we are at the same time instructed and in- formed. - An allegory, a metaphor, and a parable, are nearly alli- ed; and we find each of them occasionally adopted by the inspired writers in conveying their instructions to us. The masters of rhetoric, indeed, seem at a loss to discrimi- nate between the allegory and the parable; if there be any difference, it must be this, that in any allegory, the speaker or writer makes use of a real history to convey his instruc- tions, but in a parable he often has recourse to a feigned or supposed one. It may, however, be remarked, that an allegory is made up of a chain or continuation of meta- phors; and differs from a single trope, as a cluster on the vine does from only one or two grapes. In the eightieth Psalm is one of the most; beautiful and perfect examples of the allegory that is to be ſound in any language. Here the real history of the Old Testament church is obviously made use of by the Psalmist, as an allegory. Thus also the apostle makes use of the history of Hagar and Ish. mael on the one hand, and that of Sarah and Isaac on the other, to illustrate the subject of the two covenants. Gal. 4: 24–30. Hagar is there taken to represent the covenant which the Lord entered into with the children of Israel at Mount Sinai, when they were made the visi- ble church of God, put in bondage to the law, and were, by its curse, excluded from the inheritance of heaven, if they had no other relation to Abraham than that of mere natural descent. And in confirmation of the allegorical meaning of the facts recorded by Moses, the apostle goes on further to observe, that, as Ishmael who was begotten according to the flesh, persecuted Isaac, who was begotten according to the Spirit, so the Jews, the natural seed of Abraham, persecuted Abraham's spiritual seed, the be- lieving Jews and Gentiles. Thus, as in the circumstances of his birth and condition, as also in his character and in his actions, Ishmael was a fit type of the unbelieving Jews, Abraham’s natural Seed. But with regard to Sarah and Isaac, he places them in direct contrast to the bond-woman and her son. For Sarah is taken to represent the hew covenant, which God hath made, not with the fleshly seed of Abraham, but with be: lievers of all nations, of whom she is figuratively termed the mother. Sarah conceived her son Isaac Supernatu- rally, and so became a type of that covenant under which men are regarded, by the power of God accompanying his word, and so become the children of “Jerusalem which is above,” and which is free from both the bondage and the curse of the law. And as Isaac was the child of promise, so he is taken to represent that innumerable company of regenerated believers, who were promised to the Redeemer by the Father, as the reward of his atoning Sorrows. Isa. 53: 10–12.—Jones's Bib. Cyc. ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION. See INTER- PRETATION. ALLELUIA, or HALLELU-IAH, praise the Lord ; or praise to the Lord. This word occurs at the beginning, or at the end, of many Psalms. Alleluia was sung on solemn days of rejoicing. St. John, in the Revelation, 19: 1, 3, 4, 6, says, “I heard a great voice of much people in heaven, who cried, Alleluia ; and the four living creatures ſell down, and worshipped God, saying, Alleluia.” This ex- pression of joy and praise was transferred from the syna- gogue to the church. At the funeral of Fabiola, “several Psalms were sung with loud alleluias,” says Jerome, in Epitaphio Paula. The monks of Palestine were awaked at their midnight watchings, with the singing of alleluias. It is still occasionally used in devotional psalmody.— Watson. ALLEIN, (Joseph ;) author of “the Alarm;” a non- conformist divine, was born at Devizes, in Wiltshire, in the year 1623. At a very early age, his great piety and love of learning displayed themselves; and he earnestly re- questcd his father, Mr. Tobias Allein, to educate him for the important work of the Christian ministry; to which he afterwards devoted his life, his mental talents, and his worldly property. In his classical attainments, he made great progress, and at a very early age manifested so ardent a spirit to promote the glory of Christ and the salvation of souls, that whatever he considered to be con- ducive to those ends, he prosecuted with great vigor. At the age of sixteen he was sent to Lincoln college, Oxford; and in 1651, was removed to Corpus Christi college, a Wiltshire scholarship being then vacant. There he was diligent in prosecuting his studies, consistent in his con- duct, and affable towards his ſellow students. He was near attaining a fellowship, but did not urge it, in order that he might embrace the honorable office of chaplain, being pleased with so favorable an opportunity of exercis- ing his gift in prayer, an employment in which he pecu- liarly excelled. In 1653 he was admitted bachelor of arts, and soon after married an amiable and pious lady. His income being small, he determined on becoming a tutor, and very soon had a great number of pupils, some of whom became graduates of divinity placed under his care; and who, in after-life, repaid him for his anxiety, by their gratitude, affection, and usefulness. He was as- sisted in increasing his income by Mrs. Allein, who kept ALL A LL [ 61 a ladies' boarding school, in which also Mr. Allein took great interest. In his work as a minister of the Gospel, he was very assiduous and laborious; and he was con- stantly employed, when out of the pulpit, in assisting his brethren, or in supplying destitute congregations. In 1655 he became co-pastor with the Rev. George Newton, at Taunton; was eminently useful, and employed those means which he thought would best promote the glory of God. When the unwise and persecuting act of uniformi- ty was passed, he was ejected; and on the 26th of May, 1663, was committed to Ilchester gaol; where after being treated with great indignity, together with seven ministers and fifty quakers, he was indicted at the assizes for preaching on the 17th of May, of which he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay one hundred marks, and not to be released till they were paid. He declared in court, “that whatsoever he was charged with, he was guilty of nothing but doing his duty.” He however continued in prison a whole year, and during that trying period improv- ed his time to the greatest advantage, both of himself and his fellow prisoners. After his release he was even more zealous in propagating the Gospel, till his exertions brought on an illness, which disabled him from continuing to perform such duties. In 1665, he was again appre- hended, while at prayer, and, with some of his friends, was committed to prison for sixty days. Such confine- ment increased his disorder, and he rapidly became worse, till in the month of November, 1668, he was released from his sufferings at the premature age of 35. Mr. Allein was a man of unaffected and fervent piety, of an amiable " temper, and courteous conversation; his intellects were solid and good, and his affections lively; and he died as he lived, universally respected and beloved. His works are not numerous, but they are useful and pious. See Memoirs of Allein.—Jones' Chris. Biog. ALLEN, (WILLIAM;), a Protestant martyr, in the reign of queen Mary. He was burnt at Walsingham, Septem- ber, 1555, for refusing to follow the cross in procession. He had declared such constancy at his martyrdom, and had met credit with the justices, by reason of his well tried character among them, that he was suffered to go un- tied to his suffering, and then being fastened with a chain, stood quietly without shrinking till he died.—Foz. ALLEN, (John;) first minister of Dedham, Massa- chusetts, was born in England in 1596, and was driven from his native land during the persecution of the Puri- tans. He had been for a number of years a faithful reacher of the Gospel. Soon after he arrived in New- 2ngland, he was settled pastor of the church at Dedham, April 24, 1639. Here he continued till his death, August 26, 1671, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. He was a man of great meekness and humility, and of considerable distinction in his day. He published a defence of the nine positions, in which, with Mr. Shepard of Cambridge, he disowns the points of church discipline; and a defence of the synod of 1662, against Mr. Chauncy, under the title of Animadversions upon the Antisynodalia, 4to. 1664. This work is preserved in the New England library. The two last sermons, which he preached, were printed after his death-Allen's Biog. Dict. ALLEN, (Thomas;) minister of Charlestown, Massa- chusetts, was born at Norwich in England, in 1608, and was educated at Cambridge. He was afterwards minister of St. Edmond's in Norwich, but was silenced by bishop Wren, about the year 1636, for refusing to read the Book of Sports, and conform to other impositions. In 1638 he fled to New England, and was the same year installed in Charlestown, where he was a faithful preacher of the Gospel till about 1651, when he returned to Norwich, and continued the exercise of his ministry till 1662. He af. terwards preached to his church on all occasions, that of. fered, till his death, September 21, 1673, aged 65. He was a very pious man, greatly beloved, and an able, practical preacher. - He published an Invitation to Thirsty Sinners to come tº their Savior; the Way of the Spirit in bringing Souls to Shrist; the Glóry of Christ set forth, with the Necessity of Faith, in several sermons; a Chain of Scripture Chromo- logy, from the Creation tilſ the Death of Christ, in seven periods. This was printed in 1658, and was regarded as glorious Gospel. a very useful and learned work. It is preserved in the New-England library, established by Mr. Prince, by whom the authors quoted in the book are written in the begin- ning of it in his own hand. Mr. A. wrote also with Mr. Shepard in 1645, a preface to a Treatise on Liturgies, &c. composed by the latter. He contends, that only visible saints and believers should be received to communion.— Allen's Biog. Dict: ALLEN, (JAMEs ;) minister in Boston, came to this country in 1662, recommended by Mr. Goodwin. He had been a fellow of New College, Oxford. He was at this time a young man, and possessed considerable talents. He was ordained teacher of the first church, December 9, 1668, as colleague with Mr. Davenport, who was at the same time ordained pastor. Mr. Allen died September 22, 1710, aged seventy-eight years. He published Health- ful Diet, a sermon ; New-England's choicest Blessings, an election sermon, 1679; Serious Advice to Delivered Ones; Man’s Self-reflection, a Means to further his Recovery from his Apostasy from God; two practical discourses.— Allen’s B. Dict. - ALLEN, (JAMEs ;) first minister of Brookline, Massa- chusetts, was a native of Roxbury, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1710. He was ordained November 5, 1718, and after a ministry of twenty-eight years, died of a lingering consumption February 18, 1747, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, with the reputation of a pious and judi- cious divine. In his last hours he had a hope, which he would not part with, as he said, for a thousand worlds. He published a Thanksgiving Sermon, 1722; a Discourse on Providence, 1727; the Doctrine of Merit exploded, and Humility recommended, 1727; a Fast Sermon occasioned by the Earthquake, 1727; a Sermon to a Society of Young Men, 1731; a Sermon on the Death of S. Aspinwall, 1733; an Election Sermon, 1744.—Allen's B. Dict. - ALLEN, (HENRY ;) a preacher in Nova Scotia, was born at Newport, R.I., June 14, 1748, and began to pro- pagate his singular sentiments about the year 1778. He was a man of good capacity, but of warm imagination and uncultivated mind. He died at the house of Rev. Dr. McClure, New Hampton, New-Hampshire, February 2, 1784. Since his death his party has much declined. He published a volume of hymns, and several treatises and Sermons.—Allen's B. Dict. See ALLENITEs. * ALLEN, (Moses;) was born in Northampton, Massa- chusetts, September 14, 1748. He was educated at the college in New-Jersey, where he was graduated in 1772. He was ordained at Christ's Church parish, about twenty miles from Charleston, S. C., March 26, 1775. In 1777 he removed to Midway, Georgia. The British army from Florida, under General Prevost, dispersed his society in 1778, and burned the meeting-house, almost every dwelling house, and the crops of rice then in stacks. In December he was taken prisoner by the British, and treated with great severity. Seeing no prospect of release from the prison-ship where he was confined, he determined to at- tempt the recovery of his liberty by jumping overboard and Swimming to an adjacent point; but he was drowned in the attempt February 8, 1779, in the thirty-first year of his age. Mr. Allen was admired by the friends of inde- pendence for his popular talents, his courage, and his many virtues. The enemies of independence could ac- cuse him of nothing more, than a vigorous exertion of all his powers in defending the rights of his injured country. He was an eminently pious man.—Allen’s B. Dict. ALLEN, (THOMAs;) brother of the preceding, and first minister of Pittsfield, Mass.; was born January 7, 1743, at Northampton. He was educated at Harvard college, where he was graduated in 1762, being ranked among the best classical scholars of the day. After studying theolo- gy under the direction of Mr. Hooker of Northampton, Mr. Allen was ordained April 18, 1764. During a minis. try of forty-six years he was unwearied in dispensing the Besides his stated labors on the Sabbath, he frequently delivered lectures, and in the course of his life preached six or seven hundred funcral sermons, He was very charitable to the poor, and his house was the seat of hospitality. Towards other denominations of Christians, though strict in his own principles, he was yet exemplarily candid. At the commencement of the revo- A L L. A LL [ 62 itſtion, like most of his brethren, he engaged warmly in the support of the rights and independence of his country. Twice he went out with the army as a volunteer chaplain for a short time, - In Mr. Allen the strength of those affections which con- stitute the charm of domestic and social life, was remarka- ble; giving indeed peculiar poignancy to the arrows of affliction, but also swelling in a high degree the amount. of good found in the pilgrimage of earth, His health had been gradually declining for several years before his death, and more than once he was brought to the brink of the grave, For several months he was un- able to preach. He was fully aware of his approaching dissolution, and the prospect of eternity brightened as he drew near the close of his life. Those precious promises, which with peculiar tenderness he had often announced to the rich and the dying, were now his support. The all- sufficient Savior was his only hope; and he rested on him with perfect confidence. He was desirous of departing, and was chiefly anxious lest he should be impatient. Knowing his dependence upon God, he continually be- sought those, who were about his bed, to pray for him. He took an affecting leave of his family, repeating his pious counsels, and bestowing upon each one his valedic- tory blessing. When he was reminded by a friend of his great labors in the ministry, he disclaimed all merit for what he had done, though he expressed his belief, that he had plainly and faithfully preached the Gospel. He for- gave and prayed for his enemies. When one of his chil- dren, a day or two before his death, pressed him to take ' some nourishment, or it would be impossible for him to live; he replied, “Live! I am going to live forever!” He frequently exclaimed, “Come, Lord Jesus; come quickly.” In the morning of the Lord's day, February 11, 1810, he fell asleep in Jesus in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his ministry. He published several sermons; and some letters of his, on the sickness and death of his daughter, were published in the Edinburg Missionary Magazine.—Allen's B. Dict. ALLEN, (SoCoMon;) a useful minister of the Gospel, brother of the preceding, was born at Northampton, Feb- ruary 23, 1751. He with four of his brothers entered the army in the revolutionary war. Mr. Allen, in the course of the war, rose to the rank of major, and bore an honora- ble part in those trying scenes. After the war he was a conspicuous officer in quelling the insurrection of Shays. At the age of forty his soul was conquered by the power of the Gospel, which till then he had resisted; in a few years afterwards he was chosen deacon of the church at Northampton. As his personal piety increased, he became anxious to preach the Gospel. But at the age of fifty, with no advantages of education, there were formidable obsta- cles in his way. The ministers around him suggested discouragements, as he could hardly acquire the necessa- ry qualifications. There were various branches of learning, which he could not hope to gain; but, “one thing he could do,-he could bring all the force of a naturally robust intellect to the work of searching the Scriptures. This he did, and while in this way he enriched his understanding from their abundant treasures, his faith was strengthened, his hope brightened, and all the Christian graces were refreshed from that “ſountain of living waters.” He read also Howe's and Baxter’s works, and from these sources drew his theo- logy. He wrote out a few sermons, and thus commenced the labor of preaching, at first in a few small towns in Hampshire county, but for the last years of his life in the western part of the state of New-York. He rejoiced in fatigues and privations in the service of his beloved Mas- ter. Sometimes in his journies he reposed himselſ with nothing but a blanket to protect him from the inclemency of the weather. But though poor, he was the means of enriching many with the inestimable riches of religion. Four churches were established by him, and he numbered about two hundred souls, as by his preaching reclaimed from perdition. Though poor himself, there were those connected with him, who were rich, and by whose liberali- ty he was enabled to accomplish his benevolent purposes. From such sources he expended about a thousand dollars in books and clothing for the people in the wilderness, But his pious zeal was irrepressible. . while at the same time he toiled incessantly in teaching them the way to heaven. Such an example of disinte- restedness drew from an enemy of the Gospel the follow- ing remark;–" This is a thing I cannot get along with : this old gentleman, who can be as rich as he pleases, comps here and does all these things for nothing; there must be something in his religion.” . In the autumn of 1820, after having been nearly twenty years a preacher in the new settlements of the west, his declining health induced him to bid adieu to his people, in order to visit once more his children and friends. His parting with his church at Brighton was like the parting of Paul with the elders of the church of Ephesus. Many of the members of the church accompanied him to the boat, and tears were shed and prayers offered on the shore of lake Ontario, as on the seacoast of Asia Minor. Even the passengers in the boat could not reſrain from weeping at the solemnity and tenderness of the scene. The attach- men of children to Mr. Allen was indeed remarkable. Wherever he went, children, while they venerated his white locks, would cling around his knees to listen to his interesting anecdotes, his warnings, and instructions. At Pittsfield, where some of his relations lived, and where his brother had been the minister, Mr. Allen went through the streets, and entering each house, read a chap- ter in the Bible, exhorting all the members of the family to serve God; and praying fervently for their salvation. In like manner he visited other towns. He felt that the time was short, and he was constrained to do all the good in his power. With his white locks and the strong, im- pressive tones of his voice, and having a known charac- ter for sanctity, all were awed at the presence of the man of God. He went about with the holy zeal and authority of an apostle. In prayer Mr. Allen displayed a sublimity and pathos, which good judges have considered as une- qualled by any ministers whom they have known. It was the energy of true faith and strong feeling. In Novem- ber he arrived at New-York, and there, after a few weeks, he expired in the arms of his children, January 28, 1821, aged seventy years. As he went down to the grave he enjoyed an unbroken serenity of soul, and rejoiced and exulted in the assured hope of eternal life in the presence of his Redeemer in heaven. Somc of his last memorable sayings have been presented by Rev. Mr. Danforth in his sketch of his last hours. If there are any worldly-minded ministers, who neglect the sheep and lambs of the flock,-any who re- pose themselves in learned indolence,—any who are not bold to reprove and diligent to instruct, any who are not burning with holy zeal, nor strong in faith, nor fervent and mighty in prayer;-to them the ministry and faithfulness of Mr. Allen might show to what an height of excellence and honor they might reach, did they but possess his Spirit. - P. Allen published no writings to keep alive his name upon the earth; but he has a record on high ; and his bene- volent, pious, zealous toils, have doubtless gained for him that honor, which cometh from God, and which will be green and flourishing, when the honors of Science and of heroic exploits, and all the honors of earth shall wither away. In his life there is presented to the world a memo- rable example of the power in doing good, which may be wielded by one mind, even under the most unfavorable circumstances, when its energies are wholly controlled by a spirit of piety. Though found in deep poverty, such a pious zeal may mould the characters of those, who by their industry and enterprise acquire great wealth; and thus may be the remote cause of all their extensive charities.— Allen's B. Dict. - ALLEN, (Solomon M.;) professor of languages in Middlebury college, Vermont, was the son of Rev. T. Al- len, of Pittsfield, and was born February 18, 1789. His father destined him to be a farmer, as he was athletic and fond of active life; but aſter he became pious, his friends being desirous that he should receive a collegiate educa- •tion, he commenced the study of Latin at the age of twenty. In 1813 he graduated at Middlebury with a high reputation as a scholar. During a year spent at Andover, besides attending to the customary studies, he read a part of the New Testament in the Syriac language. After offi- A L L A L L [63 ] ciating for two years as a tutor, he was chosen in 1816 rofessor of the ancient languages, having arisen to this }. in seven years after commencing the study of Latin. He lived to accomplish but little, but long enough to show what the energy of P. zeal, is capable of ac- complishing. Respected and beloved by all his associ- ates and acquaintances, his sudden and awful death over- whelmed them with sorrow. Being induced, on account of a defect in the chimney, to go imprudently upon the roof of the college building, he fell from it September 23, 1817, and in consequence died the same evening; aged 28 years. In his last hours his numerous friends crowded around him, “watching with trembling anxiety the flight of his immortal soul to the kindred spirits of a better world.” Under the extreme anguish of his dying mo- ments, he exclaimed:—“The Lord reigneth, let the earth rejoice —O Father, thy will be done. in thy sight, O Lord.”—Allen's Biog. Dict. ALLEN, (Richard ;) first bishop of the African Metho- dist Episcopal church, died at Philadelphia, March 26, 1831, aged 71.—Allen's Biog. Dict. - ALLEN, (BENAMIN;) rector of St. Paul's church, Phi- ladelphia, died at sea, in the brig Edward, on his return from Europe, January 27, 1829. He had been the editor of the Christian Magazine, and was a disinterested, zea- lous servant of God.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ALLENITES, the disciples of Henry Allen, of Nova Scotia, who began to propagate his doctrines in that coun- try about the year 1778, and died in 1783, during which interval he made many proselytes, and at his death left a considerable party behind him, though now much declin- ed. He published several treatises and sermons, in which he declares, that the souls of all the human race are ema- nations, or rather parts of the one great Spirit; that they were all present in Eden, and were actually in the first transgression. He supposes that our first parents in inno- cency were pure spirits, and that the material world was not then made; but that in consequence of the fall, that mankind might not sink into utter destruction, this world was produced, and men clothed with material bodies; and that all the human race will, in their turn, be invested with such bodies, and in them enjoy a state of probation for immortal happiness.-H. Adams's Dict., from a MS. communicated by a clergyman of Nova Scotia, 1783. ALLISON, (FRANCIS, D. D.;) assistant minister of the first Presbyterian church in Philadelphia, was born in Ireland in 1705. After an early classical education at an academy, he completed his studies at the university of Glasgow. He came to this country in 1735, and was soon appointed pastor of a Presbyterian church at New London in Chester county, Pennsylvania. Here, about the year 1741, his solicitude for the interests of the Redeemer's kingdom, and his desire of engaging young men in the work of the ministry, and of promoting public happiness by the diffusion of religious liberty and learning, induced him to open a public school. There was at this time scarcely a particle of learning in the middle states, and he generally instructed all that came to him, without fee or reward.—About the year 1747 he was invited to take the charge of an academy in Philadelphia; in 1755 he was elected vice provost of the college, which had just been established, and professor of moral philosophy. He was also minister in the first Presbyterian church. In the dis- charge of the laborious duties, which devolved upon him, he continued till his death, November 28, 1777, aged 72. Besides an unusually accurate and profound acquain- tance with the Latin and Greek classics, he was well in- formed in moral philosophy, history, and general litera- ture. To his zeal for the diffusion of knowledge, Pennsyl- vania owes much of that taste for solid learning and clas- sical literature, for which many of her principal charac- ters have been so distinguished. The private virtues of Dr. Allison conciliated the esteem of all that knew him, and his public usefulness has erected a lasting monument to his praise. For more than forty years he supported the ministerial character with dignity and reputation. In his public services he was plain, practical, and argumenta- tive; warm, animated and pathetic. He was greatly honored by the gracious Redeemer in being made instru- mental, as it is believed, in the salvation of many, who So seemeth it good either heresy or schism in her opponents. of his “Remarks,” he is led into an examination of vari- heard him. He was frank and ingenuous in his natural temper; warm and zealous in his friendships; catholic in his sentiments; a friend to civil and religious liberty. His benevolence led him to spare no pains nor trouble in assisting the poor and distressed by his advice and influ- ence, or by his own private liberality., . It was he who planned, and was the means of establishing the Widows' Fund, which was remarkably useful. He often expressed his hopes in the mercy of God unto eternal life, and but a few days before his death said to Dr. Ewing, that he had no doubt, but that, according to the Gospel covenant, he should obtain the pardon of his sins through the great Redeemer of mankind, and enjoy an eternity of rest and glory in the presence of God. He published a sermon, delivered before the synods of New-York and Pennsylvania, May 24, 1758, entitled, Peace and Unity Recommended.—Assembly's Miss. Mag. i. 457–361; Miller's Retr. ii. 342; Holmes's Life of Stiles, 98, 99.-Allen's Biog. Dict. ALLIX, (PETER, D.D.;) a very learned and eminent Pro- testant divine, born in France, at Alencon, in 1641, where he received a liberal education. In process of time he be- came minister of the reformed church at Rouen, where he soon began to distinguish himself as an author, by pub- lishing some very learned and curious pieces, by which he acquired great reputation. It was owing to this that he was called from Rouen to Charenton, which was the principal church that the reformed had in France. This was a high honor conferred upon him; and being now in the zenith of his preferment, and finding himself in a con- dition for rendering great services to the church, he appli- ed himself to the task with all possible zeal, defending the Protestant doctrine against the artful attempts of the bishop of Meaux, who was then laboring to overthrow the reformed religion. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Mr. Allix found himself compelled to quit in 1685, on which he retired into England, where he met with a most favorable reception, on account of his extensive learning, and, more especially, his singular knowledge in ecclesiastical history, for which he was particularly es- teemed. On his arrival in that country, he applied very closely to learning the English language, which he attain- ed to a surprising degree of perfection, as is manifest from the various publications which issued from his pen. Among these may be particularly specified his “Reflec- tions on the Books of the Holy Scriptures, designed to establish the truth of the Christian Religion,” “Remarks on the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of Piedmont,” “Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses.” In these last treatises, he vindicates the Waldenses and Albigenses from the...foul aspersions of Bossuet, the bishop of Meaux, and with great force retorts on him his own arguments, by showing, that a constant and vigorous opposition to the Church of Rome, founded not only on a disavowal of her authority, but also from an opposition to her corruptions in doctrine, discipline, and practice, is far from proving In the course ous important questions, and with freedom, learning, and impartiality, he traces the progress of the sentiments of the Albigenses into Spain, as well as their connection with the opinions of Wickliffe in England. But the book which obtained him the highest credit was, “The Judgment of the Ancient Jewish Church, against the Unitarians, in the Controversy upon the Holy Trinity, and the Divinity of our blessed Savior.” This was a great undertaking, requiring an extensive knowledge of Greek and Hebrew literature, which all must allow Dr. Allix to have exhibited, and that he managed the whole controversy with equal perspicuity and erudition. He enjoyed an uncommon share of health and spirits, as ap- pears by his later writings, in which there is not only all the erudition, but all the quickness and vivacity which ap- peared in his earliest pieces. He was consulted by the greatest men of his age on the deepest and most intricate parts of learning, and was acknowledged to be a genius of the first order, by those whom the world have esteemed not only the most capable, but also the most unbiassed critics. Dr. Allix continued his application to the last, \ A L M A L M | 64 ) and died in London, in the 76th year of his age, on the 21st of February, 1717; leaving behind him the reputation of a many assiduous in the discharge of all the offices of public and private life, and every way as amiable for his virtues and social qualities, as he was venerable for his uprightness and integrity; and famous for his various and profound learning—Jones's Biog. Dict, ALL MANNER OF CONVERSATION ; a phrase which occurs in 1 Peter 1: 15. The Greek word anastro- phe, conversation, which occurs frequently in the New Testament, has a much more extensive meaning than now belongs to the word conversation. It embraces not only colloquial intercourse, but the whole circle of habits and behavior. It corresponds most nearly to the English term conduct. The whole phrase here referred to, may be ren- dered, “Be ye holy in every turn, or, as we now say, in every walk of life.” *. ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GOD; that power or attri- bute of his nature, whereby he is able to communicate as much blessedness to his creatures as he is pleased to make them capable of receiving. As his self-sufficiency is that whereby he has enough in himself to denominate him completely blessed, as a God of infinite perfection; so his all-sufficiency is that by which he hath enough in himself to satisfy the most enlarged desires of his creatures, and to make them completely blessed. We practically deny this perfection, when we are discontented with our present condition, and desire more than GoD has allotted for us. Gen. 3: 5. Prov. 19: 3.—2. When we seek blessings of what kind soever in an indirect way, as though GoD were not able to bestow them upon us in his own way, or in the use of lawful means. Gen. 27:35.-3. When we use un- lawful means to escape imminent dangers. 1 Sam. 21: 13. Gen. 20 and 26.-4. When we distrust his providence, though we have had large experience of his appearing for us in various instances. 1 Sam. 27: 1. Psalms 78: 19. 2 Chron. 16: 8. 2 Chron. 14: 9, 13. Josh. 7: 7, 9–5. When we doubt of the truth or certain accomplishment of the pro- mises. Gen. 18; 12. Psalms 77: 74. Isa. 49: 14.—6. When we decline great services, though called to them by GoD, under a pretence of our unfitness for them, Jer. 1: 6, 8. The consideration of this doctrine should lead us, 1. To seek happiness in God alone, and not in human things, Jer. 2: 13.−2. To commit all our wants and trials to him. 1 Sam. 30:6. Heb. 11; 19. 2 Cor. 12: 8, 9.—3. To be courageous in the midst of danger and opposition. Psalms, 27: 1-4. To be satisfied with his dispensations. Rom. 8:28.-5. To persevere in the path of duty, how- ever difficult. Gen. 17: 1.—Buck's Theol. Dict. ; Ridgley's Body of Div. Ques. 17. ; Saurin's Ser. ser. 5. vol. i. ; Bar- row's Works, vol. ii. ser, 11. ; Dnight's Theology, vol. i. Ser. 7, and 25.-See ALMIGHTY. t ALLUSH or ALUSH ; Numb, 33: 13, 14.; a place situ- ated in the desert of Sin, between Elim and Mount Sinai. The stations where the Israelites rested, are supposed to have been in the great valley El Sheikk and Feiran. Feiran is a continuation of the valley El Sheikk, says Burckhardt, and was considered the first valley on the whole Arabian peninsula. From the upper extremity, a row of gardens and date plantations extends downwards for four miles. In almost every garden is a well, by means of which the gardens are irrigated the whole year round. This is the valley described by Niebuhr under the name of Faran, through which the Israelites, doubt- less, passed on their way to Sinai after leaving the desert of Sin; but which they probably did not pass through on their way from Sinai to Kadesh, as some have ventured to suppose. Here they could not want for water; nor did they murmur on this account until they came to Rephi- dim, which was most probably higher up among the mountains, and near the western base of Sinai itself. In- deed, monkish tradition pretends to assign the site of Rep- hidim, and to show the rock from which the waters gush- ed, in the narrow valley El Ledja, but the nature of the ground hardly admits the possibility of its being the true site.—Robinson's Bib. Repository. ALMAH; a Hebrew word signifying properly a virgin, a young woman unacquainted with man. In this sense it occurs in the famous passage of Isaiah, 7: 14—“Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son.” The Hebrew has no term that more properly signifies a virgin than almah. St. Jerome, in his commentary on this passage, observes, that the prophet declined using the word bethaul which signifies any young woman, or young person, but employed the term almah, which denotes a virgin never seen by man. This is the import of the word almah, which is derived from a root which signifies to con- ceal. It is very well known, that young women in the east do not appear in public, but are shut up in their houses, and their mothers' apartments, like nuns. The Chaldee paraphrast and the Septuagint translate almah “a virgin ;” and Akiba, the famous rabbin, who was a great enemy to Christ and Christians, and lived in the second century, understands it in the same manner. The apos- tles and evangelists, and the Jews of our Savior's time, explained it in the same sense, and expected a Messiah born of a virgin. The Jews, that they may obscure this plain text, and weaken the proof of the truth of the Christian religion, pretend that the Hebrew word signifies a young woman, and not a virgin. But this corrupt translation is easily confuted. 1. Because this word constantly denotes a vir- gin in all other passages of Scripture in which it is used. 2. From the intent of the passage, which was to confirm their faith by a strange and wonderſul sign. It surely could be no wonder, that a young woman should conceive a child; but it was a very extraordinary circumstance, that a virgin should conceive and bear a son.—Jones. ALMERICIANS ; the followers of Almeric, (or Amau- ri,) professor of logic and theology at Paris, in the thirteenth century, who was burnt to death for his opinions, with several of his followers. He opposed the worship of saints and images: and his enemies charged him with maintaining, that as the reign of the Father continued during the Old Testament dispensation, and that of the Son from the Christian era, so in his time the reign of the Holy Spirit commenced, in which the sacraments and all external worship were to be abolished. Dr. Mosheim, and many other learned men, consider Almeric as a Pantheist, maintaining that the universe was God—that “All are but parts of one stupendous whole,” and must all return to the source from whence they were derived. Fox, however, has placed him among the mar- tyrs to evangelical truth. Dr. Maclaine, also, in his notes to Mosheim, has vindicated Almeric from the charges of his enemies, and sustained the judgment of Fox.- Mosheim’s Ecc. Hist, vol. iii. p. 287; Fleury's Ecc. Hist. lib. 76. sect. 59; Fox's Book of Martyrs, p. 133. ALMIGHTY; a peculiar title of the Deity. Gen. 17: 1. The Hebrew name, Shaddai, signifies also all-sufficient, or all-bountiful. See Gen. 28: 3. 35: 11. 43: 14. 49: 25. Of the omnipotence of God, we have a most ample reve- lation in the Scriptures, expressed in the most sublime language. From the annunciation, by Moses, of a divine existence, who was “in the beginning,” before all things, the very first step is to the display of his almighty power in the creation out of nothing, and the immediate arrange- ment, in order and perfection, of the “heavens and the earth;” by which is meant, not this globe only with its atmos- phere, or even with its own celestial system, but the uni- verse itself; for “he made the stars also.” We are thus at once placed in the presence of an agent of umbounded power; for we must all feel that a being which could cre- ate such a world as this, must, beyond all comparison, possess a power greater than any which we experience in ourselves, than any which we observe in other visible agents, and to which we are not authorized, by our obser- vation or knowledge, to assign any limits of space or dura- tlOn. . 2. That the sacred writers should so frequently dwell upon the omnipotence of God, has important reasons, which arise out of the very design of the revelation which they were the means of communicating to mankind. Men were to be reminded of their obligations to obedience; and God is therefore constantly exhibited as the Creator, the Preserver, and Lord of all things. His solemn worship and fear were to be enjoined upon them; and, by the manifestation of his works, the veil was withdrawn from his glory and majesty. Idolatry was to be checked and A L M A L MI [ 65 | * reproved, and the true God was therefore placed in con- trast with the limited and powerless gods of the heathen: “Among the gods of the nations, is there no god like unto thee; neither are there any works like thy works.” Fi- nally, he is exhibited as the object of trust to creatures con- stantly reminded by experience of their own infirmity and dependence; and to them it is essential to know, that his power is absolute, unlimited, and irresistible, and that, in a word, he is “mighty to save.” 3. In a revelation which was thus designed to awe and control the wicked, and to afford strength of mind and consolation to good men under all circumstances, the om- nipotence of God is therefore placed in a great variety of impressive views, and connected with the most striking illustrations. It is declared by the fact of creation, the creation of be- ings out of nothing ; which itself, though it had been con- fined to a single object, however minute, exceeds finite comprehension, and overwhelms the faculties. This with God required no effort: “He spake and it was done, he commanded and it stood fast.” The vastness and variety of his works enlarge the conception: “The heavens de- clare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handy work.” “He spreadeth out the heavens, and treadeth upon the waves of the sea; he maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south ; he doeth great things, past finding out, yea, and wonders without number. He stretcheth out the north over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing. He bindeth up the waters in the thick clouds, and the cloud is not rent under them ; he hath compassed the waters with bounds until the day and night come to an end.” The ease with which he sustains, orders, and controls the most powerful and unruly of the elements, arrays his omnipo- tence with an aspect of ineffable dignity and majesty : “By him all things consist.” “He brake up for the sea a decreed place, and set bars and doors, and said, Hitherto shalt thou come and no further, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.” “He looketh to the end of the earth, and seeth under the whole heaven, to make the weight for the winds, to weigh the waters by measure, to make a decree for the rain, and a way for the lightning of the thunder.” “Who hath measured the waters in the hol- low of his hand, meted heaven with a span, comprehend- ed the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance.” The descriptions of the divine power are often terrible : “The pillars of heaven tremble, and are astonished at his re- proof; he divideth the sea by his power.” “He removeth the mountains, and they know it not; he overturneth them in his anger; he shaketh the earth out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble; he commandeth the sun and it riseth not, and sealeth up the stars.” absolute subjection of creatures to his dominion is seen among the intelligent inhabitants of the material universe; and angels, mortals the most exalted, and evil spirits, are swayed with as much ease as the most passive elements : “He maketh his angels spirits, and his ministers a flame of fire.” They veil their faces before his throne, and ac- knowledge themselves his servants : “It is he that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers,” “as the dust of the balance, less than nothing and vanity.” “He bringeth princes to noth- ing.” “He setteth up one and putteth down another;” “for the kingdom is the Lord's, and he is governor among the nations.” “The angels that sinned he cast down to hell, and delivered them into chains of darkness, to be reserved unto judgment.” The closing scenes of this world complete these transcendent conceptions of the majesty and power of God. The dead of all ages rise from their graves at his voice : and the sea gives up the dead which are in it. Before his face heaven and earth ſlee away; the stars fall from heaven, and the powers of heaven are shaken. The dead, small and great, stand before God, and are divided as a shepherd divideth, the sheep from the goats. The wicked go away into everlast- ing punishment, but the righteous into life eternal. 4. Of these amazing views of the omnipotence of God, Spread through almost every page of the Scriptures, the Power lies in their truth. They are not eastern exaggera- The same , tions, mistaken for sublimity. Every thing in nature an- swers to them, and renews from age to age the energy of the impression which they cannot but make on the reflect- ing mind. The order of the astral revolutions indicates the constant presence of an invisible but incomprehensible power. The seas hurl the weight of their billows upon the rising shores, but every where find a “bound fixed by a perpetual decree.” The tides reach their height; if they flowed on ſor a few hours, the earth would change places with the bed of the sea; but, under an invisible control, they become refluent. The expression, “He toucheth the mountains and they Smoke,” is not merely imaginary:— every volcano is a testimony of its truth; and earthquakes proclaim, that, before him, “the pillars of the world trem- ble.” Men collected into armies, or populous nations, give us vast ideas of human power; but let an army be placed amidst the sand-storms and burning winds of the desert, as in the east; or, before “his frost,” as in our own day in Russia, where one of the mightiest arma- ments was seen retreating before, or perishing under, an unexpected visitation of snow and storm ; or let the utter- ly helpless state of a populous country which has been visited by famine, or by a resistless pestilential disease, be reflected upon; and we feel that it is scarcely a figure of speech to say, that “all nations before him are less than nothing and vanity.” 5. Nor, in reviewing this doctrine of Scripture, ought the great practical uses made of the omnipotence of God, by the sacred writers, to be overlooked. By them nothing is said for the mere display of knowledge, as in heathen writers; and we have no speculations without a subservi- ent moral. To excite and keep alive in man the fear and Worship of God, and to bring him to a felicitous confidence in that almighty power which pervades and controls all things, are the noble ends of those ample displays of the omnipotence of God, which roll through the sacred volume with a sublimity that inspiration only could supply. “De. clare his glory among the heathen, his marvellous works among all nations; for great is the Lord, and greatly to be praised.—Glory and honor are in his presence, and strength and gladness in his place.—Give unto the Lord, ye lindreds of the people, give unto the Lord glory and strength; give unto the Lord the glory due unto his name.—The Lord is my light and my salvation ; whom shall I fear?—The Lord is the strength of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?—If God be for us, who then can be against us?—Our help standeth in the name of the Lord, who made heaven and earth.-What time I am afraid, I will trust in thee.”—Thus, as one observes, “our natural fears, of which we must have many, remit us to God, and remind us, since we know what God is, to lay hold on his almighty power.” 6. Ample, however, as are these views of the power of God, the subject is not exhausted. As, when the Scriptures speak of the eternity of God, they declare it so as to give us a mere glimpse of that fearful peculiarity of the divine nature, that God is the fountain of being to himself, and that he is eternal, because he is the “I AM ;” so we are taught not to measure God's omnipotence by the actual displays of it which we see around us. These are the manifestations of the fact, but not the measure of the attri- bute ; and should we resort to the discoveries of modern philosophy, which, by the help of instruments, has so greatly enlarged the known boundaries of the visible uni- verse, and add to the stars which are visible to the naked eye, those new exhibitions of the divine power in the ne- bulous appearances of the heavens which are resolvable into myriads of distinct celestial luminaries, whose im- mense distances commingle their light before it reaches our eyes; we thus almost infinitely expand the circle of created existence, and enter upon a formerly unknown and overwhelming range of divine operation. But still we are only reminded, that his power is truly almighty and ºneasureless—“Lo, all these are parts of his ways; but how little a portion is known of him, and the thunder of his power who can understand?” It is a mighty conception that we form of a power from which all other power is de- rived, and to which it is subordinate; which nothing can oppose ; which can beat down and annihilate all other power whatever; which operates in the most perfect man § A L. M. A. L. M. [ 66 l ner, at once, in an instant, with the utmost ease; but the Scriptures lead us to the contemplation of greater and even unfathomable depths. The omnipotence of God is inconceivable and boundless. perfection of God, that his power can never be actually exhausted; and, in every imaginable instant in eternity, that inexhaustible power of God can, if it please him, be adding either more creatures to those in existence, or greater perfection to them; since “it belongs to self-exist- ent Being, to be always full and communicative, and, to the communicated contingent being, to be ever empty and craving.” 7. One limitation of the divine power it is true we can conceive, but it detracts nothing from its perfection. Where things in themselves imply a contradiction, as that a body may be extended and not extended, in a certain place and not in it, at the same time; such things cannot be done by God, because contradictions are impossible in their own nature. Nor is it any derogation from the divine power to say, they cannot be done; for as the object of the under- standing, of the eye, and the ear, is that which is intelli- gible, visible, and audible; so the object of power must be that which is possible ; and as it is no prejudice to the most perfect understanding, or sight, or hearing, that it does not understand what is not intelligible, or see what is not visible, or hear what is not audible ; so neither is it any diminution to the most perfect power, that it does not do what is not possible. In like manner, God cannot do any thing that is repugnant to his other perfections: he cannot lie, nor deceive, nor deny himself; for this would be injurious to his truth. He cannot love sin, nor punish innocence; for this would destroy his holiness and goodness: and therefore to ascribe a power to him that is inconsistent with the rectitude of his mature, is not to magnify but debase him ; for all unrighteousness is weak- ness, a defection from right reason, a deviation from the perfect rule of action, and arises from a want of goodness and power. In a word, since all the attributes of God are essentially the same, a power in him which tends to de- stroy any other attribute of the divine nature, must be a power destructive of itself. Well, therefore, may we con- clude him absolutely omnipotent, who, by being able to effect all things consistent with his perfections, showeth in- finite ability, and by not being able to do any thing repug- nant to the same perfections, demonstrates himself subject to no infirmity. .* 8. Nothing certainly in the finest writings of antiquity, were all their best thoughts collected as to the majesty and power of God, can bear any comparison with the views thus presented to us by divine revelation. Were we to forget, for a moment, what is the fact, that their no- blest notions stand connected with fancies and vain speculations which deprive them of their force, still their thoughts never rise so high ; the current is broken, the round of lofty conception is not completed, and, uncon. nected as their views of divine power were with the eter. nal destiny of man, and the very reason of creation, we never hear in them, as in the Scriptures, “the THUNDER of his power.”—Watson ; Divight's Theology, Ser. vii. ALMOND TREE ; a tree resembling the peach tree in its leaves and blossoms, but the fruit is longer and more com- pressed, the Outer green coat is thinner and drier when ripe, and the shell of the stone is not so rugged. This stone, or nut, contains a kernel, which is the only esculent part. The whole arrives at maturity in September, when the outer tough cover splits open and discharges the nut. From the circumstance of its blossoming the earliest of any of the trees, beginning as soon as the rigor of winter is past, and before it is in leaf, it has its Hebrew name shakad, which comes from a verb signifying to make haste, to be in a hurry, or to anake early. To the forwardness of the almond tree there seems to be a reference in Jeremiah: “The word of the Lord came unto me, saying, Jeremiah, what Seest thou? And I said, I see a rod of an almond tree. Then said the Lord unto me, Thou hast well seen : for I will hasten my word to perform it;” or, rather, “I am hastening, or watching over my word to fulfil it.” Jer. i. 11, 12. In this manner it is rendered by the Se- venty; and by the Vulgate, Vigilabo ego super verbum meum. This is the first vision with which the prophet was ho. It arises from the infinite nored; and his attention is roused by a very significant emblem of that severe correction with which the Most High was hastening to visit his people for their iniquity; and from the species of tree to which the rod belonged, he is warned of its near approach. The idea which the ap- pearance of the almond rod suggested to his mind, is con- firmed by the exposition of God himself: “I am watching over, or on account of, my word to fulfil it;”, and this double mode of instruction, first by emblem, and then by exposition, was certainly intended to make a deeper im- pression on the mind both of Jeremiah and of the people to whom he was sent. It is probable that the rods which the princes of Israel bore, were scions of the almond tree, at once the ensign of their office, and the emblem of their vigilance. Such, we know, from the testimony of Scripture, was the rod of Aaron; which renders it exceedingly probable, that the rods of the other chiefs were from the same tree. The hoary head is beautifully compared by Solomon to the almond tree, covered in the earliest days of spring with its snow-white flowers, before a single leaf has buil- ded: “The almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail.” Eccl. 12: 5. Man has existed in this world but a few days, when old age begins to appear, sheds its snows upon his head, prema- turely nips his hopes, darkens his earthly prospects, and hurries him into the grave.—Watson. ALMONER; one who is employed in the distribution of charities. This seems to have been an important branch of the office of deacons in the Christian church. Acts 6. We find Barnabas and Paul however employed in a similar service. Acts 11:29–36. Gal. 2: 10. 2 Cor. 8; 4. It is an office of the faithful execution of which, while it demands much discretion, and in some circumstances great self-denial, is yet peculiarly acceptable to God, ho- norable and delightful. The Scriptures frequently enjoin and encourage labors of this sort. Ps. 41: 1. Matt. 19: 21. 25: 31–46. Acts 20:33–35. Rom. 12; 13. James 1: 27. 1 Pet. 4: 10. 3. John 5. ALMOST ; in a great measure; next to entirely; the opposite of altogether. Acts 26: 28. One is almost persuad- ed to be a Christian, when his knowledge of the Gospel, evi- dence of its truth, conviction of its importance, and ad- miration of its pure and elevated character, are such as only to be resisted and overborne by worldly desires and considerations, carried to a criminal excess. Such was the case of Agrippa. (See AGRIPPA, 2.) The reply of Paul is the most perfect and beautiful thing of the kind that ever was conceived. It is a master-piece to be studied by the human race. It will be well for all (and there are vast multitudes) in the critical circumstances of Agrippa, to remember the suggestion of the poet, - º Thou yet may’st find—too late—and to thy cost— That to be almost saved, is wholly to be lost / ALMS; what is given gratuitously for the relief of the poor, and in repairing the churches. That alms-giving is a duty, is every way evident from the variety of passages which enjoin it in the Sacred Scriptures. It is observable, however, what a number of excuses are made by those who are not found in the exercise of the duty : 1. That they have nothing to spare; 2. That charity begins at home; 3. That charity does not consist in giving money, but in benevolence, love to all mankind, &c.; 4. That giv. ing to the poor is not mentioned in St. Paul's description of charity, I Cor. 13: 5; 5. That they pay the poor rates; 6. That they employ many poor persons; 7. That the poor do not suffer so much as we imagine; 8. That these people, give them what you will, will never be thankful ; 9. That we are liable to be imposed upon; 10. That they should apply to their parishes; 11. That giving money encourages idleness; 12. That we have too many objects of charity at home. O the love of money, how fruitful is it in apologies for a contracted, mercenary spirit ! In giving of alms, however, the following rules should be observed: 1. That they should be given with justice ; only our own, to which we have a just right, should be given.— 2. With cheerfulness. Deut. 15: 10, 2 Cor. 9: 7.-3. With simplicity and sincerity. Rom. 12. Matt. 6: 3.—4. With com- passion and affection. Isa. 58: 10, 1 John 3:17.—5. Seasona. A LO A. L. P [ 67 ) bly. Gal. 6: 10. Prov. 4: 27–6. Bountifully. Deut. 18: 11. 1 Tim. 6: 18.—7. Prudently, according to every one's tleed. 1 Tim. 5: 8. Acts 4:35. See Dr. Barron's admira- ble Sermon on Bounty to the Poor, which took up three hours and a half in preaching ; Saurin's Ser. vol. iv. Eng. Trans. ser. 9. Paley's Mor. Phil. ch.5, vol. i. (See ALMoneR.)— JBuck's Theol. Dict. ALMUG TREE ; a certain kind of wood mentioned 1 ICings 10: 11. 2 Chron. 2:8. 9; 10, 11. Jerome and the Vulgate render it ligna thyina, and the Septuagint, wrought wood.* Several critics understand it to mean gummy nood; but a wood abounding in resin aust be very unfit for the uses to which this is said to be applied. Celsus queries if it be not the sandal; but Michaelis thinks the particular species of wood to be wholly unknown to us. Dr. Shaw supposes that the almug tree was the cypress; and he ob- serves that the wood of this tree is still used in Italy and other places for violins, harpsichords, and other stringed instruments.-Watson. ALOES, alva; an extensive tribe of plants, the princi- pal species amounting to nine in number: they differ much in size. A very bitter gum is extracted from it, used for medicinal purposes, and anciently for embalming dead bodies. Nicodemus is said, John 19:39. to have brought one hundred pounds weight of Inyrrh and aloes to embalm the body of Jesus. The quantity has been exclaimed against by certain Jews, as being enough for fifty bodies. But instead of heaton, it might originally have been writ- ten dekaton, ten pounds weight. However, at the funeral of Herod there were five hundred spice-bearers ; and at that of R. Gamaliel, eighty pounds of opobalsamum were used. - The wood which God showed Moses, that with it he might sweeten the waters of Marah, is called alvah. Exod. 15:25. The word has some relation to aloe; and some interpreters are of opinion that Moses used a bitter sort of wood, that so the power of God might be the more re- markable. Mr. Bruce mentions a town, or large village, by the name of Elvah. It is thickly planted with trees; is the oasis parva of the ancients;. and the last inhabited place to the west that is under the jurisdiction of Egypt. He also observes that the Arabs call a shrub or tree, not unlike our hawthorn, either in wood or flower, by the name of elvah. “It was this,” say they, “with which Moses sweetened the waters of Marah; and with this, too, did ICalib Ibn el Walid sweeten those of Elvah, once bitter, and give the place the name of this circumstance.” It may be that God directed Moses to the very wood proper for the purpose. M. Niebuhr, when in these parts, inquir- ed after wood capable of this effect, but could gain no in- formation of any such. It will not, however, from hence follow that Moses really used a bitter wood; but, as Pro- vidence usually works by the proper and fit means to ac- complish its ends, it seems likely that the wood he made use of was, in some degree at least, corrective of that quality which abounded in the water, and so rendered it potable. This seems to have been the opinion of the au- thor of Ecclesiasticus, 38: 5. That other water, also, re- quires some correction, and that such a correction is ap- plied to it, appears from the custom in Egypt in respect to that of the Nile, which, though somewhat muddy, is ren- dered pure and salutary by being put into jars, the inside of which is rubbèd with a paste made of bitter almonds. The first discoverers of the Floridas are said to have cor- rected the stagnant and fetid water they found there, by infusing in it branches of Sassafras; and it is understood that the first inducements of the Chinese to the general use of tea, was to correct the water of their ponds and rivers, The LIGN-ALOE, or agallochum, Numb. 24: 6. Ps. 45: 9. and Cantic. 4: 14. is a small tree about eight or ten feet high. That the flower of this plant yielded a ſtagrance, is assured to us in the following extract from Swinburne's Travels, Letter xii. “This morning, like many of the foregoing ones, was delicious. The sun rose gloriously out of the sea, and all the air around was perfumed with the effluvia of the aloe, as its rays sucked up the dew from the leaves.” This extremely bitter plant contains * Josephus says it was a peculiarly beautiful species of pine. The Rabbins call it coral ; perhaps from the texture and color of the wood resembling that article. - $. * under the bark three sorts of wood. The first is black, Solid, and weighty; the second is of a tawny color, of a light spongy texture, very porous, and filled with a resin extremely fragrant and agreeable; the third kind of wood, which is the heart, has a strong aromatic odor, and is esteemed in the East more precious than gold itself. It is used for perfuming habits and apartments, and is admi- nistered as a cordial in fainting and epileptic fits. These pieces, called calumbac, are carefully preserved in pewter boxes, to prevent their drying. When they are used, they are ground upon a marble with such liquids as are best suited to the purpose for which they are intended. This wood, mentioned Cantic. 4: 14. in conjunction with several other odoriferous plants there referred to, was in high es- teem among the Hebrews for its exquisite exhalations. The scented aloe, and each shrub that showers Gum from its veins, and odors from its flowers. - Thus the son of Sirach, Ecclesiasticus 24: 15. “I gave a sweet Smell like the cinnamon and aspalathus. I yielded a pleasant odor like the best myrrh ; like galbanum and Onyx, and fragrant storax, and like the fume of frankin- cense in the tabernacle.” It may not be amiss to observe that the Persian translator renders ahalim, sandal-wood; and the same was the opinion of a certain Jew in Arabia who was consulted by Niebuhr.—Watson. ALOGIANS, (from a neg, and logos ;) persons who, ac- cording to Epiphanius, rejected the Gospel of John and the Revelation, which speak of Christ as the Logos, and ascribed them to Cerinthus. Dr. Lardner, however, is confident, that (though there might be individuals) there never was a sect which received the other books of the New Testament, and rejected these ; nor are they men- tioned by any writers pretending to be contemporary. He thinks this heresy was invented during the Millenarian controversy. Some Millenarians ascribed the Apocalypse to Cerinthus. Some of the orthodox said, they might as well ascribe the Gospel to Cerinthus—others said they did so; and thus was hatched the mendacium theologicum—the theological falsehood. Others, however, tell us, that the sect was founded by Artemon, in the second century, and supported by Beryllus.—Lardner’s Heretics, 446; Turner's Hist. p. 73.—Williams. ALPHA; the first letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega being the last letter. Hence the lofty title which our Lord appropriates to himself, (Rev. 1:8. 21: 6.22:13.) as signi- ficant of his eternity and perfection. (See A., and ALEPH.) ALPHAGE ; archbishop of Canterbury, an illustrious English martyr of the eleventh century. He was de- scended from a noble family, and his parents, who were worthy Christians, and had given him an excellent educa- tion, had the happiness to see him become both the admir- ed scholar and the devout Christian. He was distinguish- ed for purity, humility, prudence, and piety. He strove to make the arts useful to the purposes of life, and to render philosophy subservient to the cause of religion. But being in some degree inſected with the mistaken views of the age, he renounced his fortune and his home, and took the habit in the monastery of the Benedictines, that there he might at his leisure contemplate those divine perfections which he loved. Not satisfied however with this retire. ment, he afterwards shut himself up in a lonely cell at Bath. Here he remained, until the see of Winchester being vacated by the death of Ethelwold, and a dispute arising about a successor, Dunstani, archbishop of Can- terbury, as primate of all England, was obliged to inter- pose ; and, much to the satisfaction of all concerned, call- ed Alphage to the vacant bishopric. The conduct of Alphage justified the hopes that were formed of him. Un- der his care piety flourished, unity was restored, and the church of Winchester recovered its lustre in such a man- ner as made the bishop the admiration of the whole king- dom. In 1006 he was elevated to the vacant see of Can- terbury, according to the dying prayer of Dunstan, eigh- teen years before, that Alphage might be his successor. After he had governed this metropolitan see forty years with growing reputation and success, the Danes made an incursion into England; and while Alphage, now vene- rable with years, animated with holy courage was employ- ed in assisting and encouraging his people, Canterbury was taken by storm. The venerable prelate offered his ** A. L T A. L T | 68 | own bosom to the swords of the furious enemy; beseech- ing them to make him the sacrifice, and to spare his peo- ple. But in vain. He was compelled to witness the hor- rible massacre even to decimation of his people, every tenth person only being left alive ; while he himself bound, in- Sulted, and abused, was thrown into a gloomy dungeon. After several months' close confinement, the barbarous Danes put him to severe torment to oblige him to discover the treasure of his church; assuring him, if he would dis- cover it, of his restoration to life and liberty. But Alphage, regarding the treasure of the church as sacred to the poor, remained inflexible, and only exhorted his enemies to for- sake their idolatry and embrace the Gospel. The incensed soldiers dragged him out of the camp in a transport of rage, and began to beat him without mercy; a treatment which the meek prelate endured patiently, at the same time praying for his persecutors; until one soldier, who had been converted and baptized by him into the Chris- tian faith, knowing that his death was determined on, and fired with indignant horror at the sight of his protracted sufferings, with a blow from his sword put the finishing stroke to his martyrdom. This transaction happened April 19, A. D. 1012, on the very spot where the church at Greenwich, dedicated to him, now stands.--Fox. ALSTEDIUS, (John HENRy, S. T. D.;) a German divine, was born in 1558, at Hesborn, in Nassau, was pro- fessor of philosophy and theology in his native town, and subsequently at Weissemberg, in Transylvania. He died at the latter place in 1638. Among his numerous works may be mentioned, a treatise on the Millenium; an Ency- clopedia; and a Biblical Encyclopedia, in which he at- tempts to prove, that the principles and materials of all the arts and sciences should be sought for in the Scriptures. Alstedius was such an indefatigable writer, that his name was anagrammatized into sedulitas (activity,) by some of the word distorters of that age.—Davenport. ALTAR ; the place on which sacrifices were offered. Sacrifices are nearly as ancient as worship; and altars are of nearly equal antiquity. Scripture speaks of altars, erected by the patriarchs, without describing their form, or the materials of which they were composed. The altar which Jacob set up at Bethel, was the stone which had served him for a pillow ; and Gideon sacrificed on the rock before his house. The first altars which God com- manded Moses to raise, were of earth or rough stones : and the Lord declared, that if iron were used in construct- ing them, they would become impure. Exod. 20:24, 25. The altar which Moses enjoined Joshua to build on mount Ebal, was to be of unpolished stones, (Deut. 27: 5. Josh. 8. 31.) and it is very probable, that such were those built by Samuel, Saul, and David. The altar which Solomon erected in the temple, was of brass, but filled, it is believ. ed, with rough stones. 2 Chron. 4: 1, 2, 3. That built at Jerusalem, by Zerubbabel, after the return from Babylon, was of rough stones, as was that of the Maccabees. Jo. sephus says, that the altar which was in his time in the temple, was of rough stones, fifteen cubits high, forty long, and forty wide. In the patriarchal times, altars were generally built near a grove of trees; and as idolatry prevailed in the world, and men, forsaking the worship of the true God, multiplied their deities in profusion, it be- came an universal practice among the heathen to erect their altars in such places as were calculated to inspire with religious dread, the mind of the deluded worshippers; articularly in groves, woods, and mountains. Judges 6. 5. and 2 Kings 21: 3. But when the abuses which this custom gave rise to, became flagrant, and impure and lascivious rites were founded upon it, the Jews were ex- pressly forbidden to plant groves, or so much as a single tree near the altar of Jehovah. Deut. 16; 21. The divine precept in relation to altars, as delivered by Moses to the Jews, is in Exod. 20: 24. Among the ancient Egyptian pictures that have been discovered at Herculancum, are two of a Very curious de- Scription, representing sacred ceremonies of the Egyp- tians, probably in honor of Isis. Upon these subjects Mr. Taylor has bestowed a good deal of labor, and the result throws some light upon more than one obscure passage of Scripture, particularly Prov, 26; 21. Ps, 84: 3, 118: 27. * Among the Romans, altars were of two kinds, the higher and the lower; the higher were intended for the celestial gods, and were called altaria, from altus ; the lower were for the terrestrial and infernal gods, and were called aro. Those dedicated to the heavenly gods were raised a great height above the surface of the earth: those of the terres- trial gods were almost even with the surface; and those for the infernal deities were only holes dug in the ground, called Serobicali. Before temples were in use, the altars were placed in the groves, highways, or on the tops of mountains, inscrib. ed with the names, ensigns, or characters of the respective gods to whom they belonged. The greattemples at Rome generally contained three altars; the first in the sanctuary, at the foot of the statue, for incense and libations; the Second before the gate of the temple, for the sacrifice of victims; and the third was a portable one for the offerings and sacred vestments or vessels to lie upon. The an- cients used to Swear upon the altars upon solemn occa- Sions, such as confirming alliances, treaties of peace, &c. They were also places of refuge, and served as an asylum and Sanctuary to all who fled to them, whatever their crimes were. \. - The principal altars of the Jews, were that of burnt- offering and that of incense. The former, THE ALTAR of ..:NSN {(t) \; =S- º e jº: g º fim § º o- º eº º aſ Sºlºš:==::=#:==º: *=º: sº • ſº- * º º ɺº BURNT-OFFERING, which Moses commanded to be built for the use of the tabernacle in the wilderness, was a kind of chest or coffer of shittim-wood, covered with plates of brass. It was two yards and a half square, and a yard and a half high. Exod. 27: 1–3. Moses placed it to the east, before the entrance of the tabernacle, in the open air; that the fire, which first descended upon it from heaven, Lev. 9: 24. and which, therefore, was considered to be sacred, and kept perpetually burning upon it, might not Soil the inside of the tabernacle. At each of the four ; £ºlliſilſº #N itſuildiſſiºniſſiſſilſºnº § -- *... º.º. ". º corners of this altar, there was a spire, resembling a horn, wrought out of the same piece of wood as the altar itself, and covered with brass. Within the altar was a grate of brass, on which the fire was made, and through the grating the ashes fell in proportion as they increased upon the altar, and were received below in a pan which was placed under 1f. At the four corners of this grate were four A L T A LT [ 69 ) rings fastened to ſour chains, which kept it suspended from the four horns of the altar. This altar was portable, and was carried on the shoulders of the priests by staves of shittim-wood covered with brass, and made to pass through rings which were affixed to the sides of the altar. When Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, the altar which he caused to be erected was of much larger dimensions; it was twenty cubits long, twenty wide, and ten in height. 2 Chron. 4: 1–3. It was covered with thick plates of brass, and filled with rough stones, having on the east side an easy ascent leading up to it. After the return of the Jews from the Babylonish cap- tivity, and the building of the second temple by Zerubba- bel, their altars differed a little from those in use before the captivity. Prideaux remarks, that from this time the altar of burnt-offerings was a large pile built all of un- hewn stones, thirty-two cubits square at the bottom, and twenty-four at the top: the ascent was by a gentle rising, thirty-two cubits in length and sixteen in breadth. THE ALTAR of INCENSE, was a small table of shittim- wood, covered with plates of pure gold, one cubit square and two high. Exod. 30. 1–10. At each of the four corners of it there was a horn; around it was a small border, and over it a crown of gold. Every morning and evening, the officiating priest offered incense of a particular composi- tion upon the altar, to perform which he entered with the smoking censer filled with fire from the burnt-offerings, into the sanctuary or holy place, in which this altar was ſº facing the table of shew-bread. When the priest ad placed the censer on it, he retired out of the sanctuary. This altar was also to be sprinkled with the blood of the sacrifices that were offered for the sins of ignorance com- mitted either by priests or people. Exod. 30: 10. Lev. 4: ALTAR, is employed by a figure of speech, for the sacrifice or offering itself. “Whoso therefore shall swear by the altar, sweareth by it, and by all things thereon.” Matt. 23:20. Hence, in a typical sense, it occasionally signifies Christ, the sacrifice of atonement, “the Lamb of God, which tak- eth away the sin of the world.” “We have an altar where- of they have no right to eat which serve the tabernacle. For the bodies of those beasts whose blood is brought into the sanctuary by the high priest, for sin, are burn- ed without the camp. Wherefore Jesus also, that he might sanctify the people with his own blood, suffered without the gate. Let us go forth therefore unto him without the camp, bearing his reproach. For here have we no continuing city, but we seek one to come. By him therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise to God con- tinually, that is, the fruit of our lips, giving thanks to his name.” Heb. 13: 10–15. There were two altars employ- ed in the service of the Jewish temple; one, without, the altar of burnt-offering, upon which the offerings of atone- ment were made for the people; the other, within the tem- ple, upon which the incense was offered. In both of these, the typical signification is the same, for it is through Christ crucified alone—himself the altar—himself the Sa- crifice—that we can approach to the Father; and it is through him only that we can plead his merits, and offer up praises and thanksgiving before God. “And another angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer; and there was given unto him much incense, that he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar which was before the throne.” Rev. 8: 3. And as in the temple worship, the sacrifice of atonement must first be made before the incense could be offered, so likewise in the services of God’s spiritual temple, the atoning influ- ence of Christ's sacrifice must be received into the heart by faith before any offerings of the believer can be accep- table to him. In a bad sense, the type applies to idol sa- crifices, and the mediatorial object of idol worship. “Be- hold Israel after the flesh: are not they which eat of the sacrifices partakers of the altar ! What say I then, that the idol is any thing, or that which is offered in sacrifice to idols, is any thing 2 But I say that the things that the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils and not to God: and I would not that ye should have fellowship with devils, Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of devils; ye cannot be partakers of the Lord's table, and of the table of devils.” 1 Cor. 10: 18–21. The first Christians acknowledged no temple made with hands, no material altar, no mortal priest, no carnal sacri- fice; they considered that an end was put to all these things by the death of Christ; and to have continued the use of them would have been to deny, by their actions, what, in words, they professed to believe;—that God had now fulfilled the mercy promised unto their fathers by the prophets; that he had visited and redeemed his people; that Messiah had been cut off for the sins of others; and that he had, by his death, “finished transgression, made an end of sin-offerings, made reconciliation for iniquity, and brought in everlasting righteousness.” Ps. 40: 6–8. Isa. 53: 4–12. Dan. 9: 24, 25. Since the days of the apostles, indeed, the use of altars has been resumed in places professedly appropriated to the purposes of Chris- tian worship; but this did not take place until Christianity became corrupted from its original simplicity, and men, forsaking the form of sound words, began to mingle their own inventions with the doctrines and precepts of the apostles. When their minds once became darkened as to the nature and import of the memorial of the Lord's death, and they began to consider it in the light of a sa crifice, the necessity of altars on which to offer them, as well as that of officiating priests, followed of necessary consequence; and hence the revival of these shadows in all national churches. But these things belong to the cor- ruptions of Christianity, and are easily understood by such as have “an ear to hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches.” (See the article ANTICHRIST.)—Calmet ; Wat- son ; Shermood ; Jones. ALTAR AT ATHENs, inscribed “ to the unknown God.” Acts 17:22, 23. The following is Dr. Doddridge's note on the passage:—“The express testimony of Lucian suffi- ciently proves that there was such an inscription at Athens; and shows how unnecessary as well as unwar- rantable it was in Jerome to suppose, that the apostle, to serve his own purpose, gives this turn to an inscription, which bore on its front a plurality of deities. Whence this important phenomenon arose, or to what it particu. larly referred, it is more difficult to say. Witsius, with Heinsius, understands it of Jehovah, whose name, not be- ing pronounced by the Jews themselves, might give occa- sion to this appellation ; and to this sense Mr. Biscoe in- clines. Dr. Wellwood supposes that Socrates 1eared this altar, to express his devotion to the one living and true God, of whom the Athenians had no notion; and whose incomprehensible being he insinuated, by this inscription, to be far beyond the reach of their understanding, or his own. And in this I should joyfully acquiesce, could l find one ancient testimony in confirmation of the fact. As it is, to omit other conjectures, I must give the prefe- rence to that which Beza and Dr. Hammond have mention- ed, and which Mr. Hallet has labored at large to confirm and illustrate; though I think none of these learned wri- ters has set it in its most natural and advantageous light. Diogenes Laertius, in his life of Epimenides, assures us, that in the time of that philosopher (about six hundred years before Christ) there was a terrible pestilence at Athens; in order to avert which, when none of the deities to whom they sacrificed appeared able or willing to help them, Epimerudes advised them to bring some sheep to the Areo- pagus, and letting them loose from thence, to follow them A. L T A M A | 70 ) till they lay down, and then to sacrifice them to the god near whose temple or altar they then were. Now it seems probable, that Athens, not being then so full of these monu- ments of superstition as afterwards, these sheep lay down in places where none of them were near ; and so occa- Sioned the rearing what the historians call anonymous altars, or altars, each of which had the inscription, to the un- known God; meaning, thereby, the deity who had sent the plague, whoever he were; one of which altars, at least, however it might have been repaired, remained till Paul's time, and long after. Now, as the God whom Paul preach- ed as Lord of all, was indeed the Deity who sent and re- moved this pestilence, the apostle might, with great pro- priety, tell the Athenians, he declared to them him whom, without knowing him, they worshipped; as I think the concluding words of the twenty-third verse may most fairly be rendered.” Dr. Lardner has an article on this subject, which may be consulted with advantage; it is in the quarto edition, vol. iv. p. 174.—Calmet ; Taylor. ALTING, (HENRY, D. D.;) professor of theology at Heidelberg and at Groningen, was born 1583 at Embden, of a very ancient and honorable family. His parents were both pious. He made such proficiency in his studies un- der the famous Piscator and others, that, at the age of twenty-two, he was allowed to teach philosophy and di- vinity. In 1605 he was chosen preceptor to the three young counts of Nassau, Solmes, and Issenberg, together with the electoral Prince Palatine. In 1612, being appoint- ed to attend the young elector into England, he there be- came acquainted with archbishop Abbot, Dr. King and Dr. Hackwell, and was introduced also to King James. The marriage between the elector and the princess of England, having been solemnized at London, Feb. 1613, Alting returned home, and in the following August was chosen professor of theology at Heidelberg. In 1618, he obtained the second professorship for Scultetus. Being sent with two other deputies to the synod of Dort, he greatly distinguished himself there by his learn- ing. In 1622, count Tilli took Heidelberg by storm, and allowed his soldiers to commit all manner of devastations. Alting had an almost miraculous escape; for being met by a soldier, he was stopped by him in this manner: “I have killed with these hands ten men to-day ; and doctor Alting should make the eleventh, if I could find him : who are you?” The doctor replied, “a schoolmaster at the colle- gium sapientia.” The soldier did not understand this, and so let him escape. In 1623, the king of Bohemia employ- ed him at the Hague to instruct his eldest son; and would not consent to his becoming minister of Embden, or pro- fessor at the university of Francker, situations which were offered him. In 1627, however, he gave him leave to accept of a professorship of theology at Groningen; where, though repeatedly called to other places, he con- tinued until his death. In 1639, he lost his eldest daughter, and in 1643, his wife ; domestic afflictions which gave severe shocks to his health. In his last sickness, being visited by the excellent Dr. Maresius, Alting congratulated him as his designed successor; adding, “It much rejoices me that I shall leave to the church and university, one who is studious of peace, orthodox in judgment, and averse to novelties.” The day before his death, he sang the 130th Psalm with a great sense of God’s presence and love, and passed the rest of his time in meditation and prayer. In the evening he blessed his children; and the next morning, finding within himselſ that his departure was at hand, he told those about him that before sunset he should depart, and be with the Lord. Grounding his faith on the blood and righteousness of Jesus Christ, with the promises of his Gospel; strengthened and comforted by the gracious in- fluence of the Holy Ghost, he waited for death without fear; bade the numerous circle of learned and pious rela- tives and friends around him farewell; and expressed his readiness and desire to be dissolved, and to be with his Master in Heaven. Thus peacefully did this good man depart, Aug. 25, 1644. He was, says Middleton, a man of great worth, distin- guished alike for his learning, diligence, public spirit, and benevolence to mankind. Among other important com- missions in which he was employed, one was the revisal of the New Dutch translation of the Bible at Leyden; and another to be sole general inspector of the county of Steinfurt, to set in order the churches, which had been threatened with an invasion of Socinianism. Alting, though attached to Orthodoxy, was no quarrelsome divine, and wasted no time on insignificant matters; though zealous for ancient doctrine, he was an enemy to the subtilties of the schools; and though not fond of novelty, adhered closely to the instructions of the word of God. His works, with the exception of his Theologia Historica, 1664, were published together in three volumes, with the title, Scripta Theologica Heidelbergensia-Middleton. ALWAYS; continually, Deut. 5; 29. ; habitually, Acts 10: 2. ; through life, 2 Sam. 5: 10.; to the end of this world, Mark 14 : 7.; forever, Job 7: 16. In Mat. 28:20. the literal rendering is “And mark, I am with you all the days, until the conclusion of the world.” AM: I AM THAT I AM; One of the distinguishing names and characters of Jehovah. (Exod. 3: 14.) This solemn name demands our greater reverence and venera- tion, because it is the very name by which the Lord was pleased to reveal himself to Moses at the bush. The very expression carries with it its own explanation; that is, as far as creatures, such as we are, can enter into an appre- hension of the meaning. When JEHOVAH saith, I AM THAT I AM, it is setting forth a right and power of exis- tence, exclusive of every other. Of all others, some have been, some now are, and others may be ; all are what they are from Him, and by his appointment. But He that is I AM, is, and must be, always and eternally the same. His is a self-existence, underived, independent, subject to no change, and impossible to be any other; “the same yes. terday, and to-day, and forever.” Heb. 13: 8. Rev. 1:8. And what tends yet more to endear it to the heart of his people is, that the glorious name becomes the security of all his promises. I AM, gives certainty to all he hath said, and becomes a most sure security ſor the fulfilment of all that he hath promised. Oh! for grace to bend with the lowest humbleness to the dust, in token of our nothingness before this great and almighty I AM. And no less to rest in holy faith and hope, in the most perfect confidence, that he will perform all his promises.—(See JE- Hov AH.) - AMALEKITES; a people whose country adjoined the Southern border of the land of Canaan, in the north-west- ern part of Arabia Petraea. They are generally supposed to have been the descendants of Amalek, the son of Eli- phaz, and grandson of Esau. But Moses speaks of the Amalekites long before this Amalek was born; namely, in the days of Abraham, when Chedorlapmer, king of Elam, devastated their country, Gen. 14 : 7. ; from which it may be inferred that there was some other and more ancient Amalek, from whom this people sprang. The Arabians have a tradition that this Amalek was a son of Ham ; and when we consider that so early as the march from Egypt, the Amalekites were a people powerful enough to attack the Israelites, it is far more probable, that they should derive ‘ their ancestry from Ham, than from the then recent stock of the grandson of Esau. It may also be said that the charac- ter and fate of this people were more consonant with the dealings of Providence towards the families of the former. This more early origin of the Amalekites will likewise ex- plain why Balaam called them the “first of the nations.” They are supposed by some to have been a party or tribe of the shepherds who invaded Egypt, and kept it in subjection for two hundred years. This will agree with the Arabian tradition as to their descent. It also agrees with their pastoral and martial habits, as well as with their geographical position; which was perhaps made choice of on their retiring from Egypt, adjoining that of their coun- trymen the Philistines, whose history is very similar. It also furnishes a motive for their hostility to the Jews, and their treacherous attempt to destroy them in the desert. The ground of this hostility has been very generally sup- posed to have been founded in the remembrance of Jacob's depriving their progenitor of his birthright. But we do not find that the Edomites, who had this ground for a ha- tred to the Jews, made any attempt to molest them, nor that Moses ever reproaches the Amalekites for attacking A M A. A M E | 71 | the Israelites as their brethren; nor do we ever find in Scripture that the Amalekites joined with the Edomites, but always with the Canaanites and the Philistines. These con- siderations would be sufficient, had we no other reasons, for believing them not to be of the stock of Esau. They may, nowever, be deduced from a higher origin; and viewing them as Cuthite shepherds and warriors, we have an adequate explanation both of their imperious and war- like character, and of the motive of their hostility to the Jews in particular. If expelled with the rest of their race from Egypt, they could not but recollect the fatal over- throw at the Red sea; and if not participators in that catastrophe, still, as members of the same family, they must bear this event in remembrance with bitter feelings of revenge. But an additional motive is not wanting for this hostility, especially for its first act. The Amalekites probably knew that the Israelites were advancing to take possession of the land of Canaan, and resolved to frustrate the purposes of God in this respect. Hence they did not wait for their near approach to that country, but came down from their settlements, on its southern borders, to attack them unawares at Rephidim. Be this as it may, the Amalekites came on the Israelites, when encamped at that place, little expecting such an assault. Moses com- manded Joshua, with a chosen band, to attack the Amale- kites; while he, with Aaron and Hur, went up the moun- tain Horeb. During the engagement, Moses held up his hands to heaven; and so long as they were maintained in this attitude, the Israelites prevailed, but when through weariness they fell, the Amalekites prevailed. Aaron and Hur, seeing this, held up his handstill the latter were en- tirely defeated with great slaughter. Exod. 17. The Amalekites were indeed the earliest and the most bit- ter enemies the Jews had to encounter. They attacked them in the desert; and sought every opportunity afterwards of molesting them. Under the Judges, the Amalekites, in conjunction with the Midianites, invaded the land of Is- rael; when they were defeated by Gideon. Judges 6: 7. But God, for their first act of treachery, had declared that he would “utterly put out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven;” a denunciation which was not long aſter accomplished. Saul destroyed their entire army, with the exception of Agag their king; for sparing whom, and permitting the Israelites to take the spoil of their foes, he incurred the displeasure of the Lord, who took the scep- tre from him. Agag was immediately afterwards hewn in pieces by Samuel. 1 Sam. 15. It is remarkable that most authors make Saul’s pursuit of the Amalekites to commence from the lower Euphrates, instead of from the Southern border of the land of Canaan. (See Havilah.) David, a few years after, defeated another of their armies; of whom only four hundred men escaped on camels, i Sam. 30, after which event, the Amalekites appear to have been obliterated as a nation.—Watson. AMIANA, a mountain, mentioned in Capt. 4: 8, in connexion with Lebanon and Hermon. As the Hebrew letters Beth and Mem are interchangeable, Abana is doubtless the same name. The Abana, now Burada, rises in Anti-libanus, and flows to the south-east through Damas- cus. These considerations point out the ridge of Anti- libanus, as the Amana of Solomon. See AMMANAH.-T. AMARIAH ; eldest son of Meraioth, and father of the high priest Ahitub, was high priest in the time of the Judges, but we are not able to fix the years of his pontifi- cate. His name occurs, 1 Chron. 6: 7, 11. and if he ac- tually did exercise this office, he should be placed, as we think, before Eli, who was succeeded by Ahitub, who, in the Chronicles, is put after Amariah, ver, 7. AMASA; son of Jether and Abigail, David's sister. Absalom, during his rebellion against David, placed his cousin, Amasa, at the head of his troops, (2 Sam. 17:25.) but he was defeated by Joab, A. M. 2981. After the ex- tinction of Absalom's party, David, from dislike to Joab, who had killed Absalom, offered Amasa his pardon, and the command of the army, in room of Joab, whose insolence rendered him insupportable. 2 Sam. 19: 13. On the re- Volt of Sheba, son of Bichri, David ordered Amasa to assemble all Judah against Sheba; but Amasa delaying, Pavid directed Abishai to pursue Sheba, with what soldiers he then had about his person. Joab, with his people, ac- companied him; and when they had reached the great stone in Gibeon, Amasa joined them with his forces. Joab's jealousy being excited, he formed the dastardly and cruel purpose of assassinating his rival—“Then said Joab to Amasa, Art thou in health, my brother ? and took him by the beard with the right hand to kiss him ;” but at the same time smote him with the sword. Such was the end of Amasa, David's nephew. Ch. 20: 4–10. A. M. 2982. AMASAI; a Levite, who joined David with thirty gal- lant men, while in the desert, flying from Saul. David went to meet them, and said, “If ye be come peaceably to help me, mine heart shall be knit unto you: but if ye be come to betray me to mine enemies, seeing there is no wrong in mine hands, the God of our fathers look thereon, and rebuke it.” Then said Amasai, “Thine are we, David, and on thy side, thou son of Jesse: peace be unto thee, and peace be to thine helpers.” David, therefore, received them; and gave them a command in his troops. 1 Chron. 12: 18.-Calmet. 3, AMAZEMENT; a term sometimes employed to express our wonder ; but it is rather to be considered as a mixture of astonishment and terror. It is manifestly borrow- ed from the extensive and complicated intricacies of a labyrinth, in which there are endless mazes without the discovery of a clue. Hence an idea is conveyed of more than simple wonder; the mind is lost in wonder. (See WoxDER.) - AMAZIAH; son of Joash, eighth king of Judah, (2 Chron. 24; 27.) succeeded his father, A. M. 3165. He was twenty-five years of age when he began to reign, and reigned twenty-nine years at Jerusalem. He did good in the sight of the Lord, but not with a perfect heart. When settled in his kingdom, he put to death the murderers of his father, but not their children; because it is written in the law, “The fathers shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin.” Deut. 24:16. 2 Chron. 25: 1, 2, 3. Amaziah reigned twenty-nine years at Jerusalem; but as he returned not to the Lord with all his heart, he was punished by a conspiracy formed against him at Jerusa- lem. He endeavored to escape to Lachish ; but was as- Sassinated, and brought back on horses, and buried with his ancestors, in the city of David, A. M. 3194. AMBASSADOR. The ministers of the Gospel are called ambassadors, because they are appointed by God to declare his will to men, and to promote a spiritual alliance with him. 2 Cor. 5: 20. AMBITION ; the love of honor, a desire of excelling, or at least of being thought to excel, our neighbors in any thing. It is generally used in a bad sense for an immode- rate, or illegal pursuit of power or honor. (See PRAISE.) Paul uses it in a good sense. 2 Cor. 5: 9. -- AMEDIANS ; a congregation of religious in Italy; so called from their professing themselves amantes Deum, “lovers of God;” or rather amati Deo, “beloved of God.” They wore a gray habit and wooden shoes, had no breeches, and girt themselves with a cord. They had twenty-eight convents, and were united by pope Pius W. partly with the Bistercian order, and partly with that of the Socolanti, or wooden shoe wearers.-Buck. AMELIA, (the princess;) the eminently pious daughter of his majesty George the third- born 1783, and died i810, aged 27 years. She was most tenderly beloved by her father, whose last illness is supposed to have been accele. rated, if not brought on by her death. A beautiful pic. ture of the venerable monarch and his daughter is given by a gentleman who was in the habit of close and official attendance on the princess Amelia during her last days. Being asked what was the nature of the interviews and conversations between her and his majesty, he replied, “they are of the most interesting kind.” “Are they of 4 religious tendency?” “Decidedly so,” replied the gentleman; “and the religionis exactly of that sort which you, as a seri. Qus Christian, would approve. His majesty speaks to his daughter, of the only hope of a sinner being in the blood and righteousness of Jesus Christ. He examines her as to the integrity and strength of that hope in her own soul. The princess listens with calmness and delight to the con- versation of her venerable parent, and replies to his ques. A M E A M E | 72 ) tions in a very affectionate and serious manner. If you were present at one of these interviews, you would acknowledge with joy that the Gospel is preached in a palace, and that under highly affecting circumstances. “Nothing,” added he, “can be more striking than the sight of the king, aged and nearly blind, bending over the couch on which the princess lies, and speaking to her about sal- vation through Christ, as a matter far more interesting to both than the highest privileges and most magnificent pomp of royalty.”—Clissord. • r AMEN ; a Hebrew word, which, when prefixed to an assertion, signifies assuredly, certainly, or emphatically, so it is ; but when it concludes a prayer, so be it, or so let it be, is its manifest import. In the former case, it is asser- tive, or assures of a truth or a fact; and is an asseveration, and is properly translated indeed. John 3: 3. In the latter case it is petitionary, and, as it were, epitomises all the re- quests with which it stands connected. Numb. 5: 22. Rev. 22: 20. This emphatical term was not used among the Hebrews by detached individuals only, but on certain occasions, by an assembly at large. Deut. 27: 14, 20. It was adopted, also, in the public worship of the primitive churches, as appears by that passage, 1 Cor. 14: 16. and was continued among the Christians in following times; yea, such was the extreme into which many rum, that Jerome informs us, in his time, that, at the conclusion of every public prayer, the united amen of the people sounded like the fall of water, or the noise of thunder. Nor is the practice of some professors in our own time to be commended, who with a low though audible voice, add their amen to almost every sentence, as it proceeds from the lips of him who is praying. As this has a tendency to interrupt the devotion of those that are near them, and may disconcert the thoughts of him who leads the worship, it would be better omitted, and a mental amen is sufficient. The term, as used at the end of our prayers, suggests that we should pray with understanding, faith, fervor, and expectation.—(See Mr. Booth's Amen to Social Prayer.) Amen is applied as a title to our Lord. Rev. 3: 14. Is a kind of fondness for this term peculiar to John 7 he re- collecting, with much pleasure, after many years' interval, his Divine Master's manner of using it.—Buck. AMES, (WILLIAM, D. D.;) an English divine, celebrated for his learning and able controversial writings. He was born 1576, in Norfolk, being the descendant of an ancient family; and educated at Christ church college, Cambridge, under the famous Mr. William Perkins; by whom, proba- bly, he was brought to the knowledge of the truth, as it is in Jesus. He seems ever after to have been zealous in the maintenance of the truth, and vehement against every species of sin. He was also an uncompromising antago- mist against the corruptions and idolatries of the church of Rome. In 1610, a sermon of his at St. Mary’s in the Universi- ty, gave great offence; because in it he condemned all playing at cards and dice; affirming, among other things, “that as God invented the one-and-twenty letters whereof he made the Bible, the devil found out the one-and-tnyenty spots on the die.” To prevent expulsion, he forsook the college. Soon after, he was chosen by the states of Fries- land, professor of their university. In 1613, his dispute with Grevinchovius, minister at Rotterdam, appeared in print. In 1618, he was at the synod of Dort, and inform- ed the ambassador of king James, ſrom time to time, of the debates of the assembly. In 1623, after having filled the professor's chair at Fra- neker twelve years, he resigned his professorship, and accepted the charge of the English congregation at Rot- terdam. He was induced to this change chiefly in hope of gaining relief from the asthma, with which he was afflicted. But his constitution was so shattered, that the air of Holland did him no service. He determined, therefore, upon an emigration to New England; but a return of his complaint in the beginning of the next winter put an end to this expectation; for he died at Rotterdam, Nov. 14, 1633, aged 57 years. It so happened that the last of his works was published about the same time ; the editor of which quaintly remarks, “that with the coming forth of this book into the light, the learned and famous author, Dr. Ames, left the light, or rather the darkness, of this world.” besides prefaces and miscellaneous pieces. menced the study of the law in Boston. Dr. Ames, (to use the words of Mr. Leigh,) was a ju- dicious and solid divine, a strict Calvinist in doctrine, and an Independent in discipline. The fame of his writings, it is affirmed, was in all Europe; and while he filled the chair of theological professor at Franeker, his celebrity drew many students from Hungary, Poland, Prussia, and Flanders; who would not have staid there but for their attachment to him. His works are, 1. Sermons preached at St. Mary's, Cam. bridge : 2. Puritanismus Anglicanus, 8vo. 1610. In Eng- lish, 4to, at London, 1641; 3. Disputatio Scholastica inter Nic. Grevinchovium, at Gul. Amesium, &c. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1613, concerning Arminus's opinions of Election, &c. 4. Disputatio inter Amesium at Nic. Grevinchovium, &c. Rotter- dam, 8vo. 1615, 1617, 1633, about Reconciliation, by the death of Christ. 5. Coronis ad collationem Hagiensem, 12mo. Ludg. Bat. 1618, 1628, 1630 : confuting the Answers given by the Arminians to the Dutch Pastors. 6. Medul- la Theologica, 12mo. Franeker, 1623, 1627, 1628, 1634, 1641 ; also in English. 7. Explicatio utriusque Epistolae S. Petri, 12mo. Amsterdam, 1625, 1635; also in English, 4to., London. 8. De Incarnatione Verbi, 8vo. Franeker, 1826, against the Socinians. 9. Bellarminus enervatus, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1627, 1628, Oxon. 1629, London, 1633, &c., an excellent treatise against Popery. 10. De Conscientia, &c. 12mo. Am. 1630, 1631, 1643, also in English 1643. 11. Antisynodalia, &c. 12. Demonstratio Logica vera, &c. 13. Dispulatio Theologica, against Metaphysics, 14. Tech- nometria. 15. Reply to Bp. Morton. 16. A Fresh Suit against Human Ceremonies, &c. 17. A first and second Manuduction. 18. Rescriptio, &c. 19. Christiana cate- chiseos, seiographia. 20. Lectiones in Omnes Psalmos Davidis, His Latin works were reprinted at Amsterdam in 1658, in five vo- lumes, with a preface by Matthias Nethenus.-Middleton. AMES, (FISHER, LL. D.;) a distinguished statesman, and an eloquent orator, was born at Dedham, April 9, 1758. His father was a physician. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1774, and after a few years com- He began the practice of his profession in his native village; but his expansive mind could not be confined to the investigation of the law. Rising into life about the period of the Ame- rican revolution, and taking a most affectionate interest in the concerns of his country, he felt himself strongly at- tracted to politics. His researches into the science of government were extensive and profound, and he began to be known by political discussions, published in the newspapers. A theatre soon presented for the display of his extraordinary talents. He was elected a member of the convention of his native state, which considered and ratified the federal constitution; and his speeches in this convention were indications of his future eminence. The splendor of his talents burst forth at once upon his coun- try. When the general government of the United States commenced its operations in 1789, he appeared in the na- tional legislature as the first representative of his district, and for eight successive years he took a distinguished part in the national councils. He was a principal speaker in the debates on every important question. Towards the close of this period his health began to fail, but his indis. position could not prevent him from engaging in the dis- cussion, relating to the appropriations, necessary for car- rying into effect the British treaty. Such was the effect of his speech of April 28, 1796, that one of the members of the legislature, who was opposed to Mr. Ames, rose and objected to taking a vote at that time, as they had been carried away by the impulse of oratory. After his return to his family, frail in health and fond of retirement, he remained a private citizen. For a few years, however, he was persuaded to become a member of the council. But though he continued chiefly in retirement, he operated far around him by his writings in the public papers. A few years before his death he was chosen president of Harvard college, but the infirm state of his health induced him to decline the appointment. . He died on the morning of July 4, 1808. He left seven children: his only daugh. ter died in 1829. - - Mr. Ames possessed a mind of a great and extraordi- （UT -- ºss-º.º. º “ §º-ºº: - *** * * g tº º - Yº-ºš（ºf , * #####Rººſ' º º § unºttº Sººº. tº- sº ºut ºntº ſºlº tºº lººººººº - fººthº li º İş § º The BRAZEN ALTAR FOR BURNT OFFERINGs.-Exod. xxvii. 1-8 ; Levit. i. 1–9. §§ ºf $1.3 § §§ - **** ES § Fº *= # | º #| || #. gº º *ift |ºjī; C s • I º!"lift||| - lili * sº **. •º **-> - * *~~~~~ *-*. ***-------> THE ARK AND MERCY SEAT.-Exod. xxv, 10–22 A M E A M M [73] - nary character. He reasoned, but he did not reason in the form of logic. By striking allusions more than by regu- lar deductions, he compelled assent. The richness of his fancy, the fertility of his invention, and the abundance of his thoughts were as remarkable as the justness and strength of his understanding. His political character may be known from his writings, and speeches, and mea- sures. He was not only a man of distinguished talents, whose public career was splendid, but he was amiable in private life, and endeared to his acquaintance. To a few friends he unveiled himself without reserve. They found him modest and unassuming, untainted with ambition, simple in manners, correct in morals, and a model of eve- ry social and personal virtue. The charms of his conver- sation were unequalled. He entertained a firm belief in Christianity, and his belief was founded upon a thorough investigation of the subject. He read most of the best writings in defence of the Christian religion, but he was satisfied by a view rather of its internal than its external evidences. He thought it impossible, that any man of a fair mind could read the Old Testament and meditate on its contents, with- out a conviction of its truth and inspiration. The sub- lime and correct ideas, which the Jewish Scriptures con- vey of God, connected with the fact that all other nations, many of whom were superior to the Jews in civilization and general improvement, remained in darkness and er- ror on this great subject, formed in his view a conclusive argument. After reading the book of Deuteronomy he expressed his astonishment, that any man, versed in anti- quities, could have the hardihood to say, that it was the production of human ingenuity. Marks of divinity, he said, were stamped upon it. His views of the doctrines of religion were generally Calvinistic. An enemy to me- taphysical and controversial theology, he disliked the use of technical and sectarian phrases. The term trinity however he frequently used with reverence, and in a manner, which implied his belief of the doctrine. His persuasion of the divinity of Christ he often declared, and his belief of this truth seems to have resulted from a par- ticular investigation of the subject, for he remarked to a friend, that he once read the evangelists with the sole pur- pose of learning what Christ had said of himself. He was an admirer of the common translation of the Bible. He said it was a specimen of pure English; and though he acknowledged, that a few phrases had grown obsolete, and that a few passages might be obscurely translated, yet he should consider the adoption of any new translation as an incalculable evil. He lamented the pre- vailing disuse of the Bible in our schools. He thought, that children should early be made acquainted with the important truths which it contains, and he considered it as a principal instrument of making them acquainted with their own language in its purity. He said, “I will hazard the assertion, that no man ever did or ever will become truly eloquent, without being a constant reader of the Bibie, and an admirer of the purity and sublimity of its language.” º e w tº º Nir Ames made a public profession of religion in the first congregational church in Dedham, With this church he regularly communed, till precluded by indisposition from attending public worship. His practice correspond. ed with his proſession. His life was regular, and irre- proachable. Few, who have been placed in similar cir- cumstances, have been less contaminated by intercourse with the world. It is doubted, whether any one ever heard him utter an expression, calculated to excite an im- pious or impure idea. The most scrutinizing eye disco- vered in him no disguise or hypocrisy. His views of himself, however, were humble and abased. * He was often observed to shed tears, while speaking of his closet devo- tions and experiences. He lamented the coldness of his heart and the wanderings of his thoughts, while addressing his Maker, or meditating on the precious truths which he had revealed. In his last sickness, when near his end, and when he had just expressed his belief of his approach: ing dissolution, he exhibited submission to the divine will and the hope of the divine favor. “I have peace of mind.” said he. “It may arise from stupidity; but I think it is founded on a belief of the Gospel.” At the same time he at an enormous expense. disclaimed every idea of meriting salvation. “My hope,” said he, “is in the mercy of God, through Jesus Christ.” Mr. Ames’s speech in relation to the British treaty, which was delivered April 28, 1796, is a fine specimen of eloquence. He published an oration on the death of Washington in 1800, and he wrote much for the newspa- pers. His political writings were published in 1809, in one volume, 8vo. with a notice of his life and character by president Kirkland.—Allen's Biog. Dict. ; Panoplist, July, 1800; Dexter's Fun. Eulogy; Marshall's Washington, vi. 203; Ames's Works. - AMIANTHUS; an adjective derived from this word is used in 1 Pet. 1: 3, 4. The Amianthus is a greenish or silvery white mineral, of fibrous texture, which is gene- rally known under the name of Asbestos; a term derived from the Greek, and signifying “unquenchable,” “inde- structible by fire.” This mineral, and particularly a silky variety of it, in long slender filaments, was well known to the ancients, who made it into an incombustible kind of cloth, in which they burned the bodies of their dead, and by which means they were enabled to collect and preserve the ashes with- out mixture. This cloth was purchased by the Romans Pliny states that he had seen table-cloths, towels, and napkins of amianthus taken from the table at a great ſeast, thrown into the fire, and burned before the company; and by this operation rendered cleaner than if they had been washed. From its peculiar property of not being destroyed by fire, the term amianthus is figuratively used for imperisha- ble, indestructible. Thus in Pet. 1: 3, 4, we read, “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who, ac- cording to his great mercy, hath begotten us again unto a lively hope, by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead; to an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not away.” This blessed inheritance is called aphtharton, incorruptible, because it will not, like the earthly Canaan, be corrupted with the sins of its inhabitants, (Lev. 18: 28.) for into the heavenly country entereth noth- ing that defileth. Rev. 21: 7. It is declared to be amian- thon, indestructible, because it shall neither be destroyed by the waters of a flood as the earth has been, nor by fire, as in the end this world will be ; and it is to be amaranton, wnfading, because its joys will not wither, but remain fresh through all etermity. AMMAH; a hill opposite to Giah, not far from Gibeon, where Asahel was slain by Abner. 2 Sam. 2: 24. AMMANAH; in the Jewish writers, is the same as mount Hor; a mount in the northern boundary of the land. In the Jerusalem Targum, mount Hor is called mount Manus; Jonathan writes it Umanis. Inwards from Ammanah was within the land, beyond Ammanah was without the land, according to the opinions of the Talmudists.-Calmet. See HoR. AMMI; that is, my people ; and RUHAMAH, or per- haps, more properly Rachamah, having obtained mercy. See Hos. 2: 1. This name being given to the ten tribes after their rejection, imports that in the latter days, or Mil- lenium, God shall redeem them from their misery and bondage, and bring them into special covenant relation with himself. Let the reader observe that the Lord commands the prophet to call by this name the brethren and sisters of the church. “Say ye to your brethren Ammi, and to your sisters Ruhamah ; plead with your mother, plead.” Though put away by reason of her gross infidelity, yet the provision made for her recovery in Christ is such that she shall return to her rightful Lord. “For this reason (saith the Lord) plead with your mother, plead;” work upon her maternal feelings; give her to see, that though by adulteries she is by law justly liable to be divorced forever, yet the right and interest of her (first) husband hath never been lost. He claims her as his own. Return again unto me, saith the Lord. If the reader be led to consider the subject in this point of view, the expressions of Ammi and Ruhamah, with all the doctrines connected with both, become interesting and tender beyond all imagination.—Hanker. I. AMMON, or No-Ammon, or Ammon-No; a city of Egypt. The prophets describe No-Ammon as being situ- 10 A M M A M M w [ 74 | ated among the rivers; as having the waters surrounding it; having the sea as its rampart; and as being extreme- ly populous. This description has induced Calmet, and the majority of interpreters, to consider No-Ammon as having been the same with Diospolis, or the city of Jupiter in Lower Egypt. The ruin of this city, so distinctly fore- told by the prophets, occurred under Esarhaddon and Nebuchadnezzar; though its ruin may not be said to have been completed till the time of Sennacherib. (See Nopir, for a more full description.) II. AMMION, or HAMMON, or HAMAUN, or JUPITER AM- MON; a celebrated god of the Egyptians, was probably a deification of Ham, whose posterity peopled Africa, and who was the father of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyp- tian polity and power. Ammon had a famous temple in Africa, where he was adored under the symbolic figure of a ram. It was situated in a delicious spot, (the Oasis,) in the midst of a frightful desert, where was an Oracle of great fame, which Alexander the Great consulted, at the risk of his life. º It has been thought that Ammon is an Egyptian com- pound, HAM-ON ; i. e. Ham, the sun; On being the Egyp- tian name for that luminary, afterwards idolatrously re- ferred to Ham ; and in Josh. 7: 2, we find a temple dedi- cated to On or Aun ; “Beth-Aven,” in our translation. (See HAM, No AH, THEBEs, ARK.) Scripture says nothing of this false deity, in particular; but speaks of Ham, and of the city of Ammon, or No-Ammon, which was princi- pally devoted to him, and which was very distant from the Oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in the desert, just mentioned. Ammon, the god of the Egyptians, was, as already re- marked, the Jupiter of the Greeks, for which reason, the latter call that city Diospolis, or the city of Jupiter, which is the former mame, according to Calmet, No-Ammon, the rest or habitation of Ammon. (But see Noph.) In after ages, the Egyptian and Greek names were united, and the deity was called Jupiter-Hammon. III. AMIMON, or Ben-Ammi; son of Lot, by his younger daughter. Gen. 19:34, 38. His abode was east of the Dead Sea and Jordan, in the mountains of Gilead, and he was the father of the Ammonites, a famous people, always at enmity with Israel. The name Ben-Ammi has usually been interpreted “the son of my people;” but this, as Mr. Taylor remarks, is impossible; Ben-Ammi might be their father, but not their son. But if we take awm or aun in the sense of generator, source of life, then this name is extremely applicable, importing ancestor or “grandfather's son ;” which aptly describes the descent of this child from his father, yet his grandfather, who should have been one degree further removed in blood.—Calmet. AMMONIANS. (See AMMONIUS SAccHus; New PLA- Tonists.) AMMONITES ; the descendants of Ammon, the son of Lot. They took possession of the country called by their name, aſter having driven out the Zamzummims, who were its ancient inhabitants. The precise period at which this expulsion took place, is not ascertained. The Ammonites had kings, and were umcircumcised, Jer. 9:25, 26. and seem to have been principally addicted to hus- bandry, They, as well as the Moabites, were among the nations whose peace or prosperity the Israelites were forbidden to disturb. Deut. 2: 19, &c. However, neither the one nor the other were to be admitted into the congre- gation to the tenth generation, because they did not come out to relieve them in the wilderness, and were implicated in hiring Balaam to curse them. Their chief and peculiar deity is, in Scripture, called Moloch. Chemosh was also a god of the Ammonites. The country anciently peopled by the Ammonites is situated to the east of Palestine, and is now possessed partly by the Arabs and by the Turks. It is naturally one of the most fertile provinces of Syria, and it was for many ages one of the most populous. The Ammonites often invaded the land of Israel, and at one period, united with the Moabites, they retained possession of a great part of it, and grievously oppressed the Israelites for the space of eighteen years. Jephthah repulsed them, and took twen- ty of their cities; but they continued afterward to harass the borders of Israel—and their capital was besieged by the forces of David, and their country rendered tributary. They regained and long maintained their independence, till Jotham, king of Judah, subdued them, and exacted from them an annual tribute of a hundred talents, and thirty thousand quarters of wheat and barley; yet they soon contested again with their ancient enemies, and ex- ulted in the miseries that befel them when Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem and carried its inhabitants into captivity. In after-times, though successively oppressed by the Chal- deans, (when some of the earliest prophecies respecting it were fulfilled,) and by the Egyptians and Syrians, Am- mon was a highly productive and populous country, when the Romans became masters º all the provinces of Syria, and several of the allied cities which gave name to ºlebrated Decapolis were included within its boun- (là. FleS. Even when first invaded by the Saracens, this country, including Moab, was enriched by the various benefits of trade, covered with a line of forts, and possessed some strong and populous cities. Wolney bears witness, “that in the immense plains of the Hauran, ruins are continually to be met with, and that what is said of its actual fertility perfectly corresponds with the idea given of it in the He- brew writings.” The fact of its natural fertility is corro- borated by every traveller who has visited it. And “it is evident,” says Burckhardt, “that the whole country must have been extremely well cultivated, in order to have af. forded subsistence to the inhabitants of so many towns,” as are now visible only in their ruins. While the fruitful. ness of the land of Ammon, and the high degree of pros- perity and power in which it subsisted, long prior and long subsequent to the date of the predictions, are thus in- disputably established by historical evidence and by exist- ing proofs, the researches of recent travellers (who were actuated by the mere desire of exploring these regions and obtaining geographical information) have made known its present aspect; and testimony the most clear, unexcep- tionable, and conclusive, been borne to the state of dire desolation to which it is and has long been reduced. It was prophesied concerning Ammon, “Son of man, set thy face against the Ammonites, and prophesy against them. I will make Rabbah of the Ammonites a stable for camels and a couching place for flocks. Behold, I will stretch out my hand upon thee, and deliver thee for a spoil to the heathen; I will cut thee off from the people, and cause thee to perish out of the countries; I will destroy thee. The Ammonites shall not be remembered among the nations. Rabbah,” (the chief city) “of the Ammo- nites, shall be a desolate heap. Ammon shall be a perpe- tual desolation.” Ezek, 25: 2, 5, 7, 10, 21; 32. Jer. 49: 2. Zeph. 2: 9. 4mmon was to be delivered to be a spoil to the heathen—to be destroyed, and to be a perpetual desolation. “ All this country, formerly so populous and flourishing, is now changed into a vast desert.” (Seetzen's Travels.) Ruins are seen in every direction. The country is divided be. tween the Turks and the Arabs, but chiefly possessed by the latter; The extortions of the one, and the depreda. tions of the other, keep it in “perpetuál desolation,” and make it “a spoil to the heathen.” “The far greater part of the country is uninhabited, being abandoned to the wandering Arabs, and the towns and villages are in a state of total ruin.” (Ibid.) “At every step are to be found the vestiges of ancient cities, the remains of many temples, public edifices, and Greek churches.” (Burck- hardt's Travels.) The cities are leſt desolate. “ Many of the ruins present no objects of any interest. They consist of a few walls of dwelling-houses, heaps of stones, the foundations of some public edifices, and a few cisterns filled up; there is nothing entire, though it appears that the mode of building was very solid, all the remains being formed of large stones. In the vicinity of Ammon there is a fertile plain interspersed with low hills, which for the greater part are covered with ruins.” (Burckhardt's Travels in Syria.) While the country is thus despoiled and deso- late, there are valleys and tracts throughout it, which “are covered with a fine coat of verdant pasture, and are places of resort to the Bedouins, where they pasture their camels and their sheep.” (Buckingham's Travels in Palestine.) “The whole way we traversed,” says Seetzen, “we saw villages in ruins, and met numbers of Arabs with their A. M. M. A. M. O [ 75 J camels,” &c., Mr. Buckingham describes a building among the ruins of Ammon, “the masonry of which was evidently constructed of materials gathered from the ruins of other an' older buildings on the spot. On entering it at the South end,” he adds, “we came to an open square court, with arched recesses on each side, the sides nearly facing the cardinal points. The recesses in the northern and Southern wall were originally open passages, and had arched door-ways facing each other; but the first of these was found wholly closed up, and the last was partially filled up, leaving only a narrow passage, just sufficient for the entrance of one man and of the goats, which the Arab keepers drive in here occasionally for shelter during the night.” He relates that he lay down among “flocks of sheep and goats,” close beside the ruins of Ammon; and particularly remarks that, during the night, he “was al- most entirely prevented ſrom sleeping by the bleating of flocks.” So literally true is it, although Seetzen, and Burckhardt, and Buckingham, who relate the facts, make no reference or allusion whatever to any of the prophecies, and travelled for a different object than the elucidation of the Scriptures,--that “the chief city of the Ammonites is a stable for camels, and a couching-place for flocks.” “The Ammonites shall not be remembered among the na- tions.” While the Jews, who were long their hereditary enemies, continue as distinct a people as ever, though dis- persed among all nations, no trace of the Ammonites re- mains ; none are now designated by their name, nor do any claim descent from them. They did exist, however, long after the time when the eventual annihilation of their race was foretold ; for they retained their name, and con- tinued a great multitude until the second century of the Christian era. (Justin Martyr.) “Yet they are cut off from the people. Ammon has perished out of the coun- tries; it is destroyed.” No people is attached to its soil; none regard it as their country and adopt its name: “And the Ammonites are not remembered among the nations.” “Rabbah,” (Rabbah Ammon, the chief city of Ammon,) “shall be a desolate heap.” Situated, as it was, on each side of the borders of a plentiful stream, encircled by a fruitful region, strong by nature and fortified by art, noth- ing could have justified the suspicion, or warranted the conjecture in the mind of an uninspired mortal, that the royal, city of Ammon, whatever disasters might possibly befal it in the fate of war or change of masters, would ever undergo so total a transmutation as to become a desolate heap. But although, in addition to such tolzens of its con- tinuance as a city, more than a thousand years had given uninterrupted experience of its stability, ere the prophets of Israel denounced its fate; yet a period of equal length has now marked it out, as it exists to this day, a desolate heap, a perpetual or permanent desolation. Its ancient name is still preserved by the Arabs, and its site is now “covered with the ruins of private buildings—nothing of them remaining, except the foundations and some of the door-posts. The buildings, exposed to the atmosphere, are all in decay,” (Burckhardt's Travels in Syria,) so that they may be said literally to form a desolate heap. The public edifices, which once strengthened or adorned the city, after a long resistance to decay, are now also desolate ; and the remains of the most entire among them, subjected as they are to the abuse and spoliation of the wild Arabs, can be adapted to no better object than “a stable for camels.” Yet these broken walls and ruined palaces, says Mr. . Reith, which attest the ancient splendor of Ammon, can now be made subservient, by means of a single act of re- flection, to a far nobler purpose than the most magnificent edifices on earth can be, when they are contemplated as monuments on which the historic and prophetic truth of Scripture is blended in one bright inscription.—Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy; Watson. - AMMONIUS SACCAS; a Christian philosopher of Alexandria, lived towards the end of the second century. He is considered as the founder of the mystic philosophy, known as the Alexandrian, or neo-platonic. Plotinus, Longinus, and Origen, were among his pupils. His sys- tem was, in fact, a crude mass of heterogeneous opinions, borrowed from various schools. He is said by some to have apostatized from Christianity, but this is denied by others.--Davenport. - - AMORITES; a people descended from Amorrhaeus, the fourth son of Canaan. They first peopled the mountains west of the Dead sea, but afterwards extended their limits, and took possession of the finest provinces of Moab and Ammon, on the east, between the brooks Jabbok and Ar- non. Josh. 5: 1. Numb. 13: 29, 21 : 29. Moses took this country from their king, Sihon, (A. M. 2553,) who refused the Israelites a passage, on their way out of Egypt, and attacked them with all his force. The lands which the Amorites possessed on this side Jordan, were given to the tribe of Judah, and those beyond the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. Amos (ch. 2: 9.) speaks of their gigantic stature and valor, and compares their height to the cedar, their strength to the oak. The name Amorite is often taken in Scripture for Canaanite in general. We must distinguish three people of this name: 1. In mount Lebanon, east of Phoenicia. —2. Another people in mount Gilead, between the rivers Jabbok and Arnon. —3. A third people, who inhabited the mountain of Pa- ran, between Sinai and Kadesh Barnea. Gen. 15: 16, 21. AMORY, (Thomas, D. D.;) a celebrated dissenting minister of the eighteenth century, was born at Taunton, Somersetshire, Jan. 28, 1701. In 1717, he was placed un- der the academical instruction of Mr. S. James, and Mr. H. Grove, who, during the reign of queen Anne, had been joint tutors at Taunton, at an academy for bringing up young men to the work of the ministry. Under their in- struction Mr. Amory went through the usual preparatory studies and attainments; and in 1722 was approved of as a candidate for the Christian ministry. Though but twenty- one years of age, he was serious and devout; and spent much time in reading the Bible and in private prayer. In 1730 he was ordained, at Paul’s meeting in Taunton, to the pastoral office; and from that time co-operated with Mr. Batser, his joint pastor, in the performance of the im- portant duties which belong peculiarly to that sacred office. On the death of Mr. Grove, in 1738, Mr. Amory was unanimously appointed chief tutor in the academy at Taunton, and conducted the business of that institution with the same ability, and enlarged and liberal views, as his predecessor. In 1740, he was married to a pious and intelligent daughter of Mr. Baker, a dissenting minister in Southwark, who survived Mr. Amory, to whom he was much attached, and with whom he lived in affection and harmony. Five children were the fruit of their marriage, four of whom survived their father. At Taunton he was greatly esteemed, not only by his own congregation and sect, but by all the neighboring congregations and minis- ters, as well of the Independent and Baptist denomina- tions, as of the Church of England. With the celebrated, pious, intelligent, and useful, Mrs. Rowe, he was very inti- mate. Though thus beloved and happy at Taunton, and in the neighborhood, Mr. Amory was induced to quit his situation, and in October, 1759, removed to London, to be afternoon preacher to the society in the Old Jewry, belong- ing to Dr. S. Chandler. To be useſul was his object. The salvation of the human race occupied all his thoughts; and when he removed to the vast metropolis, it was only in order that such objects might be more extensively pro- moted. In London he was not, however, so popular. “His delivery was clear and distinct, and his discourses were excellent; but his voice was not powerſul enough to rouse the bulk of mankind, who are struck with noise and parade; and his sermons, though practical and affecting to the attentive hearer, were rather too close, judicious, and philosophical for the common run of congregations.” To bigotry and intolerance he was a sworn foe ; and he took for his motto the precept of Christ—“Judge not, that ye be not judged.” To intelligent and rational dissenters his preaching was, however, peculiarly acceptable; and on him was bestowed every mark of distinction, which could be paid to the most eminent Presbyterian divine. When the dissenting ministers, in 1772, formed a design of endeavoring to procure an enlargement of the Tolera- tion Act, Dr. Amory was one of the committee appointed for that purpose. After a long and useful life, he died on the 24th of June, 1774, aged seventy-three years. The character of Dr. Amory was pre-eminently excellent; his piety was wise, yet ſervent. It was an habitual, operative principle—it influenced all his actions and opinions--it A M P A N A | 76 ) induced him to perform all the duties of life with single- ness of heart, pleasing God—it was manifested by his con- versation and conduct—by his general benevolence and humanity—by his affability and generosity, patience, self. denial, and love to the whole human race. His sermons were close, accurate, solid, and affectionate. His learn- ing was very considerable. He was a sound theologian, a good biblical critic, and an excellent scholar and philoso- pher. His works, which are principally theological, con- sist of Sermons; A Letter to a Friend on the Perplexities to which Christians are exposed, and on the means of solving them ; A Dialogue on Devotion; and Forms of Devotion for the Closet. In addition to such works, he wrote the Life, and edited the Writings, of the Rev. Mr. Grove;—also edited the Sermons of Grove, and Grove’s System of Moral Philosophy; he wrote the Life, and edited the Writings, of Dr. George Benson; and edited the Posthumous Sermons of Dr. Chandler.—Jones's Chr. Biog. AMOS; the fourth of the minor prophets, belonged to the little town of Tekoah, in Judah. There is no proof, however, that he was a native of this place, except his re- tirement there, when driven from Bethel. It is probable that he was born in the territories of Israel, to which his mission was principally directed. He prophesied in Bethel, where the golden calves were erected, under Jero- boam II. about A. M. 3215; and Amaziah, high priest of Bethel, accused him before the king, as conspiring against him. Amos answered Amaziah, “I was no prophet, nei- ther was I a prophet's son ; but I was a herdman, and a dresser of sycamore fruit; and the Lord took me as I fol- lowed the flock, and the Lord said unto me, Go, prophesy unto my people Israel.” Amos 7: 10, to end. (See SycA- MoRE.) He then retired into the kingdom of Judah, and dwelt in Tekoah, where he continued to prophesy. Amos complains in many places of the violence offered to him, to oblige him to silence; and bitterly exclaims against the crying sins of the Israelites, such as idolatry, oppression, wantonness, and obstinacy. Nor does he spare the sins of Judah, such as their carnal security, sensuality, and injustice. He utters frequent threatenings against them both, and predicts their ruin. It is observable in this prophecy, that, as it begins, with denunciations of judg- ment and destruction against the Syrians, Philistines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the Jews, so it concludes with comfortable promises of the restoration of the taber- nacle of David, and the establishment of the kingdom of Christ. Amos was called to the prophetic office in the time of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of Israel. Some writers, in adverting to the condition of Amos, have, with a minute affectation of criticism, pretended to discover a certain rudeness and vulgarity in his style; and even Je- rome is of opinion that he is deficient in magnificence and sublimity. He applies to him the words St. Paul speaks of himself, that he was rude in speech, though not in know- ledge; “and his authority,” says bishop Lowth, “has in- fluenced many commentators to represent him as entirely rude, and void of elegance; whereas, it requires but little attention to be convinced that he is not a whit behind the very chiefest of the prophets;” equal to the greatest in loftiness of sentiment, and scarcely inſerior to any in the splendor of his diction, and in the elegance of his compo- sition. Mr. Locke has observed, that his comparisons are chiefly drawn from lions, and other animals, because he lived among, and was conversant with, such objects. But, indeed, the finest images and allusions, which adorn the poetical parts of Scripture, in general are drawn from Scenes of nature, and from the grand objects that range in her walks; and true genius ever delights in considering these as the real sources of beauty and magnificence. The whole book of Amos is animated with a fine and masculine eloquence.—Watson. - AMPHIPOLIS; a city between Macedonia and Thrace, but dependent on Macedonia. Paul and Silas, being de. livered out of prison, left Philippi, and going to Thessa- lonica, passed through Amphipolis. Acts 17: 1. It was also called Chrysopolis, or Christopolis. In the division of Macedonia, by Paulus Emilius, it was made the chief º of the first region of Macedonia, and a metropolis.- Calmet. AMSDORFIANS; a sect, in the sixteenth century, who took their name from Amsdorf, their leader. They main- tained that good works were not only unprofitable, but were obstacles to salvation.—Buck. - AMULET ; a charm, or supposed preservative against diseases, witchcraft, or any other mischief. They were very frequent amongst the Jews, the Greeks, and the Ro- mans, and were made of stone, metal, animal substances, or, in short, any thing which a weak imagination suggest- ed. The Jews were very superstitious in the use of amu- lets, but the Mishna forbids them, unless received from some person, of whose cures at least three instances could be produced. The phylacteries worn by the Pharisees and others of the Jewish nation, were a sort of amulets. Amulets, amongst the Greeks, were called phylakteria, periapta, apotolesnuta, periammata, brebia, and eackolpia. The Latins called them amuleta, appensa, pentacula, &c. Remains of this superstition continue among ignorant people even in this country, which ought to be strongly discountenanced as weak or wicked. The word amulet is probably derived from amula, a small vessel with lustral water in it, anciently carried in the pocket for the sake of purification and expiation.— Watson. AMYRALD, OR AMYRAUT, (Moses, S. T. D.;) a French Protestant divine, born at Bourgeuil, in 1596, was educated for the civil law, but preferred theology, and be-, came professor of divinity at Saumur. In that profession he acquired the highest reputation. Such was his influ- ence, that he succeeded in introducing the doctrine of Arminius into the French reformed churches, to the great displeasure of the zealous Calvinists. Being a friend to the doctrine of passive obedience, he was looked on with a favorable eye by Richelieu and Mazarine. Amyraut was a man of moderation and candor, and had the good fortune to be esteemed by men of all sects. His theologi- cal works are numerous. He died in 1664.—Davenport. AMYRALDISM; a name given by some writers to the doctrine of universal grace, as explained and asserted by Amyraldus, or Moses Amyrault, and others, his followers, among the reformed in France, towards the middle of the seventeenth century. This doctrine principally consisted of the following particulars, viz: that God desires the hap- piness of all men, and none are excluded by a divine de- cree ; that none can obtain salvation without faith in Christ; that God refuses to none the power of believing, though he does not grant to all his assistance, that they may improve this power to saving purposes; and that they may perish through their own fault. As they taught the universal possibility of salvation, they were called Universalists. (See CAMERONites.) ANAB, a city of Judah, about seven miles nearly south- west from Hebron.—T. ANABAPTISTS ; those who maintain that baptism Qught always to be performed by immersion. The word is compounded of ana, “new,” and baptistes, “a Baptist,” signifying that those who have been baptized in their infancy, ought to be baptized anew. It is a word which has been indiscriminately applied to Christians of very different principles and practices. The English and Dutch Baptists do not consider the word as at all applica- ble to their sect; because those persons whom they baptize they consider as never, having been baptized before, although they have undergone what they term the cere. momy of sprinkling in their infancy. The Anabaptists of Germany, besides their notions con- cerning baptism, depended much upon certain ideas which they entertained concerning a perfect church estab- lishment, pure in its members, and free ſrom the institu- tions of human policy. The most prudent part of them considered it possible, by human industry and vigilance to purify the church; and seeing the attempts of Luther to be successful, they hoped that the period was arrived in which the church was to be restored to this purity. Others, not satisfied with Luther's plan of reformation, undertook a more perfect plan, or, more properly, a visionary enter- prise, to found a new church entirely spiritual and divine. This sect was soon joined by great numbers, whose characters and capacities were very different. Their progress was rapid; for, in a very short space of time, their discourses, visions, and predictions, excited great A N A A N A | 77 commotions in a great part of Europe. The most permi- cious faction of all those which composed this motley multitude, was that which pretended that the founders of this men, and perfect church were under a divine impulse, and were armed against all opposition by the power of working miracles. It was this faction that, in the year 1521, began their fanatical work under the guidance of Munzer, Stubner, Storck, &c. These men taught, that among Christians, who had the precepts of the Gospel to direct, and the Spirit of God to guide them, the office of magistracy was not only unnecessary, but an "unlawful encroachment on their spiritual liberty; that the distinc- tions occasioned by birth, rank, or wealth, should be abolished; that all Christians, throwing their possessions into one stock, should live together in that state of equality which becomes members of the same family; that as neither the laws of nature, nor the precepts of the New Testaments, had prohibited polygamy, they should use the same liberty as the patriarchs did in this respect. - They employed, at first, the various arts of persuasion, in order to propagate their doctrines; and related a num- ber of visions and revelations, with which they pretended to have been favored from above; but, when they found that this would not avail, and that the ministry of Luther and other reformers was detrimental to their cause, they then madly attempted to propagate their sentiments by force of arms. Munzer and his associates, in the year 1525, put themselves at the head of a numerous army, and declared war against all laws, governments, and magistrates of every kind, under the chimerical pretext that Christ himself was now to take the reins of all government into his hands : but this seditious crowd was routed and dispersed by the elector of Saxony and other princes, and Munzer, their leader, put to death. Many of his followers, however, survived and propagat- ed their opinions through Germany, Switzerland, and Holland. In 1533, a party of them settled at Munster, un- der two leaders of the names of Matthias and Bockholdt. Having made themselves masters of the city, they depos- ed the magistrates, confiscated the estates of such as had escaped, and deposited the wealth in a public treasury for common use. They made preparations for the defence of the city; invited the Anabaptists in the Low Countries to assemble at Munster, which they called Mount Sion, that from thence they might reduce all the nations of the earth under their dominion. Matthias was soon cut off by the bishop of Munster's army, and was succeeded by Bock- holdt, who was proclaimed by a special designation of heaven, as the pretended king of Sion, and invested with legislative powers like those of Moses. The city of Mun- ster, however, was taken, after a long seige, and Bockholdt punished with death. It must be acknowledged that the true rise of the insur- rections of this period ought not to be attributed to reli- gious opinions. The first insurgents groaned under severe oppressions and took up arms in defence of their civil liberties; and of these commotions the Anabaptists seem rather to have availed themselves, than to have been the prime movers. That a great part were Anabaptists, seems indisputable; at the same time it appears from history, that a great part also were Roman Catholics, and still a greater part of those who had scarcely any religious principles at all. Indeed, when we read of the vast numbers that were concerned in these insurrections, of whom it is reported that one hundred thousand fell by the sword, it appears rea- sonable to conclude that they were not all Anabaptists. (See Robertson's History of Charles V. Enc. Brit. vol. i. p. 644; and articles BAPTISTs and MENNONITEs.) “The following,” says Benedict, “seems the only satis- factory solution of this mysterious affair. All parties are anxious to clear themselves of the reproach of an un- successful and unpopular enterprise. . Such a one was that of the German peasants. The Catholic historians of the times excuse all their brethren, who were concerned in it, and lay the whole blame at the door of Luther and the reformation. The Lutheran historians, from whom the English took their accounts, endeavored to clear them- selves, by accusing the Anabaptists of being the prime movers and principal promoters of the insurrection. The papists were doubtless very unfair and erroneous, in charging the reformation with being the direct cause of the troubles, wars, and commotions, of which it was cef. tainly no more than the indirect and innocent occasion; but they were not mistaken when they charged the Lu. therans with being deeply engaged in the rustic war The Lutherans have conceded that some of their party perverted and misconstrued the reformer's doctrine of Christian liberty, and flocked to the standard of the rebels. But the papists are not content with these concessions, they have constantly laid the nhole mischief of this intes. tine dissension at the door of Luther and his disciples; ‘This,’ say they, ‘is the fruit of the new doctrine ! This is the fruit of Luther's gospel !” “It is certain that the disturbances in the very city of Mum- ster were began by a Pedobaptist minister of the Lutheran persuasion, whose name was Bernard Rotman, or Roth- man; that he was assisted in his endeavors by other minis- ters of the same persuasion; and that they began to stir up tumults, that is, teach revolutionary principles, a year be- fore the Anabaptist ringleaders, as they are called, visited the place. These things the papists knew, and they failed not to improve them to their own advantage. They uni- formly insisted that Luther's doctrine led to rebellion, that his disciples were the prime movers of the insurrections, and they also asserted that a hundred and thirty thousand Lutherans perished in the rustic war. “Such were the aspersions cast upon the Lutheran party by the papists. And though many Catholics were engaged in the war, yet the Lutherans knew it would be unavailing to retort upon them; for whatever resistance the oppressed Catholics had shown, the Catholie doctrine did not lead to it, for that taught nothing but blind and dumb submission to every law of their superiors, whether civil or religious. But as the Anabaptists were the advo- cates for liberty, and as many of them had taken a part in the war which they hoped would set them free, the Lu- therans found it easy to cast all the blame upon them. And they, having no one to tell their story as it was, nor put in any plea for them, which could be heard, the Mun- ster affair, as it was first related by the Lutheran histo- rians, has been transmitted from one generation to another, without any correction or amendment; it has been tran- scribed by a thousand Pedobaptist pens, as a salutary memento for the seditious dippers; it is the dernier resort of every slanderous declaimer against them ; it is the great gun, the ultima ratio of every disputant, which they keep in reserve against the time of need. “But why all this din about Munster and the war of the peasants, since every body knows, who knows any thing of the matter, that it was not a quarrel about baptism, but about the feudal system ; that it was not for water, but in opposition to the horrid oppression of the princes, that the German peasants rose? Why are not the Inde- pendents and the Congregationalists, their offspring, visit- ed from age to age with the deeds of a few of their zea- lous predecessors, and of the promiscuous multitude, who attached themselves to their cause, and bore their name 2 They were accused by their enemies of every thing horrid and flagitious. “The most eminent English writers,’ says Mosheim, ‘not only among the patrons of Episco- pacy, but even among those very Presbyterians with whom they are now united, have thrown out against them the bitterest accusations, and the severest invectives the imagination could suggest. They have not only been represented as delirious, mad, fanatical, illiterate, factious, and ignorant both of natural and revealed religion, but also as abandoned to all kinds of wickedness and sedition, and as the only authors of the odious parricide committed on the person of Charles I. Rapin represents the Inde- pendents under such horrid colors, that were his portrait just, they could not deserve to enjoy the light of the sun, or breathe the free air of Britain, much less to be treated with indulgence and esteem by those who have the cause of virtue at heart.” “But Mosheim could discover the tongue of slander in these representations; he could apologise for the Inde- pendents so far, that Dr. Maclaine has thought it necessary to give him a check. He could, in giving their history, adopt ‘the wise and prudent maxim, not to judge of the spirit and principles of a sect, from the actions or expres- sions of a handful of its members, but from the manners, customs, opinions, and behavior of the generality of those A N A A N A [78 ) who compose it,’ &c. thought of, in treating of the German Anabaptists. Why this partiality, in cases so exactly alike The answer is plain, the Independents held to infant baptism, which the Anabaptists rejected. “The respectable body of Presbyterians have, at different times, been loaded with the foulest aspersions. Millot, in speaking of the parliament army, says, “it breathed only the fervor of Presbyterianism, and the rage of battle; and knew no pleasures but prayer and military duty.' We for- bear to select examples of the kind, and these we have related with no other view, than to show the reader the im- propriety of judging of the character of a sect or party, from the accounts of its adversaries. “The American war terminated in a glorious manner, and all who were concerned in it were loaded with ap- plauses, and hailed as the deliverers of their country. But the grievances of the American people were trifling, com- pared with those of the German peasants. But suppose the fortune of war had turned against the struggling Americans, how diſſerent would have been their fate | What, in such a case, would have been said of those Bap- tists, who enlisted under the revolutionary standard, whose eulogium was pronounced by the immortal Washington ? What character would have been given of those ministers, who promoted the war, by every means in their power, who became chaplains in the armies, and dwelt in the camp of the warriors?—Backus, Gano, Stillman, Man- ning, Smith, Rogers, and others, instead of being the sub- jects of eulogium for the part they took in the war, would, have been loaded with infamy, and branded with the infamous names of rebels, fanatics, and the ringleaders of a seditious multitude. They would have been the Muncers, Stubners, Storks, Bockholds, Phiffers, and Knip- perdolings of America.” It is but justice to observe, also, that the Baptists in Holland, England, and the United States, are to be con- sidered as entirely distinct from those seditious and fanati- cal individuals above-mentioned: as they profess an equal aversion to all principles of rebellion on the one hand, and of enthusiasm on the other.—Buck's Theol. Dict. ; Milner's Church. History; Robinson's Eccl. Researches ; En- cyclopédia Americana ; Benedict's History of the Baptists. ANACHORETS. (See Anchorets.) ANAGOGICAL, signifies mysterious, transporting; and is used to express whatever elevates the mind, not only to the knowledge of divine things, but of divine things in the next life. The word is seldom used, but with regard to the different senses of Scripture. The ana- logical sense is, when the sacred text is explained with re- gard to eternal life, the point which Christians should have in view ; for example, the rest of the Sabbath, in the ana- gogical sense, signifies the repose of everlasting happiness. ANAH; son of Zibeon, the Hivite, and father of Aho- libamah, Esau’s wife, Gen. 36: 24. While feeding asses in the desert, he discovered “springs of warm mater,” not mules, as the English translators and several others under- stand the Hebrew jamim. Scripture never calls mules jamim, nor are such creatures hinted at till aſter the time of Iłavid. And Robinson remarks that five or six miles south-east of the Dead Sea, and consequently in the neigh- borhood of Mount Seir, is a place celebrated among the Greeks and Romans for its warm baths. ANARC; ANAKIM, famous giants in Palestine. Anak, father of the Anakim, was son of Arba, who gave name to Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron. He had three sons, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, whose descendants were terrible for their fierceness and stature. The Hebrew spies re- ported, that, in comparison to those monstrous men, they themselves were but grasshoppers. Some have thought, that the name Phoenician, given to the Canaanites, and particularly to the Sidonians, was originally from Bene- Anak, sons of Anak. Caleb, assisted by the tribe of Ju- dah, took Kirjath-Arba, and destroyed the Anakim. Josh. 15: 14. Judges 1: 20. A. M. 2559. (See GIANT.) ANALOGY; the Science which, standing on the con- fines of what is known, points out the direction in which truth probably lies, in the region that is unknown. The laws of this science rest upon the two following self-evi- dent principles: First, A part of any system which is the work of an intelligent agent, is similar, so far as the prin- But no such things could be ciples it involves are concerned, to the whole of that sys- tem. And, secondly, The work of an intelligent and moral being must bear, in all its lineaments, the traces of the character of its Author. And, hence, he will use analogy jhe most skilfully, who is most thoroughly imbued with the spirit of the system, and, at the same time, most deep- ly penetrated with a conviction of the attributes of the First Cause of all things.-Wayland on the Philosophy of Analogy. - ANALOGY OF FAITH ; the correspondence of the several parts of Divine Revelation in one consistent whole. Rom. 12: 6. This is considered as furnishing a grand rule for understanding the true sense of Scripture. For, it is evident that the Almighty doth not act without a de- sign in the system of Christianity any more than he does in the works of nature. Now this design must be uni- form ; for as in the system of the universe every part is pro- portioned to the whole, and made subservient to it, so in the system of the Gospel all the various truths, doctrines, declarations, precepts, and promises, must correspond with, and tend to, the end designed. For instance, supposing the glory of God in the salvation of man by free grace, in a may of righteousness and holiness, be the grand design : then what- ever doctrine, assertion, or hypothesis, agree not with this, it is to be considered as false.—Great care, however, must be taken in making use of this method, that the inquirer previously understand the whole scheme, and that he har- bor not a predilection only for a part; without attention to this we shall be liable to error. If we come to the Scrip- tures with any preconceived opinions, and are more de- sirous to put that sense upon the text which quadrates with our sentiments rather than the truth, it becomes then the analogy of our faith, rather than that of the whole system. This was the source of the error of the Jews, in our Savior's time. They searched the Scriptures; but, such were their favorite opinions, that they could not, or would not, discover that the sacred volume testified of Christ. And the reason was evident, for their great rule of interpretation was, what they might call the analogy of faith ; i. e. the system of the Pharisean scribes, the doc- trine then in vogue, and in the profound veneration of which they had been educated. Perhaps there is hardly any sect but what has more or less been guilty in thisrespect. This analogy, however, may be of use to the serious and candid inquirer; for as some texts may seem to con- tradict each other, and difficulties present themselves, by keeping the analogy of faith in view, he will the more easily resolve those difficulties, and collect the true sense of the Sacred oracles. What “the aphorisms of Hippo. crates are to a physician, the axioms in geometry to a mathematician, the adjudged cases in law to a counsellor, or the maxims of war to a general, such is the analogy of ſaith to a Christian.” Of The ANALOGY of RELIGION to THE CONSTITUTION AND course of NATURE, we must refer our readers to bishop Butler's excellent treatise on that subject.—Buck; Wayland's Discourses; Campbell’s Lectures on Systematic Theology; Douglas on the Truths of Religion; Shuttlervorth on the Consistency of Revelation. - ANALYSIS OF THEOLOGY. The whole range of theological science may be conveniently divided into four parts. Indeed, theology itself, in accordance with this divi- sion, has received a fourfold appellation, viz. e.vegetical, systematical, historical, and pastoral theology. The object of this article is merely to give an analytical view of what is comprehended under each of these departments, re- serving all further explanations for a ſuture article"on theological education. - .I. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. This department comprehends I. Biblical Introduction; which treats of the age, origin, contents, and character of the sacred writings. II. Biblical Criticism ; distinguished into 1. The Verbal Criticism, which relates to the integrity of the original text. - - - 2. The IIigher Criticism, which examines the authenti- city of the several books. III. Biblical Interpretation, or Hermeneutics. IV. Biblical Exposition, or Exegesis. * H. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. This department comprehends A N A A N A [ 79 1 T. Theoretical Theology, or Dogmatics; distinguished into. * * * * * 1. Biblical; which draws its system exclusively from the Scriptures. 2. Ecclesiastical ; which exhibits systematically the doc- trines of a church. 3. Polemic ; which undertakes to refute false exhibitions on the spot. - 4. Apologetic ; which is the defence and confirmation of Christianity in general. - II. Practical Theology, or Christian Ethics; which sys- tematically applies the Christian rules of duty to 1. The Internal Affections and Motives. 2. The Visible Actions of Mankind. III. Didactic Theology. This further distinction arises from the mode in which Systematic Theology is taught; which may be 1. Scientific ; which puts in requisition all the aids of learning. 2. Popular ; which leaves out of view all that cannot be apprehended without learned attainments. III. HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. This department comprehends I. The General History of Religion among Mankind. II. The History of the Christian Religion, or Church History. III. History of Doctrines, (including Patristics, or the Writings of the Fathers.) IV. History of Creeds and Denominations. V. Antiquities, Jewish and Christian, or Archaeology. VI. Theological Literature, or Bibliography. IV. PASTORAL THEOLOGY. This department comprehends I. Sacred Rhetoric ; which is divided into 1. Homiletics, or the Preparation for the Pulpit. 2. Catechetics, or the Instruction of the Young. II. Pastoral Duties; including 1. Official Character and Habits. 2. Forms of Worship, and Devotion. ~. III. Ecclesiastical Discipline, or Law ; which is 1. General, or common to all Christian denominations. 2. Special, or belonging peculiarly to his own. The sciences above enumerated complete the circle of theological learning. (See THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.) ANAMIM; second son of Mizraim. (Gen. 10: 13.). He peopled the Mareotis, if we may rely on the paraphrast Jonathan, son of Uzziel; but rather, the Pentapolis of Cyrene, according to the paraphrast of Jerusalem. Bo- chart was of opinion, that these Anamim dwelt in the countries around the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the Nasamonitis. We believe the Amamians and Gara- mantes to be descended from Anamim. The Hebrew Ger, or Gar, signifies a passenger or traveller. The name of Gar-amantes may be derived from Ger-amanim: their capital is called Garamania, in Solinus-Calmet. ANAMMIELECH. It is said (2 Kings 17: 31.) that the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, sent from beyond the Eu- phrates into Samaria, burned their children in honor of Anammelech and Adrammelech. Mr. Taylor has sug- gested that Adrammelech signified the sun, or splendid king, and Anammelech the moon, or gentle king; but this name, he further remarks, may be composed of onan, a cloud, and melek, a king. “The king of clouds,” is no less a proper poetical epithet for the moon, than “region of night,” as one of our own poets calls that planet. Per; haps, the distinguishing symbol of this idol was a cloud of gold, or some other splendid material, annexed to its statue. (See ADRAMMELECH, and BAAL.) e I. ANANIAS; a professed Christian of the city of Je- rusalem, who, in concert with his wife, Sapphira, sold an estate, and secreting part of the purchase-money, carried the remainder to the apostles, as the whole price of his in- heritance. Acts 5: 1. A number of conjectures have been formed as to the reasons which induced the Holy Spirit so visibly and suddenly to punish the falsehood of Ananias and Sap- phira. Mr. Taylor thinks they might possibly be as fol- lows:–1. In the infancy of the church, to give a solemn notoriety and a self-evident sanction to the doctrine intróa duced; not merely by miracles of advantage, (as healing,) but by miracles of punishment.—2. To deter those whº through worldly motives of gain, or with a design to paſſ. ticipate in the profits of the goods sold, might join the Christian church.-3. To deter spies, and false brethren, who could not but be aware of the danger of detection, in all cases, after this event. If Ananias only had died, he remarks, it might have seemed a mere sudden death, produced by a natural cause. By this awful event, the Gospel was in some degree assimilated to the law. Directly after the injunction of the Sabbath was given, the Sab- bath-breaker was ordered to be stoned; (Numb. 15:35, 36.) So after the consecration of the holy altar, the sons of Aaron, who offered profane fire in their censers, were de- stroyed. Lev. 10: 1, 2. The same thing occurred in the case of Achan, (Josh. 7.) and in other instances. It is evident, that in this and similar events, there must have been a conviction produced in the minds of specta- tors, that some extraordinary power was exerted. Had it been thought that Peter himself slew Ananias, he had, no doubt, been rendered amenable to the laws as a murderer. But, if it was evident that the apostle only forewarned him that he should die, then (as no man has power to kill another by his word only) it must have been equally evident that the power which attended the word of Peter, did not pro- teed from himself, but from God, who, only, has the keys of life and death. So, in like manner, the power which opened the earth to swallow down Korah, was not from Moses, personally, but from him in whose name he spake; (Numb. 16: 24.) though the people afterwards stupidly accused him of having killed the people of the Lord. II. ANANIAS; a disciple of Christ, at Damascus, whom the Lord directed to visit Paul, then recently con- verted and arrived at Damascus. Acts 9: 10. The modern Greeks maintain, that he was one of the seventy disciples; bishop of Damascus; a martyr; and buried in that city There is a very fine church where he was interred; and the Turks, who have made a mosque of it, preserve a great respect for his monument. g III. ANANIAS; son of Nebedaeus, and high priest of the Jews, succeeded Joseph, son of Camith, A. D. 47. He was sent by Quadratus, governor of Syria, to Rome, to answer for his conduct to the emperor Claudius; but he justified himself, was acquitted, and returned. In the meantime, Jonathan had been appointed high pricst in his place. But he being soon after murdered, Ananias ap- pears to have assumed the functions from which he had been deposed, before a successor was appointed by Agrip- pa. It was at this point of time that Paul was brought before him. Acts 23: 1. Paul commenced his defence, but Ananias immediately commanded those who were near him to strike him on the face. To this injury and insult the apostle replied, “God is about to smite thee, thou whited wall; for thou sittest to judge me according to the law, but commandest me to be smitten contrary to the law.” Being rebuked for thus addressing himself to the high priest, the apostle excused himself by alleging, very º that he was ignorant of his office. (See PAUL. The assembly being divided in opinion, the tribune or- dered Paul to Caesarea, and thither Ananias, and other Jews, went to accuse him before Felix. (Acts 24.) Ana- nias was considered the first man of the nation in point of riches, friends and fortune. Yet was the prediction of the apostle fulfilled, for he was slain by a seditious faction, at the head of which was his own son, at the commence- ment of the Jewish wars. Some writers, not distinguish- ing what Josephus relates of Ananias, when high priest, from what relates of him after his deposition, have made two persons of the same individual. ANANUS; son of Seth, and high priest of the Jews; called Annas. Luke 3: 2. John 18: 13. He succeeded. Joazar, son of Simon, and enjoyed the high priesthood eleven years, when he was deposed, and succeeded by Ishmael, son of Phabi. After his deposition, however, he retained the title of high priest, and had a great share in the management of public affairs. He is called high priest, in conjunction with Caiaphas, his son-in-law, when John the Baptist entered on the exercise of his mission, A N A A N D [80 ) though at that time he did not, strictly speaking, possess that character. Luke 3: 2. Our Savior was carried before Annas, directly after his seizure in the garden of Olives. ANASTASIA ; a martyr of the fourth century. She was descended from an illustrious Roman family. Her mother Flavia was a Christian, and dying while her daugh- ter was an infant, she bequeathed her to the care of Chry- sogonus, a worthy Christian of Aquilia, with a strict in- #.". to instruct her in the principles of Christianity. his Chrysogonus punctually performed, though it cost him his life. But the father of the young lady, being a Pagan, gave her in marriage to a man of his own faith named Publius : who though of good family, was of bad morals, and, after spending both his own and his wife's patrimony, had the baseness to inform against her as a Christian. Her husband dying soon after, Anastasia was released; but in consequence of her many charitable offices to distressed Christians, she was again apprehended, and de- livered up to Florus, governor of Illyricum. By his com- mand she was put to the torture; but her constancy in the Christian faith remaining unshaken, Florus ordered her to be burnt to death; which sentence was executed December 25, A. D. 304, about one month after the martyr- dom of Chrysogonus her instructer. What a meeting must the mother, the daughter, and the instructer, have had in heaven!—Foz. ANATHEMA; from anatithemi, signifies—something set apart, separated, devoted. It is understood principally to denote the absolute, irrevocable, and entire separation of a person from the communion of the faithful, or from the number of the living, or from the privileges of Society; or the devoting of any man, animal, city, or thing, to be extirpated, destroyed, consumed, and, as it were, annihi- lated. The Hebrew cherem, signifies properly to destroy, ex- terminate, devote. The word cherem, or amathema, is some- times taken for that which is irrevocably consecrated, vowed, or offered to the Lord, so that it may no longer be employ- ed in, or returned to, common uses. Lev. 27:28, 29. “No devoted thing (absolutely separated) that a man shall devote (absolutely separate) to the Lord, of man, beast, or field, shall be sold or redeemed.” In , the old Greek writers, anathema is used for a person, who, on some occasion, de- voted himself for the good of his country; or as an expia- tory sacrifice to the infernal gods. Here the reader will recollect Codrus and Curtius. Some particular persons devoted themselves, if they did not accomplish some specific purpose. In Acts 23: 12, 13. it is said that above forty persons bound themselves with an oath, that they would neither eat nor drink till they had killed Paul. The Essenians were engaged by oath to ob- serve the statutes of their sect; and those who incurred the guilt of excommunication, were driven from their as- semblies, and generally starved to death, being obliged to feed on grass like beasts, not daring to receive food which might be offered them, because they were bound by the vows they had made, not to eat any.—Calmet. ANATHEMA MARANATHA. We meet with this form of expression but once in Scripture, (1 Cor. 16:22.) where the apostle Paul, in reference to the faction which had sprung up in the church, and betrayed a great disre- gard to the authority of Christ, says, “If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha.” To give additional force and solemnity, he appears to have written it with his own hand. Why these two words were not translated is not obvious. Anathema signifies Accurs- ed, that is to say, condemned and devoted to utter destruc- tion. Maranatha signifies The Lord cometh. They are the words with which the Jews began their greater excommuni- cation; whereby they not only excluded sinners from their society, but delivered them to the divine curse, (Hebrew cherem,) including both misery in this life, and perdition in that which is to come. They used this form, because Enoch’s P. of the second coming of Christ to judge the world, and punish the wicked, began with these words; as we learn from Jude, who quotes the first sentence of that prophecy. Wer. 14. When the apostle, therefore, uses this form of solemn malediction, it is equivalent to saying of the sinner who loves not the Saviour, “It exceeds my power to express what ought to be the consequence of your crime. I therefore leave you to the Lord when He comes, to judge the quick and the dead.”—Calmet; Jones; Hanker; Watson. Also, Macknight's note on 1 Cor. 16:22. ANATHOTH ; now Anāta, a city of Benjamin, about three miles north-east from Jerusalem. It was given to the priests of the family of Kohath. Josh. 21: 18. To this, his native city, Abiathar the priest was banished, for taking part in Adonijah's conspiracy; and here the prophet Jeremiah was born. Jer. 29:27.—T. ANCHOR OF THE SOUL; so Christ our hope and forerunner in the heavens is called. Heb. 6: 18, 19. (See SHIP. ANCIENT OF DAYS. God is so called, because he existed from all eternity. Dan. 7: 9. The Lord’s ancients, before whom he will reign gloriously, are his ancient peo- ple of Judah and Israel, whom, in the glorious millennium, he will convert to the Christian faith, and rule over as a glorious church. Isa. 24; 23. Three times in the prophecy of Daniel, and in the same chapter, we find the Lord dis- tinguished by this name, and in no other part of Scripture. Dan. 7: 9, 13, 22. - AND; a conjunction generally signifying addition, but occasionally only emphasis. For the sake of some, it may not be unimportant to remark, that in the English version of the Scripture, the word and sometimes occurs, where the proper translation would be even. Thus we read, “God and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ,” where it should be “God, even the Father, &c.” Several other pas- sages will be clearer if this observation is remembered. ANDREAS, (JAMEs, D. D.;) a famous Lutheran di- vine of the sixteenth century, was born at Waibling, in the Dutchy of Wirtemberg, March 25, 1528. His parents were poor, but such were the marks of promising genius in this son, that several persons of distinction united in giving him a liberal education. In 1545, he became mas- ter of arts at Tubingen, and in 1553, took his degree of D. D. and was appointed pastor of Gopping and superim- tendent of the neighboring churches. In 1557, he was one of the secretaries at the conference of Worms. In 1559, he was sent to Augsburg, and in 1561 to Paris as one of the commissioners. On his return from the latter, he was appointed chancellor and rector of the university of Tubingen. From 1565 to 1589, he was continually employed by various princes in efforts to settle differences of faith, and to reform the churches. He labored much and strove long, in person, and by his pen, to promote concord ; but he fared much as people do who interpose between combatants—getting blows from both sides, and thanks from neither. Happily the reward of the peace- maker is not from men, but from God. Matt. 5: 9. When he ſound death drawing near, this excellent man declared his constancy in the faith which he had preached and published for forty-four years. When his physician inquired how he found himself, he answered, “By nothing separated from my God.” Soon afterwards, hearing the clock strike, he asked what hour it was; and upon being told it was six, he added, “my hour shall soon draw near.” At length, after many, edifying and grateful expressions, he breathed out his soul in the words, “Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit,” and fell asleep, January 7, 1590, in the seventy-second year of his age. Nine only out of eighteen children by his excellent wife, survived him. “He was (says Melchior Adam) an excellent preacher. He had an easy manner of instructing the people; and delivered the most obscure points in such a perspicuous style, that they were understood by the generality of his audience. When he exhorted them to the reformation of their lives, or remonstrated against sin, he made use of great energy of language and elevation of voice, be- ing extremely well qualified, both by mature and art, for moving the passions; and when there was occasion for it, his eloquence was forcible like thunder, and he spoke with such vehemence, that he would sweat all over his body, even in the midst of winter. In executing the several branches of his duty, he spared no labor, and was deterred by no fatigue. He was perpetually engaged in composing some works or other, or in writing letters upon various subjects to persons of all ranks who consulted him; these things he dispatched with admirable quickness and suc. cess. There was hardly a day passed but he gave advice to several persons; being always ready to gratify those A N D A N G, [ 81 who solicited his assistance. He was in great favor with some princes and men of the highest-rank, his conversa- tion being very agreeable and sometimes facetious. It gave him extreme sorrow to hear that any person had abandoned the religion he professed; for his zeal for re- ligion was warm.” - - Such was the character reared from the depths of indi- gence by the hand of charity. What a reward to the gene- rous friends who drew him from the obscurity of a car- penter's shop, and fostered his rising genius !—Dr. An- dreas wrote a great number of books, the most remarkable of which are his book “On Concord,” and some treatises on the “Ubiquity of Christ.”—Middleton. ANDREW, the apostle, was a native of Bethsaida, and brother of Peter. He was first a disciple of John the Baptist, whom he left, to follow our Savior, after the testi- mony of John. John 1:40. Andrew introduced his brother Simon, and after accompanying our Savior at the marriage in Cana, they returned to their ordinary occupation, not expecting, perhaps, to be further employed in his service. Some months after, Jesus met them while fishing, and called them to a regular attendance on his person and * ministry, promising to make them fishers of men. Matt. 4: 19, John 6: 1. Some of the ancients are of opinion, that Andrew preached in Scythia; others, that he preach- ed in Greece; others, in Epirus, Achaia, or Argos. The modern Greeks make him founder of the church of By- zantium, or Constantinople, which the ancients knew nothing of. The Acts of his Martyrdom, which are of considerable antiquity, though critics do not allow them to be authentic, affirm that he suffered martyrdom at Pa- tras, in Achaia, being sentenced to be executed on a cross by Egaeus, proconsul of that province.—Calmet. ANDREWS, (Bp. LANCELor, D. D.;) an eminent Eng- lish divine, was born in London 1565, and educated at Cambridge. While residing there, it was his custom to come up to London once a year, about Easter, to visit his father and mother, with whom he usually staid a month; during which time, with the assistance of a master, he ap- plied himself to the attaining some language, or art. to which he was before a stranger; and by this means, in a few years, he had laid the foundation of all the arts and sciences, and acquired a competent skill in most of the modern languages. While a fellow at the university, he became so celebrated as a theologian, casuist and preacher, that he attracted the patronage of the earl of Hunting. don, and of sir Francis Walsingham; and in no long time rose to be master of Pembroke Hall, (his own col- lege,) chaplain to queen Elizabeth, and dean of Westmin- ster. He might have had a bishopric from Elizabeth, if he would have submitted to the spoliation of its revenues. Under her successor, James I. he attained that dignity; being by him preferred to all others as a preacher, and chosen to vindicate his sovereignty, against Bellar- mine. Andrews was successively raised to the sees of Chichester, Ely, and Winchester; besides being appoint- ed lord almoner, and a privy counsellor of England and Scotland; which trusts he discharged with singular fide- lity. The following anecdote of him, about this time, is recorded by Waller. Neale, bishop of Durham, and An- drews, were standing together behind the king's chair at dinner, when James suddenly turned to them, and said, My lords, cannot I take my subjects' money when I want it, without all this formality in parliament? Bishop Neale readily answered, God forbid, sir, but you should; you are the breath of our nostrils. The king turned to the bishop of Winchester, Well my lord, and what say you? Sir, re- plied Andrews, I have no skill to judge of parliamentary cases. The king answered, no put-offs, my lord; answer me immediately. “Then sir, said he, I think it lanful for you to take my brother Neale's money, for he offers it.” King James had such a veneration for this excellent prelate, that in his presence he refrained from all levity. And he was in no less reputation and esteem with Charles I. His life was a life of prayer. A great part of five hours every day was spent in the exercises of devotion. And in his last sickness, he continued while awake to pray audibly till his strength failed; and then by lifting his hands and eyes shewed that he still prayed; and when both voice and hands and eyes failed in their office, his countenance showed that he still prayed and praised God in his heart. September 25, 1626, it pleased God to receive him to himself; he being then in his seventy-first year. A monument of marble and alabaster was erected to his me- mory; and Milton thought him worthy of a Latin Elegy, which will be found among the works of the great poet. Bishop Andrews was charitable and munificent. He was a patron of learning. His own admirable knowledge in the learned tongues, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, besides modern languages to the number of fifteen, was such and so rare, that he may well be ranked among the first linguists in Christendom. The style of his works is however deformed by the bad taste and pedantry of the age.—He published much; but his most celebrated productions are his Tortura Torti, against Bel- larmine, and his Manual of Private Devotions and Medi- tations for every day.in the week. He had a share in the translation of the Pentateuch; and the authorized version of the historical books, from Joshua to the first book of Chronicles, was executed by him exclusively, “in which being dead he yet speaketh.”—Middleton ; Davenport. ANDRONA; a term used for that part in churches which was destined for the men. Anciently it was the custom for the men and women to have separate apart- ments in places of worship, where they performed their devotions asunder, which method is still religiously ob- served in the Greek church. ANDRUS, (Joseph R.;) agent of the Colonization So- ciety, was graduated at Middlebury college in 1812, and after studying theology at New Haven and Andover, and also under bishop Griswold at Bristol, R.I., received episcopal ordination. It had been for years his purpose to devote himself to the welfare of the degraded and oppressed race of Africans. Being appointed agent of the Colonization Society, he sailed early in 1821, and proceeded with his associate, C. Bacon, in April, from Sierra Leone to the Bassa country, to negotiate with king Ber for a place of settlement. It was well for the proposed colony, that the attempt was unsuccessful, for a more healthful and eligi- ble territory was afterwards purchased by Dr. Ayres at Montserado. Mr. Andrus died at Sierra Leone, and was buried July 29, 1821–Allen's Biog. Dict. ANGEL ; a spiritual, intelligent substance, the first in rank and dignity among created beings. The word angel, is not properly a denomination of nature, but of office; denoting as much as nuncius, messenger, a person employ- ed to carry one’s orders, or declare his will. Thus it is St. Paul represents angels. Heb. 1: 14. where he calls them “ministering spirits;” and yet custom has prevailed so much, that angel is now commonly taken for the de- nomination of a particular order of spiritual beings, of great understanding and power, superior to the souls or spirits of men. Some of these are spoken of in Scripture in such a manner, as plainly to signify that they are real beings of a spiritual nature, of high power, perfection, dignity, and happiness. Others of them are distinguished as not having kept their first station. Jude 6. These are . represented as evil spirits, enemies of God, and intent on mischief. The devil as the head of them, and they as his angels, are represented as the rulers of the darkness of this world, or spiritual wickedness, or wicked spirits. Eph. 6: 12; which may not be unfitly rendered, “the spiritual managers of opposition to the kingdom of God.” The existence of angels is supposed in all religions, though it is incapable of being proved a priori. Indeed, the ancient Sadducees are represented as denying all spirits; and yet the Samaritans and Caraites, who are re- puted Sadducees, openly allowed them : witness Abusaid, the author of an Arabic version of the Pentateuch; and Aaron, a Caraite Jew, in his comment on the Pentateuch; both extant in manuscript in the king of France's library. In the Alcoran we find frequent mention of angels. The Mussulmen believe them of different orders or degrees, and to be destined for different employments both in hea ven and on earth. They attribute exceedingly great power to the angel Gabriel, as that he is able to descend in the space of an hour from heaven to earth; to overturn a mountain with a single feather of his wing, &c. The angel Asrael, they suppose is appointed to take the souls of such as die; and another angel, named Esraphil, they ** 11 A N G. A N G [ 82 ) tell us, stands with a trumpet ready in his mouth to pro- claim the day of #. The heathen philosophers and poets were also agreed as to the existence of intelligent beings, Superior to man; as is shown by St. Cyprian in his treatise of the vanity of idols; from the testimonies of Plato, Socrates, Trismegis- tus, &c. They were acknowledged under different appel- lations; the Greeks calling them demons, and the Ro- mans genii, or lares. only one among the old philosophers who absolutely re- jected them. - 2. Authors are not so unanimous about the NATURE, as about the existence, of angels. Though it be now a uni- versal opinion that angels are of a spiritual and incorporeal nature, yet some of the fathers, misled by a passage in Gen. 6: 2. where it is said, “The sons of God saw the daugh- ters of men that they were fair, and they took them wives of all which they chose,” imagined them to be corporeal, and capable of sensual pleasures. But, without noticing all the wild reveries which have been propagated by bold or ignorant persons, let it suffice to observe, that by “the sons of God” we are evidently to understand the descen- dants of Seth, who, for the great piety wherein they con- tinued for some time, were so called; and that “the daugh- ters of men” were the progeny of wicked Cain. The fathers who believed angels had bodies, were Cle- mens Alexandrinus, Origen, Caesarius, Tertullian, and several others. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Ni- cene, St. Cyril, St. Chrysostom, &c., held them to be mere spirits. It has been the more current opinion, especially in later times, that they are substances en- tirely spiritual, who can, at any time, assume bodies, and appear in human or other shapes. Ecclesiastical writers make an hierarchy of mine orders of angels. Others have distributed angels into nine orders, according to the names by which they are called in Scripture, and reduced these orders into three hierarchies; to the first of which belong Seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; to the second, dominions, virtues, and powers; and to the third, principalities, archangels, and angels. The Jews reckon four orders or companies of angels, each headed by an archangel; the first order being that of Michael; the se- cond, of Gabriel; the third, of Uriel; and the fourth, of Raphael. Following the scripture account, we shall find mention made of different orders of these superior beings; for such a distinction of order seems intimated in the names given to different classes. Thus we have thrones, dominions, principalities, or princedoms, ponyers, authorities, living ones, cherubim, and seraphim. That some of these titles may indicate the same class of angels, is probable; but that they all should be but different appellations of one common and equal order, is improbable. We learn also from Scripture, that they dwell in the immediate presence of God; that they “excel in strength;” that they are im- mortal; and that they are the agents through which God very often accomplishes his special purposes of judgment and mercy. Nothing is more frequent in Scripture than the missions and appearances of good and bad angels, whom God employed to declare his will; to correct, teach, reprove, and comfort. God gave the law to Moses, and appeared to the old patriarchs, by the mediation of angels, who represented him, and spoke in his name. Acts 7: 30, 35. Gal. 3; 19. Heb. 13: 2. 3. Though the Jews, in general, believed the existence of angels, there was a sect among them, the Saddu- cees, who denied the existence of all spirits whatever, God only excepted. Acts 23:8. Before the Babylonish capti- vity, the Hebrews seem not to have known the NAMEs of any angel. The Talmudists say they brought the names of angels from Babylon. Tobit, who is thought to have resided in Nineveh some time before the captivity, men- tions the angel Raphael, Tob. 3: 17. 11: 2–7. and Daniel, who lived at Babylon, some time after Tobit, has taught us the names of Michael and Gabriel. Dan. 8: 16. 9:21. 10: 21. In the New Testament, we find only the two latter mentioned by name. Luke 1: 19. Rev. 12; 7. 2. There are various opinions as to the TIME when the an- gels were created. Some think this took place when our heavens and the earth were made. For this opinion, how- ever, there is no just foundation in the Mosaic account. Epicurus seems to have been the . Others think that angels existed long before the formation of our solar system ; and Scripture seems to favor this opinion. Job 28: 4–7. where God says, “Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth?—and all the sons of God shouted for joy.” *- - 5. The exact NUMBER of angels is nowhere mentioned in Scripture; but it is always represented as very great; Dan. 7: 10, says of the Ancient of Days, “A fiery stream issued and came forth from before him; thousand thousands min- istered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him.” Jesus Christ says, that his heavenly Father could have given him more than twelve legions of angels, that is, more than seventy-two thousand, Matt. 26: 53. and the Psalmist declares, that the chariots of God are twenty thousand, even thousands of angels. 68: 17. These are all intended not to express any exact number, but in- definitely a very large one. (See also HEB, 12: 22.) 6. As to their chart Acter, though all the angels were created alike good, yet Jude informs us, verse 6. that some of them “lcept not their first estate, but left their own habitation,” and these God hath “reserved in everlasting chains under darkness, unto the judgment of the great day.” Speculations on the cause and occasion of their fall are all vain and trifling. Milton is to be read on this subject as on others, not as a divine, but as a poet. All we know is, that they are not in their first “estate,” or in their original place; that this was their own fault, for “they left their own habitation;” that they are in chains, yet with liberty to tempt; and that they are reserved to the general judgment. (See Devils.) 7. On the question of guardian angels, Bishop Horsley observes: “That the holy angels are often employed by God in his government of this sublunary world, is indeed to be clearly proved by holy writ. That they have power over the matter of the universe, analogous to the powers over it which men possess, greater in extent, but still limit- ed, is a thing which might reasonably be supposed, if it were not declared. But it seems to be confirmed by many passages of holy writ; from which it seems also evident that they are occasionally, for certain specific purposes, commissioned to exercise those powers to a prescribed ex- tent. That the evil angels possessed before their fall the like powers, which they are still occasionally permitted to exercise for the punishment of wicked nations, seems also evident. That they have a power over the human sensory, which they are occasionally permitted to exercise, and by means of which they may inflict diseases, suggest evil thoughts, and be the instruments of temptations, must also be admitted. But all this amounts not to any thing of a discretional authority placed in the hands of tutelar angels, or to an authority to advise the Lord God with re- spect to the measures of his government. Confidently I deny that a single text is to be found in holy writ, which, rightly understood, gives the least countenance to the abominable doctrine of such a participation of the holy angels in God’s government of the world. In what man- ner then, it may be asked, are the holy angels made at all subservient to thrè purposes of God's government? This question is answered by St. Paul in his Epistle to the He- brews, in the last verse of the first chapter; and this is the only passage in the whole Bible, in which we have any thing explicit upon the office and employment of angels: ‘Are they not all,” saith he, “ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them that shall be heirs of Salvation?" They are all, however high in rank and order, nothing more than “ministering spirits,” or, literally, ‘serving . spirits;’ not invested with authority of their own, but “sent forth,’ occasionally sent forth, to do such service as may be required of them, ‘for them that shall be heirs of salvation.’” (See MATT. 18; 10. 1 Cor. 11:10. EccL. 5: 6.) —Buck; Watson ; Calmet ; Jones; Works of R. Hall, vol. iii. But no writer on the subject of angels has equalled Dwight. (See his Theology, Ser. xviii. xix.) ANGELS OF THE CHURCHES. This title is some disputed. Dr. Prideaux observes, that the minister of the synagogue, who officiated in offering the public prayers, being the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them, as their representative, messenger, or angel, to address God in prayer for them, was in Hebrew called sheliack-zibbor, that is, the angel of the church; and that from hence the chief A N G, A N G. sº ministers of the seven churches of Asia are in the Revela- tion, by a name borrowed from the synagogue, called angels of those churches.—Jones. ANGEL OF THE LORD, or THE ANGEL Jehovah; a title, as is supposed, of Christin his appearances to the patriarchs and others in the Old Testament. For example, when the angel of the Lord ſound Hagar in the wilderness, “she called the name of Jehovah that spake to her, Thou God SEEST ME.” The angel of the Lord appeared to Moses in a flame of fire; but this same angel “called to him out of the bush, and said, I am the God of thy fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ; and Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look upon God.” To omit many other passages, St. Stephen, in alluding to the history of Moses, in his speech before the council, says, “There appeared to Moses in the wilderness of Mount Sinai, an angel of the Lord in a flame of fire,” showing that the phraseology was in use among the Jews in his day, and that this angel and Jehovah were regarded as the same being; for he adds, “ Moses was in the church in the wilderness with the angel which spoke unto him in mount Sinai.” There is one part of the history of the Jews in the wilderness, which so fully shows that they distinguished this angel of Jehovah from all created angels, as to deserve particular attention. In Exod. 23: 20. God makes this promise to Moses and the Israelites: “Behold, I send an angel before thee to keep thee in the way, and to bring thee into the place which I have pre- pared. Beware of him, and obey his voice; provoke him not; for he will not pardon your transgressions, for my name is in him.” Of this angel let it be observed, that he is here represented as the guide and protector of the Israelites; to Him they were to owe their conquests and their settlement in the promised land, which are in other places often attributed to the immediate agency of God; that they are cautioned to “beware of him,” to reverence and stand in dread of him ; that the pardoning of trans- gressions belongs to him ; finally, “that the name of God was in him.” This name must be understood of God’s own peculiar name, JEHOVAII, I AM, which he assumed as his distinctive appellation at his first appearing to Moses; and as the names of God are indicative of his nature, he who had a right to bear the peculiar name of God, must also have his essence. This view is put beyond all doubt by the fact, that Moses and, the Jews so understood the mat- ter; for afterwards, when their sins had provoked God to threaten not to go up with them himself, but to commit them to “an angel who should drive out the Canaanite,” &c., the people mourned over this as a great calamity, and Moses betook himself to special intercession, and rested not until he obtained the repeal of the threat, and the re- newed promise, “My presence shall go with thee, and I will give thee rest.” Nothing, therefore, can be more clear than that Moses and the Israelites considered the promise of the angel, in whom was “the name of God,” as a promise that God himself would go with them. With this uncreated angel, this presence of the Lord, they were satisfied, but not with “an angel” indefinitely, who was by mature of that order of beings usually so called, and there- fore a created being; for at the news of God’s determination not to go up with them, Moses hastens to the tabernacle to make his intercessions, and refuses an inferior conductor:— “If thy presence go not with me, carry us not up hence.” . The Jews held this Word, or Angel of the Lord, to be the future Messiah, as appears from the writings of their older Rabbins. So that he appears as the Jehovah of all the three dispensations, and yet is invariably describ- ed as a separate person from the unseen Jehovah, who sends him. He was then the Word to be made flesh, and to dwell for a time among us, to open the way to God by his sacrifice, and to rescue the race, whose nature he should assume, from sin and death. This he has now ac- tually effected; and the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian religions are thus founded upon the same great princi- ples,'—the fall and misery of mankind, and their delive- rance by a Divine Redeemer.- Watson. - ANGELICS; an ancient sect, supposed by some to have got this appellation from their excessive veneration of angels; and by others from maintaining that the world was created by angels.-Buck. ANGELITES; a sect in the reign of the emperor Ana- stasius, about the year 494; , so called from Angelium, a place in the city of Alexandria, where they held their first meetings. They were called likewise Severites, from Se- verus, who was the head of their sect; as also Theodosians, from one Theodosius, whom they made pope at Alexan- dria. They held that the persons of the trinity are not the same ; that none of them exists of himself, and of his own nature; but that there is a common God or Deity ex- isting in them all, and that each is God by a participation of this Deity.—Buck. - ANGELO BUONARATTI, (MICHAEL;), one of the most distinguished names in the history of modern art, eminent alike in painting, Sculpture, and architecture, and withal no mean poet, was born at Caprese or Chiusi, Italy, in 1474; and died in 1563, aged 89. He was one of those favorites of nature, who combine in their single persons the excellencies of many highly gifted men. In his sixteenth year, his talents began to develop themselves to the admiration of all. The senate hall, and the Laurentian library at Florence; the Sistine and Pauline chapels, together with the new sacristy and St. Peter's church at Rome, contain everlasting monu- ments of his wonderful genius. His Last Judgment, in the Sistine chapel, is his master-piece in painting. It was unwillingly undertaken by him when sixty years old. But naturally inclined as he was to deep and earnest thought; preferring the sublime conceptions of Dante to all other poetry; having by a constant study of anatomy investigated the most secret mechanism of the muscles, and conscious of his own power; he endeavored in this work to strike out a new path, and to surpass his prede- cessors, particularly Luca Signoretti, by a display of ter. rible power. Perhaps, also, he had a higher and holier aim than critics have assigned him; an aim more worthy of a Christian. The picture is grand, nay gigantic, like the mind which created it. It represents Christ in the act of judging, or rather at the moment of condemning. Mar- tyrs are seen, who show to the Judge of the living and dead the instruments of their torture; souls ascend to the choirs of angels hovering above ; the condemned strive in vain to break loose from the grasp of the devils; there the evil spirits burst into shouts of triumph at the sight of their prey; the lost who are dragged down endeavor to cling to the good, who remain in Christ's kingdom ; the gulf of eternal damnation is seen opening; Jesus Christ is seen surrounded by the apostles, who place a crown on his head, and by a multitude of Saints, while angels above carry in triumph the symbols of his passion ; and lower down another company of angels sound the trumpets in- tended to awaken the dead from their tombs, and call them to judgment. With these scenes of fear and despair, of judgment and heavenly beatitude, the wall of the chapel, which is of great height and breadth, is filled; and every thing is executed with the lofty spirit of a master. Yet this prince of artists was a humble and affectionate Christian. Every virtue seemed united in his character. His soul was elevated above human glory. He was beloved and sought after by the great; but he shunned them. And the last words he uttered on earth were a charge to his attendants, “IN YoUR PASSAGE THROUGH THIS LIFE, REMEM- BER THE SUFFERINGs of Jesus!”—Clissold ; Davenport ; Ency. Amer. ANGER ; a painful passion of the mind, arising from the actual, or supposed reception of an injury, with a pre- sent purpose of punishment. All anger is by no meanssin- ful; it was designed by the Author of our nature for self-de- fence: nor is it altogether a selfish passion, since it is excited by injuries offered to others as well as ourselves, and sometimes prompts us to reclaim offenders from sin and danger. Eph. 4: 26. But it becomes sinful when con- ceived upon trivial occasions or inadequate provoca- tions; when it breaks forth into outrageous actions; vents itself in reviling language, or is concealed in our thoughts to the degree of hatred. To suppress this passion, the following reflections of archdeacon Paley, may not be un- suitable: “We should consider the possibility of mistaking the motives from which the conduct that' offends us pro- ceeded; how often our offences have been the effect of in- advertency, when they were construed into indications of * A N I A N I [ 84 J malice; the inducement which prompted our adversary to act as he did, and how powerfully the same inducement has, at one time or other, operated upon ourselves; that he is suffering, perhaps under a contrition, which he is ashamed, or wants opportunity to confess; and how ungene- rous it is to triumph, by coldness or insult, over a spirit already humbled in secret; that the returns of kindness are sweet, and that there is neither honor, nor virtue, nor use in resisting them ; for some persons think themselves bound to cherish and keep alive their indignation, when they find it dying away of itself. We may remember that others have their passions, their prejudices, their favorite aims, their fears, their cautions, their interests, their sud- den impulses, their varieties of apprehension, as well as we : we may recollect what hath passed in our own minds, when we have got on the wrong side of a quar- rel, and imagine the same to be passing in our adver- sary's mind now : when we became sensible of our mis- behavior, what palliations we perceived in it, and expected others to perceive ; how we were affected by the kindness, and felt the superiority of a generous reception, and ready forgiveness; how persecution revived our spirits with our enmity, and seemed to justify the conduct in ourselves, which we before blamed. Add to this the indecency of extravagant anger; how it renders us, while it lasts, the scorn and sport of all about us, of which it leaves us, when it ceases, sensible and ashamed ; the inconveniences and irretrievable misconduct into which our irrascibility has sometimes betrayed us; the friendships it has lost us; the distresses and embarrassments in which we have been involved by it; and the repentance which, on one account or other, it always costs us. But the reflection calculated, above all others, to allay that haughtiness of temper which is ever finding out provocations, and which renders anger so impetuous, is that which the Gospel proposes; namely, that we ourselves are, or shortly shall be, supplicants for mercy and pardon at the judgment-seat of God. Imagine our secret sins all disclosed and brought to light; imagine us thus humbled and exposed; trembling under the hand of God; casting ourselves on his compassion; crying out for mercy; imagine such a creature to talk of satisfaction and revenge ; refusing to be entreated, disdaining to for- give ; extreme to mark and to resent what is done amiss; imagine, I say, this, and you can hardly feign to yourself an instance of more impious and unnatural arrogance.”— Paley's Mor. Phil. ch. 7. vol. i. ; Fancet's excellent treatise on Anger; Seed's Posth. Serm, 11.—Buck. ANGER OF GOD. (See WRATH.) ANGLO-CALVINISTS ; a name given by some wri- ters to the members of the Church of England agreeing with the other Calvinists in most points, excepting church government.—Buck. . - ANIMAL; an organized and living body, endowed with sensation. Minerals are said to grow or increase, plants to grow and live, and animals alone to have sensa- tion. The Hebrews distinguished animals into pure and impure, clean and unclean ; or those which might be eaten and offered, and those whose use was prohibited. The sacrifices which they offered, were, 1. Of the beeve kind; a cow, bull, or calf. The ox could not be offered, because it was mutilated; and when it was said oxen were sacri- ficed, we are to understand bulls. Levit. 22:18, 19. Calmet thinks, that the mutilation of animals was neither permit- ted, nor used, among the Israelites.—2. Of the goat kind; a he-goat, a she-goat, or kid. Levit. 22: 24–3. Of the sheep kind; a ewe, ram, or lamb. When it is said sheep are offered, rams are chiefly meant, especially in burnt- offerings and sacrifices for sin; for as to peace-offerings, or sacrifices of pure devotion, a female might be some- times offered, provided it was pure, and without blemish. Levit. 3: 1. Besides these three sorts of animals used in sacrifices, many others might be eaten, wild or tame; as the stag, the roe-buck, and in general all that have cloven feet, or that chew the cud. Levit. 9: 2, 3, &c. All that have not cloyen hoofs, and do not chew the cud, were esteemed impure, and could neither be offered nor eaten. The fat of all sorts of animals sacrificed was forbidden to be eaten. The blood of all kinds of animals generally, and in all cases, was prohibited on pain of death. Levit, 3, 17, 7. 23–27. Neither did the Israelites eat animals which had been taken and touched by a devouring or impure beast, as a dog, a wolf, a boar, &c. Exod. 22. 3.; nor of any animal that died of itself. Whoever touched its carcase was impure until the evening; and till that time, and be. fore he had washed his clothes, he did not return to the company of other Jews. Levit. 9: 39, 40. 17: 15. 22:8. Fish that had neither fins nor scales were unclean. Levit. 11: 10. Birds which walk on the ground with four feet, as bats, and flies that have many feet, were impure. The law, however, excepts locusts, which have their hind feet higher than those before, and rather leap than walk. These were clean, and might be eaten, Levit. 11:21, 22. as they still are in Palestine.—The distinction between clean and unclean animals has been variously accounted for. Some have thought it symbolical, intended to teach the avoidance of those evil qualities for which the unclean animals were remarkable; others, that, in order that the Hebrews might be preserved from idolatry, they were commanded to kill and eat many animals which were sa- cred among the Egyptians, and were taught to look with abhorrence upon others which they reverenced. . Others have found a reason in the unwholesomeness of the flesh of the creatures pronounced by the law to be unclean, so that they resolve the whole into a sanative regulation. But it is not to be forgotten that this division of animals into clean and unclean, existed both before the law of Moses, and even prior to the flood. The foundation of it was therefore clearly sacrificial ; for before the deluge it could not have reference to health, since animal food was not allowed to man prior to the deluge; and as no other ground for the distinction appears, except that of sacrifice, it must therefore have had reference to the selection of victims to be solemnly offered to God, as a part of wor- ship, and as the means of drawing near to him by expia- tory rites for the forgiveness of sins. Some, it is true, have regarded this distinction of clean and unclean beasts as used by Moses by way of prolepsis, or anticipation,--a notion which, if it could not be refuted by the context, would be perfectly arbitrary. Not only are the beasts, which Noah was to receive, spoken of as clean and un- clean; but it will be noticed, that, in the command to take them into the ark, a difference is made in the number to be preserved,—the clean being to be received by sevens, and the unclean by two of a kind. This shows that this dis- tinction among beasts had been established in the time of Noah ; and thus the assumption of a prolepsis is refuted. The critical attempts which have been made to show that animals were allowed to man for food, previous to the flood, have wholly failed. - - A second argument is furnished by the prohibition of blood for food, after animals had been granted to man for his sustenance along with the “herb of the field.” This prohibition is repeated by Moses to the Israelites, with this explanation :-‘‘I have given it upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls.” . From this it has in- deed been argued, that the doctrine of the atoning power of blood was new, and was then, for the first time, an- nounced by Moses, or the same reason ſor the prohibition would have been given to Noah. To this we may reply, 1. That unless the same be supposed as the ground of the prohibition of blood to Noah, as that given by Moses to the Jews, no reason at all can be conceived for this re- straint being put upon the appetite of mankind from Noah to Moses.—2. That it is a mistake to suppose, that the de. claration of Moses to the Jews, that God had “given them the blood for an atonement,” is an additional reason for the interdict, not to be found in the original prohibition to Noah. The whole passage in Levit. 17. is, “And thou shalt say to them, Whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, that eateth any manner of blood, I will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood, and I will cut him off from among his people: For THE LIFE of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it upon the altar, to make atone- ment for your souls: For, it is the BrooD (or LIFE) that maketh atonement for the soul.” The great reason, then, of the prohibition of blood is, that it is the LIFE ; and what follows respecting atonement is evegetical of this reason; the life is the blood, and the blood of life is given as an A N I A N N º [ 85 J atonement. Now, by turning to the original prohibition in Genesis, we find that precisely the same reason is given: “But the flesh with-the blood, which is the life thereof, shall ye not eat.” The reason then, being the same, the question is, whether the exegesis added by Mo- ses must not necessarily be understood in the general reason given for the restraint to Noah. Blood is prohibited for this cause, that it is the life; and Moses adds, that it is “the blood,” or life, “which makes atonement.” Let any one attempt to discover any cause for the prohibition of blood to Noah, in the mere circumstance that it is “the life,” and he will find it impossible. It is no reason at all, moral or instituted, except that as it was life substitut- ed for life, the life of the animal in sacrifice for the life of man, and that it had a sacred appropriation. The man- ner, too, in which Moses introduces the subject is indica- tive that, although he was renewing a prohibition, he was not publishing a “new doctrine ;” he does not teach his people that God had then given, or appointed, blood to make atonement; but he prohibits them from eating it, because he had made this appointment without reference to time, and as a subject with which they were familiar. Because the blood was the life, it was sprinkled upon, and poured out at, the altar: and we have in the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, and the sprinkling of its blood, a suffi- cient proof, that before the giving of the law, not only was blood not eaten, but was appropriated to a sacred sacrifi- cial purpose. Nor was this confined to the Jews; it was customary with the Romans and Greeks, who, in like man- ner, poured out and sprinkled the blood of victims at their altars, a rite derived, probably, from the Egyptians, as they derived it, not from Moses, but from the sons of Noah. The notion, indeed, that the blood of the victims was pe- culiarly sacred to the gods, is impressed upon all ancient pagan mythology. If, therefore, the distinction of animals into clean and unclean existed before the flood, and was founded upon the practice of animal sacrifice, we have not only a proof of the antiquity of that practice, but that it was of divine institution and appointment, since Almighty God gave laws for its right and acceptable performance. Still fur- ther, if animal sacrifice was of divine appointment, it must be concluded to be typical only, and designed to teach the great doctrine of moral atonement, and to direct faith to the only true Sacrifice which could take away the sins of men;–“the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world,”—the victim “without spot,” who suffered the just for the unjust, that he might bring us to God. (See SA- CRIFICes.)—Watson. ANIMAL FEELING; a term used (of late) by theo- logical writers to describe that sort of religious excitement which may be produced through sympathy and the imagi- nation, or merely physical causes in some way associated with religion, while neither the reason, the conscience, or the heart, are brought into their proper action. The term is derived from the fact, that affections of this kind have their source and seat, not in the mind strictly speaking, but in the animal frame; and are liable to be mistaken for the genuine affections of piety, while in truth they may and do exist, often in the highest degree, where the subject of them exhibits incontestible evidence of being still unrenewed in the spirit of his mind. Many, even of the truly pious, it is to be feared, judge of their spiritual state, under the mistaken supposition, that the force of the religious affections is to be mainly es- timated by the physical thermometer—by the degree of mere animal fervor—by ardors, and transports, and raptures, of which, from constitutional temperament, a person may be easily susceptible; or into which, daily experience must convince us, that people of strong conceptions, and warm passions, may work themselves, without much dif- ficulty, where their hearts are by no means truly or deep- ly interested. Every tolerable actor can attest the truth of this remark. These high degrees of the passions, bad men may experience; good men may want. They may be the natural operations of either a genuine or a ficti- tious piety; and therefore cannot be the true standard by which to determine either the nature or the trength of the religious affections. To ascertain the true nature of our feelings, we must examine, 1... Whether they are grounded in evangelical knott- ledge. Animal feelings are ignorant, erroneous, or vague; but evangelical affections have their root in strong and just conceptions of the supreme excellence of their object; and lead us to count all things loss, in comparison with the knowledge of Christ, and an interest in his great salva- tion.—2. Whether they are permanent, or habitual. Animal feelings are but occasional visitants; evangelical affec- tions are the abiding inmates of the soul.—3. Whether they are of holy tendency. Animal feelings often coincide with some vicious passion or propensity; but evangelical affections are irreconcilably opposed to every sin.—4. Whether they exert a conscientious control over the nihole man. Animal feelings generally disturb the intellect, and often overpower and exhaust the frame by their violence; but evangelical affections, when most intense, regulate the ap- petites, and moderate all the inferior desires, which are culpable only in their excess; thus striving to reign se- renely in the bosom, with a settled, undisputed predomi- nance.—Above all, 5. Whether they are practical in their influence. Animal feelings end in the mere terror, or lux- ury, of the excitement; but evangelical affections prompt to the active discharge of the duties of life; the personal, domestic, and relative, the professional, and social, and civil duties.—Here the wideness of their range, and the universality of their influence, will generally serve to dis- tinguish the evangelical feelings from those which are merely animal. From the daily incidents of conjugal and domestic life, we learn that a heat of affection, occasion- ally vehement, but superficial and transitory, may consist too well with a course of conduct, exhibiting incontestible proofs of neglect and unkindness. But IF A MAN LovE ME, says Christ, HE will, KEEP My SAYINGs. John 14: 23. Without suffering ourselves, therefore, to derive too much complacency from transient fervors of devotion, we should carefully and frequently prove ourselves by this unequivo- eal test, given us by our Savior and Judge; impartially examining our daily conduct; and often comparing our AcTUAL with our PossIBLE services; the ſair amount of our exertions, with our natural or acquired means, and multi- plied opportunities of usefulness among men.—Wilber- force's Vien, ; Natural History of Enthusiasm ; Maclaurin's Essays ; Spring’s Essays ; Ednyards on the Affections. ANISE ; an annual umbelliferous plant, the seeds of which have an aromatic smell, a pleasant, warm taste, and a carminative quality. But by anithon, Matt. 23: 23. the dill is meant. Our translators seem to have been first misled by a resemblance of the sound. No other versions have fallen into the mistake. The Greek of anise is ani- son ; but of dill, anithon. ANNA; the daughter of Phanuel, a prophetess and widow, of the tribe of Asher. Luke 2: 36, 37. She was married early, and had lived only seven years with her husband. Being then disengaged from the ties of mar- riage, she thought only of pleasing the Lord ; and continu. ed without ceasing in the temple, serving God night and day, with fasting and prayer, as the evangelist expresses it. However, her serving God at the temple, night and day, says Dr. Prideaux, is to be understood no otherwise than that she constantly attended the morning and eve- ining sacrifice at the temple; and then with great devo- tion offered up her prayers to God; the time of morning and evening sacrifice being the most solemn time of prayer among the Jews, and the temple the most solemn place for this devotion. Anna was fourscore years of age when the holy virgin came to present Jesus in the temple; and, entering accidentally, while Simeon was pronouncing his thanksgiving, she likewise began to praise God, and to speak of the Messiah to all those who waited for redemp- tion in Jerusalem. We know nothing more either of the life or death of this holy woman.—Watson. ANNAS, or ANANUS, as Josephus calls him, was the Son of Seth, and high priest of the Jews. He succeeded Joazar, the son of Simon, enjoyed the high priesthood eleven years, and was succeeded by Ishmael, the son of Phabi. After he was deposed, he still preserved the title of high priest, and had a great share in the management of public affairs. He is called high priest in conjunction with Caiaphas, when John the Baptist entered upon the exercise of his mission; though Calmet thinks that at that A N O A N S | 86 ) time he did not, strictly speaking, possess or officiate in that character. Luke 3: 2. On the contrary, Macknight and some others are of opinion, that at this time Caiaphas was only the deputy of Annas. He was father-in-law to Caiaphas; and Jesus Christ was carried before him, di- rectly after his seizure in the garden of Olives. John 18: 13. Josephus remarks, that Annas was considered as one of the happiest men of his nation, for five of his sons were high priests, and he himself possessed that great dignity many years. This was an instance of good fortune, which, till that time, had happened to no person.— Watson. * ANNIHILATION ; the act of reducing any created being into nothing. The sentiments of mankind have dif- fered widely as to the possibility and impossibility of anni- hilation. According to some, nothing is So difficult : it requires the infinite power of God to effect it: according to others, nothing so easy. Existence, say they, is a state of violence; all things are continually endeavoring to re- turn to their primitive nothing : it requires no power at all ; it will do itself; nay, more, it requires an infinite power to prevent it. With respect to human beings, it appears probable from reason, but it is confirmed by Scrip- ture, that they will not be annihilated, but exist in a fu- ture state. Matt. 10: 28. Eccl. 12: 7. John 5: 24. 1 Thess. 5: 10. Matt. 25: 34, 41. Luke 16:22, 28. 20: 37, 38. 1 Cor. 15: (See p. 158, &c. vol. i. Massilon's Ser. Eng. Trans. ; No. 129, Guardian ; Blair's Ser. vol. i. p. 461 ; and articles DESTRUCTIONISTs, RESURRECTION, SouL.) —Buck. ANNUNCIATION ; the tidings brought by the angel Gabriel to the virgin Mary, of the incarnation of Christ. It is also used to denote a festival kept by the church, on the 25th of March, in commemoration of these tidings.- Buck. (See MIRAculous Concertion.) ANOINTING, or UNCTION, was a ceremony in fre- quent use among the Hebrews. They anointed and per- fumed, from principles of health and cleanness, as well as religion. They anointed the hair, head, and beard. Psalm 133: 2. At their feasts and rejoicings, they anointed the whole body; but sometimes only the head or the feet. John 12: 3. ... Luke 7: 37. Matt. 6: 17. The anointing of dead bodies was also practised, to preserve them from corruption. Mark 14: 8, 16: 1. Luke 23: 56. They anointed kings and high priests at their inauguration, (Exod. 29:29. Lev. 4: 3. Judg. 9:8. 1 Sam. 9: 16. 1 Kings 19:15, 16.) as also the sacred vessels of the taber- nacle and temple. Exod. 30: 26, &c. Anointing, in general, was emblematical of a particular sanctification; a designation to the service of God, to a holy and sacred use. God prescribed to Moses the man- ner of making the oil, or the perfumed ointment, with which the priests and the vessels of the tabernacle were to be anointed. It was composed of the most exquisite perfumes and balsams, and was prohibited for all other uses. Ezekiel upbraids his people with having made a like perfume for their own use. Chap. 23: 41. Under the law, persons and things set apart for sacred purposes, were anointed with the holy oil; which appears to have been a typical representation of the communica- tion of the Holy Ghost to Christ and to his church. See. Exod. 28:29. Hence the Holy Spirit is called an unction or anownting, 1 John 2: 20, 27. and our Lord is called the “Messiah,” or “Anointed One,” to denote his being call- ed to the offices of mediator, prophet, priest, and king, to all of which he was consecrated in our nature by the anointing of the Holy Ghost. Matt. 3: 16, 17. - When we hear of the anointing of the Jewish kings, we are to understand by it the same as their inauguration; inasmuch as anointing was the principal ceremony on such an occasion. 2 Sam. 2: 4. 5: 3. As far as we are informed, however, unction, as a sign of investiture with the royal authority, was bestowed only upon Saul and David, and subsequently upon Solomon and Joash, who ascended the throne under such circumstances, that there was danger of their right to the succession being forcibly disputed. 1 Sam, 10: 24. 2 Sam. 2: 4. 5: 1–3. 1 Chron, 11: 1, 2. 2 Kings 11: 12—20. 2 Chron, 23: 1–21. The ceremony of regal anointing needed not to be repeat- ed in every instance of succession to the throne, because the unction which the first one who held the sceptre in any particular line of princes had received, was supposed to suffice for the succeeding incumbents in the same descent. In the kingdom of Israel, those who were inducted into the royal office, appear to have been inaugurated with some additional ceremonies. 2 Kings 9:13. The private anointings which we learn to have been performed by the prophets, (2 Kings 9: 3, comp. 1 Sam. 10: 1. , 16:1–13.) were only prophetic symbols, or intimations that the per- sons who were thus anointed, should eventually receive the kingdom. The holy anointing oil, which was made by Moses, (Exod. 30: 22–33.) for the maintaining and consecrating of the king, the high priest, and all the sacred vessels made use of in the house of God, was one of those things, as Dr. Prideaux observes, which was wanting in the se- cond temple. The oil, made and consecrated for this use, was commanded to be kept by the children of Israel, throughout their generations, and therefore it was laid up in the most holy place of the tabernacle, and the first tem- le.—Calmet ; Watson. ANOMCEANS ; the name by which the pure Arians were called in the fourth century, in contradistinction to the Semi-Arians. The word is formed from the Greek anomoios, different. (See ARIANs and SEMI-ARIANs.)—Buck. ANOTHER GOSPEL ; a phrase used on several oc- . casions by St. Paul, to express, in the strongest manner, the ruinous character of those legal perversions, which the Judaizing teachers introduced. Gal. 1: 7. 2 Cor. 11: 14. He assures them that a scheme which tended to transfer their reliance for salvation, from Christ to them- selves, or any other object, however much, in other infe- rior points, it might resemble the Gospel of Christ, and shelter itself under his name and authority, was, in reali- ty, not the same as the Gospel of Christ; and that, instead of saving, it would, in fact, subvert their souls. Acts 15: 24. Hence, he gave place to them by subjection, no, not for an hour. Gal. 2:5. Hence, even Peter, by his appa- rent compromise, drew upon himself public and solemn reproof. Gal. 2: 11. And hence, the reiterated, fearful warning and malediction of the apostle, against Stich as introduce into Christianity an element which corrupts it. Gal. 1: 6–9. But though nye, or an angel from heaven, preach any other Gospel than that which we have preached un- to you, let him be accursed. ANSARIANS, or ENSARIANs ; the inhabitants of a chain of mountains in Syria, whose religion is a compound of paganism and Mahometanism, which they were taught by an old man, who inhabited the village of Nasar, near Rouſa; who, by his austerities, passed for a saint and a prophet, for which his only qualifications were a life of outward austerity, and a high degree of enthusiasm—if he were not rather an impostor. He made many disci- ples, and their descendants partly worship the sun, or other material objects; and partly following no rule but their own wild imaginations and depraved passions. (See Assassins.)—Jºnc. Perth ; Williams. ANSWER ; beside the common usage of this word, in the sense of a reply, it has other significations. Moses, having composed a thanksgiving, aſter the passage of the Red Sea, Miriam, it is said, answered, “Sing ye to the Lord,” &c.,-meaning, that Moses, with the men on one side, and Miriam, with the women, on the other side, sung the same song, as it were, in two choruses, or divisions; oſ which one answered the other. Numb, 21 : 17, “Thou Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well, answer unto it;” that is, sing responsively, one side (or choir) singing first, and then the other. 1 Sam. 29 : 5. “Is not this David, of whom they sung one to another in dances, saying, Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands?” They sung this song to his honor in distinct choruses. This word is taken likewise for, to accuse or to defend any one, judicially. Gen. 30 : 33. “My righteousness shall answer for me;” it shall be my advocate before thee. Deut. 31: 21. “The song which thou shalt compose and teach them, shall testify º against them as a wit. ness.” Isaiah says, “The show of their countenance will testify (answer) against them;” their impudence will be like a witness and an accuser. Hosea 5: 5. “The pride of Israel doth testify (answer) to his face.” A N T A N T [ 87 J To answer, is likewise taken in a bad sense; as when it is said that a son answers his father insolently, or a servant his master. Rom. 9: 20. “Who art thou that repliest against Gód?” that is, to contest or debate with him. John 18:22, “Answerest thou the high priest so?” St. Paul declares that he “had in himself the ansnver (or sentence) of death;” 2 Cor. 1:9. like a man who has had notice of condemnation, he had a certain assurance of dying. To answer, is also used in Scripture for the commence- ment of a discourse, when no reply to any question or ob- jection is intended. This mode of speaking is often used by the evangelists, “And Jesus ansnyered and said.” It is a Hebrew idiom.-Watson. ANSWER OF A GOOD CONSCIENCE ; a phrase which occurs in 1 Pet. 3: 21. The meaning of it, as well as of the whole verse in which it is found, has been long and often drawn into dispute, in the course of the baptis- mal controversy, for the last three hundred years. The following is an accurate translation of the verse: “A form corresponding to nihich [antitypos, to the ark of Noah, in which few, that is, eight souls, were perſectly saved, through the water which surrounded them, doth non also save us, baptism, (not the putting off of the deftlement of the flesh, but the consulting of God's will by a good conscience,) through the zesurrection of Jesus Christ.” It is submitted, with diffi- dence, whether the sense be not this : “Baptism, though in itself a visible outward form, like Noah's ark, not able by any intrinsic efficacy, to purify us from our sins; yet, as an act of conscientious and obedient faith like his, tak- ing reſuge in the appointed means of salvation, (Rom. 4: 23, 25.) is equally effectual to our deliverance from that wrath, which is to come upon the world of the ungodly.” Heb. 15: 7. 2 Pet. 2: 5. Rom. 5: 9, 10. 10: 8–13. Acts 22: 16. - ANT, gemleh ; in the Turkish and Arabic, meml, Prov. 6: 6. 30: 25. It is a little insect, famous from all anti- quity for its social habits, its economy, unwearied indus- try, and prudent foresight. It has afforded a patterm of commendable frugality to the profuse, and of unceasing diligence to the slothful. Solomon calls the ants “exceed- ing wise; for though a race not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the summer.” He therefore sends the slug- gard to these little creatures, to learn wisdom, foresight, care, and diligence. - *- - “Go to the ant; learn of its ways, be wise: It early heaps its stores, lest want surprise. Skilled in the various year, the prescient sage Beholds the summer chilled in winter’s rage. Survey its arts; in each partitioned cell Economy and plenty deign to dwell.” That the ant hoarded up grains of corn against winter for its sustenance, was very generally believed by the an- cients, though modern naturalists seem to question the fact. Thus Horace says, * Säcrat Parvula (nam exemplo est) magni formica labor's Ore trahit quodcumque potest, atque addit acervo Quem struit, haud ignara ac non incauta futuri; Quae simul inversum contristat aquarius annum, Non usquann prorepit, et illis wtitur ante - Quaesitis sapiens.” - Sat. I. l. i. v. 33. “For thus the little ant (to human lore No mean example) forms her frugal store, Gathered with mighty toil on every side, Nor ignorant mor careless to provide For future want; yet, when the stars appear That darkly saddon the declining year, No more she comes abroad, but wisely lives On the fair stores industrious summer gives.” The learned Bochart, in his Hierozoicon, has displayed his vast reading on this subject, and has cited passages from Pliny, Lucian, AElian, Zoroaster, Origen, Basil, and Epiphanius, the Jewish rabbins and Arabian naturalists, all concurring in opinion that ants cut off the heads of grain, to prevent their germinating; and it is observable that the Hebrew name of the insect is derived from the verb gemel, which signifies to cut off, and is used for cut- ting off ears of corn. Job 24; 24. - 3. The following remarks are from “the Introduction to Entomology,” by Kirby and Spence:— . . “Till the manners of exotic ants are more accurately explored, it would be rash to affirm that no ants have magazines of provisions; for, although, during the cold of our winters in this country, they remain in a state of torpidity, and have no need of food, yet in warmer regions; during the rainy seasons, when they are probably confined to their nests, a store of provisions may be necessary for them. Even in northern climates, against wet seasons, they may provide in this way for their sustenance and that of the young brood, which, as Mr. Smeatham ob- serves, are very voracious, and cannot bear to be long de- prived of their food; else why do ants carry worms, living insects, and many other such things, into their nests 3 Solomon's lesson to the sluggard has been generally ad- duced as a strong confirmation of the ancient opinion: it can, however, only relate to the species of a warm cli- mate, the habits of which are probably different from those of a cold one; so that his words, as commonly interpreted may be perfectly correct and consistent with nature, an yet be not at all applicable to the species that are indige- nous to Europe.” - The ant, according to the royal preacher, is one of those things which are little upon the earth, but exceeding noise. The superior wisdom of the ant has been recognised by many writers. Horace, in the passage from which the preceding quotation is taken, praises its sagacity ; Vir- gil celebrates its foresight, in providing for the wants and infirmities of old age, while it is young and vigor- OllS :— atque inopi metuens formica senecta. And we learn from the Hesiod, that among the earliest Greeks it was called Idris, that is, wise, because it fore- saw the coming storm, and the inauspicious day, and col- lected her store. Cicero believed that the ant is not only furnished with senses, but also with mind, reason, and memory :—In formica non modo sensus sed etiam mens, ratio, memoria. The union of so many noble qualities in so Small a corpuscle, is indeed one of the most remarkable phenomena in the works of nature.—Watson. ANTEDILUWIANS ; a general name for all mankind who lived before the flood, including the , whole human race, from the creation to the deluge. For the history of the antediluvians, see Book of Genesis ; Whiston's Jose- phus; Cockburn's Treatise on the Deluge; and article De- LUGE.—Buck. ANTELOPE. This animal is not mentioned in our translation of the Bible : but it is generally agreed, that the zebi, which our translators take for the roe, is the ga. Zelle, or antelope. The former animal is extremely rare in Palestine, and the adjoining countries; while the lat- ter is common in every part of the Levant. Add to this, that the zebi was allowed to the Hebrews, as an article of food, (Deut. 12: 5, &c.) and scarcely a doubt can remain on the subject. . . The name of this animal, which is from a verb signify- ing to assemble, or collect together, is very characteristic of the gregarious character of the antelope, which live to. gether in large troops, to the number sometimes of two or three thousand. The Septuagint, or Greek version of the Bible, uniformly translates the Hebrew word beauty; and it is so translated, 2 Sam. 1: 19. Isaiah 4: 2. Ezek, 7: 20, &c. A N T A N T [ 88 l The gazelle forms a connecting species between the goat and the deer kinds; somewhat resembling the former internally, and the latter externally, except its horns, which are annulated, or ringed round, with longitudinal depressions running from the bottom to the point. Of all animals in the world, the gazelle is said to have the most beautiful eye. From Dr. Russell we learn, that the inhabitants of Syria distinguish between the antelope of the mountain, and that of the plain. The former is the most beautifully formed, and it bounds with surprising agility; the latter is of a much lighter color, and is neither so strong nor so active. Both, however, are so fleet, that the greyhounds, though reckoned excellent, cannot come up with them, without the aid of the falcon, except in soft, deep ground. It is to the former species of this animal, apparently, that the sacred writers allude, since they distinctly notice their fleetness upon the mountains. 1 Chron. 12:8. Cant. T. 8, 9, 17. 8: 14. The usual method of taking the antelope is by hunting it with the ſalcon, or the ounce; but it is sometimes taken by the following expedient. A tame antelope, bred up for the purpose, is taught to join those of its kind wherever it perceives them. When the hunter, therefore, discovers a herd of these together, he fixes a noose round the horns of the tame animal, in such a manner, that if the rest but touch it, they are entangled; and thus prepared, he sends his antelope among the rest. The tame animal no sooner approaches, but the males of the herd instantly Sally forth to oppose him ; and in butting with their horns, are caught in the noose. Finding itself taken in the snare, terror lends it additional strength and activity, and it makes the most vigorous exertions to disentangle itself, and escape before the hunter can come up with it. Its effort under these circumstances is proposed for imitation to the per- son who had rashly become surety for his neighbor: “Deliver thyself as an antelope from the hand of the hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the fowler.” Prov. 6: 5. That is, “Thou hast imprudently placed thyself in perilous circumstances, suffer no delay in making an ef. fort for thy release.” There seems to be something so highly figurative in the exclamation of the bride, (Cant. 1: 7.) “Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest,” &c. that it has never occurred to critics, that the speaker, assuming the metaphorical character of a gazelle, or antelope, in- quires for the resting place of the flock, wherein she, also, might rest. "They have usually supposed that she makes this inquiry in the character of a shepherdess, meaning to accompany her shepherd, and to associate with him at the noontime of day, when he would be reposing.—Abbott’s Script. Nat. History. ANTEROS; a Grecian, bishop of Rome, who suffered martyrdom in the third century, for collecting the acts of the martyrs, after holding his office only forty days. His death happened, A. D. 235. * ANTHEM ; a church song, performed in cathedral ser- vice, by choristers who sung alternately. It was used to denote both psalms and hymns, when performed in this manner; but, at present, anthem is used in a more con- fined sense, being applied to certain passages, usually taken out of the Scriptures, and adapted to a particular solemnity. Anthems were first introduced in the reformed service of the English church, in the beginning of the reign of queen Elizabeth.-Buck. ANTHONY, (SUSANNA ;) an eminently pious female, of Newport, Rhode Island, was born in 1726, and died June 23, 1791, aged sixty-four years. Her parents were Quakers. Dr. Hopkins published the memoirs of her life, consisting chiefly of extracts from her writings, of which there was a second edition in 1810. She devoted herself chiefly to prayer.—Allen. ANTHROPOMORPHITES; a sect of ancient heretics, who were so denominated from two Greek words, anthro- pos, man, and morpha, shape. They understood every thing spoken in Scripture in a literal sense, and particu- larly that passage in Genesis, in which it is said, “God made man after his own image.” Hence they maintained, that God had a human shape.—Watson. ANTHROPOPATHY; a metaphor, by which things prop. 12; Emlyn on Baptism ; belonging to creatures, and especially to man, are ascrib- ed to God. Instances of this abound in the Scriptures, by which they adapt themselves to human modes of speak- ing, and to the limited capacities of men. These anthro- popathies we must however interpret in a manner suitable to the majesty of the divine nature. Thus, when the members of a human body are ascribed to God, we must understand by them those perfections of which such mem- bers in us are the instruments. The eye, for instance, represents God's knowledge and watchful care; the arm, his power and strength; the ears, the regard he pays to prayer, and to the cry of oppression and misery, &c. Farther, when human affections are attributed to God, we must so interpret them, as to imply no imperfection, such as perturbed feeling in him. When God is said to repent, the antecedent, by a frequent figure of speech, is put for the consequent ; and, in this case, we are to understand an altered mode of proceeding on the part of God, which in man is the effect of repenting.—Watson. ANTI-BAPTISTS. It is well known that the society of Friends have, from the beginning, rejected water bap- tism, as long since superseded by the baptism of the Holy Spirit—the “one baptism” of Christ, which they alone ad- mit. That Christian baptism is not an external rite, they argue from 1 Pet. 3: 21. and other passages, which speak of baptism as a moral and spiritual rite. These, however, are not the persons here chiefly intended by Anti-baptists. An ingenious writer, under the signature of Agnostos, has lately argued much at length, and with considerable force, that baptism is a proselyting ordinance, and to be applied only to converts from other religions to Christianity, and is not, therefore, applicable to their descendants, whether infant or adult. This he infers from the words of the commission—“Teach (or disciple) all nations, baptizing them;”—from the practice of the apostles and first Chris- tians, who (so far as appears) baptized none but converts from Judaism or heathenism, and their families;–from baptizing not forming any part of the pastoral office, but being peculiar to apostles or evangelists; and from the facilities which his hypothesis affords to Christian union, as removing the great barrier between Pedobaptists and Anti-pedobaptists. From another writer, under the signa- ture of Windex, we learn that there are in Ireland several societies of Anti-baptists, which seem not unlikely to form a considerable denomination. * - This view of baptism, however, admits of, and even re- quires, its perpetuity, so long as there are Jews, pagans, or infidels, to be baptized; but transfers the work rather to missionaries than settled ministers. At the same time, the admission of penitent Atheists, or even Deists, into the Christian church, appears to make them as properly the subjects of the ordinance as Jews or pagans; and leaves open the question as to the mode of administration, and the qualification of infants to receive it.—Barclay's Apol. Thoughts on Baptism, by Agnostos, (1819;) Vindex's Letter to a member of the Church meeting in Stafford-street, Dublin ; Williams. ANTI-BURGHERS; a numerous and respectable body of dissenters from the church of Scotland, who differ from the established church chiefly in matters of church govern- ment; and who differ, also, from the Burgher seceders, with whom they were originally united, chiefly, if not solely, respecting the lawfulness of taking the Burgess oath. (For an account of their origin and principles, see SECEDERs.)—Buck. * ANTICHRIST. This is a very important subject. The word is derived from the Greek Antichristos, and, ac- cording to bishop Hurd, signifies “a person of power, actuated with a spirit opposite to that of Christ.” For, to adopt the illustration of the same learned writer, “as the word CHRIST is frequently used in the apostolic writings, for the doctrine of Christ, in which sense we are said to ‘put on Christ,’ to “grow in Christ,' or to “learn Christ;’ so ANTICHRIST, in the abstract, may be taken for a doc- trine subversive of the Christian; and when applied to a Fº man, or body of men, it denotes one who sets : imself against the spirit of that doctrine.” Introduction to the Study of the Prophecies, Serm. vii. In this general sense, every person who is hostile to the authority of Christ, as * or Head of the church, and to the spirit of A NT A. N. T. [89 J his religion, may be called Antichrist; and the term occurs as thus used by the apostle John, when, referring to cer- tain false teachers, who corrupted the truth from its sim- plicity, he says, “even now are there many antichrists.” 1 John 2: 18., and ch. 4:3. But the name is generally employed to denominate a great power, that was to arise at a period subsequent to the days of the apostles, and which, in an extraordinary degree, was to eorrupt the doctrine, blaspheme the name, and persecute the followers of Christ. 2 Thess. 2: 3–10. 1 Tim. 4: 1–4. and 2 Tim. 3: 1–5. No one subject has probably given rise to a greater di- versity of opinion, than the question, “Who is Anti- christ?” And the reader, whose curiosity may prompt him to examine it, may be gratified by turning to the arti- cle “Antichrist,” in the Edinburg Encyclopedia, where he will find no fewer than FourTEEN different theories ad- duced in answer to that question; nor would it be any difficult task to extend the list to at least an equal num- ber 1 This remark, however, must not be understood as intended to insinuate that the question, “who or what is Antichrist?” is incapable of a satisfactory solution; for that would be to impeach divine revelation, which has pronounced “a blessing on him that readeth, and on those that hear the words of the prophecy,” concerning Anti- christ, “and that keep the things that are written therein.” Rev. 1: 3. Besides, the great variety of the opinions that have been broached on this point, is easily accounted for, by considering that those who have propagated them, have, with scarcely an exception to the contrary, all been the advocates of national establishments of religion; and thus, setting out from an erroneous principle, common to each, they have wandered in endless perplexity, contra- dicting and confuting one another Truth is one, and al- ways consistent with itself, but the mazes of error are in- finite. It must be obvious to any attentive reader of the apos- tolic writings, that Antichrist is therein described under the terms, “the man of sin,” “that wicked one,” “the son of perdition.” 2. Thess. 2: 3, 4, 8. These phrases, in which the antichristian apostasy is personified, are bor- rowed from the language in which the apostles describe the true church cf God as “one new man,” and “a per- fect man,” made up of Jews and Gentiles; sometimes also called “the body of Christ,” of which every real be. liever is a member, a body which is always represented as holy, being sanctified by his blood, and dedicated to his service. Eph. 2: 15. Ch. 1:22, 23. Ch. 4: 13. 1 Pet. 2. Again, as the true church is spoken of in Scrip- ture, under the appellation of “the bride,” “the Lamb's wife,” and is said to be “presented to him a glorious church, not having spot, or wrinkle, or any such thing,” so is this antichristian power represented by “a woman,” and distinguished from the true church by her lewdness and impurity; as “a great whore,” and “the mother of harlots,” having daughters who imitate her wicked exam- ple. Rev. 17: 1, 4, 6, and ch. 18; 7,9. Sometimes Anti- christ is spoken of as “the mystery of iniquity,” and in that view it is the proper contrast of “the mystery of god- liness,” or the mystery of the faith held in a pure con- science, even as the mystery of imiquity is the mystery of departing from the faith under a profession of it. Fur- ther, as ancient Babylon was the enemy of God's people Israel, so she was a type of the false or apostate church, which is particularly held up to us under that figure in the book of Revelation, ch. 17. and 18. Lastly, the true church of God is his kingdom, of which the Son of David is Lord, and who “sits upon his throne, and in his king- dom, having the government of it upon his shoulders, to order it, and to establish it with judgment and with jus- tice, from henceforth, even forever.” Is., 9:7, 8, . So An- tichrist is described as “the son of perdition, who oppo- seth [himself to Christ,) and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped ; so that he, as God, sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God,” 2 Thess. 2: 4. These few hints may serve to show the general contrast which the inspired writers have drawn between Christ and Antichrist, or between the true and the false church; the bride, the Lamb's wife, and the great whore, º: mother of harlots; but the subject may receive a more ample illustration, by considering the ge- nius or spirit of the doctrine of Christ, with the nature of his kingdom; and glancing at some of the leading cor- ruptions of both, which have appeared under the Christian name. For, as bishop Hurd has justly remarked, in the words quoted from him at the outset of this article, it must ever be kept in view, that Antichrist denotes a person, power, or body of men, which sets itself against THE SPIRIT of the doctrine of Christ. The papists imagine they view, in the prophetical pic- ture of Antichrist, imperial Rome, elated by her victories, exulting in her sensuality and her spoils, polluted by ido- latry, persecuting the people of God, and finally falling like the first Babylon; whilst a new and holy city, repre- sented by their own commun on, filled with the spotless votaries of the Christian faith, rises out of its ruins, and the victory of the cross is completed over the temples of paganism. This scheme has had its able advocates, at the head of whom may be placed Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, Grotius, and Hammond. But in order to esta- blish the resemblance, they violate the order of time, dis- regard the opinions of the primitive Christians, and over- look the appropriate descriptions of the apostles. After the point had been maturely debated at the council of Gap, held in 1603, a resolution was taken thereupon to insert an article in the confession of faith, whereby the pope is formally declared to be Antichrist. Pope Clement VIII. was stung with this decision; and even king Henry IV. of France, was not a little mortified, to be thus declar- ed, as he said, an imp of Antichrist. With respect to the commonly received opinion, that the church of Rome is Antichrist, Mede and Newton, Daubuz and Clarke, Lowman and Hurd, Jurieu, Vitringa, and many other members of the Protestant churches, who have written upon the subject, concur in maintaining, that the prophecies of Daniel, St. Paul, and St. John, point di- rectly to this church. This was likewise the opinion of the first reformers; and it was the prevalent opinion of Christians, in the earliest ages, that Antichrist would ap- pear soon after the fall of the Roman empire. Gregory the great, in the sixth century, applied the prophecies con- cerning the beast, in the Revelation, the man of sin, and the apostasy from the faith, mentioned by St. Paul, to him who should presume to claim the title of universal priest, or universal bishop, in the Christian church; and yet his immediate successor, Boniface III. received from the ty- rant Phocas, the precise title which Gregory had thus cen- sured. At the synod of Rheims, held in the tenth century, Arnulphus, bishop of Orleans, appealed to the whole council, whether the bishop of Rome was not the Anti- christ of St. Paul, “sitting in the temple of God,” and perſectly corresponding with the description of him given by St. Paul. In the eleventh century, all the charācters of Antichrist seemed to be so united in the person of pope Hildebrand, who took the name of Gregory VII. that Jo- hannes Aventinus, a Romish historian, speaks of it as a subject in which the generality of fair, candid, and ingenu- ous writers agreed, that at that time was the reign of An- tichrist. And the Albigenses and Waldenses, who may be called the Protestants of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, expressly asserted, in their declarations of faith, that the church of Rome was the whore of Babylon. Among the writings of the ancient Waldenses, those noble witnesses of the truth, during the dark ages, one of an extremely interesting character, is a Treatise con- cerning Antichrist, Purgatory, Invocation of Saints, and the Sacraments, bearing date A. D. 1120, and attributed, not without probability, to the pen of the celebrated Peter de Bruys. It thus describes Antichrist: “Antichrist is not any particular person, ordained to any degree, or office, or ministry; but it is a system of false- hood, adorning itself with a show of beauty and piety, yet (as by the names and offices of the Scriptures, and the sa- craments, and various other things, may appear) very ºn- suitable to the church of Christ. The system of imiquity thus completed, with its ministers, great and small, sup- ported by those who are induced to follow it with an evil heart, and blindfold—this is the congregation, which, ta- ken together, comprises what is called Antichrist, or Baby- lon, the fourth beast, the whore, the man of sin, the son A N T A N T [90 | d of perdition. His ministers are called false prophets, lying teachers, the ministers of darkness, the spirit of error, the apocalyptic whore, the mother of harlots, clouds without water, trees without leaves, twice dead, plucked up by the roots, wandering stars, Balaamites, and Egyp- tians. “He is termed Antichrist, because, being disguised under the names of Christ and his church and faithful mem- bers, he opposes the salvation which Christ wrought out, and which is truly administered in his church—and of which salvation believers participate by faith, hope, and charity. Thus he opposes the truth by the wisdom of this world, by false religion, by counterfeit holiness, by eccle- siastical power, by secular tyranny, and by the riches, honors, dignities, with the pleasures and delicacies of this world. It should therefore be carefully observed, that Antichrist could not come, without a concurrence of all these things, making up a system of hypocrisy and false- hood. These must be, the wise of this world, the religious orders, the pharisees, ministers, and doctors; the secular power, with the people of the world, all mingled together. For although Antichrist was conceived in the times of the apostles, he was them in his infancy, imperfect and un- formed, rude, unshapen, and wanting utterance. He then wanted those hypocritical ministers, and human ordinan- ces, and the outward show of religious orders, which he afterwards obtained. As he was destitute of riches and other endowments, necessary to allure to himself ministers for his service, and to enable him to multiply, defend, and protect his adherents, so he also wanted the secular power to force others to forsake the truth, and embrace false- hood. But growing up in his members, that is, in his blind and dissembling ministers, and in worldly subjects, he at length arrived at full maturity, when men, whose hearts were set upon the world, blind in the faith, multi- plied in the church, and by the union of church and state, got the power of both into their hands. “Christ never had an enemy like this; so able to pervert the way of truth into falsehood, insomuch that the true church, with her children, is trodden under foot. The worship that belongs alone to God, he transfers to Anti- christ himselſ—to the creature, male and female, deceased —to images, carcasses, and relics. The sacrament of the eucharist is converted into an object of adoration, and the worshipping of God alone is prohibited. He robs the Sa- vior of his merits, and the sufficiency of his grace in justi- fication, regeneration, remission of sins, sanctification, establishment in the faith, and spiritual nourishment; ascribing all these things to his own authority, to a form of words, to his own works, to the intercession of Saints, and to the fire of purgatory. He seduces the people from Christ, drawing off their minds from seeking those bless- ings in him, by a lively faith in God, in Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Spirit, and teaching his followers to expect them by the will and pleasure and works of Antichrist. “He teaches to baptize children into the faith, and attri- butes to this the work of regeneration; thus confounding the work of the Holy Spirit in regeneration, with the ex- ternal rite of baptism, and on this foundation bestows or- ders, and, indeed, grounds all his Christianity. He places all religion and holiness in going to mass, and has mingled together all descriptions of ceremonies, Jewish, heathem, and Christian—and by means thereof, the people are deprived of spiritual food, seduced from the true reli- gion, and the commandments of God, and established in vain and presumptuous hopes. All his works are done to be seen of men, that he may glut himself with insatiable avarice; and hence every thing is set to sale. He allows of open sins, without ecclesiastical censure, and even the impenitent are not excommunicated. He does not govern, nor does he maintain his unity by the Holy Spirit, but by means of the secular power, making use of the same to effect Spiritual matters. He hates, and persecutes, and sºrches after, and plunders, and destroys, the members of Christ. These are some of the principal of the works of Antichrist against the truth, but the whole are past numbering or recording. “On the other hand, he makes use of an outward confes- sion of faith; and therein is verified the saying of the apostle—“They profess in words that they know God, but in works they deny him.’ He covers his intºluity, by pleading the length of his duration, or succession of time, and the multitudes of his followers—concerning whom it is said in the Revelation, that “power is given him over every tribe, language, and nation, and all that dwell on the earth shall worship him.’ He covers his iniquity, by pleading the spiritual authority of the apostles, though the apostle expressly says, “Wé can do nothing against the truth’—and ‘there is no power given us for destruction.’ He boasts of numerous miracles, even as the apostle fore- told—‘Whose coming is after the working of Satan, with all miracles and signs, and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness.’ He has an outward show of holiness, consisting in prayers, fastings, watch- ings, and alms-deeds, of which the apostle testified, when he said, ‘Having a form of godliness, but denying the power thereof.” “Thus it is that Antichrist covers his lying wickedness, as with a cloak, or garment, that he may not be rejected, as a pagan or infidel, and under which disguise he can go on, practising his villanies boldly, and like a harlot. Iłut it is plain, both from the Old and New Testaments, that a Christian stands bound, by express command, to separate himself from Antichrist. Isa. 53: 11, 12. Jer. 1:8. Num. 16: 21. Lev. 20: 24–27. Ex. 34: 12–15. Lev. 15: 31. Ezek. 2. Deut. 20. Now it is manifest from the New Testament, (John 12.) that the Lord is come, and hath suffered death, that he might gather together in one the children of God; and it is on account of this unity in the truth, and their separation from others, that it is said in Matt. 10. “I am come to separate a man from his father, and to set the daughter against her mother, and the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law, and those of a man’s own household shall be his enemies.” Christ hath enjoined this separation upon his disciples, when he said, ‘Whosoever doth not forsake father and mother, &c. cannot be my disciple.’ And again, “Beware of false prophets, which come unto you in sheep's clothing ' Again, “Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees—and take heed lest any man seduce you, for many shall come in my name, and seduce many.’ And in the book of the Reve- lation, he warns by his own voice, and charges his people to go out of Babylon, saying, ‘Come out of her, my peo- ple, and be not partakers of her sins, that ye receive not of her plagues; for her sins are come up unto heaven, and the Lord remembereth her iniquity.’ The apostle says the same : ‘Have no fellowship with unbelievers, for what communion hath righteousness with iniquity, or what agreement hath light with darkness, or what concord hath Christ with the devil, or what part hath a believer with an infidel, or the temple of God with idols? Wherefore, come out from among them, and be ye separate, and touch no unclean thing, and I will receive you, and be a Father unto you, and ye shall be my sons and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty.’ - “From what has been said, we may learn wherein con- sist the perverseness and wickedness of Antichrist, and that God commands his people to separate from him, and to join themselves to the holy city Jerusalem. And since it hath pleased God to make known these things to us by his servants, believing it to be his revealed will, accord- ing to the Holy Scriptures, and admonished thereto by the command of the Lord, we do, both inwardly and outward- ly, depart from Antichrist. We hold communion and maintain unity, one with another, freely and uprightly, having no other object to propose herein, but purely and singly to please the Lord, and seek the salvation of our own souls. Thus, as the Lord is pleased to enable us, and so far as our understandings are instructed into the path of duty, we attach ourselves to the truth of Christ, and to his church, how mean soever she may appear in the eyes of men. We, therefore, have thought it good to make this declaration of our reasons for departing from Antichrist, as well as to make known what kind of fellow- ship we have, to the end that, if the Lord be pleased to im- part the knowledge of the same truth to others, those that receive it may love it together with us. It is our desire, also, that if, peradventure, others are not sufficiently en: lightened, they may receive assistance from this service, the Lord succeeding it by his blessing. On the other A N T [91] A NT § hand, if any have received more abundantly from him, pointed by the crown, and are such as have not even a and in a higher measure, we desire with all humility to name in the sacred records; and as the civil magistrate be taught, and instructed better, that so we may rectify has authority in the church, so have many of those in whatever is amiss.” the state. The church and state are not only allied, but The treatise then proceeds to sketch, and succinctly to have an essential dependence on each other. Even the conſute, the numerous abominations of popery, and to doctrines professed, and the worship performed in the na- show how they all tend to subvert the faith of Christ, and tional church, are all secularized. Its creeds and forms to destroy the souls of men; but my limits will only allow of prayer, its rubrics and various rites, are adopted and ..of a very abridged view of those masterly statements, used under the sanction of civil authority. Its liturgy, “Be it known,” say they, “to all in general, and to every therefore, may be justly considered as an act of parlia- one in particular, that these are the reasons of our separation, ment respecting religious affairs. Add to this, that no- viz. It is for the truth's sake which we believe—for the thing could be more absurd than to attempt to enforce the knowledge which we have of the only true God, and the peculiar laws of the kingdom of Christ, in any national unity of the divine essence in three persons, a knowledge church. For instance, Jesus hath delivered the following which flesh and blood cannot communicate—it is for the as a standing law in his kingdom: “If thy brother tres- worship due to that only true God—for the love we owe him pass against thee, go and tell him his fault between above all things—for the sanctification and honor which are thee and him alone: if he hear thee, thou hast gained thy due to him supremely, and above every name—for the live- brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee ly hopes which we have of God through Christ—for rege- one or two more, that in the mouth of two or three wit- neration and renewing of our minds by faith, hope, and nesses, every word may be established. And if he neglect charity—for the worthiness of Jesus Christ, with the all- to hear them, tell it unto the church : but if he neglect to sufficiency of his grace and righteousness—for the com- hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man munion of saints—the remission of sins—a holy conver- and a publican.” Matt. 18: 15. The utter impracticability sation—for the sake of a faithful adherence to all the com- of following out this rule of Christian duty, in any national mands in the faith of Christ—for true repentance—for church, must instantly strike every reflecting mind, and final perseverance, and everlasting life.” is alone sufficient to evince, that that cannot be the king- In the book of Daniel, it is ſoretold that the anti-christian dom of Christ, in which his own laws cannot be executed, power should exercise dominion until a time and times, and the subjects of which may live in opposition to them and the dividings of time. Dan. 7:25. This expression is without control. Indeed, if we examine attentively the generally admitted to denote twelve hundred and sixty laws of Christ's kingdom, as they are found in the New years. If the rise of Antichrist be not reckoned till he was Testament, we must plainly perceive, that such of them as possessed of secular authority, his fall will happen when are enforced by no authority but his, are not only entirely this power shall be taken away. If his rise began according disregarded in national churches, but are so contrary in to Mede in 456, he must have fallen in 1716, if in 606, it their very nature to the course of this world, that no na- must be in 1866; if in 755, in 2015. If however we use tional establishment of religion could possibly exist that prophetical years, consisting of 360 days, and date the rise acted upon them. The following are a specimen. “The of Åntichrist in the year 755, his fall will happen A.D. 2000. kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; but But 755 is too late a period, from which to begin the reck- with you it shall not be so.” “Lay not up for yourselves oning. Mr. Keith has made it appear certain, that the Su- treasures on earth, where moth and rust corrupt; but lay premacy of the pope was complete as early as the year 533, up for yourselves treasures in heaven.” “I say unto you, the year that the INSTITUTEs of Justinian were published. that ye resist not evil: but if any man Smite thee on thy And it is a remarkable fact, that the dominion of the pa- right cheek, turn to him the other also.” “Love your pacy, in that very kingdom which had been its chief stay enemies; bless them that curse you, do good to them that for ages, was destroyed and disannulled by an act of the hate you, and pray for them that despitefully use and that French assembly in the year 1793, just twelve hundred persecute you.” “They that take the sword shall perish and sixty years from its establishment. Every thing now with the sword.” These precepts of Christ, sufficiently in the state of the world betokens a speedy overthrow of show the genius and spirit of his religion: and while they the Mahometan and Papal powers, both of which have prove that the latter was never designed by him to be the been already greatly weakened. established religion of any country, and indeed the impos- An important question however, says Mr. Jones, still sibility of its ever being applied to such a purpose without remains for inquiry, “Is Antichrist confined to the church being essentially corrupted, they afford a clear demonstra- of Rome?” The answer is readily returned in the affirma- tion that all national Testablishments of it must be anti- tive by Protestants in general; and happy had it been for christian. Matt. 5: 6. * the world were that the case. But although we are fully Yet it must not be inferred from this, that none of warranted to consider that church as “the MoTHER of har- Christ's disciples are to be found in societies whose con- lots,” the truth is, that, by whatever arguments we succeed stitution is antichristian ; for the reverse of that, is infe- in fixing that odious charge upon her, we shall, by parity rable from the tenor of Scripture. The writer of the of reasoning, be obliged to allow all other national churches Book of the Revelation tells us, he heard a voice from to be her unchaste daughters; and for this plain reason heaven, saying, “Come out of her, MY PEOPLE, that ye be among others, because, in their very constitution and not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of her tendency, they are hostile to the nature of the kingdom of plagues,” Rev. 18: 1–4. an address which obviously Christ. * - could have no meaning, if none of Christ's people were All national establishments of Christianity must, in their in her. But, if such persons are to be found in the very nature, be antichristian ; because they are opposed “mother of harlots,” with much less hesitation may it be to the spirit of the doctrines of Christ, and to the nature inferred that they are connected with her unchaste daugh- of his kingdom, which he himself has declared to be not of ters, those national churches which are founded upon, this world. To illustrate a little this point, we may select what are called Protestant principles. These last, equally for an example “the Church of England,” as it is gene- with the former, are opposed to the spirit of the doctrine, rally called, and compare its constitution with that of the and to the nature of the kingdom of Christ, which was church or kingdom of Christ. never intended to draw a form of godliness over whole In the latter, Christ himself is king, and he alone is ac- nations that are destitute of its saving power and influ- knowledged as sovereign of the consciences of his sub- ence; but to gather out of them his elect, and constitute jects. But the sovereign of the nation is the avowed head them a people for his praise, Acts 15: 14. , 1 Pet. 2:9, 10. of the Church of England, not in name only, but in power. Such national churches, therefore, though they may be It is established by human laws, and is wholly a creature purged, themselves, from many of the grosser evils of the of the state, and regulated by a code of laws confirmed Romish church, yet, being constituted upon similar princi. by the state; for, as Dr. Brun has expressly said, “the ples, principles that are diametrically opposite to the na- ecclesiastical law of England is compounded of these four ture of the kingdom of Christ, can only be allowed to differ main ingredients, the civil law, the canon law, the com- from her, as a grain of arsenic differs from an ounce. (See mon law, and the statute law.” Its chief officers are ap- CHURCH HISTORY ; NATIONAL CHURCHES.)--Jones; Watson ; A N T A N T [ 92 ) Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy; Keith on the Signs of the Times ; Jones's History of the Church. - ANTI-CALVINISTS; those who reject the system of that great reformer, which is generally called Calvinism, and embrace its opposite, Arminianism, both which see— Williams. • . - ANTIDORON; a name given by the Greeks to the consecrated bread; out of which the middle part, marked with the cross, wherein the consecration resides, being taken away by the priest, the remainder is distributed after mass to the poor.—Buck. * ANTI-LIBANUS. The Greeks gave this name to that chain of mountains east of Libanus, of which Mount Hermon is the most elevated portion. Over against Sidon, it is separated from Libanus, or Lebanon, only by the deep and narrow chasm which forms the channel of the Litäny, or ancient Leontes. From about this point, it gradually diverges to the north-east, and finally to the east, till it is lost in the desert plains towards Palmyra. Parts of it seem to have been called Shenir and Amana. The Hebrew text never mentions Anti-Libanus; but uses the general name of Libanus; and the coins struck at Lao- dicea and Hierapolis, have the inscription, “cities of Libanus,” though they belong rather to Anti-Libanus. The Septuagint, on the contrary, puts Anti-Libanus often instead of Libanus. The valley which separates Li- banus from Anti-Libanus is very fruitful; it was, for- merly, on the side of Syria, inclosed with a wall, whereof there are now no traces. Strabo says, that the name of Coelo-Syria, or “the hollow Syria,” belongs princi- pally to the valley between Libanus and Anti-Libanus. (See LEBANON.)—Calmet. ANTIMONIANS; persons in the fourth century, who denied the perpetual virginity of our Lord's mother, be- lieving that she had afterwards children by Joseph-the brethren of our Lord.—Mosheim, vol. i. p. 432. ANTINOMIANS ; these derive their name from two Greek words, signifying against lan. ; their favorite tenet being, that the law is not a rule of life to believers under the Gospel. The appellation is also generally given to those who carry the doctrine of justification by faith without works to such an extreme, as to separate practical holiness from true believing, and injure, if not wholly de- stroy, every obligation to moral obedience. Antinomianism may be traced to the period of the Re- formation. Its founder was John Agricola, at first a dis- ciple of Luther, but afterwards an opponent both to him and Melancthon. While Luther was eagerly employed in censuring and refuting the popish doctors, who mixed the law and the Gospel together, and represented eternal life as the fruit of legal obedience, John Agricola went into another extreme, and took occasion to advance senti- ments which Luther deemed Antinomian. He is said to have taught, that the law ought not to be proposed as a rule of life, nor used in the church as a means of instruc- tion; and, of course, that repentance is not to be preached from the decalogue, but from the Gospel only; that the Gospel alone is to be inculcated and explained, and that good works do not promote our salvation, nor evil works hinder it. - In the seventeenth century, some of his followers in England are said tº have expressly maintained, that as the clect cannot fall from grace, nor forfeit the divine favor; so neither are the evil actions they commit really sinful, or to be considered as violations of the divine law; and that, consequently, they have no occasion to confess their sins, or to seek renewed forgiveness. The Antino- mian does things wrong in themselves, but they are not wrong when he does them, because he is a believer; so that were he to steal, the crime commonly called theft, would in him lose all its criminality, and cease to be a breach of the eighth commandment. It does not appear that any set of professed Christians ever called themselves Antinomians : it is rather a term of reproach, which one party has too freely applied to ano- *her, and which therefore requires to be received with cau- tion. The unguarded expressions which some persons have used, the bold positions they have advanced, and the construction to which their language is liable, have led others to charge them with Antinomian principles, when in reality they meant not so. As when they have spoken lightly of good works, or asserted that believers have nothing to do with the law of God, without fully explain- ing what they mean ; when they assert that God is not angry with his people for their sins, nor in any sense pu- nishes them on that account, without at all distinguishing between fatherly correction and vindictive wrath;-these and similar expressions, whatever be the private senti- ments of those who advance them, have a direct tendency. to injure the minds and morals of mankind, though it be under a pretence of enhancing the riches and freeness of divine grace. - Properly speaking, those only are Antinomians who are avonedly hostile to the law of God; who neither preach nor profess to embrace it, but term those legalists who do. . With them, preaching the law is an abomination; and they will have nothing to do with it, except to vilify and condemn. Others of a similar description, but who are not aware of the tendency of their own statements, have embraced a system, which, by perverting the doctrine of divine decrees and efficacious grace, sets aside all moral obligation, and destroys the accountability of man. Jus- tification by such a species of faith as is not necessarily roductive of good works, and righteousness imputed to it, are the doctrines by which this class of professors are distinguished.—Jones’s Dict, of Relig. Opin. ; Neal's History of the Puritans, vol. vii.; Hornbeck's Sum. Controv. 800; Bellamy's Dialogues, Letters and Essays ; Mosheim's Church History, vol. v.; Works of A. Fuller; Works of R. Hall. ANTIOCH; a city of Syria, situated on both sides of the river Orontes, about twenty miles from the place where it discharges itself into the Mediterranean. There were formerly many cities which bore that name; but this was the metropolis of Syria, and indeed of all the East. It was built three hundred years before Christ, by Seleu- cus Nicanor, and named in honor of his father Antiochus. Seleucus built in the same country the city of Seleucia, named from himself; Apamea, from his wife Apama ; Lao- dicea, from his mother Laodice; and these three, together with Antioch, gave to that quarter of Syria the name of Tetrapolis, or the country of the four cities. The same name was afterwards given by Strabo to Antioch itself, be- cause it consisted of four distinct divisions, built at diffe- rent times, each surrounded with its own wall, but all inclosed by one common line of defence. By nature and art, says Dr. Wells, it was fortified even to admiration. It became the seat of empire of the Seleucidae, or Syrian kings of the Macedonian race, and afterwards of the Ro- man governors of the eastern provinces; being very cem- trally and commodiously situated, midway between Con- stantinople and Alexandria, about seven hundred miles from each, in thirty-seven degrees, seventeen minutes north latitude, and thirty-six degrees, forty-five minutes. east longitude. Indeed, for situation, magnitude, popu- lousness, and various other advantages, it ranked as the third city of the Roman empire, being inferior only to Rome and Alexandria. The city was almost square; it had many gates; its circumference exceeded twelve miles, and its population was not less than half a million of souls. The fertility of its soil; the richness of its local scenery; the beauty of its fountains; the magnificence of its temples; the sumptuousness of its palaces; the ex- tent of its commerce; and the learning, genius, and taste of its inhabitants, were celebrated throughout the world, and it was considered an honor to be one of its citizens. Hence Cicero, in his oration for the poet Archias, who was a na- tive of Antibch, introduces this fact in favor of his client, and commends the place of his birth as “a noble city, abounding in eminent men.” And there are still extant, medals of this city, which show that it was honored as a Roman colony, a metropolis and an asylum ; and that it was also Autonomos, or Ç this Greek word signifies) go- verned by its own laws.’ The greater part of the inhabitants were Greeks and Syrians; but Josephus says that many Jews also settled in it. The kings of Syria allowed the Jews the freedom of Antioch equally with the Grecks, so that their numbers increased exceedingly, and they were always bringing over a great many of the Greeks to their religious worship. . About one hundred and forty-five years before Christ, A. N. T. A N T [ 93 the inhabitants of Antioch were so exasperated by the li- centious and tyrannical conduct of their sovereign Deme- trius Nicator, that he applied to Jonathan, one of the Maccabees, for three thousand men, to keep his subjects in awe, and to compel them to deliver up their arms. This violent measure caused a general insurrection in the city. The citizens ran to arms, and, to the number of one hun- dred and twenty thousand, surrounded the place of their princé. All the Jews in Antioch hastened to his relief, dispersed the insurgents with fire and sword, and compell- ed the rest to submit and sue for pardon. Upon the re- duction of Syria by the Romans, Antioch fell under their dominion. It was besieged by the Parthians after the de- feat of Crassus, about fifty years before Christ; and it was one of the cities which declared for Caesar against Pompey. - Antioch was sometimes called Antiochia Epidaphne, and Antiochia apud Daphnem, to distinguish it from other cities of the same name. It derived its appellation from its neighborhood to Daphne, a village mentioned in the his- tory of the Maccabees, º Mac. 4. 33.) which stood about five miles from Antioch, and was accounted one of the suburbs of the city. Here Seleucus had planted an im- mense grove of laurels and cypresses, more than three miles in extent, in the centre of which was a temple dedi- cated to Apollo and Diana; the whole being consecrated as an asylum or sanctuary. To this place the inhabitants of Antioch were accustomed to resort for amusement, as the Romans did to Baie, and the Alexandrians to Canopus; but in process of time it was so much frequented by the votaries of Venus and Bacchus, rather than of Apollo and Diana, that it was avoided as infamous, by all who had any regard for their reputation. Here the worship, as among other idolatrous people in the awful recesses of caves and groves, was, alas! worthy of its object. Surround- ed by every thing that could minister to the senses, the ju- venile devotee wanted not the countenance of a libertine god to abandon himself to voluptuousness. Even those of riper years and graver morals could not, with safety, breathe the atmosphere of a place, where pleasure, assum- ing the character of religion, roused the dormant passions, and subdued the firmness of virtuous resolution. Hence Daphnicis moribus vivere, “to live after the manner of Daphne,” became a proverbial expression to denote the most dissolute course of life. It was, indeed, the general characteristic of the inhabitants of Antioch, in almost every period of their history, to live after this manner; and to this their voluptuous disposition, may be ascribed many of the calamities which befel this celebrated city, if not Indeed its final catastrophe. - . Such was Antioch in the time of the apostles. Yet in this most unpromising soil did Christianity take root. It has been already remarked, that the inhabitants were chiefly Greeks. To these, in particular, it appears from Acts 11: 20. certain Cypriot and Cyrenian converts, who had fled from the persecution which followed the death of Stephen, addressed themselves, “preaching the Lord Je- sus.” The humble and faithful labors of these persecuted men, were signally blessed in this idolatrous city; “and the hand of the Lord was with them: and a great num- ber believed and turned unto the Lord.” Mr. Jones is of opinion, however, that the Gospel had been previously in- troduced into this city, by the Jewish converts soon after the day of Pentecost. Should this opinion be admitted, (and it is not improbable,) this season must be regarded as a very great and glorious revival at Antioch; and ence arose one of the most illustrious of all the primitive Christian churches. When the apostles at Jerusalem were informed of the success of the Gospel in this populous capital of Syria, they sent Barnabas to aid the infant church. His coming was attended with the happiest re- sults; and so fast did the field expand, and the harvest ripen, that he was soon forced to solicit the assistance of Paul, who was then residing among his friends at Tarsus. By means of their joint labors the church was greatly en- larged, and this place became their future residence, the centre and rallying point of all their subsequent ministe- rial and missionary exertions. Here they were also join- ed by Peter; who, on one memorable occasion, for his un- reasonable concessions to the Jews, respecting the obser- and insecurity of Turkish subjects. vance of the ceremonial law, and consequent dissimulation, was firmly and publicly reproved by Paul, as putting to hazard the very substance of the glorious Gospel. Acts 15: 22–35. Gal. 2: 11–14. Antioch was the birth-place of St. Luke; and also of Theophilus, to whom his two books of the evangelical history were addressed. In this city, also, the name of Christians was first given, and as the original word indi- cates, by divine authority, to the followers of Christ; who before this were commonly styled Nazarenes, as being the followers of Jesus of Nazareth, a name by which the Jews in scorn call them to this day, with the same intent that the Gentiles of old were wont to call them Galileans. In the relief sent by this church to their suffering brethren in Judea, during the famine foretold by Agabus, which occur- red in the fourth or fifth year of Claudius, (as mentioned by Josephus, Eusebius and others,) we see the generous . overflowings of their Christian charity. Acts 11: 27–30. And we have the testimony of Chrysostom, both of the vast increase of this illustrious church in the fourth cen- tury, and of the spirit of charity which then continued to actuate it. It consisted, at this time, of not less than a hun- dred thousand communicants, three thousand, of whom were supported out of the donations of their brethren. - It is painful to trace the progress of declension in such a church as this, a church whose infancy was watched over by such a brilliant galaxy of eminent and inspired teachers, (Acts 13: 1.)—whose maturity was adorned by the character and writings of the most distinguished of the early martyrs, Ignatius, for many years its venerable pastor—and which flourished for three centuries with in- creasing vigor, under the fires of persecution ; yet from the age of Chrysostom, that is, from the close of the fourth century, must we date its decline and fall. It continued indeed outwardly prosperous; but superstition, secular ambition, and the pride of life; pomp and formality in the service of God, in the place of humility and sincere devotion; the decay of charity, and the growth of faction; showed that real religion was fast disappearing; and that the foundations were already laid of that great apostasy, which, in two centuries from this time, overspread the whole Christian world; led to the almost entire extinction of the church of the East; and still holds dominion over the fairest portion of the West. Antioch, under its modern name of Antaka, is now but little known to the western nations. It occupies, or rather did till lately occupy, a remote corner of the ancient in- closure of its walls. Its splendid buildings were reduced to hovels; and its population of half a million, to ten thousand wretched beings, living in the usual debasement Such was nearly its condition when visited by Pocock about the year 1738, and again by Kinnico, in 1813. But its ancient subterranean enemy, which, since its destruction in 587, never long to- gether withheld its tremendous assaults, has again tri- umphed over it. The earthquake of the 13th of August, 1822, laid it once more in ruins. The Jewish missionary, Wolfe, who was present at the awful scene, transmitted to his friends a most vivid description of this closing catastro- phe. Every thing relating to Antioch is now past.—Cal. met ; Wells ; Jones; Watson. ANTIOCH, of Pisidia; besides the Syrian capital, there was another Antioch, visited by St. Paul when in Asia, and called, for the sake of distinction, Antiochia ad Pisidiam, as belonging to that province, of which it was the capital. Here Paul and Barnabas preached; but the Jews, jealous, as usual, of the reception of the Gospel by the Gentiles, raised a sedition against them, and obliged them to leave the city. Acts 13: 14. to the end. There were several other cities of the same name, sixteen in number, in Syria and Asia Minor, built by the Seleucidae, the successors of Alexander in these countries; but the above two are the only ones which it is necessary to describe as occurring in Scripture.—Watson. ANTIOCHUS; there were many kings of this name in Syria, much celebrated in the Greek, Roman, and Jewish histories, after the time of Seleucus Nicanor, the father of Antiochus Soter, and reckoned the first king of Syria, after Alexander the Great. - I. ANTIOCHUS SOTER, was the son of Seleucus Nica- A N T A NT [94 | mor, and obtained the surname of Soter, or Savior, from having hindered the invasion of Asia by the Gauls. Some say it was on the following occasion : the Galatians hav- ing marched to attack the Jews in Babylon, whose army consisted only of eight thousand men, reinforced with four thousand Macedonians, the Jews defended themselves with so much bravery, that they killed one hundred and twenty thousand men, 2 Mac. 8:20. It was perhaps, too, on this occasion, that Antiochus Soter made the Jews of Asia free of the cities belonging to the Gentiles, and permitted them to live according to their own laws. *. II. ANTIOCHUS THEOS, or, the God; was the son and successor of Antiochus Soter. He married Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, Lao- dice, his first wife, seeing herself despised, poisoned Antio- chus, Berenice, and their son, who was intended to succeed in the kingdom. After this, Laodice procured Seleucus Callinicus, her son by Antiochus, to be acknowledged king of Syria. These events were foretold by Daniel: “And in the end of years,” the king of Egypt, or of the South, and the king of Syria, or of the north, “shall join them- selves together; for the king's daughter of the south shall come to the king of the north to make an agreement: but she shall not retain the power of the arm ; neither shall he stand, nor his arm ; but she shall be given up, and they that brought her, and he that begat her, and, he that strengthened her in these times.” Dan, 9: 6. III. ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT; was the son of Se- leucus Callinicus, and brother to Seleucus Ceraunus, whom he succeeded in the year of the world 3781, and before Jesus Christ 223. He made war against Ptolemy Philo- pator, king of Egypt, but was defeated near Raphia. 3 Mac. 1. Thirteen years after, Ptolemy Philopator, being dead, Antiochus resolved to become master of Egypt. He immediately seized Coelo-Syria, Phenicia, and Judea ; but Scopas, general of the Egyptian army, entered Judea while Antiochus was occupied by the war against Attalus, and retook those places. However, he soon lost them again to Antiochus. On this occasion happened what Josephus relates of this prince's journey to Jerusalem. After a victory which he had obtained over Scopas, near the springs of Jordan, he became master of the strong palaces in Coelo-Syria and Samaria; and the Jews sub- mitted freely to him, received him into their city, and fur- nished his army plentifully with provisions. In reward for their affection, Antiochus granted them, according to Josephus, twenty thousand pieces of silver, to purchase beasts for sacrifice, one thousand four hundred and sixty measures of meal, and three hundred and seventy-five measures of salt, to be offered with the sacrifices, and tim- ber to rebuild the porches of the Lord’s house. He ex- empted the Senators, scribes, and singing men of the tem- ple, from the capitation tax; and he permitted the Jews to live according to their own laws in every part of his dominions. He also remitted the third part of their tri- bute, to indemnify them for their losses in the war; he forbade the heathens to enter the temple without being purified, and to bring into the city the flesh of mules, asses, and horses to sell, under a severe penalty. . In the year of the world 3815, Antiochus was overcome by the Romans, and obliged to cede all his possessions beyond Mount Taurus, to give twenty hostages, among whom was his own Son Antiochus, afterwards surnamed Epiphanes, and to pay a tribute of twelve thousand Eu- boic talents, each fourteen Roman pounds in weight. To defray these charges, he resolved to seize the treasures of the temple of Belus, at Elymais; but the people of that country, informed of his design, surprised and destroyed him, with all his army, in the year of the world 3817, and before Jesus Christ 187. He left two sons, Seleucus Philopator, and Antiochus Epiphanes, who succeeded him. IV. ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES; the son of Antiochus the Great, having continued an hostage at Rome fourteen years, his brother Seleucus resolved to procure his return to Syria, and sent his own Son Demetrius to Rome in the place of Antiochus. Whilst Antiochus was on his jour- ney to Syria, Seleucus died, in the year of the world 3829. When therefore Antiochus landed, the people received him as some propitious deity come to assume the govern- ment, and to oppose the enterprises of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, who threatened to invade Syria. For this reason, Antiochus obtained the surname of Epiphanes, the illus. trious, or of one appearing like a god. Antiochus quickly turned his attention to the possession of Egypt, which was then enjoyed by Ptolemy Philometor, his nephew, son to his sister Cleopatra, whom Antiochus the Great had married to Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. He sent Appollonius, one of his officers into Egypt, apparently to honor Ptolemy's coronation, but in reality to obtain information whether the great men of the kingdom were inclined to place the government of Egypt in his hands during the minority of the king his nephew. 2 Mac. 4:21, &c. Appollonius, however found them not disposed to ſavor his master; and this obliged Antiochus to make war against Philometor. He came to Jerusalem in 3831, and was received there by Jason, to whom he had sold the high priesthood. He designed to attack Egypt, but returned without effecting any thing The ambition of those Jews who sought the high priest- hood, and bought it of Antiochus, was the beginning of those calamities which overwhelmed their nation under this prince. Jason procured himself to be constituted in this dignity, in the stead of Onias III. ; , but, Menelaus offering a greater price, Jason was deprived, and Menelaus appointed in his place. The usurpers of the high priest- hood, to gratify the Syrians, assumed the manners of the Greeks, their games and exercises, and neglected the wor- ship of the Lord, and the temple service. - War broke out between Antiochus Epiphanes and Ptolemy Philometor. Antiochus entered Egypt in the year of the world 3833, and reduced almost the whole of it to his obedience. 2 Mac. 5: 3–5. The next year he returned; and whilst he was engaged in the siege of Alexandria, a false report was spread of his death. The inhabitants of Jerusalem testifying, their joy at this news, Antiochus, when returning from Egypt, entered this city by force, treated the Jews as rebels, and commanded his troops to slay all they met. Eighty thousand were killed, made captives, or sold on this occasion, Antiochus, con- ducted by the corrupt high priest Menelaus, entered into the holy of holies, whence he took and carried off the most precious vessels of that holy place, to the value of one thousand eight hundred talents. . In the year 3835, Antiochus made a third expedition against Egypt, which he entirely subdued. The year following, he sent Appol- lonius into Judea, with an army of twenty-two thousand men, and commanded him to kill all the Jews who were of full age, to sell the women and young men. 2 Mac. 5: 24, 25. These orders were too punctually executed. It was on this occasion that Judas Maccabaeus retired into the wilderness with his father and his brethren. 2 Mac. 5: 29. These misfortunes were only preludes of what they were to suffer; for Antiochus, apprehending that the Jews would never be constant in their obedience to him, unless he obliged them to change their religion, and to embrace that of the Greeks, issued an edict, enjoining them to con- form to the laws of other nations, and forbidding their usual sacrifices in the temple, their festivals, and their Sabbath. The statue of Jupiter Olympus was placed upon the altar of the temple, and thus the abomination of deso- lation was seen in the temple of God. Many corrupt Jews complied with these orders; but others resisted them. Mattathias and his sons retired to the mountains. Old Eleazar, and the seven brethren, suffered death with great courage at Antioch. 2 Mac. 7. Mattathias being dead, Judas Maccabaeus headed those Jews who continued faith: ful, and opposed with success the generals whom king Antiochus sent into Judea. The king, inſormed of the valor and resistance of Judas, sent new forces; and, find- ing his treasures exhausted, he resolved to go into Persia to levy tributes, and to collect large sums which he had agreed to pay to the Romans. 1 Mac. 3: 5–31. 2 Mac. 9: 1, &c. 1 Mac. 6: 1, &c. Inowing that very great riches were lodged in the temple of Elymais, he determined to carry it off; but the inhabitants of the country made so vigorous a resistance, that he was forced to retreat towards Babylonia. When he was come to Ecbatana, he was in- formed of the defeat of Nicanor and Timotheus, and that Judas Maccabaeus had retaken the temple of Jerusalem, and restored the worship of the Lord, and the usual sa- A N T A Ni i [ 951 crifices. On receiving this intelligence, the king was transported with indignation; and threatening to make Jerusalem a grave for the Jews, commanded the driver of his chariot to urge the horses forward, and to hasten his journey. However, divine vengeance soon overtook him: he fell from his chariot and bruised all his limbs. He was also tormented with such pains in his bowels, as allowed him no rest; and his disease was aggravated by #. and vexation. In this condition he wrote to the ews very humbly, promised them many things, and en- gaged even to turn Jew, if God would restore him to health. He earnestly recommended to them his son Antio- chus, who was to succeed him, and entreated them to favor the young prince, and to continue faithful to him. He died, overwhelmed with pain and grief, in the moun- tains of Paratacene, in the little town of Tabes, in the year of the world 3840, and before Jesus Christ 164. W. ANTIOCHUS EUPATOR; son of Antiochus Epi- phanes, was only nine years old when his father died and left him the kingdom of Syria. Lysias, who governed the kingdom in the name of the young prince, led against Judea an army of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and thirty elephants. 1 Mac. 6. 2 Mac. 13. He besieged and took the fortress of Bethsura, and thence marched against Jerusalem. The city was ready to fall into his hands, when Lysias received the news that Philip, whom Antiochus Epiphanes had intrusted with the re- gency of the kingdom, had come to Antioch to take the government, according to the disposition of the late king. He therefore proposed an accommodation with the Jews, that he might return speedily to Antioch and oppose Philip. After concluding a peace, he immediately return- ed into Syria, with the young king and his army. In the mean time, Demetrius Soter, son of Seleucus Philopator, and nephew to Antiochus Epiphanes, to whom by right the kingdom belonged, having escaped from Rome, came into Syria. Finding the people disposed for revolt, Demetrius headed an army, and marched directly to Antioch, against Antiochus and Lysias. However, the inhabitants did not wait till he besieged the city; but opened the gates, and delivered to him Lysias and the young king Antiochus Eupator, whom Demetrius caused to be put to death, without suffering them to appear in his presence. Antiochus Eupator reigned only two years, and died in the year of the world 3842, and before Jesus Christ 162. ' VI. ANTIOCHUS THEOS, or the Divine; the son of Alexander Balas, king of Syria, was brought up by the Arabian prince Elmachuel, or, as he is called in the Greek, Simalcue. 1 Macc. 9:39, 40, &c. Demetrius Nicanor, king of Syria, having rendered himself odious to his troops, one Diodotus, otherwise called Tryphon, came to Zabdiel, a king in Arabia, and desired him to intrust him with young Antiochus, whom he promised to place on the throne of Syria, which was then possessed by Demetrius Nicanor. Aſter some hesitation, Zabdiel complied with the request; and Tryphon carried Antiochus into Syria, and put the crown on his head. The troops dismissed by Deme- trius, came and joined Tryphon, who, having formed a powerful army, defeated Demetrius, and forced him to re- treat to Seleucia. Tryphon seized his elephants, and ren- dered himself master of Antioch, in the year of the world 3859, and beſore Jesus Christ 145. Antiochus Theos, to strengthen himself in his new acquisition, sent letters to Jonathan Maccabaeus, high priest and prince of the Jews, confirming him in the high priesthood, and granting him four toparchies, or four considerable places, in Judea. He also received Jonathan into the number of his friends, sent him vessels of gold, permitted him to use a gold cup, to wear purple, a golden buckle; and he gave his brother, . Simon Maccabaeus, the command of all his troops on the coast of the Mediterranean, from Tyre to Egypt. Jona- than, engaged by so many favors, declared resolutely for Antiochus, or rather for Tryphon, who reigned under the name of this young prince; and, on several occasions, he attacked the generals of Demetrius, who still possessed many places beyond Jordan and in Galilee. 1 Macc. 11: 63, &c. 12: 24–34. Tryphon, seeing young Antiochus in peaceable possession of the kingdom of Syria, resolved to usurp his crown. He thought it necessary, in the first place, to secure Jonathan Maccabaeus, who was one of the most powerful supporters of Antiochus's throne. He came, therefore, with troops into Judea, invited Jonathan to Ptolemais, and there, on frivolous pretences, made him prisoner. However, Simon, Jonathan's brother, headed the troops of Judea, and opposed. Tryphon, who intendº ed to take Jerusalem. Tryphon, being disappointed, put Jonathan to death at Bassa or Bascama, and returned into Syria, where, without deláy, he executed his design of killing Antiochus. He corrupted the royal physicians, who, having published that Antiochus was tormented with the stone, murdered him, by cutting him without any me- cessity. Thus Tryphon was left master of Syria, in the year of the world 3861, and before Jesus Christ 143. VII. ANTIOCHUS SIDETES, or Soter the Savior, or Eusebes the pious; was the son of Demetrius Soter, and brother to Demetrius Nicanor. Tryphon, the usurper of the kingdom of Syria, having rendered himself odious to his troops, they deserted him, and offered their services to Cleo- patra, the wife of Demetrius Nicanor. She lived in the city of Seleucia, shut up with her children, while her husband Demetrius was a prisoner in Persia, where he had married Rodeguna, the daughter of Arsaces king of Persia. Cleo- patra, therefore, sent to Antiochus Sidetes, her brother-in- law, and offered him the crown of Syria, if he would marry her ; to which Antiochus consented. This prince was then at Cnidus, where his father, Demetrius Soter, had placed him with one of his friends. He came into Syria, and wrote to Simon Maccabaeus, to engage him against Tryphon. 1 Macc. 15: 1, 2, 3, &c. He confirmed the privileges which the kings of Syria had granted to Simon, permitted him to coin money with his own stamp, declared Jerusalem and the temple exempt from royal jurisdiction, and promised other favors as soon as he should obtain peaceable posses- sion of the kingdom which had belonged to his ancestors. Antiochus Sidetes having married his sister-in-law, Cleo- patra, in the year of the world 3865, the troops of Tryphon resorted to him in crowds. Tryphon, thus abandoned, re- tired to Dora, in Phoenicia, whither Antiochus pursued with an army of one hundred and twenty thousand foot, eight hundred horse, and a powerful fleet. Simon Macca- bacus sent Antiochus two thousand chosen men; but the latter refused them and revoked all his promises. He also Sent Athenobius to Jerusalem, to oblige Simon to restore to him Gazara and Joppa, with the citadel of Jerusalem; and to demand of him five hundred talents more, as repa- ration for the injuries the king had suffered, and as tribute for his own cities. . At the same time he threatened to make war upon him, if he did not comply. Simon show- ed Athenobius all the lustre of his wealth and power, told him he had in his possession no place which belonged to Antiochus, and said that the cities of Gazara and Joppa had greatly injured his people, and he would give the king for the property of them one hundred talents. Athenobius re- turned with great indigmation to Antiochus, who was ex- tremely offended at Simon's answer. In the mean time, Tryphon having escaped privately from Dora, embarked in a vessel and fled. Antiochus pursued him, and sent Cendebeus with troops into the maritime parts of Pales- tine, and commanded him to rebuild Cedron, and fight the Jews. John Hircanus, son of Simon Maccabaeus, was then at Gaza, and gave notice to his father of the coming of Cendebeus. Simon furnished his sons, John Hircanus and Judas with troops, and sent them against Ceridebeus, whom they routed in the plain, and pursued to Azotus, Antiochus followed Tryphon, till he forced him to kill himself in the year of the world 3869. After this, Antio. chus thought only of reducing to his obedience those cities which, in the beginning of his father's reign, had shaken off their subjection. Simon Maccabaeus, prince and high }. of the Jews, being treacherously murdered by tolemy, his son-in-law, in the castle of Docus, near Jeri. cho, the murderer immediately sent to Antiochus Sidetes to demand troops, that he might recover for him the coun- try, and cities of the Jews. Antiochus came in person with an army, and besieged Jerusalem, which was bravely defended by John Hircanus. The siege was long pro- tracted; and the king divided his army into seven parts, and guarded all the avenues of the city. It being the time for celebrating the feast of the tabernacles, the Jews A N T A N T [96] desired of Antiochus a truce for seven days. The king not only granted this request, but sent them bulls with gilded horns, and vessels of gold and silver filled with incense to be offered in the temple. He also ordered such provisions as they wanted, to be given to the Jewish sol- diers. This courtesy of the king so won the hearts of the Jews, that they sent ambassadors to treat of peace, and to desire that they might live according to their own laws. Antiochus required that they should surrender their arms, demolish the city walls, pay tribute for Joppa and the other cities they possessed out of Judea, and receive a garrison into Jerusalem. To these conditions, except the last, the Jews consented; for they could not be induced to see an army of strangers in their capital, and chose rather to give hostages and five hundred talents of silver. The king en- tered the city, beat down the breastwork above the walls, and returned to Syria, in the year of the world 3870, and before Jesus Christ 134, Three years after, Antiochus marched against the Persians, or Parthians, and demand- ed the liberty of his brother Demetrius Nicanor, who had been made prisoner long before by Arsaces, and was de- tained for the purpose of being employed in exciting a war against Antiochus. This war, therefore, Antiochus thought proper to prevent. With an army of eighty thousand, Or, as Orosius says, of one hundred thousand men, he marched towards Persia, and no sooner appeared on the frontiers of that country, than several eastern princes, de- testing the pride and avarice of the Persians, came and surrendered. Antiochus defeated his enemies in three engagements, and took Babylon. He was accompanied in these expeditions by John Hircanus, high priest of the Jews, who, it is supposed, obtained the surname of Hirca- nus from some gallant action which he performed. As the army of Antiochus was too numerous to continue assembled in any one place, he was obliged to divide it, to put it into winter quarters. These troops behaved with So, much insolence, that they alienated the minds of all men. The cities in which they were, privately surrender- ed to the Persians; and all resolved to attack, in one day, the garrison they contained, that the troops being sepa- rated might not assist each other. Antiochus at Babylon obtained intelligence of this design, and, with the few sol- diers about him, endeavored to succor his people. He was attacked in the way by Phrates, king of Persia, whom he fought with great bravery ; but being at length desert- ed by his own forces, according to the generality of histo- rians, he was overpowered and killed by the Persians or Parthians. Appian, however, says that he killed himself, and Ælian, that he threw himself headlong from a preci- pice. This event took place in the year of the world 3874, and before Jesus Christ 130. After the death of Si- detes, Demetrius Nicanor, or Nicetor, reascended the throne of Syria.--Watson. ANTIPAS, Antipas Herod, or Herod Antipas; was the son of Herod the Great, and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. Herod the Great, in his first will, declared him his successor in the kingdom ; but he afterwards named his son Archelaus king of Judea, and gave to Antipas only the title of te- trarch of Galilee and Peraea. Archelaus going to Rome, to persuade the emperor to confirm his father's will, Anti- pas also went thither. The emperor bestowed on Arche- laus one moiety of what had been assigned him by Herod, with the quality of ethnarch, and promised to grant him the title of king when he had shown himself deserving of it by his virtues. To Antipas Augustus gave Galilee and Peraea; and to Philip, Herod's other son, the Batanaea, Trachomitis, and Auranitis, with some other places. Antipas, returning to Judea, took great pains in adorn- ing and fortifying the principal places in his dominions. He married the daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia, whom he divorced about A. D. 33, that he might marry his sister- in-law, Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip, who was still living. , John the Baptist, exclaiming against this in- cest, was seized by order of Antipas, and imprisoned in the castle of Machaerus. Josephus says, that Antipas caused John to be taken, because he drew too great a con- course after him ; and Antipas was afraid he should use his influence over the people to induce them to revolt. But Josephus has reported the pretence for the true cause. The evangelists, who were better informed than Josephus, as being eye-witnesses of what passed, and particularly acquainted with John and his disciples, assure us, that the true reason of imprisoning John was the aversion of He- rod and Herodias against him, on account of his liberty in censuring their scandalous marriage. Matt. 14: 3, 4. Mark 6: 14, 17, 18. Luke 3: 19, 20. When the king was celebrating his birthday, with the principal persons of his court, the daughter of Herodias danced before them, and pleased him so welly that he swore to give her whatever she would ask. She consulted her mother, who advised her to ask the head of John the Baptist. Returning, therefore, to the hall, she addressed herself to the king, and said, “Give me here John the Baptist's head in a char. ger.” The king was afflicted at this request; but in con- sideration of his oath, and of the persons at table with him, he sent one of his guards, who beheaded John in prison. The head was brought in, and given to the young woman, who delivered it to her mother. Matt. 14: 5, 6, &c. Aretas, king of Arabia, to revenge the affront which He- rod had offered to his daughter, declared war against him, and vanquished him in a very obstinate contest. Jose. phus tells us, that the Jews attributed the defeat of Herod to the death of John the Baptist. In the year of the Christian era 39, Herodias, being jealous of the prosperity of her brother Agrippa, who, from a private person, had become king of Judea, persuaded her husband, Herod Antipas, to visit Rome, and desire the same dignity of the emperor Caius. , She resolved to accompany him, and hoped that her presence and appearance would contribute to procure the emperor's favor. However, Agrippa ob- taining intelligence of this design, wrote to the emperor, and accused Antipas. The messenger, of Agrippa arrived at Baiae, where the emperor was, at the very time when He- rod received his first audience. Caius, on the delivery of Agrippa's letters, read them with great earnestness. In these letters, Agrippa accused Antipas of having been a party in Sejanus's conspiracy against Tiberius, and said that he still carried on a correspondence with Artabanus, king of Parthia, against the Romans. As a proof of this, he affirmed that Antipas had in his arsenals arms for se- venty thousand men. Caius being angry, demanded hastily of Antipas, if it were true that he had such a quantity of arms. The king not daring to deny it, was instantly ba- nished to Lyons in Gaul. The emperor offered to forgive Herodias, in consideration of her brother Agrippa; but she chose rather to follow her husband, and to share his fortune in banishment. This is that Antipas, who, being at Jerusalem at the time of our Savior's passion, ridiculed Jesus whom Pilate had sent to him, dressed him in worn- out royalty, and sent him back to Pilate as a mock king, whose ambition gave him no umbrage. Luke 23: 7–11. The year of the death of Antipas is unknown ; but it is certain that he, as well as Herodias, died in exile. Jose- phus says, that he died in Spain, whither Caius, on his coming into Gaul the first year of his banishment, might Order him to be sent. II. ANTIPAS; the faithful martyr or witness mention- ed in the book of Revelation, 2: 13. He is said to have been one of our Savior's first disciples, and to have suffer- ed martyrdom at Pergamus, of which he was bishop. His acts relate that he was burnt in a brazen bull. Though ancient ecclesiastical history furnishes no account of this Antipas, yet it is certain, that according to all the rules of language, what is said concerning him by St. John must be understood literally, and not mystically, as some inter- preters have done.—Watson. ANTIPATRIS, to which Paul was escorted on his way from Jerusalem to Caesarea, (Acts 23: 31;) a town in the plain of Sharon, about twenty-three miles nearly south from Caesarea, and seven miles from the Mediterranean. Its distance from Jerusalem, by the Roman road through Gophna, the remains of which have lately been explored, is about thirty-eight miles. It was originally called Caphar Saba, and now ICeſr Saba.—T. ANTIPATHY ; hatred, aversion, repugnancy. Hatred is entertained against persons, aversion and antipathy against persons or things, and repugnancy against actions alone. Hatred is more voluntary than aversion, antipathy, or repugnancy: these last have greater affinity with the animal constitution. The causes of antipathy are less A. N. T. A PA [97 ) known than those of aversion. Repugnancy is less perma- ment than either the one or the other. We hate a vicious character; we feel an aversion to its exertions. We are affected with 2ntipathy for certain persons at first sight; there are some affairs which we transact with repugnancy. Hatred calumniates, aversion keeps us at a distance from certain persons. Antipathy makes us detest them; repug- nancy hinders us from imitating them.—Buck. ANTI-PEDOBAPTISTS; a denomination given to those who object to the baptism of infants. The word is deriv- ed from anti, against, pais, paidos, a child, and baptizo, I baptize. (See BAPTISM.) ANTIQUITIES; a term implying all testimonies or au- thentic accounts that have come down to us of ancient na- tions. As the study of antiquity may be useful both to the inquiring Christian, as well as to those who are em- ployed in, or are candidates for, the Gospel ministry, we shall here subjoin a list of those which are esteemed the most valuable.—Fabricii Bibliographia Antiquaria ; Spen- cer de Legibus Heb. Ritualibus ; Godmyn's Moses and Aaron ; Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church ; Jenning's Jennish Antiquities; Potter's and Harmood's Greek, and Ken- net's and Adams's Roman Antiquities ; Preface to the Prus- sian Testament, published by L'Enfant and Beausobre; Pri- deaux, and Shuckford's Connections; Jones's Asiatic Researches; Maurice's Indian Antiquities; and Jahn's Archaeology. ANTI-SABBATARIANS ; those who reject both the Jewish and the Christian Sabbaths. They argue—1. That the Jewish Sabbath was only of ceremonial, and not of moral obligation; being a type of that “rest which re- maineth for the people of God.”—2. That neither Christ nor his apostles enjoined the observation of another Sab- báth ;-but, 3. On the contrary, the apostles cautioned Christians against the “observance of days and times,” as of a dangerous and superstitious tendency. Directly opposed to these are Sabbatarians, who adhere rigidly to the original institution: when we have stated their reasonings under the latter denomination, we may endeavor to ascertain the Scripture doctrine on this impor- tant subject.—Williams. *~ ANTI-SUPERNATURALISTS; a term applied by Dr. J. P. Smith, to those who endeavor to subtract from the character of Christ, and of Christianity, every thing mira- culous and supernatural. (See INDEx to his “Scripture Testimonies to Messiah.”) ANTITACTAE; a party of Gnostics, in the second cen- tury, who are said to have observed the divine precepts by “the rule of reverse;” a charge which might, perhaps, with equal reason, be alleged against some modern Christians, so called, who seem to read all the divine prohibitions as the seventh command was once printed—“Thou shalt commit adultery;” “Thou shalt kill;” “Thou shalt steal;” &c. Other ecclesiastical writers, however, explain the terms somewhat differently, as believing two first princi- ples, a good and evil God, and placing them, antitacta, in opposition—as it were, in battle array—Turner's Hist. p. 61.-- Williams. ANTITHETIC-PARALLEL; an important rule of Biblical interpretation. (See Poetry of THE HEBREws.) ANTITALMUDISTS; the word applies generally to all, whether Jews or Christians, who reject and oppose the Talmud, as the Caraites, &c., which see; but it applies Fº to a small society of Jews, founded 1756, in Podolia, º Russia,) whose profession of faith was almost Christian ; who admitted that the Messiah was no longer to be expected; and that “it is possible that God became incarnate to expiate human sins,” and at length acknowledged Jesus for the Messiah, and desired baptism. Whether they received it, our authority does not say ; but they were protected by the king of Poland.—Gregoire's Hist. 2: 310–12. ; Han. Adams's Hist. of the Jews, pp. 527–8. ANTI-TRINITARIANS ; all who deny the doctrine of the Trinity, and who call themselves Unitarians, as admit- ting of only one person in the Deity. These may be conve- niently considered under four classes:–1, Sabellians, who maintain the Father, Son, and Spirit to be one in person as well as in essence.—2. Arians, who believe the person of Jesus to be in a sense divine, but not of the same essence with the Almighty Father.—3. Socinians, who consider our Lord to be only man, ; but still, considenng the high honors to which he is advanced, as entitled to a degree of divine worship. And 4. Humanitarians, who contend, that the Lord Jesus is a man only “like ourselves, fallible and peccable,” and entitled to no higher honor than that of a good man, a moral philosopher, and a prophet. Such were the sentiments of Dr. Priestley, and such are those of most Anti-trinitarians of the present day. (See the four principal denominations here named.)—Williams. - ANTITYPE ; that which answers to a type or figure. A type is a model, mould, or pattern; that which is form- ed according to it is an antitype. (See Type.) The word antitype occurs twice in the New Testament, viz. in the Epistle to the Hebrews, chap. 9: v. 24. and in the first Epistle of St. Peter, chap. 3: v. 21. where its genuine import has been much controverted. (See Answer of A Good conscience.) The former says, that “Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands, which are antitupa, the figures or antitypes of the true—now to ap- pear in the presence of God.” Now tupos signifies the pat- tern by which another thing is made ; and as Moses was obliged to make the tabernacle, and all things in it, accord- ing to the pattern shown him in the mount, the tabernacle so formed was the antitype of what was shown to Moses: any thing, therefore, formed according to a model or pat- tern, is an antitype —Buck. ANTI-UNIVERSALISTS. (See UNIVERSALISTs.) ANTONIA; a fortress in Jerusalem, on the north of the temple; so called by Herod, in honor of M. Antony. Here the Romans kept a garrison; and from thence it was that the tribune ran with his soldiers to rescue St. Paul out of the hands of the Jews, who had seized him in the tem- ple, and designed to have murdered him. Acts 21: 31, 32. ANTOSIANDRIANS ; a sect of rigid Lutherans who opposed the doctrine of Osiander relating to justification. These are otherwise denominated Osiandromastiges. The Antosiandrians deny that man is made just, with that jus- tice wherewith God himself is just ; that is, they assert that he is not made essentially but only imputatively just ; or that he is not really made just, but only pronounced so.-Buck. * ANXIETY; intense solicitude, the extreme of care. (See CARE.) Solicitude and anxiety as habits of the mind in re- lation to worldly things, and especially to providential events, yet future, are irreconcilable with the faith of a Christian, which requires him to cast all his burdens on the Lord. The charge of our Savior, Matt. 6: 25–34. literally rendered is, Be not anxious about your life; in- dulge no anxiety respecting the morrow, for sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof. I. APAMEA ; a city of Syria, on the Orontes, built, as is believed, by Seleucus I. king of Syria ; or by his son, Antiochus Soter, in honor of queen Apamea, wife of Se- leucus, and mother of Antiochus. It was probably the same with Shepham, a city of Syria. Numb. 34: 10, 11. —Calmet. - II. APAMEA ; a city of Phrygia, on the river Marsyas, near which, as some have been of opinion, Noah's ark rested; whence the city took the surname of (Kibotos) Ark. On a medal, struck in honor of Adriam, is the figure of a man, representing the river Marsyas, with this in- scription—A medal of the Apameans –the Ark and the ri- wer Marsyas. That this was one of the commemorative notices of the ark, and of the deluge, there is little doubt; but only in the sense, that traditionary shrines, or memo- rials of the ark, were here very ancient ; and that, jour- neying direct from Shinar, Babylon, or adjacent places, here one of the arks, commemorative of the original ark, rested and settled. That is, here the Arkite worship was commenced, before it spread over the neighboring country. In reference to the medal, we may add, that Strabo af. firms the ancient name of Apamea, to have been Kibotos; by which name the ark (probably of Noah) was under- stood. Kibotos is, apparently, not a Greek term: it might be the name of the temple, in which commemoration was made of the ark, and of the preservation of man by it. There are several medals of Apamea extant, on which are represented the ark, with a man in it, receiving the dove, which is flying to him ; and part of their inscription is the word Noe. As they are from different dies, yet all refer- 13 A P H A PO [ 98 ) ring to Apamea, it seems that their authors had a know- ledge of the tradition of commemoration respecting the ark, preserved in this city. (See ARK.) Many more >E such commemorations of an event, so greatly affecting mankind, were no doubt maintained for many ages, though we are now under great difficulties in tracing them. In fact, many cities boasted of these memorials, and re- ferred to them, as proofs of their antiquity. (See ARA- RAT.)—Calmet. APATHY, among the ancient philosophers, implied an utter privation of passion, and an insensibility of pain. The word is compounded of a, priv. and pathos, affection. The stoics affected an entire apathy; they considered it as the highest wisdom, to enjoy perfect calmness, or tran- quillity of mind, incapable of being ruffled by either plea- sure or pain. In the first ages of the church, the Chris- tians adopted the term apathy, to express a contempt of all earthly concerns; a state of mortification, such as the Gospel prescribes. Clemens Alexandrinus, in particular, brought it exceedingly in vogue, thinking thereby to draw' such philosophers to Christianity, who aspired after such a sublime pitch of virtue.—Buck. APE ; cephus, 1 Kings 10: 22. 2 Chron. 9. 21. This animal seems to be the same with the ceph of the Ethio- pians, of which Pliny speaks, 1. viii. c. 19: “At the games given by Pompey the Great,” says he, “were shown cephs, brought from Ethiopia, which had their fore feet like a human hand, their hind legs and feet, also, resembled those of a man.” The Scripture says, that the fleet of Solomon brought apes, or rather monkeys, &c. from Ophir. The learned are not agreed respecting the situa- tion of that country; but Major Wilford says, that the ancient name of the river Landi sindh, in India, was Co- hes. May it not have been so called, from the cephim in- abiting its banks? We now distinguish this tribe of creatures into, 1. Mon- keys, those with long tails; 2. Apes, those with short tails; 3. Baboons, those without tails. The ancient Egyptians are said to have worshipped apes; it is certain that they are still adored in many places in India. Maffeus dé. scribes a magnificent temple dedicated to the ape, with a portico for receiving the victims sacrificed, supported by seven hundred columns. Figures of apes are also madé and reverenced as idols, of which we have several in Moore's “Hindoo Pantheon;” also in the avatars, given in Maurice’s “History of India,” &c. . In some parts of the country, the apes are held sacred, though not resident in temples; and incautious English gentlemen, by at- tempting to shoot these apes, (rather, perhaps, monkeys,) have been exposed, not only to all manner of insults and vexations from the inhabitants of the villages, &c., adja- cent, but have even been in danger of their lives.—Wat- S07. APHEK. 1. A city of Mount Lebanon, in or near the land of the Giblites, (Josh. 13: 4,) assigned to the tribe of Asher, (Josh. 19: 30,) but not subdued by them, (Judges 1: .30;) probably the same afterwards called Apheca, and now Afka, nine miles east of Jebeil, the an- Clent Gebal, and twenty-three miles north-east of Beirãt. 2. A city near which Benhadad was defeated by the Israelites; probably, the Apheca of Eusebius, now Fik, on the road to Damascus, five miles east of the Sea of Galilee, over against Tiberias. 3. A city of Issachar, near Jezreel, where the Philistines encamped before the battle in which the ark was taken.—T. APIs; a symbolical deity, worshipped by the Egyp. tians. It was an ox, having certain exterior marks, in which animal the soul of the great Osiris was supposed to subsist. The ox was probably made the symbol of Osiris, because he presided over agriculture.—Watson. APOCALYPSE, signifies revelation. It is, however particularly applied to the Revelation which St. John had in the isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished. The testimonies in favor of the book of the Itevelation be- ing a genuine work of St. John the evangelist, are very full and satisfactory. Andrew, bishop of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, in the fifth century, assures us that Papias acknowledged the Revelation to be inspired. But the ear. liest author now extant, who mentions this book, is Justin Martyr, who lived about sixty years after it was written, and he ascribes it to St. John. So does lºaneus, whose evidence is alone sufficient upon, this point; for he was the disciple of Polycarp, who was the disciple of John himself; and he expressly tells us, that he had the explai. nation of a certain passage in this book from those who had conversed with St. John, the author. These two fa- thers are followed by Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus of Antioch, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Lactantius, Je- rome, Athanasius, and many other ecclesiastical writers, all of whom concur in considering the apostle John as the author of the Revelation. Some few persons, however, doubted the genuineness of this book, in the third and fourth centuries; but since that time, it has been very generally acknowledged to be canonical; and, indeed, as Mr. Lowman observes, “hardly any one book has receiv- ed more early, more authentic, and more satisfactory at- testations.” The omission of this book, in some of the early catalogues of the Scriptures, was probably not owing to any suspicion concerning its authenticity or genuine- ness, but because its obscurity and mysteriousness were thought to render it less fit to be read publicly and gene- rally. It is called the Revelation of John the Divine; and this appellation was first given to St. John by Eusebius, not to distinguish him from any other person of the same name, but as an honorable title, intimating that to him was more fully revealed the system of divine counsels than to any other prophet of the Christian dispensation. St. John was banished to Patmos, in the latter part of the reign of Domitian, and he returned to Ephesus imme. diately after the death of that emperor, which happened in the year 96; and, as the apostle states that these visions appeared to him while he was in that island, we may consider this book as written in the year 95 or 96. In the first chapter, St. John asserts the divine authori- ty of the predictions which he is about to deliver; ad- dresses himself to the churches of the Proconsular Asia; and describes the first vision, in which he is commanded to write the things then revealed to him. The second and third chapters contain seven epistles, to the seven churches in Asia; namely, of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thya- tira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, which relate chiefly to their then respective circumstances and situa- tion. At the fourth chapter, the prophetic visions begin, and reach to the end of the book. They contain a predic. tion of all the most remarkable revolutions and events in the Christian church, from the time of the apostle to the final consummation of all things. . An attempt to explain these prophecies does not fall within the design of this work; and, therefore, those who are disposed to study this sublime and mysterious book, are referred to Mede, Daubnitz, Sir Isaac Newton, Lowman, bishop Newton, bishop Hurd, and many other excellent commentators. These learned men agree, in their general principles, con- germing the interpretation of this book, although they dif. fºr in some particular points; and it is not to be expected, - that there should be a perfect coincidence of opinion, in the explanation of those predictions, which relate to still future times; for, as the incomparable Sir Isaac Newton observcs, “God gave these, and the prophecies of the Old Testament, not to gratify men's curiosity, by enabling them to foreknow things, but that after they were fulfilled, they might be interpreted by the event, and his own pre: science, not that of the interpreters, be then manifested A PO A PO [99] thereby to the world.” “To explain this book perfectly,” says bishop Newton, “is not the work of one man, or of one age; but probably it never will be clearly understood, till it is all fulfilled.” It is graciously designed, that the gradual accomplishment of these predictions should af. ford, in every succeeding period of time, additional testi- mony to the divine origin of our holy religion. The views of Eichhorn, Hug, and other German writers, as presented in Prof. Robinson's American edition of Cal- met, and apparently approved by him, are at utter vari- ance, not only with those of the distinguished writers mentioned above, but with all internal evidence and pro- bability. All the prophecies relative to the great apostasy in the church itself; the rise of Antichrist, and his reign of twelve hundred and sixty years, during which the true church is driven for refuge into the wilderness; the over- throw of Babylon being immediately followed by the millennium, and the millennium by the final judgment, and the final judgment by the new heavens and earth, and the state of retribution, which endure ſorever; af. ford a series of proofs, fatal to the German hypothe- sis of interpretation. It is deeply to be regretted, that Prof. Robinson has so rashly committed himself, and put the sanction of his valuable name to so wild a theory. Perhaps Mr. Keith, in his “Signs of the Times,” pub- lished in 1831, has thrown more true light on the series of prophetic symbols in this book, than any writer who has preceded him. See, also, Fuller's Expository Lectures on the Apocalypse. APOCARITES; a small sect in the third century, sprung from the Manichaeans, who held that the soul of man was of the essence of God. (See MANICHEANs.)— Williams. APOCRYPHA; books not admitted into the sacred canon, being either spurious, or at least not acknowledged to be divine. The word apocrypha is of Greek origin, and is either derived from the words apo tes kruptes, because the books in question were removed from the crypt, chest, ark, or other receptacle in which the sacred books were depo- sited, whose authority was never doubted, or, more proba- bly, from the verb apokrupto, to hide or conceal, because they were concealed from the generality of readers, their authority not being recognised by the church, and because they are books which are destitute of proper testimonials, their original being obscure, their authors unknown, and their character either heretical or suspected. The advo- cates of the church of Rome, indeed, affirm that some of these books are divinely inspired; but it is easy to ac- count for this : the apocryphal writings serve to counte- nance some of the corrupt practices of that church. The Protestant churches not only account those books to be apocryphal, and merely human compositions, which are esteemed such by the church of Rome, as the Prayer of Manasseh, the third and fourth books of Esdras, the ad- dition at the end of Job, and the hundred and fifty-first Psalm ; but also the books of Tobit, Judith, the additions to the book of Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the Prophet, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Song of the Three Children, the Story of Susanna, the Story of Bel and the Dragon, and the first and second books of Macca- bees. The books here enumerated are unanimously re- jected by Protestants, for the following reasons:— 1. They possess no authority whatever, either external or internal, to procure their admission into the sacred canon. None of them are extant in Hebrew ; all of them are in the Greek language, except the fourth book of Es- dras, which is only extant in Latin. They were written, for the most part, by Alexandrian Jews, subsequently to the cessation of the prophetic Spirit, though before the promulgation of the Gospel. Not one of the writers, in direct terms, advances a claim to inspiration ; nor were they ever received into the sacred canon by the Jewish church, and therefore they were not sanctioned by our Savior. No part of the apocrypha is quoted, or even al- luded to, by him, or by any of his apostles; and both Philo and Josephus, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, are totally silent concerning them. 2. The apocryphal books were not admitted into the canon of Scripture, during the first four centuries of the Christian church. They are not mentioned in the cata- logue of inspired writings, made by Melito, bishop of Sar. dis, who flourished in the second century, nor in those of Origen, in the third century, of Athanasius, Hilary, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Gregory Nazianzen, Amphilo- chius, Jerome, Rufinus, and others, of the fourth century; nor in the catalogue of canonical books recognised by the council of Laodicea, held in the same century, whose canons were received by the Catholic church; so that, as bishop Burnet well observes, we have the concurring sense of the whole church of God in this matter. To this decisive evidence against the canonical authority of the apocryphal books, we may add, that they were never read in the Christian church, until the fourth century; when, as Jerome informs us, they were read “for example of life and instruction of manners; but were not applied to establish any doctrine.” And contemporary writers state, that, although they were not approved as canonical or in- spired writings, yet some of them, particularly Judith, Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus, were allowed to be perused by catechumens. . As a proof that they were not regarded as canonical in the fifth century, Augustine relates, that when the book of Wisdom, and other writings of the same class, were publicly read in the church, they were given to the readers, or inferior ecclesiastical officers, who read them in a lower place than those which were universally acknowledged to be canonical, which were read by the bishops and presbyters, in a more eminent and conspicu- ous manner. To conclude: notwithstanding the venera- tion in which these books were held by the Romish church, it is evident that the same authority was never ascribed to them, as to the Old and New Testament, until the last council of Trent, at its fourth session, presumed to place them all, (except the Prayer of Manasseh, and the third and fourth books of Esdras,) in the same rank with the inspired writings of Moses and the prophets.- Watson. - APOCRYPHAL NEW TESTAMENT. A book has been lately, published, called “The Apocryphal New Testament,” the greater part of which consists of Wake's Epistles of the Fathers, some of which are curious; and the first Epistle of Clement, which is truly valuable, but has no claim to inspiration. The greater part of the work not in Wake is, however, only collected together under this name, with an obvious, though abortive, design to bring the genuine Scriptures into contempt.—Horne's (T. H.) Introduction to the Critical Study of the Scriptures, third ed. vol. iii. p. 687, ad finem; Williams. APOLLINARIANS, or Apollinarists, or, as they are called by Epiphanius, Dimaritae; a sect who derived their principal name from Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, in the fourth century. Apollinaris strenuously defended the divinity of Christ against the Arians; but, by indulging too freely in philosophical distinctions and subtleties, he denied, in some measure, his humanity. He maintained that the body which Christ assumed, was endowed with a sensitive, and not a rational, soul; and that the divine nature performed the functions of reason, and supplied the place of the intellectual principle in man. Hence it seem- ed to follow, that the divine nature in Christ was blended with the human, and suffered with it the pains of cruci- fixion and death. Apollinaris and his followers have been charged with other errors, by certain ancient writers; but it is not easy to determine how far their charge is worthy of credit. The doctrine of Apollinaris was first condemn- ed by a council at Alexandria, in 362, and afterwards, in a more formal manner, by a council at Rome, in 375, and by another council in 378, which deposed Apollinaris from his bishopric. In short, it was attacked at the same time by the laws of the emperors, the decrees of councils, and the writings of the learned, and sunk, by degrees, under their united force.—Watson. APOLLONIUS; a martyr of the second century. He was a Roman Senator, and was at once skilled in all the polite literature of those times, and in all the purest pre- cepts taught by our blessed Redeemer. He was indeed an accomplished gentleman and a sincere Christian. This man, being accused as a Christian, and refusing to recant his opinions, was condemned to be beheaded ; which sentence was executed on the 18th of April, 186. —Foz. A Po A PO [ 100 l APOLLOS, was a Jew of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus in the year of our Lord 54, during the absence of St. Paul, who had gone to Jerusalem. Acts 18:24. He was an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures; but he knew only of the baptism of John, and was not fully informed of the higher branches of Gospel doctrine. . However, he acknowledged that Jesus Christ was the Messiah, and declared himself openly as his disciple. At Ephesus, therefore, he began to speak boldly in the syna- gogue, and demonstrated by the Scriptures that Jesus was the Christ. Aquila and Priscilla, having heard him there, took him with them, and instructed him more fully in the ways of God. Some time after, he was inclined to go into Achaia, and the brethren wrote to the disciples there, de- siring them to receive him. He was very useful at Co- rinth, where he watered what St. Paul had planted. 1 Cor. 3: 6. It has been supposed, that the great admira- tion of his disciples for him, tended to produce a schism. Some said, “I am of Paul;” some, “I am of Apollos ;” and others, “I am of Cephas.” But this division, which St. Paul mentions and reproves, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, did not prevent Paul and Apollos, personally, from being closely united in the bonds of Christian charity and affection. Apollos, hearing that the apostle was at Ephesus, went to meet him, and was there when St. Paul wrote the first Epistle to the Corinthians; in which he ob- serves, that he had earnestly entreated Apollos to return to Corinth : but, though he had not prevailed with him, Apollos gave him room to hope that he would visit that city, at a favorable opportunity. Some have supposed, that the apostle names Apollos and Cephas, not as the real persons in whose name parties had been formed in Corinth, but that, in order to avoid provoking a temper which he wished to subside, he transfers, “by a figure,” to Apollos and himself, what was really meant of other #. whom, from prudence, he declines to mention. However this might be, the reluctance of Apollos to return to Corinth seems to countenance the general opinion. St. Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the di- vision which had happened on his account at Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zeno, a doctor of the law ; but that the evil having been corrected by the letter of St. Paul to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to that city, of which he afterwards became bishop. The Greeks say that he was bishop of Duras; some, that he was bishop of Iconi- um, in Phrygia ; and others, of Caesarea.— JWatson. APOLLYON. (See ABADDoN.) APOLOGIES, in ecclesiastical history, were defences (so the Greek word means) of Christianity, presented to heathen emperors, by the Christian fathers, who were therefore called Apologists. The first was presented to the emperor Adrian, by Quadratus, A. D. 126, a fragment of which is preserved by Eusebius; but another, present- ed soon after to the same, by Aristides, a converted Athe- nian philosopher, is totally lost. Justin Martyr wrote two apologies; the latter (to the Roman senate) is imperfect at the beginning; but the former, addressed to Antoninus Pius, is preserved entire, and was published in English, in 1709, by the Rev. W. Reeves, together with one by Tertullian, the Octavius (a dialogue) of Minucius Felix, and the Commentary of Vincentius Lirimensis, with notes and preliminary dissertations to each, in two volumes, oc- tavo. The Apologies are curious and valuable remains of antiquity, as showing what were the objections of the heathens, and the manner in which they were rebutted by the early Christians.—Watson. APOSTASY ; a forsaking or renouncing our religion, either by an open declaration in words, or a virtual decla. ration of it by our actions. The primitive Christian church distinguished several kinds of apostasy; the first, of those who went entirely from Christianity to Judaism; the second, of those who complied so far with the J ews, as to communicate with them in many of their unlawful ractices, without making a formal proſession of their re- igion; thirdly, of those who mingled Judaism and Chris- tianity together; and, fourthly, of those who voluntarily relapsed into paganism. Apostasy may be farther con. sidered as, 1. Original, in which we have all participated. Rom. 3: 23. 2. National, when a kingdom relinquishes the profession of Christianity. 3, Personal, when an indi- : vidual backslides from God. Heb. 10:38, 4. Final, when men are given up to judicial hardness of heart, as Judas. The warnings of our Lord against apostasy are frequent, and, beyond conception, fearful. Matt. 10: 28–39. It is hard to tell whether they were most needed in times of sanguinary persecution, or now, in times of seductive peace. (See BACKSLIDING.)—Buck. - APOSTLE: a word derived from the Greek apostello, to delegate, to send forth one as an agent, clothed with authority to act for another. Heb. 3: 1. The term apos- tle implies, 1. Selection. Acts 1:24, 9; 15. 2. Commis- sion. 2 Cor. 4: 7. 1 Thess. 2: 4. 3. Qualification. 2 Cor. 12: 12. 4. Mission. Acts 26:17, 18. 5. Responsi. bility. 1 Cor. 4: 1–5. 9:26, 27. 6. Recompense of fidelity. 2 Tim.4: 7,8. Hence we may understand why the Epistles of Paul open with the announcement of his apostolical authority. Though sometimes in the New Testament applied to others, and then rendered “messen- ger,” yet the first select ministers of Christ were, by way of eminence, termed apostles, in distinction from evange- lists, pastors, and teachers. There were several things essential to their office, such as, - 1. That they should have seen the Lord, and been eye and ear witnesses of what they testified to the world. John 15:27. This is laid down as an essential requisite, in the choice of one that was to succeed Judas. Acts 1: .. 21, 22. All of them could say, “that which we have seen and heard, declare we unto you.” 1 John 1: 3. The case of Paul is no exception to this; for, referring to those that saw Christ after his resurrection, he says, “And, last of all, he was seen of me.” 1 Cor. 15:8. And he men- tions this upon another occasion, as one of his apostolic qualifications. “Am I not an apostle ž Have I not seen the Lord?” 1 Cor. 9: 1. So that his seeing that Just One, and hearing the voice of his mouth, was necessary to his being a witness of what he thus saw and heard Acts 22: 14, 15. 2. They must have been immediately called and chosen to that office by Christ himself. This was the case with every one of them, Matthias not excepted; Luke 6: 13. Gal. 1: 1, for, as he had been previously chosen a disciple of Christ, so the Lord, by determining the lot, declared his choice, and immediately called him to the office of an apostle. Acts 1: 24–26. g 3. Infallible inspiration was also necessary to qualify persons for that office. John 16: 13. They had not only to explain the true sense and spirit of the Old Testament, but also to give forth the New Testament revelation to the world, which was to be the unalterable standard of faith and practice in all succeeding generations. Luke 24; 27. Acts 26:22, 23. and ch. 28:23. 1 Pet. 1:25. It was therefore necessary that they should be secured against all mistakes, by the unerring dictates of the Spirit of truth. Accordingly Christ both promised, and actually bestowed upon them, the Holy Spirit, to teach them all things; to bring all things to their remembrance, whatso- ever he had said unto them ; to guide them into all truth, and to show them things to come. John 16:13, 26. Their doctrine must also be received, not as the word of man but, as it truly is, the Word of God, 1 Thess. 2: 13 and as that by which we are to distinguish the spirit of truth from the spirit of error. J 1 John 4:6. 4. The power of working miracles was an important apostolical qualification; such as speaking diſſerent lan- guages, curing the lame, healing the sick, raising the dead, discerning of spirits, and conferring these gifts on others. Mark 16:20. Acts 2: 43. 1 Cor. 12:8–11. These were credentials of their apostolic mission, 2 Cor. 12: 11, by means of which they confirmed their doctrine, at its first publication, gaining credit to it as a revelation from God, who thereby bare witness to them. Heb. 2: 4. 5. To the apostles only belonged the high prerogative of conferring upon others spiritual gifts and miraculous powers. Acts 8. And to all these qualifications must be added, 6. The universality of their mission. Their charge was not, like that of ordinary pastors, restricted to any particular church; but, being the oracles of God to men, they had the care of all the churches. 2 Cor. 11; 28. They had authority to settle their faith and order, as ex A PO A PP | 101 amples to all succeeding churches, to determine all contro- versies, Acts 16:4. and to exercise the rod of discipline on all offenders, whether pastors or flock. 1 Cor. 5: 3–6. 2 Cor. 10:8, and ch. 13: 10. See M'Lean's Illustration of Christ's Commission to his Apostles, p. 8–11. St. Paul is frequently called the apostle, by way of emi- nence; and the apostle of the gentiles, because his ministry was chiefly employed for the conversion of the gentiles, as that of St. Peter was for Jews, who is therefore styled the apostle of the circumcision. The apostles having continued at Jerusalem twelve years after the ascension of Christ, as tradition reports, according to his command determined to disperse them. selves in different parts of the world. But what were the particular provinces assigned to each, does not certainly appear from any authentic history. Socrates says, that Thomas took Parthia for his lot; Matthew, Ethiopia; and Bartholomew, India. Eusebius gives the following ac- count: “Thomas, as we learn by tradition, had Parthia for his lot; Andrew, Scythia ; John, Asia, who having lived there a long time, died at Ephesus. Peter, as it seems, preached to the dispersed Jews in Pontus and Ga- latia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia; at length, coming to Rome, he was crucified with his head downward, as he had desired. What need I to speak of St. Paul, who fully preached the Gospel of Christ, from Jerusalem to Illyri- cum, and at last died a martyr at Rome, in the time of Nero?” From this passage we may conclude, that at the beginning of the fourth century, there were not any cer- tain and well attested accounts of the places, out of Judea, in which several of the apostles of Christ preached; for if there had, Eusebius must have been acquainted with them. The stories that are told concerning their arrival and exploits among the Gauls, the English, the Spaniards, the Germans, the Americans, the Chinese, the Indians, and the Russians, are too romantic in their nature, and of too recent a date, to be received by an impartial inquirer after truth. These fables were, for the most part, forged after the time of Charlemagne, when most of the Christian churches contended about the antiquity of their origin, with as much vehemence as the Arcadians, Egyptians, and Greeks, disputed formerly about their seniority and precedence. It appears, however, that all of the apostles did not die by martyrdom. Heraclion, cited by Clemens Alexandri- nus, reckons among the apostles who did not suffer mar- tyrdom, Matthew, Thomas, Philip, and Levi, probably meaning Lebbeus. To the apostles belonged the peculiar and exclusive pre- rogative of writing doctrinal and preceptive books of au- thority in the Christian church; and it sufficiently appears that no epistles, or other doctrinal writings, of any person who was of a rank below that of an apostle, were received by Christians, as a part of their rule of faith. With re- spect to the writings of Mark and Luke, they are reckoned historical, not doctrinal or dogmatical ; and Augustine says, that Mark and Luke wrote at a time when their writings might be approved not only by the church, but by apostles still living.—Williams ; Watson; Jones. APOSTLES CREED. (See CREED.) APOSTOLIC; apostolical ; something that relates to the apostles, or descends from them. Thus we say, the apostolic age, apostolic doctrine, apostolic character, consti- tutions, traditions, &c.—Buck. APOSTOLIC CHURCH, in the primitive church, was an appellation given to all such churches as were founded by the apostles; and even to the bishops of those churches, as being the reputed successors of the apostles. These were confined to four, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. In after times, the other churches as- sumed the same quality, on account, principally, of the conformity of their doctrine with that of the churches which were apostolical by foundation, and because all bishops held themselves successors of the apostles, or act- ed in their dioceses with the authority of apostles. The first time the term apostolical is attributed to bish- ops, as such, is in a letter of Clovis to the council of Or- leans, held in 511, though that king does not there ex- pressly denominate them apostolical, but (apostolica sede dignissimi) highly worthy of the apostolical see. In 581, Guntram calls the bishops met at the council of Macon, apostolical poſitiffs, apostolic; pontifices. In progress of time, the bishop of Rome, growing in power above the rest, and the three patriarchates, of Al, exandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, falling into the hands of the Saracens, the title apostolical was restrained to the pe and his church alone; though some of the popes, and St. Gregory the Great, not contented to hold the title by this tenure, began, at length, to insist that it belonged to them by another and º right, as being the suc- cessors of St. Peter. e country of Rheims, in 1049, declared that the pope was the sole apostolical primate of the universal church. And hence a great number of apos- tolicals; apostolical see, apostolical nuncio, apostolical motá. ry, apostolical brief, apostolical chamber, apostolical vicar, &c. The only really apostolic church is that, (be it found where it may,) which accords throughout with the divine model prescribed in the New Testament.—Buck. APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ; a collection of regulations, attributed to the apostles, and supposed to have been collected by St. Clement, whose name they likewise bear. It is the general opinion, however, that they are spurious, and that St. Clement had no hand in them. They appeared first in the fourth century, but have been much changed and corrupted since. There are so many things in them different from, and even con- trary to, the genius and design of the New Testament wri- ters, that no wise man would believe, without the most con- vincing and irresistible proof, that both could come from the same hand.—Grabe's Ansnver to Whiston ; Saurin’s Ser. vol. ii. p. 185; Lardner's Cred. vol. iii. p. 11. ch. ult. ; Doddridge's Lect. lect. 119.—Buck. APOSTOLIC FATHERS ; an appellation usually given to the Christian writers of the first century, Barna- bas, Hermas, Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Of these writers, Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, have published a collection, in two volumes, accompanied both with their own annotations, and the remarks of other learned men. See also the genuine epistles of the apostolic fathers, by archbishop Wake, and in the Apocryphal New Testament. —Buck. * APOSTOLICS; this name has been given to different persons and sects, who have attempted, or, at least, pro- fessed, to imitate the zeal of the apostles.—Williams. APOSTOOLIANS; a small party of Mennonites, the followers of one of their ministers, Samuel Apostool, of Am- sterdam, in the seventeenth century. They appear to have been Calvinists and Millenarians in sentiment, and strict in their terms of communion. (See GALENISTs and MENNoNITEs.)—Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. v. pp. 496—7. — Williams. APOTACTICS, or ApotActiTe; the first and purest sect of the Apostolics, who stand charged with no heresy, but with imitating the manners of the first age in austerity, and particularly, in renouncing all worldly professions, and having all things in common. They were of the second century, and chiefly in Cilicia and Pamphylia.-- Ency. Britannica. APPAREL. (See HABIT, RAIMENT, ADoRNING...) APPEAL ; a legal term, denoting a request for the transfer of a cause from one judge to another, or from an inferior to a superior tribunal. The Sempronian law se- cured this privilege to the Roman citizens, that they could not be capitally convicted, but by the suffrage of the peo- ple; and in whatever provinces they happened to reside, iſ the governor showed a disposition to condemn them to death, to scourge, or deprive them of their property, they had liberty to appeal from his jurisdiction, to the judgment of the people. This law, which was enacted under the republican form of government, continued in force under the emperors; so that if any freeman of Rome thought himself ill used and aggrieved by the presidents, in any of the provinces, he could, by appeal, remove his cause to Rome, to the determination of the emperor. A number of persons, we are told, were delegated by Augustus, all of consular rank, to receive the appeals of the people in the provinces. Thus Paul, (Acts 25: 11, 12.) when he found that Festus was too much inclined to favor the pre- judiced populace of Judea, to do full justice to his cause, or deliver him from the lawless fury of his enemies, stood A PP A P P [ 102 ) upon his rights as a Roman citizen, and said, I appeal un- to Caesar. So, if at any time unjustly condemned on earth, it is consoling to reflect that we can appeal with confidence of redress, to the judgment seat of Christ. Rom. 14: 10. 1 Cor. 4: 3—5. 2 Thess. 1: 6–10. But lf condemned there, by Eternal Justice, where can we ap- peal? 1 Pet. 4: 18. - APPETITES; properly, those keen sensations of bodi- ly want, which, without reference to any specific object, arise from the constitution of our nature, and prompt mankind, by some means, to seek supply or relief. There is a material difference between the appetites and the pas- sions. The passions have no existence, till a proper ob- ject is presented; whereas, the appetites exist first, and then are directed to an object. A passion comes after its object ; an appetite goes before it, as is obvious in the ap- petites of hunger, thirst, and the like. A man has an appetite for food in general; he has a passion for some particular kind of food. Though the appetites, properly speaking, belong to the body, yet the word is sometimes, by a beautiful analogy, transferred from the animal inclinations and impulses, to the affections of the mind. But, in such cases, it always denotes some strong general affection. Thus we speak of an appetite for knowledge, for fame, for conquest, for riches; these being general objects, comprehending many particulars. But when we speak of an attachment to a particular book, friend, and so on, we call it a passion. ut we rarely apply either of these terms, except to very urgent and impatient desires. It is to desires of this strong, irrepressible, and even painful character, that our Savior refers in that beautiful passage, “Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness; for they shall be filled.” Matt. 5: 6. See also many other places, as John 4: 14. 7: 37. Rev. 22: 17. Our appetites and passions were given us for our pre- servation, protection, and improvement; and also for the continuance of the human race. Giving scope to them for these purposes only, is free from guilt. But all ex- cess, as well as all perversion of them from these objects, is evidently sinful, and that according to the degree in which it is indulged. Therefore, says the apostle, “I keep under my body, and bring it into subjection,” &c. 1 Cor. 9: 27.—Lord Kaimes ; Oliver. APPII FORUM ; a place about fifty miles from Rome, near the modern town of Piperno, on the road to Naples. It probably had its name from the statue of Appius Clau- dius, a Roman consul, who paved the famous way from Rome to Capua, and whose statue was set up here. To this place some Christians from Rome came to meet St. Paul. Acts 28: 15.- Watson. . APPLETON, (NATHANIEL, D. D. ;) minister of Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, was born at Ipswich, December 9, 1693. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1712. After completing his education, an opportunity presented of entering into commercial business, on very advantageous terms, with an uncle in Boston, who was an opulent mer- chant; but he resolved to forego every worldly advantage, that he might promote the interest of the Redeemer's kingdom. Soon after he began to preach, he was invited to succeed Mr. Brattle in the ministry at Cambridge, and was ordained October 9, 1717. After a ministry of more than sixty-six years, he died February 9, 1784, in the ninety-first year of his age. This country can furnish few instances of more useful talents, and more exemplary piety, exhibited for so long a time, and with such great success. During his ministry, seven hundred and eighty- four persons were admitted members of the church. In controversial and difficult cases, he was often applied to for advice at ecclesiastical councils. Impartial yet pa- cific, firm yet conciliatory, he was peculiarly qualified for a counsellor, and in that character he materially contri- buted to the unity, the peace, and order of the churches. With the wisdom of the serpent, he happily united the in- nocence of the dove. In his religious principles, he was a Calvinist, as were all his predecessors in the ministry, Hooker, Stone, Shepard, Mitchel, Oakes, Gookin, and Brattle. But towards those of different principles, he was candid and catholic. His own example enforced the duties which he enjoined * & r & * * º, - g * t- ºr * , *e • : • * © e.” : : : tº * @ upon others. He was humble, meek, and benevolent, He was ready, at all times, to relieve the distressed, and through life he devoted a tenth part of his whole income to pious and charitable uses. He was ever a firm friend to the civil and religious liberties of mankind, and was happy in living to see the establishment of peace and in- dependence in his native land. He deserves honorable remembrance, for his exertions to send the Gospel to the Indians. Under his many heavy trials, he was submis- sive and patient. When his infirmities had, in a great measure, terminated his usefulness, he expressed his de- sire to depart and be with Christ. He at length calmly resigned his spirit into the hands of its Redeemer. His publications consist only of sermons.—Allen's Biog. Duct. APPLETON, (Jesse, D. D.;) the second president of Bowdoin college, was born at New Ipswich, in the state of New Hampshire, November 17, 1772. President Ap- pleton was graduated at Dartmouth, college, in 1792. It was during his residence at that seminary, that he expe- rienced deep religious impressions; yet of any precise period, when his heart was regenerated by the Spirit of God, he was not accustomed to speak. The only safe evi- dence of piety, he believed, was “the perception in him- self of those qualities, which the Gospel requires.” Hav- ing spent two years in the instruction of youth, at Dovor and Amherst, he studied theology under Dr. Lathrop, of West Springfield. In February, 1797, he was ordained as the pastor of a church at Hampton, New Hampshire. His religious sentiments, at this period, were Arminian. Much of his time, during his ten years' residence in that town, was devoted to systematic, earnest study, in conse- quence of which, his sentiments assumed a new ſorm. By his faithful, affectionate services, he was very much endeared to his people. At his suggestion, the Piscataqua Evangelical Magazine was published, to which he con- tributed valuable essays, with the signature of Leighton. Such was his public estimation, that, in 1803, he was one of the two principal candidates for the professorship of theology at Harvard college; but Dr. Ware was elected. In 1807, he was chosen president of Bowdoin college, in- to which office he was inducted December 23. Aſter the toils of ten years in this station, his health became much impaired, in consequence of a severe cold, in October, 1817. In May, 1819, his illness became more alarming, his complaints being a cough, hoarseness, and debility. A journey proved of no essential benefit. A profuse hemorrhage, in October, extinguished all hope of recovery. As the day of his dissolution approached, he remarked, “Of this I am sure, that salvation is all of grace. I would make no mention of any thing, which I have ever thought, or said, or done ; but only of this, that God so loved the norld, as to give his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him, should not perish, but have everlasting life. The atonement is the only ground of hope.” In health, he was sometimes anxious, in a high degree, in regard to the college ; but in his sickness he said, in cheerful confi- dence, “God has taken care of the college, and God will take care of it.” Among his last expressions, were heard the words, “ Glory to God in the highest : the whole earth shall be filled with his glory.” He died November 12, 1819, at the age of forty-seven, having been president nearly twelve years. - X- In 1820, a volume of his addresses was published, con- taining his inaugural address and eleven annual ad- dresses, with a sketch of his character, by Rev. Dr. Nich- ols, of Portland. In 1822, his lectures and occasional sermons were published, in one volume, with a memoir of his life, by Rev. Benjamin Tappan, of Augusta. The subjects of these lectures, twenty-seven in number, are the necessity of revelation, human depravity, the atone- ment, regeneration, the eternity of future punishment, the resurrection of the body, and the demoniacs of the New Testament. - The sermons are on the immortality of the soul, the in- fluence of religion on the condition of man, the evils of war and the probability of universal peace, the truth of Christianity from its moral effects, conscience, and conse- quences of neglecting the great salvation.—Allen. J APPLE-TREE ; Prov. 25: 11. Cant. 2: 3, 5. 7: 8, 8: 5. Joel 1: 12. As the best apples of Egypt, though ordinary, A PP A Q U I 103 ] are brought thither by sea from Rhodes, and by land from Damascus, we may believe that Judea, an intermediate country between Egypt and Damascus, has none that are of any value. Can it be imagined, then, that the apple- trees of which the prophet Joel speaks, 1: 12, and which he mentions among the things that gave joy to the inhabi- tants of Judea, were those that we call by that name? Our translators must surely have been mistaken here, since the ; which the inhabitants of Judea eat at this day are of foreign growth, and at the same time but very indifferent. There are five places, besides this in Joel, in which the word occurs; and from them we learn that it was thought the noblest of the trees of the wood, and that its fruit was very sweet or pleasant, Cant. 2: 3.; of the color of gold, Prov. 25: 11.; extremely fragrant, Cant. 7: 8.; and proper for those to smell that were ready to faint, Cant. 2: 5. We may be sure that the taphuach was very early known in the holy land, as it is mentioned in the book of Joshua as having given name to a city of Manasseh and one of Ju- dah. Several interpreters and critics render Levit. 23: 40. branches of fruit, of the beautiful tree; and understand it of the citron ; and it is known that the Jews still make use of the fruit of this tree at their yearly feast of tabernacles. Citron-trees are very noble, being large, their leaves beautiful, ever continuing on the trees, of an exquisite smell, and affording a most delightful shade. It might well, therefore, be said, “As the citron-tree is among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons.” This is a delicate compliment, comparing the fine appear- ance of the prince, amid his escort, to the superior beauty with which the citron-tree appears among the ordinary trees of the forest; and the compliment is heightened by an allusion to the refreshing shade and the exhilarating fruit. The exhilarating effects of the fruit are mentioned Cant. 2: 5., “Comfort me with citrons.” Egmont and Heyman tell us of an Arabian who was in a great measure brought to himself, when overcome with wine, by the help of citrons and coffee. - To the manner of serving up these citrons in his court, Solomon seems to refer, when he says, “A word fitly spo- ken is like golden citrons in silver baskets:” whether, as Maimonides supposes, in baskets wrought with open work, or in salvers curiously chased, it nothing concerns us to determine; the meaning is, that an excellent saying, suita- bly expressed, is as the most acceptable gift in the fairest conveyance. So the rabbins say, that the tribute of the first ripe fruits was carried to the temple in silver baskets. —Watson. APPLICATION, is used for the act whereby our Sa- vior transfers or makes over to us what he had earned or purchased by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this application of the merits of Christ that we are to be justified and entitled to grace and glory. Application is also used for that part of a sermon in which the preacher brings home or applies the truth of religion to the consciences of his hearers. (See SERMon.) —Buck. APPREHEND; in the language of Scripture, this word is peculiarly significant. Paul the apostle best explains it, when he saith, “I follow after, if that I may apprehend that, for which also I am apprehended of Christ Jesus.” Phil. 3: 12. That is, that by faith, I may be enabled to lay hold of heavenly glory, as the Lord by grace hath laid hold of me, to prepare me for it. APPROBATION ; a state or disposition of the mind, wherein we put a valueupon, or become pleased with some person or thing. Moralists are divided on the principle of approbation, or the motive which determines us to approve or disapprove. The Epicureans will have it to be only self-interest; according to them, that which determines any agent to approve his own action, is its apparent ten- dency to his private happiness; and even the approbation of another's action flows from no other cause but an opinion of its tendency to the happiness of the approver, either immediately or remotely. Others resolve approbation into a moral sense, or a principle of benevolence, by which we are determined to approve every kind affection, either in ourselves or others, and all publicly useful actions which we imagine to flow from such affections, without any view therein to our own private happiness. But may we not add, that a true Christian's approbation arises from his perception of the will of God? (See OBLI. GATION.)—Buck. - APPROPRIATION ; the annexing a benefice to the proper and perpetual use of some religious house. It is a term also often used in the religious world as referring to that act of the mind by which we apply the blessings of the Gospel to ourselves. This appropriation is real when we are enabled to believe in, feel, and obey the truth; but merely nominal and delusive when there are no fruits of righ- teousness and true holiness. (See Assur ANCE.)—Buck, APRIES; a king of Egypt, called in the sacred wri- tings Pharaoh Hophrah, Jer. 44; 30. Apries was the son of Psammis, and grandson of Necho, or Nechao, who waged war against Josiah, king of the Jews. He reigned twenty-five years, and was long considered as one of the happiest princes in the world; but having equipped a fleet for the reduction of the Cyrenians, he lost in this expedi- tion almost the whole of his army. The Egyptians resolv- ed to make him responsible for this ill success, rebelled, and pretended that he undertook the war only to get rid of his subjects, and that he might govern the remainder more absolutely. Apries deputed Amasis, one of his officers, to suppress the rebellion, and induce the people to return to their allegiance. But, while Amasis was haranguing them, one of the multitude placed a diadem about his hel- met, and proclaimed him king. The rest applauded him ; and Amasis, having accepted their offer, continued with them, and confirmed them in their rebellion. Amasis put himself at the head of the rebels, and marched against Apries, whom he defeated and took prisoner. Amasis treated him with kindness; but the people were not satis- fied till they had taken him from Amasis and strangled him. Such was the end of Apries, according to Herodotus. Jeremiah threatened this prince with being delivered into the hands of his enemies, as he had delivered Zedekiah, king of Judah, into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. - Apries had made a league with Zedekiah, and promised him assistance. Ezek. 17: 15. Zedekiah, therefore, relying on his ſorces, revolted from Nebuchadnezzar, in the year of the world 3414, and before Jesus Christ 590. Early in the year following, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Ze- dekiah ; but as other nations of Syria had shaken off their obedience, he first reduced them to their duty, and towards the end of the year besieged Jerusalem. 2 Kings 25: 5. 2 Chron. 36:17. Jer. 39: 1. ; 52: 4. Zedekiah defend- ed himself in Jerusalem, long and obstinately, that he might give time to Pharaoh Hophrah, or Apries, to come to his assistance. Apries advanced with a powerful army, and the king of Babylon raised the siege, and marched to meet him. But Apries, not daring to hazard a battle against the Chaldeans, retreated into Egypt, and abandoned Zede- kiah. Ezekiel reproaches Egypt severely with this base- ness, and says that it had been a staff of reed to the house of Israel, and an occasion of falling ; for when they took hold of it by the hand, it broke and rent all their shoulder. He therefore prophesies that Egypt should be reduced to a solitude, and that God would send against it the sword, which would destroy in it man and beast. Ezek. 29: This was afterwards accomplished; first, in the time of Apries; and secondly, in the conquest of Egypt by the Persians.—Watson. AQUARIANS ; water-drinkers, a branch of the Encra- tites, who carried their aversion to wine so far, that they substituted water in the holy communion, though some refused it only in their morning communions. It is well known that the ancient Christians mingled water with their wine for sacred use, partly, perhaps, from economy, and partly from sobriety; but Cyprian gives a mystical reason—because the wine and water represents Christ and his people united. (See ENCRATITEs.)—Heckford's Account of all Religions, p. 375; Williams. AQUATICS; an ancient sect, who, according to Au- gustine, maintained water to be uncreated and eternal; probably adopting the philosophical system of Thales— that water was the first principle of all things.-Augustine, cent. ii, cap. 75; Stockman's Lexicon ; Williams. A R A A. R. A. | 104 | . AQUILA; this person was a native of Pontus in Asia Minor, and was converted by St. Paul, together with his wife Priscilla, to the Christian religion. As Aquila was by trade a tent-maker, Acts 18: 2, 3, as St. Paul was, the apostle lodged and wrought with him at Corinth. Aquila came thither, not long before, from Italy, being obliged to leave Rome upon the edict which the emperor Claudius had published, banishing the Jews from that city. St. Paul afterwards quitted Aquila’s house, and abode with Justus, near the Jewish synagogue at Corinth ; probably, as Calmet thinks, because Aquila was a converted Jew, and Justus was a convert from paganism, that in this case the Gentiles might come and hear him with more liberty. When the apostle left Corinth, Aquila and Priscilla accom- panied him as far as Ephesus, where he left them with that church while he pursued his journey to Jerusalem. They rendered him great service in that city, so far as to expose their own lives to preserve his. They had returned to Rome when St. Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans, 16: 4. wherein he salutes them with great kindness. Lastly, they were come back to Ephesus again, when St. Paul wrote his second Epistle to Timothy, 4: 19. wherein he desires him to salute them in his name. What became of them after this time is not known. AQUINAS, (THOMAs;) a celebrated theologian, to whom the hyperbolical admiration of the dark ages gave the sounding titles of the angelical doctor, the fifth doctor of the church, the eagle of divines, and the angel of the schools. He was descended from the counts of Aquiro, in Calabria, born in 1224, and educated at the university of Naples. At the age of seventeen he entered into the Do- minican order, contrary to the wishes of his mother; and when only twenty-four, he taught dialectics, philoso- phy, and theology in the university of Paris, with great applause. After having lectured on divinity in several universities, he settled at Naples, the archbishopric of which city he refused. He died in 1274, and was canon- ized in 1323. The Roman Catholic Church considers his writings as of high authority; and they gave rise to a sect which bore the name of Thomists. volumes; the most celebrated of them is the Summa Theologiae.—Davenport. AR, the capital of Moab, on the hills, six miles east of the Dead Sea, and eight miles south of the river Arnon. It was also called Rabba, and Rabbath Moab, to distin- guish it from Rabbah of Ammon. Still later, it was called Areopolis, and now Rabba. It is in ruins.—T. ARABAH, the Plain. (See PLAIN.) ARABIA ; a vast country of Asia, extending one thou- Sand five hundred miles from north to south, and one thousand two hundred from east to west; containing a surface equal to four times that of France. The near approach of the Euphrates to the Mediterranean consti- tutes it a peninsula, the largest in the world. It is called Jezirat-el-Arab by the Arabs ; and by the Persians and Turks, Arebistan. This is one of the most interesting countries on the face of the earth. It has, in agreement with prophecy, never been subdued; and its inhabitants, at once pastoral, commercial, and warlike, are the same wild, wandering people as the immediate descendants of . great ancestor Ishmael are represented to have €611. - - Arabia, or at least the eastern and northern parts of it, were first peopled by some of the numerous families of Cush, who appear to have extended themselves, or to have given their name, as the land of Cush, or Asiatic Ethiopia, They form seventeen to all the country from the Indus on the east, to the borders of Egypt on the west, and from Armenia on the north to Arabia Deserta on the south. By these Cushites, whose first plantations were on both sides of the Euphrates and gulf of Persia, and who were the first that traversed the desert of Arabia, the earliest commercial communications were established between the east and the west. But of their Arabian territory, and of the occupation dependent on it, they were deprived by the sons of Abraham, Ish- mael and Midian; by whom they were obliterated in this country as a distinct race, either by superiority of numbers after mingling with them, or by obliging them to recede altogether to their more eastern possessions, or over the gulf of Arabia into Africa. From this time, that is, about five hundred and fifty years after the flood, we read only of Ishmaelites and Midianites as the shepherds and car. riers of the deserts; who also appear to have been inter- mingled, and to have shared both the territory and the traffic, as the traders who bought Joseph are called by both names, and the same are probably referred to by Jeremiah, 25: as “the mingled people that dwell in the desert.” But Ishmael maintained the superiority, and succeeded in giving his name to the whole people. Arabia, it is well known, is divided by geographers into three separate regions, called Arabia Petraea, Arabia De- serta, and Arabia Felix. - The first, or Arabia Petraea, is the north-western division, and is bounded on the north by Palestine and the Dead sea, on the east by Arabia. Deserta, on the south by Arabia Felix, and on the west by the Heroopolitan branch of the Red sea and the isthmus of Suez. The greater part of this division was more exclusively the possession of the Midianites, or land of Midian ; where Moses, having fled from Egypt, married the daughter of Jethro, and spent forty years keeping the flocks of his father-in-law : no humiliating occupation in those days, and particularly in Midian, which was a land of shepherds; the whole people having no other way of life than that of rearing and tending their flocks, or in carrying the goods they received from the east and south into Phoenicia and Egypt. The word flock, used here, must not convey the idea natu rally entertained in our own country of sheep only, but, together with these, of goats, horned cattle and camels, the most indispensable of animals to the Midianite. It was a mixed flock of this kind which was the sole care of Moses, during a third part of his long life; in which he must have had abundance of leisure, by might and by day, to reflect on the unhappy condition of his own people, still enduring all the rigors of slavery in Egypt. It was a similar flock also which the daughters of Jethro were watering when first encountered by Moses; a trifling event in itself, but important in the history of the future leader of the Jews; and showing, at the same time, the simple life of the peo- ple amongst whom he was newly come, as well as the scanty supply of water in their country, and the strifes frequently occasioned in obtaining a share of it. Through a considerable part of this region, the Israelites wandered after they had escaped from Egypt; and in it were situ- ated the mountains Horeb and Sinai. Besides the tribes of Midian, which gradually became blended with those of Ishmael, this was the country of the Edomites, the Ama- lekites, and the Nabathaei, the only tribe of pure Ishma- elites within its precincts. But all those families have long since been confounded under the general name of Arabs. The greater part of this district consists of naked rocks and sandy and flinty plains; but it contained also some fertile spots, particularly in the peninsula of mount Sinai, and through the long range of mount Seir. The Second region, or Arabia. Deserta, is bounded on the north and north-east by the Euphrates, on the east by a ridge of mountains which separates it from Chaldea, on the South by Arabia Felix, and on the west by Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea. This was more particularly the coun- try first of the Cushites, and afterwards of the Ishmaelites; as it is still of their descendants, the modern Bedouins, who maintain the same predatory and wandering habits. It consists almost entirely of one vast and lonesome wilder- ness, a boundless level of sand, whose dry and burning surface denies existence to all but the Arab and his camel. Yet, widely scattered over this dreary waste, some spots • N A R A - [ 105 | A R A of comparative fertility are to be found, where, spread around a feeble spring of brackish water, a stunted ver- dure, or a few palm trees, fix the principal settlement of a tribe, and afford stages of refreshment in these otherwise impassable deserts. Here, with a few dates, the milk of his faithful camel, and perhaps a little corn, brought by painful journeys from distant regions, or plundered from a passing caravan, the Arab supports a hard existence, until the failure of his resources impels him to seek another Vasis, or the scanty herbage furnished on a patch of soil by transient rains; or else, which is frequently the case, to resort, by more distant migration, to the banks of the Eu- phrates; or, by hostile inroads on the neighboring coun- tries, to supply those wants which the recesses of the desert have denied. The numbers leading this wandering and precarious mode of liſe are incredible. From these deserts, Zerah drew his army of a million of men; and the same deserts, fifteen hundred years after, poured forth the count- less swarms which, under Mahomet and his successors, devastated half of the then known world. The third region, or Arabia Felix, so denominated from the happier condition of its soil and climate, occupies the Southern part of the Arabian peninsula. It is bounded on the north by the two other divisions of the country; on the south and south-east by the Indian ocean; on the east by a part of the same ocean and the Persian gulf; and on the west by the Red sea. This division is subdivided into the kingdoms or provinces of Yemen, at the southern extre- nuity of the peninsula; Hejaz, on the north of the former, and towards the Red sea; Nejed, in the central region; and Ha- dramant and Oman, on the shores of the Indian ocean. The four latter subdivisions partake of much of the charac- ter of the other greater divisions of the country, though of a more varied surface, and with a larger portion capable of cultivation. But Yemen seems to belong to another country and climate. It is very mountainous, is well watered with rains and springs, and is blessed with an abundant pro- duce in corn and fruits, and especially in coffee, of which vast quantities are exported. In this division were the ancient cities of Nysa, Musa or Moosa, and Aden. This is also supposed to have been the country of the queen of Sheba. In Hejaz are the celebrated cities of Mecca and Medina. Arabia Felix is inhabited by a people who claim Joktan for their father, and so trace their descent direct from Shem, instead of Abraham and Ham. They are indeed a totally different people from those inhabiting the other quarters, and pride themselves on being the only pure and unmixed Arabs. Instead of being shepherds and robbers, they are fixed in towns and cities, and live by agriculture and commerce, chiefly maritime. Here were the people who were found by the Greeks of Egypt enjoying an entire monopoly of the trade with the east, and possessing a high degree of wealth and consequent refinement. It was here, in the ports of Sabaea, that the spices, muslims, and precious stones of India, were for many ages obtained by the Greek traders of Egypt, before they had acquired skill or courage sufficient to pass the straits of the Red Sea; which were long considered by the nations of Europe to be the produce of Arabia itself. These articles, before the inven- tion of shipping, or the establishment of a maritime inter- course, were conveyed across the deserts by the Cushite, Ishmaelite, and Midianite carriers. It was the produce partly of India, and partly of Arabia, which the travelling merchants, to whom Joseph was sold, were carrying into Egypt. The balm and myrrh were probably Arabian, as they are still the produce of the same country; but the spicery was undoubtedly brought farther from the east. These circumstances are adverted to, to show how exten- sive was the communication, in which the Arabians form- ed the principal link; and that in the earliest ages of which we have any account, in those of Joseph, of Moses, of Isaiah, and of Ezekiel, “the mingled people” inhabiting the vast Arabian deserts, the Cushites, Ishmaelites, and Midianites, were the chief agents in that commercial in- tercourse which has, from the most remote period of anti- quity, subsisted between the extreme east and west. And although the current of trade is now turned, caravans of merchants, the descendants of these people, may still be found traversing the * deserts, conveying the - 1 - same articles, and in the same manner as described by Moses : \ The singular and important fact that Arabia has never been conquered, has already been cursorily adverted to. But Mr. Gibbon, unwilling to pass by an opportunity of cavilling at Revelation, says, “The perpetual independence of the Arabs has been a theme of praise among strangers and natives; and the arts of controversy transform this singular event into a prophecy and a miracle in favor of the posterity of Ishmael. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous. The kingdom of Yemen has been successively subdued by the Abyssinians, the Persians, the sultans of Egypt, and the Turks; the holy cities of Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a Scythian tyrant; and the Roman province of Arabia embraced the peculiar wilderness in which Ishmael and his sons must have pitched their tents in the face of their brethren.” But this learned writer has, with a peculiar infelicity, annulled his own argument; and we have only to follow on the above passage, to obtain a complete refu- tation of the unworthy position with which it begins: “Yet these exceptions,” says Mr. Gibbon, “are temporary or local; the body of the nation has escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies: the arms of Sesostris and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never achieve the conquest of Arabia; the present sovereign of the Turks may exer- cise a shadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to solicit the friendship of a people whom it is dangerous to provoke, and fruitless to attack. The obvious causes of their freedom are inscribed on the character and country of the Arabs. Many ages before Mahomet, their intrepid valor had been severely felt by their neighbors, in offensive and defensive war. The patient and active virtues of a soldier are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline of a pastoral life. The care of the sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe ; but the martial youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on horseback and in the field, to practise the exercise of the bow, the javelin, and the scimetar. The long memory of their in- dependence is the firmest pledge of its perpetuity; and succeeding generations are animated to prové their descent, and to maintain their inheritance. Their domestic feuds are suspended on the approach of a common enemy; and in their last hostilities against the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was attacked and pillaged by fourscore thousand of the confederates. When they advance to battle, the hope of victory is in the ſront, in the rear the assurance of a retreat. Their horses and camels, who in eight or ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred miles, disappear before the conqueror; the secret waters of the desert elude his search ; and his victorious troops are consumed with thirst, hunger, and fatigue, in the pur- suit of an invisible foe, who scorns his efforts, and safely reposes in the heart of the burning solitude. The arms and deserts of the Bedouins are not only the safeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers also of the happy Arabia, whose inhabitants, remote from war, are enervated by the luxury of the soil and climate. The legions of Augustus melted away in disease and lassitude; and it is only by a naval power that the reduction of Yemen has been successfully attempted. When Mahomet erected his holy standard, that kingdom was a province of the Persian empire; yet seven princes of the Homerites still reigned in the mountains; and the vicegerent of Chosroes was tempted to forget his distant country and his unfortunate master.” Yemen was the only Arabian province which had the appearance of submitting to a foreign yoke ; but even here, as Mr. Gibbon himself acknowledges, seven of the native princes remained unsubdued: and even admitting its subjugation to have been complete, the perpetual inde- pendence of the Ishmaelites remains unimpeached. For this is not their country, Petra, the capital of the Stony Arabia, and the principal settlement of the Nabathaei, it is true, was long in the hands of the Persians and Romans; but this never made them masters of the country. Hovering troops of Arabs confined the intru ders within their walls, and cut off their supplies; and the possession of this fortress gave as little reason to the Ro- A R A A R A [ 106 ) mans to exult as the conquerors of Arabia Petraea, as that of Gibraltar does to us to boast of the conquest of Spain. The Arabian tribes were confounded by the Greeks and Romans under the indiscriminate appellation of Saracens; a name whose etymology has been variously, but never Satisfactorily, explained. This was their general name when Mahomet appeared in the beginning of the seventh century. Their religion at this time was Sabianism, or the worship of the sun, moon, &c.; variously transformed by the different tribes, and intermingled with some Jewish and Christian maxims and traditions. The tribes them- selves were generally at variance, from some hereditary and implacable animosities; and their only warfare con- sisted in desultory skirmishes arising out of these feuds, and in their predatory excursions, where superiority of numbers rendered courage of less value than activity and vigilance. Yet of such materials Mahomet constructed a mighty empire; converted the relapsed Ishmaelites into good Mussulmen; united the jarring tribes under one banner; supplied what was wanting in personal courage by the ardor of religious zeal; and out of a banditti little known and little feared beyond their own deserts, raised an armed multitude which proved the scourge of the world. - Mahomet was born in the year 569, of the noble tribe of the Koreish, and descended, according to eastern histo- rians, in a direct line from Ishmael. His person is repre- sented as beautiful, his manners engaging, and his glo- quence powerful; but he was illiterate, like the rest of his countrymen, and indebted to a Jewish or Christian scribe for penning his Koran. Whatever the views of Mahomet might have been in the earlier part of his life, it was not till the fortieth year of his age that he avowed his mission as the apostle of God: when so little credit did he gain for his pretensions, that in the first three years he could only number fourteen converts; and even at the end of ten years, his labors and his friends were alike confined within the walls of Mecca, when the designs of his ene- mies compelled him to fly to Medina, where he was favo. rably received by a party of the most considerable inhabi- tants, who had recently imbibed his doctrines at Mecca. This flight, or Hegira, was made the Mahometan era, from which time is computed, and corresponds with the 16th of July, 622, of the Christian era. Mahomet now found himself sufficiently powerful to throw aside all reserve; declared that he was commanded to compel unbelievers by the sword to receive the faith of one God and his prophet Mahomet; and confirming his credulous followers by the threats of eternal pain on the one hand, and the allure- ments of a sensual paradise on the other, he had, before his death, which happened in the year 632, gained over the whole of Arabia to his imposture. His death threw a temporary gloom over his cause, and the disunion of his followers threatened its extinction. Any other empire, placed in the same circumstances, would have crumbled to pieces; but the Arabs felt their power; they revered their founder as the chosen prophet of God; and their ar- dent temperament, animated by a religious enthusiasm, gave an earnest of future success, and encouraged the zeal or the ambition of their leaders. The succession, after some bloodshed, was settled, and unnumbered hordes of barbarians were ready to carry into execution the san- guinary dictates of their prophet, and, with “the Koran, tribute, or death,” as their motto, to invade the countries of the infidels. During the whole of the succeeding cen- tury, their rapid career was unchecked; the disciplined armies of the Greeks and Romans were unable to stand against them ; the Christian churches of Asia and Africa were annihilated; and from India to the Atlantic, through Persia, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Egypt, with the whole of northern Africa, Spain, and part of France, the impostor was acknowledged. Constantinople was be. sieged ; Rome itself was plundered; and nothing less than the subjection of the whole Christian world was meditated on the one hand, and tremblingly expected on the other. All this was wonderful; but the avenging justice of an Incensed Deity, and the sure word of prophecy, relieve our astonishment. It was to punish an apostate race, that the Saracen locusts were let loose upon the earth; and the, countries which they were permitted to ravage were those in which the pure light of revelation had been most abus- ed. The eastern church was sunk in gross idolatry; vice and wickedness prevailed in their worst forms; and those who still called themselves Christians, trusted more to images, relics, altars, austerities, and pilgrimages, than to a crucified Savior. About a hundred and eighty years from the foundation of Bagdad, during which period the power of the Sara- cens had gradually declined, a dreadful re-action took place in the conquered countries. The Persians on the east, and the Greeks on the west, were simultaneously roused from their long thraldom, and, assisted by the Turks, who, issuing from the plains of Tartary, now for the first time made their appearance in the east, extin- guished the power of the caliphate, and virtually put an end to the Arabian monarchy in the year 936. A succes- sion of nominal caliphs continued to the year 1258: but the provinces were lost; their power was confined to the walls of their capital; and they were in real subjection to the Turks and the Persians until the above year, when Mos- tacem, the last of the Abassides, was dethroned and mur- dered by Holagou, or Hulaku, the Tartar, the grandson of Zingis. This event, although it terminated the foreign dominion of the Arabians, left their native independence untouched. They were no longer, indeed, the masters of the finest parts of the three great divisions of the ancient world: their work was finished; and returning to the state in which Mahomet found them three centuries before, with the exception of the change in their religion, they re- mained, and still remain, the unconquered rovers of the desert. It is not the least singular circumstance in the history of this extraordinary people, that those who, in the enthu- siasm of their first successes, were the sworn foes of lite- rature, should become for several ages its exclusive patrons. Almansor, the founder of Bagdad, has the merit of first exciting this spirit, which was encouraged in a still greater degree by his grandson Almamon. This caliph employed his agents in Armenia, Syria, Egypt, and at Constantinople, in collecting the most celebrated wotks on Grecian science, and had them translated into the Arabic language. Philosophy, astronomy, geometry, and medi- cine were thus introduced and taught; public schools were established ; and learning, which had altogether fled from Europe, found an asylum on the banks of the Tigris. Nor was this spirit confined to the capital : native works began to appear; and by the hands of copyists were mul- tiplied out of number, for the information of the studious, or the pride of the wealthy. The rage for literature ex- tended to Egypt and to Spain. In the former country, the Fatimites collected a library of a hundred thousand manu- scripts, beautifully transcribed, and very elegantly bound; and in the latter, the Ommiades formed another of six hundred thousand volumes; forty-four of which were em- ployed in the catalogue. Their capital, Cordova, with the towns of Malaga, Almeria, and Murcia, produced three hundred writers; and seventy public libraries were estab- lished in the cities of Andalusia. What a change since the days of Omar, when the splendid library of the Pto- lemies was wantonly destroyed by the same people! A retribution, though a slight one, was thus made for their former devastations; and many Grecian works, lost in the original, have been recovered in their Arabic dress. Nei- ther was this learning confined to mere parade, though much of it must undoubtedly have been so. Their profi- ciency in astronomy and geometry is attested by their astronomical tables, and by the accuracy with which, in the plain of Chaldea, a degree of the great circle of the earth was measured. But it was in medicine that, in this dark age, the Arabians shone most : the works of Hippo. crates and Galen had been translated and commented on ; their physicians were sought after by the princes of Asia and Europe; and the names of Rhazis, Albucasis, and Avicenna are still revered by the members of the healing art. So little, indeed, did the physicians of Eu- rope in that age know of the history of their own science, that they were astonished, on the revival of learning, to find in the ancient Greek authors those systems for which they thought themselves indebted to the Arabians ! The last remnant of Arabian science was found in A R A A. B. A [107 J Spain; from whence it was expelled in the beginning of the seventeenth century, by the intemperate bigots of that country, who have never had any thing of their own with which to supply its place. The Ara- bians are the only people who have preserved their descent, their independence, their language, and their man- ners and customs, from the earliest ages to the present times; and it is amongst them that we are to look for examples of patriarchal life and manners. A very lively sketch of this mode of life is given by Sir R. K. Porter, in the person and tribe of an Arab sheik, whom he encoun- tered in the neighborhood of the Euphrates. “I had met this warrior,” says Sir R. K. P., “at the house of the Bri- ish resident at Bagdad, and came, according to his re- peated wish, to see him in a place more consonant with his habits, the tented field; and, as he expressed it, “at the head of his children.” As soon as we arrived in sight of his camp, we were met by crowds of its inhabitants, who, with a wild and hurrying delight, led us towards the tent of their chief. The venerable old man came forth to the door, attended by his subjects of all sizes and descriptions, and greeted us with a countenance beaming kindness; while his words, which our interpreter explained, were demonstrative of patriarchal welcome. One of my Hindoo troopers spoke Arabic; hence the substance of our succeed- ing discourse was not lost on each other. Having entered, I sat down by my host; and the whole of the persons pre- sent, to far beyond the boundaries of the tent, (the sides of which were open,) seated themselves also, without any regard to those more civilized ceremonies of subjection, the crouching of slaves, or the standing of vassalage. These persons, in rows beyond rows, appeared just as he had described, the offspring of his house, the descendants of his fathers, from age to age ; and like brethren, whether holding the highest or the lowest rank, they seemed to gather round their common parent. But perhaps their sense of perfect equality in the mind of their chief could not he more forcibly shown, than in the share they took in the objects which appeared to interest his feelings; and as I looked from the elders or leaders of the people, seated immediately around him, to the circles beyond circles of brilliant faces, bending eagerly towards him and his guest, (all, from the most respectably clad, to those with hardly a garment covering their active limbs, earnest to evince some attention to the stranger he bade welcome,) I thought I had never before seen so complete an assemblage of fine and animated countenances, both old and young: nor could. I suppose a better specimen of the still existing state of the true Arab ; nor a more lively picture of the scene which must have presented itself, ages ago, in the fields of Haran, when Terah sat in his tent door, surround- ed by his sons, and his son's sons, and the people born in his house. The venerable Arabian sheik was also seated on the ground, with a piece of carpet spread under him; and, like his ancient Chaldean ancestor, turned to the one side and the other, graciously answering or questioning the groups around him, with an interest in them all which clearly showed the abiding simplicity of his government, and their obedience. must have been the manners of these people for more than three thousand years; thus, in all things, verifying the prediction given of Ishmael at his birth, that he, in his posterity, should “be a wild man,’ and always continue to be so, though ‘he shall dwell forever in the presence of his brethren.’ And that an acute and active people, sur- rounded for ages by polished and luxurious nations, should, from their earliest to their latest times, be still found a wild people, dwelling in the presence of all their brethren, (as we may call these nations,) unsubdued and unchangeable, is, indeed, a standing miracle : one of those mysterious facts which establish the truth of prophecy.” But al- though the manners of the Arabians have remained unal- tered through so many ages, and will probably so continue, their religion, as we have seen, has sustained an important change ; and must again, in the fulness of time, give place to a faith more worthy of the people. ... St. Paul first preached the Gospel in Arabia. Gal. 1: 17. Christian churches were subsequently founded, and many of their tribes embraced Christianity prior to the fifth cen- tury; most of which appear to have been tinctured with On the smallest computation, such the Nestorian heresy. At this time, however, it does not appear that the Arabians had any version of the Scriptures in their own language, to which some writers attribute the ease with which they were drawn into the Mahometan delusion; while the “Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Abys- sinians, Copts, and others,” who enjoyed that privilege, were able to resist it.—Watson. - ARABICI; early in the third century, a sort of minute philosophers, from Arabia, (whence their name,) who con- ceived that the soul died with the body, and would be raised with it. Origen being called from Egypt to convert them, publicly argued with such remarkable success, (having probably no leader able to contend with him,) that they immediately gave up their peculiar notions, and returned to the bosom of the church.-Mosheim, vol. i. p. 308; Williams. ARAD, a city in the south of Judah, called also Arada, Arath, Adraa, and Adra. The hill on which it was built, is now called by the Arabs, Tell 'Arād, and is situated fifteen miles south from Hebron, and eighteen miles west from the Dead Sea. When the Israelites, under Moses, were at Kadesh-Barnea, the king of Arad attacked them. and made some of them prisoners; in consequence of which his country was anathematized, and laid in ruins. and the place called Hormah. Arad was afterwards rebuilt; but even its ruins have perished.—T. AR ADUS, called in Scripture Arvad, and now Runwdd ; a JPhoenician city on a small island near the coast, about fiſty miles north from Beirãt.—T. ARAM; the fifth son of Shem, Gen. 10: 22, was the father of the Syrians, who from him were called Aramae- ans, or Aramites. There are several countries distin- guished by this name in Scripture; as Aram Naharaím, or Syria of the two rivers, that is, Mesopotamia; Aram of Damascus; Aram of Soba ; Aram of Bethrehob; Aram of Maachah; the meaning of which is, that the cities of Damascus, Soba, Bethrehob, and Maachah, were situated in Syria. Homer and Hesiod call those Aramaeans who are called Syrians by the Greeks of more recent times. The prophet Amos intimates that the first Aramaeans, or Assyrians, dwelt in the country of Kir in Iberia; and that the Lord brought them from thence as he did the Hebrews out of Egypt, ch. 9: 7. ; but when that event happened is not known. It must be very ancient, since Moses calls the Syrians and people of Mesopotamia by the name of Aramites. The Syrians often waged war against the Hebrews; but David subdued them and compelled them to pay him tribute. Solomon preserved over them the same authority; but after the secession of the ten tribes, it does not appear that the Syrians were generally subject to the kings of Israel; unless perhaps under Jeroboam the second, who restored the kingdom of Israel to its ancient boundaries. 2 Kings 14: 25.—Jones. ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE ; the vernacular tongue of the Jews of Palestine in the days of our Savior, which maintained itself along with the Greek, much as the Ger- man in Pennsylvania, and the Dutch in New York, amidst the prevailing English. (See GREEK OF THE New TESTA- MENT.) - The Shemitish languages, says Professor Robinson, may be properly reduced to three great branches, viz. 1. The Aramatan, which originally prevailed in Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia; and may therefore be subdivided into the Syrian or'West-Aramaean, and the Chaldee or East-Ara- maan, called also the Babylonish Aramaean. To this general branch belong also the dialects of the Samaritans, Zabrians, and Palmyrenes. 2. The Hebren), with which the fragments of the Phoenician coincide. 3. The Arabic, under which also belongs the Ethiopic as a dialect. The Aramaean introduced and spoken in Palestine has also been, and is still, often called the Syro-Chaldaic, be- cause it was probably in some degree a mixture of both the eastern and western dialects; or perhaps the distinc- tion between the two had not yet arisen in the age of Christ and his apostles. So long as the Jewish nation maintained its political independence iri Palestine, the Hebrew continued to be the common language of the country; and so far as we can judge from the remains of it which are still extant, al- though not entirely pure, it was yet free from any impor- A R A A R A [ 108 J tant changes in those elements and forms by which it was distinguished from other languages. But at the period when the Assyrian and Chaldean rulers of Babylon sub- dued Palestine, every thing assumed another shape. The Jews of Palestine lost, with their political independence, also the independence of their language, which they had till then asserted. The Babylonish-Aramaean dialect Sup- planted the Hebrew, and became by degrees in Palestine the prevailing language of the people, until this in its turn was in some measure (though not entirely) supplanted by the Greek. The New Testament and Josephus call it the Hebrew. Old as this appellation is, however, it has one important defect, namely, that it is too indefinite, and may mislead those who are unacquainted with the subject to confound the ancient Hebrew and the Aramaean, which took the place of Hebrew after the Babylonish exile. It will probably be most appropriate to bestow on the lan- guage of Palestine, in order to distinguish it from other dialects, the simple name of the Palestine-Aramaºan, or the Palestine-Syriac: for the terms Aramaean and Syriac are fully identical. The character and condition of the language called He- brew, in the age of Christ and his apostles, can thus be determined with certainty; and it is a point of great im- portance to an interpreter of the New Testament. 1. The proper names of persons which are given in the New Testament and in Josephus, are mostly Aramaean. We need only refer to the frequent names compounded with the Aramaean Bar, (son,) as Bar-Talmai, Bar-Jesu, Bar-Timei, Bar-Abba, &c. all of which sufficiently betray their Aramaean origin. - 2. The significant surnames, also, which certain persons bore on account of their moral or corporeal character; as, Boanerges, Barabas, Cephas, &c. are Aramaean. 3. The same is also true of most of the significant geo- graphical names; among which the most frequent are those compounded with Beth, Caphon, and En; on which one only needs to consult the index of Rilandi Palestina.- Bib. Repos, 1830. ARARAT ; a mountain of Asia, in Armenia, on which the ark of Noah rested after the cessation of the deluge. Concerning the etymology of the name, Dr. Bryant ob- serves that it is a compound of Ar-Arat, and signifies “the mountain of descent.” . Ararat seems to be a part of that vast chain of moun- tains called Caucasus and Taurus; and upon these moun- tains, and in the adjacent country, were preserved more authentic accounts of the ark than in almost any other part of the world. The region about Ararat, called Ara- ratia, was esteemed among the ancients as nearly a cen- tral part of the earth; and it is certainly as well calculated as any other for the accommodation of its first inhabitants, and for the migration of colonies, upon the increase of mankind. The soil of the country was very fruitful, and especially of that part where the patriarch made his first descent. The country also was very high, though it had fine plains and valleys between the mountains. Such a country, therefore, must, after the flood, have been the soonest exsiccated, and, consequently, the soonest habi- table. The mountain which has still the name of Ararat, has retained it through all ages. Tournefort has particularly described it, and from his account it seems to consist chiefly of free-stone, or calcareous sand-stone. It is a detached mountain in ſorm of a sugar loaf, in the midst of a very extensive plain, consisting of two summits; the lesser, more sharp and pointed ; the higher, which is that of the ark, lies north-west of it, and raises its head far above the neighboring mountains, and is covered with per- petual Snow. When the air is clear, it does not appear to be above two leagues from Erivan, and may be seen at the distance of four or five days’ journey. Its being visi- ble at such a distance, however, is ascribed not so much to its height, as to its lonely situation, in a large plain, and upon the most elevated part of the country. The ascent is difficult and fatiguing. Tournefort attempted it; and, after a whole day's toil, he was obliged by the snow and intense cold, to return without accomplishing his design, though in the middle of summer. On the side of the mountain that looks towards Erivan, is a prodigious preci, pice, very deep, with perpendicular sides, and of a rough, black appearance, as if tinged with smoke. The summit of Ararat has never been reached, though several attempts have been made ; and if the ark rested on the summit, it is certain that those who have spoken of its fragments being seen there in different ages, must have been imposed upon. It is, however, not necessary to sup- pose that the ark rested upon either of its tops; and that spot would certainly be chosen which would afford the greatest facility of descent. Sir Robert Ker Porter is among the modern travellers who have given us an ac- count of this celebrated mountain : “As the vale opened beneath us in our descent, my whole attention became ab- sorbed in the view before me. A vast plain peopled with countless villages; the towers and spires of the churches of Eitch-mai-adzen, arising from amidst them ; the glitter- ing waters of the Araxes, flowing through the fresh green of the vale; and the subordinate range of mountains, skirting the base of the awful monument of the antediluvian world. It seemed to stand a stupendous link in the history of man, uniting the two races of men before and after the flood. But it was not until we had arrived upon the flat plain, that I beheld Ararat in all its amplitude of grandeur. From the spot on which I stood, it appeared as if the hugest mountains of the world had been piled upon each other, to form this one sublime immensity of earth, and rock, and snow. The icy peaks of its double heads rose majes- tically into the clear and cloudless heavens; the sun blazed bright upon them ; and the reflection sent forth a dazzling radiance, equal to other suns. This point of the view united the utmost grandeur of plain and height. But the feelings I experienced while looking on the mountain, are hardly to be described. My eye, not able to rest for any length of time upon the blinding glory of its summits, wandered down the apparently interminable sides, till I could no longer trace their vast lines in the mists of the horizon ; when an inexpressible impulse, immediately carrying my eye upwards again, refixed my gaze upon the awful glare of Ararat; and this bewildered sensibility of sight being answered by a similar feeling in the mind, for some mo- ments-I was lost in a strange suspension of the powers of thought.” . The separate peaks are called Great and Little Ararat, and the space between them is about seven miles. “These inaccessible summits,” continues Sir R. K. Porter, “have never been trodden by the foot of man since the days of Noah, if even then ; for my idea is, that the ark rested in the space between these heads, and not on the top of either. Various attempts have been made in different ages to as- cend these tremendous mountain-pyramids, but in vain: their form, Snows, and glaciers, are insurmountable obsta- cles: the distance being so great from the commencement of the icy region to the highest points, cold alone would be the destruction of any person who should have the hardi- hood to persevere. On viewing mount Ararat from the northern side of the plain, its two heads are separated by a wide cleft, or rather glen, in the body of the mountain. The rocky side of the greater head runs almost perpendi- cularly down to the north-east, while the lesser head rises from the sloping bottom of the cleft, in a perſectly conical shape. Both heads are covered with snow. The form of the greater is similar to the less, only broader and rounder at the top, and shows to the north-west a broken and ab- rupt front, opening, about half way lown, into a stupen- dous chasm, deep, rocky, and peculiarly black. At that part of the mountain, the hollow of the chasm receives an interruption from the projection of minor mountains, which start from the sides of Ararat like branches from the root of a tree, and run along, in undulating progression, till lost in the distant vapors of the plain.” Dr. Shuckford argues that the true Ararat lies among the mountains of the north of India ; but Mr. Faber has answered his reasoning, and proved, by a comparison of geogra- phical notices incidentally mentioned in the Old Testa- ment, that the Ararat of Armenia is the true Ararat.— Watson. ARAUNAH, 2 Sam. 24; 16–18, or ORNAN, as the same person is called, 1 Chron. 21: 18., was an inhabitant of Jerusalem, at or soon after the time that city went by the name of Jebus, whose threshing floor was situated on A R C A R C | 109 mount Moriah, where the temple was aſterwards built. ARBELA. 1. A strong town in Galilee, near which were fortified caverns. The ruins, called Irbid, which now mark its site, are among the mountains west of the Sea of Galilee, and about four miles north-west from Tiberias. This was probably the Beth Arbel of Hosea 10: 14. 2. A city mentioned by Eusebius, as belonging to the region of Pella. This also is now called Irbid; and is among the mountains of Bashan, or Batanaea, twenty- four miles east of the Jordan. 3. Perhaps another city in the Plain of Jezreel, the situation of which is unknown. ARBUTHNOT, (John, Dr.;) was the son of a Scotch Episcopal clergyman, and was born at Arbuthnot, near .”,,, ** Montrose, soon after the restoration. Acquainted with Pope, Swift, and the other wits of the age, he took a share in their literary enterprises, and contributed largely to the works of Martinus Scriblerus. He died, February, 1735. Swift gave his character in few words—“He has,” said he, “more wit than all our race, and his humanity is equal to his wit.” Nor is there any thing of the exaggeration of friendship in this praise. Among his various works, part of which are medical, may be named his Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures, which is ſound in most large English Bibles, at the present time.—Daven- 07:. p ABNEY, (SIR THOMAs;) an eminent magistrate of the city of London, born 1639, died 1722, aged eighty-three. He was a man of distinguished piety. In his last sickness, the same serenity and peace, the same humility and reli- gion, which, like a golden thread, ran through his whole course, was beautifully manifest. On inquiries concerning his soul, he always expressed a good hope through grace of a happy eternity. He often mentioned Christ, calling him, “Blessed Redeemer! glorious Redeemer ſ” with other like expressions. Sir Thomas was the intimate friend of Dr. Isaac Watts, who resided many years in his family, and was the companion of his last moments. ARCH, (John ;) a Cherokee Indian and an interpreter, died at Brainerd, June 8, 1825, aged twenty-seven. When taken sick, he was engaged in translating John's Gospel into Cherokee, using the ingenious alphabet invented by Mr. Guess. He had been a Christian convert several years; and he died in peace, saying, “God is good, and will do right;” and was buried by the side of Dr. Wor- cester.—Allen. ARCH ; prefixed to any ecclesiastical office, as arch- bishop, archdeacon, &c., implies a superior, having others under him; thus, archbishop is a metropolitan bishop, having suffragan bishops under him.—Broughton's Dict, ; Williams. ARCHANGEL, according to some, means an angel occupying the eighth rank in the celestial order or hierar- chy, which consists, according to the apostles, of thrones, dominions, principalities, and so on. Col. 1: 16, 1 Pet. 3: 22. Eph. 1: 21. The fathers who have interpreted the words of the apostles, are not agreed on the number and order of the celestial hierarchy. Origen was of opinion, that Paul mentioned part only of the choirs of angels, and that there were many others of which he said nothing; and this notion may be observed in many of the subse- quent fathers. Others have reckoned up nine choirs of angels. The author who is commonly cited under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, admits but three hie- rarchies, and three orders of angels in each hierarchy. In the first are seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; in the second, dominions, mights, and powers; in the third, prin- cipalities, archangels, and angels. Some of the rabbins reckon ſour, others ten, orders, and give the different names according to their degrees of power and knowledge; but this rests only on the imagination of those who amuse themselves with speaking very particularly of things of which they know nothing. These titles of rank are pro- bably allusions to the customary order in the courts of the Assyrian, Chaldean, and Persian kings; hence Michael the archangel tells Daniel that he is one of the chief prin- ces in the court of the Almighty. It has been remarked by a late eloquent writer, in treat- ing of enthusiasm in devotion, that “the utmost distances of the material universe are finite; but the disparity of nature which separates man from his Maker is infinite; nor can the interval be filled up or brought under any pro- cess of measurement. Nevertheless, in the view of our feeble conceptions, an apparent measurement, or filling up of the infinite void would take place, and so the idea of immense separation would be painfully enhanced, if dis- tinct vision were obtained of the towering hierarchies of intelligences, at the basement of which the human system is founded. Were it indeed permitted to man to gaze up- ward from step to step, and from range to range, of the vast edifice of rational existences, and could his eye attain the summit, and there perceive, at an infinite height beyond that highest platform of created beings, the lowest steps of the Eternal throne—what liberty of heart would after- wards be left to him in drawing near to the Father of Spi- rits? How, after such a revelation of the upper world, could the affectionate cheerfulness of earthly worship again take place 2 Or, how, while contemplating the measured vastness of the interval between heaven and earth, could the dwellers thereon come familiarly, as be- fore, to the throne of prayer, bringing with them the small requests of their petty interests of the present life? If in- troduction were had to the society of those beings whose wisdom has accumulated during ages which time forgets to number, and who have lived to see, once and again, the mystery of the providence of God complete its cycle, would not the impression of created superiority oppress the spirit, and obstruct its access to the Being whose excellen- cies are absolute and infinite? Or what would be the feelings of the infirm child of earth, if, when about to present his supplications, he found himself standing in the theatre of heaven, and saw, ranged in a circle under the skies, the congregation of immortals? These spectacles of greatness, if laid open to perception, would present such an interminable perspective of glory, and so set out the immeasurable distance between ourselves and the Su- preme Being with a long gradation of splendors, that we should henceforward feel as if thrust down to an extreme remoteness from the divine notice; and it would be hard or impossible to retain, with any comfortable conviction, the belieſ in the nearness of Him who is revealed as ‘a very present help in every time of trouble.” But that our feeble spirits may not thus be overborne, or our faith and confidence baffled and perplexed, the Most High hides from our sight the ministries of his court, and dismissing his train, visits with infinite condescension the lowly abodes of those who fear Him, and dwells as a father in the homes of earth.” Bishop Horsley and others of late have contended that the term archangel is a title belonging to our Lord himself. But the arguments which they employ in support of this opinion, though ingenious, are far from being conclusive. —Calmet ; Watson ; Nat. Hist. of Enthusiasm. ARCHBISHOP; the chief or metropolitan bishop, who has several suffragans under him. Archbishops were not known in the east till about the year 320; and though there were some soon after this who had the title, yet that was only a personal honor, by which the bishops of con. siderable cities were distinguished. It was not till of late that archbishops became metropolitans, and had suffragans under them. The ecclesiastical government of England is divided into two provinces, viz. Canterbury and York. The first archbishop of Canterbury was Austin, appointed by king Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. His grace of Canterbury is the first peer of England, and the next to the royal family, having pre- cedence of all dukes and all great officers of the crown. A R C A R E [ 110 J It is his privilege, by custom, to crown the kings and queens of the kingdom. The archbishop of York has precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood, and of all officers of the state, except the lord high chancellor. The first archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed by pope Gregory about the year 622.-Buck, - ARCHDEACON ; a priest invested with authority of jurisdiction over the clergy and laity, next to the bishop, either through the whole diocese, or only a part of it. There are sixty in England, who visit every two years in three, when they inquire into the reparations and movea- bles belonging to churches; reform abuses; suspend; excommunicate; in some places prove wills; and induct all clerks into benefices within their respective jurisdic- tions.—Buck. .. ARCH-PRESBYTER, or ARch-PRIEST; a priest estab- lished in some dioceses with a superiority over the rest. He was anciently chosen out of the college of presbyters, at the pleasure of the bishop. The arch-presbyters were much of the same nature with the deans in cathedral churches.—Buck. - ARCHELAUS ; the son of Herod the Great, by Mal- thace, his fifth wife. Having put to death his sons Alex- ander, Aristobulus, and Antipater, and disinherited Anti- pas, whom at first he had declared king, Herod substitut- ed Archelaus in his room, and gave Antipas the title of tetrarch only, as has been already related under the article ANTIPAs. On the decease of his father, Archelaus suc- ceeded to the kingdom of Judea, and reigned there at the time that Joseph was returning from Egypt with the young child Jesus and his mother. Apprehending that the new king would be as desirous of taking away the life of his child as his father Herod had been, Joseph was afraid to proceed; but being warned of God in a dream, he turned aside into the parts of Galilee, and dwelt in the city of Nazareth. Matt. 2: 22. Archelaus seems to have inherited no inconsiderable portion of the cruel temper of his father. He governed Judea with so much violence that the chief of the Samaritans and Jews impeached him to Augustus, who immediately summoned him to Rome, to answer for his conduct. Upon his arrival there, the emperor ordered his accusers to appear against him, and allowed him to defend himself; but his defence was so little satisfactory to Augustus, that he banished him to Vienne, a city of Gaul, where he continued in exile to the end of his days.—Jones. - - . . . - ARCHONTICS; a branch of the Valentinians, towards the close of the second century, who supposed the world to be created (apo ton archonton) by the higher orders of angels, archontes, or archangels; but the creation of wo- man they ascribed to evil demons, which seems to indicate they were woman-haters. They supported their princi- ples chiefly by pretended revelations of their own.—Tur- ner’s Hist. p. 95; Williams. ARCHERS; such as shoot with bows, in hunting and battle.—This method of shooting was almost universal in ancient times, before the invention of fire arms. Gen. 21: 20. Jer. 51: 3. The archers that sorely grieved Joseph, and shot at him, were his enemies, particularly his brethren and mistress, who with arrows of false accusation, bitter words, and murderous attempts, sought to destroy him. Gen. 49: 23. The archers of God, that encompassed Job, were afflictions, pains, and terrors, sent by God; and which, like sharp, empoisoned arrows, wounded and vex- ed his soul. Job 16: 13.—Bromm. - ARCHINIMUS; a citizen of Carthage, a devout Chris- tian of the fifth, century, upon whom all manner of arti- fices were employed in vain, to make him renounce his faith. At length, Genseric himself, the Arian king of the Vandals, undertook to persuade him. Finding his en- deavors ineffectual, he sentenced him to be beheaded; but gave private orders to the executioner, really to per- form his office only in case the prisoner seemed intimidat- ed and afraid; “for then,” said he, “the crown of martyr- dom will be lost to him; but if he seems courageous and willing to die,” continued the king, “forbear the stroke, for I do not intend that he shall have the honor of being a martyr.” The executioner, on coming to the place ap- pointed, finding Archinimus resolved, and happy in the thought of dying for the sake of Christ, brought him back 38: 32. again unhurt. Soon after this, Archinimus was banished, and never heard of more, though it is conjectured that he was murdered privately, by order of the king, as he thought the glory of dying for the faith publicly, too great a favor.—Foz. * ARCHIPPUS; one of the pastors of the church at Co- losse, to whom the apostle Paul, at the close of his Epistle, gave an important exhortation, to “take heed to the min- istry which he had received of the Lord, that he fulfilled it.” Col. 4: 17.—Jones. - ARCTURUS; the name given to a star of the first magnitude in the northern hemisphere, towards the pole. Astronomers place it at some distance from the great Bear, and between the thighs of Boötes. It rises here about the twelfth of September, and sets about the twenty- fourth of May, and has been thought seldom to appear without bringing a storm. Job adverting to the power of God, saith, “He maketh Arcturus, Orion, and the Plei- ades, with the chambers of the south,” ch. 9: 9.; and again, “Canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons P’ ch. (See the article ConstELLATION.) That the course of the stars influenced the seasons, in the opinion of the ancients, is well known; whence Pliny says, (lib. ii. cap. 39.) “Arcturus seldom rises without bringing hail and tempests;” and (lib. xviii. cap. 28.) “ the evils which the heavens send us are of two kinds; that is to say, tempests which produce hail, storms, and other like things, which is called Vis Major, and which are caused, as I have often said, by dreadful stars, such as Arcturus, Orion, and the Kids.” The ancients, how- ever, were mistaken in this notion, for the stars only marked that time of the year when such things might naturally be expected.—Jones ; Calmet. ARDELY, (John ;) an English protestant martyr of the reign of queen Mary, who, in company with John Simson, was cited before bishop Bonner to answer to seven articles, under the charge of heresy. Their answers to these articles are recorded at length by Fox, and dis- play admirable discrimination of judgment, and dignity of purpose. Bishop Bonner endeavored to persuade them to recant; but his endeavors were vain. To show that they were not actuated by blind and obstinate fanaticism, they mildly offered to surrender all their property to the queen, if they might be, permitted to live under her go- vernment in the unmolested enjoyment of a good con- science. But finding this proposition useless, and that a cruel death must be experienced if they would not return to the Romish church, Ardely nobly replied, “If every . hair of my head were a man, I would suffer death in the opinion and faith I now profess.” On being further urged to conform, he answered, “No, God forbid that I should do so, for then I should lose my soul.” They were accordingly burned to death in one day; Simson at Rochford, and Ardely at Railey, on the 30th of May, 1555–Poz. . . AREOPAGUS; the place, or court, in which the Are- opagites, the celebrated and supreme judges of Athens, assembled. It was on an eminence, formerly almost in the middle of the city; but nothing remains by which we can determine its form or construction. This hill is al- most entirely a mass of stone; its upper surface is without any considerable irregularities, but neither so level, nor so spacious, as that of the Acropolis, and though of no great height, not easily accessible, its sides being steep and ab- rupt. On this hill the Amazons pitched their tents, when they invaded Attica, in the time of Theseus; and in after- times, the Persians under Xerxes began from hence their attack on the Acropolis. The learned are not agreed respecting the number of judges that composed this august court; for some limit them to thirty-one, others to fifty-one, and by some they are extended to five hundred. The truth is, that their number seems not to have been fixed, but to have been more or less, in different years. This tribunal originally consisted of only nine persons, who had all discharged the office of archons, had acquitted themselves with honor in that trust, and after a rigorous examination before the logistae, had given a satisfactory account of their adminis- tration. The Areopagites were judges for life; they never sat in judgment but in the open air, and that only A R I •º A P 1 [ 111 | in the night time, that their minds might be less liable to distraction from surrounding objects, and less sus- ceptible of either pity or aversion from extraneous mo- tives. At first, they took cognizance of criminal causes only, but in process of time, their jurisdiction became of great extent. The Areopagites took cognizance of murders, impieties, and immoralities: they punished vices of all kinds—idle- ness included; they rewarded or assisted the virtuous: they were peculiarly attentive to blasphemies against the gods, and to the performance of the sacred mysteries. It was, therefore, with the greatest propriety, that Paul was examined before this tribunal. Having preached at Athens against the plurality of gods, and declared, that he came to reveal to the Athenians that God whom they adored without knowing him, the apostle was carried be- fore the Areopagites, as the introducer of new deities, (Acts 17: 19, 22.) where he spoke with so much wisdom, that he converted Dionysius, one of the judges, and was dismissed, without any interference on their part. Our translation, by giving the import of the word Areopagus —“Mars' hill,” has lost the correct representation of the passage: since Mars' hill might not be a court of justice; and beside this, the station of Dionysius, as one of the Areopagites, is lost on the reader. (See ATHENs.)—Cal- net ; Jones. * ARETAS. There were many princes of Arabia of this name, but the only one mentioned in Scripture is he who had only a year before gained possession of Damascus when Paul, who had preached the Gospel there with much zeal, was persecuted by the Jews residing in the city, A. D. 38. Acts 9:23, 24. 2 Cor. 11:32, 33. Under Nero, fifteen years after, it appears by the coins that the Romans were again masters of the city. The coincidence of time here is worthy of remark.-Calmet. º ARGOB, the name of a district which lay east of th Jordan, in the country of Og, king of Bashan. It was given by Moses to the half tribe of Manasseh, and sub- dued by Jair, of that tribe, who called it after his own name, Bashan-havoth-Jair. Deut. 3: 13, 14. It is ex- tremely fértile, and had sixty great cities with walls and brazen bars, besides numerous villages and hamlets which were not enclosed. 1 Kings 4: 14. On the north, Argob extended to Maachah. Deut. 3: 14. ARGOB; the principal city, from which the whole region took its name. It is called in the Mishna, and by Jose- phus, Ragab, and Ragabah. Now Rājib, fifteen miles west from Jerash.—T. ARIANS; this ancient, extensive, and important sect was unquestionably so called from Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, in the early part of the fourth century. It is said that he aspired to episcopal honors; and after the death of Achilles, in A. D. 313, felt not a little cha- grined that Alexander should be preferred before him. Whether this circumstance had any influence on his opi- nions, it is impossible to say; but one day, when his rival (Alexander) had been addressing the clergy in favor of the orthodox doctrine, and maintaining, in strong and pointed language, “that the Son of God was co-eternal, co-essential, and co-equal with the Father,” Arius consi- dered this as a species of Sabellianism, and ventured to say, that it was inconsistent and impossible, since the Father, who begat, must be before the Son, who was be- gotten: the latter, therefore, could not be absolutely eter- nal. Alexander at first admonished Arius, and endeavored to convince him of his error, but without effect, except that he became more bold in contradiction. Some of the clergy thought their bishop too forbearing, and it is possi- ble he felt his inferiority of talent; for Arius was a man of accomplished learning and commanding eloquence, venerable in person, and fascinating in address. At length, Alexander was roused, and attempted to silence Arius by his authority; but this not succeeding, as the latter was bold and pertinacious, about the year 320, Alex- ander called a council of his clergy, by whom the refuted heretic was deposed and excommunicated. Arius now retired into Palestine, where his talents and address soon made a number of converts; and among the rest, the celebrated Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, and other bishops and clergy of those parts, who assembled in council, and received the excommunicated presbyter into their communion. Eusebius also, having great interest with Constantia, the sister of Constantine, and wife of Licinius, recommended Arius to her protection and patron- age, through which, and by his own eloquent letters to the clergy in various parts, his system spread with great ra. pidity, and to a vast extent. The emperor Constantine, who had no great skill in these matters, was grieved to see the Christian church (but just escaped from the red dragon of persecution) thus torn by intestine animosity and dissensions; he therefore determined to summon a general council of the clergy, which met at Nice, in A. D. 325, and contained more than three hundred bishops. Constantine attended in person, and strongly recommended peace and unanimity; and as an example of moderation and forbearance, when both parties presented to him their mutual criminations, he threw them into the fire without reading. Athanasius was the chief opponent of the Arians. Both parties were willing to subscribe to the language of the Scriptures, but each insisted on interpreting for them- selves. The Athanasians attempted to fix their sense on the sacred writers by scholastic terms, to which the Arians agreed, with various evasive exceptions. “Did the Trinita- rians (says Mr. Milner) assert that Christ was God?—The Arians allowed it, but in the same sense as holy men and angels are styled gods in Scripture. Did they affirm that he was truly God?—The others allowed that he was made so by God. Did they affirm that the Son was naturally of God?—It was granted; even we, said they, are of God, ‘of whom are all things.’ ” At length the Athanasians collected a number of texts, which they conceived amount- ed to full proof of the Son being of one and the same sub- stance with the Father; the Arians admitted he was of like substance—the difference in Greek being only in a single letter—the former being homousios, the latter homoi. 14.S20S. At length, the former was decreed to be the orthodox faith, and the Niceme creed was formed as it remains at this day, so far as concerns the person of the Son of God, who is said to be “begotten of his 'Father before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father, by, whom all things were made,” &c. Subsequent ad- ditions to this creed were made in the fifth and sixth centuries, with which we are not now concerned.—(Bur- nett, Art. VIII. Bp., Tomline's Elements, vol. ii. p. 218.) To this creed was subjoined an anathema against all that say, “There was a time when the Son of God was not;” which anathema bas been long since dropped, perhaps as unnecessary, since the damnatory clauses of the Athana- sian creed have been introduced. Arius was now excommunicated as a heretic, and ban- ished to Illyricum, where also he was soon after proscrib- ed, and obliged to flee farther. After three or four years, however, Arius and his followers were recalled, (for what reason, or under what circumstances, historians are not well agreed, and the emperor insisted on his being re- ceived into the communion of the church of Alexandria. That church, however, with Athanasius now at their head, refused to receive him. Upon this, the emperor sent for Arius to Constantinople, and insisted upon his being re- ceived into communion, by Alexander, bishop of that city. However, on the day before this was to have taken place, Arius died suddenly from a complaint in his bowels. Some attributed this to poison; others to the prayers of his enemies; but it is at least possible, that it might pro- ceed from a natural cause, with which neither prayernor poison was connected. The emperor did not long survive, and Constantius, his successor, was warmly attached to the Arian cause, as were all the court party. . Successive emperors took diffe- rent sides, and thus was the peace of the church agitated for many years, and practical religion sacrificed alternate- ly to the dogmas or the interests of one party or the other; and each was in turn excommunicated, fined, imprisoned, or banished. Constantius supported Arianism most tri- umphantly. Julian laughed at both parties, but per- secuted neither. Jovian supported the Nicene doctrine. A R I A R I [ 112 | Valentinian, and his brother Valens, took contrary sides; the former supporting Athanasianism in the west, and the latter Arianism in the east; so that what was orthodoxy at Rome, was heresy at Constantinople, and vice versa. At length, the bishop of Rome assumed the power of infal- libility, and fixed the Athanasian doctrine at Rome, while the African and eastern churches, which rejected his authority, supported Arianism, or some of its subdivisions. The Arians themselves were indeed by no means unani- mous, but divided into various shades of sentiment, under their respective leaders; as, Eusebians, Eudoxians, Aca- cians, Aetians, &c., most of which will be found in this work; but the more general distinction was into Arians and Semi-Arians; the former sinking the character of the Son of God into that of a mere creature, while the latter admitted every thing but the homousian doctrine, or his absolute equality with the Father. * After this period, we hear little of Arianism, till it was revived in the beginning of the last century, by the honest but eccentric Mr. Whiston, Mr. Emlyn, and Dr. Samuel Clarke. The latter being what may be called a high, or Semi-Arian, who came within a shade of orthodoxy; the two former, low Arians, reducing the rank of our Savior to the scale of angelic beings—a creature “made out of nothing.” Since this time, however, both Arians and So- cinians are supposed to be extinct, or nearly so; being sunk into the common appellation of Unitarians, or rather Humanitarians, who believe the Savior (as Dr. Priestly ex- presses it) to be “a man like themselves.” The last ad- vocates of the pure Arian doctrine, of any celebrity, were Mr. Henry Taylor (under the signature of Ben Mordecai) and Dr. Richard Price, in his “Sermons on the Christian Doctrine.” Before we close this article, it may be proper to observe, that the Arians, though they denied the absolute eternity of the Son, strongly contended for his pre-existence, as the Logos, or the Word of God, “by whom the worlds were made;” and admitted, more or less explicitly, the sacri- fice which he offered for sin upon the cross. The chief ground on which they opposed the Nicene doctrine is, that Christ himself speaks of the Father in terms of supe- riority, “My Father is greater than I.” John 14:28. “I come in my Father's name.” “I ascend to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God,” &c. John 20: 17. To these were added many other passages in the New Testament, which appeared to ascribe superiority of rank, of wisdom, and of glory, to the Father. How these were accounted for by the Athanasians, will be stated under that article.—Williams ; Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. vol. i. p. 412, and see Milner's Ch. Hist, vol. ii. chaps. 3 and 4; Evans's Sketch, p. 100, ed. 1821; R. Adam's R. W. vol. ii. p. 123, &c.; Jones's Dict. of Religious Opinions; Dr. Jor- tin’s Hist. of Arianism. ARIAS MONTANUS, (BENEDICT;) a Spanish orien- talist, born in Estremadura, in 1527, died in 1598. In addition to his thorough knowledge of the oriental and classical languages, he spoke fluently the German, Fle- mish, French, and Portuguese. Philip II. of Spain, confid- ed to him the editing of the Polyglot Bible, which is known as the Antwerp or royal Bible. Arias was as re- markable for his modesty and disinterestedness, as for his learning; a bishopric was offered him, but he preferred the retirement of his hermitage, and his only bed was a cloak spread upon the bare boards. Among his most esteemed works, is his treatise on Jewish antiquities. ARIEL, the lion of God, is understood of the city of Jerusalem, in Isaiah 29: 1, 2, 7. and is thought to mean “city of heroes.” ARIMATHEA, the native place of Joseph, who begged and obtained from Pilate, the body of Jesus, after his cru- cifixion. Its situation is unknown. Eusebius and Jerome supposed it to be the same as Ramathem, the Greek form of the Hebrew Ramathaim, on the mountains eastward from Lydda, and as the Ramathaim Zophim of Samuel. While Palestine was in the possession of the crusaders, it was supposed to have been on the summit of a mountain, about five miles north-west from Jerusalem; whence the mountain is still called Neby Samwil, i. e. “Samuel the prophet.” This, however, cannot have been the residence of Samuel, where he had his first interview with Saul, as it is in plain sight of Gibeah, Saul's residence, and less than three miles distant; while Rachel's sepulchre is Seven or eight miles to the south, near Bethlehem. See 1 Sam. 10: 2–5. Still less can it have been at Ramleh, a modern town, built by the Saracens in the eighth cen- tury.—T. dº --- ARISTARCHUS; spoken of by St. Paul, in his Epistle to the Colossians, 4: 10., and often mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. He was a Macedonian, and a native of Thessalonica. He accompanied St. Paul to Ephesus, and there continued with him during the two years of his abode in that place, sharing with him in all the dangers and labors of the ministry. Acts 19:29, 20:4. 27: 2. He was near losing his life in a tumult raised by the Ephesian silversmiths. He left Ephesus with the apostle, and went with him into Greece. From thence he attend- ed him into Asia; from Asia into Judea, and from Judea to Rome.— Watson. ARISTOBULUS, of whom Paul speaks, (Rom. 16:10.) was, according to the modern Greeks, brother of Barnabas, and one of the seventy disciples; was ordained a bishop by Barnabas, or by Paul, whom he followed in his travels; was sent into Britain, where he labored much, made many converts, and at last died. Mr. Taylor thinks there is good reason for believing that Aristobulus was a Christian minister, who was absent in Britain, with part of the fa- mily of Brennus, the British king, at the time when Paul saluted his family. The evidence of the Welsh triads he holds to be clear to this effect; and there seems to be no cause of suspicion, either of the falsity of the assertion, or of any interpolation in these documents: and, certainly, the Greeks and the Britons are witnesses perfectly inde- pendent of each other; so that collusion is out of the question. If Aristobulus were ordained by Paul, we see how the Britons might be “disciples of the tent maker,” as they are called by Theodoret, even if Paul never visit. ed Britain in person. (See CHRISTIANITY, History of.)— Calmet. ARISTOTELIANS ; the disciples of Aristotle, a fa. mous Grecian philosopher, who flourished nearly five hundred years before the Christian era. He was ſe dis- ciple of Plato, and the preceptor of Alexander the Great, by whom he was so highly respected, that he hesitated not to say, that he was under greater obligations to him for his instructions, than to his own father for his being. There is no doubt, but that with his philosophical dogmas, he communicated to his royal pupil many noble senti- ments; but, at the same time, he set before him models of heroism, from his favorite author, Homer, that inspired his mind with those maxims of ambition, which made him a scourge and a reproach to humanity. After he had parted from Alexander, who set out, with the approbation of his tutor, on the mad exploit of con- quering the world, Aristotle, inspired also with the like ambition, opened the Lyceum as a school of philosophy, in opposition to the Academy, then occupied by Xeno- crates. The Lyceum was a grove which had been used for military exercises; and here he held daily conversa- tions on philosophy, walking as he discoursed; from whence his followers received the name of Peripatetics. According to the practice of the Greeks and Egyptians, whose object was not to enlighten the world, but to ad- vance their own fame, Aristotle had his public and his se- cret doctrines—the exoteric and esoteric (or acroamatic) philosophy. The latter, comprehending his metaphysics and mystical doctrines, was taught to a few select pupils of a morning; in the evening, the Lyceum was open to all his pupils, who were taught logic, rhetoric, moral and political philosophy. The one he used to call his morning, and the other his evening walk. These lectures he con- tinued for twelve years, during the life of Alexander; after which his enemies prevailed, and he was obliged to leave Athens. The principles of Aristotle have afforded matter for much inquiry and considerable dispute, being in all cases remarkably obscure. In physics, his principal discovery was a “first matter,” destitute of all the properties of mat- ter. The honor of this notable discovery is, however, claimed by the Pythagoreans for their master; but the point is now of little moment. He believed in the “eter- A R K A R K [ 113 ] nity of the world,” i. e. the universe, but denied the eter- nity of its elements, His notion of a God is that of the first mover in this system, (the primum mobile,) the “soul of the world,” to which he allows “intelligence, desire, and affection :” yet this mysterious Being, according to him, acts not voluntarily, but from necessity; and hence the origin of the doctrine of fate. So true is it, that “the world by wisdom knew not God.” In ethics, he taught that happiness consists in the virtu- ous exercise of the mind; and virtue in preserving the golden mean between extremes. The soul of man he considered as an emanation from the Deity, but says no- thing of its immortality.—Enfield's Hist. of Philos. book ii. chap. 9. § 1; Williams. ARIUS. (See ARIANs.) ARK OF NOAH ; in Hebrew, thebeth. The term the- bºth used by Moses is different from the common name by which he describes a coffer; and is the same that he em- ploys when speaking of the little wicker basket in which he was exposed on the Nile; whence some have thought that the ark was of wicker-work. It was a sort of bark, in shape and appearance much like a chest or trunk. The ancients inform us, that the Egyptians used on the Nile, barks made of bulrushes, which were so light, as to be carried on their shoulders, when they met with falls of water, that prevented their passage. Noah’s ark was, in all probability, says Calmet, in form like these Egyptian boats, but much larger. 1. Its capacity and dimensions. The greatest difficulty refers, principally, to its size and capacity; and how Noah was able to build a vessel sufficient to contain the men and beasts, with provisions requisite for their support, during a whole year. To resolve these difficulties, it has been requisite to inquire very particularly into the mea- sure of the cubit mentioned by Moses, into the number of the creatures admitted into the ark, and into the dimen- sions of this vast building. After the nicest examination and computation, and taking the dimensions with the greatest geometrical exactness, the most learned and ac- curate calculators, and those most conversant in building of ships, conclude, that if the ablest mathematicians had been consulted about proportioning the several apartments In the ark, they could not have done it with greater cor- rectness than Moses has done ; and this narration in the sacred history is so far from ſurnishing deists with argu- ments wherewith to weaken the authority of the Holy Scriptures, that, on the contrary, it supplies good argu- ments to confirm that authority; since it seems, in a man- ner, impossible for a man, in Noah's time, when naviga- tion was not perfected, by his own wit and invention, to discover such accuracy and regularity of proportion, as is remarkable in the dimensions of the ark; it follows, that the correctness must be attributed to Divine inspiration, and a supernatural direction.—Wilkins's Essay tonards a Real Character, part ii. cap. 5; Saurin, Discours Historique, &c. tom. i. p. 87, 88. Dr. Hales proves the ark to have been of the burden of forty-two thousand four hundred and thirteen tons; and asks, “Can we doubt of its being sufficient to contain eight persons, and about two hundred or two hundred and fifty pair of four-footed animals, (a number to which, ac- cording to M. Buffon, all the various distinct species may be reduced,) together with all the subsistence necessary for a twelve-month, with the fowls of the air, and such reptiles and insects as cannot live under water ?” All these various animals were controlled by the power of God, whose special agency is supposed in the whole trans- action, and “the lion was made to lie down with the kid.” Besides places for the beasts and birds, and their provisions, Noah might find room on the third story for thirty-six cabins, occupied by household utensils, instruments of husbandry, books, grains, and seeds; for a kitchen, a hall, four chambers, and a space of about forty-eight cu- bits, in length, to walk in. Whether Noah was commanded to bring with him, into the ark, a pair of all living creatures, zoologically and numerically considered, has been doubted. During the long period between the creation and the flood, animals must have spread themselves over a great part of the an- tediluvian earth, and certain animals would, as now, pro- bably become indigenous to certain climates. The pairs saved must, therefore, if all the kinds were included, have travelled from immense distances. But of such marches, no intimation is given in the history; and this seems to render it probable that the animals which Noah was “to bring with him” into the ark, were the animals, clean and unclean, of the country in which he dwelt, and which, from the capacity of the ark, must have been in great va- riety and number. The terms used, it is true, are univer- sal; and it is satisfactory to know, that if taken in the largest sense, there was ample accommodation in the ark. Nevertheless, universal terms in Scripture are not always to be taken mathematically; and in the vision of Peter, the phrase, panta ta tetrapoda tes ges, -all the four-footed beasts of the earth, must be understood of varii generis quadru- pedes, as Schleusner paraphrases it. . Thus we may easily account for the exuviae of animals, whose species no longer exist, which have been discovered in various places. The number of such extinct species probably has been greatly overrated by Cuvier; but of the fact, to a con siderable extent, there can be no doubt. It is also to be observed, that the presumptive evidence of the truth of the fact of the preparation of such a vessel, and of the super natural circumstances which attended it, is exceedingly strong. It is, in truth, the only solution of a difficulty which has no other explanation ; for as a universal deluge is confirmed by the general history of the world, and by a variety of existing facts and monuments, such a structure as the ark, for the preservation and sustenance of various animals, seems to have been absolutely necessary; for as we can trace up the first imperfect rudiments of the art of ship-building amongst the Greeks, there could be no ships before the flood; and, consequently, no animals could have been saved. Nay, it is highly improbable that even men and domestic animals could be saved, not to mention wild beasts, serpents, &c., though we should ad- mit that the antediluvians had shipping, unless we should suppose, also, that they had a divine intimation respecting the flood, such as Moses relates; but this would be to give up the cause of infidelity. 2. The time of its construction. It is generally under- stood to have been completed in the 1656th year of the world, at the time when the deluge commenced; but how long Noah was employed in preparing it, is not so appa- rent. According to the Mahometan writers, it was begun in the year 1654, which allows only two years for its con- struction; according to rabbi Tanchuma, it was begun in 1604, which allows fifty-two years; according to Berosus, in 1578, which allows seventy-eight; according to others, in 1556, which allows one hundred; and, according to most authors, in 1536, which allows one hundred and twenty. The two last are the most probable suppositions, and receive some support from the testimony of sacred Scripture. In favor of the first of these, it is alleged, that Noah is stated to have been five hundred years old im- mediately before the ark is mentioned; and six hundred, when the deluge took place. Gen. 5:32. 7: 6. While it is urged on the other hand, from 1 Pet. 3:20. compared with Gen. 6: 3., that the ark appears to have been prepar- ing during the whole period of the Divine forbearance, viz, one hundred and twenty years. 3. The place where built. On this point, also, there are very different opinions. One writer fixes upon the plains of Sodom, in Palestine; another upon mount Caucasus, on the confines of India; a third, upon some part of Chi- na; and the greater part, upon the territory of Babylon, in Chaldea. In order to determine this matter, several considerations have been proposed; such as, that Noah cannot be supposed to have removed far from the neigh- borhood of Eden; that, as the ark was not fitted for mov- ing to a great distance, it must have been constructed near the place where it rested, viz. mount Ararat; that, as much timber would be required for so large a vessel, it must have been built where the particular wood of which it was made abounded. But all these points are themselves subjects of dispute; and it is not fully deter- mined where Eden and Ararat are situated, or what was the tree from which the vessel in question was formed. 4. Its materials. Here the Scripture says expressly, that the ark was built of gopher wood; and covered over 15 & N A R K A R K [ 114 | with bitumen, or pitch. But there is an amazing diversity of opinion as to the kind of wood denoted by the term gopher. By the LXX, it is rendered square timber, i.e. timber squared by the workman, or, according to Vossius, the timber of those trees which shoot out quadrangular branches in the same horizontal line, such as fir, pine, eedar, &c.; by Jerome, in the Vulgate, it is rendered smoothed or plane timber; by Aben Ezra and Kimchi, light floating wood; by others, wood that does not easily corrupt, such as box and cedar; by others, pitched wood; by others, again, it is even rendered wicker-work, basket- work; and it is interpreted by Parkhurst, as probably nothing more than a general name for such trees as abound with resinous inflammable juices, as the cedar, cy- press, fir, pine, &c. Cedar is the wood which best cor- responds with the greater number of these different signi- fications, as it is light and quadrangular in its branches, durable and incorruptible, resinous and inflammable; as it is abundant also in Asia, known to have been employed by the Assyrians and Egyptians in the construction of ships, and supported by the interpretations of Onkelos and Jonathan, and most of the old rabbins. Fuller and Bo. chart, however, maintain it to have been the cypress; be- cause its Greek name bears a near resemblance to the Hebrew of gopher; because it was considered by the an- cients as the most durable wood against rot and worms; because it abounded in Assyria, where the ark was proba- bly built; and because it was well calculated, and was frequently used, for ship-building, especially by Alexander the Great, who built a whole fleet from the cypress groves in the neighborhood of Babylon. 5. Its form. From the description given in the sacred Writings, it appears to have had the figure of an oblong square, with a flat bottom and sloping roof; without any º * * N º • , sº | º 3 ºr 6 yº w ſ A. º * jºššs& AššŠ º º Nº. #) s: tº f §§§ ſ: 'ſ , S: f ſ 㺠* ºilſ g | sºil & J. º º - - sº #: º # * º- ºs- *::::::::::::::::::::::: º º &: * sº kind of helm, or mast, or oars; formed to lie upon the water without rolling, and intended to float rather than to sail. Some persons have started difficulties with regard to the square and oblong figure of the ark; but they did not consider that this vessel was not designed for sailing or rowing, but chiefly for floating on the water a considera- ble time. Besides, it may be proved, by instances, that its form was not less commodious for rowing, than capa- cious for carrying. George Hornius, in his “History of the several Empires,” tells us, that in the beginning of the seventeenth century, one Peter Hans, of Horne, had two ships built after the model and proportions of the ark; one was one hundred and twenty feet long, twenty wide, and twelve deep. These vessels had the same fate with Noah's, being at first objects of ridicule and raillery; but experience demonstrated, that they carried a third part more than others, though they did not require a larger crew : they were better sailers, and made their way with much more swiftness. The only inconvenience found in them was, that they were fit only for times of peace, be- cause they were not proper to carry guns.—(Le Pelletier, Dissert. Sur l’Arche de Noe, cap. ii. p. 29, 30.) The pro- portions of the ark, Mr. Taylor remarks, nearly agree with those of the human figure, so that it resembled a dead body laid out for burial: three hundred cubits in length is six times its breadth, fifty cubits. Now the body of a man lying on the water, flat on his back, will float with- out any exertion, so far as to keep the mouth above water, and the nose free for the purpose of breathing. It should seem, therefore, that similar proportions might suit a ves- sel whose purpose was floating only –and we do not know whether we have not been betrayed into erroneous conceptions of the structure of the ark, by supposing it to pass violently from one place to another, or to be driven by storms; whereas, it is not impossible that it might be as if at anchor all the time; and the surges might not greatly, if at all, exceed those we are now acquainted with. - ^, 6. Corroborative testimony. Mr. Bryant has collected a variety of ancient historical relations, which show that some records concerning the ark had been preserved among most nations of the world, and in the general sys tem of gentile mythology. Abydenus, with whom all the eastern writers concur, informs us that the place of de- scent from the ark was Armenia, and that its remains had been preserved for a long time. Plutarch mentions the Noachic dove, and its being sent out of the ark. Lu- cian speaks of Deucalion's going forth from the ark, and raising an altar to God. The priests of Ammonia had a custom, at particular seasons, of carrying in procession a boat, in which was an oracular shrine, held in great vene- ration : and this custom of carrying the deity in an ark or boat, was in use also among the Egyptians. Bishop Po- cocke has preserved three specimens of ancient sculpture, in which this ceremony is displayed. They were very ancient, and found by him in Upper Egypt. The ship of Isis referred to the ark, and its name, “Baris,” was that of the mountain corresponding to Ararat in Armenia. Bryant finds reference to the ark in the temples of the serpent-worship, called Dracontia ; and also in that of Se- sostris, fashioned after the model of the ark, in commemo- ration of which it was built, and consecrated to Osiris at Theba ; and he conjectures that the city, said to be one of the most ancient in Egypt, as well as the province, was denominated from it; Theba being the appellation of the ark. In other countries, as well as in Egypt, an ark, or ship, was introduced in their mysteries, and often carried about in the seasons of their festivals. He finds, also, in the story of the Argonauts, several particulars that are thought to refer to the ark of Noah. As many cities, not in Egypt only and Boeotia, but in Cilicia, Ionia, Attica, Phthiotis, Cataonia, Syria, and Italy, were called Theba ; So likewise the city Apamea was denominated Cibotus, from kibotos, in memory of the ark, and of the history con- nected with it. The ark, according to the traditions of the gentile world, was prophetic; and was regarded as a kind of temple, or residence of the deity. It comprehend- ed all mankind, within the circle of eight persons, who Were thought to be so highly favored of heaven, that they at last were reputed to be deities. Hence in the ancient mythology of Egypt, there were precisely eight gods; and the ark was esteemed an emblem of the system of the heavens. . The principal terms by which the ancients dis- tinguished the ark were, Theba, Baris, Arguz, Aren, Arene, Arni, Laris, Boutas, Boeotus, and Cibotus; and out of these they formed different personages. (See Dg- LUGe.) In his investigations, Mr. Taylor takes Dionysius, or the Indian Bacchus, for a personification of the great patriarch Noah; and assumes, that the cista mystica, or sacred alle. gorical chest, anciently carried in the Dionysiac proces- sions, commemorated the instrument of preservation, by means of which a family of mankind had escaped destrug. tion when involved in the calamities which accompanied the deluge. It will be recollected, that this thebeth has been already supposed only to float, hovering about the place where it was stationed ; to be gradually (and, com- paratively, slowly) surrounded by the flood, and to be lift- ed up, for a short time only, on the face of water twenty- two feet in depth ; and moreover, to be re-settled on its broad basis, and its projecting supports, by the earliest diminution of the retiring waves. - In a series of pictures, representing ceremonies in honor of Bacchus, in the Antiquities of Herculaneum, (vol. ii. p. 135.), appears what may be thought, with some probabi- lity, the nearest approach in form to the Noachical ark. A woman is carrying on her shoulder a square box, hav. ing a projecting roof, and at the end a Door. This door A. R. K. A R K [ 115 J is a distinguishing circumstance; for it plainly marks this receptacle as a house : it cannot be a mere box for ordi- nary uses, as the difficulty of putting things in, and taking them out, through so narrow an aperture, sufficiently de- monstrates: neither is the angular roof, with its conside- rable projection, analagous to the purposes of a mere box; moreover, being carried in a commemorative procession, it is clearly a sacred thebeth, or trunk, that is, that in which Dionysius was preserved. It has no pillars to character- ize it as a votive temple ; neither is the door-way propor- tioned to the entrance of a temple; as it risés nearly to the roof. Moreover, the ark was esteemed a symbol ap- propriate to Bacchus; and, in his processions, idols, or other mysteries referring to that deity, were inclosed in it. It was the same among the Egyptians. Observe fur- ther, that the LXX in Genesis translate thebah, “kibotos;” in Exodus they retain, the original, thebin ; whereas Epi- phanius, Chrysostom, Theophilus of Antioch, and others, use the word larnax, the same as among the gentiles de- scribed the ark of Bacchus. The cista mystica of the Bac- chic rites, contained the most direct allusion to the great progenerator of mankind: when it was not the god him- selſ, it was the virile part of him ; but, sometimes, a bas- ket of early fruit, or seed corn, was substituted; implying that Bacchus was the person who first taught mankind husbandry; and that fertility was his character and es- sence. Theocritus says, that Pentheus was pulled to pieces by the female Bacchantes, for prying into the sa- cred things which they took out of the cista to place on the altars; and Catullus says, the rites of the cista were cele- brated in the utmost secrecy. The heathen always carri- ed the cista on the shouldér; and the person who carried it was called Kistophorus, says Suidas. (See Exod. 25: 14. and UzzAH.) - The annexed medal, which is preserved in the cabinet of the king of France, is too remarkable to be overlooked; (§ ſº, N and having been particularly scrutinized by the late abbé Barthelemy, at the desire of the late Dr. Combe, was, by that able antiquary, pronounced authentic. It bears on one side the head of Severus; on the other, a history in two parts; representing, first, two figures inclosed in an ark, or chest, sustained by stout posts at the corners, and well timbered throughout. On the side are letters; on the top is a dove; in front, the same two figures which we see in the ark are represented as come out, and departing from their late residence. Hovering over them is the dove, with a sprig in its bill. (Double histories are com- mon on medals.) The situation of these figures implies the situation of the door; and clearly commemorates an escape from the dangers of water, by means of a floating vessel. Whether these particulars can be, without diffi. culty, referred to the history of Deucalion and Pyrrha, as usually understood, will be strongly doubted by all who duly contemplate the subject. Moreover, Mr. Bryant in- forms us, that the letters on the ark are N O E, as will be evident from close inspection of the medal. It is unwise to depend too strongly on a single evidence; but it is not improper to submit, (1.) that the patriarch was known in Grecian antiquity by the name of Noe; (2.) that it is not impossible to explain the cause why all the medals, includ- ing the genuine, purport to be struck at Apamea. 7. Importance of the subject. It is possible, says Mr. Taylor, whom we are quoting, that the reader may not at first perceive the propriety of attaching so great impor- tancé to the history of Noah's deliverance and its com- memoration; and thence he proceeds to justify his not unlaborious investigations. The outcry of a certain class of reasoners against Revelation has long been, he observes, “Bring us FACTs which ALL THE worLD AGREE IN : FACTs ADMITTED, ESTABLISHED, BY UNBIASSED EVIDENCE,” &c. If, in answer to this, we adduce proof that the Christian dis- pensation is from above, we are reminded—“How few of mankind receive it: Christ's own nation deny the subject of it; heathen lands refuse him.” If we advert to Moses —“What a leader of a pitiſul horde of leprous slaves | at most, a legislator acknowledged by a single nationſ and that a stupid nation too.” . To establish the assertion, therefore, that Deity has condescended to make known his intentions to man, he invites such persons to investigate the instance of Noah :—Was the deluge, he asks, a real occurrence 2—All mankind acknowledge it. Wherever tradition has been maintained, wherever written records are preserved, wherever commemorative rites have been instituted, what has been their subject? . The deluge : de- liverance from destruction by a flood. The savage and the sage agree in this : North and South, East and West, relate the danger of their great ancestor from overwhelm- ing waters.—But he was saved: and how 2–By personal exertion ? By long-supported swimming 2 By conceal- ment in the highest mountains 2 No: but by enclosure in a large floating edifice of his own construction—his own construction, for this particular purpose. But this labor was long; this was not the work of a day; he must have ForeKNowN so astonishing an event, a considerable time previous to its actual occurrence.— Whence did he receive this ForekNowLEDGE 2 Did the earth inform him, that at twenty, thirty, forty years’ dis- tance, it would disgorge a flood —Surely not. Did the stars announce that they would dissolve the terrestrial at- mosphere in terrific rains 2—Surely not. Whence, then, had Noah his for EKNowLeDGE * Did he begin to build when the first showers descended ? This was too late. Had he been accustomed to rains formerly—why think them now of importance? Had he never seen rain— what could induce him to provide against it? Why this year more than last year;-why last year more than the year before? These inquiries are direct: we cannot flinch from the fact. Erase it from the Mosaic records; still it is recorded in Greece, in Egypt, in India, and in Britain : it is registered in the very sacra of the pagan world, and is annually renewed by commemorative imitation, where the liberty of opinion is not fettered by prejudices derived from Hebrew institutions, or by the “sophisticated” in- ventions of Christianity.—“Go, infidel,” he adds, “turn to the right hand, or to the left hand : take your choice of difficulties: disparage all mankind as fools, as willing dupes to superstitious commemoration, as leagued through- out the world to delude themselves in order to impugn your wisdom, your just-thinking, your love of truth, your unbiassed integrity; or allow that THIS FACT, at least this one fact, is established by testimony abundantly sufficient; but remember, that if it be established, it implies a cowſ- MUNICATION FROM GOD To MAN.—WHO could INForM NoAH! Why did not that great patriarch provide against Fire 2–against Earthquakes 2—against Explosions?—Why against a Deluge 2–why against Water P-Away with subterfuge. Say frankly, ‘This was the dictation of A R K A R M [ 116 Deity;” say, ‘Only HE who made the world could predict the time, the means, the causes of this devastation; only HE could excite the hope of restoration, or suggest a method of deliverance.” Use your own language; but permit a humble believer to adopt language already, re- corded: ‘By faith, Noah—being narned of God—of things never seen as yet—in pious fear—prepared the ark (kibotos) to the saving of his family—by which he condemned the norld.’ —May a similar condemnation never rest on us, who must at least admit the truth of one text in the Bible—or stand convicted by the united voice of all mankind, and by the testimony of the earth, the now shattered, the now disordered earth itself l’”—Calmet ; Watson ; Jones. . ARK OF THE COVENANT; a small chest or coffer, three feet nine inches in length, two feet three inches in breadth, and the same in height, in which were contained the golden pot that had manna, with Aaron's rod, and the tables of the covenant. Exod. 25: 10–16. Numb. 17: 10. with Heb. 9: 4. It was made of shittim-wood, and covered with the mercy-seat, which was of solid gold. At either end was a cherubim, looking towards each other, with expanded wings, which, embracing the whole cir- cumference of the mercy-seat, met in the centre of it. Exod. 25: 17–22, and ch. 37: 1–9. On this ark, the Shechinah, or symbol of the Divine presence, rested, both in the tabernacle and temple, manifesting itself in the appearance of a cloud, as it were, hovering over it. Lev. 16: 2. And from thence, as often as Jehovah was con- sulted in behalf of his people, the divine oracles were given out by an audible voice. Hence it is that God is said to dwell between the cherubims, upon the mercy- seat; because that was the throne of the visible appear- ance of his glory among them. 2 Kings 19:15. 1 Chron. 13: 6. Ps. 80: 1. And for this reason, the high-priest, once every year, on the great day of expiation, appeared before the mercy-seat, to make atonement for the people. Heb. 9: 7. On either side of the ark, were two rings of gold, through which staves overlaid with gold were passed, and by means of which, as they journeyed through the wilderness, it was carried on the shoulders of the Levites. Exod. 25: 13, 14. When the Hebrews passed through Jordan, Joshua commanded the priests who bare the ark to proceed with it before them, which they did; and as soon as their feet touched the brink of the river, its waters instantly divided, leaving them to pass over on dry ground, “ and the priests that bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord stood firm on dry ground in the midst of Jordan; and all the Israelites passed over on dry ground, until all the people were passed clean over Jordan.” Josh. 3: 14 —17. After the passage of Jordan, the ark continued for some time at Gilgal, from whence it was removed to Shi- loh. From this place the Israelites carried it to their camp, where in an engagement with the Philistines it fell into the hands of the latter, who placed it in the temple of their idol Dagon, when the latter fell down and was broken in pieces before it; and in consequence of detain- ing it, they were so aſſlicted with emerods, that they re- turned it to the Hebrews. It halted at Bethshemesh, after this, where the people, for profanely looking into it, incur- red the Divine displeasure, and fiſty thousand of them were struck dead. It was then lodged at Kirjath-jearim, and afterwards at Nob. Numb. 10: 33–36. 1 Sam. 4: 5: 6: 7: 2 Sam. 6: David determined to convey it from IKirjath-jearim, after a different manner; and accordingly had it placed upon a new cart which was drawn by oxen; but the latter causing the ark to shake, Uzzah put forth his hand to prevent its fall, when the anger of the Lord was kindled against him, and he was instantly struck dead for his presumption. This awful judgment filled David with terror, and caused him to leave it during three months at the house of Obed-edom ; it was, however, re- moved from thence to his palace in Jerusalem; and when Solomon had built and dedicated the temple, he there fixed it, in the most holy place; 1 Chron. 15:25–28, 1 Kings 8:1–11. The hundred and thirty-second psalm was evidently written on one of these occasions, and is easily understood when thus applied. g It remained in the temple till the times of the last kings of Judah, who gave themselves up to idolatry, and even dared to place their idols in the holy temple itself, The priests, being unable to bear this profanation, took the ark and carried it from place to place, to preserve it from the hands of those impious princes. Josiah commanded them to bring it back to the sanctuary, and it was accord- ingly replaced. 2 Chron, 35. 3. What became of the ark at the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar, is a dispute among the rabbins. , Had it been carried to Babylon with the other vessels of the temple, it would, in all probability, have been brought back with them, at the close of the captivity. But that this was not the case, is agreed on all hands; whence it is probable that it was destroyed with the temple. The ark of the covenant was, as it were, the centre of worship to all those of the Hebrew nation who served God according to the Levitical law; and not only in the tem- ple, when they came thither to worship, but every where else in their dispersions through the whole world; when- ever they prayed, they turned their faces towards the place where the ark stood, and directed all thcir devotions that way. Dan. 6: 10. Whence the author of the book of Cosri justly says, that the ark, with the mercy-seat and cherubim, were the foundation, root, heart, and marrow of the whole temple, and all the Levitical worship perform- ed therein; and, therefore, had there been nothing else wanting in the second temple but the ark only, this alone would have been a sufficient reason for the old men to have wept when they remembered the first temple in which it stood; and for the saying of Haggai, 2. 3., that the second temple was as nothing, compared with the first ; so great a share had the ark of the covenant in the glory of Solomon's temple. However, the defect was supplied as to the outward form, for in the second temple there was also an ark of the same dimensions with the first, and put in the same place; but it wanted the tables of the law, Aaron's rod, and the pot of manna; nor was there any appearance of the Divine glory over it; nor any oracles delivered from it. The only use that was made of it, was to be a representation of the former on the great day of expiation, and to be a repository of the holy Scrip- tures, that is, of the original copy of that collection of them made by Ezra after the captivity; in imitation of which the Jews, in all their synagogues, have a like ark or coffer, in which they keep their Scriptures. For the temple of Solomon a new ark was not made ; but he constructed cherubim in the most holy place, which were designed to give additional state to this most sacred symbol of God’s grace and mercy. These cherubim were fifteen feet high, and were placed at equal distance from the centre of the ark and from each side of the wall, so that their wings being expanded, the two wings which were extended behind touched the wall, and the other two met over the ark, and so overshadowed it. When these magnificent cherubim were finished, the ark was brought in and placed under their wings. 2 Chron. 5: 7–10. The ark was called the ark of the covenant, because it was a symbol of the covenant between God and his peo- ple. It was also named the ark of the testimony, because the two tables which were deposited in it were witnesses against every transgression.—Jones ; Watson. ARM. The whole power and resources of men are often in Scripture, by an easy image, called their arm ; because on the exertion of them they depend, and by them they are qualified for the execution of their purposes. Ps. 10: 15. 38; 17. How forcible and full of beauty, in this point of view, is that passage, Jer, 17: “Cursed is the man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm ſ” How just the confidence of IIezekiah against Sennacherib. 2 Chron. 32: 8. “With him is an arm of flesh : but with us is the Lord our God, to help us,’ and to fight our bat- tles 22 It would seem to have been a custom with ancient war- riors, when hotly engaged in battle, and aiming to strike an effectual blow, to make bare the arm. So in allusion to this, when some extraordinary and decisive exertion of Divine power is adverted to, it is not unusual for the sa- cred writers to describe it as making bare, revealing, and stretching out the arm. Isa. 52: 10, Hence, these phrases always signify some signal act of Jehovah for the destruc. tion of his enemies, and the deliverance of his people; or for the demonstration of his truth among men. Isa, 53: 1. A R M A R M. 117 But inasmuch as the power of God is usually exerted in behalf of his church in intimate connection with that of the church herself, we may hence understand the im- port of Isa. 51:9, which is the call of Zion on her God, “Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the Lord ;” which is followed by the call of God upon his people, “Awake, awake, put on thy strength, O Zion.” Isa. 52: 1. See a similar idea in Phil. 2: 12, 13. Yet, when in obe- dient love and humble dependence, we have exerted our- selves to the titmost, what sweet propriety is there in the grateful acknowledgment, “THOU HAST wroughT ALL our works IN Us.” Isa. 26: 12. ARMAGEDDON ; a place mentioned in the Apoca- lypse, ch. 16: 16, literally signifying the mountain of Megeddon, or Megiddo, a city situated in the great plain at the foot of mount Carmel, where king Josiah received his mortal wound in the battle with Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt. 2 Kings 23:29, 30. It is also the place where Barak overcame Sisera with his great army. Judges 5: 19. At Armageddon, the three unclean spirits coming out of the dragon's mouth, are to gather together the kings of the earth to the battle of the great day of God Al- mighty. Rev. 16:13, 14. ARMENIA; a province of Asia, comprising the mod- ern Turcomania, and part of Persia; having Georgia on the north; Curdistan, which was the ancient Assyria, on the South ; and Asia Minor, now called Natolia, on the west. This province includes the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, the Araxes and Phasis; and here also the country of Eden, in which paradise was situated, is supposed to lie. Armenia is often confounded with Aramaea, the land of Aram or Syria; but they are totally different. Armenia, which is separated from Aram by mount Taurus, was so denominated from Ar-Men, the mountainous country of Meni or Minni, the people of which country are mention- ed under this name by Jeremiah, when summoning the nations against Babylon. The people of this country have in all ages maintained a great similarity of character, partly commercial and partly pastoral. They have, in fact, in the northern parts of the Asiatic continent, been what the Cushites and Ish- maelites were in the South, tenders of cattle, living on the produce of their flocks and herds, and carriers of mer. chandise between the neighboring nations; a part living at home with their flocks, and a part travelling as mer- chants and dealers into distant countries. In the flourish- ing times of Tyre, the Armenians, according to Ezekiel, 27: 14, brought horses and mules to the markets of that city; and, according to Herodotus, they had a considera- ble trade in wine, which they sent down the Euphrates to Babylon, &c. At the present day, the Armenians are the principal traders of the east; and are to be found in the capacity of merchants or commercial agents all over Asia, a patient, frugal, industrious, and honest people, whose known character for these virtues has withstood the tyranny and extortions of the wretched governments under which they chiefly live. It cannot be supposed but that the Turks used every effort to impose on the conquered Armenians the doctrines of the Koran. More tolerant, indeed, than the Saracens, liberty of conscience was still not to be purchased of them but by great sacrifices, which for three centuries the Ar- menians have patiently endured, and exhibit to the world an honorable and solitary instance of a successful national opposition of Christianity to Mahometanism. They are distinguished by superior cultivation, man- ners, and honesty, from the barbarians under whose yoke they live, and even from the Greeks and Jews. The cause (says the Encyclopedia Americana) is to be found in their creed, and in their religious union; but particularly to the BIBLE, which is freely distributed among the people by the clergy in translations, that are esteemed valuable in theological literature. The written language owes its cultivation to the translation of the Bible, begun in A. D. 411, and finished in 511. With the Biblical literature of the Armenians, is connected their theological, historical, and mathematical literature; which has recently found many assiduous students in Paris.-Jones ; Watson ; Ency. Almer ARMENIAN CHURCH; a branch, originally, of the Greek church, residing in Armenia; but they are widely dispersed over all the countries of the East. They probá bly received Christianity in the fourth century. Their whole ecclesiastical establishment is under the government of four patriarchs; the first has his residence in Echmiadzin, or Egmiathin, near Irivan; the second at Sis, in the lesser Armenia; the third in Georgia; and the fourth in Achtamar, (or Altamar,) on the lake of Wan : but the power of the two last is bounded within their own dioceses, while the others have more extensive authority, and the patriarch of Egmiathin has (or had) under him eighteen bishops, beside those who are priors of monas- teries. The Armenians every where perſorm divine cervice in their own tongue, in which their liturgy and offices are written, in the dialect of the fourth or fifth centuries They have the whole Bible translated from the Septuagins, as they say, so early as the time of Chrysostom. The Armenian confession is similar to that of the Jaco- bite Christians, both being Monophysites, acknowledging but one nature in the person of Christ; but this, according to Mr. Simon, is little more than a dispute about terms, few of them being able to enter into the subtleties of polemics. - In the year 1664, an Armenian bishop, named Uscan, visited Europe for the purpose of getting printed the Ar- menian Bible, and communicated the above particulars to Mr. Simon. - They have among them a number of monasteries and convents, in which is maintained a severe discipline ; marriage is discountenanced, though not absolutely pro- hibited ; a married priest cannot obtain promotion, and the higher clergy are not allowed to marry. They wor- ship in the eastern manner, by prostration ; they are very superstitious, and their ceremonies much resemble those of the Greek church. Once in their lives they generally perform a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and in 1819, the number of Armenian pilgrims was 1300, nearly as many as the Greeks. Dr. Buchanan, however, says, “Of all the Christians in central Asia, they have preserved them- selves most free from Mahometan and papal corruptions.” For farther particulars, see SYRIAN CHRISTIANs.-Yeate's Indian Church. History, p. 47–70; Buchanan's Researches, p. 242; Father Simon's Religions of Eastern Nations, (Lond. 1685); Sir P. Rycant's Greek and Armenian Churches ; and especially Smith and Dnight's Researches. ARMIES. (See ARMY.) ARMINIANISM, strictly speaking, is that system of religious doctrine which was taught by Arminius, professor of divinity in the university of Leyden. (See ARMINIUs.) If therefore we would learn precisely what Arminianism is, we must have recourse to those writings in which that divine himself has stated and expounded his peculiar tenetS. This, however, will by no means give us an accurate idea of that which, since his time, has been usually de- nominated Arminianism. On examination, it will be found, that in many important particulars, those who have called themselves Arminians, or have been accounted such by others, differ far more widely from the nominal head and founder of their sect, than {e himself did from Calvin, and other doctors of Geneva. There are, indeed, certain points, with regard to which he has been strictly and uniformly followed by almost all his pretended ad- herents; but there are others of equal or of greater im- portance, dogmatically insisted on by them, to which he unquestionably never gave his sanction, and even appears to have been decidedly hostile. It may be proper, says Mr. Watson, to mention some tenets with regard to which Arminianism has been much misrepresented. If a man hold that good works are necessary to justification; if he maintain that faith in- cludes good works in its own nature; if he reject the doc- trine of original sin; if he deny that divine grace is re- quisite for the whole work of sanctification ; if he speak of human virtue as meritorious in the sight of God; it is very generally concluded, that he is an Arminian. But the truth is, that a man of such sentiments is properly a disciple of the Pelagian and Socinian schools. To such A R M A R MI I 118 J Bentiments pure Arminianism is as diametrically opposite as Calvinism itself. The genuine Arminians admit the corruption of human nature in its full extent. They ad- mit that we are justified by faith only. They admit that our justification originates solely in the grace of God. They admit that the procuring and meritorious cause of our justification is the righteousness of Christ. Propter quam, says Arminius, Deus credentibus peccatum condonet, eosque pro justis reputat non aliter atque si legem perfecte imple- vissent. They admit in this way that justification implies not merely forgiveness of sin, but acceptance, to everlast- ing happiness. Junctum habet adoptionem in filios, et colla- tionem juris in hereditatem vita: eterna. They admit, in fine, that the work of sanctification, from its very commence. ment to its perfection in glory, is carried on by the opera- tion of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God by Jesus Christ. So sound, indeed, are the Arminians with respect to the doctrine of justification, a doctrine so important and essential in the opinion of Luther, that he scrupled not to call it articulus ecclesiae stantis vel cadentis, that those who look into the writings of Arminius may be disposed to suspect him of having even exceeded Calvin in orthodoxy. It is certain, at least, that he declares his willingness to subscribe to every thing that Calvin has written on that leading subject of Christianity, in the third book of his Institutes; and with this declaration the tenor of his writ- ings invariably corresponds.” In the next year, after the death of Arminius, that is, in 1610, his followers and partisans presented a remon- strance against certain points of Calvinism, from which they received the name of Remonstrants. (See GROTIUs.) The chief differences were reduced to the famous FIVE PoinTs; which are thus stated by Mosheim. 1. “That God has not fixed the future state of man- kind by an absolute unconditional decree; but determined from all eternity to bestow salvation on those whom he foresaw would persevere unto the end in their faith in Jesus Christ, and to inflict everlasting punishment on those who should continue in their unbelief, and resist unto the end his divine succors.” See Ezek. 18:30–32. Acts 17: 24–30. Matt. 23:37. Rom. 2: 4, 5. 5: 18. 1 Tim. 2: 1–4. 2 Pet. 1: 10. 3: 9. 2. “That Christ, by his death and sufferings, made an atonement for the sins of all mankind in general, and of every individual in particular. That, however, none but those who believe in him can be partakers of the divine benefit.” See John 2: 2. 3:16, 17. Heb. 2:9. Isa. 50: 19, 20. 1 Cor. 8: 11. 3. “That true faith cannot proceed from the exercise of our natural faculties and powers, nor from the force and operation of free-will; since man, in consequence of his natural corruption, is incapable either of thinking or doing any good; and that therefore it is necessary to his conversion and salvation, that he be regenerated and re- newed by the operations of the Holy Ghost, which is the gift of God through Jesus Christ.” 4. “That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy Ghost, which heals the disorders of a corrupt nature, be- gins, advances, and brings to perfection, every thing that can be called good in man; and that, consequently, all good works, without exception, are to be attributed to God alone, and to the operation of his grace; that, neverthe- less, this grace is offered to all, and does not force men to act against their inclinations; but may be resisted, and rendered ineffectual, by the perverse will of the impenitent sinner.” Isa. 1: 16. Deut. 10: 16. Eph. 4; 22. 5. “That they who are united to Christ, by faith, are thereby furnished with abundant strength, and with suc- cors sufficient to enable them to triumph over the seduc- tion of Satan, and the allurements of sin and temptation; but that the question, ‘Whether such may fall from their faith, and forfeit finally this state of grace,’ has not yet been resolved with sufficient perspicuity; and must, there- fore, be yet more carefully examined, by an attentive study of what the holy Scriptures have deelared, in rela- tion to this important point.” Heb. 6: 4–6. 2 Pet. 2: 20, 21. Luke 21: 35. 2 Pet. 3:17.* * Having prefixed above some observations of Mr. Watson, who is himself an Arminian, we subjoin some remarks prepared for this work by the Rev. Dr. Alexander, of Princeton Theo. Sem—[Ed. Ency. It may be allowed here to subjoin two or three remarks on some of the above propositions, which, as Dr. Mosheim has stated them, lean too much toward Calvinism for many modern Arminians conscientiously to subscribe. On the first article, no remark seems necessary. On the second, we may observe, that the universality of the death of Christ, in certain respects, was held by Calvin and many of the synod of Dort; by archbishop Usher, bishop Davenant, and the church of England; and also many Calvinists of the present day.—[See Griffin on the Atone- ment.] The language of the third article is such as Calvinists would, perhaps, more generally admit, than many Ar- minians of the present day. In the “confession, or declaration, of the Remonstrants,” said to be published, both in Dutch and Latin, soon after the synod of Dort, it is said, that Adam, “being the stock and root of all man- kind, involved and entangled, not only himself, but also all his posterity (who were, as it were, shut up in his loins) in the same death and misery with himself: so that all men are, by this one only sin of Adam, deprived of that primeval happiness, and destitute of that true righteous- ness, which is necessary for the obtaining of eternal life; and, consequently, are now born liable to eternal death. And this is usually and vulgarly called original sin. Con- cerning which, notwithstanding, we are to hold that the most bountiful God, in and by his beloved Son Jesus Christ, as in and by another and new Adam, hath provided and prepared a free remedy for all, against that evil, or º which was derived unto us from Adam.” pp. 19, 120. - Nothing is here said of the nature of free-mill; yet it is certain that the doctrine of a self-determining power in the will makes an essential part of the present Arminian scheme. On the doctrine of the fall, many modern Arminians talk more like Pelagians, (which see.) Thus Dr. G. Gregory and others contend, that “mankind are not to- tally depraved, and that depravity does not come on them by virtue of Adam's being their public head; but that mortality and natural evil only are the direct consequen- ces of his sin to posterity.”—[IR. Adam's R. W. vol. ii. . 252. p In i. fourth article, the term force is evidently improper, since it is never used by Calvinists (except in a strong figure of speech, as by our Lord, “Compel them to come in.”) Calvinists own that grace may be, and often is, long resisted, though finally victorious, as is partly ad- In these five articles the Arminian theory is not fully developed. The object was to present the new opinions in the most plausible dress, and in that form which would seem to deviate the least from the public standards of the Belgic church. But it was alleged by their opponents, that the real opinions of the Remonstrants were not fully expressed in these articles; and that, under the cover of orthodox expressions, great and dangerous errors lay concealed. And that they were not mistaken in these views became evident in the conferences which took place be- tween the leading theologians of both parties, at the Hague, and at other laces; and more evidently from the APOLOGY for the Arminians, pub- É. after the meeting of the synod of Dort, by Fº the leader of the party. In this document they avow and defend the opinions charged upon them by the Contra-remonstrants, and which have since been known under the name of Arminianism. r The cardinal point of difference between Calvinists and Arminians is, whether the reason why one man is saved and another not, is owing to the grace of God or to the free-will of man. All the other points of dif: ference may easily be traced up to this one. For although the Armi. mians acknowledge the necessity of grace, which they make universal, yet they make the efficacy of that grace to depend on the human will; whereas Calvinists maintain, that the grace of God, without violence to human liberty, is efficacious to subdue the stubborn will, and to render men cordially willing to be saved from their sins in the way of the gos- pel. If in this they are right, they cannot but be right in their views of the doctrines of election, of redemption, and final perseverance. Whereas, if the Arminian view be correct, the difference in the final destiny of men is not owing to any purpose to save some and pass by others, but to the different improvement of the common grace afforded to all men. And iſ the final result depends in the first instance upon the will of man, so it will afterwards; consequently he who believes and repents to-day, may become an unbeliever and impenitent man to- morrow. However Arminians may differ among themselves in other matters, they all agree in this cardinal doctrine of their system. They, furthermore, all hold that there is no election of grace out what depends on the foresight of faith and holiness in the creature. that Christ died equally for all men, and equally intended the Salvation of all men; that in conversion the effect depends upon the right improvement of the race afforded; and that by the exercise of the same free-will by which É. gospel was embraced, the true believer may turn away from God, and become as bad, or worse, than before his conversion. And as ac- A R M A R M [ 119 J mitted in the last article. They further admit that im- penitent sinners, in like manner as the Jews, “do always resist the Holy Ghost.” d On the last point, of falling from grace, Arminius him. self appears by no means dogmatical; for it is said that he declared, in his last public conference, but little before his death, “that he had never opposed the doctrine of the certain perseverance of the truly believing; nor thus far was he willing to oppose them, because those testimonies of Scripture stood for it, to which he was not as yet able to answer.”—[Scott's Synod of Dort, p. 40.] * His followers, however, soon made up their minds on this article, and have universally agreed, that true believers may fall from grace, not only grossly, but even finally. And Dr. Mosheim says, “It is certain, whatever the Ar- minians may say to the contrary, that the sentiments of their most eminent theological writers, after the synod of Dort, concerning divine grace, and the other doctrines that are connected with it, approached much nearer to the opinions of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, than to those of the Lutheran church;” he should rather have said, than to those of Luther.—[Ecclesiastical History, vol. v. p. 446, and Note h.]—Mosheim ; Watson's Bib. and Theo. Dict. ; Williams; Prof. Stuart, in the Bib. Repos. for April, 1831. & ARMINIUS, (JAMEs,) the reputed founder of the sect called Arminians, was born at Onderwater, in Holland, in 1560. Having lost his father when very young, a clergy- man kindly undertook his education, during the first four years of his life, till he went to the university at Utrecht. There he staid till death deprived him of his protector; and then he would have been entirely friendless, had not another gentleman kindly become his patron, and took him to Marburg, in 1575. In 1582, he was sent to Ge. neva, to perfect himself in his various studies, and there he applied himself chiefly to the lectures of the distin- guished Theodore Beza. Being compelled to retire to Basil, on account of his privately and publicly inculcating the philosophical doctrines of Ramus, in opposition to those of Aristotle, he there soon acquired so great a reputation, that the faculty of divinity offered him the degree of doc- tor, when he was but twenty-two years of age; but this he modestly refused. He was ordained minister at Am- sterdam, in 1588. His ministry was much followed, and he was greatly beloved. Martin Lydius, professor of di- vinity at Francker, thought him very capable of refuting the contents of a work, wherein the supralapsarian doc- trine of absolute decrees had been attacked by Arnold Cor- cording to the above view, the whole Arminian system depends on the doctrine that the will of man must first act and give consent, before common grace can become efficacious ; so that the first right choice is not produced by the effectual operation of grace, but precedes it; it necessarily follows, that their views of human depravity are different from those of Calvinists; for while the latter believe that man's death in sin is so complete that he, until renewed, has no ability of will (see INABILITY and 'WILL) to do any thing spiritually good, the Arminian holds, that, under the suasive influence of truth, he may choose to embrace the gospel, and thus render efficacious that grace which can only operate by his consent. The chief difficulty in the Arminian theory is to reconcile it with the language of Scripture, the mature of Christian prayer and thanksgiving, and with apparent facts. For example, if God had equally intended the salvation of the whole human race, would he not have equally fur- mished all men, in all ages, with the gospel and other means of grace 3 Can it be said with truth that sufficient grace has been granted to all the heathen to bring them to salvation ? And the mere possibility of the salvation of some of them, if it should be conceded, is not enough. According to the principles of Arminianism, all men should enjoy equal advantages; or at least salvation should not be so improbable and diffi- cult as it is to a vast majority of the human family. Warious plans of evading this difficulty have been resorted to, none of which are suffi- cient to render the acknowledged fact consistent with the doctrine of universal and sufficient grace. The same difficulty is, in part, ſound to exist as it relates to the conversion of many who do enjoy the means of grace. If conversion be produced by moral suasion, which the sin- ner has the ability to comply with or reject, why is, it called regenera tion, and why is it that often the amiable and moral are not converted, while the profligate, and even the blaspheming, infidel, are made the subjects of grace When we examine particular cases of Christian experience, we cannot easily avoid the conclusion that grace is sove- reign and efficacious, and that the stubborn will of man uniformly resists, until overcome by the sweetly constraining power of God. Arminianism, although introduced into the reformed churches by James Arminius, did not originate with him. The very same views, in substance, were maintained by the Semi-Pelagians, and afterwards by the Molinists and Jesuits in the Romish church. It is a very remark. able fact, that the reformers seem to have unanimously agreed in their 9pinions respecting the efficacy of grace, and the impotency of the will . in relation to holy acts. This is evident from all their early creeds and nelius and Renier Duntetlok, two sublapsarian Calvinist ministers of Delft. He accordingly undertook the task but on weighing the arguments on both sides, he embra the very opinions he was solicited to confute. This has generally been represented as if he then abandoned Cal, vinism; but this is a mistake. Calvin himself was not a supralapsarian, though Beza was. The chief difference bes tween Arminius and Calvin is in the mode of explaining the sovereignty of divine decrees, and the effectual operations of divine grace; in both which Arminius himself believed to the very last; though his pretended followers have aban- doned them, under the shelter of his great name. Episco, pius is more properly the founder of the sect since called Arminians. In 1603, he was called to the professorship of divinity in Leyden, and began his lectures with three elegant orations: the first, on the object of theology; the second on the author and end of it; and the third on the certainty of it: and then proceeded to the exposition of the prophet Jonah. In all his lectures he was attended by a numerous audience, who admired the strength of his arguments, and were astonished at the great learning he displayed. This exposed him to the envy of his brethren, who treated him with harshness and cruelty. Disputes were at that time kindling into a flame in the university, and the states of the province were obliged to appoint conferences between Arminius and his adversaries. Go- mares was his greatest opponent. These controversies, his continual labors, and his uneasiness at seeing his repu- tation blasted by aspersions and slanders, threw him into a complicated illness, which terminated his life on the 19th of October, 1609. Arminius was an energetic minister of the gospel. His voice was firm, but moderately low; and his conversation such as became a Christian. While it was pious and judicious, it was intermixed with that politeness of conduct and elegance of manners, which delights the young, and ensures the approbation and esteem of the aged. His enemies, indeed, endeavored to represent him in the most disadvantageous light; but his memory has been sufficiently vindicated by men of the greatest distinction and eminence; and in spite of all the malevolence and enmity of his antagonists, his character was in very many points highly commendable, and deserving of imitation. —Jones' Chris. Biog.; Watson's Bib. and Theo. Dict. But especially, Prof. Stuart's article on the Life, Times, and Creed of Arminius, in the Bib. Repos. for April, 1831. ARMS, MILITARY, and ARMOR. The Hebrews used in war offensive arms of the same kinds as were employed by other people of their time, and of the East: Swords, confessions, as well as from their writings. It is doubtless true, however, that the followers of Arminius, after his death, deviated much further from the common doctrines of the Reformation than he did ; but this is what commonly takes place in all similar cases. The man who first calls in question received opinions, does not wish to appear to recede too far from the creed of the Christian community with which he has been connected; and all the necessary consequences of his opinions may not be obvious at first; but by discussion the system in all its bearings be- comes more manifest; and a man's disciples are found to be more ready to extend his principles to all their legitimate consequences than he was. And in regard to all errors, it has been remarked that their tendency is downwards; the adoption of one error commonly pre- pares the way for another still more erroneous. Thus the leaders of the Arminian party in Holland approximated much nearer to Unita- rianism after the synod of Dort than they had done beſore, and professed and publicly taught doctrines which, it is believed, Arminius would have rejected with horror. (See ARMINIus.) The decision of the synod of Dort, called to consider and find a reme- dy for the dissensions and disturbances of the church, was unfavorable to the doctrine of the Arminians on every one of the points of diffe- rence; and, in consequence, they were deposed from all ecclesiastical offices, and from the mastership of all schools and colleges in the Uni- ted Provinces. And by the States General of Holland severe laws were assed against them, by which all who refused submission were com- emned to banishment, fines, or imprisonment. Such persecution on account of religious opinion is moto, by the common consent of all Pro- testants, condemned as unjust and tyrannical; but we should not judge of the acts of a former age º, the liberal sentiments of toleration which now happily prevail. All the reformers, and most of their immediate successors, conscientiously believed that heretics ought to be coerced by the arm of civil power. And it should be remembered, that in many places, while the Arminians were favored by the civil authorities, the treated the orthodox with insolence, and excited disturbances whic the civil magistrate was not always able to suppress. At present there are multitudes who profess Arminian doctrines, in whole or in part, and some large Christian denominations who maintain and propagate the whole system. These, however, differ from each other in minor points, while they agree in all the leading doctrines taught by Arminius, and strenuously oppose whatever bears the pecu- liar stamp of Calvinism, which they load with obloquy. For the con- duct of the synod of Dort, see the article DoRT. A R M. A R M [ 120 darts, lances, javelins, bows, arrows, and slings. . For defensive arms, they used helmets, cuirasses, bueklers, armor for the thighs, &c. At particular periods, especially when under servitude, whole armies of Israelites were without good weapons. In the war of Deborah and Ba- rak against Jabin, there were neither shields mor lances among forty thousand men. Judg. 5: 8. ln the time of Saul, (1 Sam, 13: 22.) none in Israel, beside Saul and Jonathan, was armed with swords and Spears; because the Philistines, who were then masters of the country, forbade the Hebrews using the trades of armorers and sword cutlers, and even obliged them to employ Philis- times to sharpen their tools of husbandry; but these being their masters, would make no arms for them. - The Hebrews do not appear to have had any peculiar military habit. marily wore would have impeded their movements, they girt it closely around them when preparing for battle, and loosened it on their return 2 Sam. 20:8. 1 Kings 20: 11. They used the same arms as the neighboring nations, both defensive and offensive; and there were made either of iron or of brass, principally of the latter metal. Of the defensive arms of the Hebrews, the following were the most remarkable : namely, 1. The helmet, for covering and defending the head. This was a part of the military provision made by Uzziah for his vast army, (2 Chron. 20:14 ;) and long before the time of that king, the helmets of Saul and of the Philis- time champion were of the same metal. 1 Sam. 17: 38. This military cap was also worn by the Persians, Ethio- pians, and Libyans, (Ezek.38: 5.) and by the troops which Antiochus seat against Judas Maccabaeus, 1 Mac. 6: 35. 2. The breast-plate, or corslet, was another piece of de- fensive armor. Goliath, and the soldiers of Antiochus, (1 Sam. 17: 5. 1 Mac. 6: 35.) were accoutred with this de- fence; which, in our authorized translation, is variously rendered habergeon, coat of mail, and brigandine, 1 Sam. 17: 38. 2 Chron. 26: 14. Isai. 59: 17. Jer. 46: 4. Be- tween the joints of this harness, as it is termed in 1 Kings 22:4, the profligate Ahab was mortally wounded by an arrow, shot at a venture. From these various renderings of the original word, it should seem that this piece of ar- mor covered both the back and breast, but principally the latter. The corslets were made of various materials: sometimes they were made of flax or cotton, woven very thick, or of a kind of woollen felt ; others again were made of iron or brazen scales, or laminae, laid one over another, like the scales of a fish; others were properly what we call coats of mail; and others were composed of two pieces of iron or brass, which protected the back and breast. All these kinds of corslets are mentioned in the Scriptures. Goliath's coat of mail, (1 Sam. 17: 5.) was literally a corslet of scales, that is, composed of numerous laminae of brass, crossing each other. It was called by Virgil, and other Latin writers, squama lorica. Similar corslets were worn by the Persians and other nations. The breast-plate worn by the unhappy Saul, when he perished in battle, is supposed to have been of flax, or cotton, woven very close and thick. 2 Sam. 1: 9, mar- ginal rendering. 3. The shield defended the whole body during the bat- tle. It was of various forms, and made of wood, covered with tough hides, or of brass, and sometimes was overlaid with gold. 1 Kings 10: 16, 17. 14:26, 27. Two sorts are mentioned in the Scriptures; namely, the tsinnah, great shield or buckler, and the maginnim, or smaller shield. It was much used by the Jews, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Egyptians. David, who was a great warrior, often mentions a shield and buckler in his divine poems, to signify that defence and protection of heaven which he expected and experienced, and in which he re- posed all his trust; (Psalm 5: 12.) and when he says, “God will with favor compass the righteous as with a shield,” he seems to allude to the use of the great shield tsinnah, (which is the word he uses,) with which they cov. ered and defended their whole bodies. King Solomon caused two different sorts of shields to be made ; namely, the tsinnah, (which answers to clypeus among the Latins,). such a large shield as the infantry wore, and the magin- nim, or scuta, which were used by the horsemen, and were As the flowing dress which they ordi- of a much less size, 2 Chron. 9. 15, 16. The former of these are translated targets, and are double in weight to the other. The Philistines came into the field with this weapon: so we find their formidable champion was ap- pointed. 1 Sam. 17: 7. One bearing a shield went be- fore him, whose proper duty it was to carry this and some other weapons, with which to furnish his master upon occasion. . The loss of the shield in fight was excessively resented by the Jewish warriors, as well as lamented by them : for it was a signal aggravation of the public mourning, that “the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away.” 2 Sam. 1: 21. David, a man of arms, who composed this beau- tiful elegy on the death of Saul, felt how disgraceful a thing it was for soldiers to quit their shields in the field. These honorable sentiments were not confined to the Jews. We find them prevailing among most otherancient nations, who considered it infamous to cast away or lose their shield. With the Greeks it was a capital crime, and punished with death. The Lacedæmonian women, it is well known, in order to excite the courage of their sons, used to deliver to them their fathers' shields, with this short address: “This shield thy father always preserved: do thou preserve it also, or perish.” Alluding perhaps to these sentiments, St. Paul, when exhorting the Hebrew Christians to steadfastness in the faith of the gospel, urges them not to cast away their confidence, which “hath great recompense of reward.” Heb. 10: 35. 4. Another defensive provision in war was the military girdle, which was for a double purpose: first, in order to hold the sword, which hung, as it does this day, at the soldier's girdle or belt: (1 Sam. 17:39.) secondly, it was necessary to gird the clothes and the armor together. To gird and to arm are synonymous words in Scripture; for those who are said to be able to put on armor are, ac- cording to the Hebrew and the Septuagint, girt with a girdle; and hence comes the expression of “girding to the battle.” 1 Kings 20:11. Isa. 8: 9. 2 Sam. 22:40. . 1 Sam. 18; 4. There is express mention of this mili- tary girdle, where it is recorded that Jonathan, to assure David of his entire love and friendship by some visible pledges, stripped himself not only of his usual garments, but of his military habiliments, his sword, bow, and gir- dle, and gave them to David. - 5. Boots or greaves were part of the ancient defensive harness, because it was the custom to cast certain impedi- ments, (so called, because they entangled the feet,) in the way before the enemy. The military boot or shoe was therefore necessary to guard the legs and feet from the iron stakes placed in the way to gall and wound them; and thus we are enabled to account for Goliath's greaves of brass which were upon his legs. The offensive weapons were of two sorts; namely, such as were employed when they came to a close engagement, and those with which they annoyed the enemy at a dis- tance. Of the former description were the sword and the battle-axe. 1. The sword is the most ancient weapon of offence men- tioned in the Bible. With it Jacob's sons treacherously assassinated the Shechemites. Gen. 34: 2. It was worn on the thigh; (Psalm 45: 4. Exod. 32: 27) and, it should seem, on the left thigh ; for it is particularly mentioned that Ehud put a dagger or short sword under his garments on his right thigh. Judges 3: 16. There appear to have been two kinds of swords in use, a larger one with one edge, which is called in Hebrew the mouth of the sword, (Joshua 6:21.) and a shorter one with two edges, like that of Ehud. The modern Arabs, it is well known, wear a sabre on one side, and a cangiar, or dagger, in their girdles. 2. Of the battle-axe we have no description in the sa- cred volume : it seems to have been a most powerful weapon in the hands of cavalry, from the allusion made to it by Jeremiah : “Thou art my battle-axe and weapons of war; for with thee will I break in pieces the nations, and with thee will I destroy kingdoms: and with thee will I break in pieces the horse and his rider, and with thee will I break in pieces the chariot and his rider.” Jer. 51: 20, 11. 3. The spear and javelin (as the words are variously rendered in Numb. 25: 7. 1 Sam. 13: 19, and Jer. 46; 4.) A R M A R M [ 121 ) were of different kinds, according to their length or make. Some of them might be thrown or darted ; (1 Sam, 18: 11.) others were a kind of long swords, Numb. 25: 8.) and it appears from 2 Sam. 2:23, that some of them were pointed at both ends. When armies were encamped, the spear of the general or commander-in-chief was stuck into the ground at his head. 4. Slings are enumerated among the military stores collected by Uzziah. 2 Chron, 26:14. In the use of the sling, David eminently excelled, and he slew Goliath with a stone from one. The Benjamites were celebrated in battle because they had attained to great skill and accu- racy in handling this weapon; “they could sling stones to a hair's breadth, and not miss;” (Judges 20: 16.) and where it is said that they were left-handed, it should rather be rendered ambidexters; for we are told, they could use “both the right hand and the left;" (1 Chron. 12. 2.) that is, they did not constantly use their right hand as others did, when they shot arrows or slung stones; but they were so expert in their military exercises, that they could perform them with their left hand as well as with their right. 5. Bows and arrows are of great antiquity; indeed, no weapon is mentioned so early. Thus Isaac said to Esau, “Take thy weapons, thy quiver and thy bow;” Gen. 27: 3. though, it is true, these are not spoken of as used in war, but in hunting; and so they are supposed and implied be- fore this, where it is said of Ishmael, that he became an archer, he used bows and arrows in shooting of wild beasts. Gen. 21: 20. This afterwards became so useful a weapon, that care was taken to train up the Hebrew youth to it betimes. When David had, in a solemn man- ner, lamented the death of king Saul, he gave orders for teaching the young men the use of the bow, (1 Sam.1: 18.) that they might be as expert as the Philistines, by whose bows and arrows Saul and his army were slain. These were part of the military ammunition; for in those times bows were used instead of guns, and arrows Sup- plied the place of powder and ball. . From the book of Job, 20:24, it may be collected, that the military bow was made of steel, and consequently was very stiff and hard to bend, on which account they used their foot in bending their cows; and therefore, when the prophets speak of treading the bony, and of bonus trodden, they are to be under- stood of bon's bent, as our translators rightly render it; (Jer. 50: 14. Isa. 5: 28. 21:15.) but the Hebrew word which is used in these places, signifies to tread upon. This weapon was thought so necessary in war, that it is there called “the bow of war,” or the “battle bow.” Zech. 9; 10. 10: 14. We have in Scripture, not only histories in which armor and some of its parts are described, but also allusions to complete suits of armor, and to the pieces which com- posed them. Without any formal attempt to expose the errors of critics, whose information on this article might have been improved by greater accuracy, Mr. Taylor fur- nishes the following remarks, which may contribute to our better acquaintance with the subject. This figure, which is from Calmet, is usually offered, by way of illustrating the armor of the famous champion Goliath. As it is drawn from the description given of it, and according tx the signification of the words used to describe each separate part, it may be something like the original. It should be observed, however, (1.) that swords so long as this are not known in antiquity; and that had it been of the length here represented, David would have found it cumbersome to use afterwards, constantly, as we learn he did; (2) that this figure is composed on the prin- ciple, that the armor was worn without any other dress; which we think may be questioned, and is not easily de- termined; (3.) that the forms of Roman or Greek armor are not decidedly applicable to the Palestine history; yet the armor of the people has been studied for this figure. *śis a soldier in armor; from the column usually called of Antoninus, but perhaps more properly referred to Aurelius. The apostle (Eph. 6: 13, 14.) advises be: lievers to “take unto themselves the whole armor of God;” and he separates this panoply into its parts: “your loins,” says he, “girt about with truth;” now, this figure has a very strong composition of cinctures round his waist (loins); and if we suppose them to be of steel, as they appear to be, the defence they form to his person is very great; such a defence to the mind is truth. Undoubtedly there were, as we shall see, other kinds of girdles; but none that could be more thoroughly defensive than that of this soldier. Moreover, these cinctures surround the per- son, and go over the back, also. (1.) So truth defends on all sides. (2.) The remark that “Paul makes no armor for the back,” is somewhat impaired; because if this part of the dress was what he referred to by perizosamenoi, “girded round about,” then, its passing round the back, pretty high up, at least, was implied. The apostle pro- ceeds to advise “having on the breast-plate of righteous- ness,” to defend the vital parts: as our figure has on a breast-plate: and as one below has a covering made in one piece for the whole upper part of his body. “Hav- ing the feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace:” not iron, not steel; but patient investigation, calm inquiry, assiduous, laborious, lasting; if not rather, with firm footing in the gospel of peace. Whether the apostle here alludes to the use of leather well pre- pared, by his “preparation of the gospel of peace,” or shoes which had spikes in them, which running into the ground gave a steadfastness to the soldier.who wore them, may come under remark hereafter. We shall only add, that Moses seems, at least according to our rendering, to have some allusion to shoes, either plated or spiked on the sole, when he says, (Deut. 33:25) “Thy shoes shall be iron and brass; and as thy days shall thy strength be.”— “Above all, taking the shield of faith;” not above all in point of value ; but of situation; over all—before; as our soldier holds his shield: for his protection. Faith may be a prime grace, but if raised too high, like a shield over- elevated, the parts it should defend may become exposed to the enemy. “Take the helmet of salvation:” security, safety. So far our figure applies; however, it has no 16 A R M. A R M [ 122 l Sword: it had originally a spear, but that weapon has been destroyed by time. “Praying,” says the apostle, “and watching;" these are duties of soldiers, especially of Christian soldiers, but they are not of a nature to be explained by this figure; however, we very frequently meet with them in monuments of antiquity: nothing is more common than sacrifices, &c. in camps, and the very first soldiers in the Antonine pillar are sentinels. It may be remarked, that this soldier has no armor for his legs, or thighs, or arms: they are merely sheltered by clothing, but are not defended by armor. We do not find that the apostle alludes to any pieces of defence for the legs or the thighs of his Christian warrior. - This is among the most curious statues of antiquity re- maining, being a portrait of Alexander the Great fighting yń º § 3. º º W. º on horseback; and probably, also, a portrait of his famous horse Bucephalus. The figure has a girdle round his waist; in which it is rather singular; and close to this girdle falls the sheath for his sword; his loins are girt about with a single piece of armor, buckled at the sides; which answers the purposes of a breast-plate, by covering high up on the thorax: his feet are not only shod, but ornamented with straps, &c. a considerable way up the leg, He has neither shield nor helmet; and Mr. Taylor remarks, that he has not found a commanding officer—a general—with a helmet on, neither during his actual en- gagement in fighting, as this figure is represented, nor when addressing his soldiers, though that could hardly be the fact. The form, size, &c. of this sword deserve no- tice; it is very different from the ideal sword of Goliath, in the first figure above. That girdles were of several kinds, we need not doubt; if we did, the entire difference between that of this figure, and that of the second above, would justify the assertion. In that, there is no room for concealing, or for carrying, any thing; but we know that one use of the girdle in the East was, and still is, to carry various articles. So we read, (2 Sam. 20:8.) that “Joab's garment that he had put on, was girded (close) unto him, and upon it a sword-girdle, (or belt,) that is, a girdle of a military nature, fit for holding and enveloping a sword: and in this girdle was a sword in its sheath.”—Then our translation (with others) says, “as he went forth, IT fell out.”—But it may be reasonably doubted, whether the narration is not to this effect: “He [Joab) pent forth in a ceremonious manner to meet Amasa, now commander-in- chief, in order to seem to do to that officer, whom he con- sidered as usurping his post, a most conspicuous honor, or rather homage, but really designing to approach his person and to slay him, so He went forth, and supplicated, humbly entreated, as it were ; then, after this homage, he kissed Amasa's beard, and slew him. This entreaty is the regular meaning of the word Tepel. See 1 Kings 8:28, 29, 33, 35. Gen. 20:7, 17. Numb, 11: 2. 1 Sam. 1; 10. 2: 25, &c. Notwithstanding that there was much hypo- critical baseness in Joab's behavior, with which this view of the events is in perfect coincidence, we ought to ob- serve, that a sword might fall out of the girdle which con- tained it; for so we are told by Herodotus, that the sword of Cambyses fell out of the girdle, and wounded him in the thigh, of which wound he died : but if Joab's sword had fallen out of his girdle, how was it possible it should escape the notice of Amasaº Such an "incident was the very thing to make him, and all other spectators, observe more particularly what became of his sword, and how Joab should dispose of it, after he had picked it off the ground. . We read of swords having two edges, and of the great execution expected to be done by them: See Psalm 149: 6. and Prov. 5: 4. That a sword so short as that of this figure might have two edges, seems probable enough, While that of Goliath would be both the weaker and the worse for such a form. The sharp sword issuing out of the mouth of our Lord, (Rev. 2: 12.) will be noticed else- where; we only observe here, that to imagine a long sword issuing out of the mouth of a person, suggests a very awkward image, or idea, to say the least: an idea which hardly could have its prototype in nature. The nature of the embarrassments arising from this history being understood, the reader is requested to ex- amine the annexed engraving, which represents a combat between a person on horseback and another on foot : it is º: sº § $º S S § * , is: º º ! | from Montfaugon, (Supplement, vol. iii. page 397.) who thus remarks on it : “The horseman represented on an Etruscan vase of Cardinal Gualteri, is armed in such a singular manner, that I thought it necessary to give the figure here. This horseman is mounted on a naked horse with only a bridle : though the horse seems to have some- thing on his neck, which passes between his two ears, but it is impossible to distinguish what it is.” “The armor also of this horseman is as extraordinary as that of the Samaritan horseman on Trajan's pillar. His military habit is very CLOSE, AND FITTED To HIs Body, AND covers HIM Even To HIs wrisT, AND BELow IIIs ANKLEs, so that his feet remain naked; which is very extraordinary. For, I think, both in the ancient and modern cavalry, the feet were a principal part which they guarded; excepting only the Moorish horse, who have for their whole dress only a short tunic, which reaches to the middle of the thigh ; and the Numidians, who ride quite naked, upon a naked horse, except a short cloak which they have fastened to their neck, and hanging loose behind them in warm weather, and which they wrap about themselves in cold weather. Our Etruscan horseman here hath his feet naked; but he hath his head well covered with a cap folded about it, and large slips of stuff hanging down from it. He wears a collar of round stones. The CLose BoDIED coAT he wears, is wrought all over with zigzags and large points, down to the girdle; which is broad, and tied round the middle of his body; the same flourishing is continued lower down his habit quite to his ankle, and all over his arms to his wrist. He brandishes his spear against his adversary, who is a naked man on foot, who A. R. M. A. R. M. [1231 hath only a helmet on, and holds a large oval shield in his left hand, and a spear in his right, which he darts at his enemy, without being frighted at his being so well equipped. The horseman, besides his spear, hath a sword fastened to his belt, or breast-girdle. The hilt of his sword terminates in a bird's head. Behind the man on foot, is a man well dressed, with his hat (which is like the modern ones) falling from his head. He is the esquire of the horseman; and holds a spear ready for him, which he may take if he happens to break his own.” This may assist our inquiries on the subject of the close coat of Saul's armor. (1.) This being an Etruscan vase, is proba- bly of pretty deep antiquity; as vases of the kind were not manufactured in later ages. º These vases have, very often, histories depicted on them, referring to east- ern nations: they have events, deities, fables, &c. as well as dresses, derived from Asia; whence the Etruscans were a colony. We risk little, therefore, in supposing that our subject is ancient, even advancing towards the time of king Saul; and that it is also Asiatic. Our next inquiry is, What it represents?—Certainly we may consider the per- Son on horseback as no common cavalier; he is an officer at least, probably a general ; if not rather a king: in which case, this is the very common subject of a king van- quishing an enemy; a subject which occurs in numerous instances on gems, medals, &c. as is well known to anti- quaries. But the peculiarities of his dress are what de- mand our present attention. (1.) His coat is so close as to cover his whole person. (2.) It seems to have marks which, though they may be ornaments, yet are analogous to quiltings, and raise that idea strongly. Now supposing, that under these quiltings is a connected chain of iron rings, extending throughout the whole, it presents a dress well known in later ages, and, as this example proves, in times of remote antiquity; and to which agree the words used in describing Saul’s shebetz, as already noticed. In order further to justify these conjectures on the na- ture of the defence afforded by Saul’s coat of mail, Mr. Taylor copied one of the Samaritan horsemen from the Trajan pillar. This dress, it will be seen, is wholly com- posed of scales, and fits the wearer with consummate accu- racy; even his feet and his hands are covered with scales: and though his dress is divided into two parts, one for his body, the other for his legs, yet the whole shows not only his shape, but also every muscle of his body. This dress Was made of horny substances, such as horses' hoofs, (Pausanias Attic. cap. 21.) or other materials of equal toughness and hardness: but scaly coats of mail were frequently made of iron, and, very commonly, we find parts of armor of defence imbricated in this manner. On the whole, these instances appear to justify the principle, that the shebetz of Saul should keep its proper import in the narrative of that king's death, as an embroidered coat, or coat wrought with oilet holes—a close coat, fitting tightly to his person; and if this close coat held in-detained— his life, so that he could not die speedily, though dread- fully wounded, we see the reason of his desiring the Amalekite to finish him. We see, too, how the arrows of the Philistines might penetrate some way into his body, yet not destroy his life immediately; we see how the Philis- tines might abuse him, in tearing this coat from him, and otherwise ill-treating his person, as a Hebrew, as well as a king, while yet alive, which he feared;—how they might distinguish the corpse of Saul by this coat, although his crown and bracelet were absent when they came to strip the slain, &c.--It will be recollected that Saul himself was the tallest man in Israel, and therefore would easily be distinguished; but nothing similar is said of his sons; their corpses would probably be known by what the mo. dern Persians term bazübends; the “bracelet” of our trans- lators. “They are,” says Mr. Morier, (Second Journey, p. 173.) “ornaments fastened above the elbows; composed of precious stones of great value, and are only norn by the king AND His sons.” In the portrait of the king of Persia, at the India-House, they form a striking appendage.— Calmet ; Watson. - - - ARMY. Few things in history are more surprising than the great numbers which are recorded as forming eastern armies; even the Scripture accounts of the ar- mies that invaded Judea, or were raised in Judea, often excite the wonder of their readers. To parallel these great numbers by those of other armies, is not ALL that is acceptable to the inquisitive; it is requisite also to show how so small a province as the Holy Land really was, could furnish such mighty armies of fighting men; with the uncertainty of the proportion of these fighting men to the whole number of the nation; in respect to which, many unfounded conjectures have escaped the pens of the learned. With a view to this, Mr. Taylor has made a not unsuccessful attempt, by adducing instances of numerous armies which have been occasionally raised, to show what may be done by despotic power, or the impulse of military glory; and also that the composition of Asiatic armies is such as may render credible those numbers which express their gross amount; while no just inference respecting the entire population of a country can be drawn from the numbers stated as occasionally composing its armies. We learn from Xenophon, (Cyrop. lib. iv.) “that most of the inhabitants of Asia are attended in their military expeditions by those whom they live with at home.”—“The army brought chariots which they had taken ;-some of them full of the most considerable women, . . . . for to this day all the inhabitants of Asia, in time of war, attend the service accompanied with what they value most ; and they say, that they fight the better when the objects most dear to them are present.” We may now, remarks Mr. Taylor, form a better notion of the policy of Barak, in stipulating for the presence of the prophetess who judged Israel with his army. Judges 4:6. She was a public person, was well known to all Israel, and her appearance would no less stimulate the valor of the troops to “fight the better for an object most dear to them,” than it would Sanction the undertaking determined on and executed against an oppressor so powerful as Jabin, king of Canaan. - This notion may be extended somewhat further; for Deborah in her triumphant song supposes that Sisera’s mother attributed the delay in his return to the great number of captives—female captives—taken from the enemy—“to every man a damsel, or two ;”—families of the warriors of Israel, taken prisoners in their camp, equally with seizures made in the villages and towns. Whether this be correct or not, no striking objection seems to oppose it—and we are sure that the presence of women of rank in the camps of the orientals was not uncommon. Every body is acquainted with the generosity of Alexander in the tent of Darius, when the royal family of Persia be- came his captives; and the story of Panthea is so beauti- fully told by Xenophon, (Cyrop. lib. v.) that if it be al- ready familiar to the reader, he cannot be displeased with its repetition. The generosity of Alexander might emu- late, but it could not excel, the generosity of Cyrus. “When we first entered her tent, (that of Panthea) we did not know her; for she was sitting on the ground, with all her women-servants around her, and was dressed in the same manner as her servants were : but when we looked around, being desirous to know which was the mis- tress, she immediately appeared to excel all the others, though she was sitting with a veil over her, and looking down upon the ground. When we bid her arise, she and the servants around her rose. ... Standing in a dejected pos. ture, her tears fell at her feet,” &c. This idea of women attending soldiers, contributes an illustration to a verse in that sufficiently obscure effusion, Psalm 68: 12. Kings of armies did flee, did flee, And she who tarried at home divided the spoil. 1. Whenever there was an immediate prospect of war, a levy was made by the genealogists. Deut. 20: 5–9. In the time of the kings, there was a head or ruler of the persons that made the levy, who kept an account of the A R M A. R. N. | 124 | humber of the soldiers, but who is, nevertheless, to be distinguished from the generalissimo. 2 Chron. 26: 11. (Compare 2 Sam, 8: 17, 20: 25. 1 Chron, 18; 16.) After the levy was fully made out, the genealogists gave public notice, that the following persons might be excused from military service : (Deut. 20: 5–8.) 1. Those who had built a house, and had not yet inhabited it. 2. Those who had planted an olive or vine garden, and had not as yet tasted the fruit of it;--an exemption, consequently, which extended through the first five years after such planting. 3. Those who had bargained for a spouse, but had not celé- brated the nuptials; also those who had not as yet lived with their wife for a year. 4. The faint-hearted, who would be likely to discourage others, and who, iſ they had gone into battle, where, in those early times, every thing depended on personal prowess, would only have fallen VlCtlıſıS. - - 2. At the head of each rank or file of fifty, was the captain of fifty. The other divisions consisted of a hun- dred, a thousand, and ten thousand men, each one of which was headed by its appropriate commander. These divisions ranked in respect to each other according to their families, and were subject to the authority of the heads of those families. 2 Chron 25: 5. 26: 12, 13. The cen- turions, and chiliarchs, or captains of thousands, were ad- mitted into the councils of war. 1 Chron. 13: 1–3. ] Sam. 18: 13. The leader of the whole army was denomi- nated the captain of the host. The genealogists, (in the English version, officers,) according to a law in Deut. 20: 9, had the right of appointing the persons who were to act as officers in the army; and they, undoubtedly, made it a point, in their selections, to choose those who are called heads of families. The practice of thus selecting military officers ceased under the kings. Some of them were then chosen by the king, and in other instances the office became permanent and hereditary in the heads of families. Both kings and generals had armor-bearers. They were chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, and not only bore the arms of their masters, but were employed to give his commands to the subordinate captains, and were present at his side in the hour of peril. 1 Sam. 14: 6. 17: 7. The infantry, the cavalry, and the chariots of war were so arranged, as to make separate divisions of an army. Exod. 14: 6, 7. The infantry were divided likewise into light-armed troops, gedudim, and into spear: men. Gen. 49:19. 1 Sam. 30: 8, 15, 23. 2 Sam. 3: 22. 4; 2. 22:30. Psalm 18:30. 2 Kings 5:2. Hosea 7: 1. The light-armed infantry were furnished with a sling and javelin, with a bow, arrows, and quiver, and also, at least in latter times, with a buckler. They fought the enemy at a distance. The spearmen, on the contrary, who were armed with spears, swords, and shields, fought hand to hand. 1 Chron. 12: 24, 34. 2 Chron. 14:8. 17: 17. The light-armed troops were commonly taken from the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin. 2 Chron. 14:8. 17: 17. Com- pare Gen. 49: 27. Psalm 78; 9. 3. The art of laying out an encampment appears to have been well understood in Egypt, long before the departure of the Hebrews from that country. It was there that Moses became acquainted with that mode of encamping, which, in the second chapter of Numbers, is prescribed to the Hebrews. In the encampment of the Israelites, it appears that the holy tabernacle occupied the centre. In reference to this circumstance, it may be remarked, that it is the common practice in the East, for the prince or leader of a tribe to have his tent pitched in the centre of the others; and it ought not to be forgotten, that God, whose tent or palace was the holy tabernacle, was the prince, the leader of the Hebrews. The tents nearest to the tabernacle were those of the Levites, whose business it was to watch it, in the manner of a pretorian guard. The family of Gershom pitched to the west, that of Ke- hath to the south, that of Merari to the north. The priests occupied a position to the east, opposite to the entrance of the tabernacle. Numb. 1: 53; 3:21–38. At some distance to the east, were the tribes of Judah, Issachar, and Zebu- lon; on the south were those of Reuben, Simeon, and Gad; to the west were Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benja- min ; to the north, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. The peo- ple were thus divided into four bodies, three tribes to a division; each of which divisions had its separate stand. ard, demel. Each of the large family associations like. wise, of which the different tribes were composed, had a separate standard, termed, in contradistinction from the other, avet ; and every Hebrew was obliged to number himself with his particular division, and follow his appro- priate standard. Of military standards, there were, -1. The standard, denominated denel ; one of which pertained to each of the four general divisions. The four standards of this name were large, and ornamented with colors in white, purple, crimson, and dark blue. The Jewish rab- bins assert, (founding their statement on Genesis 49:3, 9, 17, 22., which in this case is very doubtful authority,) that the first of these standards, namely, that of Judah, bore a lion; the second, or that of Reuben, bore a man; that of Ephraim, which was the third, displayed the figure of a bull; while that of Dan, which was the fourth, exhibited the representation of cherubim, They were wrought into the standards with embroidered work. 2. The standard, called avet. The ensign of this name belonged to the saparate classes of families. 3. The standard, called mem. This standard was not, like the others, borne from place to place. It appears from Numb. 21: 8, 9. that it was a long pole fixed into the earth. A flag was fastened to its top, which was agitated by the wind, and seen at a great distance. Jer. 4: 6, 21. 51: 2, 12, 27. Ezek. 27: 7. In order to render it visible, as far as possible, it was erected on loſty mountains, and was in this way used as a signal to assemble soldiers. It no sooner made its appearance on such an elevated position, than the war-cry was ut- tered, and the trumpets were blown. Isa. 5: 26, 13: 2. 18; 3. 30: 17. 49; 22. 62; 10–13, 4. Before battle, the various kinds of arms were put into the best order; the shields were anointed, and the soldiers refreshed themselves by taking food, lest they should be- come weary and faint under the pressure of their labors. Jer. 46: 3, 4. Isa. 21: 5. The soldiers, more especially the generals and kings, except when they wished to remain unknown, (1 Kings 22:30–34) were clothed in splendid habiliments, which are denominated the sacred dress. Ps. 110: 3. It was the duty of the priests, before the com- mencement of the battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit that courage which was required by the exigency of the occasion. The words which they used were as follows:— “Hear, O Israel; ye approach this day unto battle against your enemies; let not your hearts faint; fear not, and do not tremble; neither be ye terrified, because of them. |Eor the Lord your God is he that goeth with you, to fight for you against your enemies, to save you.” Deut. 22: 2, &c. The last ceremony, previous to an engagement, was the sounding of the sacred trumpets by the priests. Numb. 10: 9, 10. 2 Chron. 13: 12–14. 1 Macc. 3: 54. 5. In the reign of David, the Hebrews acquired such skill in the military art, together with such strength, as gave them a decided superiority over their competitors on the field of battle. David increased the standing army, which Saul had introduced. Solomon introduced cavalry into the military force of the nation, also chariots. Both cav- alry and chariots were retained in the subsequent age; an age, in which military arms were improved in their con- struction, the science of fortification made advances, and large armies were mustered. From this period, till the time when the Hebrews became subject to the Assyrians and Chaldeans, but little improvement was made in the arts of war. The Maccabees, after the return of the He- brews from the captivity, gave a new existence to the military art among them. But their descendants were under the necessity of submitting to the superior power of the Romans. (See BATTLE.)—Calmet ; Watson. -* ARNAULD, (HENRy,) was born in 1597, and, after having been entrusted with important missions, to Rome and other Italian courts, was made bishop of Angers in 1649, and thenceforth devoted himself strictly to the per- formance of his episcopal duties. His piety and charity were exemplary, and the only time during nearly half a century, that he quitted his diocese, was to reconcile the sprince of Tarento with his father. To a friend who told him he ought to take one day in the week for recreation, he replied, I will readily do so, if you will point out any day in myhich I am not a bishop. Táis worthy prelate died in A. R. N. A R R [ 125 1 1692, deeply lamented by his flock. His Negotiations in , Italy sº in 1738, in five volumes. ARNAULD, (ANTHony,) brother of Henry, was born at Paris in 1612; studied at the colleges of Calvi, on the Sorbonne, and took his doctor's degree in 1641. He was a distinguished Jansenist, and attacked in succession the Jesuits and the Calvinists, or Protestants. He had also a contest with Malbranche. He belonged to the celebrated society of Port Royal, and was an intimate friend of Pas- cal. His enemies compelled him to leave France, and he closed his life at Brussels, in the Netherlands, in 1694. Arnauld was a man of extensive erudition. He was an indefatigable and excellent writer. His works, which extend to no less than forty-five quarto volumes, embrace. a great variety of subjects, literary and philosophical, as well as theological. He was of an impetuous disposition, though in social life his manners were mild and simple. His religious sentiments partook of the sublimity of his genius. When past seventy years of age, having requested his friend Nicole to assist him in executing a new work he had projected, Nicole remonstrated, on the ground that their advanced age might well allow them to rest. Rest? exclaimed Arnauld, will you not have all eter- nity to rest in 2–Ency. Amer. ARNDT, (John ;) a Lutheran minister of distinguished piety, whose work, entitled True Christianity, has been translated into many languages, and obtained a most ex- tensive circulation. He was born at Ballenstedt in Anhalt, in 1555, and died in 1621, at Zelle, after having officiated in various places, and suffered persecution both from the Lutherans and the Calvinists. A few hours before his death, he preached from Ps. 126: 5., “They that sow in tears shall reap in joy;” and on arriving at his house, he spoke of it as his funeral sermon. The influence of his writings, in fostering a spirit of seriousness in religion, is perhaps unequalled.—Henderson's Buck. ARNOBIUS ; about A. D. 300, a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia; and, in 303, became a Chris- tian. While yet a catechumen, he wrote seven books, Adversus Gentes, in which he defended the Christian re- ligion, and showed the folly and absurdity of heathenism with great spirit and learning, though his knowledge of the truth appears to have been somewhat defective. ARNOLD, (of BREscIA;) a disciple of Abelard and Berengarius, an eminent reformer of the twelfth century. In 1136, by his bold and lofty spirit, his knowledge of Christian antiquities, and the vehement eloquence of his public harangues, he roused Italy, France and Switzerland against the abuses of the Roman church and clergy, and even converted the pope's legate to his opinions. He was charged with heresy, and, together with his adherents, (called Arnoldists,) was excommunicated by Innocent II.; but it is probable, says Davenport, his real crime was his having taught, that the church ought to be divested of its worldly possessions, and reduced to its primitive simplicity. Dr. Wall allows that he was condemned, along with Peter de Bruys, for rejecting infant baptism. In 1144, he ap- peared at Rome, and there elevated the standard of civil and clerical reform, with such success, as to gain even the Roman senate; and for ten years possessed the chief power in the “eternal city.” Adrian IV. succeeded, however, in expelling him in 1155, by laying an inter- dict on the city. The reformer retired to Tuscany, but was there seized and taken back to Rome, where he died by the hands of the executioner, the same year; being excommunicated, crucified, and burned. * Such was the fate of a man who is universally ac- knowledged to have been possessed of extraordinary erudition and eloquence, and of an irreproachable charac- ter. ... But the spirit of his doctrine descended through suc. ceeding ages, and his memory is now both admired and revered. He is classed by Benedict among the most dis- tinguished of the ancient Baptists.--Mosheim ; New Edin. Ency. ; Ency. Amer. ; Davenport; Jones's History of the Christian Church. - ARNOLDISTS; a denomination in the twelfth century, which derive their name from Arnold of Brescia. Hav. ing observed the calamities that sprung from the opulence of the pontiffs and bishops, they maintained publicly, that the treasures and revenues of popes, bishops, and monas. teries ought to be solemnly transferred to the rulers of each state; and that nothing was to be left to the minis- ters of the gospel, but a spiritual authority, and a subsist- ence, drawn from tithes, and from the voluntary oblations of the people. They thus took a noble stand on that fun- damental principle of our Savior, “My kingdom is not of this world.” The Arnoldists did not differ from the Wal- denses. (See WALDENSEs.) The denomination, Arnoldists, was also conferred on the followers of one Arnold, of Willeneuve, a physician, in the fourteenth century. He was eminently skilled 1n chemistry, natural philosophy, and literature, which occa sioned him to be taken, by the ignorant monks, for a ma- gician; and he, in return, it is said, had so bad an opinion of the monks, that he thought they would “all be damned.” This was his heresy, for which he was burnt by the Inqui- sition; happily for him, however, not till after he was dead.—Williams ; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., vol. iii. p. 162; Bell's Wanderings, p. 136. ARNON ; a river, flowing from the eastward into the Dead Sea, about half way from its northern to its southern extremity, and anciently dividing the country of Moab on the south from that of the Amorites on the north ; as it now divides the province of Belka from that of Kerak. It is now called Wady Mojeb. It was the southern boundary of the territory east of the Jordan, assigned by Moses to the tribe of Reuben. Deut. 3: 12; Numb. 32: 34, 35. Josh. 13: 16.-T. - AROER ; 1. a city on the northern bank of the Arnon, twelve miles east of the Dead Sea. Deut. 2: 36. Its ruins are now called 'Ara'ir. It was taken from Sihon, king of Heshbon, Josh. 12: 2, and given to the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 14: 16. In the time of Jeremiah, it was in the possession of the Moabites. Jer. 48: 19. 2. A city, farther north than the preceding, in the tribe of Gad, over against Rabbath-Ammon. Josh. 13: 25. Numb. 32: 34. 3. A city in the south of Judah, twenty-three miles nearly south south-west from Hebron; now called 'Ar’ārah, in ruins.—T. ARPAD, or ARPHAD ; a town in Scripture always associated with Hamath, the Epiphania of the Greeks, 2 Kings 18:34, &c.) and probably the Arphas noticed in osephus, as limiting the provinces of Gamalitis, Guala- nitis, Batanae, and Trachonitis, north-east, (Bel. l. 3. c. 2.) and the Raphan or Raphanaea, which Stephens places near Epiphania.-Calmet. - ARPHAXAD; son of Shem, and father of Salah; born A. M. 1648, one year after the deluge; died A. M. 2096, aged four hundred and thirty-eight years. Gen. 11: 12, &c. ARRHABONARII; a sect who held that the eucharist is neither the real flesh or blood of Christ, nor yet the sign of them, but only the pledge or earnest thereof.—Buck. ARROW. (See ARMs.) Divination with arrows was a method of presaging future events, practised by the ancients. Ezekiel, 21: 21, informs us," that Nebuchad- nezzar, putting himself at the head of his armies, to march against Zedekiah, king of the Jews, and against the king of the Ammonites, stood at the parting of two ways, to mingle his arrows together in a quiver, in order to divine from thence which way he should march. Jerome, Theo- doret, and the modern commentators after them, believe that this prince took several arrows, and upon each of them wrote the name of the king, town, or province which he was to attack: for example, upon one, Jerusalem; upon another, Rabbah, the capital of the Ammonites; and upon another, Egypt, &c. After having put these into a quiver, he shook them together, and then drew them out; and the arrow which was drawn was thought to de' clare the will of the gods to attack first that city, province, or kingdom, with whose name it was inscribed. The word ARRow is often taken figuratively for light- ning, and other meteors, (the same as the heathen would call the thunderbolts of their Jupiter,) but there is a pas- Sage, (Psalm 91; 5.) where it has been thought dubious whether it should be taken literally, for war, or figuratively, för some natural evil: ~. Thou shalt have no occasion of fear, From the dread, by night; . From the arrow that flieth by day; From the pestilence in darkness walking; From the cutting off which destroys at noon-dny. A R T A R T [ 126 J The word rendered pestilence, seems to import a com- tnissioned—a spoken-to-evil, from debir, to speak; but Parkhurst derives it from driving, an evil which drives men to their graves. The former derivation is most usual; but both senses may coalesce in this example. The cut. ting off (Kereb) is used for pestilence, in Deut. 32: 24. and Mr. Taylor conceives that the arrow in this passage means the pestilence also ; and that the following lines are exe- getical : an idea which is confirmed by two or three pas- Sages, which imply, that the Arabs denote the pestilence, by an allusion to this flying weapon. The following is from Busbequius : (Eng. edit.) “I desired to remove to a less contagious air. . . . I received from Solyman, the em- peror, this message : that the emperor wondered what I meant, in desiring to remove my habitation. Is not the pestilence God's ARRow, which mill always hit his mark 2 If God would visit me herewith, how could I avoid it 2 Is not the plague, said he, in my own palace, and yet I do not think of removing 7” We find the same opinion ex- pressed in Smith's Remarks, &c. on the Turks; (p. 109.) “What, say they, is not the plague the DART of Almighty God? and can we escape the blow he levels at us? is not his hand steady to hit the persons he aims at 2 can we run out of his sight, and beyond his power?” So Herbert, (p. 99.) speaking of Curroon, says, “that year his empiré was so wounded with God’s arron's of plague, pestilence, and famine, as this thousand years before was never so terrible.” See Ezek. 5:15. “When I send upon them the evil arrows of famine,” &c.— Watson ; Calmet. ARSENAL. The ancient Hebrews had each man his own arms, because all went to the wars; they had no ar- senals, or magazines of arms, because they had no regu- lar troops, or soldiers, in constant pay. There were no arsenals in Israel, till the reigns of David and Solomon. David made a large collection of arms, and consecrated them to the Lord, in his tabernacle. The high-priest Jehoiada took them out of the treasury of the temple, to arm the people and Levites, on the day of the young king Joash’s elevation to the throne. 2 Chron. 23: 9. Solomon collected a great quantity of arms in his palace of the forest of Lebanon, and established well-provided arsenals in all the cities of Judah, which he fortified. 2 Chron. 11: 12. He sometimes enforced the conquered and tribu- tary people to forge arms for him, 1 Kings 10: 25. Uz- ziah not only furnished his arsenals with spears, helmets, shields, cuirasses, swords, bows, and slings, but also with such machines as were proper for sieges. Hezekiah had the same precaution; he made stores of arms of all sorts. Jonathan and Simon Maccabaeus had arsenals stored with good arms; not only such as had been taken from their enemies, but others which they had purchased, or commis- Sioned to be forged for them.—Calmet. - ARTAXERXES, or AHAsueRUs ; a king of Persia, the husband of Esther, who, in the opinion of the learned Usher and Calmet, was the Darius of profane writers. (See AHASUERUs.) . * II. ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS, is supposed by Dr. Prideaux to be the Ahasuerus of Esther. He was the Son of Xerxes, and grandson of Darius Hystaspes, and reigned in Persia from the year of the world 3531 to 3579. He permitted Ezra, with all those inclined to follow him, to return into Judea, in the year of the world 3537. Ezra 7: 8. Afterwards, Nehemiah also obtained leave to return, and to build the walls and gates of Jerusalem, in the year of the world 3550. Nehem. 1: 11. From this year, chro- nologers reckon the beginning of Daniel’s seventy weeks. Daniel 11:29. These are weeks of years, and make four hundred and ninety years. , Dr. Prideaux, who discourses very copiously, and with great learning, on this prophecy, maintains that the decree mentioned in it for the restoring and rebuilding of Jerusalem, cannot be understood of that granted to Nehemiah, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes; but of that granted to Ezra, by the same Artaxerxes, in the Seventh year of his reign. From that time to the death of Christ, are exactly four hundred and ninety years, to a month : for in the month Nisan, the decree was granted to Ezra ; and in the middle of the same month Nisan, Christ suffered, just four hundred and ninety years afterwards. tº The easterns think that the surname of Longimanus was given to Artaxerxes by reason of the extent of his dominions; as it is commonly said that princes have long hands: but the Greeks maintain that this prince had really longer hands or arms than usual; and that, when he stood upright, he could touch his knees. He is said to have been the handsomest man of his time. The eastern peo- ple call him Bahaman, and give him the surname of Árd- schir-diraz-dest, or the long-handed. He was the son of Asfendiar, sixth king of the second dynasty of the Per- sians. After having extinguished the family of Rostam, which was formidable to him on account of the great men who composed it, he carried his arms into the western provinces, Mesopotamia and Syria, which formed part of his empire. He took Babylon from Belshazzar, son of Nebuchadnezzar; and he put in his place Kiresch, who by us is called Cyrus. Some Persian historians assert, that the mother of Artaxerxes was a Jewess, of the tribe of Benjamin, and family of Saul; and that the most be- loved of his wives was of the tribe of Judah, and race of Solomon, by Rehoboam, king of Judah. If this be true, we need not wonder that he should recommend to Cyrus to favor the Jewish nation. This Cyrus performed, by sending back the people into their own country, and per- mitting them to rebuild their temple. But the truth of this story is doubtful; and were it true, the interference of the special providence of God must still be acknowledged. Artaxerxes reigned forty-seven years, and died in the year of the world, 3579, and before Jesus Christ, 425.-Watson, ARTAXERXES; a name given by Ezra to the Magus, called, by Justin, Oropastes; by Herodotus, Smerdis; by AEschylus, Mardus ; and by Ctesias, Sphendadates. Aſter the death of Cambyses, he usurped the government of Persia, pretending to be Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses had put to death. This is the Artaxerxes who wrote to his governors beyond the Euphrates, signifying, that having received their advices relating to the Jews, he required them to forbid the Jews from rebuilding Jerusa- lem. Thus, from A. M. 3483, the Jews did not dare to forward the repairs of the city walls, till 3550; when Ne- hemiah obtained permission to rebuild them, from Arta- xerxes Longimanus. - Neh. 1: 2.—Calmet. ARTEMAS; St. Paul's disciple, who was sent by that apostle into Crete, in the room of Titus, chap. 3: 12, while he continued with St. Paul at Nicopolis, where he passed the winter. We know nothing particular of the life or death of Artemas; but the employment to which he was appointed by the apostle is a proof of his great merit. ARTEMIUS; a distinguished martyr of the fourth cen- tury. He was commander-in-chief of the Roman forces in Egypt. . He was accused by the pagans, 1st. of having demolished several idols in the reign of Constantine the Great; and 2d. of assisting the bishop of Alexandria in plundering the temples. Being summoned before the emperor Julian, to answer these charges, he confessed them, and owned his faith, upon which he was deprived of his commission and estate, and finally beheaded.— Foz. ARTEMONITES; a denomination in the second cen- tury; so called from Artemon, who taught that, at the birth of the man Christ, a certain divine energy united itself to him. He was a Unitarian, of the same princi- ples as Theodotus, (the tanner,) Paul of Samosata, and the modern Socinians.—Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. p. 235; Milner's Church. Hist. vol. i. p. 256; Lardner's Heretics, pp. 360–362.-Williams. - ARTICLE OF FAITH, is, by some, defined a point of Christian doctrine, which we are obliged to believe, as having been revealed by God himself, and allowed and established as such by the church. (See CoNFEssions.) ARTICLES, FIVE, OF PERTH; to which James I., by intrigues and threatenings, procured the sanction of the general assembly and the Scottish parliament. They were, 1st. Kneeling at the Sacrament: 2d. Private com- munion : 3d. Private baptism : 4th. Confirmation of chil- dren; and 5th. The observation of holidays. ARTICLES OF. SMALCALD ; certain articles drawn up at that place by Luther, on occasion of the meeting of the eleetors, princes, and states. They were principally designed to show how far the Lutherans were disposed to go in order to avoid a final rupture, and in what sense they were willing to adopt the doctrine of Christ's pre- A RT A.R. T ſ 127 J sènce in the eucharist. The terms in which they are expressed are somewhat dubicus, and not so harsh and irritating as those employed in the Confession, the Apolo- gy, and the Form of Concord.—Henderson's Buck. ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. (See CHURCH of ENGLAND.) - º ARTICLES, LAMBETH. The Lambeth articles were so called, because drawn up at Lambeth i. under the eye, and with the assistance, of archbishop Whitgift, bishop Bancroft, bishop Vaughan, and other eminent dig- nitaries of the church. That the reader may judge how Calvinistic the clergy were under the reign of queen Elizabeth, we shall here insert them. “1. God hath from eternity predestinated certain persons to life, and hath re- probated certain persons unto death. 2. The moving or efficient cause of predestination unto life is not the fore- sight of faith, or of perseverance, or of good works, or of any thing that is in the persons predestinated; but the alone will of God’s good pleasure. 3. The predestinati are a pre-determined and certain number, which can neither be lessened nor increased. 4. Such as are not predestinated to salvation shall inevitably be condemned on account of their sins. 5. The true, lively, and justifying faith, and the Spirit of God justifying, is not extinguished, doth not utterly fail, doth notvanish away in the elect, either finally or totally. 6. A true believer, that is, one who is en- dued with justifying faith, is certified by the full assurance of faith that his sins are forgiven, and that he shall be ever- lastingly saved by Christ. 7. Saving grace is not allowed, is not imparted, is not granted to all men, by which they may be saved, if they will. 8. No manisable to come to Christ, unless it be given him, and unless the Father draw him; and all men are not drawn by the Father, that they may come to his Son. 9. It is not in the will or power of every man to be saved.” What gave occasion to the framing these articles was this :—Some persons had distinguished themselves at the university of Cambridge by opposing predestination. Alarmed at the opinions that were vented, the above-mentioned archbishop, with others, composed these articles, to prevent the belief of a contrary doctrine. These, when completed, were sent down to Cambridge, to which the scholars were strictly enjoined to conform. ARTICLES, SIX; an act which passed both houses of parliament, and obtained the assent of Henry VIII., by which the whole body of popery was restored, and which consisted of the following points:—That in the sacrament of the altar, after the consecration, there re- maineth no substance of bread and wine, but the natural body and blood of Christ; that communion in both kinds is not necessary; that priests, according to the law of God, may not marry; that vows of chastity ought to be ob- served ; that private masses ought to be continued ; and that auricular confession is expedient and necessary, and ought to be retained in the church. Archbishop Cranmer made a noble stand against this act while it was passing the house of lords, and disputed every inch of ground ; but all his efforts were ineffectual-Henderson's Buck. ARTICLE, GREEK. Horne, in his Introduction, speaking of the signification of words and phrases, lays down the two following rules; - * FIRST. Emphases, in the sacred Scriptures, are to be Sought, sometimes in words, in particles, and also in the Greek article. Instances of the latter emphasis are found in Matt. 26: 28. Matt. 16:16. John 1:21. and John 10: 11. SEcond. When two or more personal nouns of the same gender, number, and case, are connected by the copulative kai (and); if the first has the definitive article, and the second, third, &c. have not, they both relate to the same person. Examples of this rule occur in 2 Cor. 1: 3. 1 Cor. 15: 24. Ephes. 5: 5. 2 Thess. 1: 12. 1 Tim.5: 21. Tit. 2: 13. 2 Pet. 1: 1. Jude 4; and altogether furnish a most striking body of evidence in behalf of the divinity of our Savior. ---.” - - . The importance and force of the Greek article are fully illustrated in the late Mr. Granville Sharp's Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article of the Greek Text of the New Testament, 12mo. 1803; in Dr. Wordsworth Letters to Mr. Sharp; and especially in Dr. Middleton's Doctrine of the Greek Article, 8vo. 1808; and the Supplementary Researches of Mr. Hugh Stuart Boyd, inserted in Dr. A. natural product of their ground. Clarke's Commentary on Ephes. 6:, and at the end of his Commentary on the Epistle to Titus. In the latter, Mr. Boyd has combated and refuted the philosophical objec- tions of Unitarians.—Horne's Introduction. ARTOTYRITES, (bread and cheese eaters;) a branch of the Montanists, in the second century, who are charged with eating bread and cheese in the eucharist. It is as- serted that they did this in imitation of Ebel, of whom it is said, (Gen. 4:4.) he “brought of the firstling of his flock, and the fat thereof;” which, it is possible, they might interpret, of their milk, or rather cream, as Grotius has since done. But it is very possible that they might do this in their love-feasts, rather than the eucharist. The Artotyrites admitted women to the priesthood and episcopacy; and Epiphanius tells us that it was a common thing to see seven girls at once enter into their church robed in white, and holding a torch in their hands; where they wept and bewailed the wretchedness of human na- ture, and the miseries of this life.— Williams ; Buck. ARTS. The arts, which are now brought to such an admirable state of perfection, it is universally allowed, must have originated partly in necessity and partly in ac- cident. At first, they must have been very imperfect and very limited; but the inquisitive and active mind of man, seconded by his wants, soon secured to them a greater extent and fewer imperfections. Accordingly, in the fourth generation after the creation of man, we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical instruments. Gen. 4:21, 22. Those communities which, from local or other causes, could not flourish by means of agriculture, would necessarily direct their attention to the encouragement and improvement of the arts. These con- sequently advanced with great rapidity, and were carried to a high pitch as far back as the time of Noah; as we may learn from the very large vessel built under his di- rection, the construction of which shows that they must have been well acquainted with some at least of the me- chanical arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the operations of artificers in other ways besides that of build- ing, and, after the deluge, imitated their works as well as they could. Hence it is, that shortly after that event, we find mention made of utensils, ornaments, and many other things which imply a knowledge of the arts. Compare 9: 21. 11: 1–9. 12:7, 8. 14: 1–16. 17: 10, 18; 4–6. 19: 32. 31: 19, 27, 34. - Egypt in the early ages of the world excelled all other nations in a knowledge of the arts. The Hebrews, in consequence of remaining four hundred years with the Egyptians, must have become initiated to a considerable degree into that knowledge which their masters possessed. Hence we find among them men who were sufficiently skilful and informed to frame, erect, and ornament the tabernacle. Moses, it is true, did not enact any special laws in favor of the arts, nor did he interdict or lessen them in the eyes of the people; on the contrary, he speaks in the praise of artificers. Exod. 35: 30–35. 36: 38: 22, 23, &c. The grand object of Moses, in a temporal point of view, was to promote agriculture, and he thought it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to , the ingenuity and industry of the people. Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was assigned by Joab, of the tribe of Judah, to artificers; for in the genealogy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. 11: 14. we read of a place called the valley of craftsmen, and, verses 21, 23. of a family of workmen of fine linen, and another of potters; and when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy carried anay all the craftsmen and smiths. 2 Kings 24: 14. But as proof that their skill in manufactures and trade therein could not be very ex- tensive, we find that the prophet Ezekiel, chap. 27. in describing the affluence of the goods which came to Tyre, makes mention of nothing brought thither from Judea. except wheat, oil, grapes, and balm, which were all the It appears that the mis- tress of the family usually made the clothing for her house- hold, and also for sale. Exod. 35:25. 1 Sam. 2: 19. Prov. 31: 18–24. Acts 9:39. Employment consequently as far as the arts were concerned, was limited chiefly to those who are engaged in the more difficult performances; for instance, those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured idols, A S A As C I 128 1 of gold or silver, and brass, and vessels of clay, and the like. Judg. 17:4. Isa. 29; 16. 30: 14. Jer. 28: 13. Artificers among the Hebrews were not, as among the Greeks and Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank and worth; and as luxury and riches increased, they became very numerous. Jer. 24: 1. 29: 2. 2 Kings 24: 14. Building and architecture, however, did not attain much perfection prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon. We read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed in the construction of the tabernacle) excelled un all man- ner of workmanship. Exod. 35 : 30–35. but we are then told, that they had their skill by inspiration from God, and it does not appear that they had any successors; for, in the days of Solomon, when they were at rest from all their enemies, and were perfectly at liberty to follow out im- provements of any kind, yet they had no professed artists that could undertake the work of the temple; so that Solo- mon was obliged to send to Hiram king of Tyre for a skil- ful artist, 2 Chron. 7: 13, 14. by whose direction the model of the temple and all the curious furniture of it was both designed and finished. But after the Jews were under the influence or power of the Romans, there is no doubt that a better taste prevailed among them. Herod, at least, must have employed some architects of distinguished abilities to repair and beautify the temple, and render it the superb structure which the description of Josephus shows that it must have been. From the frequent men- tion made in sacred history, of numerous instruments and of various operations in metals, we are authorized to infer, as well as from other sources, that a considerable number of the arts was known and practised among them. * During the captivity, many Hebrews, (most commonly those to whom a barren tract of the soil had been assign- ed.,) applied themselves to the arts and merchandise. Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popu- lar, that the Talmudists taught, that all parents ought to learn their children some art or handicraft. They indeed mention many learned men of their nation, who practised some kind of manual labor, or as we should say, followed some trade. Accordingly, we find in the New Testament, that Joseph the husband of Mary was a carpenter, and that he was assisted by our Savior in his labors. Matt. 13:55. Mark 6: 3. Simon is mentioned as a tanner in the city of Joppa. Acts 9: 43. 10: 32. Alexander, a learned Jew, was a coppersmith. 2 Tim. 4: 14. Paul and Aquila were tent-makers. Jews also, esteemed certain trades infamous. At any rate, the rabbins reckoned the drivers of asses and camels, barbers, sailors, shepherds, and innkeepers, in the same class with robbers. Those Ephesians and Cretans, who were lovers of gain, 1 Tim. 3: 8. Tit. 1: 7. were men, as we may learn from ancient authors, who were determined to get money in however base a manner. In the apostolic age, the more eminent Greek tradesmen were united into a society. Acts 19: 25.-Horne. - ARVAD; See Aradus. . - ASA ; the son and successor of Abijam, king of Judah, began to reign in the year of the world 3049, and before Christ 955. He reigned forty-one years at Jerusalem, and did right in the sight of the Lord. He purged Jerusalem from the infamous practices attending the worship of idols; and he deprived his mother of her office and dignity of queen, because she erected an idol to Astarte, which he burnt in the valley of Hinnom. 1 Kings 15: 8, &c. The Scripture, however, reproaches Asa with not de- stroying the high places, which, perhaps, he thought it politic to tolerate, to avoid the greater evil of idolatry. His application also to Benhadad for assistance, was inex- cusable. It implied, that Asa distrusted God's power and goodness, which he had so lately experienced. Therefore the prophet Hanani was sent to reprove him for his con- duct. Asa, however, was so exasperated at his rebukes, that he put the prophet in chains, and at the same timé ordered the execution of several persons in Judah. To- wards the latter part of his life, he was incommoded with swellings in his feet, which, gradually rising upwards, killed him. The Scripture reproaches him, also, because, or madethem of metal, or who made them of instruments Not only the Greeks but the in his last sickness, he had recourse to physicians, rather than to the Lord.—Watson. . . . . . . . - - _ASAHEL; the son of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab, He was killed by Abner, in the battle of Gibeon, 2 Sam. 2: 18, 19. while he obstinately persisted in the pursuit of that general. To revenge his death, his brother Joab, some years after, treacherously killed Abner, who had come to wait on David at Hebron, in order to procure him to be acknowledged king by all Israel. 2 Sam. 3:26, 27. (See ABNER.)—Watson. . - . . . . ASAPH; a celebrated musician in the time of David, was the son of Barachias of the tribe of Levi. Asaph, and also his descendants, presided over the musical band in the service of the temple. Several of the psalms, as the fiftieth, the seventy-third to the jºirá have the name of Asaph prefixed; but it is not certain whether the words or the music were composed by him. With regard to some of them, which were written during the Babylo- nish captivity, they cannot in any respect be ascribed to him. Perhaps they were written or set to music by his descendants, who bore his name, or by some of that class of musicians of which the family of Asaph was the head 1 Chron. 6: 39. 2 Chron. 29: 30. 35: 15. Neh. 12:46. The psalms which bear the name of Asaph are doctrinal or preceptive : their style, though less sweet than that of David, is more vehement, and little inferior to the grandeur of Isaiah.-Watson. . . . ASBURY, (FRANCIs;) senior bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. He was born near Birmingham, England, August 20, 1745; but as most of his life was spent in laborious services among the American Methodists, he is identified with them, in their own feelings, and in the view of the public. He came to this country in 1771, at the age of twenty-six, as a preacher. In 1773, the first annual conference of the Methodists was held at Philadelphia, when it consisted of ten preachers, and about eleven hundred members. He was consecrated bishop by Dr. Coke in 1784, an office which he continued to fill with great reputation till his death, which happened at the house of his old friend, Mr. George Arnold, in Vir- ginia. He was there on a journey, and died suddenly, March 31, 1816, in the seventy-first year of his age, and the fifty-fifth of his ministry. His remains, by order of the general conference, were brought to Baltimore, and depo- sited in a vault prepared for that purpose under the recess of the pulpit of the Methodist church in Eutaw street, in that city. . . . . . . . ..r From the time of his consecration, a period of thirty-two years, bishop Asbury travelled yearly through the United States. From the ardor of his feelings, he was peculiarly calculated to keep the great machinery of the travelling connection in motion. In the exercise of his episcopal office, he ordained not less, probably, than three thousand preachers, and preached seventeen thousand sermons.— Asbury's Journal ; M.S. of Rev. E. Mudge ; Bond's Letter to Bishop M'Kendree ; Allen's Biog. Dict, ; Benedict's All Religions. - - . . . . ASCENSION OF CHRIST; his visible elevation to heaven. Our Savior, having repeatedly conversed with his apostles after his resurrection, and afforded them many infallible proofs of its reality, led them from Jerusalem to Bethany, and was raised up to heaven in their sight; there to continue till he shall descend at the last day to judge the quick and the dead. ... • 1. The evidences of this fact were numerous. The disciples saw him ascend. Acts 1:9, 10. Two angels tes- tified that he did ascend. Acts 1: 11. Stephen, Paul, and John saw him in his ascended state. Acts 7:55, 56.; 9. Rev. 1. The ascension was demonstrated by the descent of the Holy Ghost; John 16: 7–14. Acts 2: 33.; and the terrible overthrow and dispersion of the Jewish nation is still a standing proof of it. John 8: 21. Matt. 26:64. * 2. The time of Christ's ascension was forty days after his resurrection. He continued so many days upon earth that he might give repeated proofs of his resurrection; Acts 1: 3.; instract his apostles in every thing of impor- tance respecting their office and ministry; Acts 1: 3.; and might open to them the Scriptures concerning himself, and renew their commission to preach the Gospel. Acts 1: 5, 6. Mark 16:15. - A S C A S H [ 129 J the exercise of an ascetic life. 3. As to the manner of his ascension, it was from mount Olivet to heaven, not in appearance only, but in reality, and that visibly and locally. It was a real motion of his human nature; sudden, swift, glorious, and in a trium- hant manner. He was parted from his disciples while he was solemnly blessing them; and multitudes of an- gels attended him with shouts of praise. Psalm 68: 17.; 47: 5, 6. - 4. The effects or ends of his ascension were, 1. To ſul- fil the types and prophecies concerning it; 2. To “appear” as a priest “in the presence of God for us;” 3. To take upon him more openly the exercise of his kingly office; 4. To receive gifts for men, both ordinary and extraordi- nary; Psalm 68: 18.; 5. To open the way to heaven for his people; Heb. 10: 19, 20. ; 6. To assure the saints of their ascension to heaven after their resurrection from the dead. John 14: 1, 2.—Watson ; Buck. ASCETICS; such as inured themselves to greater de- grees of abstinence and fasting than other men; as those mentioned by Origen, who abstained from flesh and living creatures, in order to mortify and subdue their pas- sions. Such abstinence the apostolical canons call askesis, So that all who abstained from flesh on account of mortification, not out of an opi- nion of its uncleanness, (as some heretics did,) were call- ed ascetics. The same appellation was given to those, who were more than ordinarily intent on the exercises of prayer and devotion. Accordingly, Cyril of Jerusalem calls the prophetess Anna, who departed not from the temple, but served God night and day, Asketria eulabesate, the most religious ascetic. In short, every king of uncom- mom piety and virtue laid claim to the name. Whence it appears that the ascetics were not originally the same with monks, as Baronius, and the generality of the Romish writers, pretend they were. Ascetics had been long in the church; but the monastic life was not known till towards the fourth century. The difference between ascetics and monks is this:–1. The monks were men who retired from the business and conversation of the world to some dis- tant mountain or desert wilderness; but the first asce- tics were men of an active life, living in cities as other men, and differing from them only in the heights to which they carried their virtue. 2. The monks were to be only laymen; but the ascetics were indifferently of any order. 3. The monks were tied up to certain rules and laws of discipline; but the ancient ascetics were governed by no laws but those of the Gospel. monk is an ascetic, every ascetic is not a monk; the former appellation being of a more general import than the latter. A monastery has sometimes the name asceterium given it. The college of Undertakers, (Funerarii,) founded by the emperor Anastasius, in which eight monks and three acolythists were employed in burying the dead, was also called by this name; as appears from the confirmation of it by the emperor Justinian.—Henderson’s Buck. ASCHAM, (Roger,) a distinguished English scholar, and preceptor to queen Elizabeth, was born, 1515; entered Cambridge, 1530; was chosen fellow in 1534, and tutor in 1737. At this time he took side with the Protestants. Such was his skill in Greek and Latin, that he was suc- cessively chosen Latin secretary to king Edward and queen Mary. His most valuable work is a treatise on education called the School-master, which even now is in high reputation. His last hours were those of a penitent sinner, rejoicing only in Christ.—Am. Ency. ; Clissold. ASCITES. (See AscodoGITEs.) ASCLEPIDOTAEANS ; a petty sect in the third centu- ry; so called from Asclepidotus, who taught, like Artemon and the modern Socinians, that Jesus Christ was a mere man.—Broughton's Dict. : Williams. ASCODROGITES, or AscITEs ; a party of Montanists, in the second century, who, it is said, brought into their churches bags, skins, or bottles, filled with new wine, to represent the new wine mentioned by Christ; then danced round these bottles, and intoxicated themselves with the wine. They are likewise called Ascitat, and both words are derived from the Greek askos, a bottle. The charge appears improbable and ridiculous; (but see MonTANISTs.) —Broughton's Dict. 5 gian. - 1 In short, though every ASCODRUTES; a branch of Gnostics, or Valentinians, in the second century, who asserted, that divine mysteries, being the images of invisible things, ought not to be re- presented by visible things, nor incorporeal things by cor- poreal and sensible. Therefore they rejected the sacra- ments, and are said to have confined their religion to theory. (See GNoSTIcs.)—Broughton's Dict. ; Bell's Wan- derings, p. 138. . - ASENATH; daughter of Potiphar, wife of Joseph, Gen. 41: 45, and mother of Ephraim and Manasseh. (See Potiphar, ad fin.)—Calmet. ASHAN ; a city of Judah; Josh. 15:42.; but, perhaps, afterwards yielded to Simeon. Josh. 19: 7. Eusebius says, that, in his time, Beth-Ashan was sixteen miles from Je- rusalem, west.—Calmet. * ASHDOD; a city of the Philistines, Josh. 15:46. 1 Sam. 5: 1. This city, says Herodotus, (lib. ii. 157.) sustained the longest siege of any city in the world, against Psam- meticus, king of Egypt. (See Azotus.)—Calmet. ASHDOTH; a city in the tribe of Reuben, called Ash- doth-pisgah, Josh. 12: 3. 13: 20, because it was seated in the plains at the foot of mount Pisgah; or, at the springs of Pisgah. Ashdoth may be taken as Sheduth, for springs; or rather for rills, which, falling from some height, form small cas- cades in their descent, and shed their waters around.— Calmet. - S. ASHER ; one of the sons of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah’s servant. He had four sons and one daughter. Gen. 49: 20. Deut. 33: 24. The inheritance of his tribe lay in a very fruitful country, with Phoenicia west, Libanus north, Carmel and the tribe of Issachar south, and Zebulun and Naphtali east: but it never possessed the whole range of district assigned to it. (See CANAAN.)—Calmet. ASHER ; a city between Scythopolis and Schechem, and, consequently, remote from the tribe of Asher. Josh. 17: 7. In the Old Itinerary to Jerusalem, it is placed be- tween Scythopolis and Neapolis. Eusebius says there was a large town of this name between Azoth and Aska- lon also.--Calmet. ASHES. To repent in sackcloth and ashes, or to lie down among ashes, was an external sign of self-affliction for sin, or of grief under misfortune. We find it adopted by Job; (chap. 2: 8;) by many Jews when in great fear; Esth. 4: 3.; and by the king of Nineveh. Jonah 3: 6. Homer describes old Laertes grieving for the absence of his son,-‘‘Sleeping in the apartment where the slaves slept, in the ashes near the fire.” Compare Jer. 6: 26. “Daughter of my people, wallow thyself in ashes.” “I am but dust and ashes,” said Abraham to the Lord; Gen. 18: 27. ; indicating his deep sense of his own meanness in comparison with God. God threatens to shower down dust and ashes on the lands instead of rain; Deut. 28:24. ; thereby to make them barren instead of blessing them. (See RAIN.) The Psalmist, in great sorrow, says, poeti- cally, that he had “eaten ashes.” Psal. 102: 9. He sat on ashes, and threw them on his head; his food was sprinkled with the ashes wherewith he was himself covered. So Jeremiah (Lam. 3: 16.) introduces Jerusalem saying, “the Lord hath covered me with ashes.” There was a sort of ley and lustral water, made with the ASHEs of the heifer, sacrificed on the great day of expiation; these ashes were distributed to the people, and used in purifications, by sprinkling, to such as had touched a dead body, or been present at funerals. Numb. 19: 17. The ancient Persians had a punishment which consisted in executing certain criminals by stifling them in ashes. (Valerius Maximus, lib. ix. cap. 2.) Thus, the wicked Menelaus was despatched, who caused the troubles which had disquieted Judaea; (2 Macc. 13: 5, 6.) being thrown headlong into a tower, fifty cubits deep, which was filled with ashes to a certain height. The action of the criminal to disengage himself, plunged him still deeper in the whirling ashes; and this agitation was increased by a wheel, which kept them in continual movement, till he was entirely stifled.—Calmet. • ASHIMAH; a deity adored by the men of Hamath who were settled in Samaria. 2 Kings 17:30. Some of the rabbins say, that Ashimah had the shape of an ape; others, that of a lamb, a goat, or a satyr. (Selden, de Diis A S H A S H [ 130 J Syr. Syntagm, ii, cap 9. et additiones And... Beyr. ibidem.) Both the ape and the goat were worshipped in Egypt, and in the east. (Diodor. Sicul, lib. i. Basmage, Antiq., Jud. tom. i. p. 190.) It may be further observed, that these people came from Hamath, or Emesa, a city of Syria, on the river Orontes, and we read, that the sun was adored in this city under the name of Elah-Gabalah : whence the emperor Heliogabalus took his name. The god Elagabal was represented by a large stone, round at the bottom, which, rising insensibly to a point, terminated in a conic or pyramidal figure. His worship became celebrated at Rome, from the time of Heliogabalus, who caused a mag- nificent temple to be erected to him. Around this temple were several altars, on which hecatombs of bulls and great quantities of sheep were sacrificed every morning, and abundance of excellent wine and spices poured out. The name of Ashimah may very well be understood of fire from heaven, or the sun; or it may be derived from the Persian Asuman, the name of an angel, or genius, who, according to the ancient Magi of Persia, presides over the twenty- seventh day of every solar month, in the Persian year; which, therefore, is called by the name of this genius. The Magi believe Asuman to be the angel of death, which separates the souls of men from their bodies. The Per- sians likewise called heaven Asuman, and Suman ; which comes near to the Hebrew Schama'im.—Calmet. ASHLEY, (JonATHAN,) minister of Deerfield, Massa- chusetts, was graduated at Yale college, in 1730, and was ordained in 1738. He died in 1780, aged sixty-seven. He possessed a strong and discerning mind and lively ima- gination, and was a pungent and energetic preacher. He proclaimed the doctrines of grace with a pathos, which was the effect, not merely of his assent to their divine au- thority, but of a deep sense of their importance and excel- lency. He published a sermon on visible Saints, vindicat- ing Mr. Stoddard’s sentiments respecting church member- ship; a sermon at the ordination of John Norton, Deerfield, 1741; the great duty of charity, 1742; a letter to W. Cooper, 1745.—Allen. - ASHMUN, (JEuudi,) agent of the American Coloniza- tion Society, was born of pious parents in Champlain, on the western shore of the lake of the same name, New York, in April, 1794. In early life he was an unbeliever; but it pleased God to disclose to him the iniquity of his heart and his need of mercy, and the value and glory of the Gospel. He graduated at Burlington college in 1816, and after preparing for the ministry, was elected a professor in the theological seminary at Bangor, Maine, in which place, however, he continued but a short time. Removing to the district of Columbia, he became a member of the Episcopal church, edited the Theological Repertory, and published his memoirs of Rev. Samuel Bacon. He also projected a monthly journal for the American Colonization Society, and published one number; but the work failed for want of patronage. Being appointed to take charge of a reinforcement to the colony at Liberia, he embarked for Africa, June 19, 1822, and arrived at cape Montserado, August 8th. He had authority, in case he should find no agent there, to act as such for the Society, and also for the navy department. In the absence of the agents, it was at a period of great difficulty, that he assumed the agency. The settlers were few, and surrounded with numerous enemies. It was necessary for him to act as a legislator, and also as a soldier and engineer, to lay out the fortifica- tions, superintending the construction, and this too in the time of affliction from the loss of his wife, and while suf- fering himself under a fever, and to animate the emigrants to the resolute purpose of self-defence. About three months after his arrival, just as he was beginning to recover strength, and while his whole force was thirty-five men and boys, he was attacked at the dawn of day, November 11, by eight hundred armed savages; but by the energy and desperate valor of the agent, the assailants were re- pulsed with the loss of four colonists killed, and four wounded, and again in a few days, when they returned with redoubled numbers, were utterly defeated. Here was a memorable display of heroism. The same energy, diligence, and courage were displayed in all his labors for the benefit of the colony. When ill health compelled him to take a voyage to America, he was escorted to the place of embarkation, March 26, 1828, by three companies of the militia; and the men, women, and children of Monrovia parted with him with tears. He left a commu: nity of twelve hundred freemen. The vessel touched and landed him at St. Bartholomews in very ill health. He arrived at New Haven, August 10th, a fortnight before his death. In his sickness he was very humble and patient. He said, “I have come here to die. It is hard to be bro. ken down by the slow progress of disease. I wish to be submissive. My sins, my sins! they seem to shut me out from that comfort which I wish to enjoy. I have been praying for light; and a little light has come, cheering and refreshing beyond expression.” He died in the evening of August 25, 1828, aged thirty-four years. An eloquent discourse was preached by Leonard Bacon at his funeral, describing his remarkable character, the important influ- ence on the tribes of Africa of his piety and regard to justice, and his great services for the colonists. He was, as Mrs. Sigourney represents, - “Their leader, when the blast Of ruthless war swept by ;- - Their teacher, when the storm was past, Their guide to worlds on high.” Mr. Gurley, the editor of the African Repository, is preparing an account of his life. In the Repository, vari- ous communications, written by Mr. Ashmun, were pub- lished: his Memoirs of S. Bacon have been already men- tioned.—Afric. Repos. vol. iv. p. 214–224, 286; Christian Spect, vol. ii. p. 528; N. Y. Merc. vol. 1. p. 13; Allen's IB. Dict. - - ASHIKENAZ, or AshcHENAz; one of the sons of Gomer, and grandson of Japheth, who gave his name to the coun- try first peopled by him in the north and north-western part of Asia Minor, answering to Bithynia; where were traces long after of his name, particularly in that of Asca- nius, applied to a bay and city, as well as to some islands lying along the coast. It was also from this country, most probably, that the king Ascanius, mentioned by Homer, came to the aid of Priamus at the siege of Troy. From the same source, likewise, the Pontus Euxinus, or Black sea, derived its name. It may further be remarked on the identity of these countries, that the prophet Jeremiah, pre- dicting the capture of Babylon, and calling by name the countries which were to rise against it, exclaims, “Call together against her the kingdoms of Ararat, (or Armenia,) Minni, and Ashkenaz:” which was literally fulfilled; as Xenophon informs us that Cyrus, after taking Sardis, be- came master of Phrygia on the Hellespont, and took along with hum many soldiers of that country.—Watson. ASHPENAZ; intendant, or governor of king Nebu- chadnezzar's eunuchs, who changed the name of Daniel and his companions. Dan. 1: 3–Calmet. ASHTAROTH. (See ASTARoth.) ASHUR ; a son of Shem, who gave name to Assyria. It is believed that he dwelt originally in the land of Shinar, and about Babylonia; but was compelled by Nimrod to remove thence, higher towards the springs of the Tigris, in the province of Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Reho- both, Calah, and Resen. This is the sense generally given to Gen. 10:11, 12. : “Out of the land (Shinah) went forth Ashur, and builded Nineveh,” &c. But others understand it to speak of Nimrod, who left his own country and at- tacked Assyria, which he overcame, built Nineveh, and here established the seat of his empire. The prophet Mi- cah (chap. 5: 6.) calls Assyria the land of Nimrod. (See Bochart, in Phaleg. lib. iv. cap. 12.) (See Assyria.)— Calmet. - - ASH.WEDNESDAY; the first of Lent. It is so called from the custom observed in the ancient church, of peni- tents expressing their humiliation at this time by appear- ing in sackcloth and ashes. But it is not certain that this was always done precisely on Ash-Wednesday, there being a perfect silence in the most ancient writers about it. The discipline used towards penitents in Lent, as described by Gratian, differed from their treatment at other times; for on Ash-Wednesday they were presented to the bishop, clothed in sackcloth, and barefooted: then the seven peni- tential psalms were sung; after which the bishop laid his hands on them, sprinkled them with holy water, and poured ashes upon their heads; declaring to them that as Adam • - A S 1 A 5 I [ 131 | was cast out of paradise, so they, for their sins, were cast out of the church. Then the inferior ministers expelled them out of the doors of the church. In the end of Lent, on the Thursday before Easter, they were again presented for reconciliation by the deacons and presbyters at the gates of the church. But this method of treating penitents in Lent carries with it the marks of a more modern prac- tice; for there was no use of holy water in the ancient discipline; nor seven penitential psalms in their service, but only one, viz. the fifty-first. Neither was Ash-Wed- nesday anciently the first day of Lent, till Gregory the Great first added it to Lent, to make the number of fasting days completely forty, which before were but thirty-six. Nor does it appear that anciently the time of imposing penance was confined to the beginning of Lent, but was granted at all times, whenever the bishop thought the peni- tent qualified for it. In Rome, the spectacle on this occa- Sion is most ridiculous. After giving themselves up to all kinds of gaiety and licentiousness, during the carnival, till twelve o'clock on the Tuesday night, the people go on Ash- Wednesday morning into the churches, when the officiating priests put ashes on their heads, repeating the words, “Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return.” .The want of this discipline in the English church is at present supplied by reading publicly, on Ash-Wednesday, the curses denounced in the holy Scriptures against seve- ral sorts of sins, the people repeating after each curse, Amen.—Henderson's Buck. - ASIA ; one of the four quarters into which geographers have divided the earth. It lies between 26 and 190 de- grees of east, or 170 of west longitude; and between the equator and 78 degrees of north latitude, extending in length from the Dardanelles to Behring's straits, about seven thousand five hundred and eighty-three British miles; and in breadth from the southern cape of the pe- ninsula of Malacca, to the most northern parts of Siberia, about five thousand two hundred and fifty. To have a clear comprehension of the geography of this division of the earth; the courses of the rivers; the direction of the chain of mountains; and the climate and relative situa- tion of its various kingdoms ; it is necessary to attend to a peculiar feature in the configuration of its surface. The central regions of the Asiatic continent rise into a vast and highly elevated plain, extending several thousand miles in every direction, and standing aloft like an immense table, supported on all sides by high and precipitous mountains which overlook the surrounding countries. From this vast elevation, the rivers of Asia flow as from a common centre in every direction; and the numerous kingdoms stretch themselves around in gradual descent. On the south of this high central region, the vast plains of India gradually descend to the great Southern ocean. From their exposure they receive the fiercest rays of a tropical Sun, and are sheltered by the elevated front of the high tract behind from every northern blast. On the west of this extended elevation, lies the ancient Persian empire, which also descends gradually towards the setting sun, and the territory of Europe. On the east is the immense empire of China, descending with the rivers to the Eastern ocean; and on the north is Siberia, descending without interruption to the Frozen sea. Asia, though in extent of surface inferior to America, surpasses all the other divisions, in the antiquity of its population, the agreeableness of its climate, the fertility of its soil, and its luxuriant and delicious productions. Europe has no doubt surpassed it in the career of political importance; but in a historical and philosophical point of view, Asia is still the most interesting portion of the globe. Here were transacted the most important events both of sacred history and profane. Here the human race first made their appearance; it was the theatre of their earliest achievements; the grand centre from which population, science and all the arts of civilized life have gradually diffused themselves over the other regions of the world. In this quarter, the Almighty planted his favorite people the Jews, among whom “he made bare his arm, .." by signs, wonders, and mighty deeds,” establish- ed the conviction of his righteous providence, leading the people of Israel like a flock by the hands of Moses and Aaron. It was also the great scene of Divine revelation; the theatre on which the prophets uttered their predictions, and where the Son of God illustrated and fulfilled them. Here the work of human redemption was accomplished by the Messiah; and from hence the light of the glorious Gospel was diffused over a benighted world. In Asia, the Christian faith was propagated by the aid of miracles and cherished with the blood of martyrs, and there the first Christian churches were planted under the direction of inspired apostles. Asia is divided by geographers into the following king- doms, provinces, or states; most of which there will be occasion to speak of under their respective heads, and conse- quently a bare enumeration of them will suffice in this place. PALESTINE, or the land of Judea ; SYRIA, in which was included Phoenicia ; ASIA MINOR, now called Natolia; MesopotAMIA, now termed Diarbeck; CHALDEA ; ARME- NIA ; GEORGIA ; Assyria; CHINA; HINDoSTAN ; INDIA be- yond the Ganges; PERSIA ; ARABIA ; and TARTARY ; be- sides a number of very considerable islands lying in the Pacific ocean and Indian seas.-Jones. ASIA MINOR. Asia was generally divided into Major and Minor. Asia Minor was a large country, (Acts 19: 10.) lying between the Euxine or Black sea northward, and the Mediterranean southward. It is now called Anatolia or Natolia. Asia Major denotes all the rest of the Asiatic continent. Asia Minor contained the provinces of Bithy- nia, Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisi- dia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Mysia, Troas—all of which are mentioned in the New Testament;-Lydia, Ionica, and AEolis—which are sometimes included under Lydia— Caria, Doris, and Lycia. Of these, Lydia and Caria— taken in their larger acceptations, the latter including Doris—Mysia and Phrygia, including Troas or Phrygia Minor, formed the Roman PROCONSULAR ASIA, which has been thought by some to be the same as the Scripture Asia. But, as Dr. Wells remarks, it is evident that Mysia, Phry- gia, and Troas are reckoned by the sacred writers as dis- tinct provinces from the Asia so called in Scripture. It is therefore more reasonably supposed, that by Asia in the New Testament is sometimes to be understood Lydia in its largest acceptation, so as to include Ionia and Æolis; for in this were comprehended the seven cities, the churches of which are styled the churches of Asia. How far this may be the country intended, 1 Pet. 1: 1. it is difficult to determine : certainly proconsular Asia is too distant from Cappadocia and Bithynia to be united with them, or with any other province 'mentioned in his salutation; not to say, that proconsular Asia was previously occupied and taught by Paul, and afterwards by John-Calmet. ASIARCHS; or Asia. Principes, as they are called in the Latin version of the Acts, (chap. 19: 31. “Certain of the chief of Asia,” Eng. Tr.)—were opulent citizens, chosen like our stewards of public assemblies, into an office of distinction, to celebrate public and solemn games at their own expense. These chieſs, then holding such games at Ephesus, out of friendly consideration for Paul, restrained him from appearing, as he proposed, in the thea. tre, during the sedition raised by Demetrius, the gold- Smith, respecting Diana of Ephesus. The Asiarchs were frequently priests of the religion whose games they cele. brated; thus in the martydom of Polycarp, Philip the Asiarch (a little afterwards called the high-priest) is soli- cited to let out a lion against Polycarp, which he declares he could not do, because that kind of spectacle was over. These Asiarchs should by no means be confounded with the archon, or chief magistrate of Ephesus; for they were representatives, not of a single city, but of many cities united. Hence we find on medals and inscriptions, the dignity of Bithynia RCHES ; also, Galat-ARches, and Cret- ARCHEs. The Asiarchs were elected in the following man- ner: Each of -the cities of Asia, about the beginning of their year, which was at the autumnal equinox, held a council, in which a proper person from among their own cities was proposed; these names being transmitted to the general council of proconsular Asia, one of them was fixed on. The dignity was great; but the expense also was great ; So that only men of wealth could undertake it. Hence we find Aristides exerting himself strenuously to be discharged from this costly office, to which he had been three or four times nominated. This notion of the A S M A S P [ 132 ) Asiarchs is confirmed by a medal of Rhodes, struck under Hadrian, on the reverse of which we read, “a coin struck in common by thirteen cities, in honor of the magistrate of Rhodes, Claudio Fronto, ASIARCH and high-priest of the thirteen cities.” - The consideration of these Asiarchs for the apostle Paul, during the tumult, is not only extremely honorable to his character, and to theirs, but is also a strong confirmation of the remark made by the evangelist, (ver. 10.) that “all they who dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks.” It shows also in what light the tumult of Demetrius was beheld, since he took especial care to observe that “all Asia” worshipped their goddess. Yet were the very Asiarchs, now engaged in this worship, in- tent on securing the man whom Demetrius represented as its most formidable enemy. Though there was, properly speaking, only one Asiarch at a time, yet those who had passed through the office retained the title; for which reason they are mentioned in the plural by the evan- gelist.—Calmet. ASK; (1.) To inquire. Gen. 32: 29. (2.) To demand. Gen. 34: 10. (3.) To seek counsel. Isa. 30: 2. (4.) To pray for. John 15: 7. (5.) To accuse. Ps. 35: 10, 11. Christ's asking of the Father imports his pleading in our nature for favors, as the due reward of his obedience unto death. Ps. 21: 4. 2:8. We ask in Christ's name, and in faith, when by the help of his Spirit, and in a believing dependence on his person, righteousness, and intercession, we, in obedience to his command, plead for, and firmly expect, whatever he hath promised in his word suited to our mind and capacity of enjoyment. John 14: 13. Jam. 1:6. We ask amiss when we pray for what God has neither commanded nor promised ; when we request any thing in an ignorant, careless, unbelieving manner; or seek it to answer some unworthy and sinful end. Jam. 4: 3. The nations that asked not for Christ, and were not called by his name, are the Gentiles, who under the Old Testament were destitute of the knowledge of Christ, void of desire after him, and made no profession of regard to him. Isa. 66: 1. We “ask the beasts, fowls, fishes, and earth, that they may declare unto us,” when we earnestly observe how the Divine power, wisdom, and goodness are manifested in their creation, preservation, and government. Job 12: 7, 8.-Bronn. - ASHKELON, or ASKELoN ; a seaport on the Mediter- ranean, thirty miles south from Joppa, and thirteen miles north from Gaza. It was a place of great note among the Philistines, and one of the seats of government; famed also for a temple dedicated to Apollo, at which Herod, the father of Antipater and grandfather of Herod the Great, oſſiciated as priest. After the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah took the city of Ashkelon. Judges 1: 18. Much is said of the wine of Ashkelon ; and the cypress-tree, a shrub much esteemed of old, was very eommon in this place. Ashkelon still subsists under the name of 'Asku- lán, but is now inconsiderable.—Calmet ; Jones ; Wells' Geography. ASLEEP ; (1.) Taking rest in natural sleep. John 1: 5. (2.) Dead. Acts 7: 60. (3.) Careless, unconcerned, spiritually drowsy or dead. Song 7: 9.—Bromwn. ASMODEUS; destroyer. The Jewish name of an evil spirit; the demon of vanity or dress. Also the same as Ashmaidai, Abaddon, and Apollyon, the angel of death. . ASMONEANS ; a name given to the Maccabees, de- scendants of Mattathias, who was, according to Josephus, (Antiq, lib. xii. cap. 8.) the great-grandson of Asmonasus. The family of the Asmonaeans became very illustrious in the later times of the Hebrew commonwealth; it was the support of the religion, and liberty of the Jews; and pos- sessed the Supreme authority, from Mattathias to Herod the Great. (See MAccABEEs.) It is no where said whether the Asmonasans were of the race of Jozedech, in whose family the office of high-priest continued in a lineal descent, till Alcimus was promoted to that dignity. This is certain of the Asmonasans, that they were of the course of Joarib, the which was the first class of the sons of Aaron; and, there. fore, on failure of the former pontifical family (which had now happened by the flight of Onias, son of Onias, into Egypt) they had the best right to succeed to that station. Under this right, Jonathan took the office, when nominated to it by the reigning king in Syria; being also elected thereto, by the general suffrage of the people.— Prid. Con- nect. &c. Part II. book iv. - ASNAPPAR ; a king of Assyria, who sent the Cuthae- ans into Israel, Ezra 4: 10. Many think this was Sal- manesser; but others, with more probability, think it was Esar-haddon. . . ASP; a species of serpent, often mentioned in Scrip- ture, and therefore entitled to notice in this work. It be-, longs to the genus Coluber of Linnaeus, who thus defines it: Nose terminated by an erect wart, body tawny, with figured streaks, alternately distinct and confluent ; beneath, steel-blue, dotted with yellow. It is said to be common in Africa, and about the banks of the Nile. Naturalists differ in their accounts of its length. On the upper part of the body, are three longitudinal rows of red spots with a black margin; the union of the rows under the tail pro- duces a kind of waved band, from which, as well as other particulars, the asp bears some resemblance to the viper. Its poison is more deadly than that of any other venomous creature inhabiting the East. Its bite induces slumber, which by degrees is converted into profound sleep." Death ensues within twenty-four hours, unaccompanied by pain or violent symptoms; the only perceptible change being the gradual diminution of pulsation. The whole body immediately becomes of a blackish color; and mortifica- tion, as if from a gangrene, follows in the space of a day. The bite of the asp is said by Aristotle to admit of no remedy; and Pliny allows of no other cure but to cut off the wounded part. The Hebrew pethen is variously translated into our ver- sion; but interpreters generally consider it as referring to the asp. Zophar alludes to it more than once in his de- scription of a wicked man : “Yet his meat in his bowels is turned, it is the gall of asps within him.—He shall suck the poison of asps; the viper's tongue shall slay him.” Job 20: 14. The venom of asps is the most subtle of all; it is incurable, and, if the wounded part be not instantly amputated, it speedily terminates the existence of the suſ. ſerer. To these circumstances Moses evidently alludes, in his character of the heathen : “Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps,” Deut. 33: 33. See also Rom. 3: 13. To tread upon the asp is attended with extreme danger; and to express in the strongest manner the safety which the godly man enjoys under the protection of his heavenly Father, it is promised, that he shall tread with impunity upon the adder and the dragon, Ps. 91: 13. No person of his own accord approaches the hole of these deadly reptiles; for he who gives them the smallest disturbance, is in extreme danger of paying the forfeit of his rashness with his life. Hence, the prophet Isaiah, predicting the conversion of the Gentiles to the faith of Christ, and the glorious reign of peace and truth in those regions, which, prior to that period, were full of horrid cruelty, declares, “The sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice's den. They shall not hurt nor de- stroy in all my holy mountain; for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea,” Isaiah 11: 6–9. In the glowing descriptions of the gol- den age, with which the oriental writers and the raptu- rous bards of Greece and Rome entertained their contem- poraries, the wild beasts grow tame, serpents resign their poison, and noxious herbs their deleterious qualities: all is peace and harmony, plenty and happiness. The soaring genius of these 'elegant writers, however, could reach no higher than a negative felicity: but the inspired bard, far surpassing them in the beauty and ele- gance, as well as in the variety of imagery, with which he clothes the same ideas, exhibits a glowing picture of posi- tive and lasting happiness. The wolf and the leopard not only forbear to destroy the lamb and kid, but even take their abode with them, and lie down together. The calf and the young lion, and the fatling, not only come to- gether, but also repose under the same covert, and are led quietly in the same band, and that by a little child. The cow and the she-bear not only feed together, but even lodge their young ones, for whom they used to be most jealously fearful, in the same place. All the serpent kind is so perfectly harmless, that the sucking infant, or the A S P A. S. S | 133 ] newly-weaned child, puts his hand on the basilisk's den, and plays upon the hole of the aspic. The lion, not only abstains from preying on the weaker animals, but also be. comes tame and domestic, and ſeeds on straw like the ox. These are all beautiful circumstances, not one of which has been touched by the ancient poets.-Jones ; Abbot. ASPINWALL, (WILLIAM;) M. D.; an eminent physi- cian, was born in Brookline, Mass., in June, 1743, and gra- duated at Cambridge in 1764. In the war of the revolu- tion he acted as a surgeon in the army. In the battle of Lexington he served as a volunteer, and bore from the field the corpse of his townsman, Isaac Gardiner, Esq., whose daughter he afterwards married. After the death of Dr. Boylston, he engaged in the business of inoculating for the small pox, and erected hospitals for the purpose. Perhaps no man in America ever inoculated so many, or had such reputation for skill in that disease. Yet, when the Vaccine inoculation was introduced, after a proper trial, he acknowledged its efficacy and relinquished his own pro- fitable establishment. For forty-five years, he had exten- sive practice, frequently riding on horseback forty miles a day. In his youth he lost the use of one eye; in his old age, a cataract deprived him of the other. He died April 16, 1823, in his eightieth year, in the peace of one who had long professed the religion of Jesus Christ and practised its duties. At the bed of sickness he was ac- customed to give religious counsel. His testimony in fa- vor of the Gospel he regarded as his best legacy to his children. In his political views, he was decidedly demo- cratic or republican; yet he was not a persecutor, and when in the council, he resisted the measures of the vio- lent. He was anxious, that wise and good men should bear sway, and that all benevolent and religious institu- tions should be perpetuated.—Allen ; Thacher's Med. Biog. ASPHALTUS, or Jews' Pitch; a kind of bitumen, which rises from the lake of Sodom, and which, being col- lected, is much employed in the preparation of medicines, and particularly, in embalming dead bodies. Joseph. Ant. lib. v. De Bello, cap. iv. sew cap. v. in Lat. p. 892. The asphaltus of the Dead sea, which rises at particular sea- Sons from the bottom of the lake, is thought to be superior to every other kind. The Arabians fish for it diligently, or gather it on the shore, whither the wind drives it. It is shining, dark, heavy, and of a strong smell when burnt. The ancients used it instead of mortar, and the walls of Babylon were cemented by it. (See DEAD Sea.)—Calmet. ASS ; an animal, well known for domestic uses, and frequently mentioned in Scripture. People of the first quality in Palestine rode on asses, Judg. 5: 10. 10:4. 12: 14. The ass was unclean by the law, because it did not chew the cud. To draw with an ox and an ass together, was prohibited, Lev. 11; 26. & We read in Matt. 21: 4. that in order to accomplish a prophecy of Zechariah, (9: 9.) our Savior rode on an ass into Jerusalem, in a triumphant manner. This has been made a subject of ridicule by some ; but we ought to con- sider, not only that the greatest men in Israel rode on asses anciently, as we have seen above, but also, that God had thought fit absolutely to prohibit the use of horses, and of chariots for war; (Deut. 17: 16.—compare Josh. il: 6.) that David rode on a mule, and ordered Solomon to use it at his coronation; (1 Kings 1:33, 34.)—that afterwards, when Solomon and succeeding princes multiplied horses, they were rebuked few it; (Isaiah 2: 6,7. 31: 1. Hosea 14: 3.) and that the removal of horses is promised in the days of the Messiah, Hosea 1: 7. Micah 5: 10, 11. Zech.9: 10. So that on the whole we find, that this action of our Lord is to be viewed not merely as an accomplishment of a prophecy, but also as a revival of an ancient and venera- ble Hebrew custom. An uncertainty, if not a difficulty, has been started, whether to adhere to the opinion of Dr. Doddridge, or to that of Mr. Hervey, in respect to the kind of ass on which our Lord rode into Jerusalem. Dr. Dod- dridge observes, that the eastern asses are larger and much better than ours, and that our Lord’s triumphant entry was not degraded by indignity; though humble, it was not mean. Mr. Hervey, on the contrary, glories in whatever of meanness and disrepute attached to that cir- cumstance. It may, however, be remarked, that much of that extreme meanness which some have found in the character and situation of Jesus, arises from their imper. fect acquaintance with local customs and manners, and 1s greatly diminished on closer inspection : for, however humble might be his appearance, yet it was neither vul- gar nor mean. How far the following extracts support * this idea, in respect to the kind of ass rode by our Lord when entering Jerusalem, is left to the reader; but this is not the only instance in which the medium is safest and best. “Christians cannot, indeed, repine at being forbidden to ride on horseback in the streets of Cairo, for the asses are there very HANDsome, and are used for riding, by the greater part of the Mahometans, and by the most distinguished wo. men of the country.” (Niebuhr, p. 39. French edition.) In fact, this use of asses is general in the East; and only the grandees use horses in the cities. This excepts the Arabs of the country, those in offices of government, &c. In the Gospel is mentioned the mulos onikos, (Matt. 18. 6.) to express a large mill-stone, turned by asses, heavier than that turned by women, or by slaves. - The Jews were accused by the pagans of worshipping the head of an ass. Apion, the grammarian, who seems to have been the author of this slander, (Joseph. lib, ii-contra Apion,) affirmed, that the Jews kept the head of an ass in the sanctuary; that it was discovered there, when Antio- chus Epiphanes took the temple, and entered into the most holy place. He added, that one Zabidus having secretly got into the temple, carried off the ass's head, and cone veyed it to Dora. Suidas (in Damocrito, and in Juda) says, that Damocritus, or Democritus, the historian, aver- red that the Jews adored the head of an ass, made of gold, and sacrificed a man to it every three, or every seven, years, after having cut him in pieces. Plutarch (Sympo. sia, lib. iv. cap. 5.) and Tacitus (Hist. lib.v.) being impos. ed on by this calumny, report, that the Hebrews adored an ass, out of gratitude for the discovery of a fountain by one of these creatures in the wilderness, at a time when the army of this nation was parched with thirst, and ex- tremely fatigued. It is probable, that no good reason can be given for the accusation, which might have arisen from a joke, or from accident. M. Le Moine says, in regard to the first, that in all probability the golden urn containing the manna, which was preserved in the sanctuary, was taken for the head of an ass; and that the omer of manna might have been confounded with the Hebrew hamor, which signifies an ass. See Assaron. Washington, so justly named the father of his country, was the first who introduced this useful animal into the United States. A few agriculturists only, owing either to prejudice or neglect, have followed his laudable exam- ple. The circumstances, (says the Encyclopedia Ameri- cana,) which entitle the ass to a greater degree of atten- tion and more general employment for draught and bur- den in this country are these ; it is gentle, strong, hardy, patient of toil, requiring but a small quantity of coarse food, Surefooted, and capable of a high degree of attach- ment to its owner.—Calmet ; Ency. Am. ; Watson ; Abbot’s Scrip. Nat. History. - ASS OF BALAAM. Here we shall only inquire, whether it were a reality, or an allegory; an imagination, or a vision of Balaam 2 Austin, with the greater number of commentators, supposes it was a certain fact, and takes it literally. The greater part of the Jewish authors con sider it, not as a circumstance which actually took place, but as a vision, or some similar occurrence. Le Clerc solves the difficulty, by saying, Balaam believed in the transmigration of Souls, passing from one body into another, from a man into a beast, reciprocally; and, there- fore, he was not surprised at the ass’s complaint, but con- versed with it, as if it were rational. Others have ima- gined different ways of solving the difficulties of this history. There is yet to be considered whether the ass uttered sounds, which, by the power of the angel then present, were conveyed to Balaam as combined into distinct words, though not such when they quitted the ass’s mouth—in which case the miracle would lie in the words, or the com- bination of Sounds in the air—or, whether the miracle lay in the ears of Balaam, who heard, as combined into ar- ticulate words, sounds which the assuttered without being conscious of speaking, or any verbal sense meant, or un- As s A S S [ 134 ) derstood by her, the ass, beyond her ordinary braying, or those utterances whereby she had formerly been accustom- ed to express her complaints. In the determination of this question, Mr. Taylor assumes as facts: (1) That Balaam was accustomed to augury and presages. (2.) That on this occasion he would notice every event capable of such interpretation, as presages were supposed to indicate. (3.) That he was deeply intent on the issue of his journey. (4.) That the whole of his conduct towards Balak was calculated to represent himself as an extraordinary person- age. (5.) That the behavior of the ass did actually PRE- FIGURE the conduct of Balaam in the three particulars of it which are recorded. First, the ass turned aside, and went into the field; for which she was smitten, reprov- ed; so Balaam, on the first of his perverse attempts to curse Israel, was, as it were, smitten, reproved, pun- ished, (1) by God, (2) by Balak. The second time the ass was more harshly treated for hurting Balaam’s foot against the wall: so Balaam for his second attempt was no doubt still further mortified. Thirdly, the ass, see- ing inevitable danger, fell down and was smitten severely: in like manner Balaam, the third time, was overruled by God, to speak truth, to his own disgrace; and escaped, not without hazard of his life, from the anger of Balak. Nevertheless, as Balaam had no sword in his hand, though he wished for one, with which to slay his ass; so Balak, notwithstanding his fury, and his seeming inclination, had no power to destroy Balaam. In short, as the ass was op- posed by the angel, but was driven forward by Balaam, so Balaam was opposed by God, but was driven forward by Balak, against his better knowledge. Were we sure that Balaam wrote this narrative, and that Moses copied it, as the rabbins affirm, (see BALAAM,) this view of the subject Would remove the difficulties which have been raised about it. It might then be entitled “a specimen of Balaam’s augury.”—Calmet. . . . . . . ASS, WILD. This animal, which was formerly well known in the East, and is frequently mentioned in Scrip- ture, is a much handsomer and more dignified animal than the common ass. It is called para by the Hebrews, and onager by the Greeks. That the wild ass was known and valued for its mettle, appears from a passage in lſerodotus, (Pol. 86.) where that writer says, “The In- dian horse were well armed like their foot; but, beside led horses, they had chariots of war, drawn by horses and wild asses.” The reference of these animals to the troops of India (a province at the head of the Indus, not our Hindoostan) deserves attention; because, the troops of the onager are said by Gmelin, to “return towards India, where they winter.” Alistotle (Hist, lib. vi. cap. 36.) mentions the wild ass, which is said to exceed horses in swiftness; and Xenophon says (Cyrop. lib. i.) that he has long legs, is very rapid in running, swift as a whirlwind, having strong and stout hoofs. Elian says the same ; but that he may be tired, and when taken, is so gentle that he may easily be led about. Martial gives the epithet “handsome” to the wild ass—“Pulcher adest onager;” (Lib. xiii. Epig. 100,) and Oppian describes it as “hand- some, large, vigorous, of stately gait, and his coat of a silvery color, having a black band along the spine of his -back; and on his flanks patches as white as snow.” Mr. Morier says, “We gave chase to two wild asses, which had so much the speed of our horses, that when they had got at some distance, they stood still and looked behind at us, Snorting with their noses in the air, as if in contempt of our endeavors to catch them.” (Second Journey in Persia, p. 200.) The latest traveller who has described the onager is Sir R. K. Porter, in his “Travels in Persia,” who also gives a figure of the animal. The mode of hunting it is, as it was in Xenophon's time, by means of several horses relieving each other, till the onager is com- pletely tired. The color of Sir Robert's figure is a bright bay. It is to . Professor Gmelin, however, who brought a female and a colt from Tartary to St. Petersburgh, that we are principally indebted for our acquaintance with the wild ass. The female, which had been caught when very young, though of small stature, and probably stinted in growth by its captivity, and by want of suitable food, travelled from Astracan to Moscow (fourteen hundred werstes) with the ordinary post, without any other repose in some males. than that of a few nights; she also travelled from Moscow to Petersburgh, (seven hundred and thirty werstes,) and did not seem to have suffered by the journey; though she died in the autumn following apparently from the effect. of the herbage of a marshy soil, and the cold and humidi- ty of so northern a climate. She had nothing of the dul ness and stupidity of the common ass, “I remarked that she often passed two days without drinking, especially in moist weather, or when very heavy dews fell. She also preferred brackish water to fresh, and never, drank of what was troubled. She loved bread sprinkled with salt, and sometimes would eat a handful of salt. ... I was told, that when at Derbent, she always ran to drink of the Cas- pian sea, though fresh water was near to her. She also selected plants impregnated with saline particles ... or those of bitter juices. She loved raw cucumbers; and some herbs which she refused when green, pleased her when dried. She would not touch odoriferous or marsh plants, nor even thistles. I was informed that the Per- sians, when taming the young onagers, feed them with rice, barley, straw, and bread. Our animal was ex- tremely familiar, and followed persons who took care of her, freely, and with a kind of attachment. The smell of bread strongly attracted her; but, if any attempt was made to lead her against her will, she showed all the ob- stinacy of the ass: neither would she suffer herself to be approached behind, and if touched by a stick, or by the hand, on her hinder parts, she would kick; and this action was accompanied by a slight grumbling, as expressive of complaint. The male onager, which was brought at the same time as the female, but which died in the voyage from Derbent to Astracan, was larger and less docile. His length from the nape of the neck to the origin of his tail was five feet; his height in front, four feet four inches; behind, four feet seven inches; his head two feet in length; his ears one foot; his tail, including the tuft at the end, two feet three inches. He was more robust than the female ; and had a bar or streak crossing at his shoulders, as well as that streak which runs along the back, which is common to both sexes. Some Tartars have assured me that they have seen their cross-bar double . Our onager was higher on her legs than the common ass; her legs also were more slender than those of the ass; and she resembled a young filly : she could also scratch her neck and head easily with her hind foot. She was weak on her fore legs; but behind she could very well support the heaviest man. Notwith- standing her state of exhaustion, she carried her head higher than the ass, her ears well elevated, and showed a vivacity in all her motions. The color of the hair on the greater part of the body, and the end of the nose, is silvery white; the upper part of the head, the sides of the neck, and the body, are flaxen, or pale isabella color. The mane is deep brown; it commences between the ears, and reaches the shoulders; its hair is soft, woolly, three or four inches long, like the mane of a young filly. The coat in general, especially in winter, is more silky and soſter than that of horses, and resembles that of a camel. The Arabs, no less than the Tartars, esteem the flesh of the onager; and the Arab writers, who permit the eating of its flesh, make the same difference between this ass and the domestic ass, as the Hebrews did, whose law did not permit the coupling of the onager with the she ass, as be- ing of different kinds.”—Calmet. - - ASS'S HEAD. The following passage occurs in 2 Iſings 6:25.-‘And there was a great famine in Samaria, until an ass’s head was sold for eighty pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver.” The ass here mentioned was probably a measure, or a kind of pack, or other quantity, well known. Jesse sent to Saul an ass of bread; (1 Sam. 16:20.) three asses of bread were eaten by one person, in one day; and it may be doubted whether Abigail (1 Sam. 25: 18.) really loaded asses, quadrupeds, with her presents to David ; for the original literally is, “she took two hundred of bread, &c. and placed them on the asses;” which seems to hint at something distinct from asses, animals; for then it would be as it is in our version, “she placed them on asses.” Hence, it may read onwards here to the dove's dung, in the following clause; “The whole of the quantity called As sº A sis [ 135 an ass, (of dove's dung,) was sold for eighty pieces of sil- ver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver.” The reader will consider the above so far as it seems to be reasonable. (See Dove's DUNg.)— Calmet. . . . ASSARON, or OMER; a measure of capacity, used by the Hebrews: the tenth part of an ephah, as its name de- notes; for it signifies tenth. Exod, 16; 16. It contained five pints. The assaron was the measure of manna which God appointed for every Israelite. Assaron, and dekaton, signify the same as omer. Josephus calls it issaron. In the Hebrew, instead of omer, assarith is often used. Jose- phus says, that in the time of Claudius, an assaron or omer of meal was sold for four drachmae; that is, about eight shillings a peck; but this was in a time of dearth. —Calmet, - - ASSASSINS; a tribe or clan in Syria, called also Ismaelians, probably from Ishmael, whose “hand was against every man.” Gen. 16: 12. Also, Batenists, or Batenians. They are supposed to owe their origin to the Karmatians, (which see,) an heretical sect among the Ma- hometans, who settled in Persia about the year 1090; from whence in process of time they sent a colony into Syria, which took possession of a considerable tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon, extending nearly from Antioch to Damascus. Their religion was com- pounded of the various superstitions of the Persians, Jews, and Mahometans; but the distinguishing article of it was, that the Spirit of the Supreme resided in their scheike (or chief;) and that all his injunctions were the commands of God; and they were trained to that degree of submis- sion, that they would instantly kill themselves at his com- mand, being assured of immediate entrance into paradise. Their chief was known in Europe by the name of the “Old Man of the Mountain;” and his followers were called Assassins—according to some, from the family of one of their leaders, named Arsacidae, or, according to Mr. Mills, by corruption, from Hussanees, the followers of Hussan ; or, according to Volney, from the Turkish word, Hassassin, (to kill silently and by surprise,) a night robber. Their office was to murder any person whom their scheike commanded. “This chief, from his exalted residence on the summit of mount Lebanon, like a vindictive deity, with the thunderbolt in his hand, sent inevitable death to all quarters of the world:” so that the chiefs of all nations dreaded this sanguinary tyrant; and many were weak enough to pay him a secret pension, by way of security. In 1272, however, they were subdued by the ſorces of the Sultan Bibaris; but it is supposed that the Druses, who now inhabit those mountains, sprang from some remains of these barbarians. (See DRUSEs.) - In the Greek and Roman republics, the murder of a reputed tyrant was held to be an act of heroic virtue, though nothing could be more unjust, since the accused had no opportunity of self-justification. Some wild re- publicans in Germany, France, and even England, have attempted to revive the abominable tenet ; and it has pro- duced the murders of the duke de Berry, Kotzebue, and other important characters. In some parts of Italy, assas- sination is professed for hire; and the government is defi- cient, either in strength or principle, for its suppression.— Ency. Brit. ;-Williams. ASSEMBLIES OF THE CLERGY, are called convo- cations, synods, councils. The annual meeting of the church of Scotland is called a general assembly. In this assembly his majesty is represented by his commissioner, who dissolves one meeting and calls another in the name of the king, while the moderator does the same in the name of Jesus Christ. (See CoNvocation, PRESBYTE- RIANs.)—Buck. – ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES; a synod of laymen and divines, who assembled, by authority of parliament, in king Henry the seventh’s chapel, Westminster. On the first day, July 1st, 1643, sixty-nine assembled, among whom were several Episcopalians, who afterwards with- drew. Lord Clarendon says, “about twenty of them were reverend and worthy persons,” and some of them certainly the most learned men of their time ; as Selden, Ains- worth, Gataker, Featly, &c. They signed “The Solemn League and Covenant,” drew up the Confession of Faith, the Longer and Shorter Catechisms, &c.; and several of them jointly published a commentary on the Bible, in 2 vols. folio. -Neale's Hist, of Puritans, vol. ii. p. 63, &c. Parsons's ed. ; B. Bennett's Memoirs of the Réformation, p. 270, 2d ed.— Williams. . . . . . . is ASSENT; that act of the mind whereby it takes of acknowledges any proposition to be true or false. . Ther; are three degrees of assent:—conjecture, opinion, and belief. Conjecture is but a slight and weak iſ climation to assent to the thing proposed, by reason of the weighty gºjections that lie against it. Opinion is a more steady and fixed as sent, when a man is almost certain, though yet some ſºdi of the contrary remains with him. Belief is a more full and assured assent to the truth. §: BELIEP.)—Buck. . ASSIDEANS ; by some named Chasideans, from cha- sidim, “merciful, pious.” They were a kind of religious society among the Jews, whose chief and distinguishing character was, to maintain the honor of the temple, and observe punctually the traditions of the elders. They were therefore not only content to pay the usual tribute for the maintenance of the house of God, but charged themselves with farther expense upon that account; for every day, except that of the great expiation, they sacrificed a lamb, in addition to the daily oblation, which was called the sin- offering of the Assideans. They practised greater hard- ships and mortifications than others; and their common oath was, “By the temple;” for which our Savior reproves the Pharisees, who had learned that oath of them, Matt. 23: 16. From this sect the Pharisees sprung. The Assi- deans are represented as a numerous sect, distinguished by its valor, as well as by its-Zeal for the law, 1 Mac. 2: 42. A company of them resorted to Mattathias, to fight for the law of God, and the liberties of their country. This sect arose either during the captivity, or soon after the restoration, of the Jews; and were probably in the commencement, and long afterward, a truly pious part of the nation; but they at length became superstitious- Watson. - ASSOS; a maritime city, by some geographers de- scribed as belonging to Mysia, by others, to Troas. Luke, and others, went by sea from Troas to Assos; but Paul went by land thither, and meeting them at . Assos, they went together to Mitylene, Acts 20: 13, 14. A. D. 56. But there were many cities of this name. (1.) A mari- time city, in Lycia.-(2.) Another in the territory of Eolis-(3.) Another in Mysia-—(4.) Another in Lydia. –(5.) Another in Epirus Minor, the native country of Cleanthis the philosopher, which also was called Apollo- nia, as Pliny says. To this last city Paul sailed, Acts 20: 13. It was between Troas and Mitylene, therefore, in the district of Troas, and is marked accordingly in the maps. Strabo says, that the luxurious kings of Persia had the grain of which their bread was made brought from Assos, the wine which they drank from Syria, and the water which they drank from the river Ulaeus. This need not be taken literally: the import of the phrase being that their power extended over these places; and that they re- ceived tribute from them.—Calmet. ASSUMPTION ; a festival in the Romish church, in honor of the pretended miraculous ascent of the Virgin, body and soul, into heaven. It was established in the seventh century, and fixed to the 15th of August. The assumption of Mary was not always a point of faith; the ancient martyrologies speak of it with very great reserve, as a thing not fully ascertained; yet is it at present uni- versally believed in the Roman church, and a divine who should deny it would be obliged to retract. The Greek church also celebrate the festival of the Assumption on the 15th of August. The most ridiculous fables are believed on this subject. - There were two apocryphal books entitled The Assump- tion of Moses, and The Assumption of the Virgin.—Hender. son’s Buck. ASSURANCE is the firm persuasion we have of the certainty of anything, or a certain expectation of some- thing future. Assurance of the Understanding is a well-grounded know- ledge of divine things, founded on God's Word. Col. 2.-- Assurance of Faith does not relate to our personal interest in Christ, but consists in a firm belief of the revelation A S S A S S I 136 that God has given us of Christ in his word, with an en- tire dependence on him. Heb, 10:22. Assurance of hope is a firm expectation that God will grant us the complete en- joyment of what he has promised. Heb. 6: 11. The doctrine of assurance, i. e. the belief that we have an interest in the Divine favor, has afforded matter for dispute among divines. Some have asserted that it is not to be obtained in the present state, allowing that persons may be in a hopeful way to salvation, but that they have mo real or absolute assurance of it; but this is clearly re- futed by facts as well as by Seripture. That it is to be obtained is evident; for we have reason to believe many persons have actually obtained it. Job 19:25. Ps. 17: 15. 2 Tim. 1: 12. The Scriptures exhort us to obtain it... 2 Cor. 13: 5. Heb. 6: 11. 1 Thess. 5: 21. The Holy Spirit is said to bear witness of it. Rom. 8: 16. The exercise of the Christian graces is considered as a proof of it. 1 John 3: 14. 1 John 2: 3. We must, however, guard against presumption; for a mere persuasion that Christ is ours, is no proof that he is so. We must have evidence before we can have genuine assurance. It is necessary to observe also, that it is not a duty imposed upon all mankind, so that every one, in whatsoever state he may be, ought to be fully persuaded of his salvation. “We do not affirm,” says Saurin, “that Christians, of whose sincerity there may be some doubt, have a right to assur- ance; that backsliders, as such, ought to persuade them- selves that they shall be saved; nor do we say that Chris- tians who have arrived to the highest degree of holiness can be persuaded of the certainty of their salvation in every period of their lives; nor, if left to their own efforts, can they enjoy it; but believers supported by the divine aid, who walk in all good conscience before him, these only have ground to expect this privilege.” - Some divines have maintained that assurance is included in the very essence of faith, so that a man cannot have faith without assurance; but we must distinguish between assurance and justifying faith. The apostle, indeed, speaks of the full assurance of faith; but then this is a full and firm persuasion of what the Gospel reveals; whereas the assurance we are speaking of relates to our personal interest in Christ, and is an effect of this faith, and not faith itself. Faith in Christ certainly includes some idea of assurance; for, except we be assured that he is the Savior, we shall never go to or rely upon him as such : but faith in Christ does not imply an assurance of our interest in him; for there may be faith long before the assurance of personal interest commences. The con- founding of these ideas has been the cause of presump- tion on the one hand, and despair on the other. When men have been taught that faith consists in believing that Christ died for them, and been assured that, if they can only believe so, all is well; and that then they are imme- diately pardoned and justified, the consequence has been, that the bold and self-conceited have soon wrought them- selves up to such a persuasion, without any ground for it, to their own deception; whilst the dejected, humble, and poor in spirit, not being able to work themselves to such a pitch of confidence, have concluded, that they have not the faith of God's elect, and must inevitably be lost. The means to attain assurance are not those of an ex- traordinary kind, as some people imagine : such as visions, dreams, voices, &c.; but such as are ordinary; self- examination, humble and constant prayer, consulting the sacred oracles, Christian communication, attendance on the divine ordinances, and perseverance in the path of duty; without which all our assurance is but presumption, and our profession but hypocrisy. - Assurance may be lost for a season through bodily dis- eases, which depress the spirits, unwatchfulness, falling into sin, manifold temptations, worldly cares, and neglect of private duty. He, therefore, who would wish to enjoy this privilege, let him cultivate communion with God, ex- ercise a watchful spirit against his spiritual enemies, and give himself unreservedly to Him whose he is, and whom he professes to serve. See Saurin's Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 10. Eng. ed. ; Case's Sermons, ser, 13; Lambert's Sermons on John, ix. 35; Hervey's Theroſ, and Aspasio, dialogue 17; Hone's Works, vol. i. p. 342, 348; Brooks, Burgess, Roberts, #axter, Polhill, and Davye, on Assurance ; Hora Sol, vol. ii. p.269.—Buck. - - ASSURITANS; a branch of the Donatists, (which see,) charged with Arianism. ASSYRIA; an ancient kingdom or empire of Asia, comprehending those provinces of Turkey and Persia which are now called Curdistan, Tiarbec, and Irac Arabia. It was bounded by Armenia on the north; Media and Persia on the east ; Arabia on the South ; and the river Euphrates, which divides it from Syria and Asia Minor, on the west. According to the description of the Greek and Roman writers, the boundaries of Assyria compre- hended all the countries and nations between the Medi- terranean sea on the west, and the river Indus on the east; and between the deserts of Scythia on the north, and the Southern and Indian ocean. This empire having once extended over so large a portion of Asia, the pro- vinces under its dominion came to be distinguished by the name of the sovereign state, an appellation which it re- tained long after the dissolution of that great monarchy. Thus Mesopotamia was called Middle Assyria; the same name was also given to Babylon and Chaldea ; and ac- cording to Justin, book i. chap. 2. the country of Syria was first called Assyria. - The whole country is said to have been remarkably fertile in ancient times; but the great antiquity which is given to this kingdom, extending beyond the period when letters were invented, added to the fabulous spirit of its earliest ammalists, has involved its history in darkness, which, at this distance of time, it is not possible to dissi- pate. Much of the Assyrian history, from the days of Ninus to those of Sardanapalus, a period of twelve hun- dred years, as handed down by several ancient writers, and detailed by the moderns, requires to be received with extreme caution, the whole of it being taken from the original historian, Ctesias of Cnidus, a writer whom Aris- totle, who lived only a few years after him, declares to have been altogether unworthy of credit. It abounds with improbabilities; and is, in a variety of respects, incom- patible with the sacred history. Of the origin, revolutions, and termination of Assyria, properly so called, and distinguished from the grand mon- archy which afterwards bore this appellation, the following account is given by Mr. Playfair, as the most probable :- “The founder of it was Ashur, the second son of Shem, who departed from Shinar, upon the usurpation of Nim- rod, at the head of a large body of adventurers, and laid the foundations of Nineveh, where he resided, and erected a new kingdom, called Assyria, after his name. Gen. 10: 11. These events happened not long after Nimrod had established the Chaldean monarchy, and fixed his resi- dence at Babylon; but it does not appear that Nimrod reigned in Assyria. The kingdoms of Assyria and Baby- lon were originally distinct and separate; (Micah 5:6.) and in this state they remained until Ninus conquered Babylon, and made it tributary to the Assyrian empire. Ninus, the successor of Ashur, (Gen. 10: 11.) seized on Chaldea after the death of Nimrod, and united the king- doms of Assyria and Babylon. This great prince is said to have subdued Asia, Persia, Media, Egypt, &c. If he did so, the effects of his conquests were of no long dura- tion; for, in the days of Abraham, we do not find that any of the neighboring kingdoms were subject to Assyria. Ninus was succeeded by Semiramis, a princess bold, en- terprising, and fortunate; of whose adventures and ex- ploits many fabulous relations have been recorded. Play- fair is of opinion that there were two princesses of this name, who flourished at different periods: one, the con- sort of Ninus; and another, who lived five generations before Nitocris, queen of Nebuchadnezzar. Of the suc- cessors of Ninus and Semiramis, nothing certain is re- corded. The last of the ancient Assyrian kings was Sardanapalus, who was besieged in his capital by Arbaces, governor of Media, in concurrence with the Babylonians. These united forces defeated the Assyrian army, demol- ished the capital, and became masters of the empire, B. C. 821, “After the death of Sardanapalus,” says Mr. Playfair, • “the Assyrian empire was divided into three kingdoms; namely, the Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Arba- [ 137 J As s ces retained the supreme authority, and nominated gov. ernors in Assyria and Babylon, who were honored with the title of kings, while they remained subject and tributary to the Persian monarchs. Belesis,” he says, “a Chaldean priest, who assisted Arbaces in the conquest of Sardanapa- lus, received the government of Pabylon as the reward of his services; and Phul was intrusted with that of Assyria. The Assyrian governor gradually enlarged the boundaries of his lºingdom, and was succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, Salmanasar, and Sennacherib, who asserted and main- tained their independence. After the death of Esar-had- don, the brother and successor of Sennacherib, the king- dom of Assyria was split, and annexed to the kingdoms of Media and Babylon. Several tributary princes after. wards reigned in Nineveh ; but we hear no more of the kings of Assyria, but of those of Babylon. Cyaxares, king of Media, assisted Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the siege of Nineveh, which they took and destroyed, B. C. 606.” . . . . . . The history of Assyria, deduced from scripture, and ac- knowledged as the only authentic one by Sir Isaac New- ton and many others, ascribes the foundation of the monarchy to Pul, or Phul, about the second year of Me- nahem, king of Israel; twenty-four years before the era of Nabonassar, fifteen hundred and seventy-nine years after the flood, and, according to Blair, seven hundred and sixty-nine, or, according to Newton, seven hundred and ninety years before Christ. Menahem, having taken for- cible possession of the throne of Israel by the murder of Shallum, (2 Kings 15: 10.) was attacked by Pul, but pre- vented the hostilities meditated against him by presenting the invader with a thousand talents of silver. Pul, thus gratified, took the kingdom of Israel under his protection, returned to his own country, after having received volun- tary homage from several nations in his march, as he had done from Israel, and became the founder of a great em- pire. As it was in the days of Pul that the Assyrians began to afflict the inhabitants of Palestine, (2 Kings 11: 9. 1 Chron. 5; 26.) this was the time, according to Sir Isaac Newton, when the Assyrian empire arose. Thus he interprets the words, “since the time of the kings of Assyria;” (Nehem. 9: 32.) that is, since the time of the kingdom of Assyria, or since the rise of that empire. But though this was the period in which the Assyrians afflicted Israel, it is not so evident that the time of the kings of Assyria must necessarily be understood of the rise of the Assyrian empire. However, Newton thus reasons; and observes, that “Pul and his successors afflicted Israel, and conquered the nations round about them ; and upon the ruin of many small and ancient kingdoms erected their empire; conquering the Medes, as well as other nations.” It is ſurther argued, that God, by the prophet Amos, in the reign of Jeroboam, about ten or twenty years before the reign of Pul, (see Amos 6: 13, 14.) threatened to raise up a nation against Israel; and that, as Pul reigned presently after the prophecy of Amos, and was the first upon record who began to fulfil it, he may be justly reck- oned the first conqueror and founder of this empire. (See 1 Chron. 5; 26.) Pul was succeeded on the throne of Assyria by his elder son Tiglath-pileser; and at the same time he left Babylon to his younger son, Nabonassar, B. C. 747. Of the conquests of this second king of As- syria against the kings of Israel and Syria, when he took Damascus, and subdued the Syrians, we have an account in 2 Kings 15:29, 37. 16: 5, 9.1 Chron. 5; 26. by which the prophecy of Amos was fulfilled, and from which it appears that the empire of the Assyrians was now become great and powerful. The next king of Assyria was Shal- maneser, or Salmanassar, who succeeded Tiglath-pileser, H. C. 729, and invaded Phoenicia, took the city of Sama- ria, and, B. C. 721, carried the ten tribes into captivity, placing them in Chalach and Chabor, by the river Gazon, and in the cities of the Medes. 2 Kings 17: 6. Shalmane- ser was succeeded by Sennacherib, B.C. 719 ; and in the year B. C. 714, he was put to flight with great slaughter by the Ethiopians and Egyptians. . In the year B. C. 711, the Medes revolted from the Assyrians; Sennacherib was slain; and he was succeeded by his son Esar Haddon, . . Asserhaddon, Asordan, Assaradin, or Sarchedon, by which names he is called by different writers. He began his reign at Nineveh, in the year of Nabonassar, 42; and in the year 68 extended it over Babylon. He then carried the remainder of the Samaritans into captivity, and gº Samaria with captives brought from several parts of his kingdom; and in the year of Nabonassar 77 or 78, he seems to have put an end to the reign of the Ethiopi- ans over Egypt. “In the reign of Sennacherib and Asser-Haddon,” says Sir Isaac Newton, “the Assyrian empire seems arrived at its greatness; being united under one monarch, and containing Assyria, Media, Apolloni- atis, Susiana, Chaldaea, Mesopotamia, Cilicia, Syria, Phoe- nicia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and part of Arabia; and reaching eastward into Elymais, and Paraetaecene, a province of the Medes; and if Chalach and Chabor be Colchis and Iberia, as some think, and as may seem probable from the circumcision used by those nations till the days of Hero- dotus, we are also to add these two provinces, with the two Armenias, Pontus, and Cappadocia, as far as to the river Halys: for Herodotus tells us that the people of Cappa- docia, as far as to that river, were called Syrians by the Greeks, both before and after the days of Cyrus; and that the Assyrians were also called Syrians by the Greeks.” Asser-Haddon was succeeded in the year B. C. 668, by Saosduchinus. At this time, Manasseh was allowed to return home, and fortify Jerusalem; and the Egyptians also, after the Assyrians had harassed Egypt and Ethio- ia three years, (Isa. 20:3, 4,) were set at liberty. Saos- uchinus, after a reign of twenty years, was succeeded at Babylon, and probably at Nineveh also, by Chyniladon, in the year B. C. 647. This Chyniladon is supposed by: Newton to be the Nebuchodonosor mentioned in the book of Judith, (1: 1–15,) who made war upon Arphaxad, king of the Medes; and, though deserted by his auxiliaries of Cilicia, Damascus, Syria, Phoenicia, Moab, Ammon, and Egypt, routed the army of the Medes, and slew Arphaxad, This Arphaxad is supposed to be either Dejoces or his son Phraortes, mentioned by Herodotus. Soon after the death of Phraortes, in the year B. C. 635, the Scythians invaded the Medes and Persians; and in 625, Nabopolassar, the commander of the forces of Chyniladon in Chaldea, re- volted from him, and became king of Babylon. Chynila- don was either then or soon after succeeded at Nineveh by the last king of Assyria, called Sarac by Polyhistor. . The authors of the Universal History suppose Saosduchi- nus to have been the prince, who in the book of Judith is called Nebuchodonosor. Following up his successes, he reduced many of the cities in Media, stormed the cele- brated capital Ecbatana, and levelled it with the ground, aſter which he returned in triumph to Nineveh, the capi- tal of his dominions. No sooner were the rejoicings for this victory over, than he resolved to punish the nations who had refused to assist him; and for that purpose sent Holofermes, the general of his army, to destroy by fire and sword all that should oppose him. The command, dic- tated by revenge, was executed with cruelty, and the march of Holofernes through Mesopotamia was marked by desolation and blood. The brave inhabitants of Be- thulia first dared to oppose his progress. Fired with in- dignation, he invested the city, cut off every supply of water, and reduced the place to the utmost distress. The beauty and the intrepidity of Judith, if we may give credit to the book which bears her name, saved her city and country from inevitable destruction. Approaching the hostile camp, she insinuated herself into the tent and affec- tions of Holofernes; and in the dead of night, when her watchful eye observed him buried in sleep and wine, severed his head from his body with his own sword, and escaped to her friends. The death of the leader struck his army with consternation, and in their sudden flight they lost their baggage, and were pursued with great slaughter. Nebuchodonosor seems not long to have sur- vived the destruction of his army, and his throne was filled by Sarac. At length, Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, married Amyit, the daughter of Astyages, king of the Medes, and sister of Cyaxares; and by this marriage the two families having contracted affinity, they conspired against the Assyrians. Nabopolassar being old, and As- tyages dead, their sons Nebuchadnezzar and Cyaxares led the armies of the two nations against Nineveh, slew Sa- 18 A ST A ST | 138 ) rac, destroyed the city, and shared the kingdom of the Assyrians. This victory the Jews refer to the Chaldeans; the Greeks, to the Medes; Tobit, (14: 15.) Polyhistor, and Ctesias, to both. With this victory commenced the great successes of Nebuchadnezzar and Cyaxares, and it laid the foundation of the two collateral empires of the Baby- lonians and Medes, which were branches of the Assyrian empire; and hence the time of the fall of the Assyrian empire is determined, the conquerors being then in their youth. In the reign of Josiah, when Zephaniah prophe- sied, Nineveh and the kingdom of Assyria were standing; and their fall was predicted by that prophet. Zeph. 1: 3. 2: 13. And in the end of his reign, Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, the successor of Psammetichus, went up against the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates, to fight against Carchemish, or Circutium ; and in his way thither slew Josiah, (2 Kings 23:29. 2 Chron. 35: 20.) and therefore the last king of Assyria was not yet slain. But in the third and fourth years of Jehoiakim, the successor of Jo- siah, the two conquerors having taken Nineveh, and fin- ished their war in Assyria, prosecuted their conquests westward ; and leading their forces against the king of Egypt, as an invader of their right of conquest, they beat him at Carchemish, and took from him whatever he had recently taken from the Assyrians; (2 Kings 24; 7. Jer. 46. 2.) “and therefore we cannot err,” says Sir Isaac Newton, “above a year or two, if we refer the destruc- tion of Nineveh, and ſall of the Assyrian empire, to the third year of Jehoiakim,” or the hundred and fortieth, or, according to Blair, the hundred and forty-first, year of Na- bomassar; that is, the year B. C. 607. Of the government, laws, religion, learning, customs, &c., of the ancient Assyrians, nothing absolutely certain is recorded. Their kingdom was at first small, and sub- sisted for several ages under hereditary chiefs; and their government was simple. Afterwards, when they rose to the sublimity of empire, their government seems to have been despotic, and the empire hereditary. Their laws were probably few, and depended upon the mere will of the prince. To Ninus we may ascribe the division of the Assyrian empire into provinces and governments; for we find that this institution was fully established in the reigns of Semiramis and her successors. The people were dis- tributed into a certain number of tribes; and their occu- º or professions were hereditary. The Assyrians had several distinct councils, and several tribunals for the regulation of public aſſairs. Of councils there were three, which were created by the body of the people, and who governed the state in conjunction with the sovereign. The first consisted of officers who had retired from military employments; the second, of the nobility; and the third, of the old men. The Sovereigns also had three tribunals, whose province it was to watch over the conduct of the }. le. The Assyrians have been competitors with the 2gyptians for the honor of having invented alphabetic writing. It appears, from the few remains now extant of the writing of these ancient nations, that their letters had a great affinity with each other. They much resembled one another in shape; and they ranged them in the same manner, from right to left.—Jones ; Watson. ASTAROTH, or ASTARTE, or AshtoRETH ; the name of one of the Syrian deities, called by Jeremiah “the queen of heaven,” (ch. 7: 18, and 44; 17–25.) A temple was erected to this idol, at the city of Hierapolis in Syria, where three hundred priests attended at her altar, and were constantly employed in offering sacrifices. Solomon, se- duced from his allegiance to the God of his fathers through the inſluence of his foreign wives, introduced the worship of Ashtoreth, in Israel, and built a temple to her on the mount of Olives. , 1 Kings 11: 4–8. 2 ICings 23: 13. Milton, in the first book of his Paradise Lost, 1. 437, &c., thus refers to this object of idolatrous worship : With these in troops Came AshtoreTH, whom the Phoenicians call’d ASTARTE, queen of heav'n, with crescent horns; To whose bright image nightly by the moon Sidonian virgins paid their vows and songs, In Sion also not unsung, where stood Her temple on th' offensive mountain, built By that uxorious king, whose heart, though large, Her temple at Aphac, on mount Libanus, is said to have been a perfect stew of lewdness, a very school of the most bcastly lusts, there practised by her votaries, because Ve: nus was supposed to have had her first intercourse in that place with her beloved Adonis-Gibbon's Rome, vol. i. chap. 6. ; Jones. . . . º ASTAROTH, ASTAROTH-CARNAïM, or CARENAM, or CARNEA, (Gen. 14: 5.) was a city beyond Jordan, six miles from Adraa, or Edrei, between that city and Abila. There were two places named Astaroth, in the Batanea, nine miles from each other, between Abila and Adraa. There was also a Carnaim, as Eusebius says, not far from Je: rusalem. (See CARNAIM.) Astaroth Carnaim is supposed to be derived from the goddess Astarte, adorned there, who was represented with horns, or a crescent: for car- maim signifies horns. 2 Mac. 12: 26. mentions a temple of the goddess Atargatis, in Carnion. same as Derceto, of Askelon, represented as a woman with the lower parts of a fish, called by the Hebrews, Dagon, or the god-fish. (See DAGoN.) ASTARTE. (See AstARoth.) ASTELL, (MARy;) an English lady, eminent for her piety and erudition, was born 1668, and died 1731. She exerted herself much to raise the standard of female edu- cation; and her vigorous pen advocated both the rights of her sex, and the doctrines of the Church of England. Living and conversing with the fashionable world, she yet lived a life of holiness; severe in virtue, Serene in mind, and cheerful in manner and conversation. She would often say, ‘that the real Christian alone has reason to be cheer- ful; but he ought to be so always.” Her habits were ab- stemious ; regarding temperance as essential to study, as well as to the spirit of devotion, and occasional abstinence as her best physic. She- enjoyed uninterrupted health, until, late in life, she was seized with a fatal cancer in her breast. This she long endured ; and at length submitted to its amputation with patience and intrepidity. Finding her dissolution drawing near, she ordered her coffin and shroud to be made and brought to her bedside, that her thoughts might not wander from the steady contemplation of God and the world to come.—Betham ; Davenport. ASTONIED; astonished. ASTONISHMENT; a kind or degree of wonder intro- duced by surprise. This emotion always relates to things of the highest importance; to things which appear too vast and extensive for the grasp of intellect, rather than to any thing of an intricate mature. The body marks in a striking manner the singular state of the mind under this emotion. The eyes are firmly fixed, without being directed to any particular object; the character of counte- nance, which was formed by the habitual influence of some predominant affection, is for a time effaced; and a suspension of every other expression, a certain vacuity, strongly notes this state of mind.—Buck. (See AMAZE-. MENT, Wonder, WINE. ASTROLOGERS ; such as by observation of the stars and sky, and calculations relative thereto, pretend to fore- tell future events: they were famous among the heathen, chiefly at Babylon. Isa. 47: 13. Dan. 1: 20.—Bronn. ASTROLOGY; the art of foretelling future events, from the aspects, positions, and influences of the heavenly bodies. The word is compounded of aster, star, and logos, discourse; whence, in the literal sense of the term, astro- logy should signify no more than the doctrine or science of the stars. Astrology judiciary, or judicial, is what we Atargatis was the Beguil’d by fair idolatresses, ſell To idols ſoul. *** ** A st A TH [ 139 J commonly call simple astrology, or that which pretends to foretell mortal events, even those which have a dependence on the free will and agency of man; as if they were di- rected by the stars. This art, which owed its origin to the practice of knavery on credulity, is now universally exploded by the intelligent part of mankind. Judicial astrology is commonly said to have been invented in Chaldea, and thence transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; though some will have it of Egyptian origin, and ascribe the invention to Cham. But we derive it from the Arabians. The Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, and indeed almost all the nations of antiquity, were infa- tuated with the chimeras of astrology. It originated in the motion, that the stars have an influence, either bene- ficial or malignant, upon the affairs of men, which may be discovered, and made the ground of certain prediction, in particular cases: and the whole art consisted in apply- ing astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose. Diodorus Siculus relates, that the Chaldeans learned these arts from the Egyptians; and he would not have made this assertion, if there had not been at least a general tra- dition that they were practised from the earliest times in Egypt. The system was, in those remote ages, intimately connected with Sabianism, or the worship of the stars as divinities; but whether it emanates from idolatry or fa- tality, it denies God and his providence, and is therefore condemned in the Scriptures, and ranked with practices the most offensive and provoking to the Divine Majesty. —Watson. (See ASTRONOMY.) ASTRONOMY. The interests of agriculture and navi- gation required some knowledge of astronomy. An evi- dence that an attempt was made, at a very early period, to regulate the year by the annual revolution of the sun, may be found in the fact, that the Jewish months were divided into thirty days each. Gen. 7: 11. 8: 4. In astronomy, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians exhibited great superiority. We are informed, there were magicians or enchanters in Egypt, (Exod. 7: 11. Lev. 20: 27. 19: 31. Deut. 18:20.) denominated in Hebrew mek- shepkim, because they computed eclipses of the sun and moon, and pretended to the people, that they produced them by the efficacy of their own enchantments. Some of the constellations are mentioned by name in Job 9: 9. 38: 31, 32. Isa, 13: 10. Amos 5: 8, 2 Kings 23: 5. It is by no means a matter of wonder, that the Hebrews did not devote greater attention to astronomy, since the study of astrology, which was intimately connected with that of astronomy, and was very highly estimated among the neighboring nations, Isa. 47: 9. Jer. 27: 9, 1:35. Dan. 2:13, 48, was interdicted to the Hebrews. Deut. 18: 10. Lev. 20: 27. Daniel, indeed, studied the art of astrology at Babylon, but he did not practise it. Dan. 1: 20. 2: 2. The astrologers (and those wise men mention- ed, Matt. 2: appear to have been such,) divided the heavens into apartments or habitations, to each one of which apartments they assigned a ruler or president. This fact developes the origin of the word, beelzeboul, or the Lord of the (celestial) dwelling. Matt, 10; 25. 12:24, 27. Mark 3:22. Luke 11: 15–19–Horne's Introduction. I. ASTYAGES, otherwise CYAxAREs, king of the Medes, successor of Phraortes, reigned forty years, and died A. M. 3409, ante A. D. 595. He had a son, called Astyages, or Darius; and two daughters, Mandane and Amyit. For Astyages, or Darius, or Ahasuerus, see the following ar- ticle, Amyit married Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabono- lassar, king of Chaldea, and was mother of Evil-merodach. Mandane married Cambyses the Persian, and was mother of Cyrus.-Calmet. - II. ASTYAGES, otherwise AHASUERUs, (Dan.9: 1.) or ARTAxerxes, (Dan. 6: 1. Gr.) or DARIUS the Mede, (Dan. 5: 31.) or Cyaxares, (by his father's name,) or Apandas, was, by his father, Cyaxares, appointed governor of Me. dia, and sent with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, against Sarac, (or Chiniladanus,) king of Assyria, whom they besieged in Nineveh, took that city, and dismembered the Assyrian empire. (See Assyria.) Astyages was, with Cyrus at the conquest of Babylon, and succeeded Belshaz. zār, king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 30, 31. A. M. 3447. Cyrus succeeded him, 3456, Dan. 13: 65. See Isa. 13; 14: 24: 45; 46: 47. Jer, 50: 51:—Calmet. ASUPPIM, HOIJSE OF. This word occurs 1 Chron. 26:15. Asuppim signifies collections. Hence the phrase is used evidently for a store-house ; probably of precious things, connected with the temple. .* ASYLUM. This word signifies a sanctuary, whither unfortunate persons might retire for security from their enemies, and from whence they could not be forced. It has been supposed that Hercules' grandsons were the in- stitutors of these places of refuge, in Greece, if not in Eu- rope; for, apprehending the resentment of those whom Hercules had ill-treated, they appointed an asylum or temple of mercy at Athens. Cadmus erected another at Thebes, and Romulus another at Rome, on mount Pala- tine. That of Daphne, near Antioch, was very famous. 2 Macc. 4; 34. Theseus built an asylum at Athens in favor of slaves, and of the poor who should fly thither, from the oppression of the rich. There was one in the isle of Calauria.-The temples of Apollo at Delphi, of Juno at Samos, of Esculapius at Delos, of Bacchus at Ephesus, and many others in Greece, had the privileges of being asyla. Romulus gave this right to a wood ad- joining the temple of Vejovis. (Virgil, AEneid. viii. 342.) Ovid speaks of a wood near Ostium, that enjoyed the same privilege. (Fast. l. 1.) Austin observes, (de Civit. lib. i. cap. 34.) that the whole city of Rome was an asylum to all strangers.—The number of these privileged places was so much increased in Greece, under the emperor Ti- berius, that he was obliged to recal their licenses, and to suppress them. (Sueton. in Tiberio. Tacit. Annal. lib. iii. cap. 6.) But his decree was little observed after his death. The altar of burnt sacrifices, and the temple at Jerusa- lem, were sanctuaries. Hither Joab retired; (1 Kings 2: 28, 29, 31.) but Solomon observing that he would not quit the altar, ordered him to be killed there. Moses com- mands (Exod. 21: 14.) that any who had committed mur. der, and fled for protection to the altar, should be dragged from thence. Sanctuaries were not for the advantage of wicked men, but in favor of the innocent, when attacked unjustly. When criminals retired to the sanctuary of a temple, they were either starved, or forced thence, by fires kindled around them. (See REFUGE.)—Calmet. ATAD. At Atad's threshing-floor (Gen. 1: 11.) the sons of Jacob, and the Egyptians who accompanied them, mourned for Jacob ; whence it was afterwards called Abel-Mizraim, “the mourning of the Egyptians.” ATAROTH. 1. A city in the tribe of Gad, (Numb. 32: 3, 34. 2. A city of Ephraim ; probably Atăra about sixteen miles nearly north from Jerusalem. 3. A city, now 'Alāra, in ruins, seven miles north from Jerusalem ; not clearly identified with any place mentioned in Scrip- ture. 4. Ataroth of the house of Joab was in Judah, and probably near Bethlehem. There were other places called Ataroth, whose situation is unknown.—T. ATHALIAH; daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, and wiſe of Joram, king of Judah. Her history is given in the eleventh chapter of 2 Kings, and is fearfully monitory. Racine has written a tragedy upon it. ATHANASIUS, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, was born in that city about 296. At the council of Nice, though then but a deacon of Alexandria, his reputation for skill in controversy gained him an honorable place in the council, and with signal ability he exposed the sophis- try of those who pleaded on the side of Arius. Six months after, he was appointed the successor of Alexan- der. Notwithstanding the influence of the emperor, who had recalled Arius from banishment, and upon a plausible conſession of his ſaith, in which he affected to be orthodox in his sentiments, directed that he should be received by the Alexandrian church, Athanasius refused to admit him to communion, and exposed his prevarication. The Arians upon this exerted themselves to raise tumults at Alexandria, and to ...jure the character of Athanasius with the emperor, who was prevailed upon by falsehoods to pronounce against him a sentence of banishment. In the beginning of the reign of Constantius, he was recalled to his happy people, but was again disturbed and deposed through the influence of the Arians. Accusations were also sent against him and other bishops from the east to the west; but they were acquitted by pope Julius in ſull A T H A T H | 140 ) council. Athanasius was restored a second time to his see upon the death of the Arian bishop, who had been laced in it. Arianism, however, being in favor at court, e was condemned by a council convened at Arles, and by another at Milan, and was a third time obliged to fly into the deserts. His enemies pursued him even here, and set a price upon his head. In this situation, Athana- sius composed writings full of eloquence to strengthen the faith of believers, and expose the falsehood of his enemies. He returned with the other bishops whom Julian the apos- tate recalled from banishment, and in A. D. 362, held a council at Alexandria, where the belief of a consubstantial Trinity was openly professed. Many now were recovered from Arianism, and brought to subscribe the Nicene creed. But his peace was again interrupted by the Com- plaints of the heathen, whose temples the zeal of Athana- sius kept always empty. He was again obliged to fly to save his life. The accession of Jovian brought him back. During the reign of Jovian, also, Athanasius held another council, which declared its adherence to the Nicene faith ; and with the exception of a short retirement under Valens, he was permitted to sit down in quiet and govern his af. fectionate church of Alexandria, until his death, in 373. Of the forty-six years of his official life, he spent twenty in banishment. Athanasius, (says the Encyclopedia Americana,) is one of the greatest men of whom the church can boast. His deep mind, his noble heart, his invincible courage, his living faith, his unbounded benevolence, sincere humility, lofty eloquence, and strictly virtuous life, gained the honor and love of all. In all his writings, his style is distinguish- ed for clearness and moderation. The best edition is that of Montfaucon, Paris, 1698. Athanasius was an eminent instrument of maintaining the truth, in an age when errors affecting the great foun- dation of our faith were urged with great subtlety. The Scripture doctrine of the Trinity, as explained by him, at length triumphed over the heresies which at one time met with so much support and sanction ; and the views of Athanasius have been received, in substance, by all ortho- dox churches to the present time.— Watson; Encyclopedia Americana. ATHANASIANS ; the orthodox followers of St. Atha- nasius, the great and able antagonist of Arius. The Athanasian creed, though generally admitted not to be drawn up by this father, (but probably, as Dr. Water- land says, by Hilary, bishop of Arles, in the fifth century,) is universally allowed to contain a fair expression of his sentiments. This creed says, “The catholic faith is this: that we worship one God in trinity, and trinity in unity: neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the sub- stance. For there is one person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the God- head of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one ; the glory equal, the majesty co-eternal. Such as the Father is, such is the Son, and such is the Holy Ghost;” namely, “uncreate, incomprehensible, eternal,” &c. “The Father is made of none, neither created nor begotten. The Son is of the Father alone ; neither made nor created, but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.” The true key to the Athanasian creed lies in the know- ledge of the errors to which it was opposed. The Sabelli. ams considered the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as one in person;–this was “confounding the persons:” the Arians considered them as differing in essence—three beings;– this was “dividing the substance:” and against these two hypotheses was the creed originally framed. And since every sect was willing to adopt the language of Scripture, it was thought necessary to adopt scholastic terms, in or. der to fix the sense of Scripture language. The eternal generation of the Son of God forms an essential part of this creed, as well as of the Nicene: it is on this principle that the Son is called “God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made ;”— which certainly does not apply to the human nature of Christ, which was “made of a woman—made under the law.” Most certain it is, that many of the Christian fa- thers maintain this mysterious doctrine of eternal genera- tion; and it has had able defenders, down to Dr. J. Owen, Dr. Waterland, Dr. Edward Williams, and Andrew Fuller. On the other hand, Trinitarians equally zealous have con- sidered the opinion as both inconsistent in itself, and de- rogatory to the Son of God—“as implying derivation and inferiority”—though certainly not so intended by the Athanasians. Dr. Watts, and other advocates for the pre- existence of Christ's human soul, have considered the pro- duction of this first of creatures, as the highest sense in which our Savior is in Scripture called “the Son of God.” —Doddridge's Works, (Parsons's edit.) vol. v. p. 182. If on this subject the writer might, as an individual, express his own sentiments, the chief fault in the creed itself is, its overstepping the modesty of Scripture, and attempting to define, with accuracy, where the sacred writers seem designedly to have left the subject under the veil of mystery. The Supreme Being is, in all respects, so infinitely above the conception of men, and perhaps of angels, that it becomes us to conduct all speculations relative to the Deity with reverence, and even awe; to veil our faith under the wings of devotion, as the Seraphim cover their faces while they worship. But the most exceptionable part of this creed lies in what are commonly called “the damnatory clauses”— “Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessa- ry that he hold the catholic faith; which faith, except every one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. And the catholic faith is this”— proceeding to the statements of the doctrine of the trinity above given. Now it is most certain, that we cannot use too much caution on this subject. The Scripture indeed speaks of faith in Christ as necessary to Salvation, but re- fers rather, perhaps, to the vital principle itself, than to any form of confession; and it seems above all things im- proper to mingle anathemas with our devotions. This has led many of the English clergy and bishops, to wish they were “well rid” of this creed altogether, which is certainly a prevailing sentiment; and were the question now put, on admitting this formulary into the church ser- vice, there are, perhaps, but few, comparatively, that would vote for it. However orthodox it may be, it does not appear to be written in a Christian spirit. (See ARI- ANs.)—Watson ; Williams ; Dr. Waterland's Cr. Hist. of the Athanasian Creed; Rev. T. H. Horne's Scripture Doc- trine of the Trinity; Burnett on the Articles, art. ii. and viii.; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 62. ATHEIST, in the strict and proper sense of the word, is one who does not believe in the existence of a God, or who owns no being superior to nature. It is compounded of the two terms, a, negative, and theos, God, signifying nvithout God. Atheists have been also known by the name infidels; but the word infidel is now commonly used to distinguish a more numerous party, and is become almost synonymous with deist. He who disbelieves the existence of a God, as an infinite, intelligent, and a moral agent, is a direct or speculative atheist; he who confesses a Deity and providence in words, but denies them in his life and actions, is a practical atheist. That atheism existed in some sense before the flood, may be suspected from what we read in Scripture, as well as from heathen tradition; and it is not very unreasonable to suppose, that the deluge was partly intended to evince to the world a heavenly power, as Lord of the universe, and superior to the visi- ble system of nature. This was at least a happy consc- quence of that fatal catastrophe; for, as it is observed by dean Sherlock, “The universal deluge, and the confusion of languages, had so abundantly convinced mankind of a divine power and providence, that there was no such crea- ture as an atheist, till their ridiculous idolatries had tempt- ed some men of wit and thought, rather to own no God than such as the heathens worshipped.” Atheistical principles were long nourished and cherish- ed in Greece, and especially among the atomical, peripa- tetic, and sceptical philosophers; and hence some have ascribed the origin of atheism to the philosophy of Greece. This is true, if they mean that species of refined athe- ism, which contrives any impious scheme of principles to account for the origin of the world, without a Di- vine Being. For though there may have been in for- mer ages, and in other countries, some persons irreli- A TH A T H [ 141 1 gious in principle as well as in practice, yet we know of none who, forming a philosophical scheme of impiety, be- came a sect, and erected colleges of atheistical learning, till the arrogant and enterprising genius of Greece under- took that detestable work. Carrying their presumptuous and ungoverned speculations into the very essence of the divinity, at first they doubted, and at length denied, the existence of a first cause independent of nature, and of a providence that superintends its laws, and governs the concerns of mankind. These principles, with the other improvements of Greece, were transferred to Rome; and, excepting in Italy, we hear little of atheism, for many ages after the Christian era. “For some ages before the Reformation,” says archbishop Tillotson, “atheism was confined to Italy, and had its chief residence at Rome. But, in this last age, atheism has travelled over the Alps and infected France, and now of late it hath crossed the seas, and invaded our nation, and hath prevailed to amazement.” However, to, Tillotson, and other able writers, we owe its suppression in England; for they pressed it down with a weight of sound argument, from which it has never been able to raise itself. For although in our time, in France and Germany a subtle atheism was revived, and spread its unhallowed and destructive influ- ence for many years throughout the continent, it made but little progress in that better-instructed nation. ...~ * Atheism, in its primary sense, comprehends, or at least goes beyond, every heresy in the world; for it professes to acknowledge no religion, true or false. The two lead- ing hypotheses which have prevailed, among atheists, re- specting this world and its origin, are, that of Ocellus Lu- canus, adopted and improved by Aristotle, that it was eter- mal; and that of Epicurus, that it was formed by a fortui- tous concourse of atoms. “That the soul is material and mortal, Christianity an imposture, the Scripture a forgery, the worship of God superstition, hell a fable, and heaven a dream, our life without providence, and our death with- out hope, like that of asses and dogs, are part of the glo- rious gospel of our modern atheists.” The being of a God may be proved from the marks of design, and from the order and beauty visible in the world; from universal consent; from the relation of cause and effect; from internal consciousness; and from the necessity of a final as well as an efficient cause. Of all the false doctrines and foolish opinions that ever infested the mind of man, nothing can possibly equal that of atheism, which is such a monstrous contradiction of all evidence, of all the powers of understanding, and the dic- tates of common sense, that it may be well questioned whether any man can really fall into it by a deliberate use of his judgment. All nature so clearly points out, and so loudly proclaims, a Creator of infinite power, wis- dom, and goodness, that whoever hears not its voice, and sees not its proofs, may well be thought wilfully deaf, and obstinately blind. If it be evident, self-evident to every man of thought, that there can be no effect without a cause, what shall we say of that manifold combination of effects, that series of operations, that system of wonders, which fill the universe, which present themselves to all our perceptions, and strike our minds and our senses on every side 2 Every faculty, every object of every faculty, demonstrates a Deity. The meanest insect we can see, the minutest and most contemptible weed we can tread upon, is really sufficient to confound atheism, and baffle all its pretensions. How much more that astonishing variety and multiplicity of God’s works with which we are continually surrounded ! Let any man survey the face of the earth, or lift up his eyes to the firmament; let him consider the nature and instincts of brute animals, and afterwards look into the operations of his own mind, and will he presume to say or suppose that all the objects he meets with are nothing more than the result of unac- countable accidents and blind chance 2 Can hé possibly conceive that such wonderful order should spring out of confusion? or that such perfect beauty should be ever formed by the fortuitous operations of unconscious, inac- tive particles of matter? As well, may better, and more easily, might he suppose that an earthquake might happen For what are towns, cities, or fleets, in comparison of the vast and amazing fabric of the universe ! In short, atheism of. fers such violence to all our faculties, that it seems scarce credible it should ever really find any place in the human understanding. Atheism is unreasonable, because it gives no tolerable account of the existence of the world. This is one of the greatest difficulties with which the atheist has to contend. For he must suppose either that the world is eternal, or that it was formed by chance and a fortuitous concourse of the parts of matter. That the world had a beginning, is evident from universal tradition, and the most ancient history that exists; from there be- ing no memorials of any actions performed previously to the time assigned in that history as the era of the crea: tion; from the origin of learning and arts, and the liabili. ty of the parts of matter to decay. That the world was not produced by chance, is also evident. Nothing can be more unreasonable than to ascribe to chance an effect which appears with all the characters of a wise design and contrivance. Will chance fit means to ends, even in ten thousand instances, and not fail in a single one 3 How often might a man, after shaking a set of letters in a bag, throw them on the ground, before they would become an exact poem, or form a good discourse in prose ? In short, the arguments in proof of Deity are so numerous, and at the same time so obvious to a thinking mind, that to waste time in disputing with an atheist, is approaching too much towards that irrationality, which may be consi- dered as one of the most striking characteristics of the Sect. The more noted atheists, since the Reformation, are Ma- chiavel, Spinoza, Hobbes, Blount, and Vanini. To these may be added Hume, and Voltaire, the coryphaeus of the sect, and the great nursing father of that swarm of them which has appeared in these last days. Dr. Samuel Clarke, in his “Demonstration of the Being of a God,” says, that atheism arises either from stupid ig- norance, or from corruption of principles and manners, or from the reasonings of false philosophy; and he adds, that the latter, who are the only athéistical persons capa. ble of being reasoned with at all, must of necessity own, that, supposing it cannot be proved to be true, yet it is a thing very desirable, and which any wise man would wish to be true, for the great benefit and happiness of man, that there was a God, an intelligent and wise, a just and good Being, to govern the world. Whatever hypothesis these men can possibly frame, whatever argument they can invent, by which they would exclude God and provi- dence out of the world; that very argument, or hypothesis, will of necessity lead them to this concession. If they argue, that our notion of God arises not from nature and reason, but from the art and contrivance of politicians; that argument itself forces them to confess, that it is mani- festly for the interest of human society, that it should be believed there is a God. If they suppose that the world was made by chance, and is every moment subject to be destroyed by chance again; no man can be so absurd as to contend, that it is as comfortable and desirable to live in such an uncertain state of things, and so continually liable to ruin, without any hope of renovation, as in a world that is under the preservation and conduct of a powerful, wise, and good God. If they argue against the being of God, from the faults and defects which they ima- gine they can find in the frame and constitution of the visible and material world; this supposition obliges them to acknowledge that it would have been better the world had been made by an intelligent and wise Being, who might have prevented all faults and imperfections. If they argue against providence, from the faultiness and inequality which they think they discover in the manage- ment of the moral world; this is a plain confession that it is a thing more fit and desirable in itself, that the world should be governed by a just and good Being, than by mere chance or unintelligent necessity. Lastly, if they suppose the world to be eternally and neeessarily self-ex- istent, and consequently that every thing in it is establish- ed by a blind and eternal fatality; no rational man can at the same time deny, but that liberty and choice, or a to build towns and cities; or the materials carried down by a free power of acting, is a more eligible state, than to be flood fit themselves up without hands into a regular fleet, determined thus in all our actions, as a stone is to move A T H [ 142 A T H downward, by an absolute and inevitable fate. In a word, tants, and from the arts and sciences which were indebted which way soever they turn themselves, and whatever to it either for their origin or their perfection. hypothesis they make, concerning the original and frame Athens was situated on the Saronic gulf, opposite to the of things, nothing is so certain and undeniable, as that eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. It was inclosed in a man, considered without the protection and conduct of a sort of peninsula, formed by the confluence of the two superior Being, is in a far worse case than upon supposi- rivers, the Ilissus and the Cephisus. From the sea, on tion of the being and government of God, and of men's which its greatness and importance so essentially depend- being under his peculiar conduct, protection, and favor.— ed, it lay at the distance of about four miles. It was sur- Watson; Paley's Nat. Theology; Gisborne's do. ; Dnight's rounded by walls of great extent and strength, and had Theology, vol. i. sermons 1, 2, and 3. three harbors, the Pyraeus, Munychia, and Phalerus. A ATHENAIS, (afterwards ELIA Eudocia,) empress of bay, formed by projecting rocks, furnished a species of the East, was the daughter of Leontinus, an Athenian phi- triple harbor, at once spacious and secure, and the Sur- losopher, who gave her a most elegant and liberal educa- rounding shore was covered with edifices, the splendor of tion. To the learning and philosophy of the Greeks she which soon rivalled those of Athens itself. These har- added the arts of elocution and music. Her father at his bors were joined to the city by a double range of walls, death left all his property to her two brothers, except one called “the long walls,” of which the north side extending hundred pieces of gold, saying in his will, that “her une- to Piraeus was five miles; the south, which branched off qualled merit was a sufficient portion.” This merit, however, to Phalerus, was four miles and a quarter in length ; and was certainly no apology for such manifest injustice; that encompassing the Piraeus with Munychia was seven which was aggravated by the harsh treatment of her bro- miles and a half. These walls were built of hewn stone, thers, who forced her to take refuge with an aunt on her and so broad that carriages could cross each other upon mother's side. Her aunt took her to Constantinople, them. - * about the year 420, and made the princess Pulcheria ac- In the centre of the city itself, and constituting its chief quainted with her situation. This princess, struck with ornament, stood the Acropolis, the glory of the Grecian her singular beauty, learning, and modesty, found means art. On this elevation the whole of Athens was originally of making the admirable qualities of her fair protegee built; but as the city extended, the Acropolis came to serve known to her brother Theodosius, surnamed the Young. merely the purpose of a citadel. Here were accumulated To him Athenais was soon married, and was acknowledg- all those works of ornament of which Athens was so pro- ed empress of the East in 422. Before her marriage she lific; the Acropolis became the grand depository for every embraced Christianity; the spirit of which she exercised thing the most splendid which human genius could pro- towards her brothers. On hearing of her good fortune, duce in painting, sculpture, and architecture. But its they had fled; but she caused them to be brought to Con- prime ornament was the Parthenon or virgin temple of stantinople, obtained their forgiveness of the emperor, and Minerva, an engraving of which is here given; a splen- their elevation to stations of honor and trust. “I regard - -- you,” said she, “as the instruments of my elevation. It was not your cruelty, but the hand of Providence which brought me here, to raise me to the throne.” Arrayed in the imperial purple, she still cultivated her studies with ardor, and in every department of the sciences then known, was thought to equal any philosopher of the ſº other sex. Her poems were the admiration of her own -- - rºß and succeeding ages. She translated into verse the Pen- # —º-ºº--º: tateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, together with the prophe- cies of Daniel and Zechariah. The learned Photius speaks highly both of the merit of the poetry, and of the fidelity of the translations; so that her name was ranked among theologians, as well as among the literati; and this while at the head of a magnificent court' About the year 442, falling under the suspicion of the emperor for some trifling cause, she obtained leave to re- tire to Jerusalem. Here, indignant at the murder of Some of her friends, she stained her exalted character by an act §§§ s §§ --> ºiºſº Jup ºiſſºlſ|IIIlliſtillſ!!!!” > --- **** of revenge, which she afterwards never ceased to lament. § º > ºº::$9% ºf sº-ºš & 4 *ś ===Jºšič s--- The remaining twenty years of her life were spent in acts of benevolence and usefulness-Betham. . . The Parthenon. ATHENS ; a city of ancient Greece, distinguished not as . * merely for political greatness, and military power, but did edifice, two hundred and seventeen feet in length, and rendered still more illustrious by the glory it acquired ninety-eight in breath. Pestroyed by he Persians, it was rebuilt by Pericles with great additional splendor. Within was the statue of Minerva, by Phidias, the master- # à piece of the art of statuary. It was of ivory, thirty-nine §:## feet in height, and entirely covered with pure gold, to the ###### value of twenty-four talents, or one hundred and twenty thousand pounds sterling, nearly five hundred thousand dollars. It is now in ruins, and presents an appearance of great desolation. The Propylea also, of white marble, formed magnificent entrances to the Parthenon. This ºr sº s: sº ###### - ºº:: º Rºſſifi!!!! * º - stº *- e º º & $ - g * § § edifice was on the north side of the Acropolis; and near it tº ºf \ººls: §§ ºft was the Erectheum, of white marble also, consisting of §§§ § two temples, one dedicated to Minerva, the other to Nep- É. # tune, besides a remarkable edifice called the Pandroseum. §: § º In front of the Acropolis, and at each end, were the two §§ §§ theatres, called the theatre of Bacchus, and the Odeum ; sº-ºº: ºš the one designed for dramatic representations, and the żº sº a º § other for music, both of extraordinary magnificence. But ;#: § irº #ºš § sº though the principal treasures of the Athenian art Wºero tº: §§ ºš acgumulated in the Acropolis, the city itself contained Zºº Sº view . i. * many noble structures, among which were the gallery of , * tº , to historical engravings, the tower of the winds, with nume. from the learning, eloquence, and politeness of its inhabi- rous monuments of illustrious men. Two of its most A.T. H. A. T. H. I 143 | splendid ornaments, however, were without the walls. These were the temple of Theseus, and of Jupiter Olym- pius, situated the one on the north, and the other on the south side of the city. The former was of the Doric order at:: flºº º: | *::: º Ruins of the Parthenon. of architecture; and the latter of the Corinthian. In fact, the temple of Jupiter Olympius surpassed, if possible, every other structure of which Athens could boast. Im- mense sums were expended upon it by the Athenians; additions were made to it by successive sovereigns; and at length the fabric was completed by the emperor Adrian. The exterior contained about one hundred and twenty fluted columns, sixty feet high, and six in diameter. The enclosure was half a mile in circumference. Besides these wondrous productions of art, Athens pre- sented other scenes, sacred in the eyes of posterity by the classical associations to which they give rise. The Aca- demy where Plato taught, was about three quarters of a mile to the north of the town. The Lyceum, where Aris- totle diffused the light of science, and which from him be- came the seat of the Academic school, was situated on the north side of the city, beyond the river Ilissus. Near it was the less famous Cynosarges, where Antisthenes delivered his instructions, and founded the Cynic School. Zeno chose the portico called Paecile, for the place of his lectures; an edifice embellished with representations of Athenian victories. Epicurus, fond at once of Society and of rural scenery, was the first to introduce a garden within the walls, thus enjoying at the same instant these two l:inds of luxury. But political associations conspired equally with such as were literary, to give interest to par- ticular districts of Athens. The hill of Areopagus, where that august assembly pronounced its decisions; the Pry- taneum, or senate-house; the Phyx, or forum in which the sovereign people of Athens met to deliberate; all these places, without being particularly splendid in them- selves, become interesting by the importance of the events of which they were the theatre. - The religion of the common people of Athens consisted in prayers, sacrifices, and purifications. They repaired to the temples of their respective deities with downcast eyes, and dejected countenances; they kissed the ground, offered their prayers, standing, or on their knees, or pros- trate; and held branches in their hands which they lifted up towards heaven, or stretched out towards the statue of the god, after applying it to their mouths. In addressing the infernal deities, they struck the earth with their feet cr hands. Some pronounced their devout addresses in a low voice; but Pythagoras wished them always to be uttered aloud, that nothing might be asked which could excite a blush. The priests were the principal ministers of religion; next to them were the soothsayers and inter- preters of omens. Their worship was originally perform- ed in the open air, upon the tops of mountains, and on these spots temples were afterwards erected, and dedi- cated to Jupiter, to Apollo, and their other deities. There were several orders of priests, and among them one was denominated “high-priest,” who had the superintendence of the rest. Some temples were served by priestesses, and particularly that of Bacchus. Their altars were coſis structed of various materials, and of different dimensions, according to the variety of gods to whom they were cons secrated. Both temples and altars were places of refuge, or asylum, for malefactors and criminals of all descrip. tions; and it was deemed an act of sacrilege to force themi from their sanctuary. Their sacrifices were also of variº ous kinds, according to their object or design, the materials of which they consisted, and the places in which they were offered, as well as the ceremonies that attended them. As public worship was prescribed by one of the fundamental laws, and therefore closely connected with the constitution, it was impossible to attack their supersti- tion without endangering that constitution; it was conse. quently the duty of magistrates to maintain it, and to op- pose all innovations visibly tending to its destruction. This celebrated city affords a striking instance of a fact which has often been mentioned by the friends of revela- tion in their controversies with the deists, namely, of how little avail the highest advantages of civilization, of hu- man learning, and of philosophy are, in teaching men the knowledge of the true God, and that worship which is ac- ceptable to him. Athens enjoyed all these advantages in a measure which scarcely any other city that ever existed in the world could boast of. The activity, the emulation, the free scope to talents of every description, which were excited by her popular form of government, raised her to the highest pinnacle of political consequence. The multi- tude of great men in every department, who followed each other in splendid succession, even to her last decline, is altogether unexampled. In every branch of science, of philosophy, and of literature, Athens was renowned. But what was its state in regard to the subject of religion? Luke, the sacred historian, has informed us, that when the apostle Paul visited it, A. D. 52, his soul was moved at beholding so fine a city “wholly given up to idolatry.” Acts 17: 16. “Professing themselves to be wise, they be- came fools; and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man.” Rom. 1: 22, 23. From the earliest times, the objects of religious worship multiplied among the A henians. They received the twelve principal divinities from the Egyptians, and added to them others from the Lybians and different na- tions; and so fearful were they of neglecting any deity, or of being found deficient in their religious worship, that they dedicated an altar “to the unknown God.” In pro- cess of time, a law was enacted, prohibiting, under pain of death, the introduction of any foreign worship, without a decree of the Areopagus. (See AREoPAGUs.) On the place where the great apostle bore his noble tes- timony against idols, and declared to them the God whom they ignorantly worshipped, Dr. E. D. Clarke, the travel- ler, remarks, “It is not possible to conceive a situation of greater peril, or one more calculated to prove the sincerity of a preacher, than that in which the apostle was here placed; and the truth of this, perhaps, will never be bet- ter felt than by a spectator, who from this eminence actu- ally beholds the monuments of pagan pomp and supersti- tion by which he, whom the Athenians considered as the setter forth of strange gods, was then surrounded: repre- senting to the imagination the disciples of Socrates and of Plato, the dogmatist.of the porch, and the sceptic of the academy, addressed by a poor and lowly man, who, “rude in speech,” without the ‘enticing words of man’s wisdom,” enjoined precepts contrary to their taste, and very hostile to their prejudices. One of the peculiar privileges of the Areopagites seems to have been set at defiance by the zeal of St. Paul on this occasion; namely, that of inflicting extreme and exemplary punishment upon any person who should slight the celebration of the holy mysteries, or blaspheme the gods of Greece. We ascended to the sum- mit by means of steps cut in the natural stone. The sub- lime scene here exhibited is so striking, that a brief de. Scription of it may prove how truly it offers to us a com- mentary upon the apostle's words, as they were delivered upon the spot. He stood upon the top of the rock, and beneath the canopy of heaven. Before him there was spread a glorious prospect of mountains, islands, seas, and skies; behind him towered the lofty Acropolis, crowned with all its marble temples. Thus every object, whether * - A T O A T O [ 144 | in the face of nature, or among the works of art, conspired to elevate the mind, and to fill it with reverence towards that Being who made and governs the world, Acts 17:24, £8. ; who sitteth in that light which no mortal eye can approach, and yet is migh unto the meanest of his crea- tures; in whom we live, and move, and have our being.” —Jones; Watson ; Travels of Anacharsis, vol. ii. ch. 12; Gillies' History of Greece, vol. ii.; Young's History of Athens. ATHOCIANS; certain sectaries in the third century, who maintained the mortality of the soul, and other er- rors-Centur. Magdeb, cent. 13. c. 5; Williams. ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF, was the tenth of Tizri, which nearly answers to our September. The Hebrews call it kippur, or chippur, pardon, or expiation, because the faults of the year were then expiated. The principal ceremonies were the following: The high-priest, after he had washed, not only his hands and his feet, as usual at common sacrifices, but his whole body, dressed himself in plain linen like the other priests, wearing neither his pur- ple robe, nor the ephod, nor the pectoral, because he was to expiate his own sihs, together with those of the people. He first offered a bullock and a ram for his own sins, and those of the priests, putting his hands on the heads of the victims; and confessing his own sins, and the sins of his house. Afterwards, he received from the princes of the people two goats for a sin-offering, and a ram for a burnt- offering, to be offered in the name of the whole nation. The lot determined which of the two goats should be sa- crificed, and which set at liberty. After this, the high- priest put some of the sacred fire of the altar of burnt- offerings into a censer, threw incense upon it, and entered with it, thus smoking, into the sanctuary. After having perfumed the sanctuary with this incense, he came out, took some of the blood of the young bullock he had sacri- ficed, carried that also into the sanctuary, and dipping his fingers in it, sprinkled it seven times between the ark and the veil, which separated the holy from the sanctuary, or most holy. Then he came out a second time, and beside the altar of burnt-offerings killed the goat which the lot had determined to be the sacrifice. The blood of this goat he carried into the most holy place, and sprinkled it seven times between the ark and the veil, which separat- ed the holy from the sanctuary: from thence he returned into the court of the tabernacle, and sprinkled both sides of it with the blood of the goat. During this time, none of the priests, or people, were admitted into the tabernacle, or into the court. This being done, the high-priest came to the altar of burnt-offerings, wetted the four horns of it with the blood of the goat, and young bullock, and sprin- kled it seven times with the same blood. The sanctuary, the court, and the altar, being thus purified, he directed the goat which was set at liberty by the lot, to be brought to him, which being done, he put his hand on the goat's head, confessed his own sins, and the sins of the people, and then delivered it to a person to carry it to some desert place, and let it loose, or throw it down some precipice. (See ScAPE GoAT.) This being done, the high-priest wash- ed himself all over in the tabernacle, and putting on other clothes, (some think his pontifical dress, his robe of pur- ple, the ephod, and the pectoral,) sacrificed two rams for a burnt-offering, one for himself, and the other for the peo- ple. The day was a great solemnity of the Hebrews; a day of rest, and of strict fasting. Leo of Modena, Bux- torf, and others, have collected many particulars relative to the Solemnities of this day, from the rabbins, as may be seen in the larger edition of Calmet.—Calmet. ATONEMENT. The term in the Hebrew language, which we translate atonement, is copher. As a verb, it literally signifies to cover ; and, as a noun, a covering. Generally, wherever the word occurs, something that has given serious offence, and produced a permanent state of variance between the parties, is supposed; and then, in relation to the party offended, it signifies to pacify, to ap- pease, or to render him propitious, as Gen. 32: 20. Ezek. 16: 63. When applied to sin, it signifies to cover, or to expiate it; to atone, or make satisfaction for it. Ps. 32: 1. Lev. 16: 30. When the term respects the sinner him- self, it implies his being covered or protected from punish- ment, and is rendered a ransom or atonement for him. Exod. 21:30. Ch. 30: 12, 15. This seems to be the plain, unforced meaning of the Hebrew word copher; and when we look into the Greek version of the Old Testament, by the Seventy, we find it translated ilusmos, propitiation; and “to make an atonement” they express by the word exilaskomai, which signifies “to render propitious.”— Hence, the apostles, who wrote in Greek, when referring to the death of Christ, make use of the very same terms which are applied to the legal sacrifices in the Septuagint version of the Old Testament; representing the former not only as a real and proper sacrifice, but as the truth and substance of all the sacrifices of the Levitical law, and the only true and efficacious atonement for sin, Heb. 9: passim, and ch. 10:1–19. As, ºtherefore, the Greek word ilasmos is expressly applied to Christ, 1 John 2: 2. Ch. 4: 10. and as it gives the true signification of the ori. ginal word when applied to an atoning sacrifice, we must either admit that the sacrifice of Christ was a real atone. ment or propitiation for sin, or be reduced to the alterna- tive of demying all that the Scripture says respecting the design and the effect of sacrifices, - ... . The atonement, properly speaking, is a moral and not a commercial transaction. Crimes may be atoned for, but debts cannot be. Debts are transferable, crimes are not; the former may be mere accidents, but the latter enter in- to the essence of moral character. If debts are assumed and paid by a third person, the first is of right ac- quitted from farther obligation. But if atonement is offer- ed by a third person for crimes, and the atonement is accepted, the acquittal of the first from punishment is still an act of grace; since the criminal is no less personally deserving of punishment than before. Hence our justifi- cation before God, through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus, is said to be freely, by his grace, and according to the riches of his grace. Rom. 3: 24. Ephes. 1: 7. In cases where the party offending is unable to render adequate atonement in his own person, and where the punishment could not be endured by him without ruining him—as is the case in all capital offences—if the suffering of another be accepted in his stead, the atonement thus made by a substitute is technically termed a vicarious atonement. This is a case that rarely happens in human governments. Yet this is the case in relation to the atonement made by Christ. He was mounded for our trans- gressions; he was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement of our peace nyas upon him ; and by his stripes we are healed. Isa. 53: (See SUBSTITUTION.) . It may be well here to state clearly the Scripture sense of the terms mºrath and propitiation, as applied to God, in treating this great subject. Rom. 1: 18. 5: 9. 3: 25. 1 John 4: 10. By the mirath of God, then, is meant, not a turbulent passion, much less a settled implacability; but that moral sentiment of justice, which exists in perfection in the Infinite Mind, and which dictates the punishment of sin. By propitiation is meant that myhich, in a given case, makes it proper and just for God to exercise his mercy in for- giving sin. - As to the question whether the atonement be general, or limited, “that controversy,” as Mr. Malcom observes, “has ever seemed rather the result of misunderstanding between the parties, or of each party looking too exclu- sively to those aspects of the doctrine, which seemed best to comport with their system of theology. In some respects the atonement is general ; in others limited : in respect of sufficiency it is infinite; in respect to its appli- cation in the final salvation of men it is limited; but in no respect is it indefinite.” Some writers (as Taylor.in Calmet) confound atonement with reconciliation. But the appeal to etymology in deſence of this confusion of ideas is but egregious trifling, unwor- thy of a subject so vast and solemn. And as to Rom. 5: 11. it is well known that the original word there used is not ilasmos, but katallangen, and should have been render- ed reconciliation. It is God, and not man, who receives the atonement; but believers, as the whole context shows, 'receive reconciliation through Christ. The former provides the way, and secures the existence of the latter, in harmo- ny with all the Divine perſections. They differ, therefore, as cause and effect differ; and it is from confounding this distinction, that the most fundamental errors have been A T O A T O [ 145 || palmed upon the world with a show of plausibility. In the New Testament, as well as in the Old, the atonement is represented as the ground and basis of reconciliation to gº à Cor. 5: 18–21. Heb. 9. 15. Rom. 3: 24–26. Neither is the term atonement to be confounded, as is frequently done, with the term redemption. Between these two terms there are plain differences; and no one without a perception of these differences, can treat this great sub- ject with lucidness or accuracy. They differ in object and design, and of course are of a different nature; so that things may be truly affirmed of one, which cannot be truly affirmed of the other. First, they differ in object. Atonement is offered to God as its object; redemption is purchased or procured for men as its object. Atonement is a sacrifice offered; redemption is a benefit conferred. Secondly, they differ in design. The design of the atone- ment is to render God propitious, as the Sovereign Ruler; the design of redemption, to make man everlastingly blessed. Hence, thirdly, they differ in nature. Atone- ment being made to God, and made by a sacrifice of ines- timable value, is in its own nature infinite; nor is it pos- sible for us to conceive how its intrinsic worth and glory, or its efficacy and adaptation to its end, could be increased. Its sufficiency is infinite; for who can overrate “the pre- cious blood of Christ,” or take exact account of his “un- scarchable riches 2" Its end was “that God might be just, and the justifter of him that believeth in Jesus.” This end was infinitely desirable; for it involves an infinite good, glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, and good-nvill to men. But this end the atonement has accomplished. GoD Is JUST, AND THE JUSTIFIER OF HIM THAT BELIEVETH IN JESUs. Its efficacy, therefore, is complete. It could not be more so. By one offering of himself, says the apostle, he hath perfected forever them that are sanctified. Heb. 10: 14. Christ is the end of the lan) for righteousness to every one that believeth. Rom, 10: 10. Who shall lay any thing to the charge of God's elect 2 It is God that justifieth. Who is he that condemneth It is Christ that died; yea, rather that is zisen again; niho is also at the right hand of God, and nyho 'maketh intercession for us. Rom. 8:33, 34. Is not that atonement then in its nature infinite, which is sufficient to satisfy God, the infinite Lawgiver and Judge, in the re- mission of sin to every one who cordially confides in it; and which so effectually repairs the injury done by sin as to justify Him in the sight of the whole universe for so doing? Can we talk of limits to the value of such a sacri- fice 2 . Can we assign bounds to the efficacy of such an expiation? Can we apply terms of measurement to the nature of such an atonement for sin 2 Is not the covering ample enough to protect a universe from the punishment of sin, were they all in need of its protection, and to re- sort to it for shelter? - Redemption, on the contrary, is in its very nature defi- nite. It has an inseparable relation to men, as its object; and therefore in its very nature is limited to the number, for whom its price is paid, in whose behalf it is accepted, and on whom the blessing is actually bestowed. Re- demption is not expiation for sin, but the deliverance of men from sin, by means, of such an expiation. Hence, Christ is said by his onwn blood to have obtained eternal re- demption for us. Heb. 9:12. Hence, the word redemp- tion is used for pardon, which is our actual deliverance from punishment, Ephes. 1: 7. Col. 1: 14.—for sanctification, which is our actual deliverance from the dominion of sin, 1 Pet. 1: 18. Isa. 59:20.—and for the resurrection, which is the actual deliverance of our body from the grave at the last day. Rom. 8:23. Ephes. 1: 14. 4:30. Hence it is clear that in Scripture usage, atonement and redemption differ in their nature; and that the one is the cause, and the other the effect. Atonement is the ground of redemp- tion. Isa. 53: 4—9. Redemption is the result of the atonement. Isa. 53: 10–12. The atonement takes effect by changing the relations of God towards, the guilty. Rom. 3:21. Redemption takes effect by changing the relations of the guilty towards God. Rev. 14:4. The former was completely finished on the cross. Dan. 9; 24. John 19:30. The latter is now in daily progressive ope- ration, and will not be finished till the final consumma- tion of all things. Ephes. 4; 30. The latter is a proper subject of prayer; but not the former. Ps. 26: 11. 130: 8. The atonement is definite only in design; but in na- ture, value, and sufficiency, is infinite, and in adaptation to the wants of sinners, universal. , John 3: 16. Redemp- tion, on the other hand, is personal in its nature, particu- lar in its purpose and application, and, of course, limited in its extent to the number of those who are actually made partakers of its inestimable blessings, by faith in the Re- deemer's blood. Acts 20: 28. Ephes. 5: 25–27. Titus 2: 14. Gal. 3: 10–14. In a word, atonement is the price paid for the redemption of the church. By the blood of thy covenant, I have sent forth thy prisoners out of the pit in nihich there is no mater. Zech. 9: 11. Redemption is the free- dom of the church, which was itself purchased by the atonement. For thou mast slain, and hast redeemed us to God by thy blood, out of every kindred, and tongue, and people, and nation. Rev. 5: 9. This doctrine of atonement, as thus stated, is the lead- ing truth of Christianity, 1 Cor. 15: 3. and is styled-by St. Paul, from its distinguishing fact, the doctrine of the “cross,” and the doctrine of “CHRIST crucified.” 1 Cor. 1: 17–24. Gal. 5: 11. 6: 12–14. This is that grand peculiarity of the Gospel, which was then a stumbling- block to the Jew, and foolishness to the Greek; and which in every age since has had to encounter the strongest op- position from the various prejudices of the human heart. It was indeed imbibed in its humbling and holy simplicity by the primitive believers; and was held fast in its purity and glory by the persecuted Waldenses, that is, by the true church, while the Mother of harlots was revelling in the midnight darkness of a professed, but corrupted Gos- pel. Its ascendency was in a measure restored at the Reformation; but only to encounter afresh similar opposi- tion as at first, and from similar causes. For now, as ever, “the preaching of the cross is to them that perish foolish- ness; but unto us which are saved it is the power of God.” “Errors on this subject,” it has been well observed, “sap the whole structure of religion. All the great out- lines of theology become vague and incoherent notions, when deprived of their connection with this central truth. By necessary consequence, erroneous systems of religion originate chiefly in wrong views of the atonement.” Pa- pists add human merit to Christ's, and then, as if this were not sufficient, superadd penance and purgatory; thus falsifying the words of him who said on the cross, It is finished. Arminians, regarding redemption as univer- sal, have made it in every sense conditional; and thus denied the doctrine of gratuitous election. Socinians, de- nying the necessity of an atonement in order to the for- giveness of sin, reduce Christ to a mere man, and his death to that of a martyr, Sealing his doctrine with his blood. Swedenborgians consider Christ’s sufferings to have been on his own account, not ours; and hence dis- card the imputation of his righteousness. Restorationists contend that Christ died for all mankind absolutely, and therefore all shall be ultimately saved. Universalists, (at least, modern ones,) affirm that atonement simply means reconciliation, and that Christ died merely to convince mankind of the immutability of God's universal Saving love. Unitarians, in like manner, denying any proper atonement, make Christ’s death to be merely a powerful means of improving our virtue. While Infidels, regard- ing circumstances as the sole causes of virtue, and the doctrine, miracles, life, and death of Christ, as altogether unnecessary, reject the Bible altogether, as an imposition on human credulity. Thus, in some form and to some degree, error on this subject is radical in every erroneous system of religion. e It is painful to trace the progress of lax opinions on this vital truth, for a century past. Spencer, Sykes, and Warburton led the way, by their mode of treating the Mosaic sacrifices. The immortal Butler, in his Analogy, while asserting the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice to secure the pardon of sin, had said with his usual modesty, “How, and in what particular way, it had this efficacy, there are not wanting persons who have endeavored to explain; but I do not find that the Scripture has explained it.” Dr. Tay- lor, of Norwich, in his “Scripture Doctrine of the Atone- ment examined,” and in his “Key to the Apostolic Writ- ings,” undertook this explanation, and gives the following 19 A To A To [ 146 ) as his result: “By the blood of Christ, God discharges us from guilt, because the blood of Christ is the most powerful mean of freeing us from the pollution and power of sin.” —“We have no sufficient ground to consider its virtue and efficacy in any other light.” He then goes on to say, that by the blood of Christ is meant, not the corporeal sub- stance—not the sufferings and death of Our Lord—but “the blood of Christ,” says Dr. Taylor, “is his perfect obedience and goodness.” Thus by that species of sophis- try which substitutes an effect for the cause ; which tells one half of the truth, and overlooks or denies the other half; together with an artful accommodation of Scripture language to notions of his own; he has succeeded in shut- ting out from his scheme of atonement all reference to the vindication of the Divine rectitude, and the satisfaction of the Divine law, in which, according to the apostle, the whole nature and value of the atonement, as such, consists. (See AccommopATION.) A writer in the sixth volume of the Christian Observer, at the conclusion of a series of valuable letters upon Dr. Taylor's Key, observes as fol- lows: “The key of this author is not, I am persuaded, the legitimate one. I should rather be tempted to resem- ble it to some of those false keys, vulgarly called pick- locks,—The web of the key, to speak technically, is, in those ingenious instruments, cut to as slender a form as is consistent with the strength necessary for turning the bolt, in order that the chance of the impediment from the wards may be as little as possible. But the lock with which this theological adventurer had to do, was of such a peculiar construction, as to resist every effort to open it, except with the true key. The doctor gave some despe- rate wrenches, and doubtless imagined that he had effect- ed his purpose, when he found the key turn in his hand. But it has been discovered by others, that he did no more than break it in the lock, and the bolt, for any thing which he has done to remove it, remains where it was before.” - - On Dr. Taylor's hypothesis, the name of atonement is retained, though the thing itself is excluded. And his theory may be regarded as that of the better sort of mo- dern Unitarians. Yet there have arisen among them bolder spirits, who discard the very name. Dr. Priestley, in his Answer to Paine, had the temerity to affirm, “that the doctrines of atonement, incarnation, and the trinity have no more foundation in the Scriptures, than the doc- trimes of transubstantiation and transmigration.” This statement needs no comment. It must certainly have been designed for those, whose knowledge of the Scrip- tures was, like Mr. Paine's, somewhat superficial. (See CHRIST cruciFIED.) 2. A second hypothesis respecting the doctrine of atone- ment, and which has even been embraced by some pro- fessed Calvinists, differs in many important particulars from that which has been already noticed. It consists in admitting that the death of Christ was a sacrifice, propi- tiation, or atonement for sin; but then it denies that there was any real, intrinsic value in it abstractedly con- sidered, any thing that was calculated in its own nature to effect the expiation of it, while it also resolves the whole of its saving or atoning influence into Divine ap- pointment. This is Butler's grand defect. And he has been followed in it by Drs. Whitby, Price, Macknight, and others. Now although among these various writers there may possibly exist some shades of difference, there are, never- theless, certain leading points in which they all manifest. ly agree; such as, that the death of Christ was not abso. lutely necessary to the salvation of sinful men; that God, had it pleased him, might have saved sinners without the intervention of his Son; that other ways of saving the elect were possible, and that there is no necessary con- nection between the death of Christ and the pardon of sin, except that which results from Divine appointment; for that the efficacy of the atonement does not arise from the dignity of the sufferer, but from its being the will of God, that it should be so; consequently, that the proper divinity of the Son of God is not essentially connected with the value of his sacrifice. sº This hypothesis, though at first sight it may appear far more plausible than that of the Socinians, is liable to many and insurmountable objections; of which, in par- ticular, two may be here mentioned. It impeaches the wisdom of God as it appears in the economy of man's re- demption; and it has an equal tendency to depreciate in our estimation the atonement which the Savior made. It involves in it a bold reflection on the Divine wisdom, in- asmuch as it supposes God to have effected that by great means, which might have been equally well accomplish- ed, as to every important result, by Such as were inferior. It is a maxim equally applicable to physics, to morals, and to theology; “Frustra fit per plura, quod fieri potest per pauciora.” It is needless to effect that by more instru- ments, which may be done by fewer. This axiom has been formed, from contemplating the works and dispensa- tions of God; in which, whilst there is nothing defective, we never discover any thing that is superfluous or redun- dant. Admitting, therefore, the divinity of the Son of God, it is not easy to perceive how any can deny it to be essentially connected with the efficacy of his atonement; for if a divine person have suffered, “the just for the un- just, that he might bring us to God,” and if all this took place by Divine appointment, we may rest satisfied, that it was not only proper it should be so, but that nothing less could have sufficed. The conclusion therefore seems to be, that, had there been any other way by which sin could be atoned for, the curse of a violated law removed, and Salvation consequently extended to guilty men, con. Sistent with the honor of the Divine government and the perſections of Deity, Jehovah would certainly have spared his own Son, and not have subjected him to those bitter sufferings, both of Soul and body, which we are told he underwent. The force of this argument will equally ap- ply in refutation of a maxim which has long been current in the religious world, viz. “That one drop of the blood of Christ was sufficient to redeem the whole world,” though it pleased God that he should suffer to the utmost. But if that maxim were well founded, the question might be fairly returned, “How shall we perceive the glory of the Divine justice demonstrated, in punishing an innocent person that might have been spared, and yet all the ends that were to be answered by his being so punished have been accomplished without it?” In fact, to affirm that one drop of Christ's blood was sufficient to redeem the world, is at once to impeach the goodness, the wisdom, and the righteousness of the Supreme Governor of the world, in not only causing the whole to be shed, but his Soul also to be made an offering for sin, which was alto- gether unnecessary if that sentiment were true. It scarce- ly need be added, that if, as the advocates of this hypo- thesis affirm, the efficacy of the atonement arises solely from its being appointed of God, and not from the dignity of the sufferer, it would follow, that the bleod of bulls and of goats must have been as efficacious for putting away sin, as the blood of Christ, for the former was as certainly offered by Divine appointment as the latter; but that doc- trine stands opposed to the whole scope of the Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the apostle labors to evince the total inadequacy of the former, and the infinite sufficiency of the latter. 3. How sin may be forgiven, says Mr. Watson, without leading to such misconceptions of the Divine character as would encourage disobedience, and thereby weaken the influence of the Divine government, must be considered as a problem of very difficult solution. A government which admitted no forgiveness, would sink the guilty to despair; a government which never punishes offence, is a contradiction,--it cannot exist. Not to punish the guilty, is to dissolve authority; to punish without mercy, is to destroy, and where all are guilty, to make the destruction universal. That we cannot sin with impunity, is a mat- ter determined. The Ruler of the world is not careless of the conduct of his creatures; for that penal conse- quences are attached to the offence, is not a subject of argument, but is matter of fact, evident by daily observa- tion of the events and circumstances of the present life. It is a principle, therefore, already laid down, that the authority of God must be preserved; but it ought to be remarked, that in that kind of administration, which re- strains evil by penalty, and encourages obedience by fa- Vor and hope, we and all moral creatures are the interest. A T O A T O [ 147 ) ed parties, and not the Divine Governor himself, whom, because of his independent and all-sufficient nature, our transgressions cannot injure. The reasons, therefore, which compel him to maintain his authority, do not ter. minate in himself. If he treats offenders with severity, it is for our sake, and for the sake of the moral order of the universe, to which sin, if encouraged by a negligent administration, or by entire or frequent impunity, would be the source of endless disorder and misery; and if the granting of pardon to offence be strongly and even severe- ly guarded, so that no less a satisfaction could be accepted than the death of God's own Son, we are to refer this to the moral necessity of the case, as arising out of the gene- ral welfare of accountable creatures, liable to the deep evil of sin, and not to any reluctance on the part of our Maker to forgive, much less to any thing vindictive in his nature, charges which have been most inconsiderately and unfairly said to be implied in the doctrine of Christ's vicarious sufferings. If it then be true, that the release of offending man from future punishment, and his resto- ration to the Divine favor, ought, for the interests of man- kind themselves, and for the instruction and caution of other beings, to be so bestowed, that no license shall be given to offence;—that God himself, whilst he manifests his compassion, should not appear less just, less holy, than he really is;–that his authority should be felt to be as compelling, and that disobedience should as truly, though not unconditionally, subject us to the deserved penalty, as though no hope of forgiveness had been ex- hibited;—we ask, On what scheme, save that which is developed in the New Testament, are these necessary conditions provided for 2 Necessary they are, unless we contend for a license and an impunity which shall annul all good government in the universe, a point for which no reasonable man will contend; and if so, then we must allow that there is strong internal evidence of the truth of the doctrine of Scripture, when it makes the offer of pardon consequent only upon the securities we have be- fore mentioned. Iſ it be said, that sin may be pardoned in the exercise of the Divine prerogative, the reply is, that if this prerogative were exercised towards a part of man- kind only, the passing by of the rest would be with diffi- culty reconciled to the Divine character; and if the benefit were extended to all, government would be at an end. This scheme of bringing men within the exercise of a merciful prerogative, does not, therefore, meet the obvious difficulty of the case; nor is it improved by confining the act of grace only to repentant criminals. For if repent- ance imply a “renewal in the spirit of the mind,” no cri- minal would of himself thus repent. But if by repentance be meant merely remorse and terror in the immediate view of danger, what offender, surrounded with the wreck of former enjoyments, feeling the vanity of guilty plea- sures, now past forever, and beholding the approach of the delayed penal visitation, but would repent 2 Were the principle of granting pardon to repentance to regulate human governments, every criminal would escape, and judicial forms would become a subject for ridicule. Nor is it recognised by the Divine Being, in his conduct to men in the present state, although in this world punish- ments are not final and absolute. Repentance does not restore health injured by intemperance; property, wasted by profusion; or character, once stained by dishonorable practices. If repentance alone could secure pardon, then all must be pardoned, and government dissolved, as in the case of forgiveness by the exercise of mere preroga- tive; but if a merely arbitrary selection be made, then different and discordant principles of government are in- troduced into the Divine administration, which is a dero- gatory supposition. - The question proposed abstractedly, How may mercy be extended to offending creatures, the subjects of the Divine government, without encouraging vice, by lower- . ing the righteous and holy character of God, and the au- thority of his government, in the maintenance of which the whole universe of beings are interested ? is, therefore, at once one of the most important and one of the most difficult that can employ the human mind, None of the theories which have been opposed to Christianity affords a satisfactory solution of the problem. They assume principles either destructive of moral government, or which cannot, in the circumstances of man, be acted upon. The only answer is found in the holy Scriptures. They alone show, and, indeed, they alone profess to show, how God may be “just,” and yet the “justifier” of the ungodly. Other schemes show how he may be merciful; but the difficulty does not lie there. The Gospel meets it, by declaring “the righteousness of God,” at the same time that it proclaims his mercy. The voluntary suffer. ings of the Divine Son of God “for us,” “the just for the unjust,” magnify the justice of God; display his hatred to sin; proclaim “the exceeding sinfulness” of transgres- sion, by the deep and painful manner in which they were inflicted upon the Substitute; warn the persevering offend- er of the terribleness, as well as the certainty, of his pun- ishment; and open the gates of salvation to every penitent. It is a part of the same Divine plan, also, to engage the influence of the Holy Spirit, to awaken peni- tence in man, and to lead the wanderer back to Himself; to renew our fallen nature in righteousness, at the mo- ment we are justified through faith, and to place us in circumstances in which we may henceforth “walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit.” All the ends of government are here answered,—no license is given to offence,—the moral law is unrepealed,—a day of judg- ment is still appointed,—future and eternal punishments still display their awful sanctions,—a new and singular display of the awful purity of the Divine character is af. forded,—yet pardon is offered to all who seek it ; and the whole world may be saved. With such evidence of the suitableness to the case of mankind, under such lofty views of connection with the principles and ends of moral government, does the doc- trine of the atonement present itself. But other impor. tant considerations are not wanting to mark the united wisdom and goodness of that method of extending mercy to the guilty, which Christianity teaches us to have been actually and exclusively adopted. It is rendered, indeed, “worthy of all acceptation,” by the circumstance of its meeting the difficulties we have just dwelt upon, diffi- culties which could not otherwise have failed to make a gloomy impression upon every offender awakened to a sense of his spiritual danger; but it must be very inatten- tively considered, if it does not further commend itself to us, by not only removing the apprehensions we might feel as to the severity of the Divine Lawgiver, but as ex- alting him in our esteem as “the righteous Lord, who loveth righteousness,” who surrendered his beloved Son to suffering and death, that the influence of moral good- mess might not be weakened in the hearts of his creatures; and as a God of love, affording in this instance a view o the tenderness and benignity of his nature, infinitely more impressive and affecting than any abstract description could convey, or than any act of creating and providen- tial power and grace could exhibit, and, therefore, most suitable to subdue that enmity which had unnaturally grown up in the hearts of his creatures, and which, when corrupt, they so easily transfer from a law which restrains their inclination to the Lawgiver himself. If it be impor- tant to us to know the extent and reality of our danger, by the death of Christ it is displayed, not in description, but in the most impressive action; if it be important that we should have an assurance of the Divine placability towards us, it here receives a demonstration incapable of being heightened; if gratitude be the most powerful mo: tive of future obedience, and one which renders command on the one part, and active service on the other, “not grievous but joyous,” the recollection of such obligations as those which the “love of Christ” has laid us under, is a perpetual spring to this energetic affection, and will be the means of raising it to higher and more delightful ac- tivity forever. All that can most powerfully illustrate the united tenderness and awſul majesty of God, and the odiousness of sin; all that can win back the heart of man to his Maker and Lord, and render future obedience a matter of affection and delight, as well as duty; all that can extinguish the angry and malignant passions of man to man; all that can inspire a mutual benevolence, and dispose to a self-denying charity for the benefit of others; all that can arouse by hope, or tranquillize by faith ; is to *s. A T O A T T | 148 be found in the vicarious death of Christ, and the princi- ples and purposes for which it was endured. In order to understand the manner wherein Christ be- comes an atonement, “we should,” says Dr. Watts, “con- sider the following propositions. 1. The great God hav. ing made man, appointed to govern him by a wise and righteous law, wherein glory and honor, life and immor- tality, are the designed rewards for perfect obedience; but tribulation and wrath, pain and death, are the appoint- ed recompense to those who violate this law. Gen. 3: Rom. 2: 6, 16. 1: 32.-2. All mankind have broken this law. Rom. 3: 23. 5: 12.-3. God, in his infinite wisdom, did not think fit to pardon sinful man, without some com- pensation for his broken law; for, 1. If the great Ruler of the world had pardoned the sins of men without any satisfaction, then his laws might have seemed not worth the vindicating.—2. Men would have been tempted to rsist in the rebellion, and to repeat their old offences.— . His forms of government among his creatures might have appeared as a matter of small importance.—4. God had a mind to make a very illustrious display both of his justice and of his grace among mankind; on these ac- counts he would not pardon sin without a satisfaction.— 5. Man, sinful man, is not able to make any Satisfaction to God for his own sins, neither by his labors, nor by his sufferings. Eph. 2: 1, 8, 9.—6. Though man be incapa- ble to satisfy for his own violation of the law, yet God would not suffer all mankind to perish.-7. Because God intended to make a full display of the terrors of his justice, and his Divine resentment for the violation of his law, therefore he appointed his own Son to Satisfy for the breach of it, by becoming a proper sacrifice of expiation or atonement. Gal. 3: 10, 13.—8. The Son of God being immortal, could not sustain all these penalties of the law which man had broken, without taking the mortal nature of man upon him, without assuming flesh and blood. Heb. 2: 13, 14.—9. The Divine Being having received such ample satisfaction for sin by the sufferings of his own Son, can honorably forgive his creature man, who was the transgressor. Rom. 3: 25, 26. Non, that this doc- trime is true, will appear, if me consider, 1. That an atone- ment ſor sin, or an effectual method to answer the de- mands of an offended God, is the first great blessing guilty man stood in need of. Mic. 6: 6, 7–2. The very first discoveries of grace which were made to man after his fall implied in them something of an atonement for sin, and pointed to the propitiation Christ has now made. Gen. 3: 15.-3. The train of ceremonies which were ap- pointed by God in the Jewish church are plain significa- tions of such an atonement. 2 Cor. 3: Col. 2: 7, 8, 9. Heb. 10:-4. Some of the prophecies confirm and explain the first promise, and show that Christ was to die as an atoning sacrifice for the sins of men. Dan. 9: 24–26. Is. 53:-5. Our Savior himself taught us the doctrine of the atonement for sins by his death. Matt. 20: 28. John 6: 51. Luke 22: 19-6. The terrors of soul, the conster- nation and inward agonies which our blessed Lord sus- tained a little before his death, were a sufficient proof that he endured punishments in his soul which were due to sin. Mark 14: 33. Heb. 5: 7.-7. This doctrine is de- clared, and confirmed and explained at large, by the apos- tles in their writings. 1 Cor. 15: 3. Eph. 1: 7. 2: 2, &c. &c.—8. This was the doctrine that was witness- ed to the world by the amazing gifts of the Holy Ghost, which attended the Gospel. See the Acts of the Apos. tles. The inferences and uses to be derived from this doctrine are these: 1. How vain are all the labors and pretences of mankind to seek or hope for any better religion than that which is contained in the Gospel of Christ. It is here alone that we can find the Solid and rational principle of recon- ciliation to an offended God. Heb. 4: 14–2. How strange and unreasonable is the doctrine of the popish church, who, while they profess to believe the religion of Christ, 3. introduce many other methods of atonement for sin, esides the sufferings of the Son of God. See above.— 3. Here is a solid foundation, on which the greatest of sinners may hope for acceptance with God. 1Tim. 1: 15. —4. This doctrine should be used as a powerful motive to excite repentance. Acts 5: 31–5. We should use this 1 John. atonement of Christ as our constant way of access to God in all our prayers. Heb. 10: 19, 22-6. Also as a divine guard against sin. Rom. 6: 1, 2. 1 Pet. 1: 15, 19.—7. -As an argument of prevailing force to be used in prayer. Rom. 8: 32.—8. As a spring of love to God, and to his Son Jesus Christ. 1 John 4: 10.—9. As a strong persuasive to that love and pity which we should show on all occa- sions to our fellow creatures. 1 John 4: 11.—10. It should excite patience and holy joy under afflictions and earthly sorrows. Rom. 5: 1–3.−11. We should consider it as an invitation to the Lord's supper, where Christ is set forth to us in the memorials of his propitiations.—12. As a most effectual defence against the terrors of dying, and as our joyful hope of a blessed resurrection. 1 Cor. 15: 50–13. Lastly, as a divine allurement to the upper world.—Jones ; Watson ; Buck. See Watts's Ser. Ser. 34, 35, 36, 37; Evans on the Atonement ; Dr. Onven on the Satis- faction of Christ ; West's Scripture Doctrine of the Atone- ment ; Hervey's Theron and Aspasio, dial. 3; Dr. Magee's Discourses on the Atonement ; Jerram's Letters on ditto ; Griffin on ditto ; Stuart on ditto ; Malcom on ditto. ATTALIA ; a city of Pamphylia, which Paul and Bar- nabas visited, Acts 14:25. A. D. 45. It still subsists un- der the name of Satalie. It was built (or refounded) by Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamos, who gave to it his own name.—Calmet. ATTENTION ; the state of the mind when it is steadi. ly directed for some time, whether longer or shorter, to some particular object of sense or intellect; and this so exclusively that all other objects are for the time being shut out. Job 37: 2. Prov. 4: 1. In all cases of atten- tion, the act of the mind is a complex one, involving two things. 1. The simple perception or series of perceptions in view of the object. 2. The vivid emotion of interest which accompanies the perception, and prevents that con- tinual change of the object of thought which would other- wise take place. On the strength of this emotion—the desire to know the subject before us, more fully, definitely, systematically, and thoroughly, and in preſerence to eve- ry other—depends the power of attention. Intensity of interest leads to singleness of purpose, and singleness of purpose enables the mind to keep its hold of the subject undivided and unbroken. - Where the subject to be examined is complex, this pow- er of patient and protracted attention is indispensable. For as every complex whole is made up of parts, and as the distinct perception of the whole implies a knowledge of the relative situation of the different parts to each oth- er; so such a perfect comprehension of the object as a whole, is the result of a series of successive acts of atten- tion. Habit, however, immensely facilitates this process; so that the glance of the mind in the highest exercise of a habit of attention is like lightning. In agreement with this view of the subject, we often speak of attention as great or small; as existing in a very high, or very skight degree. We commonly judge at first of the degree of attention to a subject from the length of time during which the mind is occupied with it. But when we look a little farther, it will be found that the time will generally depend upon the exclusiveness and permanency of the attendant emotion of interest 5 from whatever, cause that interest may arise, competition, pleasure, or the sim- ple sense of duty. There have been mathematicians, (Archimedes, for ex- ample,) who could investigate the most complicated pro- blems amid every variety and character of disturbance. Newton used to ascribe his superiority to other men, sim- ply to his superior power of patient thought. The late Dr. Scott composed one of his very best works in the midst of his family; frequently holding a child on one knee, and with his other foot at the same time rocking an infant in the cradle. President Dwight could at the same time dictate to two amanuenses on different subjects, and bear his part in the current of conversation. And of Julius Caesar it is said, that while writing a despatch, he could at the same time dictate four others to his Secretaries; and if he did not write himself, could dictate seven letters at once. These extraordinary powers of preserving, prolong- ing, and at last of diversifying the attention, are the results of habitually cultivating the pover of attention, in connection A T T A U 1) [ 149 J njith intellectual energy and order. And on the same habits the strength of memory depends, - - - “Therefore,” says the apostle, “we ought to give the more earnest heed to the things that we have heard, lest at any time we should let them slip.” Heb. 2: 1. The knowledge derived from a discourse, says Robert Hall, depends entirely upon attention; in exact proportion to which will be the progress made by a mind of a given capacity. Not to listen with attention is the same thing as to have ears which hear not, and eyes which see not. While you are hearing, whatever trains of thought of a foreign and extraneous nature obtrude themselves should be resolutely repelled. In the power of fixing the atten- tion, the most precious of the intellectual habits, mankind differ greatly; but every man possesses some, and it will increase the more it is exerted. He who exercises no dis- cipline over himself in this respect, acquires such a vola- tility of mind, such a vagrancy of imagination, as dooms him to be the sport of every mental vanity; it is impossi- ble such a man should attain to true wisdom. If we cul- tivate, on the contrary, a habit of attention, it will become natural, thought will strike its roots deep, and we shall, by degrees, experience no difficulty in following the track of the longest connected discourse. As we find it easy to attend to what interests the heart, and the thoughts natu- rally follow the course of the affections, the best antidote to habitual inattention to religious instruction, is the love of the truth. Let the Word of Christ dwell in you richly, and to hear it attentively will be a pleasure, not a task. The practice of sleeping.in places of worship, a practice, we believe, not prevalent in any other places of public re- sort, is not only a gross violation of the advice we are giv- ing, but most distressing to ministers, and most disgrace- ful to those who indulge it. If the apostle indignantly in- quires of the Corinthians whether they had not houses to eat and drink in, may we not with equal propriety ask those who indulge in this practice, whether they have not beds to sleep in, that they convert the house of God into a dormitory 2. A little self-denial, a very gentle restraint on the appetite, would, in most cases, put a stop to this abounination; and with what propriety can he pretend to desire the sincere milk of the Word, who cannot be pre- vailed upon, one day out of seven, to refrain from the excess which absolutely disqualifies him from receiving it 2–Bronn's Lectures on the Human Mind ; Upham's Ele- ments ; Works of Rev. Robert Hall, vol. i. p. 253. ATTERBURY, (Bp. FRANCIS,) son of Dr. Lewis Atter- bury, was born at Milton, in Buckinghamshire, in 1662; educated at Westminster, and thence elected to Christ church, in Oxford, where he soon distinguished himself by his genius. In 1687, he was made master of arts, when he exerted himself in the controversy with the papists, vindicated Luther in the strongest manner, and discovered an uncommon fund of learning, enlivened with great vivacity. In 1690, he married Miss Osborn, a lady of great beauty, but moderate fortune. About 1690, he took orders, and in 1691 was elected lecturer of St. Bride's church in London, and preacher at Bridewell chapel. He was soon after appointed chaplain to king William and queen Mary. After various disputes and promotions, up- on the accession of queen Anne, in 1702, Dr. Atterbury was appointed one of her chaplains. In the beginning of June, 1713, the queen advanced him to the bishopric of Rochester. He was confirmed July 4, and consecrated at Lambeth mext day. The death of the queen, in 1714, put an end to all farther hopes of advancement; for the new king treated him with great coolness, doubtless aware of either the report or the fact of his offer, on the death of Anne, to proclaim the preten- der in full canonicals, if allowed a sufficient guard. This dislike operated like oil on the inflammable mind of Atter: bury, who not only refused to sign the loyal declaration of the bishops, in the rebellion of 1715, but suspended a cler- gyman for lending his church for the performance of di- vine service to the Dutch troops brought over to serve against the rebels. Not content with a constitutional op- position, he entered into a correspondence with the pre- tender's parly, in favor of the dispossessed family; for which offence he was apprehended in August, 1722, and committed to the tower; and in the March following, a bill was brought into the house of commons, for the ifiſt6- tion of pains and penalties. This measure, which on consti, tutional grounds can never be defended, met with considera. ble opposition in the house of lords, and was resisted with great firmness and eloquence by the bishop, who main- tained his innocence with his usual acuteness and dexteri- ty. His guilt, however, has been tolerably well proved by documents since published, and nothing more is neces. sary to warrant a gonfirmed moral distaste to his charaç. ter, than the contemplation of such a scene of smooth dissimulation and hypocrisy. By this bill the bishop was deprived and outlawed, and no British subject was per- mitted to visit him abroad, without the king's sigh manu- al, which, however, was not refused to his relatives.' . He went to Paris, where he died, February 15, 1731, As a composer of sermons, Dr. Atterbury still retaing the highest reputation ; his periods are easy and elegant, his style flowing and beautiful; but as a critic or dispti- tant, he is rather dexterous than accurate, and rather popu- lar than profound. A century ago, Doddridge called At- terbury the glory of English pulpit orators; in whose writings language appeared in its strictest purity and beauty; nothing dark, nothing redundant, nothing defi- cient, nothing misplaced. But even in this excellence, he has been surpassed by the late Rev. Robert Hall. His chief sermons are, Acquaintance with God; Religious Re- tirement; Lady Cole's Character; Propagation of the Gospel; Sufficiency of Revelation; Terrors of Conscience; Curse on the Jews; and Felix Trembling. His works have been published in four volumes.—Jones's Religious Biog. ; Ency. Americana ; Doddridge on Preaching. ATTITUDE. (See AccuBATION ; EATING...) ATTRIBUTES OF GOD, are the several qualities or perfections of the Divine nature. Some distinguish them into the negative, and positive or affirmative. The nega- tive are such as remove from him whatever is imperfect in creatures: such are infinity, immutability, immortality, &c. The positive are such as assert some perfection in God which is in and of himself, and which in the crea- tures, in any measure, is from him. This distinction is now mostly discarded. Some distinguish them into ab- solute and relative: absolute ones are such as agree with the essence of God; as, Jehovah, Jah, &c.; relative ones are such as agree with him in time, with some respect to his creatures, as, Creator, Governor, Preserver, Redeemer, &c. But the more commonly received distinction of the attributes of God, is into communicable and incommunicable ones, The communicable ones are those of which there is some resemblance in men; as, goodness, holiness, wis- dom, &c.; the incommunicable ones are such as there is no appearance or shadow of in men ; as, independence, immutability, immensity, and eternity. A later distribu, tion still, for the sake of clearness, is into the ziatural and moral attributes of God. See those different articles in this work : and Bates, Charnock, Abernethy, and Saurin on the Divine Perſections; but especially Divight's Theology, vol. i. - *. ATTRITION. The casuists of the church of Rome have made a distinction between a perfect and imperfect contrition. The latter they call attrition; which is the lowest degree of repentance, or a sorrow for sin arising from a sense of shame, or any temporal inconvenience attending the commission of it, or merely from fear of the punishment due to it, without any resolution to sin no more : in consequence of which doetrine, they teach that, after a wicked and flagitious course of life, a man may be reconciled to God, and his sins forgiven on his death-bed, by confessing them to the priest with this imperſect degree of sorrow and repentance. This distinction was settled by the council of Trent. It might, however, be easily shown that the mere sorrow for sin because of its conse- quences, and not on account of its evil nature, is no more acceptable to God than hypocrisy itself can be. AUDAEANS, or AUDIANI, the followers of Audaeus, (called, by Mosheim, Ardaeus,) by all accounts a man of severe virtue, in the fourth century, who having been “excommunicated in Syria, on account of the freedom and importunity with which he censured the corrupt and licentious manners of the clergy,” and banished into Scy- thia, formed a religious society, of which he was appointed A U G A U G. [ 150 J bishop, or pastor, on something like the primitive plan— himself and flock laboring with their own hands. He is charged with being an Anthropomorphite, (which see,) and explaining the Scriptures too literally; which, perhaps, originated in his rejecting the mystical interpretations of some of the orthodox; but his ; heresy was, in keep- ing Easter at the time of the Jews' passover, contrary to the decree of the council of Nice, which, they say, was made to flatter Constantine, by making the festival of Easter coincident with his birth-day.--Mosheim’s Eccles. Hist, vol. i. p. 430. ; Turner's Wien, p. 146, ; Bell's Wan- derings, p. 139. AUDIENTES, [hearers, a class of catechumens, who were allowed to hear sermons and the Scriptures read in the church, in some of the ages falsely called primitive — Bingham's Antiquities, b. X, c. 2. AUGSBURGH, or AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. In 1530, a diet of the German princes was convened by the emperor Charles V., to meet at Augsburgh, for the express purpose of composing the religious troubles which then distracted Germany. On this occasion, Melancthon was employed to draw up this famous confession of faith which may be considered as the creed of the German Re- formers, especially of the more temperate among them. It consisted of twenty-one articles, including the following points:—The Trinity, original sin, the incarnation, justifi- cation by faith, the word and Sacraments, necessity of good works, the perpetuity of the church, infant baptism, the Lord's supper, repentance and confession, the proper use of the sacraments, church order, rites and ceremonies, the magistracy, a future judgment, free-will, the worship of saints, &c. It then proceeds to state the abuses of which the reformers chiefly complaimed, as, the denial of the sa- cramental cup to the laity, the celibacy of the clergy, the mass, auricular confession, forced abstinence from meats, monastic vows, and the enormous power of the church of Rome. The confession was read at a full meeting of the diet, and signed by the elector of Saxony, and three other princes of the German empire. * John Faber, afterwards archbishop of Vienna, and two other catholic divines, were appointed to draw up an answer to this confession, which was replied to by Me- lancthon in his “Apology for the Augsburgh Confession,” in 1531. This confession and defence; the articles of Smalcald, drawn up by Luther; his catechisms, &c., form the symbolical books of the Lutheran church; and it must be owned that they contain concessions in favor of some arts of popery, particularly the real presence, that ſew rotestants in this country would admit. AUGUSTINE, (sometimes called in the short style of the middle ages, ST. AUSTIN,) one of the most celebrated fathers of the church, whose writings for many centuries had almost as potent an inſluence on the religious opinions of Christendom as those of Aristotle exercised over philo- sophy. He was born, November 13th, A. D. 354, at Ta- gasta, an episcopal city of Numidia in Africa. His parents, Patricius and Monica, were Christians of respec- table rank in life, who afforded their son all the means of instruction which his excellent genius and wonderful apti- tude for learning seemed to require. He studied grammar and rhetoric at Madura, until he was sixteen years old; and afterwards removed to Carthage, to complete his stu- dics. In both these cities, in all the fervor of unregenerate youth, he entered eagerly into the seducing scenes of dis- sipation and folly with which he was surrounded, and became not only depraved but infamous in his conduct. In this respect, he was not improved by his subsequent connection with the Manichees, whose unhallowed princi- ples afforded an excuse for his immorality, and threw a veil over the vilest of his actions. The simplicity and minuteness with which he has narrated the numerous in- cidents of his childhood, youth, and mature age, in his celebrated book of “Confessions,” have afforded abundant matter of ridicule to the profane and infidel wits of this and the last age. The reflections, however, which accom- pany his narrative, are generally important and judicious, and furnish to the moral philosopher copious materials for a history of the varieties of the human heart, and are of superior value to the humble Christian for the investiga- tion and better knowledge of his own. With a strange though not uncommon inconsistency, few books have been more frequently quoted as authority on matters relating to general literature and philosophy by infidels themselves, than St. Augustine's otherwise despised “Confessions,” and his “City of God.” But, whatever else is taught in this remarkable piece of auto-biography, every pious reader will be delighted with the additional proofs which it contains of the ultimate prevalence of faithful prayer, especially on the part of Christian parents. Monica's im- portunate prayers to heaven followed the aberrations of her graceless son, when he settled at Carthage as a teacher of rhetoric ; when he removed to Rome, and lodged with a Manichee;—and when he finally settled at Milan as professor of rhetoric. St. Ambrose was at that time, A. D. 384, bishop of Milan, and to his public dis- courses Augustine began to pay much attcntion. His heart became gradually prepared for the reception of di- vine truth, and for that important change of heart and principles which constitutes “conversion.” The circum- stances attending this change, show that the mode of the Holy Spirit's operations was in substance the same in those early days as they are now; and time was when some of the soundest divines and most worthy dignitaries of the church of England were in the habit of referring with approbation to this well-attested instance of a change of heart. In a frame of mind not unfamiliar to those who have themselves had “much forgiven,” Augustine wished to retire at once from so wicked a world as that in which he had passed the first thirty-two years of his dissolute life. His secession, however, was only a temporary one; for he and Alipius were, a few months afterwards, received by baptism into the Catholic church. After having com- posed several religious treatises in his retreat near Tagas- ta, especially against the errors of the Manichees, from which he had been so recently reclaimed, he was, in the year 392, ordained priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo, now a part of the Barbary states on the coast of Africa. He there held a public disputation with Fortunatus, a cele- brated priest among the Manichces, and acquitted himself with great spirit and success; he also wrote and preached largely and to great effect against the Donatists and Mani- chees. His reputation as a divine increased ; and he was, at the close of the year 395, ordained bishop of Hippo, in which high station he continued with great advantage to wage war against various orders of heretics. Augustine had hitherto directed his theological artillery principally against the predestinarian errors of the Mani- chees; but he was soon called upon to change his weapons and his mode of warfare, in attacking a new and not less dangerous class of heretics. In the year 412, he began to write against the injurious doctrines of Pelagius, a native of Britain, who had resided for a considerable time at Rome, and acquired universal esteem by the purity of his manners, his piety, and his erudition. Pelagius was se- conded by Celestius, a man equally eminent for his talents and his virtues. Their principles were propagated at first rather by hints and intimations, than by open avowal and plain declarations; but this reserve was laid aside when they perceived the ready reception which their doctrines obtained; and Celestius began zealously to disscriminate them in Africa, while Pelagius Sowed the same tares in Palestine, whence they were speedily transplanted to al- most every corner of Christendom. If the brief notices, which have come down to us respecting their tenets, in the writings of their adversaries, be correct, they affirmed, “It is not free will, if it requires the aid of God; because every one has it within the power of his own will to do anything, or not to do it. Our victory over sin and Satan proceeds not from the help which God affords, but is owing to our own free will. The prayers which the church offers up either for the conversion of unbelievers and other sinners, or for the perseverance of believers, are poured forth in vain. The unrestricted capability of men's own free will is amply sufficient for all these things, and therefore no necessity exists for asking of God those things which we are able of ourselves to obtain; the gifts of grace being only necessary to enable men to do that more easily and completely which yet they could do themselves, though more slowly and with greater difficulty; and that they are A U G. A U G ſia 1. perfectly free creatures,” in opposition to all the current notions of original sin and predestination. These novel opinions were refuted by St. Augustine and St. Jerome, as well as by Orosius, a Spanish presbyter, and they were condemned as heresies in the council of Carthage and in that of Milevum. The discussions which then arose have been warmly agitated in various subsequent periods of the Christian church, though little new light has been thrown upon them from that age to the present. In his eagerness to conſute these opponents, St. Augustine em- ployed language so strong as made it susceptible of an interpretation wholly at variance with the accountability of man. This led to further explanations and modifica- tions of his sentiments, which were multiplied when the Semi-Pelagians arose, who thought that the truth lay be- tween his doctrines and those of the Pelagians. Plaiſere, in his “Appello Evangelium,” has given the fol- lowing as the substance of that opinion of the order of predestimation of which “many do say that St. Augustine was the first author: 1. That God from all eternity de- creed to create mankind holy and good. 2. That he fore- saw man, being tempted by Satan, would fall into sin, if God did not hinder it; he decreed not to hinder. 3. That out of mankind seen fallen into sin and misery, he chose a certain number to raise to righteousness and to eternal life, and rejected the rest, leaving them in their sins. 4. That for these his chosen he decreed to send his Son to redeem them, and his Spirit to call them and sanctify them; the rest he decreed to forsake, leaving them to Sa- tan and themselves, and to punish them for their sins.” Augustine also taught, that baptism brings with it the forgiveness of sins; that it is so essential, that the omis- sion of it will expose us to condemnation; and that it is attended with regeneration. He also affirmed that the virtue of baptism is not in the water; that the ministers of Christ perform the external ceremony, but that Christ accompanies it with invisible grace; that baptism is com- mon to all, whilst grace is not so; and that the same ex- ternal rite may be death to some, and life to others. In the various discussions which have arisen concern- ing predestination and the doctrines with which it is connected, some modern divines have quoted the argu- ments of St. Augustime against the Manichees, and others those which he employed against the Pelagians, according to the discordant views which the combatants severally entertain on these controverted points. In his “Retrac- tions,” he has qualified the harshness of his previous as- Sertions on many subjects. Many were the theological labors to which he was in- vited by the most eminent of his contemporaries; and hastily as some of his lucubrations were executed, it is not Surprising that among two hundred and seventy-two trea- tises on different subjects, some are of inferior value and unworthy of the fame which he had acquired in the church. After a life of various changes, and of a mixed character, he died A. D. 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his age; having been harassed at the close of life by see- ing his country invaded by the Wandals, and the city of which he was the bishop besieged. Though those barba- rians took Hippo and burned it, they saved his library, which contained his voluminous writings. St. Augustine was a diligent man in the sacred calling; and that the office of a bishop even in that age of the church was no sinecure, is evident from several notices in his letters. At the close of one addressed to Marcellinus, he gives the subjoined account: “If I were able to give you a narrative of the manner in which I spend my time, you would be both surprised and distressed on account of the great number of affairs which oppress me without my being able to suspend them. For when some little leisure is allowed me by those who daily attend upon me about business, and who are so urgent with me that I can neither shun them nor ought to despise them, I have always some other writings to compose, which indeed ought to be pre- ferred, [to those which Marcellinus requested, because the present juncture will not permit them to be postponed. For the rule of charity is, not to consider the greatness of the friendship, but the necessity of the affair. Thus I have continually something or other to compose which diverts me from writing what would be more agreeable to my inclinations, during the little intervals in that multipli- city of business with which I am burdened either through. the wants or the passions of others.” . He frequently complains of this oppressive weight of occupation in which his love of his flock had engaged him, by obeying the apostolical precept, which forbids Christians from go- ing to law before pagan tribunals. In reference to this employment his biographer, Posidonius, says: “At the desire of Christians, or of men belonging to any sect what- ever, he would hear causes with patience and attention, sometimes till the usual hour of eating, and sometimes the whole day without eating at all, observing the dispositions of the parties, and how much they advanced or decreased in faith and good works; and when he had opportunity, he instructed them in the law of God, and gave them suitable advice, requiring nothing of them except Christian obedi- ence. He sometimes wrote letters, when desired, on tem- poral subjects; but looked upon all this as unprofitable occupation, which drew him aside from that which was better and more agreeable to himself.” The character of this eminent father has been much misrepresented both as a man and as a writer. . The learning of St. Augustine, and particularly his knowledge of Greek, have been disputed; and hence the importance of his biblical criticisms has been depreciated. Dr. Lard- ner, however, is of opinion, that he understood that lan- guage better than some have supposed. Le Clerc himself allows that he sometimes explains Greek words and phrases in a very felicitous manner. Indeed, the com- mencement of his correspondence with St. Jerome proves him to have been no contemptible crific. Voltaire and other profane wits have, in the exercise of their buffoonery, impeached his moral conduct; but their charges, when impartially examined, will be seen to be founded in igno- rance or in malice. One capital error however must not be denied, his cruel persecution of the Donatists. Mosheim observes that Augustine’s high reputation filled the Christian world; and “not without reason, as a va- riety of great and shining qualities were united in the character of that illustrious man. A sublime genius, an uninterrupted and zealous pursuit of truth, an indefati- gable application, an invincible patience, a sincere piety, and a subtile and lively wit, conspired to establish his fame upon the most lasting foundations.” Such a testi- mony as this far outweighs the vituperative remarks and petty sneers of a thousand infidels.-Watson; Encyc. Amer. ; Bib, Repos. vol. iii. See PELAGLANs and SEMI-Pe- I.AGIANS. AUGUSTINIANS. A name sometimes given to such as believe in predestination, as taught by the celebrated Augustine, bishop of Hippo. AUGUSTINS, a religious order founded by pope Alex- ander IV. in 1256, were to observe the rule of St. Augus- tine, (the monk,) as prescribed by their founder; namely, to have all things in common, rich and poor—to employ the first part of every morning in labor, the rest in read- ing, &c.—to go in pairs—to eat only in their monasteries, &c. Soon after its establishment, this order was brought to England, where they had more than thirty houses, at the time of the reformation. Catholic writers carry up their origin to the 8th century, but admit that they greatly degenerated, and were reformed in the 12th or 13th cen- tury. In Paris, they are called the religious of St. Gene- vieve. Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, vol. iii. p. 193, Robinson's Dict. Butler's Confessions, p. 129.-Williams. AUGUSTUS, emperor of Rome, succeeded Julius Cae- sar, nineteen years before A. D. A. M. 3955. Augustus was the emperor who appointed the enrolment (Luke 2: 1.) which obliged Joseph and the Virgin to go to Bethlehem, the place where the Messiah was to be born. Augustus procured the crown of Judea for Herod, whom he loaded with honors and riches; and was pleased also to undertake the education of Alexander and Aristobulus, his sons, to whom he gave apartments in his palace. When he came into Syria, Zenodorus and the Gadarenes waited on him with complaints against Herod; but he cleared himself of the accusations, and Augustus added to his honors and kingdom the tetrarchy of Zenodorus. He also examined into the quarrels between Herod and his sons, and reconciled them. (Joseph. Ant. lib. xv. cap. 13.) A US A U T [ 152 J Syllaeus, minister to Obodas, king of the Nabatheans, hav- ing accused Herod of invading Arabia, and destroying many people there, Augustus, in anger, wrote to Herod about it; but he so well justified his conduct, that the em- peror restored him to favor, and continued it ever after. He disapproved, however, of the rigor exercised by Herod toward his sons, Alexander, Aristobulus, and Antipater; and when they were executed he is said to have observed, “that it were better a great deal to be Herod's hog than his son.” (Macrob. Saturn. lib. ii. cap. 4.) After the death of Lepidus, Augustus assumed the office of high- priest; a dignity which gave him the inspection over cere- monies and religious concerns. One of his first proceed- ings was, an examination of the sybils’ books, many of which he burnt, and placed the others in two gold boxes, under the pedestal of Apollo's statue, whose temple was within the enclosure of the palace. (See SypIL.) This is worthy of note, if these prophecies had excited a general expectation of some great person about that time to be born, as there is reason to suppose was the fact. It should be remembered, also, that Augustus had the honor to shut the temple of Janus, in token of universal peace, at the time when the Prince of Peace was born. This is remark- able, because that temple was shut but a very few times. Augustus died, A. D. 14.—Calmet. AURICULAR ; what is spoken into the ear or privately —a term commonly applied to the private confession made to a priest, as among the papists. See ConFEssion. AUSTIN, (ST.) called by the Romanists the apostle of the English, a monk who at the close of the sixth century (A. D. 597) was sent with forty monks by Gregory I. bish- op of Rome, to introduce Christianity into the Saxon king- doms. Ethelbert, king of Kent, kindly received him, and professed his faith in the gospel, with many of his subjects. It is said that Austin baptized ten thousand Saxons in one day in the river Swale, near York. Thus was England subjected to the see of Rome, and Austin became the first archbishop of Canterbury. But with the British bishops in Wales, successors of the British converts to Christianity in the first century (A. D. 94). Austin was not so success- ful. They utterly refused subjection to the jurisdiction of Rome, though in order to it Austin demanded but three things; and it is remarkable that one of these was, that they should give christendom, that is, baptism, to their chil- dren. The disappointed prelate in revenge sent the Saxon armies upon these unoffending Christians, and shed the blood of multitudes. He died a few years after, A. D. 604 or 614.—Ency. Amer. ; Davenport; Benedict's History of ... the Baptists. AUSTIN (SAMUEL,) D.D. president of the university of Vermont, was graduated at Yale college in 1783, and or- dained, as the successor of Allen Mather, at Fairhaven, Conn., Nov. 9, 1786, but was dismissed Jan. 19, 1790. He was afterwards for many years pastor of a church in Worcester, Mass. He was but a few years at the head of the college in Burlington. After his resignation of that place, he was not resettled in the ministry. He died at Glastonbury, Conn., Dec. 4, 1830, aged 70 years. He was eminently pious and distinguished as a minister. He published letters on baptism, examining Merrill's seven sermons, 1805; reply to Merrill's twelve letters, 1806; and the following sermons,—on disinterested love, 1790; on the death of Mrs. Blair, 1792; Massachusetts missionary, 1803; dedication at Hadley; ordination of W. Fay, and of J. M. Whiton, 1808; at a fast, 1811; at two fasts, 1812, AUTHENTICITY. A term which is used to denote the genuineness and credibility of any literary work. It is frequently employed in relation to the Scriptures. No question, it is evident, can be more important than this, whether those books which compose the sacred Scriptures are truly authentic documents; that is, that they mere actu- ally written by the persons whose names they bear, and espe- cially, (if the author be unknown,) about the time which is assigned to them, or at nihich they profess to have been myritten ; and further, that they relate matters of fact as they really hap- pened, and in consequence possess credibility and authority. All men, but especially Christian ministers, it has been well observed, should examine this matter to the founda- , tion. See GENUINENEss; CREDIBILITY; INSPIRATION ; AU- i THORITY. AUTHOR ; one who originates; the first inventor or maker of any thing. God is the author of peace; he re- quires it by his law; directs how to attain or maintain it : he promises it in his word; and bestows it by his Spirit. 1 Cor. 14:33. Christ is the author of faith, life, and salva- tion ; he devised, he purchased, promises, offers, effects, maintains, and perfects our faith, life, and salvation. Heb. 12: 2. 5: 9. Acts 3:15.-Bromwn. - . AUTHORITY; 1. Power, RULE, DIGNITY, such as gives one a right to command and enforce obedience. Prov. 29: 2. 2. A waRRANT, ORDER, or PERMISSION, from a Superior. Matt. 21:23. Acts 9: 14. Matt. 7:29. He spake as one having authority, and not as the scribes. The authority here spoken of has been very generally understood as meaning merely an anyakening eff- cacy, fitted to strike the conscience and the heart. But this is not the proper meaning of the word. Dr. Paley has far better illustrated it in the following remarks: “Next to what our Savior taught, may be considered the manner of his teaching, which was extremely pecu- liar, yet I think precisely adapted to the peculiarity of his character and situation. He produced himself as a mes- senger from God. He put the truth of what he taught upon authority. In the choice, therefore, of his mode of teaching, the purpose by him to be consulted was im- pression ; because conviction, which forms the principal end of our discourses, was in the minds of his followers to arise from a different source than argument, from their respect to his person and authority,” as the Son of God, appointed of the Father to be the Savior, Lawgiver, and final Judge of the human race. All this was compre- hended in his MessiahSHIP ; and to authenticate his claim to this high dignity, no less than to benefit mankind, all his instructions were given, and all his miracles were wrought. Hence his appeal, “If I Do NoT THE works of My FATHER, BELIEVE Me Not,” &c. John 10: 37, 38. —Bromwn ; Paley's Evidences of Christianity. AUTHORITY, HUMAN; in matters religious and ec- clesiastical, an assumed right of dictation, attributed to certain fathers, councils, or church courts. On this sub- ject bishop Hoadley writes—“Authority is the greatest and most irreconcileable enemy to truth and argument that this world ever furnished. All the sophistry—all the color of plausibility—all the artifice and cunning of the subtlest disputer in the world may be laid open and turned to the advantage of that very truth which they are de- signed to hide; but against authority there is no defence.” He shows that it was authority which crushed the noble sentiments of Socrates and others; and that by authority, the Jews and heathens combated the truth of the Gospel ; and that, when Christians increased into a majority, and came to think the same method to be the only proper one for the advantage of their cause which had been the enemy and destroyer of it—then it was the authority of Christians, which, by degrees, not only laid waste the honor of Christianity, but well nigh extinguished it amongst men. It was authority which would have prevented all reformation where it is, and which has put a barrier against it wherever it is not. - - The remark of Charles II. is worthy of notice—that those of the established faith make much of the authority of the church in their disputes with dissenters; but that they take it all away when they deal with papists.-Buck. AUTOCEPHALI BISHOPS, (Greek;) persons who have no superior, or acknowledge no head. It is derived A V E A W I. [ 153 ] from autos and kephale, sui ipsius caput, his own head or chief. This denomination was given by the primitive church to such bishops as were exempted from the juris- diction of others. Before the setting up of patriarchs, all metropolitans were autocephali, being accountable to no superior but a synod; . even after the advancement of patriarchs, several metropolitans continued thus inde- pendent—as the archbishop of Cyprus, who, by a general decree of the council of Ephesus, was freed from the ju- risdiction of the patriarch of Antioch ; as also the metro- politans pf Iberia and Armenia. This was likewise a privilege"of the ancient British church, before the coming of Austin the monk, when the seven British bishops, which were all that then remained, paid obedience to the arch- bishop of Caer-Leon, and acknow edged no superior in spirituals above him. And Dinothus, the learned abbot of Bangor, told Austin, in the name of all the Britannic churches, that they owed no other obedience to the pope than they did to every godly Christian. Besides these, there was another sort of Autocephali, namely, such bishops as were subject to no metropolitan, but only to the patriarch of the diocese. There were thirty-nine such bishops in the large patriarchate of Con- stantinople, twenty-five in that of Jerusalem, and sixteen in that of Antioch ; but at what time this sort of indepen- dent bishoprics was first set up is uncertain. Walesius mentions another sort of Autocephali, which were such bishops as were wholly independent of all others, having neither suffragans under them, nor metropolitans over them. Of these, the bishop of Tomis in Scythia is an in- stance, who was the only bishop of all the cities of that province; but instances of this sort are very uncommon. Walesius, by mistake, and, in contradiction to Jerome, reckons the bishops of Jerusalem before they were ad- vanced to the patriarchal dignity, among this sort of Au- tocephali.-Henderson's Buck. AUTO DE FE. (See Act of FAITH. INQUISITION.) AUTOGRAPH, (from auto and graphe.) The original handwriting of a person, in distinction from a copy. This word occurs very frequently in discussions on the genuine- ness of the Scriptures, and the state of existing manu- scripts in the original languages. It is here explained for the sake of those to whom the word is not familiar, or to whom its precise signification is not known. AUTOGRAPHS of the prophecies, gospels, &c. are the identical or original documents written by the respective authors of the books of Scripture. Copies taken from these are termed apographs. None of these original MSS. are now remaining, nor could their preservation be ex- pected, without the intervention of a miracle, during the space of nearly eighteen centuries. It seems exceedingly probable that Divine Providence permitted them to be early withdrawn from public inspection, lest, like other relics, they should become objects of idolatrous venera- tion. It is even asserted by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, that an original of John’s gospel was not only preserved, but worshipped, at Ephesus.- Michaelis' Introd. i. p. 250.—Henderson’s Buck. AWARICE, is an immoderate love to and desire after riches, attended with extreme diffidence of future events, making a person rob himself of the necessary comforts of life, for fear of diminishing his riches. (See Covetous- Ness and MISER.) AVATAR, in Indian mythology, an incarnation of the Deity. According to the Hindoos, innumerable incarna- tions have taken plaee; but ten are particularly distin- guished, and four of them are the subjects of Puranas, or sacred poems: these ten are the incarnations of Vishnu, the supreme god. The first was in the form of a fish; the second in that of a tortoise; the third in that of a boar; the fourth in that of a monster—half man, half lion; the fifth in that of a dwarf; the sixth as the son of Iarmadagni. All these took place in the satga yuga, or golden age : the others are more recent. The seventh is the descent of Vishnu, to destroy a giant; the eighth was to chastise other giants; the ninth had a similar object; and the tenth, which is yet to come, will take place at the end of the kali yuga, or the iron age of the world. AVE-MARY, or Ave-MARIA, (Hail, Mary !) the angel Gabriel's salutation of the Vºn Mary, when he brought her tidings of the incarnation. . It is become a prayer, or form of devotion, in the Romish church. Their chap. lets and rosaries are divided into so many Ave-Maries, and so many Pater-nosters. The papists ascribe a won. derful efficacy to their Ave-Maries. Dr. Bingham observes, that, among all the short prayers used by the ancients before their sermons, there is not the least mention of an Ave-Mary; and that its original can be carried no higher than the beginning of the fifteenth century. Vincentius Ferrerius was the first ecclesiastical writer that ever used it before his sermons; from whose example (he being a celebrated preacher in that age) it gained such authority, as not only to be prefixed to all their sermons, but to be joined with the Lord’s prayer, in the Roman breviary.—Henderson's Buck. º AVEN ; a nothing; hence, an object of fallacious hope; a deceit, especially, with the idea of a bad moral influence; and hence, an idol. The name was applied to several idolatrous cities. 1. Heliopolis, in Egypt, Ezek. 30: 17. 2. Heliopolis, now Baalbek, in ruins, in Coele- Syria, between Lebanon and Anti-libanus. Hence Coele- Syria itself is called “the plain of Aven.” Amos 1 : 5. Baalbec cannot be “Baal-gad, in the valley of Lebanon, under mount Hermon,” Josh. 11: 17, as it is nearly ſorty miles from mount Hermon, with mountains, valleys and rivers intervening. 3. In Hosea 10 Bethel is called Aven, from the idolatrous worship of the golden calf.—T. AWENGER OF BILOOD. The children of Israel were commanded to appoint cities of refuge, that any one who killed a person unawares, might fly thither from the aven- ger of blood; but if the act was committed with design, the murderer was to be given up to the avenger, even though he had fled to the altar of God. Exod. 21: 14. Numb. 35. 1 Kings 2: 29–34. There is no mention of any officer appointed for this purpose. But from the fact that the sons of Saul were given up to the Gibeonites, whose kinsmen Saul had slain, it appears that those near- ly connected with the person who had been killed were appointed the avengers of his blood; a custom, of which traces appear in almost all nations.—Sherwood ; Bronn. AVERSION ; hatred, or dislike. Dr. Watts and others oppose aversion to desire. When we look, say they, upon an object as good, it excites desire : but when we look upon an object as evil, it awakens what we call aversion or avoidance. But Lord Kaimes observes that aversion is opposed to affection, and not to desire. We have an affection to one person; we have an aversion to another: ºrmer disposes us to do good, the latter to do ill.— AVERY, (John,) a minister, who came to this country in 1635. While sailing from Newbury towards Marblehead, where he proposed to settle, he was shipwrecked in a vio- lent storm, August 14, 1635, on a rocky island, called Thacher's Woe and Avery’s Fall, and died, with his wife and six children. Mr. Thacher escaped. Avery’s last words were, “I can lay no claim to deliverance from this danger; but through the satisfaction of Christ I can lay claim to heaven: this, Lord, I entreat of thee.”—Magnal. iii. 77; Savage, i. 165; Eliot. AWIMI, a city of Benjamin. Josh. 18; 3. Also, a people descended from one of the sons of Canaan, who dwelt origi- mally in the country afterwards possessed by the Caphto- rim, or Philistines. Deut. 2: 23, Josh. 13: 3. There were also Avim, or Hivites, at Shechem, or Gibeon. Josh. 9: 7. Gen. 34: 2. There were some also beyond Jordan, at the foot of mount Hermon. Josh. 11: 3. Bochart thinks that Cadmus, who conducted a colony of Phoenicians into Greece, was a Hivite: his name, Cadmus, deriving from the Hebrew, Kedem, the East, because he came from the eastern parts to Canaan; and the name of his wife, Her- mione, from mount Hermon, at the foot of which the Hi- vites dwelt. In this case, the metamorphosis of Cadmus's companions into serpents, is founded on the signification of the name Hivites ; which, in the Phoenician language, signifies serpents. But if Cadmus were of southern Egypt, or of Ethiopia, his name might also signify serpent ; as here was a powerful monarchy of kings, whose family name was Serpent. Nor was the name uncommon else- where. The country of the Avim was also called Haze- rim, (Deut. 2:23.) in the Eastern interpreters and Pliny, A X E A Y L [ 154 J Raphia. Their territory ended at Gaza, beginning at the river of Egypt; and thus extending forty-four miles. Sometimes this country appears to be called Shur; which the Arabic renders Gerarim. Gen. 20: 1. (See GERAR.) —Calmet. -- - - AVIGNONISTS; certain fanatics of Avignon, in the last century, who adopted the errors of the Collyridiºns, (which see,) who, in the fourth century, distinguished themselves by an extraordinary devoston to the holy Wir- gin. The Avignonists were founded by Grabianca, a Polish nobleman; and Pernety, a Benedictine, (abbé of Burgal,) a learned but most eccentric writer. A work published in 1790, entitled “The Virtues, Power, Clemency, and Glory of Mary, Mother of God,” is attributed to his pen. —Grégorie's Hist. des Sects Rel, vol. ii. p. 17–Williams. AWAKE. 1. To rouse one’s self or another from natu- ral sleep. Gen. 28: 16. 1 Kings 18: 27. 2. To bestir one's self. Judg 5: 12. 3. To raise or arise from death natural or spiritual. John 11:11, 14: 12. God anakes to the judgment he has commanded, when he openly and emi- nently displays his power and other perfections, in punish- ing his enemies and rescuing his people. Ps. 7. 6. His sword of justice anaked, when terribly displayed, in full execution of the vengeance due to our sin, or Christ. Zech. 13: 7. Christ is anaked before he please, when any thing is done to disturb or interrupt his sensible ſellowship with his people. Songs 2: 7. 3: 5. 8: 4. The north wind anakes and blom's on our garden, when the Holy Ghost pow- erfully convinces our conscience, and that of others in the church; (Song 4: 16.) but some understand it of the ceas- ing of trouble. We awake out of the Snare of the devil, anyake because our salvation is near, amyake that Christ may give us light, anake to righteousness, when, conscious of our danger, and an approaching etermity, we shake off our spiritual sloth and unconcern, and with great earnestness study to know and to receive Jesus Christ and his right- eousness, and in his strength to follow holiness in all manner of conversation. 2 Tim. 2: 26. Rom. 13: 11. Eph. 5: ...4. 1 Cor. 15: 34.—Bromm. AWE ; a strong sentiment of respect, mingled with emotions of fear; a reverence so deep as almost to amount to dread. Ps. 33:8. Sublime, sacred and solemn objects awaken awe, they ſill at once the senses, the understanding and the imagination, they lºoke the beholder pause to con- sider whether he is worthy to approach them any nearer: they rivet his mind and body to the spot, and render him cautious lest by his presence he should contaminate that which is hallowed. So Jacob felt at Bethel, Gen. 28: 16, 17. and Peter when prostrate at the feet of Jesus, he ut- tered that striking exclamation, (Luke 5: 8.) “Depart from me; for I am a sinful man, O Lord.” When the creature places himself in the presence of the Creator; when he contemplates the immeasurable distance which separates himself, a frail, finite, and guilty mortal, from his infinitely perfect Maker, he slands in anye before Him ; his pride is humbled, his self conceit is abashed, his petu- lance hushed, and his whole soul is subdued and softened by the very contemplations which most expand and enno- ble it. Ps. 4: 4. The general sentiment of mankind associates this state of mind, with all just ideas of the Divinity, and unites with the divine law in condemning the spirit of irre- verence, levity and proſaneness. Deut. 5: 11, 28: 58. “If the voice of universal nature, the experience of all ages, the light of reason, and the immediate evidence of my Senses,” says Cumberland, “cannot awake me to a de- pendence upon my God, a reverence for his religion, and a humble opinion of myself, what a lost creature am l!”—Bromm ; Crabbe's Synonymes. AXE ; a well-known instrument. Deut. 19: 15. And mon also the axe is laid at the root of the tree. Matt. 3: 10. “It was customary with the Jewish prophets,” says Adam Clarke, “to represent the kingdoms, nations and individuals whose ruin they predicted, under the figure of forests and trees doomed to be cut down. See Jer. 46: 22, 23. Ezek. 31: 3, 11,.12–It has been well observed that there is an allusion here to a Woodman, who, having marked a tree for excision, lays his axe at its root, and strips off his outer garment, that he may wield his blows more power. fully, and that his work may be quickly perſormed.” The learned author then proceeds, as do many others, to apply this text to the Jews, nationally. But this is a radical mis- take. John the Baptist is addressing individuals, and speaks of individual repentance, as indispensable to escape indi- vidual ruin; hence he used the plural form trees; and not the singular tree, which might much more naturally re- present them, had he referred to them only as a political body. . - . - §es mischief has been done by transferring the lan- guage of the New Testament, without ground, from indi- viduals to nations. God does not save men by the Gospel nationally, but individually; and those interpreters misera- bly err, who divert the reader of the Gospels or Epistles, from the feeling of personal interest and responsibility. How different the views of St. Paul, “TRIBULATION AND ANGUISH UPON EveRY SOUL of MAN THAT DoETH EVIL; of THE Jew FIRST, AND ALSO OF THE GENTILE ; BUT GLORY, Honor, AND PEACE, To EveRY MAN THAT workeTH GooD ; To THE JEw FIRST, AND ALSO TO THE GENTILE ; FOR THERE Is No RESPECT of PERSONs witH GoD.” Rorn. 2: .9—11. . . . Such interpreters, (though perhaps unintentionally,) make the labors and sufferings and instructions of our Savior and his apostles of no real value. For what did they exert themselves on this interpretation? To save a few Jews only from the destruction of Jerusalem Credat Juda:us, Apella. . - . AXTELL, (HENRY,) D. D., minister of Geneva, New York, was born at Mendham, N.J. in 1773, and graduated at Princeton in 1796. He went to Geneva soon after the settlement of that part of the state, and was very useful. At the time of his ordination in 1812, his church consisted of 70 members: at the time of his death of about 400. In two revivals his labors had been particularly blessed. He died Feb. 11, 1829, aged 55. His eldest daughter was placed in the same grave. AYLMER, (John,) D. D. bishop of London, and tutor of the celebrated and virtuous lady Jane Grey, was born at Aylmer Hall, Norfolk, towards the latter end of the year 1521. Grey, marquis of Dorset, when Aylmer was a child, took a great fancy to him, attended to his education, and afterwards gave him an exhibition at the university of Cambridge, where he took his degree of bachelor of arts; after which he became tutor to the children of the marquis. At a very early age he preferred the Protestant to the Catholic faith, and was for some time the only preacher in Leicestershire, where he was eminently useful in converting the people to the Protestant religion. In the reign of queen Mary, his warmth against the principles of popery obliged him (owing to the violence of her minis- try) to leave England, and retire to Strasburg, and after- wards to Zurich, in Switzerland, where he instructed seve. ral gentlemen’s sons in the classics and religion. During his exile, he was offered the Hebrew professorship of the university of Jena, in Saxony; but he declined it. After the death of the tyrannical Mary, he returned to England; and, at the commencement of Elizabeth's reign, was one of the eight divines appointed to dispute at Westminster, before many persons of distinction, against an equal num- ber of Popish bishops. In 1573, he was made one of queen Elizabeth's justices of the peace, and one of her ecclesi- astical commissioners. In the same year, he also obtained the degrees of bachelor of arts and doctor of divinity, in the university of Oxford; and in 1576, was made bish. op of London, where he preached regularly and frequently in his cathedral ; and so anxious was he for the attention and spiritual welfare of his hearers, that on one occasion, when he saw they were wandering while he was preaching, he took a Hebrew Bible out of his pocket, and began to read it; and on finding them roused to astonishment, he reproved them by making a few remarks on their being attracted more by novelty than by the truths that were spoken ; truths which were of lasting importance. During the plague in 1578, he was very active in making provi- sion that the sick might be visited, and have proper assis- tance with regard to religion; and ordered books to be published, with directions for the prevention of the dread- ful disease. In 1581, he endeavored to establish lectures, to be delivered to large assemblies in London, on the truth of the doctrines of the church of England; but that mea- sure was opposed, and the design was not carried into A ZO A Z Y | 155 J execution. Infirm and aged, he conscientiously offered to resign his bishopric to Dr. Bancroft; but he refused to ac- cept it. At length, on the 3d of June, 1594, aged 73, he expired. Aylmer was a man of great learning, profound knowledge, and, sincere piety. He was economical, yet generous; bold and daring, yet kind and forgiving; and his chief vice was that of cherishing a persecuting dispo- sition towards those who did not believe what he consid. ered to be the truth.-Jones's Relig. Biog. ; Strype's Memoirs of Bishop Aylmer ; Wood's Fast; Ozon. ; Peirce's Vindica- tion of Dissenters. AYMOND, (DE SAvoy ;) a French martyr of the thir- teenth century. He was minister of Bourdeaux. A com- plaint being lodged against him by the clergy of that city, his friends advised him to abscond. This he absolutely refused, saying, “That should he absent himself, the peo- ple might well imagine that what he had preached con- sisted only of dreams and fables, and not extracted from. the pure word of God; but to prevent them from entertain- ing such a notion, he determined to seal his testimony of the truth with his blood.” When he was seized upon, the people would have rescued him ; but he desired them to forbear, saying, “since it is the will of God that I should suffer for him, I will not resist his will.” He remained nine months in prison on the information only, and pa- tiently suffered all the inclemencies of a jail. Being brought to trial, he was ordered to be racked; when in the extremity of the torture, he comforted himself with this expression; “This body must once die, but the soul shall live; for the kingdom of God endureth forever.” At length he swooned away, but on recovering prayed for his per- secutors. The question was then put to him, “Whether he would embrace the Roman Catholic persuasion;” which positively refusing, he was condemned to be burnt. At the place of execution he said, “O Lord, make haste to help me; tarry not; despise not the work of thy hands.” And perceiving some who used to attend his sermons, he addressed them thus, “My friends, I exhort you to study and learn the Gospel; for the Word of God abideth for. ever. Labor to know the will of God, and fear not them that kill the body, but have no power over the soul.” The executioner then strangled him, and afterwards burned his body.—Foz. * AZA. Gaza and Azoth are sometimes so called. Jose- phus notices a mountain of this name, near to which Judas Maccabaeus fought against Bacchides, in his last encoun- ter. In the Maccabees, it is called mount Azotus. AZARIAH; the name of several high-priests among the Jews. 1 Chron. 6: 9, 10. It was also a name given to Uzziah, king of Judah. 2 Kings 15. (See UzzIAH.) Also the Chaldean name given to Abednego. Dan. 1: 7.3; 19. (See ABEDNEgo.) - AZAZEL ; the Hebrew name of the scape-goat led to the wilderness on the great day or FAST of Expiation. Lev. 16: 10. - AZEICAH; the name of a city in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 15: 35. It appears to have lain near Shocoh, as the army of the Philistines in which was the giant Goliah, encamped in the Ephes-dammin), between Shocoh and Azekah. 1 Sam. 17: 1. Shocoh, now Shuweikeh, is about fifteen miles south-west from Jerusalem. AZOTUS, is the Greek name of the same city as is called in the Hebrew, Ashdod. It was not taken by Josh- ua, and being surrounded with a wall of great strength, it became a place of great importance, and one of the five governments of the Philistines. Hither was sent the ark of God, when taken from the Israelites; and here was Dagon cast down before it, 1 Sam. 5: 2, 3, Uzziah, king of Judah, broke down its wall, and built cities or watch- towers about it, 2 Chron. 26:6. It was taken by Tartan, general of the king of Assyria, (2 Kings 18: 17.) when it ap- pears to have been very severely treated; as Jeremiah (chap. 25: 20.) gives the cup of desolation to be drunk by “ the remnant of Ashdod.” It was not wholly destroyed, however, for Amos (chap. 1: 8,) mentions “the inhabitant of Ashdod ;” Zephaniah (chap. 2: 4.) says, “Ashdod shall be driven out at noon-day;” and Zechariah (9: 6.) says, “a bastard shall dwell in Ashdod.” From these notices, it appears, that Ashdod was a place of great strength and consequence. Its New Testament name is Azotus, and here Philip was ſound, after his conversion of the eunuch, at Old Gaza, distant about thirty miles, Acts 8:40, Azotus was situated about twenty-one miles south from Joppa, and four miles from the coast of the Mediter- ranean Sea. It is now an ordinary Mohammedan village, on a low round hill, called Esdād. The present state of the town is thus described by Dr. Wittman: (Travels in Syria, &c., p. 285.) “Pursuing our route through a delightful country, we came to Ashdod, called by the Greeks, Azotus, and under that name mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles; a town of great antiquity, provided with two small entrance gates. In passing through this place, we saw several fragments of columns, capitals, cornices, &c. of marble: Towards the centre is a handsome mosque, with a mina- ret. By the Arab inhabitants, Ashdod is called Mezdel. Two miles to the south, on a hill, is a ruin, having in its cen- tre a lofty column still standing entire. The delightful ver- dure of the surrounding plains, together with a great abundance of fine old olive trees, rendered the scene charm- ingly picturesque. In the villages, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables are cultivated abundantly by the inhabitants; and the fertile and extensive plains yield an ample pro- duce of corn. Ashdod may be seen from the “sloping hill of easy ascent,” near Jaffn or Joppa.” This extract is thought by Mr. Taylor to confirm the conjecture above formed, that the “cities” built by Uzziah, near Azotus, were towers which commanded a considerable prospect; and very probably, he remarks, one of these towers was placed on the hill where the Doctor observed a lofty column standing. It appears that signals from hence might speed- ily be communicated to Joppa, and, no doubt, to various other surrounding signal-stations. Thus is the confusion of “cities” around a city, removed by a better acquain- tance with the actual geography of this district; for which we are indebted to an observant and intelligent travel ler.—Calmet; T. AZYMITES ; Christians who administer the eucharist, or holy communion, with unleavened bread. The word is derived from the Greek azymos, sine fermento, which is compounded of the privative a, and zyme, fermentum, This practice occasioned great disputes, and at length a rupture, between the Latin and Greek churches. The learned Dr. Bingham is of opinion that the use of wafers and unleavened bread was not known in the church till the eleventh or 'twelfth centuries, when the oblations of common bread began to be left off by the people; for so long as the people continued to offer bread and wine, the elements for the use of the eucharist were usually taken out of them ; and, consequently, so long the bread was the common leavened bread, made use of upon other oc- casions. And he tells the following story in confirmation of this :—As Gregory the Great was administering the bread to a certain woman, in the usual form, The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, &c. she fell a laughing, and, being asked the reason, said it was because he called that the body of Jesus Christ which she knew to be bread that she had made with her own hands. Besides, the ancients say expressly, that their bread was common bread, such as they made for their own use upon other occasions; and it is further observable, that neither Photius nor any other Greek writer, before Michael Cerularius, A. D. 1051, ever objected to the use of unleavened bread in the Romish church ; which they would, no doubt, have done, had that practice prevailed at the time they wrote. But the schoolmen, who maintain that, during the first ages of the church, none but unleavened bread was used in the eucharist, say the primitive church did it in imita- tion of our Savior himself, who celebrated the last sup- per with unleavened bread ; but that, when the Ebionitès arose, who held that all the observances prescribed by the Mosaical law, were still in force, both the eastern and western churches took up the use of leavened bread, and, after the extinction of that heresy, the western church returned to the azymus, the eastern obstinately adhering to the former usage — Henderson’s Buck. B A A B A A ſ 156 ) ~ B. - I. BAAL, or BEL, (governor, ruler, lord,) a god of the Phoenicians and Canaanites. Baal and Astaroth are com- , monly mentioned together; and as it is believed, that AS- taroth denotes the moon, Calmet-concludes that Baal repre- sents the sun. Bishop Munster, as quoted by Professor Robinson, supposes that this was the case, originally; and that the fundamental idea of all oriental idolatry—which also may be traced from India to the north of Europe—is the primeval ponyer of nature, which divides itself into the gene- zative, and the conceptive or productive power. He supposes the sun and moon to have been worshipped as the repre- sentatives of these powers, under the names of Baal and Astarte. But Cyrenius supposes these appellations to sig- nify the planets Jupiter and Venus. Be this as it may, it is certain that the name Baal is used in a generic sense, for the superior god of the Phoenicians, Chaldeans, Moab- ites, and other people, and is often compounded with the name of some other god; as Baal-Peor, Baal-Zebub, Baal- Gad, Baal-Zephon, Baal-Berith. Baal is the most ancient god of the Canaanites, and, perhaps, of the East; and the Hebrews too often imitated the idolatry of the Canaanites, in adoring him. They offered human sacrifices to him, and erected altars to him, in groves, on high places, and on the terraces of houses. Baal had priests and prophets consecrated to his service; and many infamous actions were committed in his festivals. Some learned men have maintained, that the Baal of Phoenicia was the Saturn of Greece and Rome; and certainly there was great con- formity between their services and sacrifices. Others are of opinion, that Baal was the Phoenician (or Tyrian) Her- cules, (an opinion not inconsistent with the other,) but it is generally concluded, that Baal was the sun; and on this admission, all the characters which he assumes in Scrip- ture may be easily explained. The great luminary was adored over all the East, and is the most ancient deity acknowledged among the heathen. See IDOLATRY. The Hebrews sometimes called the sun Baal-Shemesh ; – Baal the sun. Manasseh adored Baal, planted groves, and worshipped all the host of heaven; but Josiah, desirous to repair the evil introduced by Manasseh, put to death “the idolatrous priests that burnt incense unto Baal, to the Sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of heaven. He commanded all the vessels that were made for Baal, and for the grove, (Ashreh, or Astaroth,) and for all the host of heaven, to be brought forth out of the temple. He took away the horses that the kings of Judah had given to the sun, and burnt the chariots of the sun with fire.” Here the worship of the sun is particularly described; and the sun itself is clearly expressed by the name of Baal, 2 Kings 23: 11. The temples and altars of the Sun, or Baal, were generally on eminences. Manasseh placed in the two courts of the temple at Jerusalem, altars to all the host of heaven, and, in particular, to Astarte, or the moon, 2 Kings 21: 5, 7. Jeremiah threatens those of Judah, who had sacrificed to Baal on the house-top, (chap. 32: 29.) and Josiah destroyed the altars which # * had erected on the terrace of his palace, 2 Kings 3: 12. A. Human victims were offered to Baal, as they were to the sun. The Persian Mithra (who is also the sun) was honored with like sacrifices, as was also Apollo. Jeremiah reproaches the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem with “building the high places of Baal, to burn their sons with fire for burnt-offerings unto Baal,” (chap. 19: 5.)—an ex- pression which appears to be decisive, for the actual slay- ing by fire of the unhappy victims to Baal. The Scripture calls temples consecrated to Baal, i. e. to the sun, chamanim. Lev. 26: 30. Isa. 17: 8. 27: 9. and 2 Chron. 34: 4. They were places inclosed with walls, in which a perpetual fire was maintained: they were fre- quent in the East, particularly among the Persians; and the Greeks called them pyreia, or pyratheia, from the Greek pyr, fire; or pyra, a funeral pile. There was in them, says Strabo, (lib. xv.) an altar, abundance of ashes, and a fire never suffered to go out. Maundrel, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, observed some remains of them in Syria. See FIRE, PLACEs of. * * Some critics have thought, that the god Belus of the Chaldeans and Babylonians was Nimrod, their first king; others, that he was Belus the Assyrian, father of Ninus; and others, a son of Semiramis. Many have supposed Belus to be the same with Jupiter; but Calmet concludes, that Baal was worshipped as the sum among the Phoeni- cians and Canaanites; and that he was often taken in general for the great god of the eastern people. As much of the heathen idolatry, alluded to in the Old Testament, is derived from the rites of Baal, which rites are not yet extinct, even among ourselves, and as it ap- pears by the number of names of places in Scripture, into which this title is compounded, that his worship was extremely popular, we subjoin the following particulars, furnished by Mr. Taylor. - The Chaldeans say, that their metropolis derived its ori- gin from Bel, who first of all built a great tower, or castle, called by them Bar. All these authorities attribute the origin of Babylon to Bel, and Bel was undoubtedly wor- shipped as the peculiar deity of the place. But the real character of Bel the infant is known from other quarters. He is the Jupiter infans of classical mythology; and we need not wonder that the second ſather of the human race, in his re-vivification after his preservation, should be con- sidered as a newly-born child, and become the great and general object of worship; since he was the first seed of all mankind, and all mankind are his seed. Perhaps the name Bel or Baal originally implied as much. But the worship of the great patriarch was eventually transferred to the sun as his symbol, or representative; and this luminary, as is well knowfi, was universally adored. We are not then to be surprised at the dedicatory title Apol- lini Beleno; for Herodian says (lib. viii.) that some call the same deity Apollo, which others call Belin. This latter was his name in Britain, also, as appears from that an- cient memorial of it retained in the name of Belin's-gate, at London. - The worship of Bel, Belus, Belenus, or Belinus, was general throughout the British islands; and certain of its rites and observances are still maintained in England, notwithstanding the spread and the establishment of Chris- tianity during so many ages. It might have been thought, that the pompous rituals of popery would have superseded the druidical superstitions; or that the reformation to protestantism would have banished them; or that the pre- valence of various sects would have reduced them to obli- vion; but the fact is otherwise. Surely the roots of druidism were struck extremely deep ! What charm could render them so prevalent and permanent —“A town in Perthshire, on the borders of the Highlands, is called Tillie (or Tullie-) beltane, i. e. the eminence, or rising- ground, of the fire of Baal. In the neighborhood is a dru- idical temple of eight upright stones, where it is supposed the fire was kindled. At some distance from this is ano- ther temple of the same kind, but smaller, and near it is a well, still held in great veneration. On Beltane morning, superstitious people go to this well, and drink of it; then they make a procession round it, as we are informed, nine B A A [ 157 J B.A. A * times. After this, they in like manner go round the tem- salem. Here the Ark was stationed after the Philistines ple. . So deep rooted is this heathenish superstition in the returned it, till removed by David.—T. minds of many who reckon themselves good Protestants, BAAL-BERITH, (lord of the covenant ;) a deity of the that they will not neglect these rites, even when Beltane Shechemites, (Judg. 8: 33. 9: 4.) which the Israelites falls on Sabbath.” (Statist. Accounts of Scotland, vol. iii. made their god after the death of Gideon. There was at p. 105.), “On the first day of May, which is called Beltan, Shechem a temple of Baal-Berith, in whose treasury they or Bal-tein, day, all the boys in a township, or hamlet, accumulated that money which they afterwards gave to meet in the moors. They cut a table in the green sod, of Abimelech, son of Gideon. The most simple explanation a round figure, by casting a trench in the ground, of such of the name Baal-Berith, is to take it generally, i.e. for the circumference as to hold the whole company. They kindle god who presides over alliances and oaths. In this sense, a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk in the consist- the true God may be termed the God of covenants; and ence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which if Scripture had not added the name Baal to Berith, it is toasted at the embers against a stone. After the custard might have been so understood. The most barbarous is eaten up, they divide the cake into so many portions, as nations, as well as the most superstitious, the most reli- similar as possible to one another in size and shape, as gious, and the most intelligent, have always invoked the there are persons in the company. They daub one of deity to witness oaths and covenants. The Greeks had these portions all over with charcoal, until it be perfectly their Zeus Horkios, Jupiter the witness and arbitrator of black. They put all the bits of cake into a bonnet. Every oaths; and the Latins had their Deus Fidius, or Jupiter one, blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the Pistius, whom they regarded as the god of honesty and bonnet is entitled to the last bit. Whoever draws the integrity, and who presided over treaties and alliances. black bit, is the devoted person who is to be sacrificed to (See BERITH.) The name of this idol, however, might, as Baal, whose favor they mean to implore, in rendering the Mr. Taylor thinks, refer to the god of the city. Berytus. year productive of the sustenance of man and beast. We know, that the Israelites borrowed many deities from There is little doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having their neighbors; and the medals of Berytus show that the been once offered in this country, as well as in the East, although they now pass from the act of sacrificing, and only compel the devoted person to leap three times through the flames; with which the ceremonies of this festival are closed.” (Id. vol. xi. p. 621.) “In Ireland, Bel-tein is cele- brated on the 21st June, at the time of the solstice. There, as they make fires on the tops of hills, every member of the family is made to pass through the fire; as they reckon this ceremony necessary to insure good fortune through the succeeding year. This resembles the rite used by the Romans in the Palilia. Bel-tein is also observed in º (Dr. Macpherson's Critical Dissert. xvii. p. 286. - * . . . . . This pagan ceremony of lighting fires in honor of the objects of worship were much the same as at Tyre, Sidon, &c., namely Astarte, or Good Fortune; Neptune, &c. BAAL-GAD, the northern extremity of the conquests of the Israelites under Joshua, was “in the valley of Leba- non, under mount Hermon,” Josh. 11: 17. The descrip- tion answers well to Hasbeiya, in the Wady et Teim, a valley at the western base of mount Hermon, where is the northernmost source of the Jordan.—T. BAAL-MEON, called also Beth-Baal-Meon, and proba- bly Beon, (Numb. 32: 3,) a city of Reuben, afterwards taken by the Moabites; now Mā’in, in ruins, two or three miles south south-west from Heshbon, and sixteen miles east from the mouth of the Jordan.—T. BAAL-PEOR. The import of this name is uncertain. Asiatic god Belus, gave its name to the entire month of Simon takes it to denote “the lord of mount Peor,” where May, which is to this day called mi na Beal-tine, in the this deity was worshipped; as the heathen had their Jupiter Irish language. - Olympius, Apollo Clarius, Mercurius Cyllenius, &c. It has The Bel-tein was certainly derived from the East : it is been taken in an obscene sense, and with too much truth; practised at this day in the ceremonies of the Derma Ra- for it is certain that the deities of the heathen were, and jah, wherein the devotees walk barefoot over about forty still are, often of the grossest kind; not that we know their feet of burning coals. It was, we may presume, into a worshippers to have thought them scandalous, or to have Bel-tein that the three Hebrew youths were cast, bound connected them with any offence against decency, or with hand and foot, Dan. 3: 15. The Bel-tein, anciently, at Je- that sense of shame and indignation which they excite in rusalem, was held in the valley of Tophet; and the burn- us. They may have considered them as commemorative ing of children in honor of Moloch, was the same ceremony memorials of distant persons and times, or as employed to under an idol of another name. So general was this cus- bring to recollection truths, in themselves perfectly innox- tom. Our bonfires are, possibly, remains of the Bel-tein; ious; although such means of recording historical facts, and the tricks of our lads in leaping over the rising flame, of whatever nature, are in our opinion criminally indeco- might be proved to have antiquity in their favor, if it were rous, and utterly unfit for public exposure. Of this, the worth while. The bon-fire is, perhaps, derived from the compound of the Lingam and Yoni among the Hindoos, Saxon bene, bone, a favor, a boon, an occurrence which affords open and popular proof; but there are other obser. gives pleasure: in this sense we may understand it in vances in some of their festivals, usually postponed till Chaucer, “he bade them all a bone;”—he invited them to after all Europeans are departed, which too obscenely jus- an enjoyment:—or it may be taken in the sense of a boon, a gift; a fire to which contributions are made gratis, by all. - tify the most offensive derivation of the name. - This false god is, by some, supposed to be the Adonis, or Orus, adored by the Egyptians and other Eastern peo- This custom maintains. itself not only in the extreme ple. Scripture informs us, (Numb. 25: 1–3.) that the north, but also throughout Germany: in short, we see that Israelites being encamped in the wilderness of Sin, were it involves all Europe. It can, therefore, occasion no sur- seduced to worship Baal-Peor, to partake of his sacrifices, prise that we find it so inveterately established in the coun- and to sin with the daughters of Moab; and the psalmist, tries mentioned in Scripture, where the sun had infinitely (Psalm 106: 28.) adverting to the same event, says, “they more power and influence, and which are much nearer to ate the offerings of the dead.” Peoris Or, or Orus, if we the original observances. The world was then plunged in cut off the article Pe, which is of no signification. Orus is idolatry, and we cannot wonder that this branch of it pre- Adonis, or Osiris. The feasts of Adonis were celebrated vailed, since many of its ceremonies and superstitious rites after the manner of funerals; and the worshippers at that still exist, notwithstanding the influence of the Gospel. time committed a thousand dissolute actions, particularly This article affords matter for serious reflection. after they were told that Adonis, whom they had mourned II. BAAL. There were many cities in Palestine, into for as dead, was alive again. (See ADoNIs.) Origen be whose name the word Baal entered by composition; either, lieved Baal-Peor, to be Priapus, or the idol of turpitude, because the god Baal was adored in them; or, because adored principally by women, and that Moses did not these places were considered as the capital cities, lords, think proper to express more clearly what kind of turpi- superiors, of their respective provinces.—Calmet. tude he meant; and Jerome says, this idol was represented BAALAH, otherwise Kirjath-jearim, Josh. 15: 9, and and worshipped in the same obscene manner as Priapus. Rirjath-arim. (** 2: 25,) and Kirjath-baal, (Josh., 15. His opinion is, that effeminate men and women, who pros- 60,) and Kiryath, (Josh. 18:28;) probably, the modern tituted themselves in honor of idols, as frequently men- Küryet el 'Enab, six or seven miles north-west from Jeru- tioned in Scripture, were consecrated to Baal-Peor, or . B A B B A B [ 158 J Priapus. Maimonides asserts, that Baal-Peor was adored by the most immodest actions; and there is no doubt that he was the god of impurity. We know with what impu- dence the daughters of Moab engaged the Israelites to sin; (Numb. 25:3) and the prophet Hosea, (chap. 9; 10.) speaking of this crime, says, “They went unto Baal-Peor, and separated themselves unto that shame.” The psalmist expresses himself in the plural number; “they ate the sacrifices,”—for the sacrifices of Baal-Peor were repasts, such as were used at funerals; with this difference, that the latter were often accompanied with real and sincere sorrow; whereas, in those of Adonis, the tears were feign- ed, and the debauchery afterwards indulged, real. See CHIUN.—Calmet. - RAAL-PERASIM; a place in the valley of Rephaim, not very far distant from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 5; 23. The reason of this appellation is given in 1 Chron. 14: 11.— Calmet. BAAL-SHALISHA, (2 Kings 4:42;) a place, proba- bly in the “land of Shalisha,” near the mountains of Ephriam ; compare 1 Samuel 9: 4.—T. - BAAL-TAMAR, (lord of the palm tree ;) a village near Gibeah, where the children of Israel engaged the tribe of Benjamin, Judg. 20:33. - The palm tree occurs on many coins as a symbol at- tending Astarte; a branch of palm is held by the goddess sitting on the rock; and often by Jupiter, who, most pro- bably, answers to the character of the lord of the palm tree. It may be supposed that this symbol was chiefly adopted where the palm was best known; nevertheless, we find it applied where it cannot be restrained to the idea of a pro- duction of the country, merely, and therefore, most proba- bly, it was introduced from where this symbol was locally applicable.—Calmet. BAALTIS; the same as Astarte, or the moon; next to Baal, the god most honored by the Phoenicians. See ASTARTE, and ASTAROTH.—Calmet. BAAL-ZEBU.B. See BEEL-ZEBUB. BAAL-ZEPHON; a station of the Hebrews, (Ex. 14: 2, 9. Numb. 33: 7.) near Clysma, or Colsoum. Baal-Ze- phon was, probably, a temple to Baal at the northern point of the Red Sea; and, most likely, in or near an establish- ment, or town, like the present Suez. The learned J. M. Hasius understands the temple of Jupiter Cassius; but it was more probably at the head of the Red sea; not on the coast of the Mediterranean, as Ezion Gaber, at the head of the gulf of Eloth, answered to Beth-Gaber, on the coast of the Mediterranean. Some describe this deity, as in shape, a dog; (see ANUBis;) signifying his vigilant eye over this place, and his office by barking, to give notice of an enemy’s arrival; and to guard the coast of the Red Sea, on that side. It is said, he was placed there, principally, to stop slaves that fled from their masters.-Calmet. BAASHA; son of Ahijah, and commander of the armies of Nadab, king of Israel. He killed his master treache- rously at the siege of Gibbethon, and usurped the kingdom, which he possessed twenty-four years. He exterminated the whole race of Jeroboam, as God had commanded; but by his bad conduct, and his idolatry, incurred God’s indig- nation, 1 Kings 15:27. 16: 7. A. M. 3051. Baasha, in- stead of making good use of admonition, transported with rage against a prophet, the messenger of it, killed him.— Calmet. BABBLE ; to utter a vast deal of useless and unprofita- ble talk. Prov. 23 : 29. Acts 17: 18. A babbler is no better than a serpent that bites, except it be enchanted. Unless restrained by fear or favor, he will do mischief to men’s characters or interests with the multitude of his unadvised words. Eccl. 10: 11. The vain babbling which ministers ought to shun, is all empty noise about words, sentiments, and customs, rot allowed by Christ, nor calcu- lated for the edification of men. 1 Tim. 6: 20. BABE; a young infant. Luke 1:41. Weak and insig- nificant persons are called babes, because of their igno- rance, folly, frowardness, rashness, stupidity. Matt. 11: 25. Isa. 3: 4. Rom. 2: 20. In commendation, believers are called babes, because they live on the pure milk of gospel truth, and for their innocence, meekness, and hum- ble sincerity in faith, love, profession, obedience. 1 Pet. 2: 2. In dispraise, some saints are called babes, because of their weakness in spiritual knowledge, power, and experi- ence; and for their stupidity, unteachableness, and readi- ness to be seduced by Satan. 1 Cor. 3. Heb. 5: 13.2 Bronn, BABEL, ToweR of. It received this name, because, when the tower was building, God confounded , the lan. guages of those who were employed in the undertaking, (Gen. 10; 10.) about A. M. 1775, one hundred and twenty years after the deluge. Very different conceptions have been formed on the nature and figure of the tower of Ba- bel. Some have delineated it as being round in shape, with a spiral pathway leading up to the top; but it appears more credible that it was square; and that certain build- ings, yet remaining in various parts of the world, may be considered a.S transcripts, or imitations of it. Strabo calls it a square pyramid. , Mr. Taylor copied several instances 'apparently nearly related to it in form and destination, from which we select the following. This pyramid, rising in several steps or stages, is at s #:#: &-- : sº ---, Tanjore in the East Indies; and affords, it is presumed, a just idea of the tower of Babel. It is, indeed, wholly con- structed of stone, in which it differs from that more ancient edifice, which, being situated in a country destitute of stone, was, of necessity, constructed of brick. On the top of this pyramid is a chapel or temple; affording a speci- men of the general nature of this kind of sacred edifices in India. These amazing structures are commonly erected on, or near, the banks of great rivers, for the advantage of ablution. In the courts that surround them, innumera- ble multitudes assemble at the rising of the sun, after having bathed in the stream below. The gate of the pagoda uniformly fronts the east. The internal chamber commonly receives light only from the door. An external pathway for the purpose of visiting the chapel at the top merits observation. This is an ancient pyramid, built by the Mexicans in *g *s :ºxxº fººt. 3::$º “s: sº Rºs-a-tº: *~~--------- - sºººººº- America; it agrees in figure with the former; and has, on the outside, an ascent of stairs leading up one side to the upper story, proceeding to the chapels on its summit. This ascent implies that the chapels were used, from time to time; and, no doubt, it marks the shortest track for that purpose, as it occupies one side only. That the tower of Belus had a chapel near the top, appears from Herodotus, who, after mentioning the ascent, which was to the height of a stadium, or three hundred and twenty feet, through eight stages or stories, says, “In the last tower is a large B A B B A B | 159 | chapel, but no statue,” &c. Diodorus implies the same, when he says, there were statues of gold, of which one was forty feet high : it must have been a large chapel that could be supposed to contain such a figure. Above this chapel was an upper story, containing a chamber with a bed, before which stood a golden table. In this chamber, Herodotus says, no one slept at night except a female, whom the god Belus (according to the Chaldeans, the priests of the temple) had selected from the females of the city. Diodorus says, this chamber served also for astronomical observations. Let us now examine the narration of Moses. (Gen. 11:9.) Here it should be observed, (1.) that all mankind was not concerned in building this tower; for the writer tells us plainly, those who attempted it were travellers from the East; those, therefore, who continued in the East, were no parties to it. (2.) The language of all mankind could not be affected by any occurrence which did not involve the main body, or the original stem, but only a part con- sisting of emigrants settled far from the primitive abode. (3.) It is at least as rational to suppose that idolatry, in- tended or perpetrated, was the immediate cause of the Divine anger, as any other crime hitherto imagined. (4.) It will be seen in the article MELCHIZEDEK, that the poste- rity of Ham were kings of Babylon. We infer, therefore, that Shem had no share in this undertaking; consequently his language—lip—sentiments, &c. were preserved pure. The mode adopted by Providence in this miraculous dis- persion ſorms no part of our present inquiry; but if we suppose some to be clamorous for this idolatry, others against it; some for this kind of work, others for another; together with the unavoidable necessity of new terms, to express new materials, &c. we shall perceive rudiments for occasion of great dissensions among this portion of mankind. Historical traces of this primitive idolatry may be discerned in the Hindoo narrations; for they report that “the origiN of the Linga or Phallus, and of its wor- ship, is said to have happened on the banks of Cumud-vati, or Euphrates, and the FIRST Phallus was erected on its banks, under the name of Baleswará-Linga (or the Linga of Isnara the Infant, who seems to answer the Jupiter Puer of the western mythologists.) Balesa is perſectly synony- mous to Balesnará, both denominations being indifferently used in the Purans.” (Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 593.) Here, then, we have the origin of an idolatrous worship, with clear references to the name of the Babylonian deity, Bel or Belus. If the origin of that idolatry, which in the time of Moses had overspread the countries around, be connected with the Mosaic history of the tower of Babel, then much of what has been said respecting the number of persons engaged in the building this tower, or the num- ber of languages into which the families of the earth were divided, (whether seventy, seventy-two, or seventy-five, See LANGUAGE,) might have been spared. On the other hand, if such idolatry were about this time publicly insti- tuted, then the history of Abraham's removal from it, to pre- serve the ancient religion, properly follows this narration. There are certain points of comparison between the pyramids of Egypt (see PYRAMIDs) and the tower of Babel to which our attention may be directed. (1.) A river runs before the pyramids, which agrees with the notion of their being sacred structures, since the stream was suitable to purposes of ablution; in like manner, a river ran before the tower of Babel. (2.) The general form of these struc- tures was alike, that is, broad at bottom, rising very high, tapering at top. (3.) The internal construction was of less costly materials than the external; being of sun-baked bricks, at best; while the external was furnace-baked bricks at Babel, but immense stones in Egypt, which in- sured the durability of the Egyptian edifices. (4.) A city extended on each side of the river in both instances. (5) The royal palace was separated from the temple by a con- siderable width of water. (6.) There were apartments, or chapels, in each. (7.) There were sacred cloisters or courts around. (8.) There was (or was intended to be) at the top a great image: there are indications of such an intention on the top of the open pyramid. This thought is not new ; the Jerusalem targum asserts it of Babel, and says that the image was to have held a sword in its hand, as a kind of protector against men and demons— Facianus nobis IMAGINEM ADORATIONis in ejus fastigio, et p0- mamus Gladium in manu ejus, ut conferat contra acies praelium, prius quam dispergamur de superficie terra. These obvious agreements sufficiently evince that the structures were alike in form and in destination, so that we may judge pretty accurately on what we do not know of the one by what we do know of the other. They contribute also to establish the inference, that the same people (though not the same branch of that people) were the builders of both. The men engaged at Babel had two objects in view ; (1.) to build a city, and (2.) a tower. There could be no impiety in proposing to build a city; yet it is expressly stated, that in consequence of the Divine interposition, the continuation of the city was relinquished. On the other hand, the tower was certainly intended as a place for wor- ship, but not of the true God; yet, it is no where said in Scripture that it was destroyed, or its works suspended. This is not easily explained; and the circumstance is ren- dered the more obscure, by the accounts of its overthrow which have been preserved in heathen writers. Eupple- mus, quoted by Eusebius, (Praep. lib. ix.) says, “The city Babel was first founded, and afterwards the celebrated tower; both which were built by some of the people who had escaped the deluge.—The tower was eventually ruined by the power of God.” Abydenus, in his Assyrian Annals, also menitions the tower; which he says was carried up to heaven; but that the gods ruined it by storms and whirl- winds, frustrated the purpose for which it was designed, and overthrew it on the heads of those who were engaged in the work. The ruins of it were called Babylon. (Eu- seb. Chron. p. 13.) The reader will bear this in mind, as it will assist in determining our judgment on the char. acter of the ruins still extant. The following particulars of the tower of Belus are from Dr. Prideaux:—“Till the time of Nebuchadnezzar, the temple of Belus contained no more than the ſcentral] tower only, and the rooms in it served all the occasions of that idolatrous worship. But he enlarged it by vast buildings erected round it, in a square of two furlongs on every side, and a mile in circumference, which was one thousand eight hundred feet more than the square at the temple of Jerusalem, for that was but three thousand feet round; whereas this was, according to this account, four thousand eight hundred; and on the outside of all these buildings, was a wall inclosing the whole, which may be supposed to have been of equal extent with the square in which it stood, that is, two miles and a half in compass, in which were several gates leading into the temple, all of solid brass; and the brazen sea, the brazen pillars, and the other brazen vessels, which were carried to Babylon from the temple of Jerusalem, seem to have been employed in the making of them ; for it is said, that Nebuchadnezzar did put all the sacred vessels, which he carried from Jeru- salem, into the house of his god at Babylon, that is, into this house or temple of Bel. This temple stood till the time of Xerxes; but on his return from the Grecian expedi- tion, he demolished the whole of it, and laid it all in rub- bish, having first plundered it of its immense riches, among which were several images or statues of massy gold, and one of them is said by Diodorus Siculus to have been forty feet high, which might perchance have been that which Nebuchadnezzar consecrated in the plains of Dura.” It is highly probable, that the remains of towers, shown in Babylonia, are only ruins of old Babylon, built by Ne- buchadnezzar. See BABYLON, CITY OF.—Calmet. BABINGTON, (GERVASE,) bishop of Llandaff and Exe- ter, was born at Nottingham, in the year 1551. He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, of which he be- came fellow, and soon afterwards took his degrees of master of arts, and doctor of divinity. He was then made domestic chaplain to Henry, earl of Pembroke, president of the council in the marches of Wales, and assisted the lady of that earl in her version of the Psalms of David, into English metre. He applied himself closely to the study of divinity, and became one of the most impressive and useful preachers of his day. In 1588, he was installed into the prebend of Wellington, in the cathedral of Here- ford, and through the interest of his sincere and active friend, the earl of Pembroke, was advanced to the bisho- pric of Llandaff. He was consecrated on the 29th of Au- gust, 1591; and in February, 1594, was translated to the B. A. B B A B [ 160 ) see of Exeter, and confirmed on the 9th of March ; from whence, in 1597, he was translated to Worcester, to which he was nominated August 30, elected September 15, and confirmed October 4. Bishop Babington was a man emi- nently endowed with every Christian ornament, as well as mental qualification. His character admitted of no dero- gation; for it was pure, unsullied, and, in a great mea- sure, devoid of those failings which have attended the characters of even the best of men. He possessed piety without fanaticism, learning without ostentation, and gene- rosity without prodigality. His time was spent in the cul- tivation of his mind, and in the exercise of every virtue. This good and great man expired on the 17th of May, 1610, in the fifty-ninth year of his age; beloved and re- gretted by all who were blessed with his friendship, or honored with his affection ; and was buried in the cathe- dral of Worcester, without a tablet to mark the spot which contained the ashes of a man so excellent. His works were published in 1637, under this title –“The Works of the Right Reverend Father in God, Gervase Babington, late Bishop of Worcester, containing comfortable Notes on the Five Books of Moses.” on the Creed, the Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer; with a Conference between Man's Frailty and Faith;” and three sermons, one of which was preached at Paul's Cross, the second Sunday in Michaelmas term, being upon Election; the second was preached at the court at Green- wich, on the 24th of May, 1590; and the third is a funeral sermon, on the death of T. L–, Esq., preached by the author while he was bishop of Llandaff—Life of Bishop Babington, and Works; Jones's Chr. Biog. BABYLON, Country of, is generally called Baby- lonia, from the name of its first city, Babel ; or Chaldea, from the name of its inhabitants, the Chaldeans or Chas- dim. When Babylon, instead of Nineveh, was the seat of the supreme power, the words Babylonia and Chaldea: were equivalent with Assyria, and comprehended two large tracts of territory on opposite sides of the Euphrates. These were called in Scripture, Aram beyond the river, and Aram on this side of the river. To the former, by way of distinction, the Greeks gave the name of Assyria, and to the latter that of Syria. The portion named Assy- ria, comprehended a space of seven hundred miles in length, between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, from the Armenian mountains, in which they rise, to the Persian gulf, into which they then flowed into separate channels. This was divided into three parts, 1. Mesopotamia, an ap- pellation, indeed, which, in its literal meaning, was appli- cable to the whole extent, but which was limited to the northern region, where the rivers diverge, in general, a hundred, and in some places two hundred miles asunder, until, in their course towards the sea, they approach with- in twenty miles of each other, in the vicinity of Bagdad. 2. Babylonia, extending from this narrow isthmus about three hundred miles towards the Persian gulf, and never expeeding fourscore miles in its breadth between the rivers. And, 3. The eastern district, properly named Atur, but frequently called Mesené and Adiabené, lying beyond the Tigris, and reaching to the foot of the Carduchian hills. It is to the second of these that the present article refers, and it is called indiscriminately Babylonia or Chaldea ; but, in general, the latter name is used by sacred writers, and the former by profane. Sometimes, indeed, these ap- pellations are appropriated severally to a particular dis- trict; the former denoting the country more immediately in the neighborhood of Babylon, and the latter that which stretches southward to the Persian gulf. The climate of this country is temperate and salubrious; but at certain seasons the heat is so intense, that the in- habitants were accustomed to sleep with their bodies part- ly immersed in water; and the same practice, according to the testimony of modern travellers, is continued to this day. It seldom rains there above three or four times in the course of a year; and the lands were watered by means of canals, trenches, and various sorts of engines, provided in great abundance for the purpose. naturally rich, and thus carefully supplied with moisture in the driest seasons, surpassed even that of Egypt in fer- tility, and is said to have generally yielded from one Its vegetable productions hundred to three hundred-fold. As also, “An Exposition up- The soil, grow to so extraordinary a size, that Herodotus declines giving a particular description of them, lest he should in- cur the charge of exaggeration; but he mentions, as one instance, that the leaves of the wheat and barley were four fingers in breadth. It afforded every where a viscous clay, easily formed by the furnace, or even by the sun, into the hardest bricks; and the naphtha, or bitumen, which was extremely abundant, furnished the firmest of all cements. The government of this country was of the most des. potic description, and the Sovereignty was considered as hereditary. Every thing depended upon the will of the prince; and, hence, the kaws were undefined, and the pun- ishments arbitrary in the highest degree. Dan. 1: 10. 2: 5. 3: 19. Three separate tribunals, however, were ap- pointed to administer justice; the first of which took cog. nizance of adultery, and similar offences; the second, of thefts; and the third, of all other crimes. The principal officers of state seem to have been, the captain of the guard, in whom the executive power resided; the prince of the eunuchs, who took charge of the education and sub- sistence of the youth of the palace; the prime minister, or vizier, who was at the head of the police, and acted as chief justice in the empire; and the master of the magi, whose business it was to interpret prognostications, and divine the events of futurity to the king. The immediate household of the prince appears to have been extremely numerous; and particular districts were appointed to sup- ply the different articles of food which were requisite for the maintenance of the many thousands, who daily fed at his tables. * - & The religious system of the Babylonians bore a near resemblance to that of the Egyptians, and has been very ingeniously ascribed to the following source. The sudden inundations of the Euphrates and Tigris, like those of the Nile, occasioning, alternately, the most rapid, beneficial, or destructive changes in the face of nature, attracted the attention, and alarmed the anxiety of the unenlightened people, who witnessed and experienced their momentous effects. These important changes were observed to have an evident connection with the vicissitudes of the seasons, and the revolutions of the heavenly bodies; and hence, these luminaries, whose influence was understood to be so powerful and extensive, were considered, at first, as the ministers or vicegerents of the Supreme Being, were gradually worshipped as mediators or intercessors for man, and were at length exalted to the rank of separate, but subordinate divinities. The sacerdotal families, devoted to the service of these deities, and thus led by their office to be continually observing the motions of the celestial bodies, gradually acquired such a degree of astronomical skill, as had the appearance of supernatural communica- tions, and gave them a complete ascendancy over the minds of the multitude. This power they employed, as their fancy or interest suggested, in prescribing an im- mense variety of idolatrous rites and modes of worship; the most remarkable of which was the adoration of fire, and the offering of human victims in sacrifice. These sacerdotal tribes, who have been called by way of distinc- tion, Chaldeans or Chaldees, were the philosophers as well as the priests of their country. They pretended to have ..f their learning from the first instructor, Oannes, who sprung from the primogenial egg; who was half man or god, and half fish; who appeared in the Red sea, and taught the knowledge of letters and civilization in general. This learning, as far as it went, they studied very minutely, and handed it down by tradition from father and son, with any little addition and improvement. It consisted chiefly of some absurd opinions about the for- mation and shape of the earth, a few astronomical obser- vations, and a confused mass of astrological rules and prognostications of the weather.—See Anc. Univ. Hist. vol. iv. p. 332, &c.; Gillies's Hist. of the World, vol. i. p. 60, 72, 168, 195; Jones. - . - BABYLON, EMPIRE of, may be considered as the first great monarchy of which any records are to be found in history. It appears to have been founded a short time after the flood; and, according to the astronomical tables sent by Alexander to Aristotle, about 2234-years. B. C. Of this first Babylonian kingdom, there is very little to be B A B 13 A B 1611 known, except what is related in sacred Scripture; that, about 2000 years B. C. it consisted, under Nimrod, of four. cities, Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh; that, about one hundred years afterwards, it was enlarged by Ashur, who built several other cities, and particularly the first Nine- veh, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, three hundred miles above Babylon; and that it continued till the year B. C. 1230, when Ninus, having overrun the greater part of Asia, founded a second Nineveh, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, about fiſty miles from Babylon, and thus established what is called the Assyrian monar- chy. But what is generally understood by the Babylonian empire, began about 606 years B.C. when Belesis, or Ne- bopolassar, hereditary satrap of Babylon, revolted against the Assyrian monarch, Sardanapalus; and having destroy- ed that prince and his capital Nineveh, transferred the seat of power to his own city. Thus there may be said to have been two distinct kingdoms in Babylon; one pre- ceding, and the other following, the Assyrian empire. Or, rather, more properly speaking, there were three great eras of the same monarchy in the country of Assyria. The first of these commences with Nimrod, in the year B. C. 2000, when Babylon was the seat of power; the second with Ninus, in the year 1230, when Nineveh be- came the metropolis of the empire; and the third with Belesis, in the year 606, when Babylon once more beheld the sovereigns of the East residing in her palaces. This subject, indeed, is beset with inextricable difficulties, and involved in impenetrable darkness; but the above state- ment, which is founded upon the observations of the learn- ed and ingenious Dr. Gillies, in his History of the World, vol. i. p. 50–130, seems much more simple in itself, as well as more consistent with history, than either the com- mon account, which makes the Assyrian monarchy almost coeval, but altogether unconnected, with the first kingdom in Babylon; or that of Sir Isaac Newton, who dates its origin so late as the year B. C. 770. Leaving our readers to decide this point for themselves, we proceed to the proper subject of this article, namely, to give a short sketch of the second Babylonian empire, es- tablished by Belesis, or Nebopolassar, upon the ruins of the Assyrian monarchy, about 606 years B. C. Nebopolassar, or, as he is also called, Nebuchadnezzar, continued in close alliance with Cyaxares the Mede, by whose assistance he had acquired the sovereignty, and by whose friendship he became so powerful as to excite the apprehensions of the neighboring princes. While he was employed in resisting the Scythians, who had made them- selves masters of Upper Asia, Necho, king of Egypt, in- vaded his dominions in the south, reduced the city Car- chemish, or Circesium, and encouraged the Syrians in that quarter to revolt. Nebopolassar being now well ad- vanced in years, sent his son Nebuchadnezzar, whom he had associated with himself in the empire, to reduce those countries to their former subjection. The young prince defeated the army of Necho near the Euphrates, retook the city of Carchemish, and quelled the insurgents in Sy- ria; entered Judea, and took possession of Jerusalem; re- stored Jehoiakim to his throne, but carried to Babylon great numbers of the principal Jews, with the treasures of the palace, and part of the sacred vessels in the temple. In the mean time, Nebopolassar died, and was succeeded by his son, upon his return from his expedition. Nebuchadnezzar II., called also Labynetus, occupied himself, during the first years of his reign, in enlarging and embellishing his capital; and during this period oc- curred those events which are related in the book of Da- niel, ch. 2. His tranquillity was interrupted by the revolt of Jehoiakim in Judea, who was soon reduced by the Babylonian generals; but Jechonias, his son, having also attempted to shake off the Assyrian yoke, Nebuchadnez- zar went in person to the siege of Jerusalem; and having made himself master of the city, he carried to Babylon all its treasures and sacred utensils, leaving the government to Zedekiah, the uncle of Jechonias. Recalled in a short time to Judea by the revolt of Zedekiah, he defeated the Egyptians, who had come to the assistance of the Jews, took Jerusalem by storm, after a twelve-month's siege, gave it up to pillage and slaughter, put out the eyes of the king, and carried him away captive. Upon his return to Babylon, he erected a golden statue in the plain of Dura, sixty cubits in height, and commanded all his subjects to worship it as a divinity. , Dan. ch. 3. About three years after this event, he again led his forces against the western nations, made himself master of Tyre, after a siege of thirteen years, overran the whole country of Egypt, re- turned to adorn his capital with the booty which he had acquired; and, having suffered the punishment of his pride, as related in Daniel, ch. 4: he died, in the forty- fourth year of his reign. Evil-Merodach, who succeeded his father Nebuchad- nezzar, is described as a weak and licentious prince, and was murdered by his relatives, after having reigned little more than two years. - Neriglissar, the husband of Evil-Merodach's sister, and one of the chief conspirators, reigned in his stead. Imme- diately after his accession, he began to make preparations for resisting the growing power of the Medes and Per- sians. After spending three years in forming alliances, and collecting troops, he marched to meet his opponents, Cyaxares and Cyrus ; and, in a bloody engagement with the latter, was defeated and slain. Laborosoarchod, his son, succeeded to the throne. By his cruelty and oppression, he provoked several of his governors to raise the standard of rebellion, and to call in the aid of Cyrus. Marching to suppress these commo- tions, he was met by the Persian prince, defeated with great loss, and pursued to the very walls of his metropolis. After Cyrus had retired with his army, the Babylonian monarch indulged his vicious propensities to such excess, that his own subjects, unable any longer to endure his ty- rannical conduct, conspired against his life, and put him to death, in the ninth month of his reign. He was suc- ceeded by Belshazzar, the son of Evil-Merodach, and grandson of the great Nebuchadnezzar. His mother, Ni- tocris, who was a woman of extraordinary talents, took upon herself the management of public affairs; and while her son was pursuing his pleasures, she made every exer- tion to preserve the tottering empire. many of the works which Nebuchadnezzar had begun; and, when Cyrus renewed his attacks upon the frontier towns, she employed the utmost activity in constructing new fortifications for the defence of the capital. Belshaz- zar, at length, in the fifth year of his reign, repaired in person to the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, carrying with him an immense treasure; and with the aid of that prince, as well as by the influence of his wealth, framed a very formidable confederacy against Cyrus. Having hired a numerous army of Egyptians, Greeks, and other nations in Lesser Asia, he appointed Croesus to the com: maud, and directed him to make an incursion into Media. These auxiliaries having been completely routed, Croesus taken and dethroned, and Cyrus again advancing to Baby. lon, Belshazzar attempted to make head against him in the field, but was soon put to flight, and closely blockaded in his capital. After a siege of two years, the city was taken, as is related in the following article; Belshazzar was slain in the assault upon his palace ; and with him terminated the empire of the Babylonians, about 538 years B. C.—See Rollin's Anc. Hist. vol. ii. p. 34, &c.; Pri- deaux's Connections, vol. i. p. 51, &c.; Anc. Univ. History, vol. iv. p. 394, &c.; Gillies's History of the World, vol. i. p. 130, &c.; Jones. - BABYLON, City of, the capital of the ancient king- dom of Babylonia, is supposed to have been situated in north latitude thirty-two degrees and thirty-four minutes, and in east longitude forty-four degrees, twelve minutes and thirty seconds. It was founded by the first descen- dants of Noah, 2234 years B. C., enlarged by Nimrod, the great grandson of Noah, 2000 years B. C., and, in a man- ner, completely rebuilt about 1200 years B. C., by the As- Syrian queen Semiramis. It was greatly strengthened and beautified by various succeeding sovereigns; but it was by Nebuchadnezzar and his daughter Nitocris, that it was brought to such a degree of magnificence and splendor, as rendered it one of the wonders of the world. The antithesis between Babylon and Jerusalem, enters largely into the prophetic language of Scripture. Hence the importance of an ry of both. - * She completed accurate knowledge of the real histo- 21 B A B B A B [ 162 I Babylon stood in the midst of a large plain, in a very deep and fruitful soil. It was divided into two parts by the river Euphrates, which flowed through the city from north to south. The old city was on the east, and the mew city, built by Nebuchadnezzar, on the west side of the river. . Both these divisions were inclosed by one wall, and the whole formed a complete square, four hundred and eighty furlongs in compass. Each of the four sides of this square had twenty-five gates of solid brass, at equal distances; and at every corner was a strong tower, ten feet higher than the wall. In those quarters, where the city had least natural defence, there were also three of these towers between every two of the gates; and the same number between each corner and the nearest gate on its two sides. The city was composed of fifty streets, each fifteen miles long, and one hundred and fifty feet broad, proceeding from the twenty-five gates on each side, and crossing each other at right angles, besides four half streets, two hundred feet in breadth, surrounding the whole, and fronting towards the outer wall. It was thus intersected into six hundred and seventy-six squares, which extended four furlongs and a half on each of their sides, and along which the houses were built, at some dis- tance from each other. These intermediate spaces, as well as the inner parts of the squares, were employed as gardens, pleasure grounds, &c.; so that not above one half of the immense extent which the walls inclosed, was occupied by buildings. - - The walls of Babylon were of extraordinary strength, being eighty-seven feet broad, and three hundred and fifty feet high. They were built of brick, and cemented by a kind of glutinous earth called bitumen, which had the quality of soon becoming as hard as stone. These walls were surrounded on the outside by an immense ditch, from which the earth had been dug to make the bricks; and which, being always filled with water, added very much to the defence of the city. On each side of the river Euphrates was built a quay, or high wall, of the same thickness with the walls around the city. There were gates of brass in these walls, oppo- site to every street which led to the river, and from them were formed descents, or landing places, by means of steps, so that the inhabitants could easily pass in boats, from one side of the city to the other. There was also a remarkable bridge thrown over the river, near the middle of the city, built with wonderful art, of huge stones, fas- tened together by means of iron chains and melted lead; and is said to have been a whole furlong in length, and thirty feet in breadth. In order to prevent any inconvenience from the swell- ings of the Euphrates, two canals were cut from that river, at a considerable distance above the town, which carried off the superabundant waters into the Tigris. From the place where these canals commenced, down the sides of the river, both above and below the city, immense banks were constructed, to confine the stream still more effectually within its channel, and to prevent still more completely all danger of an inundation. In order to ſa- cilitate the construction of these works, an immense lake was dug on the west side of Babylon, about forty miles square, and thirty-five feet deep, into which the river was turned by a canal, till the banks were completed; and it was then restored to its former course. This lake con- tinued afterwards to receive annually a fresh supply of water from the Euphrates, and was rendered very service- able, by means of sluices, for watering the lands which were situated below it. At the two ends of the bridge over the Euphrates, were two magnificent palaces, which had a subterraneous com- munication with each other, by means of a vault or tun- nel, under the bed of the river. The old palace, on the east side, was about thirty furlongs in compass, and was surrounded by three separate walls, one within the other, with considerable spaces between them. The new palace, on the opposite side, was about four times as large as the other, and is said to have been eight miles in circumfe- rence. The Walls of both these edifices were embellished with an infinite variety of pieces of sculpture; and, among the rest, was a curious hunting-scene, in which Semira. mis was represented on horseback, throwing her jave. lin at a leopard, while her husband Ninus was piercing a lion. , The most remarkable structure in the new palace was the hanging gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar is said to have raised, in order to give his wife Amytis, (daughter of Astyages, king of Media,) Some representation of the beautiful mountainous and woody views which abounded in her native country. These gardens occupied a square piece of ground, four hundred ſeet on every side, and con- sisted of large terraces, raised one above the other, till they equalled in height the walls of the city. The ascent from terrace to terrace was by means of steps ten feet wide; and the whole pile was sustained by vast arches, built upon other arches, and strengthened on each side by a solid wall, twenty-two feet in thickness. Within these arches were very spacious and splendid apartments, which are described as having commanded a very extensive and delightful prospect. In order to form a proper pavement for supporting the Soil, and confining the moisture of the garden, large flat stones, sixteen feet in length, and four in breadth, were, first of all, laid upon the top of the up- per arches; over these was spread a layer of reeds, mixed with bitumen; upon this, two rows of brick, closely ce- mented; and the whole covered with sheets of lead, upon which the earth or mould was laid to a sufficient depth for the largest trees to take firm root. In the upper terrace was a large reservoir, into which water was drawn from the river by some species of engine, and kept there ready to be distributed to any part of the gardens. - Scripture no where notices these celebrated gardens; but it speaks of willows planted on the banks of the rivers of Babylon : “We hanged our harps on the willows in the midst thereof,” says Psal. 137: 2. Isaiah, describing in a prophetic style the captivity of the Moabites by Nebu- chadnezzar, says, “They shall be carried away to the val- ley of willows.” 15: 7. The same prophet, (ch. 21: 1.) describing the calamities of Babylon by Cyrus, calls this city the desert of the sea. Jeremiah, to the same purport, says, (51: 36, 42.) “I will dry up the sea of Babylon, and make her springs dry. The sea is come up upon her : she is covered with the multitude of the waves thereof.” Megasthenes (ap. Euseb. Praep. ix. 41.) assures us, that Babylon was built in a place which had before abounded so greatly with water, that it was called the sea. But the language of the psalmist above quoted, suggests the idea that the city of Babylon was refreshed by a considerable number of streams; “By the rivers [streams, flowing cur- rents] of Babylon we sat down.”—“On the willows (plu- ral) in the midst thereof, we hanged our harps” (plural). There must, then, have been gardens visited by these streams, easily accessible to the captive Israelites; not the royal gardens, exclusively, but others less reserved; and the phrase, “in the midst thereof,” that is, of Babylon, seems to denote—not gardens above or below the city, but strictly in its interior. We know, also, that there was but one river at Babylon then, as there is but one now, the Euphrates, so that when these captives represent them. selves as “sitting by the rivers of Babylon,” in the plural, they inform us, that this river was divided into several branches, or canals; and these were, doubtless, works of art. Moreover, from Jeremiah's threat of drying up the sea of Babylon, we learn, that there was a considerable lake or reservoir, in the interior of the city; for to such large receptacles of water the appellation sea was, and still is, applied in the East. Undoubtedly, the water of this lake, and of these canals, being furnished by the Eu- phrates, the name of that river might be continued to them, in a general sense : and if this be admitted, a great proportion of those difficulties which the learned have hitherto found insuperable, are reduced to trifles, if they do not vanish. , Nor ought we to forget, that the Egyptian Memphis, which we suppose to be a copy from Babylon, was, in like manner, surrounded and visited by streams, by canals, &c. all of them drawn from one river, the Nile, and bearing its name. Near to the old palace stood the temple of Belus; and in the middle of the temple was an immense tower, about six hundred feet in height, and the same number square. at the foundation. This huge pile of building consisted of eight towers, each seventy-five ſeet high, placed one B. A B B A B [ 163 ] above the other, and gradually decreasing towards the top like a pyramid. What has been described is understood to have been the old tower of Babel; but it was greatly en- larged by Nebuchadnezzar, who built around its base a number of other sacred edifices, forming a square nearly three miles in compass. The whole was inclosed by a strong wall, and the various entrances secured by solid gates of brass, which are conjectured to have been formed out of the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem. Dan. 1: 2. 2 Chron. 36: 7. In this temple of Belus, or, as some say, on its summit, was a golden image forty feet in height, and equal in value to three and a half millions sterling. There was, besides, such a multitude of other statues and sacred utensils, that the whole of the treasures contained in this single edifice has been estimated at forty-two millions. Many of the above statements, recorded in ancient au- thors, respecting the wonders of Babylon, are unquestiona- bly greatly exaggerated; but, after every abatement that , can fairly be made, this city is understood to have com- prehended a regular square, forty-eight miles in circuit, and to have been eight times larger than London and its appendages. See Gillies’ Hist. of the World, vol. i. p. 166, and Rennel's Geog. of Herodotus, p. 341. The city of Babylon seems to have excelled in rich and ingenious manufactures, at a very early period in the history of the world; and its “goodly garments” are mentioned 1450 years B. C. Josh. 7: 21. and 2 Sam. 13: 18. - Great boastings have been made of the antiquity of the astronomical observations taken by the Babylonians. Jo- sephus tells us, that Berosus, the Babylonian historian and astronomer, agreed with Moses concerning the corruption of mankind, and the deluge; and Aristotle, who was curi- ous in examining the truth of what was reported relating to these observations, desired Calisthenes to send him the most certain accounts that he could find of this particular, among the Babylonians. Calisthenes sent him observations of the heavens, which had been made during one thousand nine hundred and three years, computing from the origin of the Babylonish monarchy, to the time of Alexander. This carries up the account as high as the one hundred and fiſteenth year after the flood, which was within fifteen • years after the tower of Babel was built. For the confu- sion of tongues, which followed immediately after the building of that tower, happened in the year in which Pe- leg was born, one hundred and one years after the flood; i. fourteen years before that in which these observations egin. . In ancient authors, much conſusion is occasioned by a too general application of the name of Babel: it has de- noted the original tower, the original city, the subsequent tower, the palace, the later city, and we shall find it ex- pressing the province of Babylonia : in fact, it stands con- nected in that sense with the plain of Dura, which is said to be in the province of Babylon, and which might be placed at a distance from the city, were it not for con- siderations already recited. Ancient authors have raised the wonder of their readers, by allowing to the walls of Babylon dimensions and extent which confound the ima- gination, and rather belong to a province than to a city. But, that they really were of extraordinary dimensions, would appear from references made to them by the pro- phet, who threatens them with destruction. Jeremiah (50: 15.) says, “Her foundations are fallen, her walls are thrown down;” and again, (51:44.) “The very wall of Babylon shall fall:” and (verse 58.) “the broad wall of Babylon shall be utterly broken :”—observe the broad wall; and in verse 53. we read, “Though Babylon should mount up to heaven, [that is, her defences, and though she should fortify the height of her strength,” [that is, her wall.] Thus we find allusions to the height, the breadth, and the strength of the walls of Babylon. The downfall and destruction of this proud metropolis of the ancient world, is a subject so much dwelt upon by the prophets, that before taking leave of the article, it may not be improper to take a cursory glance at some of the more important particulars concerning it. . Enriched with the spoils of the East, and exulting in the day of her prosperity, Babylon seemed born to command the world. She said in her heart, according to the lan- guage of the prophet, (Isa. 47: 7, 8, &c.) “I am the queen of nations, and my reign is forever. I am ; and there is none else beside me. I am exempted from that vicissitude and decline which are incident to other nations. My des- tiny shall survive coeval with those stars in which the ob- servers of the heavens have read the records of my per- petual duration.” But her pride and luxury, her cruelty to the Jews during their captivity at Babylon, and the sa- crilegious impiety of her monarch, wrought her downfall. She had been the instrument of the Divine vengeance to punish guilty kingdoms; and the time was approaching when “the Lord was to break the staff where with he had smote so many nations,” and destroy the weapon of war which had been drunk with the blood of the people. More than a hundred years before the accomplishment of this prediction, Isaiah foretold the doom that was pronounced against Babylon, named the prince who was to fulfil this prophecy before he was born, described the minutest cir- cumstances relating to the siege and the taking of the city, and painted the perpetual desolation of this once flourishing capital in every succeeding age. Isa. 13: Jer. 45: Isaiah has composed an ode on the occasion, which ſor elegance of disposition, sublimity of sentiment, boldness of coloring, beauty and force of expression, stands unrival- led among all the monuments of genius which antiquity has transmitted to modern times. A chorus of Jews is first introduced, expressing their astonishment at the sud- den downfall of Babylon, and their exultation at the un- expected revolution in their affairs, by the destruction of their tyrants. “How hath the oppressor ceased the golden city ceas- ed Jehovah hath broken the rod of the wicked, and the sceptre of the rulers. He who smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke, he that ruled the nations in ven- geance, is persecuted, and none hindereth.” The oppressed kingdoms and their rulers, denoted in the prophetic style by “the fir trees and cedars of Leba- non,” are now next represented as shouting with joy, and the earth with its inhabitants triumphing over the fall of the tyrant. “The whole earth is at rest, is quiet, they break forth into a joyful shout : even the fir trees rejoice over thee, the cedars of Lebanon : since thou art fallen, no feller is come up against us.” The scene is then changed, and a new set of personages introduced. The regions of the dead are laid open, and Hades represented as rousing up the shades of the depart. ed monarchs. They rise up from their thrones to meet the king of Babylon, and insult him on his being reduced to the same humble and calamitous condition with them- selves. This is the boldest figure that has ever been at- tempted in poetical composition, and is executed with astonishing conciseness and sublimity. Conceive the idea of an immense subterraneous vault, a vast gloomy cavern, all around the sides of which there are cells, in the man- ner of the Jewish sepulchres, to receive the dead bodies: here the deceased monarchs lie in distinguished state, suitable to their former rank, each on his couch, with his arms beside him, and his chiefs around him. These illus- trious shades rise at once from their couches, and advance from the entrance of the cavern to meet the king of Baby. lon, and to deride him on his fall. “Hades from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming : it rouseth up the departed shades, the mighty of the earth: it raiseth from their thrones all the kings of the nations: they triumph over thee. Art thou, even thou too, become weak as we ? Art thou made like unto us? Is thy pride brought down to the grave, the sound of thy sprightly instruments 2 Is the vermin become thy couch, and the earth-worm thy covering 2* The Jewish people are again brought forward, uttering an exclamation in the form of a funereal dirge over the fallen tyrant. - “How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning ! how art thou cut off from the earth, thou who didst subdue the nations! For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God, I will be like the Most High. Yet thou art brought down to the mansions of the dead, and to the Sides of the pit” - - B A B B A B [ 164 Strangers are next introduced, who discover the corpse of the king of Babylon, cast out and disfigured among the common slain. They bitterly reproach him for his deso- lating ambition, which brought him to such an ignomi- nious end, and denounce vengeance on his race and pos- terity. ~ * {{ #. this the man that made the earth to tremble, that shook the kingdoms ? that made the world as a wilder- mess, and destroyed the cities? All the kings of the na- tions lie in glory, every one in his own house. But thou art cast out of thy grave like an abominable branch ; as a carcass trodden under foot. Thou shalt not be joined with them in burial, because thou hast destroyed the land, and slain the people. Prepare slaughter for his children, for the iniquity of their fathers, that they do not rise nor possess the land, nor fill the face of the world with cities.” At last, God himself is introduced, denouncing the doom of Babylon, the extirpation of the royal family, the utter destruction of the city, its total desolation from age to age; and confirming the irreversible decree by the awful so- lemnity of an oath. “I will rise up against them, saith the Lord of hosts, and I will cut off from Babylon the name and remnant, the son and the nephew. It shall become a heap of ruins, a dwelling-place for dragons, an astonishment and a hiss- ing, without an inhabitant. Isa. 14: 4–25. And Baby- lon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation : neither shall the Arabian pitch his tent there, nor the shepherds make their folds there. But the wild beasts of the desert shall lurk in its ruins; the houses shall be full of doleful creatures; there shall the owls dwell and the satyrs dance. And the wild beasts of the island shall cry in their desolate domes, and dragons in their pleasant palaces. I will make it a possession for the bittern and pools of water ; and I will sweep it with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of hosts. Jehovah hath sworn, Surely as I have thought, so shall it come to pass; and as I have purposed, so shall it stand.” Isa. 13: 19. Ch. 14: 23, 24. At the precise period appointed, this prediction was ful- filled. This great city, the glory of kingdoms, whose beauty, strength, and magnificence made it the wonder of the world, has shared the ruin of Sodom and Gomorrah. For the space of twenty-six years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, it continued to retain its ghory, and was at once the seat of an imperial court, the station of a nu- merous garrison, and the scene of a most extensive com- merce. It was at length invested, about 540 years B. C. by the victorious armies of Cyrus the Great. Crowded with troops for their defence, surrounded with such loſty walls, and furnished with provisions for twenty years, the citizens of Babylon derided the efforts of their besieger, and boasted of their impregnable situation. On the other hand, the conqueror of Asia, determined to subdue his only remaining rival in the empire of the eastern world, left no expedient untried for the reduction of the city. … By means of the palm trees, which abounded in that country, he erected a number of towers higher than the walls, and made many desperate attempts to carry the place by as- sault. He next drew a line of circumvallation around the city; divided his army into twelve parts; appointed each of these to guard the trenches for a month, and resolved to starve his enemy to a surrender. After spending two years in this blockade, he was presented with an opportu- nity of effecting his purpose by stratagem. Having learn- ed that a great festival was to be celebrated in the city, and that it was customary with the Babylonians, on that occasion, to spend the night in drunkenness and debauch- ery, he posted a part of his troops close by the spot where the river Euphrates entered the city, and another at the place where it went out, with orders to march along the channel, whenever they should find it fordable. He then detached a third party to open the head of the canal, which led to the great lake already described; and, at the same time, to admit the river into the trenches, which he had drawn around the city. By these means, the river was so completely drained by midnight, that his troops easily found their way along its bed; and the gates, which used to shut up the passages from its banks, having been left open in consequence of the general disorder, they encoun- tered no obstacle whatever in their progress. Having thus penetrated into the heart of the city, and met, according to agreement, at the gates of the palace, they easily over- powered the guards; cut to pieces all who opposed them; slew the king Belshazzar, while attempting to make re- sistance; and received the submission of the whole city within a few hours. - - From this period, Babylon ceased to be the metropolis of a kingdom, and its grandeur very rapidly decayed. Its citizens were very impatient under the Persian yoke; and their pride was particularly provoked by the removal of the imperial seat to Susa. Taking advantage of the disorders in Persia, in consequence of the sudden death of Cambyses, and of the massacre of the Magians, they con- tinued, during the space of four years, to make secret Fº for a revolt. At length, in the fifth year of arius Hystaspes, about 518 years B. C., they openly raised the standard of rebellion; and thus drew upon themselves the whole force of the Persian empire. Deter- mined upon a desperate defence, and desirous to make their provisions last as long as possible, they adopted the barbarous resolution of destroying all such persons in the city as could be of no service during the siege. Having sacrificed the lives of their friends, and resolutely regard- less of their own, they successfully resisted all the strength and stratagems of the Persians, for the space of eighteen months, and fell at length into the hands of Darius, by the following extraordinary instance of fortitude in one of his officers. Zopyrus, one of the principal noblemen in the Persian court, appeared in the presence of his prince, covered with blood, deprived of his nose and ears, torn with stripes, and wounded in various parts of his body; unfolded to the astonished monarch his design of deserting to the enemy, and arranged his future plan of operations. Approaching the walls of the city, he was carried, before the governor, detailed the cruel treatment which he pro- ſessed to have received from Darius; offered his services to the Babylonians, who were well acquainted with his rank and abilities; acquired their confidence by several successful sallies; obtained, at length, the chief command of their forces, and thus easily found means to betray the city to his master. As soon as Darius was in possession of Babylon, he ordered its hundred gates and its impreg- nable walls to be demolished; put to death three thousand of those who had been principally concerned in the revolt; and sent fifty thousand women ſrom different parts of his empire, to supply the place of those who had been so cru- elly destroyed at the commencement of the siege. In the year B. C. 478, Xerxes, the successor of Darius, returning from his inglorious invasion of Greece, passed through the city of Babylon; and, partly from hatred to the Sabian worship, partly with a view to recruit his treasures, plun- dered the temple of Belus of its immense wealth, and then laid its lofty tower in ruins. - In this state it continued till the year B. C. 324, when Alexander the Great made an attempt to rebuild this sas cred edifice, and to restore its former magnificence. But, though he employed about ten thousand men in this work for the space of two months, his sudden death put an end to the undertaking before... the ground was cleared of its rubbish. This mighty city declined very rapidly under the successors of Alexander; and, in the year 294 B. C. was almost exhausted of its infiabitants by Seleucus Nica- tor, who built in its neighborhood the city of Seleuci, or New Babylon. It suffered greatly from the neglect and violence of the Parthian princes before the Christian era; and every succeeding writer bears testimony to its increas- ing desolation. Diodorus Siculus, B. C. 44; Strabo, B. C. 30; Pliny, A. D. 66; Pausanias, A. D. 150; Maximus Tyrius, and Constantine the Great, as recorded by Euse: bius, all concur in describing its ruined condition; and Jerome at length informs us, that, about the end of the fourth century, its walls were employed by the Persian princes as an inclosure for wild beasts, preserved there for the pleasures of the chase. It was visited about the end of the twelfth century by Benjamin of Tudela in Na- varre, who observed only a few ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's palace remaining, but so full of serpents and other veno- B A B B A B [165 J mous reptiles, that it was dangerous to inspect them near. ly. A similar account is given by other travellers; by Texeira, a Portuguese; by Rauwolf, a German travellet in 1574; by Petrus Valensis in 1616; by Tavernier, and, by Hanway. We shall now direct our attention to the remains of those once magnificent structures which distinguished Babylon as the wonder of the world: of their elegance we cannot judge, as that has ceased to exist; of their magnitude we can form some estimate, though not of their connection, or mutual dependence: we shall, nevertheless, find, on examination, sufficient particulars attached to these monuments of persevering labor to justify the predictions of the prophets, to clear them from the charge of incon- sistency or prevarication, which is our principal object. The first traveller who communicated an intelligible account of these antiquities was Della Valle, who, in 1616, examined them more minutely and leisurely than Some who went before him. His account of the more northerly of these ruins, which he calls the tower of Belus, is in- structive, notwithstanding later information. To Mr. Rich, resident at Bagdad for the East India. Company, we are indebted for a still more particular ac- count of these monuments of antiquity; his tracts have greatly engaged the attention of the public, and have given occasion to much investigation. The following are extracts from his first work: $'. 1815.) “The ruins of Babylon may in fact be said almost to commence from Mohawil, a very indifferent khan, close to which is a large canal, with a bridge over it, the whole country between it and Hellah exhibiting at intervals traces of building, in which are discoverable burnt and unburnt bricks and bitu- men. Three mounds in particular attract attention from their magnitude. The district called by the natives El- Aredh Babel, extends on both sides of the Euphrates. The ruins of the eastern quarter of Babylon commence about two miles above Hellah, and consist of two large masses or mounds connected with, and lying north and south of, each other; and several smaller ones which cross the plain at different intervals. At the northern termi- nation of the plain is Pietro Della Valle's ruin; from the south-east, (to which it evidently once joined, being only obliterated there by two canals,) proceeds a narrow ridge or mound of earth, wearing the appearance of having been a boundary wall. This ridge forms a kind of circu- lar inclosure, and joins the south-eastern point of the most southerly of the two grand masses. The whole area, in- closed by the boundary on the east and south, and the river on the west, is two miles and six hundred yards from east to west,--as much from Pietro Della Valle’s ruin to the Southern part of the boundary, or two miles and one thousand yards to the most southerly mound of all. The first grand mass of ruins [south] is one thousand one hun- dred yards in length, and eight hundred in the greatest breadth . . . . The most elevated part may be about fifty or sixty feet above the level of the plain, and it has been dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks. On the north is a valley of five hundred and fifty yards in length, the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass, is longest from east to west, and crossed from south to north, by a line of ruins of very little elevation. To this succeeds, going north, the second grand heap of ruins, the shape of which is nearly a square of seven hundred yards length and breadth . . . . This is the place where Beauchamp made his observations; and it certainly is the most interesting part of the ruins of Babylon : every ves- tige discoverable in it declares it to have been composed of buildings far superior to all the rest which have leſt traces in the eastern quarter: the bricks are of the finest description, and notwithstanding this is the grand store- house of them, and that the greatest supplies have been and are now constantly drawn from it, they appear still to be abundant. In all these excavations, walls of burnt brick laid in lime mortar of a very good quality, are seen ; and in addition to the substances generally strewed on the surfaces of all these mounds, we here find fragments of alabaster vessels, fine earthen ware, marble, and great quantities of varnished tiles, the glazing and coloring of which is surprisingly fresh. In a hollow, near the south- ern part, I found a sepulchral urn of earthen ware, which had been broken in digging, and near it lay some humail bones, which pulverized with the touch.” We add a few remarks on these descriptions, with a view to the *g. of the mounds, before we close the subject. Speculations have been indulged as well by Mr. Rich as by Major Rennell, on the character of each of these mounds of ruins. Leaving to those truly re- spectable authorities the task of establishing their theories, we shall content ourselves with following the voice of cur- rent, and apparently unbroken, tradition. We say, there- fore, that the Makloube, the Mujelibé, the pyramid of Haroot and Maroot, (in other words, Della Valle’s Ruin,) or by whatever other appellation the signification of over- turned, or topsy-turvy, be preserved—this ruin marks the original tower of Babel: and, so far as may be judged by comparison of its present shape with the neighboring mounds, it never was finished. It is all but impossible, that the ruins of a building raised to that central elevation which might give it the appearance, or entitle it to the appellation of a pyramid, should form an outline of sur- face on its top, so nearly equable as this object presents in Mr. Rich's delineation of it. That it was raised to un- equal heights in different parts, or on its different faces, is every way likely; that it might answer, more or less, the purpose of a cemetery, in after-ages, is credible; and that it might even receive some additions from its votaries, for such it had, no doubt, may be admitted:—yet, without impeaching the proposition that it never reached that height, or that complete form and condition, which its founders contemplated. Mr. Rich himself remarks “that there does not remain in the irregularities on the top a sufficient quantity of rubbish to account for an elevation equal to that of the tower, the whole height being now only one hundred and forty feet.” This testimony is de- cisive. There is no need to expatiate on the confirmation this affords to Scripture history. Except the deluge, the tower of Babel, with the circumstances attending it, is the most ancient fact recorded, or that could be recorded ; it was followed by consequences of the most interesting na- ture to the human race, is attested by profane authority, as well as sacred, and these ruins, to this day, afford effective evidence, that the writer of the Mosaic narration was equally faithful and well informed. To enlarge would be to intrude on the reader's own reflections. There would be something extremely melancholy in the fate of Babylon, its desolation, its disappearance, its ex- ternal annihilation, after so vigorous and so long continued exertion to raise it to pre-eminence, did we not know that its pride was excessive, and its power was cruel. The fierceness of war was the delight of its kings. Nebuchad- nezzar himself had been a warrior of no limited ambition; the Chaldeans were bitter, hasty, sanguinary, ferocious; and to read the accounts of their inhumanity prepares us for a reverse, which we await, but do not regret. There is something in the idea of retaliation from which the hu- man mind is not averse—“As she hath done, so do to her,” is the language not of prophecy or of poetry only, but of “even-handed justice,” in the common acceptation of mankind. It is not only because we are better ac- quainted with the miseries inflicted on Jerusalem and the sanctuary that we admit these feelings in respect to Baby- lon : there can be no doubt, but what other nations had equally suffered under her oppression : the people who are emphatically called on to execute the vengeance de- termined against her, had certainly been galled under her yoke. Cyrus and Xerxes, who captured her city and de- stroyed her temple, were but the avengers of their coun- try. Alexander considered himself in the same light. It is rather from a deficiency of historical accounts, than from the facts of the case, that Babylon has been supposed to have been reduced by a gradual decay only. Already have more symptoms of violence been discovered than were formerly supposed, and it is more than possible, that our intercourse with Eastern writers may bring us ac- quainted with events which will enable us to account for appearances, that now present nothing but uncertainties. Idolatry took its rise at Babylon, was fostered and pro- tected there, and from thence was diffused throughout (at least) the western world: the liberal arts, the more recon- dite sciences, with every power of the human mind, were B A B B A C [ 166 | rendered subservient to systematic idolatry. Its doom, therefore, must correspond with its crimes. It is enough for us, that we know its punishment to be just ; and that we are happily enabled to trace, in its ruins, the unequivo- cal and even the verbal accomplishment of those predic- tions which “denounced its calamities—the monuments of miseries long deserved, but not remitted though post- oned. . . p The following are the comparative dimensions of the principal ruins of ancient Babylon : , , Mujelibé, circumference two thousand one hundred and eleven feet; height remaining on the south-east, one hun- dred and forty-one feet. - . Kasr, or palace, square seven hundred yards. Sea, or lake, by the plain, length eight hundred yards; breadth five hundred and fifty yards, by measurement. Bridge, (supposed,) length six hundred yards; breadth nearly one hundred yards, ruins. . f Temple of Belus, (Herodotus,) square five hundred eet. S Temple of Belus, (supposed,) with the buildings near it, ruins, length one thousand one hundred yards; breadth eight hundred yards; height remaining fifty or sixty feet. Birs Nimrood, circumference two thousand two hundred and eighty-six feet; height remaining, east fifty or sixty feet; west one hundred and ninety-eight feet; tower, two hundred and thirty-five feet. - Extent of the whole inclosure, above two miles and a half, north and South—the same east and west.—Jones; Calmet. . - BABYLON THE GREAT; an appellation given to the false church, or antichristian apostasy, by the writer of the Apocalypse. Rev. 14; and 18. To perceive the force and propriety of denominating the apostate church of Rome, by the name of this renowned city, it is only neces- sary to consider that the kings of Babylon were in ſor- mer times the most formidable enemies which God’s ancient people, the Jews, had ; and that in various respects. For not only as a nation did they suffer more from the Baby- lonians, by the invasion of their country, and their being carried into captivity, but much also of that corruption of their worship, which brought down the judgments of heaven Ilpon them, seems to have been derived from that coun- try. Hence the prophet Jeremiah, describing ancient Babylon, says, “It is the land of graven images, and they are mad upon their idols,” ch. 50: 30. And again, “Baby- lon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made all the earth drunken : the nations have drunken of her wine; therefore the nations are mad.” 51: 7. Thus, “as Babylon of old was the first of all idolatrous cities, she is taken as the fittest emblem to set forth the enor- mous guilt, and to exhibit in full light the extensive influ- ence of idolatrous Rome; each in its turn being the mother of harlots and abominations of the earth; the former cor- rupting the heathen world with her fornication, and the latter the Christian.”—Hurd's Sermons, Introduction to Pro- phecy, ser. 11. (See the article ANTICIIRIST.) BABYLON OF PETER. There have been many and long-continued controversies among the learned on the subject of the Babylon mentioned in his first Epistle, 5:13. The Babylon of Peter has been thought to be Rome; but in disproof of this motion it is only necessary to recall attention to the order of the provinces saluted by the apos- tle. He places Pontus and Cappadocia first, certainly, be- cause they were nearest to him ; and Bithynia last, be- cause it was the most distant from him. This is utterly inconsistent with his being at this time resident in Rome, which would have prescribed a contrary order. “The Syrian and Chaldee writers,” says Mr. Yeates, “in the Lives of the Apostles and Martyrs, record of the apostle Peter, that “he preached in Syria, and Antioch, and in Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, and other regions.” They say nothing of Babylon. “Elias, bishop of Damascus, writes, that . . . the country of Babylon . . . was called to the faith, by Addeus and Marus, of the seventy disciples, which followed Bartholomew.” And in the Epitome of the Syrian Canons they write, “The fifth sect is Babylon, in honor of the three constituted apostles; Thomas, the º of the Hindoos, and Chinese; Bartholomew, who gllS o is the Nathaniel of the Syrians; and Addeus, one of the seventy, who was master to Agheus and Marus, the apostle of Mesopotamia and Persia.” Here they say nothing of Peter, who, most assuredly, could not have been omitted in this enumeration, had there been any reason ſor inserting him.—Calmet. . . . BABYLONIA ; the province of which Babylon was the capital, and which is now called Irac. (See BABYLon, Country of, and IMAGE OF NEBUCHADNEzzAR.) BACA, valley of, (Ps, 84: 6,) is perhaps the same as Bochim, Judges 2: 1; inasmuch as Baca means weeping, or lamentation, and Bochim means weepers. All else that we know of the two places, however, seems to indicate thnt they were not the same. David, in setting forth the happiness of the pious Israelites when going to worship at Jerusalem, says that their joy transforms even the valley of Baca, as they pass through it, into a pleasant place, where they feel no want of refreshing fountains and pools of water. The language implies that but for their reli- gious joy, they would find it a parched, sterile and gloomy valley. Bochim, on the contrary, was a place chosen by the Israelites for encampment, probably near Gilgal, and somewhere not far from Jericho. As there were fertile and well watered spots in that vicinity, it is not probable that they would select for encamping, such a place as Baca appears to have been. As David evidently wrote the eighty-fourth Psalm during his wanderings in the wilderness of Judah, at a distance from Jericho, and with such valleys all around him, it is more probable that he alluded to some of them. Or perhaps Baca is not the name of a place, and the meaning is, dreary valley. The supposition that the valley of Baca is the Buka'a, or great plain of Coele-Syria, is grossly absurd. It rests only on the supposed identity of the names, which, as any one who understands the Hebrew alphabet may see, are really no more alike than buckler and banquet. The Buka'a was not on the road to Zion, from any part of Canaan.—T. In a moral sense, the vale of tears significs this world, which, to good men, presents only an occasion of grief and tears, because of the disorders that prevail, of the con- tinual dangers to which we are exposed, and the absence of those eternal good things, which we ought to long after.—Calmet. BACCHUS; the name of a pagan deity, or the god of wine, whose statue was set up, in the reign of Julian the Apostate, in the great church of Emessa in Palestine, and in that of Epiphania ; and the Chronicle of Alexandria relates that Eustathius, bishop of the church in that city, hearing the sound of instruments employed in the wor- ship of Bacchus, and being told that they were played in his church, instantly expired, after having prayed that he might rather die than witness such abomination.—Hender- son’s Buck. . BACHUTH-ALLON, (the oak of neeping;) probably thus denominated, because here Deborah, Rebekah’s nurse, died and was buried. Gen. 35: 8. . Here also Deborah th prophetess judged Israel. Judg. 4: 5. - BACK ; the opposite of the face. God casts our sins behind his back when he ſully forgives them, so as to place them no more in the light of his countenance to punish them. Isa. 38; 17. Ps. 90: 8. Jer. 16; 17. He shows men the back, and not the face, when he disregards them, and re- fuses to smile on or show favor to them. Jer, 18; 17. Christ's giving his back to the smiters, and his cheeks to them that plucked off the hair, imports his ready and cheerful exposure of himself to suffering for our sake. Isa. 1: 6. Men's turning their back on God, or his temple; their looking back, going back, dranying back, turning back, from him, import their contempt of him ; their gradual revolt from the knowledge, love, profession, and practice of his truth. Jer. 2: 27. , 32: 33. Their casting him or his laws behind their back, imports their utmost contempt and ab- horrence of both. Ezek. 23: 35. Neh. 9: 26. The church has her back ploughed on, when her members are cruelly oppressed and persecuted. Ps. 129: 3. The Jews, since the crucifixion of Christ, have their backboned dom alway. The strength of their nation, their gºvernment, and great men, are gone; and they are laden and grievously op. pressed with slavery, oppression, and sorrow. Ps. 69; 23. Rom. 11; 10. -- - - • B A C B A C 167 BACK, or BAcKward. In the metaphorical language, to go, or turn back or backward, denotes wilful rebellion, and active apostasy from God. Isa. 1: 4. Jer. 7: 24. and 15: 6. To be driven, turn, or fall backniards, imports disappoint- ment, and sudden, unexpected, and fearful destruction. Ps. 40: 14, and 70: 2. Isa. 28: 13, and 44; 25. To turn judgment backnards, is violently to pervert good laws and their sanctions, in order to promote and maintain wicked- ness. Isa. 59: 14. - BACKBITE ; to speak evil of an absent person. Paul classes this sin with several others of a heinous na- ture. Rom. 1:30. (See DeTRACTION, and SLANDER.)— Calmet. * A BACKSLIDING ; the act of turning from the path of duty. It may be considered as partial, when applied to true believers, who do not backslide with the whole bent of their will; as voluntary, when applied to those who, after professing to know the truth, wilfully turn from it, and live in the practice of sin; as final, when the mind is given up to judicial hardness, as in the case of Judas. Partial backsliding must be distinguished from hypocrisy, as the former may exist where there are gracious inten- tions on the whole; but the latter is a studied profession of appearing to be what we are not. The causes of backsliding are—the cares of the world; improper connections; inattention to secret or closet du- ties; self-conceit and dependence ; indulgence; listening to and parleying with temptations. A backsliding state is manifested by indifference to prayer and self-examination ; trifling or unprofitable conversation; neglect of public ordinances; shunning the people of God; associating with the world; thinking lightly of sin; neglect of the Biblé ; and often by gross immorality. The consequences of this awful state are—loss of character; loss of comfort ; loss of usefulness; and, as long as any remain in this state, a loss of a myell-grounded hope of future happiness. To avoid this state, or recover from it, we should beware of the first appearance of sin; be much in prayer; attend the ordinances; and unite with the people of God. We should consider the awful instances of apostasy, as Saul, Judas, Demas, &c.; the many warnings we have of it; (Matt. 24: 13. Heb. 10: 38. Luke 9: 62.) how it grieves the Holy Spirit; and how wretched it makes us; above all things, our dependence should be on God, that we may always be directed by his Spirit, and kept by his power. (See Apost Asy.)—Henderson's Buck. BACKUS, (ISAAc, A. M.) a distinguished Baptist minis- ter of Massachusetts, was born at Norwich in Connecticut, in 1724. In 1741, a year memorable for the revival of religion through this country, his attention was first ar- rested by the concerns of another world, and he was brought, as he believed, to the knowledge of the truth, as it is in Jesus. In 1746, he commenced preaching the gospel; and, April 13, 1748, he was ordained first minis- ter of a congregational church in Titicut precinct, in the town of Middleborough, Massachusetts. In 1749, a number of the members of Mr. Backus's church altered their sentiments with regard to baptism, and he at length united with them in opinion. He was baptized by immersion in August, 1751. For some years afterwards, he held communion with those who were bap- tized in infancy; but he afterwards discontinued this from conviction of its impropriety. A Baptist church was formed, January 16, 1756, and he was installed its pastor, June 23d of the same year, by ministers from Bos- ton and Rehoboth. In this relation he continued through the remainder of his life. He died November 20, 1806, aged eighty-two years. He had been enabled to preach nearly sixty years, until the spring before his death, when he experienced a paralytic stroke, which deprived him of speech, and of the use of his limbs. Mr. Backus was a plain, evangelical preacher, without any pretensions to eloquence. It may be ascribed to his natural diffidence that, when preaching or conversing on important subjects, he was in the habit of shutting his eyes. To his exertions the Baptist churches in America. owe not a little of their present flourishing condition. He was ever a zealous friend to the equal rights of Christians. When the Congress met at Philadelphia in 1774, he was sent as an agent from the Baptist churches of the Warren association, to support their claims to the same equal lib erties, which ought to be given to every denomination. In October, he had a conference with the Massachusetts delegation and others, at which he contended only for the same privileges which were given to the churches in Bos- ton; and he received the promise, that the rights of the Baptists should be regarded. On his return, as a report had preceded him, that he had been attempting to break up the union of the colonies, he addressed himself to the convention of Massachusetts, December 9, and a vote was passed, declaring his conduct to have been correct. When the convention in 1779 took into consideration the consti- tution of the state, the subject of the extent of the civil power in regard to religion naturally presented itself, and in the course of debate the perfect correctness of the Bap- tist memorial, which was read at Philadelphia, was called in question. In consequence of which, Mr. Backus pub- lished in the Chronicle of December 2d., a narrative of his proceedings as Baptist agent, and brought arguments against an article in the bill of rights of the constitution of Massachusetts. He believed, that the civil authority had no right to require men to support a teacher of piety, morality, and religion, or to attend public worship ; that the Church ought to have no connection with the State ; that the kingdom of the Lord Jesus was not of this world, and was not dependent on the kingdoms of this world; and that the subject of religion should be left entirely to the consciences of men. - The publications of Mr. Backus were more numerous than those of any other Baptist writer in America. Of his three volumes of the History of the Baptists, he pub- lished an abridgement, brought down to 1804. It con- tains many facts, for which the public is indebted to the patient industry of the writer, and it must be a very valu- able work to Baptists, as it presents a minute account of almost every church of that denomination in New Eng- land. But these facts are combined without much atten- tion to the connection, and Benedict's more recent History of the Baptists has in a great measure taken its place.— Mass. Bapt. Miss. Mag. i. 287, 288; Backus's Church Hist. iii. 139–141; Backus's Abridg. 209, 214; Benedict, ii. 267—274; Allen. BACKUS, (CHARLEs, D. D.,) an eminent minister, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1749. He lost his pa- rents in his childhood, but, as he early discovered a love of science, his friends assisted him to a liberal education. He was graduated at Yale college in 1769. His theolo- gical education was directed by Dr. Hart of Preston. In 1774, he was ordained to the pastoral charge of the church in Somers, in which town he remained till his death, De- cember 30, 1803, after a faithful ministry of more than twenty-nine years. In the last year of his residence at college, the mind of Dr. Backus was impressed by divine truth, and although his conduct had not been immoral, he was deeply convinced of his sinfulness in the sight of God. He was for a time opposed to the doctrines of the gospel, particularly to the doctrine of the alonement, and of the dependence of man upon the special influences of the Holy Spirit to renew his heart. But at last his pride was humbled, and he was brought to an acquaintance with the way of Salvation by a crucified Redeemer. From this time he indulged the hope, that he was reconciled unto God. . An humble and an exemplary Christian, under the afflictions of life he quietly submitted to the will of his Father in heaven. He was a plain, evangelical, impressive preacher. Knowing the worth of immortal souls, he taught with the greatest clearness the way of salvation through faith in the Redeemer, and enforced upon his hearers that .holiness, without which no man can see the Lord. Dur. ing his ministry, there were four seasons of peculiar atten- tion to religion among his people. Dr. Backus was emi- ment as a theologian. His retired situation and his emi- nence as an instructor, drew around him many who were designed for the Christian ministry. Nearly fifty young men were members of his theological school. In his last sickness he had much of the divine presence. The last words which he was heard to whisper, were “glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to- wards men.” He published the following sermons; at the ordination B A C B.A. C [ 168 ) of Freegrace Reynolds, 1795; of Tim, M. Cooley and Joseph Russell, 1796; of Thomas Snell, 1798; five dis- courses on the Truth of the Bible, 1797; a century Ser- mon, 1801; a volume on Regeneration.—Conn. Mag iv.; Allen's Biog. Dict. º - BACKUS, (AZEL, D.D.,) president of Hamilton college, state of New York, was the son of Jabez Backus of Nor- wich, Conn. His father bequeathed to him a ſarm in Franklin, which, he says, “I wisely exchanged for an education in college.” He was graduated at Yale in 1787. While in college he was a deist; but his uncle and friend, Rev. Charles Backus of Somers, won him from infidelity through the divine blessing, and reared him up for the ministry. From the time that he believed the gospel, he gloried in the cross. In early life he was ordained as the successor of Dr. Bellamy at Bethlem, where he not only labored faithfully in the ministry, but also instituted and conducted a school of considerable celebrity. After the establishment of Hamilton college, near Utica, he was chosen the first president. He died of the typhus fever, December 28, 1816, aged fifty-one, and was succeeded by president Davis of Middlebury college. He was a man of an original cast of thought, distinguished by suscepti- bility and arder of feeling, and by vigorous and active piety. Of his benevolence and goodness no one could doubt. In his sermons, though familiar and not, perhaps, sufficiently correct and elevated in style, he was earnest, affectionate, and faithful. He published a sermon on the death of governor Wolcott, 1797; at the election, 1798; at the ordination of John Frost, Whitesborough, 1813.− Allen's Biog. Dict, ; Relig. Intel. i. 527, 592; Panopl. 13:43. BACON, (Roger,) a learned monk of the Franciscan order, was descended of an ancient family, and born near Ilchester, in Somersetshire, in the year 1214. He received the first tincture of learning at Oxford, from whence he proceeded to the university of Paris, at that time much frequented by the English. Having been admitted to the degree of doctor, he returned to England, and took the habit of the Franciscan order in 1240, when he was about twenty-six years of age. He was now regarded as a most able and indefatigable inquirer after knowledge by the greatest men of the age ; and a fund was raised for the purpose of defraying the expenses of advancing science by experiments, the method which Bacon had determined to follow. His discoveries were little understood, by the generality of his contemporaries; and because, by the help of mathematical knowledge, he performed things above the comprehension of the vulgar, he was sus- pected of magic. He was particularly persecuted by his own fraternity, so that they would not receive his books into their library, and eventually got him imprisoned; so that, as he confesses himself, he had reason enough to re- pent of his having taken such pains with the arts and sciences ! At the particular desire of pope Clement IV., Bacon collected together, and enlarged his several treatises, and sent them to him in 1267. This collection, which is the same that the author himself entitled “Opus Majus,” or his Great Work, is still extant. It has been affirmed, and not without reason, that though his application to the occult sciences was the pretended, yet the true cause of the ill usage which Bacon experienced, was the freedom with which he treated the clergy of his day, in his writings, wherein he spared neither their ignorance nor their want of morals. He went so far as to reprove pope Innocent IV, by letter, and is said to have made no scruple of de- claring to those with whom he was intimate, that, in his judgment, the pope was Antichrist. Dr. Jebb, the learned editor of Bacon’s works, tells us, that he appears to have proposed to himself two things, either by laying down a good scheme of philosophy to excite the pope to reform the errors that had crept into the church; or, if he could not effect this, to propose such expedients as would break the power of Antichrist, and retard his progress; for he appears to have been firmly persuaded that the church would ere long be reformed, either by the pope himselſ, or because the exorbitant dominion of Antichrist would be. come obnoxious to mankind, and so fall to destruction. When Bacon had been ten years in prison, a new pope had been elected to the pontificate, and he resolved to ap- ly to him for his discharge. With a view to convince § holiness of both the innocence and usefulness of his studies, he addressed to him a treatise, “On the Means of avoiding the Infirmities of Old Age,” written in Latin. This book has been translated into English, by Dr. Richard Prowne, who esteemed it one of the best performances that ever was written. What effect it had upon the pope does not appear: but towards the latter end of his reign, Bacon, by the interposition of some noblemen, obtained his release, and returned to Oxford, where he spent the remainder of his days in peace, and died in the college of his order, on the 11th of June, 1294. His last work was a Compendium of Theology. “He was,” says Dr. Shaw, “beyond all comparison the greatest man of his time, and might, perhaps, stand in competition with the great- est that have appeared since. It is wonderful, considering the ignorance of the age in which he lived, how he came by such a depth of knowledge on all subjects. His writ- ings are composed with that elegance, conciseness, and strength, and adorned with such just and exquisite obser- vations on nature, that, among all the chemists, we do not know his equal.” Dr. Freind ascribes the honor of intro- ducing chemistry into Europe to Bacon, who, he observes, speaks, in some part or other of his works, of almost every operation now used in chemistry. “He was the miracle,” says Freind, “of the age he lived in; and the greatest genius, perhaps, for mechanical knowledge, that ever ap- peared in the world since Archimedes. He appears, like- wise, to have been master of the whole science of optics.” The telescope was not unknown to him. His skill in as- tronomy was amazing: he discovered that error which occasioned the reformation of the calendar, and which has been regarded as one of the greatest efforts of human industry. Even in moral philosophy he leſt excellent pre- cepts, and is entitled to the remembrance of posterity as a great philosopher, an admirable linguist, a sound theo- logian, a wonderful man, and a sincere Christian.—Jones's Chris. Biog. ; Ency. Amer. BACON, (SIR FRANCIS,) Lord Verulam, Wiscount of St. Albans, the eminent statesman and illustrious philosopher, was the son of Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal. He was born at York house, in the Strand, on the 22d of January, 1561. At an early age, he gave promise of those talents which distinguished him in his more ma- ture years, so that he attracted the notice of queen Eliza- beth, who familiarly called him her young lord keeper. He entered Trinity college when he was in his twelfth year, where he studied under Dr. Whitgiſt, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and by the time he was sixteen years old, he had made great proficiency in the learning of those times; so that he already began to project those improvements in science, which paved the way for its complete reformation from the Aristotelian subtleties, which had so long obscured it. About this period, he accompa- nied Sir Amias Pawlet on his embassy to France, and so great an opinion was entertained of his discretion and ability, that he was entrusted with a commission to the queen, of which he acquitted himself with great credit. Here at the age of nineteen, he wrote a work entitled, Of the State of Europe, in which he gave the most astonish- ing proofs of the early maturity of his judgment. Soon after his father's death, in consequence of the straitness of his circumstances, he betook himself to the study of the common law; it was, however, impossible that a ge- nius that could range through the whole circle of the sci- ences, should confine itself to so dry a study. In his mo- ments of leisure, therefore, we find him taking a view of the state of learning, and devising means for supplying the defects, and correcting the errors he had detected. A treatise which he published about this period, entitled, “The greatest Birth of Time,” but which is now lost, ap- pears to have exhibited the ground-work of that splendid design, which was afterwards disclosed more fully in his “Grand Instauration of the Sciences.” In the year 1592, we find him engaged in defending the queen and the go. “vernment against the libellous attacks of the famous father Parsons. Being chosen a member of parliament for Mid. dlesex, in 1403 he frequently distinguished himself by the B A C B A C ef [ 169 | eloquence of his speeches, and though he generally ap- peared on the side of the court, he was regarded as not unfriendly to the interests of the people. He had frequent access to the queen, who sometimes advised with him on state affairs; but his opposition to the payment of three subsidies in the course of less than six years, gave such offence to Elizabeth, that he was for some time forbidden her presence, and all the influence of the earl of Essex, who was his warm friend, could not reinstate him in her favor. The patronage of this nobleman seems indeed to have raised a prejudice against him in the family of lord Burleigh, his relative, to whom, on several occasions, he applied for some office in the state; he did, however, pro- sure for him, notwithstanding the greatest opposition, the reversion of the situation of register to the star chamber, worth sixteen hundred pounds a year; but he did not come into the possession of it for nearly twenty years afterwards, nor did he obtain any other preferment during the whole of this reign, though his extensive learning and eloquence excited the admiration of those in power. His patron, the earl of Essex, however, still endeavored to serve him, and warmly urged his being appointed attorney-general, against all the remonstrances of Bacon’s cousin, Sir Robert Cecil. The earl frequently took his advice on business of impor- tance; but in the reverse of his fortunes that advice, how- ever salutary, did not always please him, and a shyness ensued ; yet though there is some reason to suppose that Bacon privately endeavored to serve the earl in his trou- bles, his public appearance against him on his trial has Justly exposed him to the censure of posterity. On the death of the queen, Mr. Bacon lost no time in paying his court to the new sovereign, who, on the twenty-third of July, 1603, bestowed on him the honor of knighthood; and in the month of August, the following year, he was made one of his majesty's council, with a fee of forty pounds per annum, to which was added, by another pa- tent, a pension of sixty pounds, for the special services of his brother Anthony and himself. In 1605, he published a work on “The Proficiency and Advancement of Learn- ing,” first in English, and afterwards in Latin, which gained him much celebrity, and drew upon him the notice of the king, to whom he dedicated it. His cousin, Sir Robert, now earl of Salisbury, having obtained the con- fidence of James, so as to feel himself beyond all fear-of a rival, began to show him some favor; but Sir Francis found a powerful opponent in the renowned Sir Edward Coke, who had recently been made attorney-general. There appears to have been a mutual jealousy between these two great men, Coke envying Bacon for the extent of his learn- ing, and Bacon emulating Coke for his profound know: ledge in the law. In 1507, Sir Francis was appointed solicitor-general, after which his practice increased so much, that he was retained in almost all great causes ; he argued on the subject of the union between England and Scotland before the house of commons; he was em- ployed by that house to represent to the king the grievances of the nation, in which he excited the applauses of both parties, and afterwards rendered important services in a conference with the lords on the question of abolishing the ancient tenures, and granting a sufficient revenue in- stead of them, in which he carried the point by setting the business in so clear a light as convinced all his hear- ers. In 1610, appeared his book “On the Wisdom of the Ancients,” in which, launching out into a new track, he endeavors to develop the physical, moral, and political meaning couched under the fables of antiquity; and, however doubtful some of his hypotheses may sº We cannot but admire the profundity and variety of his know- ledge. In 1611, he was made a judge of the marshal's court, and two years aſter, he succeeded Sir Henry Hobart, as attorney-general ; when, it having been objected that this office was incompatible with a seat in the house of commons, that house, from particular regard for him, over- ruled the objection, and allowed him to take his seat as usual. While in this office, he exerted himself much to put a stop to the permicious practice of duelling, and his eloquent and learned charge on this subject, in the star chamber, so pleased the lords of the council, who were present, that they ordered it to be printed and published, - - - 22 - with the decree of the court. Sir Francis Bacon's circum- stances were now in a more prosperous situation than they had ever been ; his practice was extensive and profitable. . . he had taken possession of his registership already men- tioned, and became possessed of several good estates by the death of his brother, Mr. Anthony Bacon. But his generosity, which often bordered on profusion, prevented him from amassing a fortune. When Sir George Williers came into favor with king James, Sir Francis endeavored to obtain his good will, and the favorite, conscious of his own inexperience, frequently advised with him on public affairs. A letter still extant shows such superiority of judgment, and so great a freedom of manner, as reflects the highest credit on his head and his heart. He was now rising rapidly, and about this time was sworn a member of his majesty's privy council, a promotion altogether un- usual for a man in his station ; it is, however, much to be regretted, that he sometimes exhibited too much servility in flattering the king and the court. On the 7th of March, 1617, the aged chancellor Egerton having voluntarily re- signed the seals, Sir Francis Bacon succeeded him, with the title of lord keeper, and soon after, the king going on a progress to Scotland, he was entrusted with the conduct of public affairs in his absence, and presided at the coun- cil. In the beginning of 1619, he was made iord high chancellor of England, had the title of baron Verulam conferred upon him, and shortly aſter, the dignity of vis- count St. Albans. This accumulation of honors added little to the fame of so great a man; but they tended to excite much jealousy, and probably contributed to his subsequent misfortunes. Amidst the multiplicity and variety of engagements, in which his high station involved him, he still found time for his favorite study of philosophy. In 1620, he pub- lished his most finished performance, under the title of Novum Organum Scientiarum, which formed the sequel to his grand Instauration of the Sciences. In this work he illustrates the true mode of interpreting nature by sound inductions, far remote from those puerile sophistries which had so long disgraced the schools. He dédicated it to the king, who ſavorably received it, and wrote him a letter of approval with his own hand. It was highly appreciated by the learned men of his time, who regarded it as a stand- ard of true philosophical inquiry, and later times have not been unjust to his memory, in styling him “The Father of the inductive Philosophy.” While, however, he was thus acquiring the greatest credit as a philosopher, a storm was rising, which soon overwhelmed him with dishonor. Being of an easy tem- per, and naturally generous and profuse in his domestic economy, his household had been guilty of great impo- sitions, at which he had inconsiderately connived ; so that in March, 1621, he was accused by the house of commons of having taken bribes, in causes that had come before him as chancellor. At first, he attempted to defend him- self from the charges, but more accusations being brought against him, he was impeached before the lords, on which he threw himself on the mercy of his judges, and received sentence to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, to be im- prisoned in the tower during the king's pleasure, to be incapable of holding any place of trust in the state, and never to sit in parliament, or come within the verge of the court. He was soon released from his confinement, and obtained access to his majesty, who granted him several favors, and at last remitted the whole sentence; but he never recovered himself from this disgrace. Being now freed from the hurry of public business, lord Bacon found full leisure for more pleasing and con- genial studies, and he frequently lamented that he had been so long diverted from them by the pursuits of am- bition and ſalse glory. During the five years which inter. vened between his misfortunes and his death, he published a number of interesting and important works, in addition to the revision and arrangement of several of his former treatises, and we cannot too much admire the compass of mind that, under so many discouragements, could accom- plish, in so short a period, what would have constituted, in ordinary men, the labor of a long life. At this time he wrote his “History of Henry VII,” “Essays; or, Coun- B A C B A C [ 170 I sels Civil and Moral,” and the “Third, Fourth, and Fifth Parts of the Grand Instauration of the Sciences,” by which last work in particular he enlarged the boundaries of sci- ence beyond all who had gone before him, as both indi- viduals and learned societies of all the most civilized ma- tions of Europe have freely acknowledged. And as his philosophy dealt not in metaphysical subtle- ties, but in the sober results of experimental deduction; there was little tendency in his mind to doubt or oppose the great truths of religion. From many parts of his writings, he appears to have been a firm believer, and experimentally acquainted with the power of these sacred principles; and his retirement seems to have been much spent in this study, and his strongest consolations in adver- sity to have been drawn from this divine source. His sen- timents on these subjects appear to have been what is called moderate Calvinism, that is to say, while he firmly believed the doctrine of the divine decrees, and their in- ſluence on the future character of the elect, he maintained the absolute accountableness of man, the full and free in- vitations of the gospel, and the infinite value of the death of Christ to save all; though, through unbelieſ, many fall short of the blessing. This will be better illustrated by a short quotation from his confession of faith : “I believe that the sufferings of Christ, as they are sufficient to take away the sins of the whole world, so they are only eſfec- tual to those who are regenerate by the Holy Ghost, who breatheth where he will of his free grace, which grace, as the seed incorruptible quickeneth the spirit of man, and conceiveth him anew a son of God, and a member of Christ.” - In these pursuits he spent the years of his retirement, gradually becoming more infirm, but frequently exerting his faculties with an application beyond his strength; till he at last fell, a sacrifice to his zeal, in making some ex- periments with regard to the preservation of bodies. He was suddenly affected in his head and stomach, so that, not being able to reach his home, he was obliged to retiré to the house of the earl of Arundel, at Highgate, where he sickened of a fever and defluxion on his breast; and, aſter a week's illness, expired in the sixty-sixth year Of his age, on the ninth of April, 1626. He was buried pri. vately at St. Albans; and his tomb remained for some time undistinguished, until Sir Thomas Meantys, who had formerly been his servant, raised a monument to his memo. ry. Thus died lord Bacon, of whom it is little to Say, that he was one of the greatest philosophers of modern times. To him belongs the praise of striking out a new path to science, and rescuing it from that load of meta- physical jargon which had overwhelmed and nearly ex- tinguished it. Goethe says, “He drew a sponge over the table of human knowledge.” His contemporaries could not fully appreciate the extent of his genius, and the value of his labors. Sensible of this himself, he says in his will, “My name and memory I bequeath to foreign nations and to my own countrymen, aſter some time be passed over!” With regard to physics, if the learned of our times have made more brilliant discoveries, few will deny that it was Bacon who led the way to those discoveries, and laid the foundation of the sciences in the most solid and decisive experiments. In his person, lord Bacon was about the middle stature, with a broad and open front, a lively and piercing eye, and pleasing and venerable in his appearance, so as insen. sibly to excite the esteem of all who saw him. He was an eloquent and convincing speaker, an eminent lawyer, and a great statesman ; and though the latter part of his public career was sullied by charges highly dishonorable to the exalted station that he filled as a judge, it has been shown that these arose rather out of his too easy temper with the underlings of his office, than by any desire to participate in their exactions; it is also worthy of remark, that, notwithstanding he ſell under this grievous charge, not one of the many decisions which he passed (and he is said to have made no less than two thousand orders and decrees in a year) was ever reversed as unjust. At the age of forty, lord Bacon was married to a daughter of Mr Barnham; an alderman of the city of London, with whom he received a good fortune, and she outlived him upwards of twenty years. He had no children. It is re. marked of him, that he was so sensibly affected at every eclipse of the moon, whether he observed it or not, that he was seized with a fainting fit, from which he did not recover till the eclipse was over; but it left no remaining weakness. His diet was rather plentiful, and in the latter part of his life he preferred the stronger and more nourish- ing meats, as most conducive to the strength of the con- stitution. He made frequent use of nitre, the virtues of which he has much extolled in his writings, taking about three grains of it in some warm broth, every morning, for nearly thirty years. His works, which are numerous, were first collected to- gether and published in London in four volumes, folio, in 1740; and Dr. Birch afterwards edited a correct and valu- able edition of them, in 1765, consisting of five volumes, quarto. Of late years, they have repeatedly been reprinted in ten volumes, octavo.—Jones's Chris. Biog, Ency. Amer. BACON, (John,) the celebrated English sculptor, was born in Southwark, in Surry, November 24, 1740. His father, Thomas Bacon, was a cloth-worker. At an early age, he removed with his father to London, and worked with him for the maintenance of the family. Even while a boy, his aspiring and philosophic genius was working in him so strongly, that he left his old trade, and, at the age of fourteen, apprenticed himself to one Crispe, a maker of porcelain, who taught him the art of modelling. All his early experiments in the severe school of sculpture, were privately made, during his hours of remission from labor. The first of his works which caught the public attention, was a colossal head of Ossian. He entered the royal academy in 1768 as a student, and in 1769 received the first gold medal, for sculpture, ever given by the royal academy. The society of arts, to whom he presented his Mars and Venus, became the personal friends of the artist. The king also became his patron. From this time his employment, skill, reputation, and fortune went on in a steady career of improvement till his death, in 1799, at the age of fifty-nine years. Bacon was an enlightened and decided Christian. His genius and fame were softened by humility, and conse- crated to high and useful ends. It was his constant study to embody in all his works some religious sentiment or judicious moral. The school in which he was educated, namely the pottery and artificial stone manuſactory, had made him acquainted with public feeling, and he addressed it. “He inſused more English good sense into his sculp- ture,” says Mr. Cunningham, “than any preceding artist. Wu all that he did, there was a plain meaning, a sentiment which lay on the surface; which ignorance had not to call on learning to explain, and which could be felt without any reference to the antique. In sixteen competitions with rival artists, it was his boast that he was fifteen times suc- cessful.” His monument to lord Chatham, and his statues of judge Blackstone, and of lords Rodney and Cornwallis are splendid efforts; but his statues of Jöhnson and How. ard are superior still, and “rival all similar works save the Šublime Newton, of Roubiliac. They stand, one on the right, and the other on the left, of the entrance to the choir of St.Paul's; and the severe dignity of the philoso. pher with his scroll, and the philanthropist with his prison key, countenance the mistake of a distinguished foreigner, who paid his respects to them as St. Peter and St. Pºul.” Bacon's merits have been widely acknowledged. But a plain tablet over his grave has the following inscription, written by himself: “WHAT I was As AN ARTIST, seemer, To ME OF SOME IMPORTANCE while I LIVED ; BUT what I REALLY WAS AS A BELIEVER IN CHRIST JESUs, Is THE only THING OF IMPORTANCE TO ME Now.”—Memoirs, by Rev. Ilichard Cecil; Lives of Eminent Painters and Sculptors, by Allan Cunningham, Esq. - - BACON. (Miss ANN,) daughter of the celebrated sculp- tor, John Bacon, Esq. distinguished alike for his learning and piety, and of a mother, who exhibited all that was lovely in the Christian character, was born on the 10th of May, 1768. Miss Bacon received from her mother her earliest instructions, and was taught by that excellent woman to seek for her happiness in the paths of virtue and the ways of religion. At the age of thirteen, death deprived her of her parent, and she was then consigned to the care of a lady of eminent piety, who kept a board. BA D B A G [ 171 j ing-school, and who endeavored to improve this mournful event to the spiritual advantage of her pupil. During her continuance at School, she sedulously employed her time in the cultivation of her mind, and became as distinguished for her knowledge as she was celebrated for her piety. At the age of twenty-three, her mind became enlightened to discern, and her heart to feel its own sinfulness; and after much inward conſlict, searching of the Scriptures, and prayer to God, she was brought to rest in Christ, as the anchor of her hope. On her return home, she commu- nicated to her father the state of her feelings; and from his conversation and advice, derived great encouragement and assistance. Whilst to the concerns of religion she paid particular attention, she was not indifferent to the attainment of general literature. Her diary presented an exact por- traiture of her lovely and pious heart. She corresponded with persons of great learning and excellence, and her letters were very superior, both in matter and composition. To the study of the holy Scriptures she devoted much at- tention and time. About four years previous to her death, she had an attack of the pleurisy, which was only intro- ductory to the consummation of that ill health, with which she had been visited for several years, and which termi- nated in a decline. During her long and subsequent ill- ness, in which she suffered greatly from the disorder, she never exhibited any indications of impatience, but with gratitude received the attentions of her friends, and with cheerfulness submitted to the determination of Providence. Though greatly reduced by continued pain, she felt little apprehension at the approach of death; but looking at her wasted and almost fleshless arms, she said:—“The sight of these withered limbs affords me solid pleasure; for as I discern the outward man decay, so, through the mercy of my Redeemer, I believe the inward man is renewing day by day.” And at night, when first laid in bed, she frequently said, “Blessed be God, I have another day less! I am another day nearer my journey’s end.” Miss Bacon was never married, though she lived to the age of forty-one ; and for visits of mercy and decds of benevolence, she had therefore much time which she could so devote, and which she did not fail thus usefully to ap- ply. At length, after a life of piety, benevolence, and intellectual application, she expired the 24th of December, 1809, with a sure and certain hope of a joyful resurrec- tion.—Jones's Chris. Biog. . BACON, (SAMUEL,) agent of the American government for establishing a colony in Africa, was an episcopal cler- gyman. He proceeded in the Elizabeth to Sierra Leone, with eighty-two colored people, accompanied by Mr. Bank- son, also agent, and Dr. Croser; and arrived March 9, 1820. The Augusta schooner was purchased, and the people and stores were transhipped, and carried to Cam- pelar in Sherbro river, March 20th. Dr. Crozer and Mr. Bankson died in a ſew weeks, and Mr. Bacon being taken ill on the 17th of April, proceeded to Kent, at cape Shil- ling, but died two days after his arrival, on the third of May. Many others died. The circular of the Coloniza- tion society, signed by E. B. Caldwell, October 26, describes this disastrous expedition.—Allen ; Memoirs by Ashmun. BADCOCK, (SAMUET,) was the son of a respectable butcher at South Molton, in Devonshire, where he was born, February 23, 1747. His family and connections were dissenters, and he was himself designed by them ſor the ministerial function among the Nonconformists. The compiler of Mr. Badcock's Memoir, in the General Bio- graphical Dictionary, 1798, is pleased to tell us, that “ſrom habitual intercourse with some of the students at Mr. Pooker's academy, he contracted some of those tenets which compose the gloomy fanaticism of the Methodists:” and immediately proceeds to instance the topics of frec. grace, election, justification by imputed righteousness, final perseverance, &c., as though tocse were the doctrines contended for by the fanatical Methodists; whereas they are all, without exception, fundamental articles of the church of England, and stiffly opposed by the Wesleyan Methodists! . How long Mr. B. continued at this academy we know not; but on leaving it, he accepted a call to be pastor to a dissenting congregation at Winbourne, in Dor- setshire, where he was ordained, but did not continue long with them, the salary being inadequate to his support- From Winbourne he was invited to Barnstaple, in Devon- shire, which was a much more eligible place for him, as the income was adequate to his wants, and the distance but a few miles from his native town. He accordingly removed thither in 1769, and continued there nine or ten years. It would appear that, during Mr. Badcock's residence at Barnstaple, he became somewhat latitudinarian in his creed; and this is resolved into his falling in with the writings of Dr. Priestley, to whom he paid a visit at Calne, in Wiltshire, and established an intimacy and correspond. ence with the doctor. About the year 1780, he engaged as a writer in the Monthly Review, which was then one of the most popular literary journals of the day; and the talents which Mr. Badcock displayed in his department, during the few years that he continued to write for it, tended greatly to raise its fame and establish its reputa- tion. On the publication of Dr. Priestley's History of the Corruptions of Christianity, Mr. Badcock undertook the reply to that part which was the most labored and impor- tant of the whole, viz. the “History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ :” it appeared in the Monthly Re- view for June, 1783. His critique extended to thirty-three pages in the whole, and was afterwards reprinted; but no one, except Dr. Priestley, wished it shorter. It discovered not merely acuteness, but an uncommon extent of reading in the primitive fathers, and ecclesiastical history in gene- ral. The doctor felt this attack so severely, and more especially as proceeding from a quarter so unexpected as the Monthly Review, that, with his usual celerity, in less than a month he brought out a reply to the animad- versions, though the reviewer had then discharged himself of only half his task. At the moment of publishing his reply, Dr. Priestley was ignorant who his antagonist was; and, therefore, unbiassed by prejudice or resentment, he bestowed this eulogium on him : “The knowledge and ability of the present reviewer make him a much more formidable, and, therefore, a more respectable antagonist.” The late Dr. Johnson, speaking of Mr. Badcock's review, at an interview which he had with him a little before his death, said, “You have proved him as deficient in probity as he is in learning : he borrowed from those who had been borrowers themselves, and did not know that the mistakes he adopted had been answered by others.” He was for several years troubled with dreadful head- achs, and so violent were they at times, that they threw him into a state of delirium. This made him frequently express his apprehension of some time or other losing his reason : an event which he justly considered as far more to be dreaded than death itself. In 1787, he lost his mother, a very excellent woman and most affectionate parent His behavior to her was an example of filial piety, and his grief at her death exquisitely tender. At the Lent assizes, 1788, he preached in the cathedral of Exeter, having previously taken orders ; and his Sermon before the judges was greatly admired by those who heard it. On the 19th of May following, he died Of a bilious com- plaint, at the house of his affectionate friend, Sir John Chicester, Bart. in Queen street, May Fair, London. In his person, Mr. Badcock was short, but well made, active, lively, and agreeable. His eye was peculiarly vivacious, and his whole countenance indicated strong intellectual powers, far above the general run of mankind, and a dis- position replete with sensibility, tenderness, and generosity. As a pulpit orator he was much admired. Though all his writings discover the hand of a master, and exhibit abun- dant traces of laborious research and profound learning, it may be questioned if, in any of them, he has done more essential service to the cause of Christianity, than by his masterly statement of the evidence of its truth, arising from miracles and prophecy, in the Bampton lectures.— Jones's Chris. Biog. : Davenport : Ency. Amer. BAG ; a sack, pouch, or purse. The money collected in the treasuries of eastern princes was reckoned up in certain equal sums, put into bags, and sealed. God is said to seal and serv up men's iniquity in a bag ; a striking image, to denote that he remembers every act and circumstance thereof, in order to charge it on them, and punish them for it, at a future time. Job 14: 17. Riches blasted by B. A. K. B. A. L. [ 172 ) the curse of God, are styled wages put into a bag with holes; that is, they profit not the owner, but are secretly and unexpectedly consumed. Hag. 1: 6. On the contrary, treasures of spiritual good, blessings promised in the heavens, to such as liberally expend their property, in do- ing good on Christian principles, are said to be deposited in bags, or purses, that wax not old. Luke 12: 33. Of course, these riches of the soul are permanent, and can neither be tarnished, scattered, or lost. How few com- paratively provide, according to the precept of the Savior, these safe and indestructible depositories for their wealth, beyond the grave! BAHURIM; a town of Benjamin, (2 Sam. 3: 16. 16: 5. 17: 18.) probably built by the young men who escaped the destruction of their tribe. It is thought to have been also named Almon, (Josh. 21: 18.) and Alemath. 1 Chron. 6: 60, - - BAILEY, (John,) an excellent minister in Boston, was born in Lancashire, England. From his earliest years, his mind seems to have been impressed by the truths of re- ligion. While he was yet very young, his mother one day persuaded him to lead the devotions of the family. When his father, who was a very dissolute man, heard of it, his heart was touched with a sense of his sin in the meglect of this duty, and he became afterwards an emi- ment Christian. After having been carefully instructed in classical learning, he commenced preaching the gospel, about the age of twenty-two. He soon went to Ireland, where, by frequent labors, he much injured his health, which was never perfectly restored. He spent about four- teen years of his life at Limerick, and was exceedingly blessed in his exertions to turn men from darkness to light. While at Limerick, a deanery was offered him, if he would conform, with the promise of a bishopric upon the first vacancy. But disdaining worldly things, when they came in competition with duty to his Savior and the purity of divine worship, he rejected the offer in true disinterested- ness and elevation of spirit. But neither this proof, that he was intent on higher objects than this world presents, nor the blamelessness of his life, nor the strong hold which he had in the affections of his acquaintance, could pre- serve him from again suffering the hardships of imprison- ment, while the papists in the neighborhood enjoyed liberty and countenance. When he was before the judges, he said to them, “if I had been drinking, and gaming, and carousing at a tavern with my company, my lords, I pre- sume that would not have procured my being thus treated as an offender. Must praying to God, and preaching of Christ with a company of Christians, who are peaceable and inoffensive, and as serviceable to his majesty and the government as any of his subjects; must this be a greater crime?”. The recorder answered, “We will have you to know it is a greater crime.” His flock often fasted and prayed for his release; but he was discharged on this condition only, that he should depart from the country within a limited time. He came to New England in 1684, and was ordained the minister of Watertown, October 6, 1686, with his brother, Thomas Bailey, as his assistant; he removed to Boston in 1692, and became assistant minister of the first church, July 17, 1693, succeeding Mr. Moody. Here he continued till his death, December 12, 1697, aged fifty. three. He was a man eminent for piety, of great sensi- bility of conscience, and very exemplary in his life. In his last sickness, he suffered under a complication of disorders; but he did not complain. His mind was soothed in dwelling upon the Sufferings of his Savior. At times he was agitated with fears, though they had not respect, as he said, so much to the end, as to what he might meet in the nyay. His last words were, speaking of Christ, “O, what shall I say? He is altogether lovely." His glorious angels are come ſor me!”. He then closed his eyes, and his spirit passed into etermity. He published an address to the people of Limerick; and Man's Chief End to glo- rify God, a sermon preached at Watertown, 1689.—Mid- dleton's Biog. Evan. iv. 101–105; Nonconform. Memorial, 1. 331–335 ; Mather's Fun. Ser. ; Magnalia, iii.224–238; Eliot ; Farmer ; Allen's Am. Biog. BAJITH ; a town of Moab. Isa. 15: 2. t BAKE, In the earliest times, the oriental nations ap- pear to have baked their bread with great simplicity on a clean part of the hearth, or in a pan of iron. Gen. 18; 6. Lev. 2: 4–7. Afterwards, other inventions were employed. It is said the Arabs are accustomed to make a fire in a large stone pitcher, and when it is sufficiently heated, ap- ply the soft paste or dough to the outside. As it is usually very thin, the heat of the pitcher bakes it almost in an instant. Dried dung is frequently used inside, as fuel; a practice which explains a very singular passage, Ezek. 4:9–17. Such a custom is still found also in Barbary.— Ten women baking the bread of a nation in one oven, imports great scarcity of provisions. Lev. 26:26. The baker sleeping all the night, indicates the singular inattention of the Jew- ish rulers to the dangers arising from the inflamed state of the public mind, which menaced the destruction of the state. Hos. 7: 6. - - BALA, otherwise Zohar, or Zoar, one of the five cities. of the plain; said to be called Bala, that is, smalloned up, because when Lot quitted it, the earth opened and swal- lowed it up.–Calmet. * * BALAAM; a prophet, or diviner, of the city Pethor, on the Euphrates, whose history may be found in Numb. 22 to 25 chapters. Also 31:2, 7, 8. See also Mic. 6: 5. 2 Pet. 2: 15. Jude 11. Rev. 2: 14.—See also Ass of BALAAM. The rabbins relate many fanciful particulars of Balaam; as that at first he was one of Pharaoh’s counsellors; ac- cording to others, he was the father of Jamnes and Jambres, two eminent magicians; that he squinted, and was lame; that he was the AUTHOR OF THAT PASSAGE IN NUMBERs, whereIN HIS HISTORY IS RELATED ; and that Moses inserted it, in like manner as he inserted other writings. It has been much questioned whether Balaam were a true prophet of the Lord, or a mere diviner, magician, or fortune-teller. Origen and others say, that all his power consisted in magic and cursing; because the devil, by whose influence he acted, can only curse and injure. Theodoret, Cyril of Alexandria, and Ambrose think he prophesied without being aware of the import of what he said; but Jerome seems to have adopted the opinion of the Hebrews, that Balaam knew the true God, and was a true prophet, though corrupted by avarice. Moses cer- tainly says, he consulted the Lord; and calls the Lord, his God, (Numb. 22: 18.) but this might have been merely because he was of the posterity of Shem, which patriarch maintained the worship of the Lord among his descend- ants; so that, while the posterity of Ham fell into idolatry, and the posterity of Japhet were settled at a distarce, in Europe, the Shemites maintained the worship of Jehovah, and knew his holiness and jealousy. This appears in the profligate advice which Balaam gives Balak, to seduce the Israelites to transgress against Jehovah, with the holiness of whose nature the perverted prophet seems to have been well acquainted. -. There is something peculiar and worthy of notice in the account of Balaam’s divinations, Numb. 24: 1. “When he saw that it pleased the Lord to bless Israel, he went not as at other times to seek for enchantments;” but began at once to speak in the name of the Lord. He went not lite- rally, as “time upon time to meeting Nachashim.” There is something peculiar here ; and to be properly understood, the words must be strictly taken —“he went not to meet” —it was not, then, to make observations—to watch atten- tively—to inspect, that he went: but to meet, & la rencontre. And what had he been used to meet, as implied in the phrase ? Nachashim ; the plural of Nachash; serpents; (as chap. 21:6. “the fiery sºrpEnts,” Nachashim. Had he then been accustomed, when in his own country, to go to meet Serpents? to draw auguries from those reptiles? The thing is not impossible; since we know, that from almost every creature, auguries have been drawn. But it is much more probable, that Balaam pretended to greater powers, to intercourse with spiritual existences, who furnished him with Supernatural intelligence ; and who could and would perform extraordinary feats of destruction in consequence of his execration. The pretence has never wanted profes. Şors, in every age; and instances of it might be adduced from Balaam, and the witch of Endor, from the familiar spirits that peep and mutter, (Isaiah 8: 19.) out of the dust, (29: 4.) to Cornelius Agrippa, and the modern illuminati of Germany—But, why employ the term serpents to ex- B A L B A L [ 173 ) press these spiritual powers ? and, what was the supposed character of these Nachashim?—Again, it will be naturally inquired, whether we know of any term derived from the East which bears the double sense of scrpent and spiritual existence? A spiritual existence not benevolent, not of ce- lestial benignity, but insidious and infernal? We do. And if Balaam were reputed, or if he affected, to hold inter- course with the powers of destruction, with potent spirits of the infernal regions, as his familiars, supposed to exist in, or to assume the form and properties of serpents, there is no word in Hebrew so proper to express this as Nachash, Nachashim. Nor should we overlook the insidious nature of this prophet's advice, worthy a disciple of these Nacha- shim 1 What he could not effect against Israel by force, he accomplished by fraud. Undoubtedly, this moral insi- nuation, this guile, is drawn from the gliding, the insinu- ating motion of the serpent tribe; in accord with which, is the description in the Revelation, (12: 9.) of “the great dragon, that old serpent, called the devil, and THE Satan, which deceiveth the nhole world.”—But an animal serpent could not deceive the whole world; though the Hindoo Sheshan AGAH, the destroyer, the sovereign serpent of the infernal regions, might do so; and when we read, (2 Cor. 11: 3.) that the serpent beguiled Eve, we must not attribute that to a natural serpent, to which a natural serpent is incompetent. To supply this deficiency, and to impart ability for the purpose, to a natural serpent, recourse has been had to supposition :-as, that the creature was merely the vehicle by which a tempting spirit acted; so Milton : . . . . in his mouth The devil enter'd, and his brutal sense, lm heart or head, possessing, soon inspir’d With act intelligential; With track oblique At first, as one who sought access, but fear'd To interrupt, side-long he works his way: So varied he, and of his tortuous train Curl’d many a wanton wreath in sight of Eve, To lure her eyc— But, may we not rather acknowledge a like duplicity of meaning in the Hebrew word Nachash, as in the Sanscrit Négéh Or, may not the Hebrew Nachash be its legiti- mate representative, by transplantation, and, consequently, have brought with it that double import which places it at the head of serpents, natural and metaphorical :-‘‘ that old serpent, the Satan.” We have seen that the Satan (no earthly spirit) tempted Job; why might he not tempt our first parents? He tempted David; he tempted the Messiah; why might he not tempt in paradise itself? But, “the Na- chash of Genesis is punished by a sentence of degradation, apparently animal degradation, therefore he was animal,” say some ;-but will the reader have the goodness to con- sider by what other terms the punishment inflicted on him, could be rendered sensible to Adam 2 What acquaintance had our first father with the nature of spirits 2 None. Of what avail then, to him, would have been a punishment simply spiritual on his enemy It would have been nei- ther intelligible, nor cautionary. But the symbol, the serpent, would be ever before his eyes in common with other creatures, and the insidiousness of its manners, with the mortal consequences of its venom, would never be for- gotten, and could never be mistaken.—Calmet. BALAK; son of Zippor, king of Moab, Numb. 22–25. See BALAAM. Balaam having advised him to engage the Israelites in sin, Balak, politically, as he thought, followed his counsel; which proved equally pernicious, (1.) to him who gave it, (2) to those who followed it, and (3.) to those against whom it was intended. (1.) The Israelites who. were betrayed by it, were slain by their brethren who continued unperverted; (2) Balaam, the author of it, was involved in the slaughter of the Midianites; and (3.) Ba- lak, who had executed it by means of the Midianite women, saw his allies attacked, their country plundered, and himself charged with being the cause of their calamity.—Calmet. BALANCE ; an instrument for weighing; much of the same mature, probably, as the Roman steelyard, where the weight is hung at one end of the beam, and the article to be weighed at the other end. Balances, in the plural, ge- nerally appear to mean scales,—a pair of Scales. Prov. 11: 1. Job 31: 6. Ps. 62: 9. Dan. 5; 27. Job 37: 16. See WEIGHING.-Calmet. In Rev. 6: 5, the term zugos, rendered ‘a pair of balan- ces,’ is properly a yoke j and it represents in the most forcible manner the iron yoke of the papal power, and the consequent famiñe of the word of God." BALDNESS, is a natural effect of old age, in which pe. riod of life the hair of the head, wanting nourishment, falls off, and leaves the head naked. Artificial baldness was used as a token of mourning; it is threatened to the volup- tuous daughters of Israel, instead of well-set hair, Isa. 3: 24. See Mic. 1: 16; and instances of it occur, Isa. 15:2. Jer, 47: 5. See Ezek. 7: 18. Amos 8: 10. The insult offered to Elisha by the young people of Bethel, improperly rendered, “little children,” who cried out after him, “Go up, thou bald head,” may here be no- ticed. The town of Bethel was one of the principal nurse- ries of Ahab's idolatry, and the contempt was offered to Elisha in his public character as a prophet of the Lord. If in the expression, “Go up,” there was also a reference to the translation of Elijah, as turning it into jest, this was another aggravation of the sin, to which these young people were probably instigated by their parents. The malediction laid upon them by the prophet was not an act of private resentment, but evidently proceeded from pro- phetic impulse—Watson. BALDI, (BERNARDIN ;), an Italian of almost universal genius. He was born at Urbino, in 1553, and made abbot of Guastalla by the sovereign of that state. He was at once a mathematician, philosopher, antiquary, geographer, his. torian, orator, poet, and divine; understood the ancient, the oriental, and almost all the European languages; and united a sound judgment, with his prodigious memory and indefatigable application. Such a man is a rare example of the extent to which the human faculties may be cultivated under the influence of religion. He died in 1617, leaving behind him only a few poems and scientific works. Alas! that talents and erudition like his should leave so little to enrich the world!—Davenport. BALDWIN, (THoMAs,) D.D. a distinguished Baptist minister in Boston, was born in Norwich, Conn., Dec. 23, 1753. After he had removed to Canaan in New Hamp- shire he became pious, and joined the Baptist church in 1781. It was with pain, that he thus forsook his connec- tions and early friends; for he had been educated a pedo- baptist, and his venerable minister at Norwich was his grand-uncle. Having for some time conducted the reli- gious exercises at public meetings, in August, 1782, he ventured for the first time to take a text and preach doc- trinally and methodically. His advantages for intellectual culture had been few. At the request of the church, he was ordained, June 11, 1783, as an evangelist; and he performed the duties of a pastor for seven years, besides preaching oftem during each week in the towns within a circle of fifty miles, “chiefly at his own charges,” some- times receiving small presents, but never having a public contribution. In these journeys he was obliged to climb rocky steeps and to pass through dismal swamps; and as the poor people had no silver, and the continental currency was good for nothing, sometimes the travelling preacher was obliged either to beg or to starve. For several years, he was chosen a member of the legislature. In 1790, he was invited to Boston, as the pastor of the second Baptist church. He now successfully pursued a course of study, and by his unwearied exertions acquired a high rank as a preacher. His church, though small in 1790, became under his care numerous and flourish- Jng. - * Of his own denomination in New-England he was at the head, and to him all his brethren looked for advice. Be- sides being connected with most of the benevolent institu- tions of Boston, he was a member of the Convention for revising the Constitution of the State; and just before his death, was fixed upon, by one party among the people, as a candidate for an elector of president of the United States. He died very suddenly at Waterville, Maine, whither he had gone to attend the commencement, August 29, 1825, aged seventy-one years. Dr. Baldwin was a writer of great perspicuity and vigor, and one of the best of men. “He was a #". man. And amid our tears, Sweet, grateful thoughts within our bosoms rise; We trace his spirit up to brighter spheres, B A L B A M | 174 ) ë. And think with what pure rapturous surprise He ſound himself translated to the skies: From night at once awoke to endless noon | Oh! with what transport did his eager eyes Behold his Lord in glory ! 'Twas the boom ' His heart had longed for l Why deem we it came too soon º’’ He published the following discourses: at the Thanksgiv- ing, 1795; Quarterly Sermon; at the Concert of Prayer; Account of a Revival of Religion, 1799; on the Death of lieutenant governor Phillips; Election Sermon, 1802; on the Eternal Purpose of God; at Thanksgiving; before a Missionary Society, 1804; at the Ordination of D. Merrill, 1805; before the Female Asylum, 1806; on the Death of Dr. Stillman; at the Artillery Election, 1807; and, the Baptism of Believers only, and Particular Communion vindicated, 12mo. 1806. Of this work, the first and se- cond parts were originally published in 1789 and 1794– Allen ; Biog. of Self-taught Men; Am. Bap. Mag. 1826. BALE, (John,) Bishop of Ossory ; an English divine, born in 1495, and educated at Cambridge. He became a zealous convert from Popery to Protestantism; in defence of which he wrote many works during the reigns of Ed- ward VI. queen Mary, and Elizabeth. His style, however, is defective in Christian gentleness and kindness. He appears to have been the last writer of those religious dramas called Mysteries, once so celebrated in the South of Europe. The work by which he is principally remem- bered, is his Latin Account of the Lives of Eminent Brit- ish Authors.—Davenport. BALGUY, (Jº: an eminent English divine, was born at Sheffield in 1686, and educated at Cambridge. Though an excellent minister and writer, he never received any higher preferment in the church of England, than prebend of Salisbury. In the celebrated Bangorian controversy, he espoused and maintained the liberal views of bishop Hoadley. In reply to lord Shaſtsbury, he published ‘Two Letters to a Deist;’ and ‘The Foundation of Moral Vir- tue.” Of his other works, the principal are two volumes of Sermons. Iſe died in 1748–Davenport. BALM. See BALsAM. & BALSAM TREE, or BALsAM ; the celebrated Balm of Gilead. Gen. 37: 25. 43: 11. Jer. 8: 22, 46: 11. 51:8. Ezek. 27: 17. The word Balsamon may be derived from Baal-Shemen, that is, lord of oil; or the most precious of perfumed oils. In Arabic it is called Abuscham, that is, ' father of scent,” sweet-scented. The tree is an evergreen; grows to the height of about fourteen feet, and from eight to ten inches diameter; the trunk having a smooth bark, with spreading crooked branches; small bright green leaves, growing in threes; and small white flowers on separate footstalks. The petals are four in number. The fruit is a small, egg-shaped berry, containing a smooth nut. The mode in which the balsam is obtained is de- scribed by Mr. Bruce. The bark of the tree is cut with an axe, at a time when its juices are in the strongest circu- lation. These, as they ooze through the wound, in single drops like tears, are received into small earthen bottles; and every day's produce is gathered, and poured into a larger bottle, which is closely corked. When the juice first issues from the wound, it is of a light yellow color, and a somewhat turbid appearance ; but as it settles it becomes clear, has the color of honey, and appears more fixed and heavy than at first. Its smell, when fresh, is exquisitely fragrant; strongly pungent; not much unlike that of volatile salts, but more odoriſerous. lf the bottle be left uncorked, it loses this delicious aroma. The quan- tity of balsam yielded by one tree never cxceeds sixty drops in a day. Hence its scarcity is such, that at the present time the genuine balsam, though found in several parts of Syria and Abyssinia, is seldom exported as an article of commerce. Even at Constantinople, the centre of trade of those countries, it cannot without great difficulty be procured. Its taste is bitter, acrid, aromatic, and as- tringent. The Turks take it in small quantities in water to excite the animal faculties, and fortify the stomach. It is in the highest esteem, as a medicine, as a cosmetic, and as an odoriferous unguent. It is said to grow sponta- neously and without culture, now, in its native country, Azab, and all along the coast to Babelmandel. But in ancient times, its most famous place of cultivation was Gilead or Jerico in Judea. Hence the beautiful language n]OSt aCCul’ate. of Jeremiah, “Is there no balm un Gilead Is there no physi. cian there 2'' Jer. 8: 22. - There were three kinds of balsam extracted ſrom this tree. The first was called opobalsamum, and was most highly esteemed. It was that which ſlowed spontaneously, or by means of incision, from the trunk or branches of the tree in summer time. The second was carpobalsamum, made by expressing the fruit when in maturity. The third, and least esteemed of all, was hylobalsamum, made by a decoction of the buds and small young twigs. The great value set upon this drug in the East is traced to the earliest ages. The Ishmaelites, or Arabian carriers and merchants, trafficking with the Arabian commodities into Egypt, brought with them balm as a part of their cargo, Gen. 37:25. 43: 11. Josephus, in the history of the anti- quities of his country, says that a tree of this balsam was brought to Jerusalem by the queen of Saba, and given among other presents to Solomon, who, as we know from Scripture, was very studious of all sorts of plants, and skilful in the description and distinction of them. And here, indeed, it seems to have been cultivated and to have thriven; so that the place of its origin, through length of time, combined with other reasons, came to be forgotten. Notwithstanding the positive authority of Josephus, and the great probability that attends it, we cannot put it in competition with what we have been told in Scripture, as we have just now seen that the place where it grew, and was sold to merchants, was Gilead in Judea, more than 1730 years before Christ, or 1000 before the queen of Saba; so that in reading the verse, nothing can be plainer than that it had been transplanted into Judea, ſlourished, and had become an article of commerce in Gilead, long before the period he mentions. “A company of Ishmael- ites came from Gilcad with their camels, bearing spicery, and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt,” Gen. 37:25. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Justin, Solinus, and Serapion, speaking of its costliness and medicinal virtues, all say that this balsam came from Judea. The words of Pliny are, “But to all other odors whatever, the balsam is pre- ferred, produced in no other part but the land of Judea, and even there in two gardens only; both of them belong- ing to the king, one no more than twenty acres, the other still smaller.” The whole valley of Jelicho was once esteemed the most fruitful in Judea; and the obsti- macy with which the Jews fought here to prevent the bal- sam trees ſrom falling into the possession of the Romans, attests the importance which was attached to them. This tree Pliny describes as peculiar to the vale of Jericho, and as “more like a vine than a myrtle.” It was esteemed so precious a rarity, that both Pompey and Titus tarried a specimen to Rome in triumph; and the balsam, owing to its scarcity, sold for double its weight in silver, till its high price led to the practice of adulteration. Justin makes it the chief source of the national wealth. He describes the country in which it grew, as a valley like a garden, envi. roned with continual hills, and, as it were, enclosed with a wall. “The space of the valley contains two hundred thousand acres, and is called Jericho. In that valley, there is wood as admirable for its fruitfulness as for its delight, ſor it is intermingled with palm trees and opobal- samum. The trees of the opobalsamum have a resem- blance to fir trees; but they are lower, and are planted and husbanded after thc manner of vines. On a set sea- son of the year, they sweat balsam. The darkness of the place is besides as wonderful as the fruitfulness of it; for although the sun shines nowhere hotter in the world, there is naturally a moderate and perpetual gloominess of the air.” According to Mr. Buckingham, this description is “Both the heat and the gloominess,” he says, “were observed by us, though darkness would be an improper term to apply to this gloom.”—Calmet; Watson ; JEncy. A mer. BAMAH; an eminence, or high place, where the Jews worshipped their idols, Ezek. 20: 29. * BAMIAN, says Ibn Haukal, is a town half as large as Balkh, situated on a hill. Before this hill runs a river, the stream of which flows into Gurjestan. Bamian has not any gardens or orchards, and it is the only town in this district situated cn a hill. The cold part of Khorasan B A N B AN [ 175 J is about Bamian. (Sir W. Ousley's Trans. p. 225.) This town is affirmed to have been the residence of Shem. See CHALDEA.—Calmet. BAMOTH ; a station of the Israelites, Num. 21: 19, 20. Eusebius says, Bamoth is a city of Moab, on the river Arnon.—Calmet. BAMOTH-BAAL, the high places of Baal, or, the heights sacred to Baal, was a city east of the river Jordan, given to Reuben. Josh. 13:17. Eusebius says it was situated on the plains of the Arnon.—Calmet. BAND; a connecting ligature; a cord, or chain. Hence also, a company of men; because bound and linked toge- ther, as it were, for the accomplishment of an object. A band of Roman soldiers consisted of about a thousand. Acts 21: 31. 27: 1. Government and laws are bands that restrain from sin, and draw into the path of righteous- ness. Ps. 2: 3. Jer. 5: 5. Slavery, distress, fears, and per- plexity are called bands, because they restrain liberty, and create irritation. Lev. 26: 13. Ezek. 34: 27. Ps. 28: 22. Sinful customs, or meretricious allurements, are bands ; they enslave, weaken, degrade, and embitter the soul; they are fetters that at first may seem soft as silk, but are found at last to be stronger than iron. Isai. 58: 6. Eccl. 7: 26. The wicked often ‘ have no bands in their death ;” that is, they frequently die without any peculiar distress, fear, or perplexity; such as might be expected to stamp their real character and condition on the verge of their future woe. Ps. 73: 4. Eccl. 7: 15. 9:2. Faith and love are bands, which unite and fasten every believer to Christ, and to the whole body of his holy people. Col. 2: 19. The authority, arguments, instances, and influence of divine love, because they draw and engage us to follow the Lord in a way suited to our rational nature, are gene- rally supposed to be intended in Hos. 11:4, by “the bands of a man ;' but as this idea of constraining love is distinctly expressed in the clause preceding, I am more inclined to understand the bands of a man, here to signify the strong feelings of necessity. See how the prodigal son was drawn to his father by these natural bands, as well as by the cords of love. Luke 15: 14—20. - BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY; so called from Ban- gor, or the bishop thereof. Bishop Hoadley, the bishop of that diocese, preaching before George I, asserted, from the text “My kingdom is not of this world,” the supreme au- thority of Christ, as King in his own kingdom; and that he had not delegated his power, like temporal lawgivers during their absence from their kingdom, to any persons, as his vicegerents or deputies. This important sermon may be seen reprinted in the Liverpool Theological Repo- sitory, vol. v. p. 301. In 1717, he also published his Pre- servative, in which he advanced some positions contrary to temporal and spiritual tyranny, and in behalf of the civil and religious liberties of mankind: upon which he was violently opposed, accused, and persecuted by the ad- vocates for church power; but he was defended and sup- ported by the civil powers, and his abilities and meekness gained him the plaudits of many.—Henderson's Buck. BANISHMENT; exile; judicial exclusion from one's kindred and country, or from the presence of the king. Ezra 7: 26. God's banished ones, (2 Sam. 14: 14,) may mean either his children under his corrections, or his chosen in their outcast and unconverted state. BANK ; a treasury for exchanging, receiving, or giving out money on interest. Luke 19:23. BANNER: an ensign, or standard, used by armies or caravans on their journeys in the eastern countries. The original devel is rendered by lexicographers and translators under this word, as a noun, in which form it often occurs, a standard, a banner; as a velb, once, to set up a banner, Psalm 20: 5; as a participle pahul, vezillatus, one distin- guished by a banner, the chief; as a participle niphal, bannered, or with banners. The meaning of the root is illustrated by the very ingenious and sensible author of “Observations on Divers Passages of Scripture,” who shows, from Pitts and Pococke, that, as in Arabia and the neighboring countries, on account of the intense heat of the sun by day, people generally choose to travel in the night; so, to prevent confusion in their large caravans, particularly in the annual one to Mecca, each company of which the caravan consists has its distinct portable beacon, which is carried on the top of a pole, and consists of seve. ral lights, which are somewhat like iron stoves, into which they put short dry wood, with which some of the camels are loaded. . Every company has one of these poles be: longing to it; some of which have ten, some twelve, of these lights on their tops, more or less; and they are like- wise of different figures, as well as numbers; one, perhaps, in an oval shape; another triangular, or in the form of an M, or N, &c., so that by these every one knows his respec- tive company. They are carried in the front, and set up in the place where the caravan is to pitch, before that comes up, at some distance from one another. . As travel. ling then in the night must be, generally speaking, more agreeable to a great multitude in that desert, we may be- lieve a compassionate God, for the most part, directed Israel to move in the night. And in consequence, must we not rather suppose the standards of the tribes were moveable beacons, like those of the Mecca pilgrims, than flags or anything of that kind? This ingenious author seems, however, to forget, (1.) That the pillar of fire was with the Israelites to direct their marches. (2) That the Israelites were not a mere caravan, but an army; and, as such, for order, required standards as well by day as by night. See ARMIES.—Watson. BANQUET. The hospitality of the present day in the East exactly resembles that of the remotest antiquity. The parable of the “great supper” is in those countries literally realized. And such was the hospitality of ancient Greece and Rome. When a person provided an enter- tainment for his friends or neighbors, he sent round a number of servants to invite the guests; these were called vocatores by the Romans, and kletores by the Greeks. The day when the entertainment is to be given is fixed some considerable time before; and in the evening of the day appointed, a messenger comes to bid the guests to the feast. The custom is thus introduced in Luke: “A cer- tain man made a great Supper, and bade many; and sent his servant at supper time to say to them that were bidden, Come, for all things are now ready.” They were not now asked for the first time; but had already accepted the in- vitation, when the day was appointed, and were therefore already pledged to attend at the hour when they might be summoned. They were not taken unprepared, and there- fore could not in consistency and decency plead any prior engagement. They could not now refuse, without violating their word and insulting the master of the feast, and, there- fore, justly subjected themselves to punishment. The terms of the parable exactly accord with established cus- tom. The Jews did not always follow the same method; sometimes they sent a number of servants different ways among the friends they meant to invite; and at other times, a single male domestic. The Persians sent a deputation to meet their guests: this deputation are called openers of the way; and the more distinguished the persons sent, and the greater the distance to which they go, so much greater is the honor. So it is proclaimed, “Go forth and behold king Solomon, with the crown wherewith his mother crowned him.” “The bridegroom cometh, go ye forth to meet him.” The names of the persons to be invited were inscribed upon tablets, and the gate was set open to receive those who had obtained them; but to prevent any getting in that had no ticket, only one leaf of the door was left open, and that was strictly guarded by the servants of the family. Those who were admitted had to go along a narrow passage to the room; and after all who had received tickets of admis- sion were assembled, the master of the house rose and shut to the door, and then the entertainment began. The first ceremony, after the guests arrived at the house of entertainment, was the salutation performed by the master of the house, or one appointed in his place. Among the Greeks, this was sometimes done by embracing with arms around; but the most common salutation was by the con- junction of their right hands, the right hand being reck- oned a pledge of fidelity and friendship. Sometimes they kissed the lips, hands, knees, or feet, as the person deserved more or less respect. The Jews welcomed a stranger to their house in the same way; for our Lord complains to Simon, that he had given him no kiss, had welcomed him to his table with none of the accustomed tokens of respect. B.A. N. B A N [ 176 J The custom of reclining was introduced from the nations of the East, and particularly from Persia, where it seems to have been adopted at a very remote period. The Old Testament Scriptures allude to both customs; but they furnish undeniable proofs of the antiquity of sitting. As this is undoubtedly the most natural and dignified posture, so it seems to have been universally adopted by the first generations of men; and it was not till after the lapse of many ages, and when degenerate man had lost much of the firmness of his primitive character, that he began to recline, The tables were constructed of three different parts or separate tables, making but one in the whole. One was laced at the upper end crosswise, and the two others joined to its ends, one on each side, so as to leave an open space between, by which the attendants could readily wait at all the three. Round these tables were placed beds or couches, one to each table ; each of these beds was called clinium ; and three of these being united to surround the three tables, made the triclinium. At the end of each cli- nium was a footstool, for the convenience of mounting up to it. These beds were formed of mattresses, and sup- ported on frames of wood, often highly ornamented; the - mattresses were covered with cloth or tapestry, according to the quality of the entertainer. At the splendid feast which Ahasuerus made for the nobles of his kingdom, beds of silver and gold were placed round the tables; ac- cording to a custom in the East of naming a thing from its principal ornament, these must have been couches pro- fusely ornamented with the precious metals. Each guest inclined the superior part of his body upon his left arm, the lower part being stretched out at length, or a little bent; his head was raised up, and his back sometimes supported with pillows. In conversation, those who spoke Mary: “And he turned to the woman, and said unto Si- mon, Seest thou this woman? I entered into thine house; thou gavest me no water for my feet, but she hath washed my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her head. Thou gavest me no kiss; but this woman, Since the time I came in, hath not ceased to kiss my feet. M head with oil thou didst not anoint; but this woman hat anointed my feet with ointment,” Luke 7:44. Homer, mentions it as a custom quite common in those days, for daughters to wash and afterwards to anoint the feet of their parents. Our Savior was in the circumstances of a traveller; he had no home to wash and anoint himself in, before he went to Simon’s house; and, therefore, had a right to complain that his entertainer had failed in the respect that was due to him as a stranger, at a distance from the usual place of his residence. The Jews regularly washed their hands and their feet before dinner; they considered this ceremony as essential, which discovers the reason of their astonishment, when they observed the dis- ciples of Christ sit down at table without having observed this ceremony: “Why do thy disciples transgress the tra- dition of the elders ? for they wash not their hands when they eat bread,” Matt. 15: 2. After meals they wash them again, ; for, says the evangelist, “the Pharisees and all the Jews, except they wash their hands oft, eat not, holding the tradition of the elders,” Mark 7: 3, 4. When they washed their hands themselves, they plunged them into the water up to the wrists; but when others performed this office for them, it was done by pouring it upon their hands. The same custom prevailed in Greece, for Homer says, the attendants poured water on the hands of their chiefs. This was a part of the service which Elisha performed for his master Elijah ; but in no instance where such partial washings are mentioned, is either the Hebrew taval or the raised themselves almost upright, supported by cushions. / Greek baptizo employed. When they ate, they raised themselves on their elbow, and made use of the right hand; which is the reason our Lord mentions the hand of Judas in the singular number : “He that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me,” Matt. 26: 23. See Accubation. When a Persian comes into an assembly, and has salut- ed the house, he then measures with his eye the place to which his degree of rank entitles him ; he straightway wedges himself into the line of guests, without offering any apology for the general disturbance which he pro- duces. It often happens that persons take a higher seat than that to which they are entitled. The Persian scribes are remarkable for their arrogance in this respect, in which they seem to bear a striking resemblance to the Jews of the same profession in the days of Our Lord. The master of the entertainment has, however, the privi- lege of placing any one as high in the rank of the assem- bly as he may choose. And Mr. Morier saw an instance of it at a public entertainment to which he was invited. When the assembly was nearly full, the governor of Ka- shan, a man of humble mein, although of considerable rank, came in and seated himself at the lowest place; when the master of the house, after numerous expressions of welcome, pointed with his hand to an upper seat in the assembly, to which he desired him to move, and which he accordingly did. These circumstances afford a beautiful and striking illustration of the parable which our Lord uttered, when he saw how those that were invited chose the highest places. Before the Greeks went to an entertainment, they washed and anointed themselves; for it was thought very indecent to appear on such an occasion, defiled with sweat and dust; but they who came off a journey were washed, and clothed with suitable apparel, in the house of the enter- tainer, before they were admitted to the feast. When Telemachus and Pisistratus arrived at the palace of Me- nelaus, in the course of their wanderings, they were imme- diately supplied with water to wash, and with oil to anoint themselves, before they took their seats by the side of the king. The oil used on such occasions, in the palaces of nobles and princes, was perfumed with roses and other odoriferous herbs. They also washed their hands before they sat down to meat... To these customary marks of respect, to which a traveller, or one who had no house of his own, was entitled, our Lord alludes in his defence of To wash the feet was a mean and servile office, and, therefore, generally performed by the female servants of the family. It was occasionally performed, however, by fe- males of the highest rank; for the daughter of Cleobulus, one of the Grecian sages, and king of Lindus, a city on the south-east part of Rhodes, was not ashamed to wash the feet of her father's guests. And it was customary for them to kiss the feet of those to whom they thought a more than common respect was due ; for the daughter of Philo- cleon, in Aristophanes, washed her father, anointed his feet, and stooping down, kissed them. The towel which was used to wipe the feet after washing, was considered through all the East, as a badge of servitude. Suetonius mentions it as a sure mark of the intolerable pride of Cali- gula, the Roman emperor, that when at supper he suffered senators of the highest rank sometimes to stand by his couch, sometimes at his feet, girt with a towel. Hence it appears that this honor was a token of humiliation, which was not, however, absolutely degrading and inconsistent with all regard to rank. Yet our blessed Redeemer did not refuse to give his disciples, and Judas Iscariot himself, that proof of his love and humility. The entertainment was conducted by a symposiarch, or governor of the feast. He was, says Plutarch, one chosen among the guests, the most pleasant and diverting in the company, that would not get drunk, and yet would drink freely; he was to rule over the rest, to forbid any disorder, but to encourage their mirth. He observed the temper of the guests, and how the wine worked upon them ; how every one could bear his wine, and to endeavor accordingly to keep them all in harmony, and in an even composure, that there might be no disquiet nor disturbance. To do this effectually, he first proclaimed liberty to every one to drink what he thought proper, and then observing who among them was most ready to be disordered, mixed more water with his wine, to keep him equally sober with the rest of the company; so that this officer took care that none should be forced to drink, and that none, though left to their own choice, should get intoxicated. Such, We have reason to believe, was the governor of the feast at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, which our Lord honored with his presence. The term architriklinos literally signifies the governor of a place furnished with three beds; and he acted as one having authority; for he tasted the wine be- fore he distributed it to the company, which, it is univer- BAP B A P [ 177 ) sally admitted, was one of the duties of a symposiarch. Neither the name nor the act accords with the character and situation of a guest; he must, therefore, have been the symposiarch, or governor of the feast. The existence of such an officer among the Jews is placed beyond a doubt, by a passage in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasti- cus, where his office is thus described: “If thou be made the master of a ſeast, lift not thyself up, but be among them as one of the rest; take diligent care of them, and so sit down. And when thou hast done all thine office, take thy place, that thou mayest be merry with them, and receive a crown for the well-ordering of the feast,” Eccle- siasticus 32: 1.—Watson. BAPTISM; (from the Greek baptisma or baptizo ;) a word whose usage in the sacred writings has given rise to a vast amount of unhappy and unnecessary disputation. In accordance with the plan of our work we shall pre- sent to our readers in succession the views taken of this subject by the two great denominations into which the Christian world is divided, Pedobaptists and Baptists, in articles prepared expressly for this work. For the first the Rev. Joseph TRAcy, Editor of the Boston Recorder, is responsible; the last prepared by the Rev. JAMEs D. Knowles, Professor in the Newton Theological Institution. VIEWS OF THE PEDOBAPTISTS. BAPTISM. The word is derived from the Greek baptis- tna and baptizo, and more remotely from bapto, and proper- ly signifies a nashing, whether the substance washed be partially or wholly immersed in the liquid, or the liquid be applied to the substance, by running, pouring, rubbing, dropping, or sprinkling. There were (diaphorois baptis- mois) “diverse washings” or baptisms enjoined under the former dispensation, (Heb. 9; 10.) some of which were performed by bathing, but more by sprinkling or affusion. The apostle, having mentioned these “diverse baptisms,” speaks expressly, in the following verses, of diverse sprink- lings, which shows satisfactorily that they were included. PROSELYTE BAPTISM. We have sufficient evidence that baptism, as an initia- tory rite, was practised in connexion with circumcision, on the admission of proselytes to the Jewish church, long before the coming of Christ. As this fact is disputed, it will be necessary to exhibit some of the evidence on which it rests. * - 1. The baptism of proselytes appears altogether natural and probable, considering the genius of the Mosaic institu- tions, and the views which the Israelites were accustomed to entertain of the Gentile nations. Nothing was more common among this people than lustrations and purifica- tions by washing, or baptism. In these, the external part of their religion in no small degree consisted. And as they considered all the Gentiles to be impure, unclean, how natu- ral for them to insist, when any of these came over to their religion, that they should be ceremonially purified by the application of water. 2. That the Jews were ſamiliar with the rite of bap- tism, previous to the coming of Christ, is implied in the question addressed to John by those who were sent to him from Jerusalem : “Why baptizeth thou, if thou be not the Christ, neither Elias, neither that prophet?” John 1:25. The inquiry was not, “What new rite is this?” but, “Why do you administer it?” The Jews had long been accus- tomed to the rite of baptism ; but if John was “not the Christ, neither Elias, neither that prophet,” they under- stood not by what authority, or for what reason, he had taken it upon him to baptize. 3. The Jewish rabbins, ancient and modern, bear testi- mony to the custom of baptizing proselytes. This prac- tice is mentioned and enjoined in both the Talmuds. It is thus spoken of by Maimonides, a learned Jew, who flourished in the twelfth century: “In all ages, when a Gentile is willing to enter into the covenant of Israel, and place himself under the wings of the Divine Majesty, and take upon him the yoke of the law, he must be circum- cised and baptized, and bring a sacrifice; or if it be a wo. man, be baptized, and bring a sacrifice.” 4. Other writers besides Jews, ancient and modern, who have paid most attention to the subject, and been in the the Savior. most favorable circumstances to form an opinion, have been generally agreed in maintaining that the Jews bap. tized their proselytes. Thus Arrian, a heathen philoso. pher at Rome, A. D. 140, reproaches those who turned proselytes to the Jews, calling them the baptized ones.* And Cyprian, a Christian father of the third century, says, “The case of the Jews, who were to be baptized by the apostles, was different from that of the Gentiles; for the Jews had already, and a long time ago, the baptism of the lan. and of Moses, and were now to be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ.”f Other writers, who speak expressly of this practice among the Jews, are Leo Modena, in his Jewish History, Lightfoot, Reiskius, Selden, Michaelis, Ainsworth, Ernesti, Wetstein, Hammond, Witsius, Pri- deaux, Stackhouse, Wall, Jahn, Priestley, Rosenmueller, Kuinoel, Doddridge, &c. 5. The existence of such a rite as baptism among the Jews can hardly be accounted for, unless it be traced to a period anterior to the commencement of the Christian era. We know that they baptized their proselytes in the second century, and have continued to do so ever since. But how was this rite introduced among them ż Was it copied from the Christians? Is it likely that, at so early a period, or at any period, the Jews, the most inveterate enemies of Christ, should copy one of his sacraments, and incorporate it among the institutions of their venerated lawgiver? To those who have any knowledge of Jewish prejudices, the supposition must appear incredible. It follows, therefore, that the Jews must have received the custom of baptizing proselytes (as they profess) from the patriarchs of their nation, and that it was in common use at the coming of JOHN’S BAPTISM. The first mention of baptism in the New Testament re- lates to its administration by the forerunner of Christ. “In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea,” &c. Matt. 3: 1–6. It has been made a question respecting the baptism of John, whether it was the same as the ordinance instituted by Christ, (Matt. 28. 29.) and observed in the church in all periods since. We are decidedly of the opinion that it was not the same, but merely an introductory rite, de- signed to prepare the way for the gospel dispensation ; and in this we agree, not only with the ancient church,+ but with the most respectable writers, Baptist and Pedobaptist, of the present day. The following are some of the reasons, urged by Rev. Robert Hall (a Baptist) and others, to show that the baptism of John was a preparatory rite, and not to be regarded as a Christian ordinance. 1. This baptism took place under the Jenish dispensation. The Jewish dispensation continued in force till the death of Christ. Then, the veil of the temple was rent in twain. Then, the great sacrifice for sin was offered, and the typical sacrifices ceased. It was then that Christ blotted out the hand-writing of ordinances, that was against us, and took it out of the way, nailing it to his cross,” Col. 2: 14. Our Savior lived under the old dispensation, and was a strict observer of the institutions of Moses; and all that was done in the church previous to his death belonged proper- ly to that dispensation. This certainly is strong presump- tive evidence that the baptism of John was not a Chris- tian ordinance. - 2. Christian baptism originated in the express command of CHRIST : “Go ye and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” No such origin can be claimed for the bap- tism of John, who baptized for some time before he knew Christ, John 1: 31. He ascribes his commission to the Father, John 1: 33. 3. The baptism of John was evidently a preparatory or- dinance. He came to “prepare the way of the Lord.” He preached to the people that the Messiah was coming, and exhorted them to prepare to receive him ; and in or. • Dissert. in Epictel. lib. ii. cap. 9. f Epis. 73, ad Jubianum. 1 Qrigen says, “ Christ himself was baptized by John, not with that baptism which is in Christ, but with that which is in the law.” (Com. in Rom; 6.) Chrysostom says, “It (the º of John) was as it were a bridge, which, from the baptism of the Jews, made a way to that of the Savior. It was superior to the first, but inſerior to the se- cond,”—Homil. 24. 23 - B A P B A P [178 der that they might be prepared, called them to repentance and baptism. g 4. One part of the design of John's baptism, as stated § himself, shows it to have been entirely distinct from Christian baptism : “That he (Christ) should be made manifest to Israel, therefore am I come baptizing with wa- ter,” John 1: 31. It was an important part of the object of John's ministry and baptism, to point out the Messiah to the Jewish people, bear public testimony in his behalf, and induct him, by the washing of water, into the ministry. It hardly need be said, that there is nothing in Christian baptism which resembles this. “A Christian ordinance not founded on the authority of Christ, not the effect but the means of his manifestation, and first executed by one who knew him not, is an incomprehensible mystery.” 5. The baptism of John, unlike Christian baptism, was not administered in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. This we know ; because some, whom John baptized, had “not so much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost,” Acts 19: 2. Indeed, John did not baptize in the name of Christ, or in any other name; but merely directed those who came to his baptism to “believe on him who should come after him,” Acts 19:4. 6. Some of those who received John's baptism were afterwards baptized by the apostles. This was the case with certain disciples whom Paul found at Ephesus, (Acts 19: 5.) and in all probability with many others. For these reasons we think it demonstrable, that John's baptism was not Christian baptism, but rather an intro- ductory rite, intended to prepare the way for the coming of the Messiah and his kingdom. MODE OF BAPTISM. The Protestant world has long been agitated with an unhappy controversy respecting the mode of Christian bap- tism ; one part affirming, and the other denying, that a total immersion in mater is essential to the ordinance. After long study and reflection, we are decidedly with those who take the negative on this question. Our reasons for this opinion we propose briefly to exhibit. The question at issue between Baptists and Pedobap. tists, relative to this matter, it should be remembered, is not this : Whether immersion is valid baptism 2 We ad- mit that it is ; and are willing that those in our con- gregations who preſer to be baptized in this way should be gratified. Nor is the question this : Whether immer- sions have not been frequently practised in the Christian church 2 for we admit that they have been. They have been practised much more frequently, at some periods, than it can be proved that they were in the days of the apostles. But the question at issue is simply this: Is im- mersion essential to the ordinance? Our Baptist brethren contend with one voice that it is. They tell us that the idea of immersion enters into the very “nature of bap- tism ; that the terms baptism and immersion are equiva- lent and interchangeable.”f “The meaning of the word (baptize) is always the same, and it always signifies to dip. It never has any other meaning.” + All Baptists hold, that there can be no baptism without immersion; that this is essential to the ordinance. Now this we deny; and in justi- fication of the denial offer the following reasons: 1. The rite of immersion is not calculated for universal practice. The health of ministers is often such as to ren- der it unsafe for them to go into the water; and the health of those desiring baptism is more frequently such as to render it unsafe for them to receive the ordinance in this way. In some parts of the earth, and particularly at some seasons of the year, it must be very inconvenient, if not impracticable, to administer baptism by immersion. Now is it likely that our blessed Lord, who intended that his religion should be universal, would append to it, and make essential, a rite which is so ill fitted for universal practice? 2. The signification of water baptism shows the pro- priety of some other mode of administration besides im- mersion. Water baptism is a symbol, an emblem of spi- ritual baptism. It shadows forth, by an expressive sign, the cleansing, purifying operations of the Holy Spirit. • R. Hall. & t Judson's Sermon, p. 14. 1 Carson on Baptism, pp. 13, 83. Hence the mode of water baptism might be expected to correspond to the manner in which the Divine Spirit is re- presented as descending upon the heart. But this is uni- formly by pouring or sprinkling. “I will pour out my Spi- rit unto you.” “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean.” This pouring out and sprinkling of the Holy Ghost is in Scripture called the baptism of the Holy Ghost, of which water baptism is the instituted sign. It seems evident, therefore, that pouring or sprinkling must be a proper, if not the most proper, mode of water baptism.* 3. That the original words used to denote the ordinance of baptism may be used to signify immersion is conceded; but certainly they are not confined to this particular sense. This is evident, (1.) From their etymology. They are derived from the Greek bapto, a word which, it is now admitted, does not always signify immerse. Mr. Carson, a late Baptist wri- ter, proves that this word signifies to dye, as well as to dip, and to dye or color IN ANY MANNER. It is the word used in the Septuagint, where the body of Nebuchadnezzar is said to have been ºvet with the dew of heaven, Dan. 5: 21. Certainly his body was not immersed in the dew. (2.) The translators of our New Testament, whenever they have translated the words denoting baptism, have uniformly given to them the general sense of mashing. See Heb. 9; 10. Luke 11:38. Mark 7: 4. And in most instances where they have transcribed (not translated) the original words, they have connected them with particles which show that they intended to use them in the same general sense. This is true in all those cases in which persons are said to be baptized mith water, or with the Spirit. No English scholar would say immersed nith water. (3.) The most respectable lexicographers, ancient and modern, concur in giving to the words in question a wider signification than that of simple immersion. In proof of this, we may refer to Stephanus, Scapula, Passor, Suidas, Hedericus, Coulon, Parkhurst, Ainsworth, Schleusner, and Wahl. Indeed, Mr. Carson, after announcing his position that baptizo “always signifies to dip,” admits that he has “all the lexicographers against him,” p. 79. (4.) To the judgment of lexicographers may be added that of the most learned and respectable commentators and theologians. Piscator, Zamchius, Alstedius, Mastricht, Pareus, Wickliffe, Leigh, Lightfoot, Calvin, Beza, Wit. sius, Hammond, Wall, Poole, and many others, speak of the mode of baptism as a thing not essential. It may be immersion, or it may be something else. (5.) But that which is most decisive in regard to the meaning of the words denoting baptism, is their use. They are certainly used, by authors sacred and profane, in other senses besides that of immersion. They are so used in the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, and so trans- lated by our English translators. See Ecclesiasticus 34: 25. Judith 12: 7. They are so used by the early Chris- tian fathers. Origen represents the wood on the altar, over which water was poured at the command of Elijah, (1 ICings 18:33.) as having been baptized. Cyprian, Je- rome, and some other of the fathers, understood the pre- diction, “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean,” (Ezek. 36:25.) as having reference to wa- • It has been said that baptism with water is not significant of the baptism of the Spirit, but rather of the burial and resurrection of º: “We are buried with him by baptism into death,” See Rom. 6: 4, and Col. 2: 12. But if baptism with water is not significant of the baptism of the Spirit, then why are the two baptisms spoken of by Christ in such immediate connexion ? “Except a man be born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.” “John truly baptized with water, but ye shall be baptized with the Holy Ghost,” John 3: 5. Acts 1:5. And why is the renewing of the Holy Ghost spoken of at all under the figure of a baptism if this re. newal is not the thing shadowed forth ii. baptismº"The passa- ges in which believers are said to be “buried with Christ by baptism into death,” do not seem to have any reference to the mode of baptism with water. “The apostle, is here speaking,”, says Mr. Judson very properly, “ of spiritual circumcision and spiritual baptism.” In spiritual baptiºn or regeneration, believers are spiritually “crucified •with Christ,” die with him, are buried with him, and rise with him to “newness of life and to new obedience.” But what has all this to do with the mode of water baptism 3. And how far can it go towards pro- ving that a total immersion in water is essential to the ordinanca 7 For a full and satisfactory discussion of this subject, see Stuart's Commentary on Rom. 6: 4. * B A P B A P | 179 J º ter baptism. The baptism of tears and blood was a favor. ite phraseology with the early Christians. - The words denoting baptism are used in the New Tes- tament where they cannot signify immersion. The con- gregation of Israel “were baptized unto Moses in the cloud and in the sea,” 1 Cor. 10: 2. Yet we know that they were not baptized by an immersion in the waters, for “they went into the midst of the sea upon dry ground,” Exod. 14:22. The Jews were accustomed to baptize, not only their cups and pots, but their brazen vessels and their tables, Mark 7: 4. But it is not at all likely that they washed their large vessels and tables, by immersing them in water. - s” 4. The circumstances attending most of the º re- corded in the New Testament indicate some other mode besides immersion. Let any impartial reader contemplate the baptism of the three thousand on the day of Pentecost, after the greater part of the day had been spent ; or the baptism of Paul, in the peculiar situation in which he was placed; or the baptism of Cornelius and his ſamily, when the apostle said, “Can any man forbid water?” i. e. that it should be brought; or the baptism of the jailer and his household, by one of his prisoners, in the midst of an agi- tated and affrighted city, and at the dead hour of night; and in whatever mode he may think these different per- sons were baptized, he will find it difficult to satisfy him- self that they could have been immersed. 5. Immersion was never considered as essential to bap- tism till subsequent to the Reformation in the sixteenth century. We say essential ; for this, it will be recollected, is the point in dispute. That immersions were frequent in the ancient church, (at some periods more frequent than they now are among Pedobaptists, or than they were in the days of the apostles,) we see no reason to doubt. But at times when immersions most generally prevailed, the sick were always baptized in some other mode, and such baptisms were considered as perfecty valid. A question was proposed to Cyprian, about the middle of the third century, “Whether they are to be esteemed right Chris- tians who have been only sprinkled with water, and not washed, or dipped f" to which this learned father replied, that “the 'sprinkling of mater is of equal validity with the laver.”* Cave says, that the primitive Christians “did not hold sprinkling to be unlawful, especially in cases of necessity, or where conveniency of immerging could not be had.”f Calvin tells us that, “the substance of bap- tism being retained, the church, from the beginning, en- joyed a liberty of using somewhat different rites.”f Dr. Wall, who had a partiality for immersion, says, “On ex- traordinary occasions, baptism by affusion of water on the face was by the ancients counted sufficient baptism. Of this there are many proofs.”) The author of Letters to Bishop Hoadley, a learned and professed Baptist, admits that, “for thirteen hundred years successively aſter the apostles, sprinkling was permitted upon extraordinary occasions.”|| Mr. Robinson, also, a learned Baptist, admits that, “before the Reformation, sprinkling was held valid in cases of necessity.” T The doctrine, then, that there can be no valid baptism without immersion, is a novelty. It was not held by the primitive church. - SUBJECTS OF CHRISTIAN BAPTISM. There is a difference of opinion between Baptists and Pedobaptists respecting not only the mode, but the subjects of Christian baptism; the latter affirming, and the former denying, that the children of believing, covenanting parents should be baptized. In support of the duty of baptizing such children, the following reasons may be urged : 1. This duty is reasonable in itself, and in accordance with our best affections. In the children of those we love, we all naturally feel a peculiar interest. A good prince would wish, and would provide, that the children of his beloved and faithful friends should be placed in a near re- lation to himself. And shall it be supposed that the Prince of life will not regard with tokens of peculiar favor the children of his covenant people t- 2. The analogy of God's covenant dealings in past ages * Op. lib. ii., epis. 7. f Prim. Chris. part i. chap. 10. 1 Instit. lib. iv., cap, 15. § Hist. In. Bap. partii, chap. 9. |Plain Account, &c. p. 16. T Hist. of Bap. p. 116. is in ſavor of the doctrine of inſant baptism. In all the covenants which God has hitherto made with men, chil. dren have been connected with their parents. Thus it was in the covenants with Adam, with Noah, with Abra- ham, and with David. God dealt favorably with the chil- dren of Lot for their father's sake; and he declares him- self to be a God keeping covenant with those that love him “to a thousand generations.” How unlikely, then, that in the covenant of the Christian church, God has swerved from the invariable economy of his covenant dealings, and sundered the connexion between believing parents and their children? 3. Had children been deprived of their interest in the covenant under the gospel dispensation, believing Jewish parents in the primitive church would undoubtedly have complained. In the days of the apostles, many thousands of the Jews believed, who were “all zealous of the law.” They were tenacious even of their former burthens; and would they cheerfully relinquish their accustomed privile- ges? Yet we hear not a word of complaint on the subject. There was no objection to the gospel, by friend or foe, on this ground. It is morally certain, therefore, that in re- spect to covenant relations and privileges, “their children were as aforetime,” Jer. 30: 20. - 4. It is a conclusive argument in favor of infant bap- tism, that baptism is non substituted in place of circumcision. In support of this proposition, it may be observed, (1.) That the visible church has been substantially the same under both dispensations. It has held essentially the same doctrines, enjoyed the same spiritual promises, and professed the same religion, the religion of the Bible. The religion of the Old Testament is not distinct from that of the New, like the religion of Brumha, or Mohammed. In all essential particulars it is the same, and has been professed by the church in all ages. The church, under both dispensations, is represented as the same in various passages of Scripture. The ancient predictions of the ingathering of the Gentiles, and of the future prosperity and glory of the church, were made, not to a new church to be established under the gospel, but to the Zion of the Old Testament, the church at that time ex- isting in Israel. See Isa. 60. and 49: 20, 21. Our Savior predicted that many should “come from the east, and from the west, and sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, in the” same “kingdom of heaven,” the same visi- ble church, from which “the children of the kingdom,” the Jews, “should be cast out;” and that the same “king- dom of God,” in which the Jews had been unfaithful, “should be taken from them, and given to a nation bring- ing forth the fruits thereof.” Matt. 8: 11, 12. 21:43. In perfect accordance with these predictions, Paul represents the Gentile believers as graffed into the same olive tree from which the Jews, for their unbelief, were broken off, and into which the converted Jews shall be graffed again, Rom. 11: 17. In view of these representations, mothing is more certain, than that the visible church, under both dispensations, has been substantially the same body. But baptism is now, what circumcision was formerly, an insti- tuted prerequisite to a regular standing in the visible church. Consequently, baptism is substituted in place of circumcision. - (2.) The covenant of the church, under both dispensa- tions, has been essentially the same. This is evident from the identity of the church. The church is constituted by its covenant; so that, if the former is unchanged, the latter must be. The covenant of the church under the former dis- pensation was the covenant with Abraham. Consequently this, in its full and spiritual import, must be regarded as the covenant of the church now. The covenant with Abra- ham has never been abolished. It is spoken of in the Old Testament as “everlasting ;” and in the New as to exist “forever,” Gen. 17: 7. Luke 1: 55. It is represented by Paul as a covenant of “promise,” and as “confirmed of God in Christ;” and we are assured that “the law, which was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot disannul” it, and render it of no effect, Gal. 3: 17. Believers under the gospel are spoken of as children of the covenant with Abraham, Acts 3:25. It is on account of their interest in this covenant that they are denominated “Abraham's seed,” (Gal. 3:29.) and that Abraham is so often represent- B A P B A P [180 ) . ed as “the father of all them that believe.” “He received the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had yet being uncircumcised, that he might be the father of all them that believe,” Rom. 4: 11. It is evident from Scriptures such as these, that the cove- mant of the church, like the church itself, has been essen- tially the same under both dispensations; and that this covenant is the covenant with Abraham.* But of this covenant, baptism is now, what circumcision was formerly, the visible token. Hence, baptism has come in place of circumcision. - * (3.) Baptism and circumcision are of precisely the same import. Circumcision was both a sign and a seal. As a sign, it represented the circumcision of the heart, or re- generation. “Circumcision is of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the letter,” Rom. 2:29. As a seal, it confirmed “the righteousness of faith,” or the covenant of grace, Rom.4; 2. Baptism, too, is both a sign and a seal. As a sign, it is an emblem of “the washing of regeneration,” or the baptism of the Holy Ghost. As a seal, it assures those who receive it, and whose characters are conformed to its Sacred import, that their faith is imputed to them for righteousness. It thus appears that when the ancient to- ken of the covenant was abolished, an ordinance was established in the same church, and appended to the same covenant, of precisely similar import. How is it possible, then, to resist the conclusion, that the latter is substituted for the former ? - (4.) The Scriptures countenance the idea, that baptism is substituted in place of circumcision. “Beware,” says the apostle, “of the concision,” or those persons who lay an exorbitant stress on the rite of circumcision ; “for ve,” we who have been baptized, “are the circumcision, who worship God in the spirit,” Phil. 3: 2, 3. Again, to the Colossians he says, “Ye are circumcised, with the cir- cumcision made without hands, in putting off the body of the sins of the flesh by the circumcision of Christ, buried with him in baptism,” Col. 2: 11, 12. In other words, ye are circumcised, having been baptized. It is admitted that the circumcision and baptism here spoken of are both spiritual. But if the two ordinances are spiritually the same, and the one was instituted in the church on the re- moval of the other, is not this the substitution the one for the other ? (5.) The primitive Christian fathers considered bap- tism as having come in the place of circumcision. Our limits forbid us to cite particular passages. Whoever will take the trouble to consult Wall's History of Inſant Bap- tism, vol. i. chapters 6–15, will find that many of the early fathers, as Justin, Cyprian, Basil, Ambrose, Augustine, and Chrysostom, speak expressly on this point. They considered baptism as the Christian circumcision, and as standing in the place of circumcision. But if this is true, and if such was the understanding of the church in times nearest the apostles, then the ques- tion about baptizing infants is at an end. There certainly was a command to circumcise infants; and if baptism is substituted in place of circumcision, the same command is valid in favor of their baptism. 5. The Jennish proselyte baptism furnishes a conclusive argument for the baptism of children. At the time of our Savior's appearance, and long previous, the Jews had been accustomed, not only to circumcise their proselytes, but to baptize them. And they were accustomed to baptize chil- dren with their parents. In proof of this, see Wall's In- troduction to the History of Infant Baptism. But when our Savior gave the command, “Go ye and teach, or pro- selyte, the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Fa- ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” must not his disciples have understood him to intend that kind of bap- tism to which both he and they had been accustomed, viz. the baptism of children with their parenis 3. How could they "The Jews, in the time of Isaiah and Joramiah, believed that God had made a temporal covenant with their nation, in the person of Abra. ham their father, of which circumcision was the seal, the observance of tho ceremonial law the condition, and tomporal prosperity the bles. sing promised. Some Christian commentators have advanced the same doctrine; but the prophets earnestly and repeatedly protest against it. They uniformly labor to enſore; the truth, that holy obedience, such as is now required under the Christian dispensation, was the condition of the covenant with Abraham. - * * * * * * have understood him in any other way ? Under these cir. cumstances, instead of needing an express command to authorize the baptism of children, the disciples needed an express prohibition to prevent their doing it. But no such prohibition was given. 6. Christ and his apostles taught and practised just as we might expect, on supposition they intended that chil- dren should be baptized; and just as we should not ex- pect, on the contrary supposition. In order to determine what we might or might not expect of Christ and his apostles, it will be necessary to keep in mind the esta- blished customs of the period in which they lived. In the Jewish church, children had always been connected with their parents. They early received the token of the ever- lasting covenant. Also the children of proselytes were connected in covenant with their parents, and entitled to the initial rites of circumcision and baptism. And now what might be expected of Christ and his apostles, on supposition they intended to put an end to this state of things? Not silence, surely. Silence would be a virtual approbation of it. On this supposition, they would have lost no opportunity of insisting that the ancient covenant connexion between children and parents was abolished, and must no more be recognised in the rites of the church. But did they pursue such a course 2 Never, in a single 1nStan Ce. - What, then, might be expected of Christ and his apos- tles, on supposition they intended that the established cove- nant connexion of children with their parents should be continued 2 Not, indeed, that they should enjoin it by ex- press precepts ; for this would be to enjoin expressly what every one already understood and practised. But they would be likely often to allude to this connexion with approbation, and to drop expressions which implied it. They would be likely, also, as occasions occurred, to bap- tize households, when those at the head of them made pro- fession of their faith. And this, it hardly need be said, is the course which our Savior and the apostles actually pur. sued. Christ applauded the practice of bringing infants to receive his blessing, and declared that “ of such is the kingdom of God,” Luke 18: 15. He spoke of little chil- dren being received in his name, or as belonging to him, IMark 9: 37, 41. Peter taught believing parents, that the promise was to them and to their children, Acts 2: 39. Paul affirms that “the blessing of Abraham,” an impor- tant part of which consisted in the covenant connexion of his children, “has come on the Gentiles through Jesus Christ;” and he denominates the children of believing parents holy, Gal. 3: 14. 1 Cor. 7:14. He repeatedly bap- tized households on the profession of parents, or of those who had the charge of them. Lydia believed, and she and her household were baptized. The jailer believed, and he and all his were baptized straightway. Paul also baptized the household of Stephanus, 1 Cor. 1: 16. 7. The testimony of history is conclusive in favor of the practice of infant baptism. It has been observed already,’ that the Christian fathers considered baptism as having come in the place of circumcision. Justin, who wrote only about forty years after the death of John, says, “We have not received this carnal circumcision, but the spiritual cir- cumcision ; and we have received it by baptism.* Is it not manifest from this passage what must been the opinion of Justin in regard to the important question before us? Irenaeus, who wrote a few years later than Justin, says, “Christ came to save all persons who by him (renascun. tur in Deum) are baptized unto God, infants, and little ones, and children, and youths, and elder persons.”* The only objection to this testimony is, that Irenaeus here expresses baptism by a word which literally denotes regeneration, putting, by a common figure, the thing signified for the sign. That he really intended to express baptism by this word is so evident from his use of it in other instances, and from the general usage of the fathers, that Dr. Wall does not hesitate to speak of the above passage as an “ear- pressmention of baptized infants.” . And Whiston, a learned Baptist, admits the same. “This,” says he, “is a thing undeniable by any modest arguer.”t Tertullian, who was contemporary with Irenaeus, although he advises to delay baptism in the case of infants and un- • Wall's Hist. of [n. Bap., vol. i. i Wall's Defence, p. 41. B A P B A P [ 181 ) married persons, yet speaks most expressly of infant bap- tism as a prevailing and established practice.* Origen, who was born within eighty-five years of the death of John, and was descended from Christian ances- tors who must have lived in the apostolic age, speaks re- peatedly and expressly of infant baptism, and declares that the practice had come down from the apostles.f Subsequent to this period, infant baptism is mentioned often, and in the most positive terms, by all the principal Christian fathers, as Cyprian, Optatus, Basil, Gregory, Ambrose, Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine. It is re- cognised in the acts of councils, as well as the writings of individuals. It is represented as resting on apostolic example and authority. Indeed, the right of infants to baptism was denied by no one in the primitive church, except those who rejected water baptism altogether. Pela- gius, in his controversy with Augustine, had strong in- ducements to deny it—so strong that he was reported by some to have done so; but he repels the charge as an in- jurious slander. “Men slander me,” says he, “as if I denied the sacrament of baptism to inſants.” “I never heard of any, not even the most impious heretic, who de- nied baptism to infants.”f Dr. Wall, who has so thoroughly investigated the histo- ry of infant baptism as to leave little to be done by those who come after him, assures us that the first body of men, of which he can find any account, who denied baptism to infants, were the Petrobrusians, a sect of the Albigenses, in the former part of the twelfth century. And Milner says that, “a few instances excepted, the existence of Anti-pedobaptism seems scarcely to have taken place in the church of Christ till a little after the beginning of the Re- formation.” Such, then, is the history of infant baptism ; and the argument from this source, in favor of the divine origin and authority of the practice, is deemed conclusive. If infant baptism does not rest on the ground of apostolic ex- ample, how can it be accounted for that it should have been introduced so early into the church, and prevailed so universally, and that, too, without a whisper of dissension, or a note of alarm 2 We have catalogues extant of all the different sects of professing Christians in the four first centuries,-the very period when infant baptism must have been introduced if it were not of divine original,—in which the differences of opinion which obtained in those times re- specting baptism are particularly recounted and minutely designated. Yet there is no mention of any, except those who denied water baptism altogether, who did not consider infant baptism as a divine institution. Is it not certain, then, that infant baptism is a divine institution ; that it is not an innovation, but was sanctioned by the apostles themselves? On this ground, and this only, “all sacred and profane history, relating to the subject, appears plain and consistent, from Abraham to Christ, and from Christ to this day.” * The principal writers on the Pedobaptist side are Wall, Walker, Henry, Bradbury, Bostwick, Towgood, Addington, Williams, P. Edwards, Miller, Evans, Clarke, Glas, Par- sons, Lathrop, Reed, Stuart, Woods, Worcester, Wardlany, Milligan, Moore, Jerram, and Dwight. J. TRAcy. VIEWS OF THE BAPTISTS. We will now proceed to state the opinions of the Bap- tists, and the arguments by which they maintain them. May the Spirit of Truth assist us in this service. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. BAPTISM, (from baptisma, a Greek word, derived from the verb baptizo,) is the name of a Christian rite, which the Savior has commanded all his followers to observe, His commission to the apostles, and to all succeeding ministers, requires them to “go into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature. He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, but he that believeth not shall be damned,” Mark 16: 15, 16. In the corresponding bassage, (Matt. 28. 19.) the same command is expressed in somewhat different terms : “Go ye, therefore, and • De Baptismo, cap. xviii. - f Hom. on Lev. 12. and Luke 14, and Com. on Rom, lib. 5. 'i Wall's Hist, of Im. Bap., vol. i. teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Fā- ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” This command of the Savior is confirmed and illustrate ed by his own example, (Matt. 3:13–17. Mark 1: 9–11. Luke 3: 21, 22.) and by the uniform practice of the apostles, both under his own immediate direction (John 4: 1, 2.) and after his resurrection, Acts 2:38–41. 8: 12, 36–38. 9:18, &c. The rite has been observed, in some form, through all the succeeding ages, by nearly all pro- fessed Christians. The Baptists, in common with the greater portion of their brethren, believe that the ordinance of baptism is positively binding on every Christian who has the oppor. tunity to observe it. They believe it to be essential to salvation, in the same sense that obedience to any other command of the Savior is necessary to salvation. They believe, that neither baptism nor any other ce- remony is of any avail in preparing men for heaven, without regeneration by the power of the Holy Ghost; but they believe, that he who should deliberately refuse to be baptized, or to perform any other duty, so far as he understood that duty, and had the opportunity to perform it, would thus furnish evidence that he had not been born again, and consequently was unprepared for heaven. “He that hath my commandments and keepeth them, he it is that loveth me. He that loveth me not, keepeth not my sayings,” John 14:21, 24. The Baptists believe, moreover, that baptism is a speci- fic rite, having, as to its essence, one unvarying character; and that, as there is but “one Lord” and “one faith,” So there is, in the same literal, numerical sense, but “one baptism,” Eph. 4: 5. Baptism is a positive institution, and the obligation to practise it arises wholly from the authority of the Savior. His command is the origin and the rule of our duty respecting baptism; we must obey the precept exactly as it was meant to be observed ; we have no right to deviate, in the slightest degree, from the prescribed rule, just as the Jews could not, without guilt, deviate from a strict com- pliance with the ceremonies of their law ; and consequent- ly, if we can aseertain what the Lord Jesus meant by baptism, that, and that only, we must practise, without hesitation or change. - One additional observation remains :—As the Savior's will is our only rule in baptism, and as that will is reveal- ed in the Bible alone, we must resort to the Bible to ascertain what is baptism, and who are the proper sub- jects. The Baptists adhere steadfastly to the great Pro- testant principle, that the Bible is the sole and sufficient rule in religious concerns. They accordingly appeal to the Scriptures, and insist, that if any practice, claiming to be a positive Christian rite, is not clearly sanctioned by the Bible, it must be rejected, whatever arguments may be produced in its favor from supposed analogies, or from the practice of some portions of the Christian world. After these preliminary remarks, we proceed to state, that, in the opinion of the Baptists, baptism is the immer. sion in water of a suitable candidate, in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. The only suitable can- didate is a person who has been born of the Spirit, and who is united to Christ by faith. -- The arguments by which the Baptists maintain these positions must be presented in a very compendious man- ner, without extended critical remarks, or a full citation of authorities. I. THE NATURE OF BAPTISM. 1. The first argument which proves that baptism is immersion only, is drawn from the meaning of the word employed in the Scriptures to designate the rite. It must be supposed that a proper word was used—one which exactly defines the nature of the ordinance. If, then, the meaning of that word can be ascertained, all doubt ought to be removed. The word is baptizo, which has been merely transferred to our language, by changing the Greek for Roman let- ters, and altering the termination. What, then, is the meaning of the Greek word? It is natural to refer in the first place to the lexicons; but these all give, as the primary meaning of the word, to dip, to B A P B A P [ 182 ) plunge, to immerse. Professor Stuart, in his learned arti- cle in the Biblical Repository for April, 1833, p. 298, ad- mits, respecting the Greek words bapto and baptizo, that they both “mean to dip, plunge, or immerge into any thing liquid. All lexicographers and critics, of any note, are agreed in this.” The next resort is, to the classical Greek writers, to as- certain how they use the word. Professor Stuart has quoted passages from Homer, Pindar, Aristotle, Aristo- phanes, Herodotus, Heraclides Ponticus, Aratus, Xeno- phon, Plutarch, Lucian, Diodorus Siculus, Plato, Epicte- tus, Hippocrates, Strabo, Polybius, and Josephus, all of whom use the words bapto and baptizo to signify immer- SIOIl. In the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, and in the Apocrypha, the word baptizo is used to signify, “1. To plunge, immerge, dip in. 2. To overwhelm. 3. To wash, or cleanse, by bathing the person in water.”—See Prof. Ripley's Examination of Prof. Stuart's Essay, p. 38. In the New Testament, the word baptizo and its deriva- tives are repeatedly used in cases where the ordinance of baptism is not referred to, Mark 7: 3, 4. Luke 11:38. Mark 7: 4, 8. Heb. 9; 10. All these cases, however, are shown by professor Ripley to include the original, proper meaning, to immerse. - In all this extended range of examination, while num- berless examples of the use of the word baptizo to signify immersion are found, professor Stuart himself has been unable to produce a single instance from the classical Greek writers, from the Septuagint and Apocrypha, or from the New Testament, where the word plainly and undeniably signifies something inconsistent with immersion. Professor Stuart acknowledges himselſ to be “philologically com- pelled” to conclude, “that the probability that baptizo implies immersion is very considerable, and on the whole a predominant one ; but it does not still amount to cer- tainty.”—(Bib. Rep. p. 318.) There are few points on which “certainty” is attainable; and if, in religious con- cerns, we refuse to believe and act till this “certainty” is reached, where is the office of faith ? Reasonable proba- bility is the highest evidence which can be obtained on most subjects; and if, after ascertaining the almost unani- mous concurrence of all Greek writers respecting the meaning of the word baptizo, its meaning is not to be re- ceived as settled, it seems impossible to determine the signification of any word whatever. It would be easy to fill many pages with quotations from the most distinguished Pedobaptist writers, of vari- ous countries and ages, who confess that baptism means immersion. Mr. Booth, in his learned work, “ Pedobap- tism Examined,” has collected more than eighty testimo- nies of this kind. A single quotation from Calvin is the only one which our limits allow : “The very word baptize signifies to immerse, and it is certain that immersion was the practice of the ancient church.”—L. 4. c. 15. § 19. 2. The figurative use of the word is a second argument. A figure is used for illustration or emphasis, and in either case, its force depends on the literal signification. In this figurative sense baptizo is used in the New Testament to signify overnyhelming. Thus in Luke 12: 50, “I have a baptism to be baptized with, and how am I straitened until it be accomplished ſ” That is, as professor Stuart rightly paraphrases it, “I am about to be overnhelmed with suf. ferings, and I am greatly distressed with the prospect of them,” p. 310. Similar examples are found in Mark 10: 38, 39. Matt. 3: 11, &c. The word is used figuratively to signify burial, in Rom. 6: 3, 4: “Know ye not that so many of us as were bap- tized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death 2 Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death, that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in new- ness of life.” . In Col. 2: 12, the same figure occurs: “Buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him through the faith of the operation of God, who hath raised him from the dead.” It seems too plain for argument, that baptism is here compared to a burial, in which the believer, being “dead to sin,” (Rom. 6. 2.) is “buried” in baptism, and from this emblematic grave he rises again to a new and spiritual life. The figure is apt, beautiful, and impressive, if baptism is immersion; but it has no apparent pertinency if any thing else is baptism. 3. The places selected for the administration of baptism furnish an argument. The accounts of the baptisms by John would probably convey to the minds of all men who should read the Bible for the first time, without any know- ledge of the controversies on this subject, a right idea concerning baptism. We find John baptizing the pº “in Jordan,” Matt. 3: 5, 6, Mark 1: 5, 6, If the idea that the preposition “in” might mean “at” were correct, the fact would still remain, that he repaired, for the pur- pose of baptizing, to the river Jordan, “the average breadth of which, between the sea of Galilee and the Dead sea, is from sixty to eighty feet, and its depth about ten or twelve.”—(Rob. Wahl’s Lex. art. Jordan.) The rea- son expressly assigned for selecting a spot at Enon, near Salim, is, “because there was much water there,” John 3: 23. If the words translated much water were susceptible of the translation which Beza and others have contended for, i. e. “many streams or rivulets,” it would nevertheless be a fact, that the place was chosen for baptism with an express reference to an abundant supply of water, and “many streams or rivulets” would afford accommodations for the act of immersion. But it is highly improbable, in itself, that there were many streams or rivulets in the neighbor- hood of the Jordan, and professor Ripley has shown, with a clearness and force which ought to settle the question, that the phrase hudata polla, translated “much water,” is a Hebrew expression, which is repeatedly applied in the Old Testament to the sea, and which thereſore signifies a great quantity of water. Can there be any reasonable doubt, that John selected this spot because it was a convenient place for immersing the candidates ? Is it a probable interpreta- tion, that he chose the spot because the multitude needed many streams to supply themselves and their cattle with drink 2 The case of the Ethiopian, (Acts 8.) may be cited ; “And as they went on their way, they came unto a certain wa- ter, and the eunuch said, See, here is water: what doth hinder me to be baptized tº v. 36. “And they went down both into the water, both Philip and the eunuch, and he baptized him. And when they were come up out of the water,” &c. v. 38, 39. Whatever ingenious critics may say, is not the impression which this account natural- ly makes upon the mind of a plain man the true one 2 i. e. that the travellers had been conversing on the truths of the gospel, and on the ordinance of baptism ; that when they arrived at a body of water, the Ethiopian proposed to be baptized; and that Philip, having led him into the water, immersed him. Do not all the circumstances lead to this conclusion ? Though in many other cases of baptism mentioned in the New Testament, no reference is made to the place where the ceremony was performed, yet nothing is said in- consistent with the idea of immersion. Oriental coun- tries abound with large baths, and other collections of water, where baptism could be, and where, in modern times, it often has been, performed. It is a settled rule of criticism, that a defective or obscure passage must be ex- plained by those which are clear; and as we know that large bodies of water were in some cases selected, we are bound to conclude, that in other cases the practice was similar, though nothing may be said on the subject. 4. The practice of the Christian world, for many centu- ries, affords important testimony. º On this point there is overwhelming evidence. The best ecclesiastical historians, Mosheim, Waddington, Nean- der, &c. affirm that the practice of the primitive churches was immersion. Professor Stuart, after citing the testimony of many ancient writers, says:—“But enough. ‘It is,' says Augusti, (Denkw. vii. p. 216.) “a thing made out,’ viz. the ancient practice of immersion. So, indeed, all the writers who have thoroughly investigated the subject con- clude. I know of no one usage of ancient times which seems to be more clearly and certainly made out. , I can- not see how it is possible for any candid man who exa- mines the subject to deny this,” p. 359. F. Brenner, a Roman Catholic writer, states, “that thir- teen hundred years was baptism generally and ordinarily performed by the immersion of a man under water; and BAP B A P [ 183 ) only on extraordinary occasions was sprinkling or affusion permitted. These latter methods of baptism were called in question, and even prohibited.”—Stuart, É. 361. “ In the Greek church, it is well known, the practice of immersion is continued, without variation, till the present day. - In the English Episcopal church, immersion was prac- tised until the beginning of the seventeenth century. In many old houses of worship, large baptisteries now exist, which were once used in baptism. The first liturgy, in 1547, enjoins a trine immersion, in case the child is not sickly. The preseñt liturgy permits, though it does not require, immersion. Luther would have introduced immersion into his church, if he had followed his own opinions. He says, after speaking of baptism as a symbol of death and re- surrection, “On this account, I could wish that such as are to be baptized should be completely immersed into water, according to the meaning of the word and the signification of the ordinance; not because I think it ne- cessary, but because it would be beautiful to have a full and perfect sign of so perfect and full a thing, as, also, nithout doubt, it n'as instituted by Christ.”—Works, vol. ii. p. 76, ed. 1551. (See Appendix to Professor Chase's Ser- mon before Boston Association, in 1828.) It may be added here, that the Jews early practised the baptism of proselytes. It is not necessary to enter into the controversy respecting the origin of this practice. It is sufficient for the present purpose to say, that this baptism, as professor Stuart acknowledges, was performed by im- mersion, p. 354. If, then, the Jews borrowed the practice from the Christians, or if the Savior adopted a ceremony already known, it is, in either case, a strong proof that Christian baptism is immersion. - . Other arguments might be adduced; but the limits of this article forbid us to proceed. Those which have been mentioned are, however, sufficient. If “all lexicographers and critics of any note” confess that baptizo means to im- merse; if the usage, in the classics, in the Septuagint and Apocrypha, and in the New Testament, on other topics than baptism, clearly, and in numberless passages, refers to immersion, while not one passage undeniably means something else; if the figurative meaning of the word clearly includes the idea of overnhelming and burying ; if the places selected for baptizing, in repeated instances mentioned in the New Testament, were large bodies of water; if it is “a thing made out,” that the ancient churches practised immersion, and if the usage has been continued by all professed Christians till a recent period,. and by large bodies of professed Christians till the present day;-the Baptists may well ask,-If the real nature of baptism is not ascertained to be immersion, is it possible to ascertain the meaning of any word or ceremony what- ever ? They think the case perfectly clear, and they be- lieve that all Christians are bound, on the simplest princi- ples of evidence, to come to the same conclusion. II. THE SUBJECTS OF BAPTISM. The second point which requires to be considered is of still greater importance—Who are the proper subjects of baptism 2 - The Baptists maintain, that true believers in the Lord Jesus Christ are the only proper subjects of baptism. Their reasons for this opinion are numerous. A few of them we will now state. 1. The first argument is drawn from the commission which the Savior gave to his ministers. As our authority to baptize is derived from the Savior alone, we must be governed by his will in determining who are to be admit- ted to the sacred rite. It is his prerogative to decide this point; and we are bound to follow implicitly his direc: tions. What, then, is the commission ? “Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature. He that believeth, and is baptized, shall be saved, and he that believeth not shall be damned,” Mark 16:15, 16. Here the qualifications of the persons to be baptized are clearly defined. They are first to be taught the truths of the gospel, and then those who believe are to be baptized. The language is plain—the condition is exactly specified— the relation between faith and baptism is unalterably es- tablished. What right have the ministers of Christ to depart from the plain letter of his commission, and admit to baptism those who do not and cannot believe 2 - 2. Another argument is drawn from the examples of baptism in the Scriptures. John the Baptist required repentance, and faith in the coming Messiah, as qua- lifications for baptism, Matt. 3: 5–12. Ltike 3: 3–9. Acts 19: 4. On the day of Pentecost, after Peter had preached the gospel to the multitude, “they that gladly received his word were baptized,” Acts 2: 41. At Sa- maria, “when they believed Philip preaching the things concerning the kingdom of God, and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women,” Acts 8: 12. To the question of the eunuch, “What doth hin- der me to be baptized?” Philip replied, “If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest,” Acts 8: 37. Peter said, respecting Cornelius and his friends, “Can any man for. bid water that these should not be baptized, which have received the Holy Ghost as well as we ?” Acts 10:47. To the question of the Philippian jailor, “What must I do to be saved 7” Paul and Silas answered, “Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved and thy house.” The subsequent verses state, that he and all his house- hold were taught the truths of the gospel, that they all be. lieved, and were all baptized, Acts 16: 30–34. It is asserted of Lydia, that before she was baptized, “the Lord opened her heart, that she attended to the things which were spoken of Paul,” Acts 16: 14. At Corinth, “Cris- pus, the chief ruler of the synagogue, believed on the Lord with all his house; and many of the Corinthians, hearing, believed, and were baptized,” Acts 18: 8. Such was the practical construction which the apostles placed on the commission of their Lord. In every case of bap- tism recorded in the Scriptures, some facts are stated, which assert or imply that the persons baptized were be- lievers. There is, on the other hand, not a single example in the New Testament of the baptism of an infant, nor one word which fairly implies it. “There is no example of baptism recorded in the Scriptures,” says Mr. T. Boston, a Pedo- baptist writer, (Works, p. 384,) “where any were baptized but such as appeared to have a saving interest in Christ.” The cases of the baptism of households do not form an ex- ception; for it is expressly said of the Philippian jailor and his household, and of Crispus and his house, that they all believed; (Acts 16:34, and 18; 8.) and though the same assertion is not made respecting the households of Lydia and Stephanas, yet other circumstances are stated, which imply that none of the members of those families were in- fants. Many households are now baptized by Baptist ministers, which contain no infants. While, therefore, there is so much evidence that the apostles baptized none but believers, it is eyident, as Neander admits, that “from the examples of the baptism of whole families, we can by no means infer the existence of infant baptism.” —Bib. Repos. Ap. 1834, p. 273. In the epistles, in which numerous questions respecting the discipline of the churches and the duties of different classes of persons are discussed, there is not a word which implies that infants were regarded as in any sense mem. bers of the visible family of Christ, as they would have been if they had been baptized. , Children are repeatedly charged to obey their parents, and parents are commanded to train up their children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord; but there is no hint at infant baptism. The pas- Sage 1 Cor. 7: 14, “The unbelieving husband is sanctified by the wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the husband; else were your children unclean, but now are they holy,” has no bearing on the subject. It is plain that a pious wife cannot so “sanctify” an unbelieving husband, as that he can be entitled to baptism without personal faith. Neither can pious parents so make their children “holy,” as that they can be entitled to baptism without personal faith. The meaning of the apostle is thus stated by the Rev. John L. Dagg, in a note to Pengilly's Guide to Baptism, as published by the Baptist General Tract so- çiety : “The unbelieving husband is not unclean, so that his wife may not lawfully dwell with him; the unbeliev- ing wife is not unclean, so that her husband may not lawfully dwell with her. If they are unclean, then your B A P B A P ..[ 1841 children are unclean, and not one parent in the whole church must dwell with or touch his children until God shall convert them.” If this interpretation is correct, this verse is a decided proof that infant baptism did not ex- ist in the days of the apostles. The passage in Matt, 19:13, 14, and the parallel passa- ges in Mark 10: 13, 14, and Luke 18: 15, 16, are some- times quoted as sanctioning infant baptism. “Then were brought to Jesus little children, that he should put his hands on them and pray, and the disciples rebuked them. But Jesus said, Suffer little children, and forbid them not, to come unte me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven. And he laid his hands on them.” This passage has no bearing on infant baptism. It cannot be proved that the children referred to were infants. The same word is used, (Mark 5: 39.) to designate a child twelve years old. The object for which the children were brought to the Savior, is distinctly stated:—“that he should put his hands on them and pray,” in accordance with a Jewish custom, which attributed high value to the blessing of a person distinguished for age or piety. See Genesis 27, and 48: 14. We are told what the Savior actually did—“he laid his hands on them.” There is no allusion to baptism. The expression, “for of such is the kingdom of heaven,” manifestly refers to the dispositions of those who shall enter heaven, as in the verse which immediately succeeds in Luke : “Verily I say unto you, whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, shall in no case enter therein.” 3. Since, then, the commission and the practice of the apostles both confine baptism to believers, the Baptists require, that those who consider infants as proper subjects. of baptism should produce from the Bible some plain pre- cept which commands or permits infant baptism. The Savior alone can so modify his commission as to admit to baptism persons who do not believe. If he has modified it, the evidence must be produced from the Scriptures. If such evidence cannot be produced, the Baptists argue, that we have no more right to baptize persons who do not pro- fess faith in Christ, than we have to neglect baptism alto- gether. Can such evidence be furnished? Iset us hear the con- fessions of Pedobaptists themselves. Dr. Woods, in his Lectures on Infant Baptism, says:—“It is a plain case, that there is no express precept respecting inſant baptism in our sacred writings. The proof, then, that infant bap- tism is a divine institution must be made out in another way,” lect. i. p. 11. Professor Stuart makes the same ac- knowledgment in stronger terms: “Commands, or plain and certain examples, in the New Testament, relative to it, [in- fant baptism] I do not find.”—Bib. Rep. Ap. 1833, p. 385. Other Pedobaptists have made the same concession. Bishop Burnet says, “There is no express precept or rule given in the New Testament for baptism of infants.” —Exposition of Articles, art. xxvii. If this is so, the Baptists think the case settled. They cannot believe any institution to be divine, for which there is in the Bible “no express precept,” and of which there are “no plain and certain examples in the New Testa- ment.” To “make out the proof in another way,” they consider to be unauthorized and dangerous. If a license be given to mere inference, the worst errors of popery may be sanctioned. The papist does not pretend to produce an “express precept,” or “plain and certain examples,” for many of his corrupt and pernicious doctrines and prac- tices; but he can “make out the proof in another way,” to his own satisfaction at least. He does not justify his Fº of infant baptism by scriptural evidence only, but y the authority of the church; and he justly accuses the Protestant of inconsistency, who practises infant baptism and yet pretends to take the Scriptures as his only guide. Among the other ways by which the practice is defend- ed, the only one which can now be alluded to, and the one on which the greatest stress has been laid. is, that “the covenant with Abraham was a spiritual covenant, and that as such it included infants; that they were accord- ingly circumcised under the old dispensation; that bap. tism is a substitute for circumcision, and that consequently infants are to be baptized.” The Baptists deny the truth of every part of this argument. They deny that there was any such thing as a church among the Jews, that is, a separate body of true saints. The whole nation were considered as one political body, and the rite of circum- cision was a national mark of distinction, which all male Jews, whether pious or wicked, were required to possess. Male infants were accordingly circumcised, not because their parents were pious, but because they were Jews; and the Jews were required to circumcise their male servants, whether born in their houses or bought with their money, on precisely the same principle that they circumcised their children, viz., because those servants and children were now members of the Jewish nation. The Baptists deny that there is any proof that baptism is a substitute for circumcision. Not a word is said in the New Testa- ment which justifies such a conclusion; and to infer such a substitution is a dangerous license, which virtually over- throws the authority of the Bible. Multitudes who had already been circumcised, were baptized by John and by the apostles. Why so, if baptism was merely a substi- tute for circumcision ? We learn from Acts 21, that Paul was censured by many of the believing Jews, because he taught the Jews which were among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, saying “ that they ought not to circumcise their chil- dren,” v. 21. How natural would it have been for Paul to appease the clamor and conciliate the prejudices of the Jews, by replying that baptism was a substitute for cir- cumcision. Had this been the case, he ought to have taught the doctrine. We may be sure that he would have taught it. But we hear not a word from his lips on the subject. - In the fifteenth chapter of Acts we are informed, that a council, was held at Jerusalem by the apostles and el- ders, to determine the important question, how far the Gentile converts were to be required to conform to Jewish usages. The decision was :—“It seemed good to the Ho- ly Ghost and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things : that ye abstain from meats offer- ed to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication,” v. 28, 29. “Thus,” says Dr. Baldwin, (Chris. Bap. p. 24.) “by the unanimous voice of a council, comprising most if not all the apostles and elders of the whole Christian church, and by the approbation of the “Holy Ghost, we see circumcision put down, and no substi- TUTE proposed in its room In this whole account there is not the most distant hint that baptism was to be practised in the room of circumcision. If these apostles and elders had understood the subject as our Pedobaptist brethren do, is it not perfectly unaccountable that they should not have mentioned it on this perplexing occasion ? To me, I con- fess, the supposition is too unreasonable to be admitted.” If, however, baptism is a substitute for circumcision, then the Jewish example must be followed out, and male infants only must be baptized; all male inſants must be baptized, and all male servants must be baptized, whatever may be their age or character. If the example is authori- tative in one point, why not in all ! 3. Another argument which proves that infant baptism was unknown to the apostles, is, that there is no evidence that it was practised in the churches for the first two cen- turies. No clear and undeniable allusion is made to it by any writer earlier than Tertullian, and there is some doubt whether even he has reference to mere infants. Wenema, in his Ecclesiastical Hist. t. iii. s. 2. § 108-9, says: “Tertullian has nowhere mentioned pedobaptism among the traditions or customs of the church that were publicly received and usually observed, for in his book, De Baptismo, [supposed to be written A. D. 204, he dis- suades from baptizing infants, and proves the delay of it to a more mature age to be preferred. Nothing is to be affirmed with certainty concerning the custom of the church before Tertullian, seeing there is not anywhere, in more ancient writers, that I know of, undoubted mention of infant baptism.” But it is sufficient to adduce the testimony of one of the most recent and most able ecclesiastical historians, Ne- ander, who is professor of theology at Berlin, and is him- self a Pedobaptist. After stating that baptism was, in the days of the apostles, performed by immersion, “as best adapted to express that which Christ intended to express by this symbol—the merging of the whole man into a new ~~ B A P B A P [ 1851 spirit and life,” he says: “Since baptism was thus imme- diately connected with a conscious and voluntary acces- sion to the Christian fellowship, and faith and baptism were always united, it is highly probable that baptism took place only in those cases where both could meet together, and that the custom of infant baptism was not practised in this age.” “The lateness of the time when the first distinct mention of infant baptism is made, and the long continued opposition made to it, lead us to infer its non- apostolic origin.”—Bib. Repos. Ap. 1834, p. 273–4. Infant baptism was probably introduced into the church about the commencement of the third century, in connex- ion with other corruptions, which even then began to pre- pare the way for popery. A superstitious idea respecting the necessity of baptism to salvation led to the baptism of sick persons, and finally to the baptism of infants. Sponsors, holy water, anointing with oil, the sign of the cross, and a multitude of similar ceremonies, equally un- authorized by the Scriptures, were soon introduced. The church lost her simplicity and purity, her ministers be- came ambitious, and the darkness gradually deepened in- to the long and dismal night of papal despotism. 4. One other argument has great weight with the Bap- tists. They consider infant baptism as inconsistent with one of the fundamental principles of Christianity, viz. that every man is held responsible for his own conduct, and must be justified by his own individual faith. The piety of the parent cannot save the child, and the piety of the child cannot avail for the salvation of the parent. John the Baptist told the Jews that even their connexion with Abra- ham was an insufficient plea, Matt. 3: 9. The same prin- ciple is stated in Ezek. ch. 18. Repentance and faith are required of every individual, as the indispensable condi- tions of salvation. But infant baptism is founded on ano- ther principle. It supposes that the faith of the parent so far extends its benefit to the child, as to entitle him to be- come a visible member of the family of Christ. The child, then, owes this privilege, not to his own faith, but to that of his parent. Here is a very dangerous doctrine, the true result of which is seen in the popish indulgences, which are granted on the ground that the merits of one man can be transferred to another. Neander, in the article already quoted, argues the im, probability that Paul taught and practised infant baptism, because it would have seemed to contradict his great principle of justification by faith. This objection has not less importance now ; and those who wish to maintain, in all its purity, the doctrine of justification by faith, and to preserve the church from the prevalence of popish errors, ought to renounce every thing which is not authorized by the plain and unperverted word of God. The Baptists stand on the firm Protestant principle—the principle of the Reformation—that the Bible alone is the standard and the guide for all Christians. Since, therefore, the com- mission of the Savior requires faith as a qualification for baptism ; since the apostles, so far as we can ascertain their practice, baptized none but believers; since Pedobap- tists themselves acknowledge that there is no express pre- cept nor plain example in the Scriptures on the subject; since there is strong evidence that infant baptism was un- known in the apostolic age ; and since it is inconsistent with the fundamental principle of justification by faith,- the Baptists are constrained to view inſant baptism as an unscriptural corruption, and to maintain that true believ- ers are the only proper subjects of baptism. Having thus briefly presented a few of the reasons for the doctrines maintained by the Baptists, we may add, that they cannot conscientiously regard any persons as baptized who have not been immersed on a profession of their faith. Wiewing, as most other Christians view, bap- tism, as a prerequisite to the participation of the Lord's supper, they cannot consistently consider those whom they are compelled to regard as unbaptized to be qualified to partake of the supper. They do not deny nor question the piety of their Pedobaptist brethren, but they must, as ho- nest men, refuse to recognise as baptism what they view as an unauthorized ceremony. They desire the union of all Christians, and they believe that they are laboring the most effectually to promote that union, by endeavoring to uphold in love the pure principles of the Bible. May the God of Peace enable all his pººl. to ascertain, and love, and practise the truth, that they may be one indeed. Among the best works on the Baptist side, are, Booth's Pedobaptism Examined ; Dr. Gill's Works; Stennett's Works; Gale's Letters in Reply to Wall; Fuller's Works; Carson and Coz on Baptism ; Pengilly's Scripture Guide to Baptism; Wilson's Manual ; Fuller on Communion ; Dr. Baldn'in's Letters; Treatises on Baptism by Dr. Chapin, Rev. Mr. Loomis, and Rev. Mr. Frey; Rev. Mr. Judson's Sermon on Baptism; Professor Chase's Sermon before the Boston Association, 1828; and Professor Ripley's Exami- nation of Professor Stuart's Essay. J. D. K.Now LEs. DESIGN OF BAPTISM. A due regard to the doctrinal import and design of this New Testament ordinance would probably go farther than all the learning and ingenuity which have been employed in managing the controversy on either side, to establish the mind of an inquirer, both as to the proper subjects and mode of administration. For it is plain that the value of signs depends chiefly upon the importance of the things signified. And as Dr. Owen observes, “there is nothing in religion that hath any efficacy for compassing an end, but it hath it from God’s appointment of it to that purpose. God may in his wisdom appoint and accept of ordinances and duties unto one end, which he will refuse and reject when they are applied to another. To do any thing ap- pointed unto an end, without aiming at that end, is no better than the not doing it at all, in some cases much worse.” The design of baptism, therefore, as taught in the New Testament, and the practical uses to which it is there applied, ought to be thoroughly investigated by both minis- ters and people; in order that they may know and comply with the revealed intention of God in its appointment. “It is generally agreed among divines,” says the learned Wenema, “that the communion of a believer with Christ, and the effects of his obedience, by which the guilt, the pollution and the punishment of sin are taken away, and so the remission of sin, sanctification and glorification are conferred, are presented to view in baptism ; yet they do not sufficiently show the way and manner in which that representation is made, and frequently speak with but little consistency. If, in baptism, the appearance of nothing but washing presented itself to our consideration, the thing would be easy. For, seeing we are delivered from sin by the obedience of Christ, that would be readily understood by every one as the cause of our purification, and as re- presented by water, in which there is a cleansing virtue; especially as the Scripture usually comprehends it under the emblem of water. But washing is neither the only idea, nor, as I think, the principal one, of this institution.” The principal and most comprehensive design of this ordinance appears from the Scriptures to be, A soleMN, PUBLIC, AND PRACTICAL PROFESSION of CHRISTIANITY, Thus Paul sums up the baptism of John in Acts 19:4. “John verily baptized with the baptism of REPENTANCE, saying unto the people, that they should believe on him which should come after him, that is, on CHRIST Jesus.” And thus he describes his own; (Gal. 3:27.) “As many of you as have been baptized into Christ, HAVE PUT on CHRIST:” To the same purpose are the words of Peter on the day of Pentecost; “Repent, and be baptized, every one of you, IN THE NAME of Jesus CHRIST.” Hence also a rejection of baptism is by our Lord called a REJEcTION OF THE counsel, of GoD, that is, of Christianity. Luke 7: 30. Acts 20: 27. And the reception of baptism is represented as the act by which we JUSTIFY GoD ; that is, practically approve his method of salvation by faith in the Messiah. Luke 7: 29 Hence, whatever, may be said of baptism as it is now generally understood and practised, and of the personal religion of those &ho practise it, it is certain that it was originally appointed to be the boundary of visible Christianity. But this general design of baptism comprehends many particulars. Christianity consists partly of truths to be believed, partly of precepts to be obeyed, and partly of promises to be hoped for; and this, its initiatory ordinance, is rich in significancy in relation to them all. We are taught to regard it : 1. As THE soleMN PROFESSION OF OUR FAITH IN THE TRINITY. John 1: 33. Matt. 3: 16, 17, 28: 19. Ephes. 2: 18. Tit. 3: 4–7. Particularly—of our adop- 24 B A P B A P [ 186 tion by the Father, Gal. 3: 26–29. 4: 1–7. John 1: 12, 13. 2 Cor. 6: 17, 18. 1 John 3: 1–3. Of our union to the Son. Acts 8: 35–39. Rom. 6: 3–14. Col. 2: 12, 13, 20. 3: 1– 11. Matt. 20:22, 23. 1 Pet. 3:18–22. 1 Cor. 1: 30. Of our sanctification by the Spirit. John 3: 5–8. 7: 37–39. 14: 15–17, 26, 27. 16: 12–15. Acts. 2: 38, 39. Rom. 8: 1– 27, 2 Cor. 1:21, 22. Gal. 3: 2,3. 4: 6,7. 5: 22–25. Ephes. 1: 11–14. 4:30. 5: 9.—2. As TIIE PUBLIC PreDGE of The RENUNCIATION AND REMISSION of sINs. Mark 1: 4, 5. Acts 2: 38. 22: 16. Rom. 6: 4–3. As The ExPREssion of our HOPE OF A FUTURE AND GLORIOUS RESURRecTION, Rom. 6: 5. Col. 3: l—4. 1 Cor. 15:29.—-4. As A VISIBLE Bond or UNION AMONG CHRISTIANs. 1 Cor. 12: 3–31. Dphes. 4: 5. Baptism, therefore, is designed to give a sort of visible epitome of Christianity. VII—PERPETUITY OF THE LAW OF BAPTISM. Although Christians have been generally agreed that baptism was delivered to the primitive churches as an or- dinance of universal and perpetual obligation, yet there have been some, and two bodies of Christians in particu- lar, who have on different grounds denied or questioned its perpetuity. (See articles QUAKERs, and ANTI-BAPTISTs, in this volume.) The first class consider all external forms, in which they include Baptism and the Lord's Sup- per, rather as obstructions than aids to spiritual worship; and hence interpret the apostolic commission, either of baptism with the Holy Ghost, or limit its duration to the close of the Jewish economy, as being rather a part of the baptism of John than of Christ. They quote in favor of these views, Matt. 3:11. John 3:30. 1 Cor. 12:13. Ephes. 4: 5. and 1 Cor. 1: 17. The second class derive their opinion chiefly from the supposition that Christian baptism is a continuation of Jewish proselyte baptism ; from which they argue that it ought not to be administered to any but converted Pagans, Mahometans, and others, who did not previously receive Christianity as the true religion. Both of these classes of Christians have been requested to consider, 1. That the apostles themselves understood their commission of baptizing in mater; as is clear from their practice recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. 2. That to baptize n:ith the Holy Ghost, or put the soul under his divine influence, is the prerogative of Christ alone. John l; 33. 8: 37–39. Acts 1: 4–8. 2: 1–4. 3. That so far from regarding the baptism of the Spirit as superseding the baptism of water, Peter, in the house of Cornelius, urges it as a divine argument of the propriety of the latter; Who can forbid mater, that these should not be bap- tized, niho have received the Holy Ghost as nell as ºve? And he commanded them to be baptized in the name of the Lord. Acts 10. 4. That this, therefore, is “the one baptism” to which the apostle refers as being a visible bond of union among Christians; the baptism of the Holy Ghost, (su- perior as it is in importance,) being so called, not literally, but by a rich and beautiful metaphor, indicating the over- whelming abundance of his holy influences and endow- ments. Be ye filled with the Spirit. Ephes. 5: 18. John 7: 37–39. 5. That the Christian law of baptism could not have been derived from that of Jewish proselytes; because many such proselytes were baptized, as the Ethiopian eu- nuch, Cornelius, and others, which proves either that the Christian administrators knew no such custom as proselyte baptism, or that they rebaptized those who had received it. 6. That the apostles in their writings draw from the baptism of their converts the most powerful motives to a life of spiritual holiness. 7. That our Lord himself hon- ored the ordinance by his own example; and that while it is safe to obey and imitate him, it must be dangerous to set aside or slight even the least of his commandments. Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you. John 15: 14. He that halh my commandments and keepeth them, he it is that loveth me. John 14:21. Lastly, Christians are exhorted to hold fast the proſession of their faith nithout ouavering, and to draw nigh to the thrºne of grace, having their hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and their bodies washed with pure water; which they cannot do unless bap. tized. Heb. 10:22, 23. Whence it follows that baptism in water, however and to whomsoever it is to be admin- istered, is a Christian ordinance of perpetual obligation. Others have stated the argument thus. We have seen that Christianity and its laws are of perpetual obligation; that baptism is a part of Christianity in its complete form; that the example of Christ in this particular is binding on all his disciples, through all ages; that the perpetuity of baptism is implied in the nature of the ordinance, as an act of worship, a monument of the Savior's death, burial and resurrection, a symbol of the renunciation of sin, and the new birth to righteousness, a Solemn self-dedication to the Savior, a public recognition of our adoption as the children of God, and of our hope of a glorious resurrec- tion ; that the promise connected with the institution pro- phetically declares its perpetuity ; that baptism is in- wrought in the law of the institution with some other things which are acknowledged to be of perpetual obliga- tion, as teaching and believing; and that the apostles understood it to be perpetual, and derived from it motives to holiness, which are now powerless upon any other sup- position than that the ordinance is still to be regarded. Now in view of all these things, what shall we say? Can further evidence be necessary 2 If there be any who still doubt the perpetual obligation of the ordinance, we would respectfully put to them the following questions: Is there in the law of the institution any thing which appears to limit the obligation of obedience to time, or place, or na- tion ? Is not the language of the commission as exempt as language can be, from all such limitations 2 Was this law ever repealed by the same authority which enacted it If it were, it can certainly be shown when, and where, and how ; and we ask for the evidence. We ask again, Has it (as the Seventh day Sabbath, has) been virtually repealed, by being superseded by another ordinance? If So, what is its name 2 and whence its origin 2 and where its authority ? We ask once more, Do not the same reasons exist for its continuance, as did for its appointment 2 Miracu- lous gifts were a seal to the commission ; they accredited the apostles as messengers of God; but now the proof of the divine origin of Christianity is complete, and the mi- raculous powers have ceased. They have ceased, because the same reason for which they were given, does not con- tinue. But the same doctrinal and the same practical uses of baptism continue ; and why should the ordinance be laid, aside 2 Why should it be regarded by any disciple of the crucified Savior as antiquated or obsolete 2 There- fore me are buried vith him by baptism in the likeness of his death, that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also should walk in newness of life. Rom. 6: 4, 5 Need we remark then, how sacred is the obligation which rests upon men of learning, and especially ministers. of the gospel, to instruct the disciples of Christ truly, in relation to their Lord's command and their personal duty, on this point as on every other. If the trumpet give an un- certain sound, who shall prepare himself to the battle 2 Let an awful fear of God hold a torch before us in all our inqui- ries, and the love of Christ constrain us to feed his sheep, and to feed his lambs. Editor. BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD. The argument of St. Paul, (1 Cor. 15:29.) “If the dead rise not at all, what shall they do who are baptized for the dead,” has excited many different ideas in the minds of interpreters. Bochart has collected no less than fifteen senses in which it has been understood, or rather in which learned men have confessed that they did not understand it. Yet doubtless it was clear and cogent, not only in the view of the apostle, but of the Corinthian church whom he addressed. The three senses most prominent are, 1. It is an appeal founded on the con- duct of those who were converted and baptized in view of the martyrdom of Christians; thus fearlessly filling up the ranks of the dead, from a confidence in their glorious resur- rection. This sense is adopted by Doddridge. 2. It is an appeal founded on the figurative sense of the word baptize, that is, to overnhelm with sufferings; as in Matt. 20:22, 23. This sense is preferred by professors Stuart and Robinson. Yet it seems to leave the phrase obscure, for what is the meaning of “overnhelmed in sufferings for the dead 2’’ 3. It is an appeal to the Corinthians, founded on the usual spnbolic sense of the ordinance of Christian baptism; as in Rom. 6: 4. Col. 3: 12, where the apostle explains it to sig. nify, not only a death and burial, but also a resurrection from the dead. The meaning of the apostle then is this: B A P B A P [ 187 ) “If there be no resurrection, why express such a belief un the use of the ordinance of baptism : What shall they do who have made this solemn profession of their faith and hope, if there be no corresponding reality?” This last sense is preſerred by the learned Neander, and seems most natural. * BAPTISM OF THE HOLY GHOST; that over. whelming abundance of the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit, which our Savior, after his ascension, poured forth upon his disciples. The basis of this beautiful metaphor is found in the literal signification of baptism, which is to cover one completely with any kind of element, particu- larly water. So the apostles and primitive believers are said to have been, not only in a degree. subjected to the influence of the Holy Spirit, but filled with it, immersed in it, as in a new element of existence, Jiſe, perception, feeling, and action. A measure of the same divine influ- ence they had received beſore; but this was a far more copious and ample communication of it, to qualify them for their public labors, as well as to elevate their personal character, and to promote their spiritual enjoyment. Nor does this rich donation of spiritual blessings appear to have been restricted to miraculous gifts on the one hand, or to the primitive believers on the other. For it is repre- sented, 1. As the prerogative of Christ's personal dignity. Matt. 3: 11. Mark 1:8. Luke 3: 16. John 1: 15–17, 32, 33. 2. As the grand distinction of his glorious reign. John 7: 37–39. 16: 7. 3. As the special promise of the new covenant. Luke 24: 49. Acts 1: 4–8. 2: 1–4, 16– 21, 33, 38, 39. Heb. 8: 6–12. 4. As the privilege and seal of every believer. Ephes. 1: 13, 14. 4:30. 5: 18. Gal. 4: 6. 5: 16, 25. 5. As the proper object of expecta- tion and prayer. Isa. 32: 15–17. 44; 3–5. Luke 11: 5– 13, Phil. 1: 19. 6. As comprehending gifts and graces, varied in kind and degree, to supply the necessities of the church, according to the will and wisdom of the Spirit himself. 1 Cor. 12: 1–13, 31. 14: 1. Ephes. 5: 9. 4; 30. Rom. 8: 9, 13, 14. 14: 17. 15: 13. From these passages it appears that the Baptism of the Holy Ghost is not to be conſounded, on the one hand, with regeneration, as it sometimes has been ; mor, on the other, restricted to miraculous powers, and of course to the primi- tive age; but is to be sought in the more copious commu- nication of such gifts and graces as are needed in the present condition of the Christian church, by ourselves and others. Whatever of superior illumination, sanctity, or fervor; whatever of heavenly purity of motive, clear. ness of perception, tenderness of affection, strength of purpose, or energy of character; whatever of divine peace, and consolation, and hope, and joy, drawn from the things eternal and unseen, we at any time need; whatever is necessary to make the gospel effectual to its end, among men—is to be sought and expected of God through Christ, the great Dispenser of spiritual blessings. Of his fulness have all we received, and grace for grace. The same is He which baptizeth with the Holy Ghost. Ask, and ye shall re- ceive, that your joy may be full. John 1: 16, 33. 16:24, BAPTISM OF FIRE. The words of John in describing the baptism of Christ, (Matt. 3: 11.) “He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire,” have been vari- ously interpreted. Some have referred the words “with fire,” to a purgatory after death; others to the unquench- able fire of hell into which the wicked shall be plunged after the final judgment; others to the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost; in the form of fiery tongues. Others still consider the words, and nith fire, as exegetical, and interpret them of that celestial ſervor and zeal which the baptism of the Holy Ghost conferred upon those who received it. And the structure of the original favors this Sense, as do also the facts of the case ; though, perhaps, §§ to the exclusion of the external sign mentioned in Acts |BAPTISM OF BLOOD. Tertullian gave this name to martyrdom before baptism, and to the death of martyrs in general. By him and other fathers aſter him, it was thought to have a peculiar efficacy to purify from sins; from which ºistaken notion it was urgently recommended to believers. But the blood of Christ alone cleanseth us from all sin. 1 John 1: 7. Rev. 1:57:14, - BAPTISTERIES. It would seem that the primitive Christians were under a necessity of baptizing in open waters, or, where they had not private baths of their own, of constructing baptisteries for the express purpose of ad- ministering baptism. Authors are not agreed about the time when the first baptisteries were built. All agree that the first were, like the manners and condition of the people, simple, and merely for use ; and that in the end, they rose to as high a degree of elegant superstition, as enthusiasm could invent. Baptisteries are to be first sought for, where they were first wanted, in towns and cities; for writers of unquestionable authority assert, that the primitive Christians continued to baptize in rivers, pools, and baths, till about the middle of the third century. Justin Martyr says that they went with the catechumens to a place where there was water, and Tertullian adds, that candidates for baptism made a pro- fession of faith twice, once in the church, that is, before the congregation in the place where they assembled to worship, and then again when they came to the water; and it was quite indifferent whether it were the sea or a pool, a lake, a river, or a bath. About the middle of the third century, baptisteries began to be built: but there were none nithin the churches until the sixth century; and it is remarkable that though there were many churches in one city, yet, (with a few exceptions,) there was but one baptistery. This simple circumstance, as popery advanced, was perverted into a title to dominion; and the congrega- tion nearest the baptistery, or to whom in some places it belonged, and by whom it was lent to the other churches, pretended that all the others ought to consider themselves dependent on them. - - By a baptistery of the fourth century, (which must not be confounded with a modern font,) is to be understood an Octagon building, with a cupola roof, resembling the dome of a cathedral, adjacent to a church, but no part of it. All the middle part of this building was one large hall, capable of containing a great multitude of people. The sides were parted off, and divided into rooms; and in some, rooms were added without-side, in the fashion of cloisters. In the middle of the great hall was an octagon bath, which strictly speaking, was the baptistery, and from which the whole building received its name. Some had been natural rivulets before the buildings were erected over them, and the pool was contrived to retain water sufficient for dip- ping, and to discharge the rest. Others were supplied by pipes; and where baptism was performed on naked sub- jects, (as from the fourth to the sixteenth century was the common practice of the Catholic as well as the Greek churches, a practice founded on certain fanciful notions of the fathers,) the water was conveyed into one or more of the side rooms, that the baptism of the women might be performed apart from that of the men. Some of the sur- rounding rooms were vestries; others school-rooms, both for the instruction of youth, and for transacting the affairs of the church, Councils have been held in the great halls of these buildings. It was necessary they should be capa- cious; for as baptism was now administered only twice a year, the candidates were numerous, and the spectators of each sex more numerous than they. It is an opinion generally received, and very probable, that some of the names given to these buildings, were borrowed from the memorable pool of Bethesda. The Syriac and Persic ver- sions call Bethesda, a place of baptistery. The most ancient baptistery is that of St. John Lateran. At Rome, there were many; in other Italian cities, only one at first ; in the middle ages two, a unitarian, and trinitarian ; in modern times, only one, the trinitarian. Some are yet standing. The memory of others is pre- served in records and monumental fragments. The place of others is now supplied by fonts within the churches. At Constantinople, the baptistery of St. Sophia was one of the appendages of that splendid church, erected by Con- stantine, and rebuilt by Justinian with unrivalled magnifi- cence. And it is worthy of motice, that the canon laws, the officers, the established rituals, the sermons of the prelates, and the baptism of the archbishops themselves, prove that baptism was here administered, by trine immer- sion indeed, but only to instructed persons, whether pagans or the descendants of Christians. It would be easy, savs Mr. Robinson, to make similar remarks on the churches B A P B A P [ 188 J at Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and many more ; for their baptisteries resembled that of St. Sophia, and their baptism was that of believers by trine immersion.—Robin- son’s History of Baptism ; Basnage; Mosheim ; Ciampini Vet. Monumenta. BAPTISTS; a well-known denomination of Christians, distinguished by their simple adherence to the Scriptures, by their views of the spiritual constitution of the Christian church, and of the holy design, subjects, and mode of baptism. In regard to this ordinance of Christ, “they have ever held,” says Mr. Benedict, their historian, “that a personal profession of faith, and an immersion in water, are essential to baptism.” Some of their aguments for these opinions may be found under the article BAPTISM. In regard to the constitution of the Christian church, while they believe in the existence of a universal or catholic church, composed of the whole body of believers in Christ In all nations and ages, they think that the Christian church, properly so called, was not visibly organized in the family of Abraham, nor in the wilderness of Sinai; but by the ministry of Christ himself and of his apostles; and that it was then constituted of such, and such only, as made a credible profession of repentance from sin, and faith in the Savior. All others they consider to be con- stitutionally excluded. That the primitive churches were uniformly organized on these principles; that they em- braced only visible saints, and were essentially voluntary compacts of piety, virtue, and brotherly love, they think perfectly plain from the New Testament. This new and beautiful organization, so unlike all establishments founded on national principles, they believe to be the kingdom of God, foretold by the prophet Daniel, and announced by John the Baptist as at hand. Dan. 2:44. And in the days of those kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, nihich shall never be destroyed ; and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand forever. Matt. 3: 2. 4: 17, et passim. - Hence the Baptists reject the baptism of infants, and national church establishments, as obvious innovations, incompatible with the spiritual purity of the visible church of Christ. Hence they distinguish between the covenant of grace in the Messiah, and the covenant of circumcision ; which the Pedo-baptists consider as one, though twenty- four years elapsed between them. Gen. 15: Gen. 17: Gal. 3: Hence also they reject all claims of the civil magistrate to any but a civil jurisdiction ; though willing and peace- able subjects to civil authority, where the rights of con- science are not involved. Hence, in every age, their strong attachment to liberty; especially to religious liberty, whose principles they were the first to proclaim, and the first also to exemplify. Their principles have subjected them to persecution from age to age, and to such principles they have counted it a glory to be martyrs. Though their own blood has flowed freely, they have never shed the blood of others. Indeed, civil persecution of any kind, on their principles, is impossible. And to them was allowed the happiness of establishing in this country, in 1636, a code of laws, “in which,” says Judge Story, “we read for the first time since Christianity ascended the throne of the Caesars, the declaration that “conscience should be free, and men should not be punished for worshipping God in the way they were persuaded he required.’” This declaration Rhode Island has never departed from ; and in it she has been since followed by all the United States. That wretched doctrine of the union of church and state, by which Chris- tianity has been made the minister of every wrong, that boasted alliance on which so many encomiums have been lavished, they have ever regarded as a foul corruption, in- consistent with the very nature of that kingdom nºbich is not of this world, destructive of the very purposes of the Chris- tian church, and in effect “little more than a compact be. tween the priest and the magistrate to betray the fiberties of mankind, both civil and religious.” (Complete Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. p. 22.) Christians of these senti- ments have existed in every age, and their number, as Mr. Benedict observes, has been larger than their friends generally imagine, or their opposers were ever willin g to acknowledge. Among the most distinguished are Beren- garius, Peter de Bruis, Henry, Arnold of Brescia, Lollard, Wickliffe, Tyndal, Menno, Dudith, Schyn, Tombes, Canne, Grantham, Milton, Bunyan, Delaune, Gale, Gill, Stennet, Booth, Butterworth, Gifford, Ryland, Carey, Marshman, Ward, Fuller, Hall, Foster, Gregory, Roger Williams, Backus, Stillman, Baldwin, Staughton, Judson, &c. Origin, History, &c. It has been asserted that the Bap- tists originated in Germany about the year 1522, at the beginning of the Reformation. It is true that no denomi- nation of Protestants can trace the origin of its present name, farther back than about the time of the Reforma- tion; and most of them have originated since that period. And it appears to be true that the name of Baptists, by which this people have since been known, was then first assumed, probably in opposition to that of Anabaptists, with which their enemies were continually reproaching them. (See ANABAPTISTs.) It is mot, however, the history of a name, but the prevalence of principles, which is the just object of attention with the student of ecclesiastical history. The Baptists do not pretend that the primitive saints were called Baptists, but that all the primitive Chris- tians were what would now be called by this name ; and that there always has been a people on earth, from the introduction of Christianity, who have held the leading sentiments by which they now are, and always have been, distinguished, is a point which they most firmly believe, and undertake to prove. In so doing, they attempt no wrong to any other denomination in Christendom. Their object, says Benedict, is not to show what is not true re- specting others, but what is true concerning themselves. They do not deny that Episcopalians can find bishops, and the Presbyterians elders or presbyters, and the Methodists zeal, and the Quakers inward light, among the primitive Christians; neither do they doubt that the Congregation- alists or Independents have good grounds for thinking that the apostolic churches were of their belief respecting church government. They only ask that terms should be properly explained. With most denominations they find something with which they can agree, and their hearts cleave in love to all who love the Lord Jesus Christ. And though compelled in some few points to diſſer from them all, it is only that they may with a pure conscience contend for the faith, and keep the ordinances as they mere de- livered to the saints. Conscientious fidelity to Christ, and an ardent desire by every lawful means to win others to the same fidelity, they think, so far from deserving the name of sectarianism, is the very essence of true catholicism. Innumerable volumes have been written under the title of Church History; but, after all, we know but very little of the real church of Christ for many hundred years. We have very ample accounts of the Antichristian church, that false pretender, in unhallowed alliance with the kings of the earth, and drunken mith the blood of the saints; but the history of the uncorrupted church, which maintained the word, worship, and ordinances of Christ, while all the world was wondering after the beast, is enveloped in the ob- scurity of that retreat which God prepared for her in the nvilderness. It is astonishing to perceive how far even most Protestants are from acknowledging the whole truth on this subject. So deeply has the corrupt union of church and state, under which they still live, blinded their eyes, that Protestant writers still persist in styling the history of the papal power, for example, the history of the Chris. tian church. Against this the Baptists protest. They be. lieve, with the ancient Waldenses, that “the church of Rome is the whore of Babylon;” and “that only is the church of Christ, which hears the pure doctrine of Christ, and observes the ordinances instituted by him, in whatso. ever place it exists.” (Waldensian Confession of the twelfth century.) Mosheim, with all his violent prejudices against the Baptists, in relating the history of the primi tive church, has given a description which will not apply to his own church, the Lutheran, nor to any sect in Chris- tendom except the Baptists. “The churches in those early times,” he observes, “were entirely independent, none of then, subject to any foreign jurisdiction, but each one go verned by its own rulers and laws. For though the church es founded by the apostles, had this particular deference shown them, that they were consulted in difficult and doubtful cases, yet they had no juridical authority, no sort of Supremacy over the others, nor the least right to enact B A P B A P | 189 J laws for them.” “A bishop during the first and second century was a person who had the care of one Christian assembly. In this assembly he acted not so much with the authority of a master, as with the zeal and diligence of a faithful servant.” “Baptism was administered in the first century without the public assemblies, in places ap- pointed for that purpose, and was performed by the im- mersion of the whole body in water.” Mr. Robinson, aſter the most diligent research, not only confirms these state- ments of Mosheim, but says expressly, “All this time they were Baptist churches; and though all the fathers of the four first ages, down to Jerome, were of Greece, Syria, and Africa, and though they gave great numbers of his- tories of the baptism of adults, yet there is not one record of the baptism of a child till the year 370, when Galates, the dying son of the Arian emperor Valens, was baptized by order of the monarch, who swore he would not be con- tradicted. The age of the prince is uncertain, and the as- signing of his illness as the cause of his baptism, indicates clearly enough that infant baptism was not in practice.” But the primitive churches in process of time became corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ. This corruption, and the great apostasy to which it led, had been foretold in the Scriptures; (see article ANTICHRIST,) and even in the days of the apostles, the mystery of iniquity did already work. When in the third century, the discipline and morals of the principal churches became altogether relaxed, such as had the purity of the Redeemer's kingdom at heart, after struggling in vain to resist the torrent of corruption, gradually separated themselves from a commu- nity which had become unworthy of the Christian name. Though these early Protestant dissenters were confounded with heretics by the prevailing party, which assumed the name of the Catholic church ; yet it is certain, that their faith was scriptural and Orthodox, and that among them we must look for the humble, pure, and persecuted church of Christ. Such, for example, were the Novatians at Rome; the Donatists in Africa; the AErians and Pauli- cians in Greece; the Carthari, or Puritans, of Germany; the Paterines of Italy; and the Waldenses of France, and other countries, a succession of whom continued up to the time of the Reformation. (See WALDENSEs.) For the history of the Baptists in Germany and Holland, see the article MENNoNITEs. -- GREAT BRITAIN. The Baptists in England form one of the three denominations of Protestant Dissenters. They separate from the Episcopal Establishment for the same reasons as their brethren of the other denominations, with whom they are united, and from additional motives result- ing from their particular tenets respecting baptism. The constitution of their churches and their mode of worship are congregational or independent; in the exercise of which they are protected, in common with other dissenters, by the act of toleration. Previous to this, they were liable to pains and penalties as Non-conformists, and often suffered for their peculiar sentiments as Baptists. In the reign of Henry VIII., some of them were burnt, and others banished. In the reign of Elizabeth, they were subjected to imprisonment; and in that of James, they fled into Holland. William Sawtre was the first who in this country suffered at the stake for his religious opinions, in 1401, and who was supposed to deny infant baptism ; and Edward Wightman, a Baptist, of Burton-upon-Trent, was the last person that suffered this cruel kind of death in England: so that this denomination had the honor of both leading the way and bringing up the rear of all the martyrs who were burnt alive in England; besides which, a great number of those who suffered death for their re- ligion in the two hundred intervening years were of the Baptist denomination. The Baptists are distinguished into two denominations, which have but little communication with one another; namely, the Particular and the General Baptists. THE PARTICULAR BAPTISTs are so denominated, from their embracing the Calvinistic system, which includes in it, as a leading article, the doctrine of particular redemp- tion, though there are many among them who admit the universality of the atonement. The Calvinistic or Par- ticular Baptists are by far the most numerous; their con- gregations in England and Wales, in 1832, amounting to * differ in various respects from the English Baptists. above twelve hundred. They have four public academies for the education of young men for the ministry, at Bris- tol, Stepney, Bradford, and Abergavenny j and they have long enjoyed two exhibitions for students, to be educated for four years at one of the universities in Scotland, given them by Dr. Ward, of Gresham college. In 1792, they established the important Mission to India, which promises so much good to all the nations of the East, and which has been liberally assisted by the contributions of other denominations. Other missions, at home, in Africa, the West Indies, Ireland, and France, are also supported by this body, at an expense of eighty thousand dollars an- nually. THE GENERAL BAPTISTs maintain the doctrine of general redemption, and the other points of the Arminian system; and are agreed with the Particular Baptists only on the subject of baptism, worship, and church discipline. The founder of this denomination is said to have been a Mr. Smith, an Episcopalian clergyman; but resigning his living in the church, he went over to Holland, where his princi- ples were warmly opposed by Messrs. Ainsworth and Robinson ; the former then pastor of the Brownists or In- dependents at Amsterdam, and the latter of those at Leyden. About the year 1611, this subdivision of Bap- tists published a confession of faith, which is said to have diverged much farther from Calvinism than those now called Arminians would approve. The General Baptists have of late been distinguished into the Old and New Connexion. The old General Baptists have continued progressively to decline. Four of their congregations in London were some years ago united in one. Socinianism has so far reduced their numbers that, under its influence, they are likely to become extinct. For the present, however, they hold a general assembly in London, on the Tuesday in Whitsun-week, when a sermon is preached, and the affairs of their churches are taken into consideration. Towards the year 1770, a body of General Baptists arose chiefly in the midland counties, which reverted to the doc- trinal principles originally espoused by that denomination. These, as they are more orthodox than the others, are also much more zealous, more numerous, and more flourishing. They are quite distinct from the old General Baptists, and are known by the name of “the New Connexion.” Their congregations amount to one hundred and fourteen, and their annual association is held at different places by rota- tion. In the year 1798, an evangelical academy was opened, and placed under the care of the Rev. Dan Tay- lor; but its patronage has been very small. Lately, it has been removed from London to Wisbeach in Lincolnshire, where its prospects are encouraging, though the connexion yet experiences the want of able ministers. This society also has established a mission in India. THE Scottish BAPTISTs are of a more recent date, and No trace can be found of a Baptist church in Scotland, ex- •cepting one which appears to have been formed out of the soldiers of Cromwell’s army, previous to 1765; when a church was settled at Edinburgh, under the pastoral care of Mr. Carmichael and Mr. Archibald M'Lean. Others have since been formed at Dundee, Glasgow, Paisley, Perth, Largo, Dumfernline, and in most of the principal towns of Scotland. There are also churches in several towns in England, holding the principles of the Scottish Baptists, and connected with them, particularly in London, Nottingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Carlisle, Beverley, &c. They think that the order of public worship which uni- formly obtained in the apostolic churches, is clearly set forth in Acts 2: 42—47, and therefore they endeavor to follow it out to the utmost of their power. They require a plurality of elders in every church, administer the Lord's Supper, and make contributions for the poor, every first day of the week. The prayers and exhortations of the bre- thren form a part of their church order, under the direction and control of the elders, to whom it exclusively belongs to preside in conducting the worship, to rule in cases of discipline, and to labor in the word and doctrine, in dis- tinction from the brethren exhorting one another. The elders are all lay.ien, generally chosen from among the B A P B A. I? [ 190 ) brethren ; but when circumstances require, are supported by their contributions. They approve also of persons who are properly qualified for it, being appointed by the church to preach the Gospel and baptize, though not vested with tany pastoral charge. For several years after their first setting out, the Bap- tist churches in Scotland were all of one faith and order; owned each other as sister churches, and had fellowship one with another in the institutions of the Gospel, as did also the different societies in England that stood connected with them. But of late years, numerous Baptist Societies have started up in different parts of Scotland, which, though they retain much of the doctrinal sentiments, and of the social practices of the original churches, yet are unhappily divided on some points of minor importance, chiefly respecting the administration of the Lord's supper. These latter have sprung up chiefly out of what, in Scot- land, is termed the Tabernacle Connexion; that is, from the societies gathered by the ministry and means of Messrs. James and Robert Haldane. Setting out upon the princi- ple of Paedo-baptism, numbers of them in process of time changed their views on the article of Baptism, and formed themselves into churches of that denomination, independ- ent of the parent stock. Hence much confusion has arisen among the Scottish Baptist churches, which has much de- faced the beauty of the profession in that quarter. This evil has also been greatly heightened in consequence of divisions which have taken place among the original Scotch Baptist churches themselves, occasioned by a sentiment getting in among them, that the Lord's Supper is not pe. culiarly a church ordinance, nor the administration of it a matter which belongs exclusively to the pastoral office; but that, on the contrary, it is the duty of any two or three persons, who may come together to worship God on the first day of the week, to take the Lord's supper, though none of them be a pastor. The adoption of this princi- ple has occasioned considerable separations from the parent societies, and introduced many divisions and subdivisions among them ; an evil which time and further experience, it is hoped, will rectify. For a more detailed account of the General Baptists, the reader may consult Mr. Adam Taylor's History of the General Baptists, and his Life of Mr. Dan Taylor. And for a fuller view of the doctrinal sentiments and social religious practices of the Scottish Baptists, he is referred to The Works of Mr. Arch. M'Lean, particularly his Illustration of Christ's Commission to his Apostles ; Mr. J. A. Haldane's Wien of Social Wor- ship, &c.; and Mr. W. Braidwood's Letters on Various Subjects, relating chiefly to Christian Fellowship and Church Order. For a complete account of the whole Baptist de- nomination in England, see Crosby, and Ivimey's History of the English Baptists. IRELAND. In Dublin, &c., Baptist churches have existed for one hundred and eighty years. Of late, they increase more rapidly than in times past, though the exact number is not known. -- UNITED STATEs. About ten years aſter the settlement of New England, Roger Williams, the celebrated divine of Salem, embraced the sentiments of the Baptists, for which he was banished to Rhode Island. The first Bap- tist church in the United States was founded by him at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. The first minister ever settled in New Hampshire was a Baptist, Hanserd Knollys. He took charge of the ſirst church in Dover, in 1635, but returned to England in 1639. His character has been injured by most New England historians, but is vin- dicated by Cotton Mather and Neale. Some of the first settlers in Massachusetts, Mather says, were Baptists; “ and as holy, watchful, ſruitful, and heavenly people, as perhaps any in the world;” but the first church they at- tempted to form was forcibly broken up by the magistrates, and the members fined, by the General Court, in 1639. Five years afterwards, a legislative act was passed for the suppression of the obnoxious sect, “but with what suc- cess,” says Mr. Hubbard, “it is hard to say ; all men being naturally inclined to pity them that suffer.” Letters of remonstrance from Sir Henry Vane and Sir Richard Saltonstall, then in England, had no effect in arresting the hand of persecution; “the bloody tenet” was carried into operation upon the Baptists and Quakers; and such was the dreadſul blindness it produced in some of the best of men, that Christians—Protestants—Puritans—in the light of the seventeenth century—were beheld resorting to fines, and prisons, and whipping posts, and gibbets, to break down the consciences of their brethren, for whom Christ died But God, who is rich in mercy, caused good to arise out of evil. The persecutions inſlicted on Messrs. Holmes, Clark, and Crandal, drew the attention of Presi- dent Dunster of Cambridge to the question in dispute; and he became a convert to Baptist principles, though at the loss of his high office. His preaching against infant baptism led Mr. Thomas Gould to examine the subject; whose inquiries issued in founding the first Baptist church in Boston, in 1665. But the legal opposition, in this state, and the “glorious liberties” of Rhode Island which invited removal, so retarded their progress, that only eighteen Baptist churches were found in this state a century after wards, at the commencement of the revolutionary war. Under the new government, though for some time not ſa vored with equal rights, their circumstances were greatly improved and their numbers rapidly increased. This was the case also in the other States of the Union; until they have become, it is supposed, the most numerous denomi- nation of Christians in the United States. - Besides the Regular or Associated Baptists, who are in sentiment moderate Calvinists, there are several smaller bodies who adopt the same views of baptism, but have no direct connection with them. The Seventh-day Baptists are mostly Calvinistic ; but the Free-Will Baptists are supposed to be inclined to Arminianism ; and the Chris- tians, a sect which arose among them about thirty years since, with few exceptions, deny the Trinity. Formerly, the Free-Will and the Christian Baptists were connected together on the principles of Free or Mixed Communion; but latterly, a separation has taken place, similar to that of the New Connexion in Ingland. These denomina- tions will be found under their proper names. The Baptists of all denominations being independent or congregational in their form of church government, their ecclesiastical assemblies disclaim all right to interſere with the concerns of individual churches. Their public meet- ings by delegation from different churches, are held for the purpose of mutual advice and improvement, but not for the general government of the whole body. The Associated Baptists in this country meet annually in associations, and state conventions, to promote mis- sions, education, and other benevolent objects. Every three years there is a meeting of the Baptist General Con- vention of the United States, which was formed at Phila- delphia in 1814, and is restricted by its constitution to the romotion of foreign missions. The American Baptist ome Mission Society, formed in 1832, is chiefly de- signed to supply the wants of the great valley of the Mis- sissippi. They have also a General Tract Society at Philadelphia. All these organizations, of course, are vo- luntary and ſree ; the suggestions of brotherly love and philanthropic wisdom, not the enactments of ecclesiastical power. So long as they continue on this footing, and are watched over by a vigilant prudence, they do not seem liable to the abuses of clerical power, which in former ages corrupted the churches from the simplicity which is in Christ; while by combining their counsels, aſſections and prayers, it enables the whole body to act with tenfold advantage, energy and success, in advancing the Redeem- er's kingdom on earth. They sustain missions in Burmah, Siam, France, Western Africa, and among the American Indians. They have already established five or six colleges, nu- merous academies and manual labor schools, and six theological institutions, in different parts of the United States, which are in a ſlourishing condition. In New England alone, they have three hundred students prepar ing for the Christian ministry, and in the rest of the States perhaps more than double that number. . The number of Regular Baptists in America, as reported in Allen's Register for 1833, was as follows: 309 associa- tions; 5458 churches; 3204 ordained ministers; 402,863 communicants. About 50,000 communicants were added to the churches by baptism in 1832. Connected with this denomination is a population of not ſar from three millions B A P B A P | 19, of souls; embracing a respectable share of the wealth, talent, learning, and influence of the country, as well as one fifth of its population, - . . . - The following brief Declaration of Faith, with the Church Covenant, was recently published by the Baptist Convention of New Hampshire, and is believed to ex- press, with little variation, the general sentiments of the body in the United States. - I. Of TſIE ScriproREs.-We believe the Holy Bible was written by men divinely inspired, and is a perfect treasure of heavenly instruction; that it has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mix- ture of error for its matter; that it reveals the principles by which God will judge us; and therefore is, and shall remain to the end of the world, the true centre of Christian union, and the supreme standard by which all human conduct, creeds and opinions should be tried. II. OF THE TRUE GoD.—That there is one, and only one, true and living God, whose name is JEHOVAH, the Ma- ker and Supreme Ruler of heaven and earth; inſexpressi- bly glorious in holiness; worthy of all possible honor, con- fidence and love; revealed under the personal and relative distinctions of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; equal in every divine perfection, and executing distinct put harmonious offices in the great work of redemption. IFI. OF THE FALL of MAN.—That man was created in a state of holiness, under the law of his Maker, but by voluntary transgression fell from that holy and happy state ; in consequence of which all mankind are now sin- ners, not by constraint but choice; being by nature utterly void of that holiness required by the law of God, wholly given to the gratification of the world, of Satan, and of their own sinful passions, and therefore under just con- demnation to eternal ruin, without defence, or excuse. IW. OF THE WAY OF SALVATION.—That the salvation of sinners is wholly of grace, through the mediatorial offices of the Son of God, who took upon him our nature, yet with- out sin; honored the law by his personal obedience, and made atonement for our sins by his death ; being risen from the dead, he is now enthroned in heaven; and uniting in his wonderful person the tenderest sympathies with di. vine perfections, is every way qualified to be a suitable, a compassionate, and an all-sufficient Savior. V. OF JUSTIFICATION.—That the great Gospel blessing, which Christ of his fulness bestows on such as believe in Him, is justification; that justification consists in the pardon of sin and the promise of eternal life, on principles of righteousness; that it is bestowed not in consideration of any works of righteousness which we have done, but solely through his own redemption and righteousness; hat it brings us into a state of most blessed peace and fa- vor with God, and secures every other blessing needful for time and eternity. WI. OF THE FREENESs of SALVATION.—That the blessings of Salvation are made free to all by the Gospel; that it is the immediate duty of all to accept them by a cordial and obedient faith; and that nothing prevents the salvation of the greatest sinner on earth, except his own voluntary refusa) to submit to the Lord Jesus Christ; which refusal will subject him to an aggravated condemnation. VII. OF GRACE IN REGENERATION.—That in order to be saved, we must be regenerated or born again; that rege- neration consists in giving a holy disposition to the mind, and is effected in a manner above our comprehension or calculation, by the power of the Holy Spirit, so as to se- cure our voluntary obedience to the Gospel; and that its proper evidence is found in the holy fruit which we bring forth to the glory of God. VIII. Os Gop's PURPose of GRACE.-That election is the gracious purpose of God, according to which he rege- nerates, sanctifies, and saves sinners; that being perfectly consistent with the free agency of man, it comprehends all the means in connection with the end; that it is a most glorious display of God’s sovereign goodness, being infi- nitely wise, holy and unchangeable; that it utterly ex- cludes boasting, and promotes humility, prayer, praise, trust in God, and active imitation of his free mercy; that it encourages the use of means in the highest degree; that it is ascertained by its effects in all who believe the Gospel; is the ſoundation of Christian assurance; and that to ascertain it with regard to ourselves, demands and deserves our utmost diligence. IX. OF THE PERSEveRANCE of SAINTs, That such only are real believers as endure unto the end; that their persevering attachment to Christ is the grand mark which distinguishes them from superficial professors; that a spe- cial Providence watches over their welfare; and they are kept by the power of God through faith unto salvation. X. HARMONY of THE LAw AND Gospel.—That the law of God is the eternal and unchangeable rule of his moral government; that it is holy, just, and good ; and that the inability which the Scriptures ascribe to fallen men to fulfil its precepts, arises entirely from their love of sin; to deli- ver them from which, and to restore them through a Me- diator to unfeigned obedience to the holy law, is one great end of the Gospel, and of the means of grace connected with the establishment of the visible church. XI. OF A Gospel, CHURCH.-That a visible church of Christ is a congregation of baptized believers, associated by covenant in the faith and fellowship of the Gospel; observing the ordinances of Christ; governed by his laws; and exercising the giſts, rights and privileges in- vested in them by his word; that its only proper officers are bishops or pastors, and deacons, whose qualifications, claims, and duties are defined in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus. - XII. OF BAPTISM AND THE LORD’s SUPPER.—That Chris- tian baptism is the immersion of a believer in water, in the name of the Father, Son, and Spirit; to show forth in a solemn and beautiful emblem, our faith in a crucified, buried, and risen Savior, with its purifying power; that it is pre-requisite to the privileges of a church relation ; and to the Lord’s supper, in which the members of the church, by the use of bread and wine, are to commemorate together the dying love of Christ; preceded always by solemn self-examination. * * XIII. OF THE CHRISTIAN SABBATH.—That the first day of the week is the Lord’s Day, or Christian Sabbath, and is to be kept sacred to religious purposes, by abstaining from all secular labor and recreations; by the devout ob- servance of all the means of grace, both private and pub- lic ; and by preparation for that rest which remaineth for the people of God. XIV. OF CIVIL Government.—That civil government is of divine appointment, for the interests and good order of human Society; and that magistrates are to be prayed for, conscientiously honored, and obeyed, except in things op- posed to the will of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the only Lord of the conscience, and the Prince of the kings of the earth. - - XV. OF THE RIGHTEous AND THE WICKED.—That there is a radical and essential difference between the righteous and the wicked; that such only as through faith are justi- fied in the name of the Lord Jesus, and sanctified by the Spirit of our God, are truly righteous in his esteem; while all such as continue in impenitence and unbelief are in his sight wicked, and under the curse; and this distinction holds among men both in and after death. XVI. OF THE WORLD To conſe.—That the end of this world is approaching; that at the last day, Christ will descend from heaven, and raise the dead from the grave to final retribution; that a solemn separation will then take place; that the wicked will be adjudged to endless punishment, and the righteous to endless joy; and that this judgment will fix forever the final state of men in heaven or hell, on principles of righteousness. CHURCH Coven ANT.--Having been, as we trust, brought by divine grace to embrace the Lord Jesus Christ, and to give up ourselves wholly to him; we do now solemnly and joyfully covenant with each other, To walk ToGETHER IN HIM WITH BROTHERLY LOVE, to his glory as our common Lord. We do, therefore, in his strength engage, That we will exercise a mutual care, as members one of another, to promote the growth of the whole body in Christian knowledge, holiness, and comfort; to the end . We may stand perfect and complete in all the will of OCl. That to promote and secure this object, we will uphold the public worship of God and the ordinances of his house; and hold constant communion with each other therein; B A R B A R. [ 192 J that we will cheerfully contribute of our property for the support of the poor, and for the maintenance of a faithful munistry of the Gospel among us. That we will not omit closet and family religion at home, nor allow ourselves in the too common neglect of the great duty of religiously training up our children, and those under our care, with a view to the service of Christ, and the enjoyment of heaven. That we will walk circumspectly in the world, that we may win their souls; remembering that God hath not given us the spirit of fear, but of power and of love and of a sound mind; that we are the light of the world and * salt of the earth, and that a city set on a hill cannot e hid. That we will frequently exhort, and if occasion shall require, admonish one another, according to Matthew 18th, in the spirit of meekness; considering ourselves lest we also be tempted, and that as in baptism we have been buried with Christ, and raised again; so there is on # a special obligation henceforth to walk in newness of IIe. And may the God of peace, who brought again from the dead our Lord Jesus, that great Shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of the everlasting covenant, make us perfect in every good work to do his will; working in us that which is well pleasing in his sight through Jesus Christ; to whom be glory forever and ever, Amen. In church order, discipline, &c. the Baptists agree with the CoNGREGATIONALISTs; which see.—Backus ; Benedict's History of the Baptists; Allen's Baptist Register; Du Pin ; Basnage ; Mosheim ; Milner ; Waddington ; Robinson's Ecclesiastical Researches ; Jones’s History of the Christian Church ; Jones's Dictionary of Religious Opinions. BAR ; (1.) that whereby a door is bolted and made fast. Neh. 3: 3, 6. (2.) A narrow cross-board, or rafter, to fas- ten other boards to. Exod. 26: 26. (3.) A rock in the sea that runs across its bottom. Jonah 2: 6. (4.) The bank or shore of the sea, which as a bar shuts up its waves in their own place. Job 38: 10. (5.) Strong fortifications and powerful impediments are called bars, or bars of iron. Amos 1: 5. Isa. 45: 2. BARABBAS; a notorious robber, guilty also of sedi- tion and murder; yet preferred before Jesus Christ, by the Jews. John 18: 40. Origen says, that in many copies, Barabbas was called Jesus likewise. The Armenian has the same reading: “Whom will ye that I deliver unto you; Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus who is called Christ º' This gives an additional spirit to the history, and well deserves notice.—Calmet. - BARACHEL, (blessing, or boming the knee to God ;) the father of Elihu. Job 23: 6. BARACHIAS; the father of Zacharias, mentioned Matt. 23: 35. and generally thought to have been Baruch, father of Zechariah, who is mentioned by Josephus, in his books concerning the Jewish war, as having been killed between the porch and the altar, by the zealots, a little before the taking of Jerusalem by the Romans.— Calmet. BARAK; the son of Abinoam, who was chosen by God to deliver the Hebrews from that bondage under which they were held by Jabin, king of the Canaanites, Judg. 4: 4. He refused to obey the Lord’s orders, signified to him by Deborah, the prophetess, unless she consented to go with him. Deborah therefore accompanied him towards Kedesh of Naphtali; and having assembled ten thousand men, they advanced to mount Tabor. Sisera, being in- formed of this movement, marched with nine hundred chariots of war, and encamped near the river Kishon ; but Barak rapidly descending from mount Tabor, and the Lord having spread terror through Sisera’s army, a com- plete victory was easily obtained. Sisera was killed by Jael, and Barak and Deborah composed a hymn of thanks- iving.—Calmet. BARBARIAN ; a word used by the Hebrews to denote a stranger; one who knows neither the holy language, nor the law. According to the Greeks, all other nations, how- ever learned or polite they might be in themselves and in their manners, were barbarians. Hence Paul compre- hends all mankind under the names of Greeks and barba- rians, (Rom. 1: 14.) and Luke calls the inhabitants of the island of Malta, barbarians, Acts 28:2, 4. In 1 Cor. 14: 11, the apostle says, that iſ he who speaks a foreign lan- guage in an assembly, be not understood by those to whom he discourses, with respect to them he is a bar- barian, and, reciprocally, if he understand not those who speak to him, they are to him barbarians. Barbarian, therefore, is used for every stranger, or foreigner, who does not speak our native language, and includes no im- plication whatever of savage nature or manners in those respecting whom it is used.—Calmet. - BARBED ; having points like hooks or prickles of thorn. Job 41: 17, . - BARCEPHA, (Moses;) a Syrian bishop, of the ninth century, celebrated for his great learning. The works of his now extant, display marks of true genius, and an un- common acquaintance with the art of writing. - BARCLAY, (RoberT,) the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, was born in 1648, at Gordonstown, in the shire of Moray, in Scotland, of an ancient and honorable family. The troubles of the country induced his father, Colonel Barclay, to send him to Paris, to be educated under the care of his uncle, who was principal of the Scotch college in that city. Under his influence, he was easily induced to become a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, on which his father sent for him to return home, and soon after turn- ing Quaker, young Robert followed his example. Unit- ing all the advantages of a learned education to great natural abilities, it was not long ere he distinguished him. self by his talents and zeal, in support of his new opinions. His first work, published in 1670, entitled “Truth cleared of Calumnies, &c.” was an answer to an attack on the Quakers by a Scotch minister of the name of Mitchel. It is written with great spirit and vigor, and tended greatly to remove from the body the opprobrium under which they lay with government. The book, however, which has fixed his celebrity, is his “Apology for the True Christian Divinity, as the same is preached and held forth by the People in scorn called Quakers.” It was originally pub- lished in Latin, and soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into English. It received many enswers; but they are now almost forgotten. The author afterwards accompanied William Penn through the greater part of England, Holland, and Germany, for the purpose of propagating their sentiments, and acquired great respect wherever he went. He had, however, after this, his own share of persecution, and was more than once imprisoned, but spent the latter part of his life in the bosom of a large family, and died in 1690, in the forty-second year of his age.—Hend. Buck. BARCLAY, (HENRY, D. D.) an episcopal clergyman in New York, was a native of Albany, and graduated at Yale college in 1734. In England, he received orders in the church, and was appointed missionary to the Mohawk Indians. Having served in this capacity for some years, with but little success, he was called to the city of New York, and appointed rector of Trinity church. . In this respectable station he continued till his death, in 1765. The translation of the liturgy into the Mohawk language, made under his direction, and that of Rev. W. Andrews and J. Ogilvie, was printed in 1769. Mr. Ogilvie suc- ceeded him both among the Indians and at New York.- Life of Ritten. 245 ; Miller's Retr. II. 356; Allen. BAR-CHOCHEBA, or Chochepas, or CHOcHIBUS; a fa- mous impostor. It is said, he assumed the name of Bar- Chocheba, that is, Son of the Star, from the words of Bala- am, which he applied to himself as the Messiah: “There shall come a star (cocab) out of Jacob, and a sceptre out of Israel.” Bar-Chocheba engaged the Jews to revolt, A. D. 136,) under the reign of Adrian, who sent Julius everus against him. The Romans shut him up in Bether, the siege of which was long and obstinate. The town, however, was at length taken, and the war finished. , Bar- Chocheba perished, and the multitude of Jews put to death, or sold during the war, and in consequence of it, was al- most innumerable. After this, Adrian published an edict, forbidding the Jews, on pain of death, to visit Jerusalem; and guards were placed at the gates, to prevent their en ...tering. The rebellion of Bar-Chocheba happened A. D 136, in the 19th year of Adrian.— Calmet. BARD. (John, M.D.) a learned physician, was born in B. A. R. B A R [ 193 ) Burlington, New Jersey, February 1, 1716. He received an early education under the care of Mr. Annan of Philadel- phia, a very eminent teacher. About the age of fifteen, he was bound an apprentice for seven years to Dr. Kearsly, a surgeon, of unhappy temper, and rigorous in the treat- ment of his pupils. Under his thraldom, the kindness of Mrs. Kearsly and the friendship of Dr. Franklin beguiled his sorrows. He engaged in business in 1737, and soon acquired a large share of practice, and became much re- spected. In 1743, he was induced by urgent applications from New York, to remove to that city, to supply the loss of several eminent physicians. Here he continued till within a few months of his death. In the year 1795, when the yellow fever had put to flight a number of physicians, who were in the meridian of life, the veteran Dr. Bard, though verging towards his eightieth year, remained at his #. In May, 1798, he removed to his estate at Hyde ark, near Poughkeepsie. Here he continued in the en- joyment of perfect health, till he felt a paralytic stroke, which in a few days occasioned his death. He died, March 30, 1799, aged eighty-three years. I\r. Bard was eminent in his profession, and his practice was very extensive. Soon after the close of the war with Great Britain, on the re-establishment of the Medical So- ciety of the state of New York, he was elected its presi- dent; and he was placed in the chair for six or seven successive years. He possessed a singular ingenuity and quickness in discriminating diseases; yet he did not pre- sumptuously confide in his penetration, but was remarka- bly particular in his inquiries into the circumstances of the sick. Ever desirous of removing the disorders to which the human frame is subject, his anxiety and atten- tion were not diminished when called to visit the indigent, from whom he could not expect compensation. His con- duct, through his whole life, was marked by the strictest honor and integrity. In conversation he was polite, affa- ble, cheerful, and entertaining. To his pupils he was not only an instructer, but a father. In the early part of his life, he devoted much attention to polite learning, in which he made great proficiency. He possessed a correct and elegant taste, and wrote with uncommon accuracy and precision. He drew up an essay on the pleurisy of Long Island in 1749, which was not published; a paper, inserted in the London Medical Observations; and several papers on the yellow fever, and the evidence of its importation, inserted in the American Medical Register. In 1750, he assisted Dr. Middleton in the first recorded dissection in America, that of Hermannus Carroll, executed for murder. He was a firm believer in the truth and excellency of the Christian religion. In a letter to his son, Dr. Samuel Bard, he said, “Above all things, suffer not yourself by any company or example, to depart, either in your conver- sation or practice, from the highest reverence to God and your religion.” In his old age he was cheerful, and re- markable for his gratitude to his heavenly Father.— Thacher's Med. Biog. 96–103; M' Vickar's Life of S. JBard ; Allen. BARDESANES ; one of the ancient heretics. He flourished about the year 170, and was a native of Edes- sa, in Mesopotamia. According to Eusebius, he was inti- mately acquainted with the Chaldean philosophy, and is said also to have been well skilled in the Greek and Syrian languages. He wrote against Marcion and other heretics, but afterwards fell into some of the errors of the Valen- tinian school. Yet though this was the case, it would be unjust to class his tenets indiscriminately with those of Valentinus. He received the whole of the Old Testament. He believed that God, who was the Father of Jesus Christ, was the Creator of the world; and he even held that the Word of God, or his Son, co-operated in this creation. He held, however, that the body of Jesus was a delusive image which came down from heaven; in which point, and that of the denial of the resurrection of the body, he agreed with Walentinus. It is also stated to have been one of his opinions, that the devil was not created by God. He appears to have lived to retract some of his errors, and to abjure the doctrines of Walentinus. The fullest account of his life and doctrines is given by Beausobre, vol. ii. p. 128. See also Dr. Burton on the Early Heresies, note 13- Hend, Buck. - - - most ancient aliment of mankind. BARDESANISTS ; Bardesanes. BAR-JESUS, or, according to some copies, BAR-Jeu, was a Jewish magician in the island of Crete. Acts 13: 6. Origen and Chrysostom think that Elymas, or Bar- Jesus, was converted, and that St. Paul speedily restored his sight.—Watson. BAR-JONA; a name by which our Savior sometimes calls Peter; (Matt. 16. 17.) and which, as some think, is put for Bar-Johanna, son of John.—Calmet. BARK; (1.) to utter a cry, as a dog; to give an alarin of danger. Ministers, that, as dumb dogs, cannot bark, are such as have neither conscience nor courage to reprove men's sins, and publish the alarming truths revealed by God in his Word. Isa. 56: 10. Also, (2.) To peel the bark or rind off a tree. Joel 1: 7. BARLAAMITES; the followers of Barlaam, in the fourteenth century, who was a very zealous champion in behalf of the Greek against the Latin church. It is said that he adopted the sentiments and precepts of the Stoics, with respect to the obligations of morality and the duties of life; and digested them into a work of his, which is known by the title of Ethica ex Stoicis.—Henderson’s Buck. BARLEY ; Exod. 9: 31. Levit. 27: 16, &c. A well- known kind of grain. It derives its Hebrew name from the long hairy beard which grows upon the ear. Pliny, on the testimony of Menander, says that barley was the In Palestine, the bar- ley was sown about October, and reaped in the end of March, just aſter the passover. In Egypt, the barley har- vest was later; for when the hail fell there, (Exodus 9: 31.) a few days before the passover, the flax and bar- ley were bruised and destroyed : for the flax was at its full growth, and the barley began to form its green ears; but the wheat, and more backward grain, were not damaged, because they were only in the blade, and the hail bruised the young shoots which produce the ears. The rabbins sometimes called barley the food of beasts, because in reality they fed their cattle with it, (1 Kings 4: 28.) and from Homer and other ancient writers we learn, that barley was given to horses. The Hebrews, however, frequently used barley bread, as we find by several pas- sages of Scripture: for example, David's friends brought to him in his flight, wheat, barley, flour, &c. 2 Sam. 17: 28. Solomon sent wheat, barley, oil, and wine, to the la- borers king Hiram had furnished him. 2 Chron. 2: 15. Elijah had a present made him of twenty barley loaves, and corn in the husk. 2 Kings 4: 22. And, by miracu- lously increasing the five barley loaves, Christ fed a mul- titude of about five thousand. John 6: 8–10. The jea- lousy-offering, in the Levitical institution, was to be barley meal. Numb. 5: 15. The common mincha, or offering, was of fine wheat flour, (Levit. 2: 1.) but this was of bar- ley, a meaner grain, probably to denote the vile condition of the person in whose behalf it was offered. For which reason, also, there was no oil or frankincense permitted to be offered with it. Sometimes barley is put for a low, contemptible reward or price. So the false prophets ale charged with seducing the people for handfuls of barley, and morsels of bread. Ezek. 13: 19. Hosea bought his emblematic bride for fifteen pieces of silver, and a homer and a half of barley. Hosea 3: 2.—Watson. BARNABAS; a disciple of Jesus Christ, and com- panion of St. Paul in his labors. He was a Levite, born in the isle of Cyprus. His proper name was Joses, to which the apostles added Barnabas, signifying the son of consolation. He is generally considered one of the seventy disciples, chosen by our Savior. He was brought up with Paul, at the feet of Gamaliel. When that apostle came to Jerusalem, three years after his conversion, Barnabas in- troduced him to the other apostles, (Acts 9:26, 27.) about A. D.37. Five years afterwards, the church at Jerusalem, being informed of the progress of the Gospel at Antioch, sent Barnabas thither, who beheld with great joy the won- ders of the grace of God. Acts 11:22, 24. He exhorted the faithful to perseverance. Some time afterwards, he went to Tarsus, to seek Paul, and bring him to Antioch, where they jointly labored two years, and converted great numbers; and here the disciples were first called Chris- tians. They left Antioch, A. D. 44, to convey alms from those who held the opinions of 25 B. A. R. B. A. R. [ 194 | this church to that at Jerusalem. At their return, they brought John Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. While they were at Antioch, the Holy Ghost directed that they should be separated for those labors among the Gentiles to which he had appointed them. They departed into Cyprus, where they converted Sergius Paulus, the proconsul. They preached at Perga, in Pamphylia, without much success, by reason of the obstimacy and malice of the Jews; but being come to Iconium, they made many con- verts. Here the Jews stirred up a sedition, and obliged them to retire to Derbe and Lystra, in Lycaonia, where St. Paul curing one AEneas, who had been lame from his birth, the people of Lystra regarded them as gods; calling Barnabas, Jupiter, and Paul, Mercury; and would have sacrificed to them, which the two apostles with great diffi- culty hindered: nevertheless, soon afterwards, they were persecuted in this very city. Having revisited the cities through which they had passed, and where they had preached the Gospel, they returned to Antioch, in Syria. In A. D. 51, Barnabas was sent with Paul from Antioch to Jerusalem, on occasion of disputes concerning the ob- servance of legal rites, to which the Jews wished to sub- ject the Gentiles. Paul and Barnabas were present in the council at Jerusalem, and returned immediately to Anti- och. Peter, arriving there soon afterwards, was led to countenance, in some degree, by his conduct, the obser- vance of the Mosaic distinctions. Barnabas, too, (who, heing by descent a Levite, might retain some former no- tions,) used the like dissimulation: but Paul reproved Pe- ter and Barnabas with great freedom. Paul afterwards determining to visit the churches in the isle of Cyprus, and in Asia Minor, Barnabas desired that John Mark might accompany them : but Paul objected, because Mark had left them on the first journey. Hereupon the two apostles separated : Paul went towards Asia; and Barna- bas, with Mark, to Cyprus. This is all we know certainly concerning Barnabas.-Watson. BARNABAS'S GOSPEL; an apocryphal work ascribed to Barnabas, the apostle, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in a manner very different from the ac- count given us by the four evangelists. The Mahome- tans have this gospel in Arabic, and it corresponds very well with those traditions which Mahomet followed in his Koran. It was, probably, a forgery of some nominal Christians, and afterwards altered and interpolated by the Mahometans, the better to serve their purpose.—H. Buck. BARNABAS'S EPISTLE. Barnabas, according to Jerome, wrote a letter full of edification for the church. It is frequently cited by Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. Eusebius and Jerome reckon it among the apocryphal or wncanonical writings; but neither of them deny that it be- longs to Barnabas. But he could not be author of a work so full of forced allegories, extravagant and unwarrantable explications of Scripture, together with stories concerning beasts, and such like conceits, as make up the first part of this epistle. It is uncertain to whom this epistle was addressed, because we have not the superscription: but it seems to have been written to the converted Jews, who were too zealously addicted to the observance of the law of Moses. It is divided into two parts. In the first, he shows the unprofitableness of the old law, and the necessity of the incarnation and death of Jesus Christ. He cites, and explains allegorically, several passages relating to the ceremonies and precepts of the law of Moses, applying them to Jesus Christ and his law. The second part is a moral instruction, handled under the notion of two nays, the one of light, the other of darkness ; the ome under the conduct of the angels of God, the other under the guidance of the angels of Satan. The nyay of light is a summary of what a Christian is to do, in order to obtain eternal happiness; and the may of darkness is a representation of º: ºnwar sins which exclude men from the kingdom OI UrQCl. - This epistle was first published in Greek, from a copy of father Hugh Menard, a Benedictine monk. An ancient version of it was found in a manuscript of the abbey of Corbey, near a thousand years old. Vossius published it in the year 1656, together with the epistles of Ignatius. It is recently republished in the Apocryphal New Testa. ment.—IIend. Buck. - BARNABITES; a religious order, ſounded in the six. teenth century, by three Italian gentlemen, who had been advised, by a famous preacher of those days, to read care- fully the epistles of St. Paul. Hence they were called clerks of St. Paul ; and Barnabites, because they performed their first exercise in the church of St. Barnabas, at Milan. They dress in black, like the secular clergy, and devote themselves to missions, preaching, and the instruction of youth; and in Italy, where they taught theology in the academies of Milan and Pavia, in France, Austria, and Spain, they had houses which they called colleges. In France and Austria, they were employed to convert the Protestants. The order only exists at present in Spain and some parts of Italy.—Hend. Buck. BARNARD, (John,) minister of Marblehead, Massa- chusetts, was born in Boston, November 6, 1681. His parents were remarkable for their piety, and they took particular care of his education. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1700. In the former part of his colle- giate course, the sudden death of two of his acquaintance impressed his mind, and led him to think of his own de- parture from this world; but the impression was soon ef. faced. However, before he left that institution, he was brought to repentance, and he resolved to yield himself to the commands of God, - - He was ordained minister of Marblehead, July 18, 1716, as colleague with Mr. Cheever. In 1762, he receiv.” ed Mr. Whitwell as his assistant. The last sermon which he preached, was delivered, January 8, 1569. He died, January 24, 1770, aged eighty-eight years. - Mr. Barnard was eminent for his learning and piety, and was famous among the divines of America. During the latter part of his life, when he retained a vigor of mind and zeal uncommon at so advanced an age, he was re- garded as the father of the churches. His form was re- markably erect, and he never bent under the infirmities of years. His countenance was grand, his mien majestic, and there was a dignity in his whole deportment. His presence restrained the imprudence and folly of youth, and when the aged saw him, they arose and stood up. He added a knowledge of the Hebrew to his other theological attainments; he was well acquainted with the mathema- tics; and he excelled in skill for naval architecture, When he first went to Marblehead, and for some years afterwards, there was not one trading vessel belonging to the town. It was through his exertions, that a commer- cial improvement soon took place. - His charity was of a kind which is worthy of imitation. He was not disposed to give much encouragement to com. mon beggars; but he sought out those objects of benevo- lent attention, who modestly hid their wants. The poor were often fed by him, and the widow's heart was 'glad. dened, while they knew not where to return thanks, except to the merciful Father of the wretched. In one kind of charity he was somewhat peculiar. He generally sup. ported at school two boys, whose parents were unable to meet this expense. By his last will, he gave two hundred pounds to Harvard college. He left no children. In his sickness, which terminated in his death, he said, with tears flowing from his eyes, “My very soul bleeds, when I remember my sins; but I trust I have sincerely repent- ed, and that God will accept me for Christ's sake. His righteousness is my only dependence.” The publications of Mr. Barnard are numerous, and valuable. They show his theological knowledge, and his talents as a writer. His style is plain, warm, and ener. getic. The doctrines which he enforces, are the same which were embraced by the fathers of New England. . His version of the Psalms, which he published when he was about seventy years of age, he fondly hoped would be sung in all the New England churches; but it was never used beyond the limits of the town in which it was composed. The labors of Watts had rendered it unneces- sary. A letter from Mr. Barnard to President Stiles, written in 1767, giving a sketch of the eminent ministers of New England, is published in the Massachusetts His. torical Collections.—Whitwell's Fun. Serm. ; Collect. Hist. Soc. viii. 66–69; x. 157, 167; Holmes, ii. 525; Allen. BARNES, (DANIEL H. LL.D.,) a distinguished concho- logist, died in the meridian of life, October 27, 1818 He B. A. R. B A P. [195 | and Dr. Griscom, originated, and conducted with great reputation, the high school of New York. He was also a Baptist preacher. Invited by General Van Rensselaer to attend the first public examination of the school establish- ed by him at Troy, he proceeded to New Lebanon, and there preached on Sunday, the day before his death, from the text, “Ye know not what shall be on the morron. For what is your life,” &c. On Monday, while riding between Nassau and Troy, the driver being thrown from his seat as the stage was rapidly descending a hill, Dr. Barnes, in his alarm, jumped from the carriage and fractured his skull. He died in a short time after. Of the New York lyceum of natural history he was an active member. He was a classical scholar of high attainments, and of a most estimable character as a man. He had presided over several seminaries, and refused the presidency of the college at Washington city. He was probably the first conchologist in the United States. His learned communi- cations on conchology were published in Silliman's Jour- nal, with explanatory plates.—Silliman's Journal, xv. 401; Allen. - BARONIUS, (CESAR,) an ecclesiastical historian, was born in 1538, at Sora, in the Neapolitan territory, entered the church, and, in 1598, rose to the dignity of cardinal. But for the opposition of the Spanish court, he would have filled the papal chair. His death took place in 1607. He wrote several works; but the production on which his fame rests, is the Ecclesiastical Annals, from the first to the twelfth century.—Davenport. PARRALIER, (H. F. N. D.) a youth of piety and pre- cocious talents, was born at Marseilles, in 1805, acquired a knowledge of languages with extraordinary facility, and, before he was sixteen, wrote a discourse on the Immor- tality of the Soul; a Treatise on Morality; and some oems. He died in 1821–Davenport. BARRINGTON, (LoRD Wiscount,) was the youngest son of Benjamin Shute, a merchant of London, who was the youngest son of Francis Shute, of Upton, in the county of Leicester, esquire. He was born at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, in the year 1678; and he received part of his education at Utrecht, as appears from a Latin oration which he delivered at that university. After his return to England, he applied himself to the study of the law in the Inner Temple; and, in 1701, he published, but without his name, “An Essay upon the Interest of England, in respect to Protestants dissenting from the Established Church;” a piece in which he endeavored to make it ap- pear, that it would be unjust and impolitic to pass any new laws unfavorable to the Dissenters; and, in particu- lar, to prevent occasional conformity. It was reprinted two years after, with considerable enlargements; and the title, likewise, was somewhat varied. Having thus drawn his pen in a good cause, and acquitted himself with great reputation, he proceeded to publish another piece, in quar- to, entitled, “The Rights of Protestant Dissenters,” in two parts-A second edition of which was printed in 1705, and dedicated to queen Anne. In the year 1725, lord Barrington published, in two volumes, octavo, his “Miscellanea Sacra ; or, a New Me- thod of considering so much of the History of the Apostles as is contained in Scripture ; with four Critical Essays: 1. On the Witness of the Holy Spirit. 2. On the Distine- tion between the Apostles, Elders, and Brethren. 3. On the Time when Paul and Barnabas became Apostles. 4. On the Apostolical Decrees.” In this work the noble au- thor has, with great accuracy and judgment, traced the methods taken by the apostles and first preachers of the Gospel for propagating Christianity; and explained, with great distinctness, the several gifts of the Spirit, by which they were enabled to discharge that office. These, in particular, he has improved into an argument for the truth of the Christian religion, which is said to have staggered the infidelity of Mr. Anthony Collins. His lordship was also author of several other tracts, chiefly political, which he published at different times, and upon various occa- Sions. He died at his seat at Becket, in Berkshire, after an illness of seven hours only, on the 14th of December, 1734, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. - This learned and distinguished nobleman was a disciple and friend of Mr. Locke; and as he had the highest re- gard for the holy Scriptures, in which he was eminently skilled, so, as a theological writer, he contributed greatly to the diffusing of that spirit of free scriptural criticism, which has since obtained among all denominations of Christians. At the same time, his exemplary candor to- ward those who differed from him in regard to religious opinions, and his steady attachment to the principles of liberty, both in church and state, carried with them their own encomium. In private life, his lordship was a shining example of sobriety, regularity, and justice; he was religious without enthusiasm, and zealous without bigotry. He was re- markable for the politeness of his manners, and the grace- fulness of his address; and he enjoyed the constant friend- ship and esteem of many of the greatest and best men the nation ever knew. He generally attended divine worship among the Dis- senters, and for many years received the sacrament at Pinners’ hall, when Dr. Jeremiah Hunt was pastor of the congregation that assembled there.—Brit. Biog. ; Jones's Chris. Biog. BARRENNESS. This was looked upon as reproach- ful among the Greeks and Romans, but more particularly so among the Jews; which may be accounted for by the constant expectation of the Messiah, and the hope that every woman had, that she might be the mother of the promised seed. This constant hope of the speedy coming of the great “Seed of the woman,” serves also to account for many circumstances in the Old Testament history. “Couple it,” says the Rev. J. J. Blunt, “ with this consi- deration, and I see the scheme of revelation, like the phy- sical scheme, proceeding with beautiful uniformity: a unity of plan, ‘connecting,’ as it has been well said by Paley, “the chicken roosting upon its perch, with the spheres revolving in the firmament;’ and a unity of plan connecting, in like manner, the meanest accidents of a household, with the most illustrious visions of a prophet. Abstracted from this consideration, I see in the history of Moses details of actions, some trifling, some even offensive, pursued at a length (when compared with the whole) singularly disproportionate ; while things which the an- gels would desire to look into, are passed over and for- gotten. But this principle once admitted, all is consecrat- ed; all assumes a new aspect; trifles, that seem at first not bigger than a man’s hand, occupy the heavens; and wherefore Sarah laughed, for instance, at the prospect of a son, and wherefore that laugh was rendered immortal in his name; and wherefore the sacred historian dwells on a matter so trivial, whilst the world and its vast con- cerns were lying at his feet, I can fully understand. For then I see the hand of God shaping every thing to his own ends, and in an event thus casual, thus easy, thus unim- portant, telling forth his mighty design of salvation to the world, and working it up into the web of his noble pro- spective counsels. Gen. 21: 6. I see that nothing is great or little before Him who can bend to his purposes whatever he willeth, and convert the light-hearted and thoughtless mockery of an aged woman into an instru- ment of his glory, effectual as the tongue of the seer which he touched with living coals from the altar. Bear- ing this master-key in my hand, I can interpret the scenes of domestic mirth, of domestic stratagem, or of domestic wickedness, with which the history of Moses abounds. The Seed of the woman, that was to bruise the serpent’s head, Gen. 3: 15. however indistinctly understood, (and probably it was understood very indistinctly,) was the one thing longed for in the families of old ; was ‘the desire of all nations,’ as the prophet Haggai expressly calls it, Hag. 2: 7. ; and, provided they could accomplish this de- sire, they (like others, when urged by an overpowering motive,) were often reckless of the means, and rushed upon deeds which they could not defend. Then did the wife forget her jealousy, and provoke, instead of resent- ing, the faithlessness of her husband, Gen. 16: 2. 30: 3, 9. ; then did the mother forget a parent’s part, and teach her own child treachery and deceit, Gen. 25:23, 27: 13.; then did daughters turn the instincts of nature backward, and deliberately work their own and their father's shame, Gen. 19: 31. ; then did the daughter-in-law veil her face, and court the incestuous bed, Gen. 38; 14. ; and to be B A. R. B A R [ 196 || childless, was to be a by-word, Gen. 16: 5. 30: 1. ; and to refuse to raise up seed to a brother, was to be spit upon, Gen. 38; 26. Deut. 25: 9. ; and the prospect of the pro- mise, like the fulfilment of it, did not send peace into families, but a sword; and three were set against two, and two against three, Gen. 27:41. ; and the elder, who would be promoted unto honor, was set against the youn- ger, whom God would promote, Gen. 4: 5, 27:41, ; , and national differences were engendered by it, as individuals grew into nations, Gen. 19:37. 26:35, ; and even the foulest of idolatries may be traced, perhaps, to this hal- lowed source; for the corruption of the best is the worst corruption of all, Numb. 25:1, 2, 3. It is upon this prin- ciple of interpretation, and I know not upon what other so well, that we may put to silence the ignorance of foolish men, who have made those parts of the Mosaic history a stumbling-block to many, which, if rightly understood, are the very testimony of the covenant; and a principle which is thus extensive in its application and successful in its results, which explains so much that is difficult, and answers so much that is objected against, has, from this circumstance alone, strong presumption in its favor, strong claims upon our sober regard.”—Watson. BARROW, (ISAAc, D. D.) distinguished alike as a ma- thematician and divine, was born in London, in the month of October, 1630. He received at the Charter-house School, * in two or three years, the first elements of knowledge; but there he discovered more of natural courage than in- clination to study, being much given to fighting, and fond of promoting it among his school-fellows. That disposi- tion gave much pain to his father; and he frequently wished, “that if it pleased God to take away any of his children, it might be his son Isaac.” From that establish- ment his father removed him, and sent him to Felstead, in Essex. At that place his conduct changed; he soon made a very great progress in learning, and every other valuable qualification; and his master appointed him tutor to lord Fairfax, of Emely, in Ireland, who was then his scholar. In 1648, he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and, in 1649, was chosen fellow of the college. Soon after obtaining that fellowship, he determined on quitting the church, and on attending to the profession of physic; and in the acquisition of that knowledge he made great proficiency. He attained an accurate knowledge of ana- tomy, botany, and chemistry; but feeling that he was conscientiously bound, by the oath he had taken on his admission to his fellowship, to study divinity, he applied himself accordingly, and without delay, to its study. In addition to that study, he devoted much time and atten- tion to acquire a knowledge of astronomy; and finding that such science depended much upon geometry, he soon made himself master of Euclid's Elements of Geometry, and rapidly attained a profound knowledge of mathema- tics. In 1653, he was incorporated in the degree of mas- ter of arts, at Oxford; and when Dr. Dupont resigned the chair of Greek professor, he recommended his pupil, Mr. Darrow, for his successor. That situation he did not, however, obtain, as he was suspected of holding Arminian tenets. Barrow then determined to visit foreign coun- tries; but, in order to execute his design, he was obliged to sell his books. - In 1660, he was chosen to the Greek professorship at Cambridge. The duties of the professorship he performed with wisdom and industry, and appeared habitually to re- collect, that for all his talents he should be required to render an account. On July 16, 1662, he was elected" professor of geometry, in Gresham college, at the recom, mendation of Dr. Wilkins, master of Trinity college, and afterwards bishop of Chester. In the same year, he wrote some Greek verses on the marriage of king Charles and queen Catharine. Upon the 20th of May, 1663, he was elected a fellow of the Royal society, in the first choice made by the council after their charter; and afterwards was appointed to the situation of first professor of a ma- ... thematical lecture, established at Cambridge, and he then resigned that of Gresham college. In 1669, he also re- signed his mathematical chair to his learned friend, Mr. Isaac Newton ; being determined no longer to pursue the study of mathematics, but immediately to enter on that of divinity. Upon quitting his professorship, he was only a fellow of Trinity college, till his uncle presented him with a small sinecure in Wales; and Dr. Ward, bishop of Salisbury, conferred on him a prebend in his church. In 1670, he was made a doctor in divinity, by mandate ; and when Dr. Pearson, master of Trinity college, was promoted to the see of Chester, Barrow was appointed to succeed him, by the king's patent, bearing date the 13th of February, 1672. Barrow was chaplain to the king, and to him he was much attached; insomuch, that he de-.. clared, “he had given it to the best scholar in England.” He would also call him an “unfair preacher, because he exhausted every subject, and left nothing for others to say. aſter him.” In 1675, Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor of the university; and, in every situation to which he was elected, he performed its duties with punctuality and wis- dom. The life of Barrow was, however, but short. For- . ty-two years had not rolled over him, ere, he was num- bered with the dead; for, on the 4th of May, 1672, after but a short illness, he expired. But his name has surviv- ed him; and not only is it recorded on the marble tablet, erected in Westminster abbey, but it is handed down in his writings, which, for close reasoning, deep thinking, and sterling sense, have seldom been equalled, and never surpassed. Barrow was, indeed, no ordinary man. His religion was, at once, that of the head and heart ; and whilst, therefore, his writings delight and improve the un- derstanding, they enlighten and convince the judgment. His temper was good ; his disposition amiable ; his man- ners pleasing; his conversation instructing; his life mo- ral, useful, and pious, and his death happy. Let those men, who assert that Christianity is a religion of fraud and ignorance, remember, that amongst multitudes of learned and literary men, Barrow not only believed in, but vindicated and supported it. * - For further account of this extraordinary man, see his Life and Writings.—Jones's Chr. Biog. BARSABAS. Joseph Barsabas, surnamed Justus, was one of the first disciples of Jesus Christ, and probably one of the seventy. When St. Peter proposed to the dis- ciples to fill up the place of Judas the traitor, by choosing another apostle, (Acts 1: 21.) Barsabas was nominated along with Matthias; but the lot fell on Matthias, who was therefore numbered with the eleven apostles.— We know nothing farther of the life of this Barsabas, 2. Barsabas was also the surname of Judas, one of the principal disciples mentioned, Acts 15:22, &c. This is all we know of Barsabas Judas.-Watson. BARSUMAS; bishop of Nisibis, in Persia, who flou- rished during the fiſth century. Of all the promoters of the Nestorian cause, says Mosheim, there was not one to whom it has such weighty obligations as to the famous Barsumas, who was removed from his place in the school of Edessa, and created bishop of Nisibis, in 435. This zealous prelate labored with incredible assiduity and dex- terity; from the year 440 to 485, to procure for the Nesto- rians a solid and permanent settlement in Persia ; and he was vigorously seconded in this undertaking by Maa- nes, bishop of Ardascira. So remarkable was the success which crowned the labors of Barsumas, that his ſame ex- tended throughout the East ; and those Nestorians who still remain in Chaldea, Persia, Assyria, and the adjacent countries, consider him alone, and not without reason, as their parent and founder. This indefatigable ecclesiastic not only persuaded Firouz, the Persian monarch, to expel from his dominions such Christians as had adopted the opinions of the Greeks, and to admit the Nestorians in their place, but he even engaged him to put the latter in B A R B A S [ 197 | possession of the principal seat of ecclesiastical authority in Persia, the see of Seleucia, which the patriarch, or catholic of the Nestorians has always filled, even down to our times. The zeal and activity of Barsumas did not end here: he erected a ſamous school at Nisibis, whence issued those Nestorian doctors, who, in this and the fol- lowing century, spread abroad their tenets through Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary and China.--Mosheim. BARTHOLOMEW, one of the twelve apostles, Matt. 10: 3. is supposed to be the same person who is called Nathanael, one of the first of Christ's disciples. This opinion is founded on the circumstance, that as the evan- gelist John never mentions Bartholomew in the number of the apostles, so the other evangelists never mention Nathanael. And as in John 1:45. Philip and Nathanael are mentioned together as coming to Jesus, so in the other evangelists, Philip and Bartholomew are constantly asso- ciated together. The supposition also acquires additional probability from considering, that Nathanael is particular- ly mentioned among the apostles to whom Christ appeared at the sea of Tiberias, after his resurrection; Simon Pe. ter, Thomas, and Nathanael, of Cana in Galilee; the sons of Zebedee, namely, James and John ; with two other of his disciples, probably Andrew and Philip. John 21: 2. It is an early tradition, that Bartholomew propagated the faith as far as India, and also in the more northern and western parts of Asia, and that he finally suffered martyr- dom. But all the particulars respecting the life and la- bors of the apostles, not mentioned in the New Testament, are exceedingly uncertain.- Watson. BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY ; a feast held on the 24th of August, in honor of Bartholomew, but awfully memo- rable as the day of the horrid slaughter of the Huguenots in France, in the year 1572, when, at midnight, not only was a signal given to massacre all who were found in Paris, but orders were issued that the massacre should extend through the whole kingdom ; in consequence of which, in the space of thirty days, upwards of thirty thou- sand victims are calculated to have been slain. (See PERSECUTION, FRANCE.)—Hend. Buck. BARTHOLOMIITES; a religious order ſounded at Genoa, in 1307; but, the monks leading irregular lives, it was suppressed in 1650, and their effects confiscated. In the church of the monastery of this order at Genoa, is reserved the image which, it is pretended, Christ sent to ing Abgarus.-Buck. - BAR-TIMMEUS; a blind man of Jericho, who sat by the side of the public road, begging, when our Savior passed that way to Jerusalem. Mark (10:46–52.) says, that “Jesus coming out of Jericho, with his disciples, and a great crowd, Bar-Timaeus, when he heard it, began to cry out, Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me !” and Jesus restored him to sight. But Matthew, (20: 30.) re- lating the same story, says, that two blind men, sitting by the way-side, understanding that Jesus was passing, be- gan to cry out, &c. and both received sight. Mark notes Bar-Timaeus only, because he was more known, and not improbably (as his name is preserved) was born in a su- perior rank of life, therefore was no common beggar; if, besides, his blindness had been the cause of reducing him to poverty, no doubt his neighbors would mention his name, and take great interest in his cure. Probably, Timaeus, his father, was of note in that place; as such was generally the case, when the ſather’s name was taken by the son. The cure of another blind man, mentioned Luke 18:35, 43, is different from this; that happened, when Jesus was entering into Jericho; this, the next day, as he was coming out.—Calmet. BARUCH, the son of Nerial, and grandson of Maase- iah, was of illustrious birth, and of the tribe of Judah. He had a brother of the name of Seraiah, who occupied an important station in the court of king Zedekiah ; but he himself adhered to the person of the prophet Jeremiah, and was his most steady friend, though his attachment to him drew on himself several persecutions and much ill- treatment. He appears to have acted as his secretary during a great part of his life, and never left him till they Were parted by death, on which Baruch retired to Babylon, Where the rabbins say he also died in the twelfth year of the captivity. Jar. 36: 43: The Book of Baruch is justly placed among the apocryphal writings. Grotius thinks it a fiction written by some Hellenistic Jew; and St. Jerome gives as the reason why he did not write a commentary upon it, that the Jews themselves did not deem it canoni. cal.—Watson. - - I. BARZILLAI; a native of Rogelim, in Gilead, and one who assisted David when expelled from Jerusalem by Absalom. 2 Sam. 17:27, 28. When David returned to Jerusalem, Barzillai attended him to the Jordan.—JI. A native of Meholath, father of Adriel, who married Mi- chal, formerly wife of David. 2 Sam. 21: 8–III. A priest, who married a daughter of Barzillai the Gileadite. BASHAN, called by Josephus and Ptolemy, Batanaea; the northern part of the country east of the Jordan, con- quered by Moses and given to the half tribe of Manasseh. From Salchah, now Sukhad, on the south-eastern declivity of the mountains of Hauran, seventy-five miles south south-east from Damascus, and about the same distance east of the Jordan, the dominions of Og, king of Bashan, extended northwestwardly, to mount Hermon, which here seems to mean Anti-libanus. Deut. 3: 8–13. Josh. 12: 4, 5. It had Gilead and the Ammonites on the south, the valley of the Jordan on the east, and Syria and Damascus on the north-east.—T. ... , 2- . . The following description of this region is by Mr. Buck. ingham : “We had now quitted the land of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and entered into that of Og, the king of Bashan, both of them well known to all the readers of the early Scriptures. We had quitted, too, the districts ap-. portioned to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and entered that which was allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh, beyond Jordan, eastward, leaving the land of the children of Ammon on our right, or to the east of the Jabbok, which divided Ammon, or Philadelphia, from Gerasa. The mountains here are called the land of Gilead in the Scriptures, and in Josephus; and, according to the Roman division, this was the country of the Decapolis, so often spoken of in the New Testament, or the province of Gaulonitis, from the city of Gaulon, its early capital. We continued our way over this elevated tract, continuing to behold, with surprise and admiration, a beautiful country on all sides of us: its plains covered with a fertile soil, its hills clothed with forests, and at every new turn presenting the most magnificent landscapes that could be imagined. Amongst the trees, the oak was frequently seen; and we know that this territory presented them of old. In enume- rating the sources from which the supplies of Tyre were drawn in the time of her great wealth and naval splendor, the prophet says, ‘Oſ the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars.” (Ezek. 27. 6.) Some learned commentators, indeed; believing that no oaks grew in these supposed de- sert regions, have translated the word by alders, to prevent the appearance of inaccuracy in the inspired writer. The expression of ‘the fat bulls of Bashan,’ which occurs more than once in the Scriptures, seemed to us equally incon- sistent, as applied to the beasts of a country generally thought to be a desert, in common with the whole tract which is laid down in the moderm maps as such, between the Jordan and the Euphrates; but we could now fully comprehend, not only that the bulls of this luxuriant coun- try might be proverbially fat, but that its possessors, too, might be a race renowned for strength and comeliness of person. . . . The general face of this region improved as we advanced further in it; and every new direction of our path opened upon us views which surprised and charmed us by their grandeur and beauty. Lofty mountains gave an outline of the most magnificent character; flowing beds of secondary hills softened the romantic wildness of the picture; gentle slopes, clothed with wood, gave a rich variety of tints, hardly to be imitated by the pencil; deep valleys, filled with murmuring streams and verdant mea- dows, offered all the luxuriance of cultivation, and herds and flocks gave life and animation to scenes as grand, as beautiful, and as highly picturesque as the genius or taste of a Claude could either invent or desire.”—Calmet. BASIL, called the Great, to distinguish him from other Greek patriarchs of the same name, was born in 329, at Cesarea, in Cappadocia, and, after having studied at Athens, he for a while taught rhetoric and practised at the bar. In 370, he was made bishop of Cesarea, where B A S B A T [ 198 || he died in 379. He is the most distinguished ecclesiastic among the Grecian patriarchs. His efforts for the regula- tion of clerical discipline, of the divine service, and of the standing of the clergy; the number of his sermons; the success of his mild treatment of the Arians; and above all, his endeavors for the promotion of a monastic life, for which he prepared vows and rules, observed by himself, and still remaining in force, prove the extent of his influ- ence. The Greek church honors him as one of its most illustrious patron saints, and celebrates his festival, Janua- ry 1. His followers are widely extended; there are even some in America. They lead an austere life. The vows of obedience, chastity and poverty, framed by Basil, are the rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as Benedict is the patriarch of the Western order. In point of genius, controversial skill, and a rich and flowing eloquence, Ba- sil was surpassed by very few in the fourth century.— Ency. Amer. ; Davenport ; Mosheim ; Rob. Hist. Baptism, . 80. - BASILIAN MONKS; religious of the order of Basil, in the fourth century, who, having retired into a desert in the province of Pontus, founded a monastery, and drew up rules, to the amount of some hundreds, for his disciples. This new society soon spread all over the East; nor was it long before it passed into the West. Some pretend that Easil saw himself the spiritual father of more than ninety thousand monks in the East only; but this order, which flourished for more than three centuries, was considerably diminished by heresy, schism, and a change of empire; but the number is still considerable, and some are found even in America. The historians of this order say that it has produced 14 popes, 1805 bishops, 3010 abbots, and 11,085 martyrs, besides an infinite number of confessors and virgins. This order likewise boasts of several empe- rors, kings, and princes, who have embraced its rule.— Hend. Buck. BASILICA; properly a royal palace; but in the first centuries of Rome, the basilicas were splendid public buildings, of an oblong shape, and four-cornered, and commonly adorned with Corinthian columns and statues, where the citizens collected to consult for their common welfare, transact mercantile business, and hear the young orators exercise themselves in declamation. Some of them having been given by Constantime to the Roman Christians for their worship, the first buildings appropriat- ed to this purpose obtained the name of basilica ; and af. terwards, when new churches were built, the shape of the ancient basilica was retained.—Hend. Buck. BASILIDEANS ; the followers of Basilides of Alexan- dria, a Gnostic leader of the early part of the second cen- tury. § GNoSTIcs.)— Watson. #As LIDES; author of one of the earliest heresies— Gnosticism. Different opinions have been entertained as to the time at which he lived; but if he was a dis- ciple of Menander, who was a disciple of Simon Magus, he must have lived about the beginning of the second cen- tury, and may have spread his doctrines in the reign of the emperor Trajan. He studied at Alexandria, and is said to have been also in Persia; but whether he learned his views of Gnosticism there is uncertain.—Hend. Buck. BASKET, kophinos ; a wicker-basket, from kophton, to cut off, because made from twigs, or cuttings of trees, or, from kouphotes, levity, on account of its lightness. The Jews appear to have been in the habit of using these wicker- baskets, which were probably of a certain measure, for carrying about with them their daily provision; and as the chief baker of Pharaoh, in his dream, carried three baskets on his head with all manner of baked meats for Pharaoh, we may thus infer the connection between the image of the basket and the event of which it was the emblem,--that when three days’ provision should be ex- pended, the event predicted should happen; and hence the basket which contains the daily provision becomes the emblem of a day,+the time for which the provision would last. The kophinoi were the baskets of which twelve were filled with the fragments remaining aſter the five loaves and two small fishes had been blessed and increased to. the supply of five thousand persons by our Lord; Matt. 14:20, 16:9, and it is probable from the number of these baskets, that they were those belonging to the twelve disciples, and used by them for the purpose of containing their daily supply of food; thus rendering the miracle, if possible, more impressive. For not only were the wants of the multitude supplied, but also the disciples themselves obtained their next day's provision from the five barley loaves and two small fishes. Their subsequent mistake of the words of our blessed Lord, when he speaks of the lea- ven of the Pharisees,—“It is because we have taken no bread,” was thus brought more home to themselves per- Sonally, when their unbelief and want of understanding upon that occasion were reproved.—Sherwood. BASLE, CouncIL or ; which commenced its sittings, December 14, 1431, under the presidency of the cardinal legate Juliano Caesarini of St. Angelo, and after holding not fewer than forty-five, terminated its labors, May 16, 1443. Its objects, which were partly attained, were to extirpate heresies, limit the power of the pope, effect a reformation of the clergy, and consolidate the interests of the church. Its decrees are not admitted into any of the Roman collections, and are considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are, however, recognised in points of canon law in France and Germany; and though some later concordats have modified the applica- tion of them, they have never been formally and entirely annulled.—Hend. Buck. - BASNAGE DE BEAUVAL, (JAMEs,) an eminent Pro- testant divine, was born at Rouen, in 1653, and educated at Saumur in Geneva. When the edict of Nantz was re- voked, he retired to Rotterdam, and, in 1709, was chosen one of the Walloon pastors at the Hague. Being in favor with the grand pensionary Heinsius, and still preserving his attachment to France, he rendered such services to his country, in facilitating the treaty of alliance with Holland, that he was rewarded with his recall and the restoration of his property. He died in 1723. Basmage was a man of erudition, sincerity, and virtue; and of such enlarged political views and talents, that Voltaire declared him to be more fit for a minister of state than of a parish. Among his principal works are, a History of the Church; a His- tory of the Jews; a History of the Religion of the Re- formed Church; and Annals of the United Provinces.—- Ency. Amer. BASTAR: ; one born out of wedlock. A bastard among the Greeks was despised, and exposed to public scorn, on account of his spurious origin. In Persia, the son of a concubine is never placed on a footing with the legitimate cffspring; any attempt made by parental fond- ness to do so would be resented by the relations of the legitimate wife, and outrage the feelings of a whole tribe. The Jewish father bestowed as little attention on the edu- cation of his natural children as the Greek: he seems to have resigned them, in a great measure, to their own in- clinations; he neither checked their passions, nor corrected their faults, nor stored their minds with useful knowledge. This is evidently implied in these words of the apostle: “If ye endure chastening, God dealeth with you as with sons; for what son is he whom the father chasteneth not ? But if ye be without chastisement, whereof all are partakers, then are ye bastards and not sons,” Heb. 12; 7, 8. To restrain the licentious desires of the heart, Jehovah by an express law fixed a stigma upon the bastard, which was not to be removed till the tenth generation; and to show that the precept was on no account to be violated, or suf- fered to ſall into disuse, it is emphatically repeated, “A bastard shall not enter into the congregation of the Lord ; even to his tenth generation shall he not enter into the congregation of the Lord,” Deut. 23: 2.—Watson. -BASTINADO; the punishment of beating with sticks. It is also called tympanum, because the patient was beaten like a drum. Upwards of a hundred blows were often inflicted, and sometimes the beating was unto death. St. Paul, Heb. 11:35, says that some of the saints were tor- tured, tympanizo, suffered the tympanum, that is, were stretched on an instrument of torture, and beaten to death —- Watson. BAT. This singular creature, which possesses proper- ties that connect it with both beasts and birds, has been variously placed in systems of natural history. The editor of Calmet says, “it is too much a bird to be properly a B.A.T B.A.T [ 199 | beast, and too much a beast to be properly a bird.” Doubts as to its nature, however, no longer exist. The bat is now - - R- . * 3:...º.º. §º Hº-Hº universally made to take its place among the animal tribes, to which the bringing forth its young alive, its hair, its teeth, as well as the rest of its habitudes and conformation, evidently entitles it. In no particular, scarcely, does it resemble a bird, except in its power of sustaining itself in the air, which circumstance is scarcely enough to balance the weight of those particulars which we have noticed, as placing it among quadrupeds. The Hebrew name of the bat denotes “the flier in duski- ness,” that is, the evening. It was similarly named by the Greeks and the Latins. In Deut. 14: 18, 19, it is well de- scribed : “Moreover the bat, and every creeping thing that flieth, is unclean to you: they shall not be eaten.” . The legs of the bat are formed in a very particular manner, and entirely different from any other animal. It creeps with the instruments of its-flight. During the entire winter, it conceals itself in its hole, as it does, also, during the day-time even in summer, never venturing out, except for an hour or two in the evening, in order to supply itself with food. The usual place in which it takes up its abode is the hollow of a tree, a dark cavern, or the chink of some ruined building, of which it seems particularly fond. This illustrates Isa. 2: 20, “In that day, a fman shall cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold to the moles and to the bats :” that is, he shall carry his idols into the dark ca- verns, old ruins, or desolate places, to which he himself shall flee for refuge; and so shall give them up, and re- linquish them to the filthy animals that frequent such places, and have taken possession of them as their proper habitation.—Abbott's Script. Nat. History. BATANEA ; the same as BASHAN, which see. BATANISTS, or Assassins. See Assassins. BATES, (WILLIAM, D. D.) an eminent non-conformist minister of the seventeenth century, was born in the year 1625; but of the place of his birth, or the particulars of his family, his contemporaries have left us no record. He was educated at the university of Cambridge, where he took the degree of bachelor of arts in 1647, and was ad- mitted doctor of divinity in 1660. Soon after the restora- tion, he was appointed chaplain to king Charles II., and was also, for some time, minister of St. Dunstan’s in the West; from whence he was ejected by the act of uniformity. He was one of the commissioners at the Savoy conference in 1660, for reviewing the public liturgy, and assisted in drawing up the exceptions against the Book of Common Prayer. He was likewise chosen on the part of the non- conformist ministers, tegether with Dr. Jacomb and Mr. Baxter, to manage the dispute with Dr. Pearson, after- wards bishop of Chester, Dr. Gunning, afterwards bishop of Ely, and Dr. Sparrow, afterwards bishop of Norwich. The object of this conference was to persuade the dissidents to fall in with the requirements of the church of England, in regard to its rituals and ceremonies. But to the sophis- tical reasonings of Gunning, who seemed disposed to for- ward a reconciliation between the church of England and that of Rome, Dr. Bates constantly urged, that on the very same grounds on which they imposed the crucifix and Sur- plice, they might bring in holy water, and all the trumpery of popery. On this occasion, the doctor displayed heroic firmness of mind, at the same time that he conducted him- Self with great wisdom and moderation. Whenever he Spake, what he said was solid, judicious, and to the point, which procured him great respect from his brethren. -- rº-ºº: When he retired from his charge at St. Dunstan's church, in 1662, he took leave of his flock in the follow, ing terms: “I know you expect I should say something as to my non-conformity. I shall only say thus much : ſt is neither fancy, faction, nor humor that makes me refuse to comply, but merely the fear of offending God. . And if, after the best means used for my illumination, such as prayer to God, discourse and study, I cannot be satisfied about the lawfulness of what is required, if it be my un- happiness to be in error, surely men will have no reason to be angry with me in this world, and I hope God will pardon me in the next.” Dr. Bates was honored with the friendship of the lord keeper Bridgman, the lord changellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham, and Archbishop Tillotson. He was offered the deanery of Litchfield and Coventry, at the restoration, but he declined the offer; and, according to Dr. Calamy, he might have been afterwards raised to any bishopric in the kingdom, could he have conformed to the established church. He resided for the latter part of his life at Hack- ney, where he died on the 19th of July, 1699, in the seven- ty-fourth year of his age. In external appearance, Dr. Bates was extremely hand- Some ; his countenance mild, yet dignified; his voice re- markably soft and pleasing; and his style highly polished for the age in which he lived. Dr. Calamy says, that he was generally reputed one of the best orators of the day, and was well versed in the politer parts of learning, which so seasoned his conversation, as to render it highly enter- taining to the more sensible part of mankind. His appre- hension was quick and clear, and his reasoning faculty acute, prompt, and expert. His judgment was penetrating and solid, stable and firm. His memory was singularly tenacious, and scarcely impaired at the period of his death. His language was always neat and fine, but unaffected. His method in all his discourses would bear the test of the Severest scrutiny. Mr. Granger says, that Dr. Bates was a man of a good and amiable character; much a scholar— much a gentleman—and no less a Christian. His mode- ration and sweetness of temper were known to all that conversed with him, among whom were eminent and pious men of various persuasions. Dr. Tillotson's friendship for him began early ; and as his merit was invariably the same, it continued without interruption to the end of that prelate's life. He is esteemed the politest writer of the age among the Presbyterians. His works were collected and published in a thick folio volume after his decease; and a new edition of them appeared in 1815, in four vo. lumes octavo, with a Memoir prefixed. His “Harmony of the Divine Attributes in the Work of Man's Redemp- tion,” has been deservedly popular.—Jones' Chris. Biog. BATH ; a measure of capacity for things liquid, being the same with the ephah, Ezek. 45: 11, and containing ten homers, or seven gallons and four pints.—Watson. BATHING. The word washing in the New Testament, from the Greek loud, signifies bathing. John 13: 10. Acts 9: 37. 16: 33. Heb. 10: 23. 2 Pet. 2: 22. Rev. 1: 5. This is the specific meaning of the word in the Greek writers, and in the Septuagint. Bathing undoubtedly took place first in rivers and in the sea; but men soon learned to enjoy this pleasure in their own houses. Even Homer mentions the use of the bath as an old custom. The bath, at this period, was the first refreshment offered to the guest. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were built ex- pressly for the purpose of bathing. The public baths of the Greeks were mostly connected with the gymnasia, be- cause they were taken immediately after the athletic exer- cises. The Romans, in the period of their luxury, imitated the Greeks in this point, and built magnificent baths. The following description applies both to the Greek and Roman baths:–The building which contained them was oblong, and had two divisions, the one for males, the other for fe- males. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The warm baths, in both divisions, were adjacent to each other, for the sake of being easily heated. In the midst of the building, on the ground floor, was the heating room, by which not only the water for bathing, but sometimes also the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Above the heating room was an apartment in which three copper kettles were walled in, one above another, so that the low- B A T B A T [ 200 est was immediately over the fire, the second over the first, and the third over the second. In this way, either boiling, lukewarm, or cold water could be obtained. The water was carried, by separate pipes, from these kettles into the bathing rooms, and a fresh supply was immediately poured into the kettles from a reservoir. Close to the heating room were three separate rooms on each side, for the hot, the lukewarm, and the cold bath. The bathing-rooms had, on the floor, a basin of mason-work, in which there were seats, and round it a gallery, where the bathers re- mained before they descended into the bath, and where, also, the attendants were. There was also a sweating- room, which was heated by means of flues, and was called laconicum. This room had an opening in the ceiling, through which the light fell, and from which was sus- pended a brazen plate, that could be raised and let down at pleasure, to increase or lessen the heat. For undress- ing, for receiving the garments, and for anointing after bathing, there were different rooms; and connected with the bath were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens. These buildings, together with a number of bathing-rooms, were necessary for a public bath, which was adorned with splendid-furniture, and all the requisites for recreation, and resembled, in its exterior appearance, an extensive palace. Roman luxury, always in search of means for rendering sensual enjoyments more exquisite, in later times, built particular conduits for conducting sea- Water to the baths, used mountain snow, and enlarged these establishments in such a way that even their ruins excite admiration. (See Wichelhausen, on the Baths of the Ancients, Mannheim, 1807.)—Among the Europeans, the Russians have peculiar establishments for bathing, which are visited by all classes of the people during the whole year. The people regard these baths as a necessary of life, and they are to be found in every village. They are also met with in Finland.—Among the Asiatics, baths are in general use. The Turks are, by their religion, obliged to make repeated ablutions daily: besides these, men and women must bathe in particular circumstances and at certain times. For this purpose, there is, in every city, a public bath connected with a mosque ; and rich private persons possess private bath-houses adorned with all the objects of Asiatic luxury. Public baths are common in Europe, and there are, at present, few cities without them. Medicine has endeavored to increase the wholesome effects of baths by various com- positions and modes of application. Baths are distinguish- ed by the nature of the fluid, by the degree of heat, and by their influence upon the body. They are prepared with water, milk, wine, &c.; are of different temperatures; and herbs, iron, soap, and other substances are mixed with them, as the purpose requires. There are, also, baths of earth, sand, air, vapor, and electric baths. They are ap- plied either to the whole body, or only to a single part. The shower bath affords an agreeable and healthful mode of bathing, and much use is made of it in medicine. Mi- neral baths are those, the water of which naturally con- tains mineral ingredients.-Ency. Amer. BATH-KOL, daughter of the voice. By this mame the Jewish writers distinguish what they called a revelation from God, aſter verbal prophecy had ceased in Israel; that is, after the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Mala- chi. The generality of their traditions and customs are founded on this bath-kol. They pretend that God re- vealed them to their elders, not by prophecy, but by the daughter of the voice. The bath-kol," as Dr. Prideaux shows, was a fantastical way of divination, invented by the Jews, like the Sorles Virgiliana, among the heathem. For, as with them, the words first opened upon in the works of that poet, was the oracle whereby they prognos- ticated those future events which they desired to be in- formed of; so with the Jews when they appealed to bath- kol, the next words which they should hear drop from any one's mouth were taken as the desired oracle. With somé, it is probable that bath-kol, the daughter of the voice, was only an elegant personification of tradition. Others, how- ever, more bold, said that it was a voice from heaven, sometimes attended by a clap of thunder.—Watson. BATH-SHEBA. See DAVID ; NATHAN ; Solomon. BATTLE, The object of a war may be obtained in two different ways: either one party forces the other, by skil. ful manoeuvres, marches, demonstrations, the occupation of advantageous positions, &c. to quit the field (which belongs to the province of strategy); or the hostile masses approach each other (by design or by chance), so that a battle becomes necessary to determine which shall keep the field. The rules for securing a successful issue, whe- ther they respect the preparations for the conflict, or the direction of the forces when actually engaged, belong to tactics, in the narrower sense of the word. Strategy also shows the causes which bring armies together, and pro- duce battles without any agreement between the parties. It belongs not to this article to explain this point. It may be sufficient to say, in general, that armies, in their march- es, (and consequently in their meeting,) are chiefly deter- mined by the mountains and rivers of a country. In ancient times and the middle ages, the battle-ground was often chosen by agreement, and then the battle was a mere trial of strength, a duel en gros; but, in our time, such triſling is done away. War is now carried on for the real or pretended interest of a nation, or a ruler who thinks or pretends that his interest is that of the nation. Wars are not undertaken for the purpose of fighting, and battles are merely the consequence of pursuing the purpose of the war. They arise from one party's striving to prevent the other from gaining his object. Every means, therefore, of . winning the battle is resorted to, and an agreement can hardly be thought of. In this respect, a land battle is en- tirely different from a naval battle. The former is intended merely to remove an obstacle in the way of gaining the object of the war; the destruction of the enemy, therefore, is not the first thing sought for. The views of one party can often be carried into effect with very little effusion of blood; and if a general can obtain the same end by ma- noeuvring as by a battle, he certainly prefers the former. But the object of a naval engagement is, almost always, the destruction of the enemy; those cases only excepted, in which a fleet intends to bring supplies or reinforcements to a blockaded port, and is obliged to fight to accomplish its purpose. As the armies of the ancients were not so well organized as those of the moderns, and the combatants fought very little at a distance, after the battle had begun, manoeuvres were much more difficult, and troops, when actually en- gaged, were almost entirely beyond the control of the gene- ral. With them, therefore, the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous arrangements, and the valor of the troops. Not so in modern times. The ſinest combi- nations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered possible by the better organization of the armies, which thus, generally at least, remain under the control of th general. 4. The battle of the ancients was the rude beginning of an art now much developed. It is the skill of the general, rather than the courage of the soldier, that how determines the event of a battle. There is, probably, no situation, which requires the simultaneous exertion of all the powers of the mind more than that of a general at the decisive moment of a battle. While the soldier can yield himself entirely to the impulse of his courage, the general must coolly calculate the most various combinations; while the soldier retreats, the general must endeavor to turn the tide of battle by his ardor or his genius. Daring courage, un- daunted firmness, the most active and ingenious invention, cool calculation, and thorough self-possession, amid scenes of tremendous agitation, and under the consciousness that the ſale of a whole nation may depend on him alone in the trying moment, these are the qualities which a good general cannot dispense with for a moment. If it is the character of genius to conceive great ideas instantaneous- ly, military genius is in this respect the greatest. Great. generals have therefore been, in all ages, the objects of admiration ; and as a great artist may be no example, in a moral point of view, although we admire the genius displayed in his productions, so we cannot but bestow the same kind of admiration on the high intellectual gifts of a great general. Few situations, therefore, enable a man to . acquire higher glory, than that of a great commander in a good cause. - & If troops meet accidentally, and are thus obliged to fight, B A T B A T [ 201 J it is called a zencoutre. Further, battles are distinguished into offensive and defensive. Of course, a battle which is offensive ſor one side, is defensive for the other. Tacticians divide a battle into three periods—that of the disposition, that of the combat, and the decisive moment. The general examines the strength, reconnoitres the posi- tion, and endeavors to learn the intention of the enemy. If the enemy conceals his plan and position, skirmishes and partial assaults are often advisable, in order to disturb him, to obtain a view of his movements, to induce him to advance, or with the view of making prisoners, who may be questioned, &c. Since the general cannot direct all these operations in person, officers of the staff, and aids assist him; single scouts or small bodies are sent out, and spies are employed. Any person or thing (ministers, pea- sants, shepherds, maps, &c.) which can afford information of the enemy, or the ground on which the battle is to take place, is made use of for obtaining intelligence, by force or otherwise. According to the knowledge thus acquired, and the state of the troops, the plan of the battle, or the disposition, is made ; and here military genius has an op- portunity to display itself. There is an immense difference between the quick, clear and ingenious disposition of a great general, which shows the leading features of the plan to every commander under him, and provides for all cases favorable or unſavorable, with a few distinct touches, without depriving the different commanders of freedom of action, and the slow, indistinct, minute, and, after all; in- accurate dispositions of a feeble commander. Napoleon’s dispositions are real master-pieces. Like a great artist, he delineates, with a few strokes, the whole character of the battle; and as the disciples of Raphael assisted in the painting of his pictures, but necessarily worked in the great style of their master, which his first lines gave to the picture, so all the skilful generals under Napoleon labored for the accomplishment of one great end, sometimes dis- closed to them, sometimes concealed in the breast of their commander. To the disposition also belongs the detaching of large bodies which are to co-operate in the battle, but not under the immediate command of the chief. The plan of the battle itself, the position of the troops, &c. is called the order of fattle. This is either the parallel, or the in- closing, (if the enemy cannot develope his forces, or you are strong enough to outflank him,) or the oblique. When each division of troops has taken its position, and received its orders, and the weaker parts have been forti- fied, (if time allows it,) the artillery placed on the most favorable points, all chasms connected by bridges; vil- lages, woods, &c. taken possession of, and all impediments removed as far as possible, (which very often cannot be done except by fighting,) then comes the second period— that of the engagement. The combat begins, either on several points at a given signal, as is the case when the armies are very large, and a general attack is intended, as, for instance, at Leipsic, where three fire-balls gave the signal for battle on the side of the allies; or by skirmishes of the light troops, which is the most common case. The ar- tillery endeavors to dismount the batteries of the enemy, to destroy his columns, and, in general, to break a passage, iſ possible, for the other troops. The forces, at the present day, are brought into action mostly in columns, and not, as formerly, in long but weak lines. Here the skill of commanders of battalions is exerted. Upon them rests the principal execution of the actual combat. The plans and orders of a general reach only to a certain point; the chiefs of battalions must do the chief work of the battle. Before the battle, the general places himself upon a point, from which he can see the conflict, and where he can easily receive reports—upon a hill, in a wind-mill, &c. Sometimes if there is no such favorable point, a staging is erected. A few men are near him as his body-guard; others take charge of the plans and maps; telescopes are indispensable. He often sends one of his aids to take in- stant command of the nearest body of cavalry, in order to execute an order which must be carried into effect quickly. He receives the reports of the generals under him, and gives new orders; disposes of the troops not yet in action; strengthens weak points; throws his force upon the ene- my where he sees them waver; or changes, if necessary, with a bold and ingenious º, the whole order of battle. 2 The general now uses every means to bring on the third period of the battle—the decisive moment. This cannot always be the result of combinations. It often takes place much sooner than was expected; it is often protracted by accidents, want of energy on the part of the commanders, &c. Sometimes all the operations are drawing to the end which the general aimed at, when an unforeseen accident Suddenly gives a new impulse to the enemy. Victory or defeat depend now upon one moment, one happy idea. Perhaps it is all-important to break, at once, the enemy's centre, perhaps to concentrate the destructive power of the artillery, and, sweeping away Some obstacle, to send, as Napoleon often did, a torrent of cavalry upon a certain point. Any thing which can carry disorder into the ranks of the enemy is of great use. If he begins to waver, or to retreat in order, or to flee in disorder, it is always necessary to follow up the victory with all possible vigor and celerity. This is as important as victory itself. Napoleon was, till the last war in Germany, a master in this particular. There are three maxims, as important for the general as they are simple : (1.) Know your enemy, his strength and intentions; (2.) make all the operations and manoeu- vres of the parts coincide, as much as possible, with the great plan of the battle; (3.) pursue victory to the utmost. It is also a maxim, in regard to battles, as well as to the conduct of the war generally, to make the enemy conform to your plans, and to avoid the necessity of accommodating yourself to his. Stratagems are often of the greatest ad- vantage. After a battle, care must be taken of the wounded. Soldiers are often appointed to take care of their unfortu- nate comrades during the battle. It ought to be always done, though it never can do good to any great extent. At night, if cold, fires are lighted, that the wounded may creep to them. Peasants are sent out to bring in the liv- ing, and to bury the dead in large pits; but, iſ possible, soldiers should always be sent with them, because the peasants, if of the enemy's nation, often plunder half dead soldiers, and bury them alive. They are gene- rally very rapacious, and think they have a right to in- demnify themselves for their severe losses. Such is the art of war, in ancient and in modern times. How opposite is it to the pacific and benevolent principles of Christianity The Son of man came not to destroy men's lives, but to save them. When his religion shall become universal, the arts of peace and love shall alone be culti- vated; nation shall not lift up snºord against nation, neither shall they learn n’ar any more. Isai. 2; 4. But there is a spiritual conflict—a perpetual contest against prejudice, error, Sophistry, infidelity, and sin—to which all on earth are summoned, and for which all should be prepared. This is the good fight of faith. Hap- py they who are found most skilful and successful on this glorious field Better is he that conquers one criminal passion, that triumphs over one practical illusion, one easily besetting habit of sin, that wins one soul to God, that plants the standard of truth and holiness one step in advance of its present position among men, than he who taketh a city, or even subdues an empire at his feet. He that overcometh shall inherit all things; and I will be his God, and he shall be my son. Rev. 21: 7. Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life. Rev. 2: 10–En- cy. Amer. ; Foster's Glory of the Age. BATTLE-AXE. (See ARMs.) BATTLEMENT; a wall round the top of flat-roofed houses; as were those of the Jews, and other Eastern people. (See House.) The Jews were enjoined to adopt this precaution against accidents, under the penalty of death. Deut. 22:8. In Jer. 5: 10. the term appears to denote towers, walls, and other fortifications of a city.— Calmet. BAXTER, (RICHARD,) was born at Rowton, in Shrop- shire, November 12, 1615. He was one of the great non- conformist divines; and though he, in the early part of his life, labored under many and great disadvantages, owing to the irreligion and ignorance of those under whose care he was placed, he was afterwards one of the greatest men of the age in which he lived. During the first few years of his life, he was much addicted to lying, covetousness in play, fondness for romances, &c.; but, fortunately for him, his father directed his attention to the B A X B A X [ 202 J historical part of the Bible, which much interested him, and inspired him with a desire to peruse those parts which were more doctrinal. In consequence of such determina- tion, by the perusal of the Bible and other religious books, and the conversations of his father, his mind became illu- minated, and his soul converted to God. After having Q Š been for some time under the care of Mr. John Owen, school-master of the free school at Wroxeter, his parents accepted of a proposal for placing him under the care of Mr. Richard Wickstead, chaplain to the council of Lud- low. This gentleman proved to be very incompetent to his charge, being an indifferent scholar, and taking no pains with his pupil. The only benefit he obtained, while under his tuition, was the liberal use of his library, which to him was of great advantage. At this time, the mind of Mr. Baxter was considerably alarmed by the fear of death, which produced in him great seriousness, and a more earnest attention to religion. Divinity became his first and favorite pursuit. Zealous in his attachment to the cause of truth, Mr. Baxter entered into the work of the ministry, after having been examined and ordained by bishop Thornborough, of Worcester. In 1633, he be- came master of the free school at Dudley, in Worcester- shire, where he delivered his first sermon. In 1638, he applied to the bishop of Winchester for holy orders, which he received, being at that time attached to the church of England. The et castera oath was his first inducement to examine into this point ; and, though Mr. Baxter studied the ablest works, he utterly rejected the oath. In 1640, he was requested to become pastor of the church at Kid- derminster, which he accepted, and continued there two years. At this place he was eminently useful, and found much encouragement. The state of the country at that period was peculiarly precarious ; since at that time the civil war, in the reign of Cromwell, commenced, and Mr. Baxter was a decided friend to the parliament, which ex- posed him to many and great inconveniences. Notwith- standing his attachment to the parliament, he considered both parties partially erroneous. He admitted that great indiscretion, and even much sin, was displayed and com- mitted, in dishonoring the king, and in the language used against the bishops, liturgy, and the church; but he con- sidered that whoever was faulty, the liberties of the peo- ple and public safety ought not to be forfeited, and that the people were not guilty of the faults of king or parlia- ment, when they defended them ; and, that iſ both their causes had been bad, as against each other, yet that the subjects should adhere to that party which most secured the welfare of the nation. When Mr. Baxter was at ICid- derminster, he was considerably persecuted, which obliged him to retire to Gloucester, where he found a civil, cour- teous, and religious people. There he continued a month, when many pamphlets were written on both sides of the contending political parties, which unhappily divided the nation preparatory to a war. At that time, contentions commenced between the commission of array and the parliament militia. At the earnest request of the people, Mr. Baxter returned to kidderminster, and remained with them fourteen years; when he joined colonel Whalley's regiment, as chaplain, and was present at several sieges. He confessed himself unwilling to leave his studies and friends, but he thought only of the public good. He was, however, compelled to quit the army, in 1657, in conse. quence of a sudden and dangerous illness, and returned to Worcester. From that place lie went to London, to have medical advice. He was advised to visit Tunbridge wells; and after continuing at that place some time, and finding his health improved, he visited London, just be- fore the deposition of Cromwell, and preached to the par- liament the day previous to its voting the restoration of the king. He preached, occasionally, about the city of London, having a license from bishop Sheldon. He was one of the Tuesday lecturers at Pinners’ hall; and also had a Friday lecture at Fetter lane. In 1662, he preach- ed his farewell-sermon at Blackfriars, and afterwards re- tired to Acton, in Middlesex. In 1676, he built a meeting- house in Oxendon street; and, when he had but once preached there, the congregation was disturbed, and Mr. Sedden, then preaching for him, was sent to the Gate- house, instead of Mr. Baxter, where he continued three months. In 1682, Mr. Baxter was seized, by a warrant, for coming within five miles of a corporation; and his goods and books were sold, as a penalty, for five sermons he had preached. Owing to the bad state of his health, he was not at that time imprisoned, through the kindness of Mr. Thomas Cox, who went to five justices of the peace, and made oath that Mr. Baxter was in a bad state of health, and that such imprisonment would most likely cause his death. In 1685, he was sent to the king's bench, by a warrant from the lord chief justice Jefferies, for some passages in his Paraphrase on the New Testa- ment; but, having obtained from king James, through the good offices of lord Powis, a pardon, he retired to Charter house yard; occasionally preached to large and devoted congregations, and at length died, December 8, 1691, and was interred in Christ church. Mr. Baxter’s life was one continued scene of discord and reproach, though of most considerable piety and zeal. By multitudes he was revered, whilst by many he was despised. It has been stated, that he was the author of . one hundred and forty-five distinct treatises, most of which were polemical, and many were distinguished for their learning and simplicity. Some of the most popular of those treatises are, The Saints' Everlasting Rest; Apho- risms of Justification and the Covenants; Catholic The- ology; A Treatise on Universal Redemption; A Call to the Unconverted. For a detailed account of this pious and excellent man, see Baxter's Life, quarto, and Calamy's Non-conformist's Memorial; Jones's Chr. Biog. BAXTER, (ANDREw ;) an eminent metaphysician, born 1686, at Aberdeen, died 1750. He was educated at King's college. His principal work was an Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul, a production which War- burton highly praised. BAXTERIANISM ; so called from the learned and pious individual whose biography has been given above. His design was to reconcile Calvin and Arminius; for this purpose, he formed a middle scheme between their systems. He taught that God had elected some, whom he is determined to save, without any foresight of ante- cedent faith; and that others, to whom the Gospel is preached, have common grace, which if they improve, they shall obtain saving grace, according to the doctrine of Arminius. He owns with Calvin, that the merits of Christ's death are to be applied to believers only; but he also asserts that all men are in a state capable of salva- tion. - Mr. Baxter maintains that there may be a certainty of perseverance here, and yet he cannot tell whether a man may not have so weak a degree of saving grace as to lose it again. In order to prove that the death of Christ has put all in a state capable of Salvation, the following arguments are alleged by this learned author:—1. It was the nature of all mankind which Christ assumed at his incarnation, and the sins of all mankind were the occasion of his suffering. 2. It was to Adam, as the common father of lapsed man- kind, that God made the promise. Gen. 3: 15. The con- ditional new covenant does equally give Christ, pardon, and life to all mankind, on condition of acceptance. The conditional grant is universal :—“Whosoever believeth shall be saved.”. 3. It is not to the elect only, but to all mankind, that Christ has commanded his ministers to proclaim his Gospel, and offer the benefits of his pro- curing. * There are, Mr. Baxter allows, certain fruits of Christ's death, which are proper to the elect only : 1, Grace even. B A X BAY I 203 | tually worketh in them true faith, repentance, conversion, and union with Christ as his living members. 2. The actual forgiveness of sin as to the spiritual and eternal punishment. 3. Our reconciliation with God, and adop- tion and right to the heavenly inheritance. 4. The Spirit of Christ to dwell in us, and sanctify us, by a habit of di- vine love. Rom. 8: 9–13. Gal. 5: 6. 5. Employment in holy, acceptable service, and access in prayer, with a promise of being heard through Christ. Heb. 2: 5, 6. John 14:13. , 6. Well-grounded hopes of salvation, peace of conscience, and spiritual communion with the church mystical in heaven and earth. Rom. 5:12. Heb. 12:22. 7. A special interest in Christ, and intercession with the Father. Rom. 8: 32, 33. 8. Resurrection unto life, and justification in judgment; glorification of the soul at death, and of the body at the resurrection. Phil. 3:20, 21. 2 Cor. 5: 1, 2, 3. - Christ has made a conditional deed of gift of these benefits to all mankind; but the elect only accept and possess them. Hence he infers, that though Christ never absolutely intended or decreed that his death should even- tually put all men in possession of those benefits, yet he did intend and decree that all men should have a condi- tional gift of them by his death. 2. ' Baxter's celebrated “Aphorisms of Justification,” pub- lished in 1649, afforded employment to himself and his theological critics till near the close of his life; and in the many modifications, concessions, and alterations which were extorted from him by men of different reli- gious tenets, he sometimes incautiously proved himself to be more Calvinistic than Calvin, and at others more Ar- minian than Arminius. The following observations, from “Orme's Life of Baxter,” are, on the whole, just and in- structive :— “Thus did Baxter, at a very early period of his life, launch into the ocean of controversy, on some of the most interesting subjects that can engage the human mind. The manner in which he began to treat them was little favorable to arriving at correct and satisfactory conclu- sions. Possessed of a mind uncommonly penetrating, he yet seems not to have had the faculty of compressing within narrow limits his own views, or the accounts he was disposed to give of the views of others. All this arose, not from any indisposition, to be explicit, but from the peculiar character of his mind. He is perpetually distinguishing things into physical and moral, real and nominal, material and formal. However important these distinctions are, they often render his writings tiresome to the reader, and his reasonings more frequently perplex- ing than satisfactory. Baxter is generally understood to have pursued a middle course between Calvinism and Arminianism. That he tried to hold and adjust the ba- lance between the two parties, and that he was most anx- ious to reconcile them, are very certain. But it seems scarcely less evident, that he was much more a Calvinist than he was an Arminian. While this seems to me very apparent, it must be acknowledged, that if certain views which have often been given of Calvinism are necessary to constitute a Calvinist, Richard Baxter was no believer in that creed. “While satisfied that among Baxter's sentiments, no important or vital error will be found, yet in the style and method in which he too generally advocated or defended them, there is much to censure. putatious manner in which he presented many of his views, was calculated to gender an unsanctified state of mind in persons who either abetted or opposed his senti- ments. His scholastic and metaphysical style of arguing is unbefitting the simplicity of the Gospel, and cannot fail to injure it wherever such is employed. It not only sa- vors too much of the spirit of the schools, and the philoso- phy of this world, but places the truths of revelation on a level with the rudiments of human science. “In illustration of the influence now adverted to, it must be remarked, that the first stage in that process of deterioration which took place among the Presbyterian Dissénters, was generally characterized by the term Bax- terianism; a word to which it is difficult to attach a defi- nite meaning. It denotes no separate sect or party, but rather a system of opinions on doctrinal points, verging Taggravated instead of curing the disease. The wrangling and dis- towards Arminianism, and which ultimately passed to Arianism and Socinianism. Even during Baxter's own life, while the Presbyterians taxed the Independents with Antinomianism, the latter retorted the charge of Socini- anism, or at least with a tendency towards it, in some of the opinions maintained both by Baxter and others of that party. To whatever cause it is to be attributed, it is a melancholy fact, that the declension which began even at this early period in the Presbyterian body, went on slowly, but surely, till, from the most ſervid orthodoxy, it . finally arrived, in England, at the frigid zone of Unita rianism. “I wish not to be understood as stating that Baxter either held any opinions of this description, or was con- scious of a tendency in his sentiments towards such a fearful consummation, but, that there was an injurious tendency in his manner of discussing certain important subjects. It was subtle, and full of logomachy ; it tended to unsettle, rather than to fix and determine ; it gendered strife, rather than godly edifying. It is not possible to study such books as his Methodus, and his Catholic Theo- logy, without experiencing that we are brought into a different region from apostolic Christianity; a region of fierce debate and altercation about words, and names, and opinions; in which all that can be said for error is largely. dwelt upon, as well as what can be said for truth. The ambiguities of language, the diversities of sects, the un- certainties of human perception and argument, are urged, till the force of revealed truth is considerably weakened, and confidence in our own judgment of its meaning great- ly impaired. Erroneous language is maintained to be capable of sound meaning, and the most scriptural phrases to be susceptible of unscriptural interpretation, till truth and error almost change places, and the mind is bewilder- ed, confounded, and paralysed. Into this mode of dis- cussing such subjects, was this most excellent man led, partly by the natural constitution of his mind, which has often been adverted to ; partly by his ardent desire of putting an end to the divisions of the Christian world, and producing universal concord and harmony. He failed where success was impossible, however plausible might have been the means which he employed. He understood the causes of difference and contention better than their remedies; hence the measures which he used frequently While a por- tion of evil, however, probably resulted from Baxter’s mode of conducting controversy, and no great light was thrown by him on some of the dark and difficult subjects which he so keenly discussed, I have no doubt he contri- buted considerably to produce a more moderate spirit towards each other, between Calvinists and Arminians, than had long prevailed. Though he satisfied neither party, he must have convinced both, that great difficulties exist on the subjects in debate, if pursued beyond a cer. tain length; that allowance ought to be made by each, for the weakness or prejudices of the other; and that genuine religion is compatible with some diversity of opinion respecting one or all of the five points.” A simi- lar effect to that which Mr. Orme ascribes to Baxter’s writings on the English Presbyterians, followed also on the continent, among the reformed churches. It was the same middle system, with its philosophical subtleties, which Cameron and Amyraut taught abroad ; and which produced in them those effects that have been justly as- cribed, both in England and abroad, to Arminianism. (See AMYRAUT and CAMERONITEs.)—Calamy's Life of Baz. ter; Baxter's Catholic Theology, p. 51—53; Baacter's End of : Doctrinal Controversy, pp. 154, 155; Buck ; Watson; Orme's Life and Times of Baxter. BAXTERIANS ; such as generally adopt the opinions of Baxter with respect to divine grace and the extent of redemption; but there has never existed any particular or separate denomination of Christians, known by his name.—Hend. Buck. - BAY-TREE. This tree is mentioned only in Ps. 37: 35, 36–4: I have seen the wicked in great power, and spreading himself like a green bay-tree. Yet he passed away, and lo, he was not : yea, I sought him, but he could not be found.” But the original word, ezrech, merely sig- nifies a native tree—a tree growing in its native soil, not B.A. Y. B A Y [ 204 1 having suffered by transplantation, and therefore spread- ing itself luxuriantly. Many critics, however, think that ezrech is the laurel.—Abbott. - BAYARD, (CHEvaLIER DE,) called the knight without fear and without reproach, born in 1476, was one of the most spotless characters of the middle ages. He was simple and modest; a true friend and tender lover; pious, humane, and magnanimous. The ſamily of Terrail, to which he belonged, was one of the most ancient in Dau- phiny, and was celebrated for nobility and valor. Bay- ard, educated under the eyes of his uncle George of Ter-. rail, bishop of Grenoble, early imbibed, in the school of . this worthy prelate, the virtues which distinguished him afterwards. The tournaments were his first field of earthly glory. At the age of eighteen, he greatly distin- guished himself at the battle of Verona, where he took a standard. Such was the splendor of his reputation, won in subsequent battles, that Francis I. refused to receive knighthood from any other sword than his, and he was saluted in Paris as the savior of his country. He fell in battle, April 30, 1524, surrounded by friends and enemies, who all shed tears of admiration and grief.—Ency. Amer. BAY ARD, (John,) a friend to his country and an emi- ment Christian, was born August 11, 1738, on Bohemia manor, in Cecil county, Maryland. His father died with- out a will, and being the eldest son, he became entitled, by the laws of Maryland, to the whole real estate. Such, however, was his affection for his twin brother, younger than himself, that no sooner had he reached the age of manhood, than he conveyed to him half the estate. After receiving an academical education under Dr. Finley, he was put into the compting house of Mr. John Rhea, a merchant of Philadelphia. It was here, that the seeds of grace began first to take root, and to give promise of those fruits of righteousness which afterwards abounded. He early became a communicant of the Presbyterian church, under the charge of Gilbert Tennent. Some years after his marriage, he was chosen a ruling elder, and he filled this place with zeal and reputation. Mr. Whitefield, while on his visits to America, became inti- mately acquainted with Mr. Bayard, and was much at- tached to him. They made several tours together. When his brother's widow died, Mr. Bayard adopted the chil- dren, and educated them as his own. One of them was an eminent statesman. - At the commencement of the revolutionary war, he took a decided part in favor of his country. At the head of the second battalion of the Philadelphia militia, he marched to the assistance of Washington, and was pre- sent at the battle of Trenton. He was a member of the council of Sãfety, and for many years speaker of the legis- lature. In 1785, he was appointed a member of the old congress, then sitting in New York; but in the following year he was left out of the delegation. In 1788, he re. moved to New Brunswick, where he was mayor of the city, judge of the court of common pleas, and a ruling elder of the church. Here he died, January 7, 1807, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. - At his last hour, he was not left in darkness. That Redeemer, whom he had served with zeal, was with him to support him, and give him the victory. During his last illness, he spoke much of his brother, and one night, awaking from sleep, exclaimed, “My dear brother, I shali soon be with you.” He addressed his two sons, “My dear children, you see me just at the close of life. Death has no terrors to me. What now is all the world to me? I would not exchange my hope in Christ for ten thousand worlds. I once entertained some doubts of his divinity; but, blessed be God, these doubts were soon removed by inquiry and reflection. From that time, my hope of ac. ceptance with God has rested on his merits and atone- ment. Out of Christ, God is a consuming fire.” As he approached nearer the grave, he said, “I shall soon be at rest ; I shall soon be with my God.' Oh glorious hope Blessed rest How precious are the promises of the Gospel . It is the support of my soul in my last mo- ments.” ... While sitting up, supported by his two daugh- ters, holding one of his sons by the hand, and looking in- tently in his face, he said, “My Christian brother p ifien turning to his two daughters, he continued, “You are my’ Christian sisters. Soon will our present ties be dissolved, but more glorious bonds —” He could say no more, but his looks and arms, directed towards heaven, express- ed every thing. He frequently commended himself to the blessed Redeemer, confident of his love ; and the last words which escaped from his dying lips, were, “Lord Jesus, Lord Jesus, Lord Jesus.”—Evang. Intelligencer, i. 1–7, 49–57; Allen. BAYLE, (PETER,) one of the most eminent of modern philosophers and crities, was the son of a protestant minis- ter, and was born in 1647, at Carlat, in France. In his youth, he manifested uncommon talents, and studied so intensely as to do permanent injury to his health. For a while, he was seduced to the Catholic religion; but he soon abandoned it. In 1675, after having for some time sub- sisted by private tuition, he became professor of philoso. phy at Sedan ; and when, six years subsequently, the col. lege of Sedan was suppressed, he obtained the same pro- fessorship at Rotterdam. The latter, however, he was deprived of, in 1696, by the calumnies and exertions of his quondam friend, Jurieu, who never ceased to perse- cute him. Bayle died at Rotterdam, in 1706, of a disease in the chest. His works are numerous; they compose eight folio volumes, of which four are occupied with his justly celebrated Critical Dictionary. Among the princi- pal of his minor productions, may be mentioned his Thoughts on Comets; Reply to the Questions of a Pro- vincial; and Intelligence of the Republic of Letters. The latter, which is an excellent review, was commenced in 1684, and continued for three years. “Bayle,” says Voltaire, “is the first of logicians and sceptics. His greatest enemies must confess, that there is not a line in his works, which contains an open asper- sion of Christianity; but his warmest apologists must acknowledge, that there is not a page in his controversial writings, which does not lead the reader to doubt, and often to scepticism.” All books were eagerly devoured by him ; his taste ſor logic led him particularly to study religious controversies; and the confidence of most theolo. gians led him to undertake to prove, that several points are not so certain and so evident as they imagined. But he gradually passed these limits; and his mental habits caused him to doubt even the most universally acknow- ledged facts. Though an admirable logician, he was so little acquainted with physics, that even the discoveries of Newton were unknown to him. What a favorable change might this knowledge have wrought in his habits of mind . “My talent,” he says, “ consists in raising doubts; but they are only doubts.” He compares himself, in this respect, to cloud-compelling Jupiter. But is there no truth behind the cloud 2–Bayle, it is said to his honor, never attacked the great laws of morality. His favorite books were Plutarch and Montaigne. The latter, without doubt, encouraged his inclination to scepticism ; perhaps both contributed to give to his style that vivacity, that boldness of expression, and antique coloring, so observa- ble in it. - The academic scepticism which the genius of Bayle revived, and made popular in modern times, is fast pass- ing away, if not altogether extinct. Nor is it likely ever to be restored, by any train of favoring circumstances. Men have discovered the radical absurdity of ever seek. ing, for the avowed purpose of never finding; of perpetu- ally reasoning, in order never to come to any valuable result. Doubt is but the first step of ignorance towards inquiry; and inquiry, honestly and patiently pursued, leads to truth, knowledge, certainty. He who stops short, is but half a philosopher. The academic philosophy is much more suitable to the genius of ancient than of mo- dern times, and more fitted for the infancy of the under- standing than for the present more advanced period, when many important discoveries have been ascertained, and the strength of men's faculties have been successfully tried in explaining many of the mysteries of nature.— Davenport ; Ency. Amer. ; Douglas On Errors regarding Re- ligion. * . *BAYLY, (Lewis,) a native of Caermarthen, was edu. cated at Oxford, and, in 1616, was consecrated bishop of Bangor. He died in 1634. The Practice of Piety, a work which was long popular, and went through sixty B D E B E A [ 205 j English editions, besides several in Welsh, was written by this prelate. —Davenport. . . BAYNARD, (ANNE) daughter of Dr. E. Baynard. Born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1672; died at Barnes, in Surry, 1697, aged twenty-five. Her father, observing her genius and natural propensity to learning, gave her a very liberal education, of which she made the bgst use. “As for learning,” says the Rev. J. Prude, in his fune- ral sermon, “whether it be to understand natural causes and events, the courses of the sun, moon, and stars, the qualities of herbs and plants; to be acquainted with the demonstrable varieties of mathematics; the study of phi- losophy, the writings of the ancients, and that in their own proper language, without the help of an interpreter; these, and the like, are the most noble accomplishments of the human mind, and accordingly do bring great de- light and satisfaction along with them; these things she was not only conversant in, but mistress of; and that to such a degree, that very few of her sex did ever arrive at.” She took the greatest pains to perſect her knowledge of the Greek tongue, that she might with greater pleasure read St. Chrysostom in his own language. She was not satisfied with reading only, but composed many things in the Latin tongue. She would often say, “It was a sin to be contented with a little knowledge.” She was skilled in reasoning, and eager to maintain the pure principles of Christianity, against innovators and deists. She used to say, “Human learning is worth nothing, unless, as a handmaid, it leads us to the knowledge of Christ, revealed in the Gospel as our Lord and Savior.” She was a constant attendant on the means of grace, fond of retirement and meditation, and very charitable. She had a love for the souls of her fellow-creatures; and was heartily afflicted with the errors, follies, and vices of the age; to see that “those who called themselves Christians, should, by bad principles, and worse practice, dishonor their profession, and not only hazard their salvation, but that of their weak brother too, for whom Christ died.” And this temper of mind made her not only importunate in her intercessions for the good of the world, but gave her courage and discretion above her years or sex, to benefit the souls of those she conversed with, by friendly reproof, good counsel, or some learned and pious dis- COURTSC. - Just before her death, she wished, “that all young peo- ple might be exhorted to the practice of virtue, to increase their knowledge by the practice of philosophy, and, more especially, to read the great book of nature, wherein they might see the wisdom and power of the great Creator, in the order of the universe, and in the production and pre- servation of all things. It would fix in their minds a love to so much perfection, frame a divine idea and an awful regard of God, which heightens devotion, lowers the spirit of pride, and gives a disposition and habit to his service; it makes us tremble at folly and profaneness, and com- mands, reverence and prostration to his great and holy name.” “That women,” says she, “are capable of such im- provements, which will better their judgments and un- derstandings, is past all doubt; would they but set to it in earnest, and spend but half of that time in study and thinking, which they do in visits, vanity, and folly, it would introduce a composure of mind, and lay a sound basis and ground-work for wisdom and knowledge, by which they would be better enabled to serve God and help their neighbors.”—Betham. BDELLIUM, occurs Gen. 2: 12, and Numb. 11: 7. In- terpreters seem at a loss to know what to do with this word, and have rendered it variously. Many suppose it a mineral production. The Septuagint translates in the first place, a carbuncle, and in the second, a crystal. The bedoleh, in Genesis, is undoubtedly some precious stone; and its color, mentioned in Numbers, where the manna is spoken of as of the color of bilellium, is explained by a reference to Exod, 16:14, 31, where it is likened to hoar- frost, which being like little fragments of ice, may con- firm the opinion that the bdellium is the beryl, perhaps that pellucid kind, called by Dr. Hill the ellipomoerostyla, or beryl crystal,—TWatson, BEACON ; a signal erected on a rising ground, or top of a hill, to give warning of the approach of an enemy; or on a place of danger, to warn passengers to avoid it. The Jews were like a beacon and ensign on a hill, when the judgments of God had rendered them few in number, and laid on them such alarming distress as loudly warned others to avoid the like sins. Isa. 30: 17. . BEAN, (Joseph,) minister of Wrentham, was born in Boston, March 7, 1718, of pious parents, was graduated at Harvard college in 1748, and ordained the third minis. ter of Wrentham, November 24, 1750. He died, Decem- ber 12, 1784, aged sixty-six. Mr. Bean was an eminently pious and faithful minister, and is worthy of honorable remembrance. From his diary, it appears that he usually spent one or two hours, morning and evening, in reading the Bible and secret devotion; also the afternoon of Sature day, when his discourses were prepared for the Sabbath; and the days of the birth of himself and children, as wel as other days. He was truly humble, and watchful against all the excitements of pride. His conscience was peculiarly susceptible. His heart was tender and benevo- lent. Such was his constant intercourse with heaven, that hundreds of times, when riding in the performance of parochial duty, he has dismounted in a retired place to pour out his heart to God. When he had prepared a ser- mon, he would take it in his hand, and kneel down to im- plore a blessing on it. Nothing was permitted to divert him from preaching faithfully the solemn truths of the Gospel. He loved his work and his people, and they loved and honored him. Such a life will doubtless obtain the honor which cometh from God; and in the day of judgment, many such obscure men, whom the world knew not, will be exalted far above a multitude of learned doctors in divinity, and celebrated orators, and lofty digni- taries, whose names once resounded through the earth. He published a century sermon, October 26, 1773.−Panoplist, v. 481—488; Allen. - BEAR. In the Hebrew, this animal is very expres- sively called the grumbler, or growler. - - *. * sº & ... -->> <2: ~ *-—c-> x >~~ * There are three kinds of the bear known: the white, the black, and the brown. Of the two former the Scrip. ture does not speak; the latter kind being the only one known in the eastern regions. The brown bear, says Buffon, is not only savage, but solitary ; he takes refuge in the most unfrequented parts, and the most dangerous precipices and uninhabited mountains. He chooses his den in the most gloomy parts of the forest, in some cavern that has been hollowed by time, or in the hollow of some old enormous tree. The disposition of this animal is most surly and rapacious, and his mischievousness has passed into a proverb. His appearance corresponds with his temper : his coat is rugged, his limbs strong and thick, and his countenance, covered with a dark and sullen Scowl, indicates the settled moroseness of his disposition. The sacred writers frequently associate this formidable enemy with the king of the forest, as being equally dan- gerous and destructive. Thus Amos, setting before his incorrigible countrymen the succession of calamities which, under the Just judgment of God, was about to befal them, declares that the removal of one would but leave another equally grievous : “Wo unto you that B E A B E A I 203 desire the day of the Lord! To what end is it for you ? The day of the Lord is darkness, and not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him.” Amos 5: 18, 19. And Solomon, who had closely studied the cha- racter of the several individuals of the animal kingdom, compares an unprincipled and wicked ruler to these crea- tures: “As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over the poor people.” Prov. 28: 15. The she-bear is said to be even more fierce and terrible than the male, especially after she has cubbed. So strong is her attachment to her young, and so extreme the jea- lousy with which she protects them, that no stranger, whether man or beast, is suffered to intrude on her soli- tude with impunity. This circumstance finely illustrates the beautiful imagery of the prophet, employed to deline- ate the amazing change which the Gospel of Christ will be the instrument of effecting in the human heart, and the delightful harmony which will follow in its train : “And the cow and the bear shall feed; their young ones shall lie down together.” Isa. 11: 7. To the fury of the female bear, when she happens to be robbed of her young, there are several striking allusions in Scripture. Those persons who have witnessed her un- der such circumstances, describe her rage to be most vio- lent and frantic, and as only to be diverted from the object of her vengeance with the loss of her life. How terrible, then, was the threatening of the incensed Jehovah, in consequence of the numerous and aggravated iniquities of the kingdom of Israel, as uttered by the prophet Ho- sea—“I will meet them as a bear bereaved of her whelps, and will rend the caul of their heart!” Chap. 13: 8. The execution of this terrible denunciation, in the inva- sion of the land by the Assyrian armies, and the utter subversion of the kingdom, is well known to every reader of Scripture. - - In the vision of Daniel, where the four great monar- chies of antiquity are symbolized by different beasts of prey, whose qualities resembled the character of these several states, the Medo-Persian empire is represented by a bear, which raised itself up on one side, and had be- tween its teeth three ribs; and they said thus unto it: “Arise, devour much flesh.” Dam. 7: 5. All the four monarchies agreed in their fierceness and rapacity; but there were several striking differences in the subordinate features of their character, and their mode of operation, which is clearly intimated by the different characters of their symbolical representatives. The Persian monarchy is represented by a bear, to denote its cruelty and greediness after blood; and in this imputation the prophet Jeremiah unites, by designating the Persians “the spoilers.” Chap. 51:48, 56. The learned Bochart has enumerated several points of resemblance between that character of the Medo- Persians and the dispositions of this animal.—Abbott. BEARD. The Hebrews wore their beards, but had, doubtless, in common with other Asiatic nations, several fashions in this, as in all other parts of dress. Moses forbids them, Levit. 19: 27. “to cut off entirely the angle, or extremity of their beard;” that is, to avoid the manner of the Egyptians, who left only a little tuft of beard at the extremity of their chins. The Jews, in some E. at this day, suffer a little fillet of hair to grow from elow the ears to the chin; where, as well as upon their lower lips, their beards are long. When they mourned, they entirely shaved the hair of their heads and beards, and neglected to trim their beards, to regulate them into neat order, or to remove what grew on their upper lips and cheeks. Jer. 41: 5. 48:37. In times of grief and affliction, they plucked away the hair of their heads and beards, a mode of expression common to other nations un- der great calamities. The king of the Ammonites, de- signing to insult David in the person of his ambassadors, cut away half of their beards, and half of their clothes; that is, he cut off all their beard on one side of their faces. 2 Sam. 10: 4, 5, 1 Chron. 19: 5. To avoid ridicule, Da- vid did not wish them to appear at his court till their beards were grown again. When a leper was cured of his leprosy, he washed himself in a bath, and shayed off all the hair of his body; after which, he returned into the camp, or city; seven days afterwards, he washed him- self and his clothes again, shaved off all his hair, and the Arabs to cut off the beard. offered the sacrifices appointed for his purification, Lev. 14:9. The Levites, at their consecration, were purified by bathing, and washing their bodies and clothes; after which, they shaved off all the hair of their bodies, and then offered the sacrifices appointed for their consecration. Numb. 8; 7. . - - Nothing has been more fluctuating in the different ages of the world, and countries, than the fashion of wearing the beard. Some have cultivated one part, and some another; some have endeavored to extirpate it entirely, whilst others have almost idolized it : the revolutions of countries have scarcely been more famous than the revo- lutions of beards. It is a great mark of infamy among Many people would pre- fer death to this kind of treatment. As they would think it a grievous punishment to lose it, they carry things so far as to beg for the sake of it: “By your beard, by the life of your beard, God preserve your blessed beard.” When they would express their value for any thing, they say, “It is worth more than a man’s beard.” And hence, we may easily learn the magnitude of the offence of the Ammonites, in their treatment of David’s ambassa- dors, as above mentioned; and also the ſorce of the em- blem used, Ezek. 5: 1–5. where the inhabitants of Jeru- salem are compared to the hair of his head and beard. Though they had been dear to God as the hair of an east- ern beard to its owner, they should be taken away and consumed, one part by pestilence and famine, another by the sword, another by the calamities incident on exile. — Watson. & BEASTS. When this word is used in opposition to man, as Psalm 36: 5. any brute creature is signified; when to creeping things, as Lev. 11:2, 7. 29: 30. four. footed animals, from the size of the hare and upwards, are intended ; and when to wild creatures, as Gen. 1: 25. cattle, or tame animals, are spoken of St. Paul, (1 Cor. 15:32.) speaks of fighting with beasts, &c. by which he does not mean his having been exposed in the ampithe- atre, to fight as a gladiator, as some have conjectured, but that he had to contend, at Ephesus, with the fierce uproar of Demetrius and his associates. Ignatius uses the same figure, in his epistle to the Romans : “From Syria even unto Rome, I fight with wild beasts, both by sea and land, both night and day, being bound to ten leopards;” that is, to a band of soldiers. So Lucian, in like manner, says, “For I am not to fight with ordinary wild beasts, but with men, insolent and hard to be convinced.” In Revelation 4:5; 6: mention is made of four beasts, or rather, as the word zoa signifies, Living Ones, as in Ezekiel 1: and so the word might have been more justly translated. Wild beasts are used in Scripture as emblems of tyrannical and persecuting powers. The most illustrious conquerors of antiquity, also, have not a more honorable emblem.— Watson. - BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic church; an act by which the pope declares a person beatified or blessed after death. It is the first step to canonization, which see. No person can be beatified till fiſty years after his death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the necessary qualifications for Saintship, are examined by the co::gregation of rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which, his holiness decrees the beatification. The corpse and relics of the future saint are thenceforth exposed to the veneration of the superstitious; his image is crowned with rays, and a particular office is set apart for him; but his body and relics are not carried in procession. Indulgences, like- wise, and remissions of sins, are granted on the day of his beatification; which, though not so pompous as that of canonization, is, however, very splendid. Beatification differs from canonization in this, that the pope does not act as a judge in determining the state of the beatiſied, but only grants a privilege to certain persons to honor him by a particular religious worship, without incurring the penalty of superstitious worshippers; but in canoni- zation, the pope speaks as a judge, and determines, ex ca- thedra, upon the state of the person canonized. Beatifica- tion was introduced when it was thought proper to delay the canonization of Saints, for the greater assurance of the truth of the steps taken in the procedure. Some particular B E A B E C I on orders of monks have assumed to themselves the power of beatification : thus, Octavia Melchiorica was beatified by the Dominicans.—Bacy. Amer. BEATITUDE imports the highest degree of happiness human nature can arrive to, the fruition of God in a future life to all eternity. It is also used when speaking of the theses contained in Christ's sermon on the mount, where: by he pronounces the several characters there mentioned blessed.—Henderson's Buck. BEATTIE, (JAMEs, LL.D.) the author of the celebrated “Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth,” was born, November 5, 1735, at º: in Kincardine, in Scotland. His father was a man of strict probity, and considerable abilities; but at the early age of seven years, he was deprived by death of this faithful guide and guar- dian. His mother, intelligent and affectionate, Soon how- ever discovered indications of genius, and placed him un- der the care of the distinguished Mr. James Milne. At a very early period of life, Beattie was celebrated by his fellow-pupils, not only for the superiority of his powers, but for his indefatigable application, diligent attention, and regularity, in accomplishing the tasks assigned to him. He was also kind, affectionate, generous, and moral. His reputation considerably extended, and he was beloved and admired. He was not partial to mathematics; but it is evident, from his “Essay on Truth,” that his powers of abstraction were very considerable. When he entered the highest class in the university, his attainments in moral philosophy were very considerable. About that time, a great zeal for the cultivation of that branch of knowledge began to discover itself at Aberdeen; and Reid, Campbell, Gregory, and Gerard, (at that time resident at Aberdeen,) were philosophers, with whom few men, of any age or country, can be compared. They gave the direction to the studies of Dr. Beattie, and were the causes of that eminence to which he afterwards attained. The regular course of Marischal college was, however, completed in four years; and Beattie, in the year 1753, took his degree of master of arts. Averse to display, he, however, took that degree in private, because he considered it ostenta- tious to take it in public ; and he held ostentation to be incompatible with real merit. In 1766, he married Miss Mary Deen, daughter of Dr. James Deen ; and, about the same period, his far-famed “Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth” was published. Descartes and Locke had laid the foundation of that fabric of sophistry and scepticism, which was af. terwards reared by Hume and Berkeley. The two latter had lately shown, that, by their theory of ideas, the most absurd and dangerous doctrines might be proved to follow; and even that body and spirit were not real existences, but merely ideas in our minds. To rebut errors so dan- gerous, Dr. Beattie wrote this work, and demonstrated, that whilst some truths are perceived intuitively, others require proof; that assent can only be given to the latter, by those who understand the evidence upon which they rest; that the faculty by which truth is perceived, in con- sequence of proof, is called reason ; and that the name of common sense should be given to that faculty, by which we perceive self-evident truth. This essay greatly raised his fame; and his reputation, as an author and philosopher, rapidly extended. In 1768, he published his beautiful and celebrated “Min- strel,” a poem which enrolled his name in the list of the most distinguished poets. On the 12th of December, 1770, he received the degree of doctor of laws from King's col- lege, Aberdeen, and in 1771, he visited London. His late majesty, king George the third, was much attached to his writings and character; and, on the 30th of June, 1773, he was presented to the king, at the levee, by lord Dart- mouth; and, in the month of August following, received information that his majesty appointed him a pension. In 1777, he prepared for the press his “Essay on Memo- ry and Imagination,” which is, by many persons, consi- dered the master-piece of his prose works. In 1784, he ublished a “Treatise on the Evidences of Christianity.” t is written with great ability; and, though nothing new could be expected upon so trite a subject, yet it has been useful, and deserves attention. In 1790, he wrote his “Elements of Moral Science,” which contains an accurate enumeration and arrangement of the perceptive ſaculties and active powers of man; a cursory view of natural the, ology; and much miscellaneous information on ethics- economiss, politics, and logic. The second volume was published in 1793. By the loss of his pious, learned and excellent son, Mr. James Hay Beattie, at this *. he was greatly afflicted; and, indeed, from the shock with which that melancholy event affected him, he never perfectly recovered. In ad. dition to that bereavement, Dr. Beattie was also deprived, by death, of his son Montague; but whilst, as a Christian, he cheerfully submitted to the determination of Provi- dence, yet those calamities induced him, in later years, to sequester himself from society; and premature old age, with all its infirmities, made rapid advances u him; and, on the 18th of August, 1803, he expired, at Aberdeen, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. In every situation in life, Dr. Beattie acquitted himself with credit. He per- formed his duties to his fellow-creatures and his God, with integrity, zeal, and delight. In his early years, he was light and frivolous; but, as he became more acquainted with the nature of his own heart, his conduct was consis- tent, and uniformly correct. For the cause of truth, Christianity, and science, he was a zealous and able advo- cate. Many of his pupils have acknowledged their obli- gations to him ; and the present and succeeding genera: tions will cheerfully unite in such acknowledgments. His style was chaste; his sentences uniformly simple; his poetry was very beautiful; and it is to be regretted that so small a part of his time was spent in the cultiva- tion of the muses.—Sir W. Forbes's Life of Dr. Beattie ; Jones's Chr. Biog. BEAUFORT, (MARGARET,) countess of Richmond and Derby, daughter of the duke of Somerset, was born, in 1441, at Bletsor, in Bedfordshire, and died in 1509. She was thrice married—to the earl of Richmond, to Sir Henry Stafford, and to lord Stanley. Her son, by her first hus- band, was afterwards Henry VII. Christ's and St. John's colleges, Cambridge, and the divinity professorship, were founded by her. She was the third female writer England produced. Her works are, The Mirroure of Golde for a Sinful Soul; and a translation of the first book of Thomas a Kempis.—Davenport. BEAUMONT, (MADAME LE PRINCE DE ;) a justly popu- lar French writer, born at Paris, in 1711. She lived many years in England, chiefly employed in writing upon diffe- rent subjects. Those of her works which are held in the greatest estimation, are entitled Magazin des Enfans; Magazin des Adolescens; Magazin des Jeunes Dames; and Nouveau Magazin Anglois. With the graces of style, they join good sense and solid reasoning. Her sen- timents on education, particularly, are worthy of the gene- ral admiration they met with. “In educating youth,” says Madame Beaumont, “it is absolutely necessary in forming their young minds to vir-e tue, never to separate religion and reason; one must be dependent on the other: for the support of which, it is of the utmost importance to study the holy Scriptures, which are alone capable of inspiring us with a just idea of the eternal Being, the recompenser of virtue, and the avenger of crimes.” Her writings are in the form of dialogues between a governess and her pupils, and abound in illus- trative stories.—Betham. BECKER, (BELTHASAR,) a learned minister at Amster- dam in the sixteenth century, who took occasion, from the Cartesian definition of spirit, of the truth and precision of which he was intimately persuaded, to deny boldly all the accounts we have in Scripture of the seduction, influ- ence, and operations of the devil and his infernal emissaries, as well as all that has been said in favor of the existence of ghosts, spectres, and magicians. The long and elaborate work which he published in 1691, upon this interesting subject, is still extant. In this singular production, which bears the title of the World Bewitched, he modifies and perverts with the greatest ingenuity, but also with equal temerity and presumption, the accounts given by the sacred writers of the power of Satan and wicked angels, and of persons possessed by evil spirits; he affirms, moreover, that the unhappy and malignant being, who is called in Scripture Satan, or the devil, is chained down with his B E D B E E | 208 | infernal ministers in hell; so that he can never come forth from this eternal prison to terrify mortals, or to seduce the righteous from the paths of virtue. According to the Cartesian definition, “the essence of mind is thought, and the essence of matter extension. Now since there is no sort of conformity or connection between thought and exetnsion, mind cannot act upon matter, unless these two substances be united, as soul and body are in man : there- fore no separate spirits, either good or evil, can act upon mankind. Such acting is miraculous, and miracles can be performed by God alone. It follows of consequence that the scriptural accounts of the actions and operations of good and evil spirits, must be understood in an alle- gorical sense.” This is Becker's argument; and it does, in truth, little honor to his acuteness and sagacity. By proving too much, it proves nothing at all. This error excited great tumults and divisions, not only in all the United Provinces, but also in some parts of Germany, where several doctors of the JLutheran church were alarmed at its progress, and arose to oppose it. Its inventor and promoter, though refuted victoriously by a multitude of adversaries, and publicly deposed from his pastoral charge, died in 1718, in the full persuasion of the truth of those opinions which had drawn upon him so much º. and professed, with his last breath, his sincere adherence to every thing he had written on that subject; nor can it be said, that this his doctrine died with him, since it is abundantly known, that it has still many votaries and patrons, who either hold it in secret or profess it publicly. —Mosheim. BECKET, (Thomas A,) a celebrated English prelate, the son of a merchant, was born at London, 1119, studied at Oxford, Paris, and Bologna, and, on his return home, en- tered the church. Henry II. made him high-chancellor and preceptor to prince Henry, in 1158, admitted him to the closest intimacy and confidence, and, in 1162, raised him to the archbishopric of Canterbury. Because of his great pertinacity in maintaining the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, in opposition to the king, he was murdered in Canterbury cathedral, December 22, 1170.—Davenport. BED. Mattresses, or thick cotton quilts folded, were used for sleeping upon. These were laid upon the duan, or divan, a part of the room elevatell above the level of the rest, covered with a carpet in winter, and a fine mat in summer. (See AccuRATION, and BANQUETs.) A divan cushion serves for a pillow and bolster. They do not keep their beds made ; the mattresses are rolled up, carried away, and placed in a cupboard till they are wanted at night. And hence the propriety of our Lord’s address to the paralytic, “Arise, take up thy bed,” or mattress, 4 and walk.” Matt. 9: 6. The duan on which these mat- tresses are placed, is at the end of the chamber, and has an ascent of several steps. Hence Hezekiah is said to turn bis face to the wall when he prayed, that is, from his attendants. In the day, the duan was used as a seat, and the place of honor was the corner. Amos 3: 12.—Watson. BED AN. We read in 1 Sam. 12; 11. that the Lord sent several deliverers of Israel; Jerubbaal, Bedan, Jeph- thah, Samuel. Jerubbaal we know to be Gideon ; but we nowhere find Bedan among the judges of Israel. The LXX, instead of Bedan, read Barak; others think Bedan to be Jair, of Manasseh, who judged Israel twenty-three years. Judg. 10: 3. There was a Bedan, great-grandson to Machir, and Jair was descended from a daughter of Machir. The Chaldee, the rabbins, and after them the generality of commentators, conclude that Bedan was Samson, of Dan ; but the opinion which supposes Bedan and Jair to be the same person, seems the most probable. The names of Samson and Barak were added in many Latin copies, before the corrections of them, by the Roman censors, were published. The edition of Sixtus W. reads, “Jerobaal, et Baldan, et Samson, et Barak, et Jephte.”— Calmet. BEDE, (generally styled “the venerable Bede,”) an eminent writer and an English monk, was born at Wer- mouth and Jarrow, in the bishopric of Durham, in the year 673. At the early age of six years, he was sent to the monastery of St. Peter, under the superintendence of abbot Benedict, by whom, and his successor Ceolfrid, he was educated for twelve years. When he had arrived at the age of nineteen, he was ordained deacon by bishop . Beverley. In a short time, by his diligence and applica. tion, he became a proficient in general knowledge, and in classical literature. He was" so strongly attached to a monastic life, that when pope Sergius wrote to abbot Ce- olfrid, in a very urgent manner, to send him to Rome to give his opinion on some important points, Bede would not accept it. Several years were spent by him in making collections for his celebrated work on ecclesiastical his- tory, the materials for which he collected from the lives of eminent persons, annals in convents, and such chroni- cles as were written before his time. That work was pub- lished in the year 731, when he was fifty-nine years of age. It gained him such universal applause, that the most profound prelates conversed with him, and solicited his advice on the most important subjects; particularly Eg- bert, bishop of York, a man of very extensive learning; and to whom he wrote a long, learned, and judicious let- ter, which ſurnished the world with such an account of the state of the church at that time, as cannot be met with in any other history. He had then every symptom of con- sumption, which at last proved to be the case. This afflic- tion he supported with incredible firmness of mind; and though this lingering complaint was united with asthma, he was never heard to complain, but was always calm and resigned. Though his body was thus afflicted, his mind was buoyant and active ; and he continued, with great assiduity, to translate the Gospel of St. John into the Saxon language, and also some passages which he was then ex- tracting from the works of Isidore. He also took his usual interest in the education and improvement of some monks whom he was instructing. His piety and virtue, united to his lengthened days, entitled him to the appellation of venerable. England scarcely ever produced a greater scholar or divine. Bayle says that “there is scarcely any thing in all antiquity worthy to be read, which is not to be found in Bede, though he travelled not out of his own country;” and that, “if he had lived in the times of St. Augustine, St. Jerome, or Chrysostom, he would undoubt- edly have equalled them, since, even in the midst of a superstitious age, he wrote so many excellent treatises.” Bede died at the age of sixty-three, A. D. 735. His re- mains were interred, first in the Shurch of his own monas- tery, but afterwards removed to Durham, and placed in the same coffin with those of St. Cuthbert. There were Several epitaphs composed in honor of him, but none considered suitable to his virtues and talents. As an author, he excelled in the purity and elegance of his style; and, as a man, he was eminent for those virtues and graces which adorn human nature.—Jones's Chr. Biog. BEE. Shakspeare, our great poet, has admirably de- scribed the laws and order of a community of these industri- ous, useful, and well known insects. To attempt even an outline of the natural history of the bee would occupy more space than can be devoted to this entire article; we must, , therefore, refer the reader who is desirous of the information, to other works, and proceed to notice those passages of Scrip. ture in which it is spoken of, and which require elucidation. In Judges 14: 8, we are informed that Samson, on in- specting the carcass of a lion which he had some time previously killed, found that "a swarm of bees had taken s B E E B E. G. [ 209 ) up their residence in it. We notice, the circumstance, because it has been supposed to contradict the statement of Aristotle and other eminent naturalists, who affirm that bees will not alight upon a dead carcase, nor taste the flesh; that they will never sit down in an unclean place, nor upon any thing which emits an unpleasant smell. The variance between this statement and that of the sa- cred writer, is, however, only apparent. The frequently occurring phrase introduced into this text, “after a time,” shows that the circumstance referred to was long posterior to the death of the animal, whose body, from an exposure to beasts and birds of prey, and the violent heat of the sun, was reduced to a mere skeleton, and divested of all effluvia. That bees have swarmed in dry bones, we have the testimony of Herodotus, of Seranus, and of Aldrovandus. Indeed, as bones in their nature, when dry, are exceedingly dry, there is no more to be said against such a place of residence, than against the same among rocks and stones. Some writers have contended that bees are destitute of the sense of hearing; but their opinion is entirely without foundation. This will appear, if any proof were neces- sary, from the following prediction : “And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost parts of the rivers of Egypt; and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria.” Isa. 7: 18. The allusion which this text involves, is to the practice of call- ing out the bees from their hives by a hissing or whistling sound, to their labor in the fields, and summoning them again to return when the heavens begin to lower, or the shadows of evening to fall. In this manner, Jehovah threatens to arouse the enemies of Judah, and lead them to the prey. However widely scattered, or far remote from the scene of action, they should hear his voice, and with as much promptitude as the bee, that has been taught to recognise the signal of its owner, and obey his call, they should assemble their forces; and although weak and insignificant as a swarm of bees in the estimation of a proud and infatuated people, they should come with irre- sistible might, and take possession of the rich and beautiful region that had been abandoned by its terrified inhabitants. The allusion of Moses to the attack of the Amorites, which involves a reference to the irritable and revengeful disposition of the bee, is both just and beautiful: “And the Amorites which dwelt in that mountain came out against you, and chased you as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah.” Deut. 1:44. Every person who has seen a swarm of disturbed bees, will easily con- ceive the fierce hostility and implacable fury of the ene- mies of Israel, which this expression is intended to denote. The same remarks will apply to Psalm 18: 12, in which there is a similar allusion. The surprising industry of the bee has, from the earliest times, furnished man with a delicious and useful article, in the honey which it produces. This was very common in Palestine. In Exod. 3: 8, &c., the circumstance of its flowing with milk and honey is selected as a striking proof of its being the glory of all lands; and in Deut. 32: 13. and Ps. 81: 16, the inhabitants are said to have sucked honey out of the rocks. With this agree 2 Sam. 14: 25; Matt. 3: 4, &c., and the testi- mony of intelligent travellers. Hasselquist says, that be- tween Acra and Nazareth, great numbers of wild bees breed, to the advantage of the inhabitants; and Maundrel observes, that when in the great plain near Jericho, he per- ceived in many places a smell of honey and wax, as strong as if he had been in an apiary. It is reasonably supposed, however, that the honey men- tioned in some of these passages was not the produce of bees, but a sweet syrup produced by the date-tree, which was common in Palestine, and which is known to have furnished an article of this description. There is also in some parts of the East, a kind of honey which collects upon the leaves of the trees, something like dew, and which is gathered by the inhabitants in considerable quantities. It is very sweet when fresh, but turns sour after being kept two days. The Arabs eat it with butter; they also put it into their gruel, and use it in rubbing their water; skins, for the purpose of excluding the air. It is collected in the months of May and June; and some persons as: sured our traveller that the same substance was likewise produced by the thorny tree Tereshresh, at the same time of the year. - - Honey was prohibited as an offering on the altar, under the Levitical dispensation, (Lev. 2: 11.) but its first-fruits were to be presented for the support of the priests. ver. 12. Some writers have º that these first-fruits were of the honey of the date, but such an interpretation is forced and unnatural : the articles intended in verse 12, are ob- viously the same as those which are specified in the pre- ceding verse, Honey newly taken out of the comb has a peculiar deli- cacy of flavor, which will in vain be sought for, after it has been for any length of time expressed or clarified. This will help to explain the energy of expression adopted by the Psalmist, when speaking of the divine laws: “More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than much fine gold; sweeter also than honey, and the droppings of honey- combs.” Ps. 19: 10. A fine lesson on the necessity of moderation is taught by Solomon: (Prov. 25: 16.) “Hast thou found honey? eat so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled there- with, and vomit it.” Upon this passage, Harris has cited: the following observations of Dr. Knox: “Man, indeed, may be called a bee in a figurative style. In search of sweets, he roams in various regions, and ransacks every inviting flower. Whatever displays a beautiful appear- ance solicits his notice, and conciliates his favor, if not his affection. He is often deceived by the vivid color and at- tractive form, which, instead of supplying honey, produce the rankest poison ; but he perseveres in his researches, and if he is often disappointed, he is also often successful. The misfortune is, that when he has found honey, he en- ters upon the feast with an appetite so voracious, that he usually destroys his own delight by excess and satiety.”— Abbott’s Scrip. Nat. Hist. - - BEEL-ZEBUB, the same as Baal-zebub ; which see. - BEER, BEERoth, or BERoth; a city of the Gibeonites, afterwards belonging to Benjamin ; now el Bireh, about eight miles north from Jerusalem.—T. BEER-LAHAI-ROI; a well between Kadesh and Shur, where the angel of God appeared to Hagar. Gen. 16: 14.—T. - -- BEER-SHEBA; the well of the Oath, (Gen. 21: 31;) a place in the extreme south of Palestine, twenty-six miles nearly south-west from Hebron; now called Bir es-Seba'. Here are the ruins of a large village, and two wells of good water, evidently of great antiquity.—T. BEIT; the Arabic term for the Hebrew Beth, a house or temple. It often appears in the modern names of places; as Beit Dejan, for Beth Dagon. BEETLE, is only mentioned in Lev. 11; 22. It is thought by some critics to be a species of the locust, but by others, the very kind of scarabaeus to which the ancient Egyptians paid divine honors.—Abbott’s Scrip. Nat. Hist. BEFORE THE LORD. To be before God, is to enjoy his favor, and the smiles of his providence. Ps, 31: 22. To come before him, is to come to his temple and ordinances, and worship him, and have familiar fellowship with him. Ps. 100: 2. 65: 4. 42: 2. To walk before him, is to behave as under his eye, depending on his strength, and aiming at his glory as our chief end. . Gen. 17: 1. To sin before him, is to do it in his view, and with a bold and open con tempt of him. Gen. 13: 13. To have other gods before him, is to have them in his sight, and in opposition to him. Exod. 20: 3. To set the Lord before us, is to make him the object of our trust, the pattern of our conduct ; and to in- tend his glory, and consider him as our witness and judge in all we do.—Bronn's Dict. - BEGHARDS, or BeGUARDs, i.e. hard beggars, a term variously applied in ecclesiastical history. It was applied first to certain religious of the order of St. Francis, who lived in common under monastic vows, and supported themselves by the manufacture of linen cloth. At length degenerating, they were suppressed by the pope's autho- rity, and the name became a term of reproach—beggars. On the dawn of the Reformation, it was applied, in its spiritual sense, to certain praying people, from the earnest- mess of their devotions, and thence became (like Metho- dist) a term of reproach, applied to all serious people ; particularly the Waldenses abroad, and the Wickliffites 27 B E H B E H [ 210 | and Lollards in England.—Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, Vol. iii. pp. 231—234; Hanweis's Church Hist, vol. ii. p. 275. BEGUINES, is said to be the feminine of Beghards; but they seem to have had a prior establishment in the eleventh century. They derive their origin from St. Begge, duchess of Brabant, and daughter of Pepin, mayor of the palace of the king of Austria, in the seventh cen- tury. A variety of convents were formed under this name, both in Germany and Flanders, the ladies of whom lived a single life, and divided their time between works of in- dustry and devotion, but without entering into vows of celibacy. After the commencement of the Reformation, the term was applied more generally to pious females, in its best sense—those who wrestled hard in prayer.— Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 233, Note u, by Dr. Maclaime ; Williams. - BEGINNING, denotes, 1. The first part of time in general. Gen. 1: 1–2. The first part of a particular pe- riod; as of the year; of the duration of the state or king- dom of the Hebrews. Exod. 12: 2. Isa. 1: 26.-3. The first actor, or the cause of a thing. Numb. 10: 10, Mic. * 1: 13.—4. That which is most excellent. Prov. 1: 7. 9:10. From the beginning is, 1. From eternity, ere any creature was made. 2 Thes. 2: 13. Prov. 8: 23.—2. From the very first part of time. , 1 John 3: 8–3. From the begin- ning of a particular period; as of Christ's public ministry. John 8: 25. Christ is called the beginning, and the begin- ning of the creation of God; he is from eternity, and gave being to time and every creature. Rev. 1: 8. and 3: 14. Col. 1: 18. BEHEMOTH. The animal denoted by this appellation in the book of Job, has been variously determined by learned men ; some of whom, especially the early Chris- S $ Nº. is sº §: & N. s.v. iſºlº º º - - - - - - - - - - , , , , * - than writers and the Jewish rab ficiently extravagant notions. To detail these would be useless, and we shall therefore pass them over in silence. The late editor of Calmet, whose extensive learning and indefatigable industry will always entitle him to re- spectful attention, notwithstanding his love of fanciſul con- jecture, has well remarked, that “the author of the book of Job has evidently taken great pains in delineating highly finished and poetical pictures of two remarkable animals, behemoth and leviathan : these he reserves to close his descriptions of animated nature, and with these he termi- nates the climax of that discourse, which he puts into the mouth of the Almighty. He even interrupts that dis- course, and separates, as it were, by that interruption, these surprising creatures from those which he had de- scribed before ; and he descants on them in a manner which demonstrates the poetic animation with which he wrote. The leviathan is described at a still greater length than the behemoth ; and the two evidently appear to be presented as companions; to be reserved as fellows and associates.” Mr. Taylor then proceeds to inquire what were the creatures most likely to be companionized and associated in early ages, and in countries bordering on Egypt, where the scene of this poem is placed ; and from the “Antiquities of Herculaneum,” the “Praenestine Pave- ment,” and the famous “Statue of the Nile,” he shows these to have been the crocodile—now generally admitted to be the leviathan, and the hippopotamus, or river-horse. “After these authorities,” he remarks, “I think we may, without hesitation, conclude, that this association was not rare or uncommon, but that it really was the customary manner of thinking, and, consequently, of speaking, in ancient times, and in the countries where these creatures were native; we may add, that being well known in Egypt, and being, in some degree, popular objects of Egyptian pride, distinguishing natives of that country, for their mag- nitude and character, they could not escape the notice of any curious naturalist, or writer on natural history; so that to suppose they were omitted in this part of the book of Job, would be to suppose a blemish in the book, imply- ing a deficiency in the author: and if they are inserted, no other description can be that of the hippopotamus.” Aristotle represents the hippopotamus to be of the size of an ass; Herodotus affirms that in stature he is equal to the largest ox; Diodorus makes his height not less than five cubits, or above seven feet and a half; and Tatius calls him, on account of his prodigious strength, the Egyp- tian elephant. Captain Beaver thus describes one which he met with in Western Africa : “The animal was not swimming, but standing in the channel, in, I suppose, about five feet water: the body immerged, and the head just above it. It looked steadfastly at the boat till we were within about twenty yards of it, when I lodged a ball half way between its eyes and nostrils: it immediately tumbled down, but instantly rose again, Snorted, and walked into shallower water, where I had an opportunity of seeing its whole body, and then discovered that it was an hippopota- mus. It afterwards advanced a little towards the boat, then towards the shore, and turned entirely round once or twice, as if at a loss what to do, plunging violently the whole time. At last, it walked into deeper water, and then dived : we watched its rising, and then pursued it; and this we did for near three hours, when, at length it landed on a narrow neck of sand, and walked over it into fifteen or sixteen fathoms of water. We then gave up the pur. suit, having never been able to get a second shot at it. The longest time it was under water during the pursuit, was twenty minutes, but immediately after being wounded it rose every three or four minutes. Its body appeared to be somewhat larger than that of the largest buffalo, with shorter but much thicker legs; a head much resembling a horse's, but longer; large, projecting eyes; open and wide distended nostrils; short, erect ears, like a cropt horse when it pricks them up, or those of a well-cropped terrier. I perceived nothing like a mane, and the skin appeared to be without hair; but of this I am not certain, for being totally ignorant whether the animal was ferocious or not, immediately after I fired we rowed from it, expecting it would attack us.” In Job 40: 17, 18, the sacred writer conveys a striking idea of the bulk, vigor, and strength of the behemoth. He moveth his tail like a cedar : The sinews of his thighs are interwoven together. His ribs are as strong pieces of copper; His backbone like bars of iron. The idea of his prodigious might is increased by the account given of his bones, which are compared to strong pieces of brass, and bars of iron. Such figures are com- monly employed by the sacred writers, to express great hardness and strength, of which a striking example occurs in the prophecy of Micah : “Arise and thresh, O daughter of Zion; for I will make thy horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs brass : and thou shalt beat in pieces many people,” (Micah 4: 13.) So hard and strong are the bones of the behemoth. He is chief of the works of God. He that made him has fixed his weapon. Here he is described as one of the noblest animals which the Almighty Creator has produced. The male hippo- potamus which Zernighi brought from the Nile to Italy, was sixteen feet nine inches long, from the extremity of the muzzle to the origin of the tail; fifteen feet in circum- ference; and six feet and a half high ; and the legs were about two feet ten inches long. The head was three feet and a half in length, and eight feet and a half in circum- ference. The opening of the mouth was two feet four inches, and the largest teeth were more than a foot long. Thus, his prodigious strength; his impenetrable skin; and vast opening of his mouth, and his portentous voracity; B E H B E H 211 . the whiteness and hardness of his teeth ; his manner of life, spent with equal ease in the sea, on the land, or at the bottom of the Nile,_equally claim our admiration, and entitle him, says Paxton, to be considered as the chief of the ways of God. Nor is he less remarkable for his sagacity; of which two instances are recorded by Pliny and Solinus. After he has gorged himself with corn, and begins to return with a distended belly to the deep, with averted steps he traces a great many paths, lest his pur- suers, following the lines of one plain track, should over- take and destroy him while he is unable to resist. The second instance is not less remarkable: when he has be- come fat with too much indulgence, he reduces his obesity by copious bleedings. For this purpose he searches for newly-cut reeds, or sharp-pointed rocks, and rubs himself against them till he makes a sufficient aperture for the blood to flow. To promote the discharge, it is said, he agitates his body; and when he thinks he has lost a suffi- cient quantity, he closes the wound by rolling himself in the mud. - -- In compliance with the prevailing opinion, which refers this description to the hippopotamus, we have thought it right to exhibit some of the points of resemblance which have been discovered between that creature and the be- hemoth of the book of Job. Drs. Good and Clarke, how- ever, think that the sacred writer refers to an animal of an extinct genus. Dr. Clarke believes it to have been the mastodanton or mammoth, some part of a skeleton of which he has carefully examined, and thus described in his com- mentary on Gen. 1: 24. “The mammoth for size will an- swer the description in verse 19 : “He is the chief of the ways of God.” That to which the part of a skeleton be- longed, which I examined, must have been, by computa- tion, not less than twenty-five feet high, and sixty feet in length ! The bones of one toe I measured, and found them three feet in length ! One of the very smallest grinders of an animal of this extinct species, full of processes on the surface, more than an inch in depth, which showed that the animal had lived on flesh, I have just now weighed, and found it, in its very dry state, four pounds eight ounces, avoirdupois: the same grinder of an elephant I have weighed also, and found it just two pounds. The mammoth, therefore, from this proportion, must have been as large as two elephants and a quarter. We may judge by this of its size; elephants are frequently ten and eleven feet high : this will make the mammoth at least twenty-ſive or tirenty-six. feet high ; and as it appears to have been a many-toed ani- mal, the springs which such a creature could make, must have been almost incredible ; nothing by swiftness could have escaped its pursuit. God seems to have made it as the proof of his power; and had it been prolific, and not become extinct, it would have depopulated the earth. Creatures of this kind must have been living in the days of Job : the behemoth is referred to here, as if perfectly commonly known.”—Abbot ; Jones. * BEHMEN, or Boehnie, (JAcoB,) a celebrated mystic writer, born in the year 1575, at Old Seidenburgh, near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia; he was a shoemaker by trade. He is described as having been thoughtful and religious from his youth, taking peculiar pleasure in frequenting public worship. At length, seriously considering within himself that speech of our Savior, My Father n:hich is in heaven nwill give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him, he was thereby thoroughly awakened in himself, and set forward to desire that promised Comforter; and, continuing in that earnestness, he was at last, to use his own expression, “surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood in the highest contemplation and kingdom of joys!” Aſter this, about the year 1600, he was again surrounded by the divine light, and replenished with the heavenly knowledge; insomuch that, going abroad into the fields, and viewing the herbs and grass, by his inward light he saw into their essences, use and properties, which were discovered to him by their lineaments, figures, and signa- tures. In the year 1610, he had a third special illumina- tion, wherein still further mysteries were revealed to him. It was not till the year 1612, that Behmen committed these revelations to writing. His first treatise is entitled Au- rora, which was seized on and withheld from him by the senate of Gorlitz, (who persecuted him at the instigation of the primate of that place,) before it was finished, and he never aſterwards proceeded with it, further than by adding some explanatory notes. The next production of his pen is called The Three Principles. In this work he more fully illustèates the subjects treated of in the former, and supplies what is wanting in that work. The contents of these two treatises may be divided as follows: 1. How all things came from a working will of the holy triune incomprehensible God, manifesting himself as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, through an outward perceptible working triune power of fire, light, and spirit, in the king- dom of heaven. 2. How and what angels and men were in their creation; that they are in and from God, his real offspring; that their life began in and from this divine fire, which is the Father of light, generating a birth of light in their souls; from both which proceeds the Holy Spirit, or breath of divine love in the triune creature, as it does in the triune Creator. 3. How some angels, and all men, are fallen from God, and their first state of a divine triune life in him; what they are in their fallen state, and the difference between the fall of angels and that of man. 4. . How the earth, stars, and elements were created in con sequence of the fallen angels. 5. Whence there is good and evil in all this temporal world, in all its creatures, ani- mate and inanimate; and what is meant by the curse that dwells every where in it. 6. Of the kingdom of Christ; how it is set in opposition to, and fights and strives against, the kingdom of hell. 7. How man, through faith in Christ, is able to overcome the kingdom of hell, and triumph over it in the divine power, and thereby obtain eternal salva- tion; also how, through working in the hellish quantity or principle, he casts himself into perdition. 8. How and why sin and misery, wrath and death, shall only reign for a time, till the love, the wisdom, and the power of God, shall, in a supernatural way, (the mystery of God made man,) triumph over sin, misery, and death ; and make fallen man rise to the glory of angels, and this material system shake off its curse, and enter into an everlasting union with that heaven from whence it fell. The year after he wrote his Three Principles,—by which are to be understood the dark world, or hell, in which the devils live; the light world, or heaven, in which the an- gels live; the external and visible world, which has pro- ceeded from the internal and spiritual worlds, in which man, as to his bodily life, lives, Behmen produced his Threefold Life of Man, according to the Three Principles. In this work he treats more largely of the state of man in this world: 1. That he has that immortal Spark of life which is common to angels and devils. 2. That divine life of the light and spirit of God, which makes the essen- tial difference between an angel and a devil, the last hav- ing extinguished this divine life in himself; but that man can only attain unto this heavenly life of the second prin- ciple through the new birth in Christ Jesus. 3. The life of the third principle, or of this external and visible world. Thus the life of the first and third principles is common to all men; but the life of the second principle only to a true Christian or child of God. Behmen wrote several other treatises, besides the three already enumerated; but these three being, as it were, the basis of all his other writings, it was thought proper to notice them particularly. His conceptions are often clothed under allegorical symbols; and in his latter works he has frequently adopted chemical and Latin phrases to express his ideas, which phrases he borrowed from conversation with learned men, the education he had re-eived being too illiterate to furnish him with them : but as to the mat- ter contained in his writings, he disclaimed having bor- rowed it either from men or books. He died in the year 1624. His last words were, “Now I go hence into Para- dise.” Some of Behmen’s principles were adopted by the late ingenious and pious William Law, who has clothed them in a more moderm dress and in a less obscure style. See Behmen's Works ; Oakley’s Memoirs of Behmen.—Hender- son’s Buck. BEHOLD ; a call for particular attention. It imports sudden excitement, wonder, joy, certainty, momentous- mess. Isa. 7: 14. John 1: 29. Matt. 21: 5. Rev. 16: 15. Luke 24:39. To behold, is, 1. To look on ; see Gen. 31: B E L B E L | 212 J ^ 51. 2. To consider, know, care for. Lam. 1: 12. John 19: 5, 26, 27. God beheld not iniquity in Jacob, nor perverse. ness in Israel; though his omniscient eye discerns sin in his people on earth, he observes it not as an enemy, wrath- fully to punish them for it. But the word hay be rendered, He hath not beheld injury against Jacob, nor vexation against Israel ; that is, he will not suffer them to be hurt. Numb. 23: 21. To behold Christ, is with wonder and attention to know, believe in, and receive him. Isas 65: 1–Bromwn. BEHOOVE, to be necessary; just, and becoming. As it became God, for the honor of his nature, counsels, word, and work, to expose Christ to suffering; so, it behooved Christ to suffer, and be in all things like unto his brethren of mankind, that he might display his Father's perfec- tions, fulfil his purposes, promises, and types, destroy the works of the devil, and sympathize with, and serve us. Heb. 2: 10, 17.—Brown. BEL, se BAAL. BELA, see BALA. * * BEL AND THE DRAGON, (History of,) an apocry- phal and uncanonical book of Scripture. It was always rejected by the Jewish church, and is extant neither in the Hebrew nor the Chaldee language; nor is there any proof that it ever was so. Jerome gives it no better title than “the fable of Bel and the Dragon.” Selden thinks this little history ought rather to be con- sidered as a sacred poem, or fiction, than a true account. As to the Dragon, he observes, that serpents (dracones) made a part of the hidden mysteries of theº religion; as appears from Clemens Alexandrinus, Julius Firmicus, Justin Martyr, and others. And Aristotle relates, that in Mesopotamia, there were serpents which would not hurt the natives of the country, and infested only strangers. Whence it is not improbable, that both the Mesopotamians them- selves, and the neighboring people, might worship a serpent, the former to avert the evil arising from those reptiles, the latter out of a principle of gratitude. But of this there is no clear proof; nor is it certain that the Babylonians wor- shipped a dragon or serpent.—Hend. Buck. BELCHER, (JonATHAN,) governor of Massachusetts and New Jersey, was the son of Andrew Belcher of Cam- bridge, one of the council of the province, and a gentle- man of large estate, who died in 1717, and grandson of Andrew Belcher, who lived in Cambridge in 1646, and who received in 1652 a license for an inn, granting him liberty “to sell beer and bread for entertainment of stran- gers and the good of the town.” He was born in January, 1681. As the hopes of the family rested on him, his father carefully superintended his education. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1699. While a member of this in- stitution, his open and pleasant conversation, joined with his manly and generous conduct, conciliated the esteem of all his acquaintance. Not long after the termination of his collegial course, he visited Europe. The acquaint- ance which he formed with the princess Sophia and her son, afterwards king George II. laid the foundation of his future honors. Aſter the death of governor Burnet, he was appointed by his majesty to the government of Massachusetts and New Hampshire in 1730. In this station he continued eleven years. The leading men of New Hampshire, who wished for a distinct government, were hostile to him ; and his resistance to a proposed new emission of paper bills also created him enemies. On being superseded, he repaired to court, where he vindicated his character and conduct, and exposed the base designs of his enemies. He was restored to the royal favor, and was promised the first vacant government in America. This vacancy oc- curred in the province of New Jersey, where he arrived in 1747, and where he spent the remaining years of his life. In this province, his memory has been held in de- served respect. When he first arrived in this province, he found it in the utmost confusion by tumults and riotous disorders, which had for some time prevailed. This circumstance, joined to the unhappy controversy between the two branches of the legislature, rendered the first part of his administra- tion peculiarly difficult; but by his firm and prudent measures he surmounted the difficulties of his situation. He steadily pursued the interest of the province, endea- justice, truth, and benevolence. voring to distinguish º: men of worth without partiality. He enlarged the charter of Princeton college, and was its chief patron and benefactor. Even under the growing infirmities of age, he applied himself with his accustomed assiduity and diligence to the high duties of his office. He died at Elizabethtown, August 31, 1757, aged seventy-six years. -- Governor Belcher possessed uncommon gracefulness of person and dignity of deportment. He obeyed the royal instructions on the one hand, and exhibited a real regard to the liberties and happiness of the people on the other. He was distinguished by his unshaken integrity, by his zeal for justice, and care to have it equally distributed. Neither the claims of interest nor the solicitations of friends could move him from what appeared to be his duty. He seems to have possessed, in addition to his other accom- plishments, that piety, whose lustre is eternal. His religion was not a mere formal thing, which he received from tra- dition, or professed in conformity to the custom of the country in which he lived; but it impressed his heart, and governed his life. He had such views of the majesty and holiness of God, of the strictness and purity of the divine law, and of his own unworthiness and iniquity, as made him disclaim all dependence on his own righteousness, and led him to place his whole hope for salvation on the merits of the Lord Jesus Christ, who appeared to him an all-sufficient and glorious Savior. He expressed the hum- blest sense of his own character, and the most exalted views of the rich, free, and glorious grace offered in the gospel to sinners. His faith worked by love, and produced the genuine fruits of obedience. It exhibited itself in a life of piety and devotion, of meekness and humility, of He searched the holy Scriptures with the greatest diligence and delight. In his family he maintained the worship of God, himself read- ing the volume of truth, and addressing in prayer the Majesty of heaven and of earth, as long as his health and strength would possibly admit. . In the hours of retire- ment, he held intercourse with Heaven, carefully redeem- ing time from the business of this world, to attend to the more important concerns of another. Though there was nothing Ostentatious in his religion, yet he wasnótashamed to avow his attachment to the Gospek of Christ, even when he exposed himself to ridicule and censure. When Mr. Whitefield was at Boston in the year 1740, he treated that eloquent itinerant with the greatest respect. He even fol- lowed him as ſar as Worcester, and requested him to con- tinue his ſaithful instructions and pungent addresses to the conscience, desiring him to spare neither ministers nor rulers. He was indeed deeply interested in the progress of holiness and religion. As he approached the termina- tion of his life, he often expressed his desire to depart, and to enter the world of glory.—Burr's Fun., Ser. ; Hutchinson, ii. 367–397; Holmes, ii. 78; Smith's New Jer- sey, 437, 438; Belknap's New Hampshire, ii. 95, 126, 165– 180; Whitefield's Journal for 1743; Marshall, i. 299; Mi. not, i. 61; Eliot ; Mass. Hist. Col. vii. 28; Allen. BELIAL. The phrase, “sons of Belial,” signifies nicked, northless men. It was given to the inhabitants of Gibeah, who abused the Levite's wife, (Judg. 19:22.)and to Hophni and Phineas, the wicked and profane sons of Eli. 1 Sam. 2: 12. In later times, the name Belial de- noted the devil: “What concord hath Christ with Belial 2" (2 Cor. 6: 15.) for as the word literally imports “one who wiii do no one good,” the positive sense of a doer of evil was applied to Satan, who is the author of evil, and, emi- nently, “the evil one.”— Watson. - BELIE ; to give one the lie. To belie the Lord, is falsely to ascribe our prosperity or distress to some other principal cause rather than God. Jer. 5: 12. Prov. 30: 9. BELIEF, in its general and natural sense, denotes a persuasion or an assent of the mind to the truth of any proposition. In this sense, belief has no relation to any particular kind of means or arguments, but may be pro- duced by -any means whatever; thus we are said to be- lieve our senses, to believe our reason, to believe a wit- ness. Belief, in its more restrained sense, denotes that kind of assent which is grounded only on the authority or testimony of some person. In this sense, belief stands op. posed to knowledge and science. We do not say that we B E L IB E L [ 213 ] believe snow is white, but we know it to be so. But when a thing is propounded to us, of which we ourselves have no knowledge, but which appears to us to be true, from the testimony given to it by another, this is what we call belief. (See FAITH.)—Henderson's Buck. BELIEVERS; an appellation given, toward the close of the first century, to those Christians who had been ad- mitted into the church by baptism, and instructed in all the mysteries of religion. They were thus called in contra- distinction to the catechumens who had not been baptized, and were debarred from those privileges. Among us, it is often used synonymously with Christian. (See CHRIS- TIAN.)—Henderson's Buck. BELKNAP, (JEREMy, D. D.,) minister in Boston, and eminent as a writer, was born June 4, 1744, and was a descendant of Joseph Belknap, who lived in Boston in 1658. He received the rudiments of learning in the gram- mar School of the celebrated Mr. Lovel, and was gradu- ated at Harvard college in 1762. He exhibited, at this early period, such marks of genius and taste, and such talents in writing and conversation, as to excite the most pleasing hopes of his future usefulness and distinction. liaving upon his mind deep impressions of the truths of religion, he now applied himself to the study of theology, and he was ordained pastor of the church in Dover, New Hampshire, February 18, 1767. Here he passed near twenty years of his life with the esteem and affection of his flock, and respected by the first characters of the state. He was persuaded by them to compile his history of New Hampshire, which gained him a high reputation. In 1786, he was dismissed from his people. The presbyterian church in Boston, becoming vacant by the removal of Mr. Annan, and having changed its establishment from the presbyterian to the congregational form, soon invited him to become its pastor. He was accordingly installed, April 4, 1787. Here he passed the remainder of his days, discharging the duties of his pastoral office, exploring va- rious fields of literature, and giving his efficient support to every useful and benevolent institution. . After being subject to frequent returns of ill health, he was suddenly seized by a paralytic affection, and died June-20, 1798, aged fifty-four years. Dr. Belknap in his preaching did not possess-the graces of elocution; nor did he aim at splendid diction, but pre- sented his thoughts in plain and perspicuous language, that all might understand him. He was one of the foun. ders of the Massachusetts Historical Society, the design of which he was induced to form in consequence of a Suggestion of Thomas Wallcut of Boston, a diligent col- lector of old and valuable books, as well as on account of his frequent disappointment from the loss of valuable pa- pers, in prosecuting his historical researches. Dr. Belknap gained a high reputation as a writer; but he is more remarkable for the patience and accuracy of his historical researches, than for elegance of style. His deſiciency in natural science, as manifested in his history of New Hampshire, is rendered more prominent by the rapid progress of natural history since his death. His Foresters is not only a description of American manners, but a work of humor and wit, which went into a second edition. Before the revolution, he wrote much in favor of freedom and his country, and he afterwards gave to the public many fruits of his labors and researches. His last and most interesting work, his American Biography, he did not live to complete. • . . The following extract from some lines, found among his papers, expresses his choice with regard to the manner of his death, and the event corresponded with his wishes. When faith and patience, hope and love Have made us meet for heaven above, How blest the privilege to rise, Snatched in a moment to the skies; Unconscious to resign our breath, Nor taste the bitterness of death ! —Mass. Hist. Col. vi. 10: 18; Columb. Cent. June 25, 1798; Polyanthos, i. 1–13; Allen. BELL, (John,) an eminent surgeon of Edinburgh, and a man of very considerable literary talents, died at Rome in 1820. He is the author of the Anatomy of the Human Body, Principles of Surgery, and other anatomical and surgical works, and of excellent Observations in Italy.— Davenport. - BELLAMY, (Joseph, D.D.) an eminent American mi- nister, was born at New Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1719, and was graduated at Yale college in 1735. It was not long after his removal from New Haven, that he became the subject of those serious impressions, which, it is be- lieved, issued in renovation of heart. From this period he consecrated his talents to the evangelical ministry. At the age of eighteen, he began to preach with acceptance and success. An uncommon blessing attended his mi- nistry at Bethlem, in the town of Woodbury; a large pro- portion of the society appeared to be awakened to a sense of religion, and they were unwilling to part with the man, by whose ministry they had been conducted to a knowledge of the truth. He was ordained to the pastoral office over this church in 1740. In this retirement, he devoted him- self with uncommon ardor to his studies and the duties of his office till the memorable revival, which was most con- spicuous in 1742. His spirit of piety was then blown into . a flame ; he could not be contented to confine his labors to his small society. Taking care that his own pulpit should be vacant as little as possible, he devoted a con- siderable part of his time for several years to itinerating in different parts of Connecticut and the neighboring colo-. nies, preaching the gospel daily to multitudes, who flocked to hear him. He was instrumental in the conversion of many. When the awakening declined, he returned to a more constant attention to his own charge. He now be- gan the task of writing an excellent treatise, entitled, True Religion delineated, which was published in 1750. His abilities, his ardent piety, his theological knowledge, his acquaintance with persons under all kinds of religious impressions qualified him peculiarly for a work of this kind. From this time he became more conspicuous, and young men, who were preparing for the gospel ministry, applied to him as a teacher. In this branch of his work he was eminently useful till the decline of life, when he relin- quished it. His method of instruction was the following: Aſter ascertaining the abilities and genius of those who applied to him, he gave them a number of questions on the leading and most essential subjects of religion in the form of a system. He then directed them to such books as treat these subjects with the greatest perspicuity and force of argument, and usually spent his evenings in in- quiring into their improvements and solving difficulties, till they had obtained a good degree of understanding in the general system. After this, he directed them to write on each of the questions before given them, reviewing those parts of the authors, which treated on the subject proposed. These dissertations were submitted to his ex- amination. As they advanced in ability to make proper distinctions, he led them to read the most learned and acute opposers of the truth, the deistical, Arian, and Socinian writers; and laid open the fallacy of their most specious reasonings. When the system was completed, he directed them to write on several of the most important points systematically, in the form of sermons. He next led them to peruse the best experimental and practical discourses, and to compose sermons on like subjects. He revised and corrected their compositions, inculcating the necessity of a heart truly devoted to Christ, and a life of watching and prayer, discoursing occasionally on the various duties, trials, comforts, and motives of the evangelical work, that his pupils might be, as far as possible, “scribes well in- structed in the kingdom of God.” Hn 1786, Dr. Bellamy was seized by a paralytic affection, from which he never recovered. He died, March 6, 1790, in the fiftieth year of his ministry, aged seventy-one. His writings procured him the esteem of the pious and learned, at home and abroad, with many of whom he maintained an epistolary correspondence. In his preach- ing, a mind rich in thought, a great command of language, and a powerful voice, rendered his extemporary discourses peculiarly acceptable. He was one of the most able di- vines of this country. In his sentiments, he accorded mainly with president Edwards, with whom he was inti- mately acquainted. He published a sermon, entitled, Early Piety recom. E E L B E L [ 214 ) whended; True Religion delineated, 1750; sermons on the Divinity of Christ, the Millennium, and the Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin, 1758: letters and dialogues on the Nature of Love to God, Faith in Christ, and Assu- rance, 1759; essay on the Glory of the Gospel; a vindica- tion of his sermon on the Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin; the Law a School-master, a sermon ; the great Evil of Sin; election sermon, 1762. His works were published in three volumes, 1811, with a sketch of his life.—Bene- dict's Fun. Serm. ; Braincré's Life, 22, 41, 43, 55 ; Trum- bull, ii. 159; Theol. Mag. i. 5; Allen. BELLARMINE, (CARDINAL;) a great Roman Catholic oracle and Jesuit, born at Monte Puleiano, in Tuscany, in 1542. He was most assiduous in his opposition to the Protestants, and was sent into the Low Countries to arrest their progress. The talent which he displayed in his con- troversies, called forth the most able men on the other side; and, for a number of years, no eminent divine among the Reformers failed to make his arguments a par- ticular subject of refutation. His principal work was, A Body of Controversy, written in Latin, the style of which is perspicuous and precise, without any pretension to purity and elegance. He displays very considerable acquaintance with the Scriptures, and is deeply versed in the doctrine and practice of the church. He was, on the points of pre- destination and efficacious grace, more a disciple of Au- gustine than a Jesuit. As his book did not assert that the popes had a direct power over temporal things, it was placed by Sixtus V. among the prohibited books; which, with the differences that were found among the Catholics themselves, gave the Protestants no small advantage. At his death, the cardinal bequeathed one half of his soul to the Virgin Mary, and the other to Jesus Christ.—Hend. Buck. BELLATOR; an eminent Latin commentator on the Scriptures of the fifth century. He was contemporary with Gregory the Great, Cassiodorus, Primasius, and Isi- dore of Seville.—Mosheim. BELLINGHAM, (RicharD,) governor of Massachu- setts, was a native of England, where he was bred a law- yer. He came to this country in 1634, and August 3, was received into the church, with his wife, Elizabeth, and in the following year, was chosen deputy governor. In 1641, he was elected governor, in opposition to Mr. Winthrop, by a majority of six votes; but the election did not seem to be agreeable to the general court. He was re-chosen to this office in 1654, and after the death of governor En- dicott was again elected, in May, 1665. He continued chief magistrate of Massachusetts during the remainder of his life. He was deputy governor thirteen years, and governor ten. - Governor Bellingham lived to be the only surviving pa- tentee named in the charter. He was severe against those who were called sectaries; but he was a man of incorrupti- ble integrity, and of acknowledged piety. In the ecclesi- astical controversy which was occasioned by the settlement of Mr. Davenport, he was an advocate of the first church. —Allen ; Hutchinson, i. 41, 43, 97, 211, 269; Neal’s Hist. i. 390; Mather's Mag. ii. 18; Holmes, i. 414; Savage's Winthrop, ii. 43; Hist. Coll. m. s. iii. 143; vi. 610, BELLOWS; a well-known wind instrument, for blow- ing of fires, in iron works, Smith's forges, &c. The bellon's are burnt, the lead is consumed of the fire ; the founder melteth in vain: the lungs and labor of the prophets, and the judg- ments of God, are, as it were, wasted to no purpose, as wickedness and wicked persons are not purged away fromi church or state. Jer. 6: 29.—Bromwn. BELLS. During the three first centuries, it is certain that Christians did not meet in their assemblies by the no- tice of any public signal; nor can it be imagined, that in an age of persecution, when they met privately in the night, they would, as it were, betray themselves by such notice to their enemies. Baronius, indeed, supposes there was an order of men appointed to give private notice of assembling to every particular member of a Christian congregation; but, for want of light, we can determine nothing about it. •- * That bells were an early invention, is evident from their use in the days of Moses, since it was enjoined on the high- priest of the Israelites, that the lower hem of the robe in voices. which he, officiated should be ornamented with pomegra- mates and gold bells, set alternately, in order that he might minister therein, that his sound might be heard when he went into the holy place before the Lord, and when he came out, that he might not die. It seems to have been ordained as a mark of respect, that the high-priest might give public notice of his entering before the Lord; and, perhaps, to prevent his being put to death by those who watched the temple, that its sacred precincts might not be violated; none but the high-priest being permitted to enter' into the holy place. - . Viewed in this light, there appears nothing extraordinary in the use of bells, simply considered; but as sacred per- sons gave sanction, in the minds of people prone to wan- der from the simplicity of truth, to make every thing about them, and even their dress, possess some sacred function, so these ornaments came to be held up to the people as something more than mere bells and pomegranates; and hence, Josephus informs us, that while the latter signified lightning, the former denoted thunder; and long before the days of Josephus, it appears that superstitious notions were attached to bells. In illustration of this remark, ac- cept the following extract from Burder's Oriental Customs, vol. ii. p. 291:—“Among the heathens of the East, the sun was called Baal, or Bel, from his supposed dominion over all things, whence the word came at last to denote a lord or master in general. He was considered as the author of vibratory motion, the source of musical sound; and such instruments as emit a sound by percussion, were call- ed bells, from Bell, or Bel, the name by which the sun was denoted among the druids. For the same reason, a bell seems in very early times to have been made a sign or symbol of victory or dominion. Thus, as horses were employed in war, and are celebrated in the earliest anti- quity, for their strength, stately port, and undaunted cou- rage, bells became a part of their martial furniture.” To this custom the prophet Zechariah alludes, when in an- nouncing the change to be wrought by the universal pre- valence of true religion, he says, In that day shall there be wpon the bells of the horses, HOLINESS UNTO THE LORD. Zech. 14: 20. - Possibly, bells were also used as music, with super- stitious notions. They are mentioned 1 Chron. 15: 19 ; and perhaps the sounding brass, coupled with the tinkling cymbal, was a sort of bell. Among the heathen, the use of bells in their religious ceremonies was common in an- cient times. The sounding brass, in some shape or other, was struck in the sacred rites of the Dea Syria, and in those of Hecate. It was thought to be good for all kinds of expiation and purification. It had, moreover, some se- cret influence over the spirits of the departed. The priests of Proserpine at Athens, called Hierophants, rang a bell to call the people together to sacrifice; and one indispensable ceremony in the Indian pooja, is the ringing of a small bell by the officiating brahmin. The women of the idol, or dancing girls of the pagoda, have little golden bells fas- tened to their feet, the soft harmonious tinkling of which vibrates in unison with the exquisite melody of their Hence it appears probable, that the Jews derived much of their foolish motions respecting bells, as well as other things of more serious moment, from the heathen nations. . - The rage for amalgamating the Superstitions of the pa- gan world with the outside of Christianity, through the falsely-called liberality of persons pretending to be the abettors of truth, but who are in reality the worst enemies that Christianity ever had to contend with, together with the desire of the heathen themselves to uphold their old customs—those who, like too many of the present day, exerted all their influence in endeavoring to unite princi- ples that must ever remain separated—this rage for min- gling truth with error in the early ages of the church, when heathen usages could be made in any degree to correspond, or when coincidence between pagan gods and goddesses, and Christian saints, could, however remotely, be brought to bear, was the means of introducing a great variety of dogmas, in every respect contrary to the simplicity which becometh the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ; and among these, the adoption of bells was not omitted. , Hence ap- pears to have arisen the use of them in churches, now so B E L B E L [ 215 J universal; and had their use, without abuse, served the urpose to which they were, perhaps, originally applied, it would have been well: but long before the Reformation in England, the clergy had found means to delude the minds of themselves and their people with the most super- stitious opinions respecting them; and, as if they felt anxious that their follies should be carried to future ages, they thought proper to inscribe the bells they erected with those opinions. Of these a few specimens will illustrate the subject. One set of bells in a parish church in Cam- bridgeshire was thus inscribed:— Laudo Deum verum. I praise the true God. Plebem woco. I call the people. Congrego clerum. I assemble the clergy. Defunctos ploro. I lament the dead. Pestem fungo. I drive away infection. Festa decoro. I grace the festival. Another— Funera plango. Fulgura frango Sabbata pango. ,” Excito lentos. Dissipo ventos. . Paco cruentos. Another— f Dulcis sisto melis Campania I am called the sweet-toned bell of the vocor Gabrielis. angel Gabriel. At Lonsborough in Yorkshire— Sée Cwthberte ora pro nobis, St. Cuthbert pray for us. At Aldoborough in Yorkshire— Sée Jacobe ora pro nobis. - St. James pray for us. - These specimens show the influences attributed to bells; and it is almost incredible, so much had the notion of the sanctity of bells prevailed, that the ordinance of baptism was profanely applied to their consecration, by washing them inside and out, with water set apart, in the name of the holy Trinity; the bishop adding holy oil, crosses, and exorcisms, the then usual forms of baptism; and, withal, appointing godfathers and godmothers, who, as they held the ropes, gave them their names, and engaged to answer on their behalf such questions as the bishop might ask the said bells; and besides all this, the bishop, whilst he anointed them, that is, the bells, “prayed God to give his holy Spirit to them, that they might become sanctified for the expelling of all the power, Snares, and illusions of the devil—for the souls of the dead; and especially for the chasing away of storms, thunder, and tempests.” In further proof of what is here advanced regarding the superstitious ideas attached to bells, the following two in- scriptions, carefully copied from two bells, in Christ church, Hampshire, are given; the church in which they are placed is supposed to have been erected in the reign of the suc- cessor of William, commonly called the Conqueror:— - v Intv's cAMPANE : F.Aci. At : Nos : Y 1 v ERE : s ANE 3: s 1T : N OB Is : o MEN : to v ze YNs : cw M. : sit ; tibi : NoMEN : “May the virtue of the bell make us live well.—As thy name is Touzeyns, [all saints], may it be to us a token of good " I bemoan the dead. I abate the lightning. I announce the sabbath. I arouse the indolent. I disperse the winds. I appease the revengeful. Assis : Frºsti v vs : Pest As : PI vs : vT : Fw Get : AGN vs. # Mox : A v Gysti Nws : Hec : D VM : Reso NAT : PREco : M.A. G. N. W.S. “O great Augustine! be kindly present, I pray thee, that, while this bell is ringing, the holy Lamb may speedily chase away all evil!” These inscriptions appear direct and positive evidence of some of the mischiefs that have arisen from attempts, alas ! too successful, to graft Christianity upon the old stock of paganism, by the Romish church. Nor is im- provement to be expected within her pale, since the same superstition remains in the countries under her influence; and no longer ago than the year 1819, one of our country- men travelling through Italy, observed it customary to jin- gle the church bells whenever there was a thunder-storm ; and upon inquiring of a peasant on one occasion the mean- ing of such disturbance, he was answered, “that it was done to drive away the devil.” And a bell has, not long ago, been exhibited to the society of antiquaries, called the Bell of St. Caenon (St. Kinnon), of whose sanctity the people of that part of Ireland whence it was brought think so highly, as to imagine that the breach of an oath taken upon it, would be followed by instant death ! If such be the sentiments infused into the minds of the unlettered, by those who have the care of souls, over so large a part of what is called the Christian world as the church of Rome embraces within its dominion, how thank- ful ought we, as Protestants, to be, that, by the blessing of God, we are in some measure drawn from the atmosphere of its influence! How dreadful must be the situation of those who, in matters of comparatively small importance, teach such diabolical opinions;–those who ought to watch over the church of God for good and not for evil! Let us take them as examples to avoid their practices, which are calculated to enslave the mind in ignorance and idolatry, and to call down the vengeance of heaven on those who follow their wicked devices.—Henderson's Buck. BELLY, is used in Scripture for appetite, Philip. 3: 16. Rom. 16: 18. Also for the heart, or the secret springs of the mind, Prov. 20: 27, 30. 22: 18. John 7: 38. The “belly of hell” is a strong phrase to express Jonah's dreadful condition in the deep. Jonah 2: 2. Ecclus. 2: 5. — Watson. * BELOE, (WILLIAM,) a divine and critic, was born at Norwich, in 1756, and educated at Cambridge. After hav- ing been assistant to Dr. Parr, who was then head master of Norwich school, he took orders, and obtained church preferment. He was, finally, rector of All-hallows, a pre- bendary of St. Paul’s, and librarian of the British museum. In conjunction with Dr. Nares, he established the British Critic. He is the author of Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce Books; The Sexagenarian; and other works; and the translator of Herodotus, and Aulus Gellius. He died in 1817.-Davenport. BELOWED; much valued, desired, and delighted in. Deut. 21:15. Christ is the beloved of God; God infinitely esteems, loves, and delights in him as his Son and media- torial servant. Matt. 3: 17. He is the beloved of saints, is highly esteemed, desired, praised, and delighted in, with their whole heart, mind, and strength. Song 4: 16. Saints are the beloved of God and Christ; and the church a be- loved city. In infinite love to them, God devised their sal- vation, Jesus laid down his life and intercedes for them, and all the divine persons concur to save and delight in them. Song 5: 1. Rev. 20:9–Bromwn. BELSHAM, (Thomas,) an eminent advocate of Unitari- anism, was born April 15, 1750. At the age of sixteen, he was admitted into the academy at Dayentry, then under the care of Dr. Ashworth, 1766. At this time it appears he had many doubts of his personal piety. “I much fear,” he says, “that Christ is not formed in my soul.—I have had some pretty deep convictions this month; but I fear I have too often resisted the Holy Spirit. I am ready to fear that God has not elected me, and that I am irrevoca- bly doomed to hopeless misery.” In 1767, he solemnly dedicated himself to God in the manner recommended by Dr. Doddridge in his “Rise and Progress.” From his doubts and fears, however, he seems never to have been relieved, until he adopted the system of philosophical ne- cessity, and final restoration. In 1778, he was settled as pastor of a dissenting congregation at Worcester, from which however he removed, in 1781, to take charge of the Daventry academy. Here his sentiments underwent a change, so far that in 1789 he avowed himself a Unitarian, of the school of Priestley. He resigned his station, and immediately took charge of Hackney college, a Unitarian institution; where he continued to discharge the office of tutor until 1805, when he became minister of Essex street chapel, London, as successor to Dr. Disney and Mr. Lind- sey. He seems to have enjoyed little happiness at either of his successive situations; his conscientiousness was painfully great ; and his religious system excluded him from the peace and consolation derived from the atone- ment of Christ, and the influence of his Spirit. He pub- lished various works, which gave him great reputation among his friends, though others regard him as a servile thinker, a cold reasoner, and a bold controversialist. After Dr. Priestley, he was regarded as the leader of Unitarian- ism in England. His Calm Inquiry, Evidence of Chris. B E M B E N [ 216 J tianity, Review of Wilberforce, and Memoirs of Lindsey, including a history of American Unitarianism, are best known. He died in 1830.-Memoirs of Mr. Belsham ; Chris. Reg. ; Magee on Atonement ; Works of Dr. Chan- ning, and Robert Hall, BELSHAZZAR ; the last king of Babylon, and, accord- ing to Hales and others, the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 5: 18. During the period that the Jews were in cap- tivity at Babylon, a variety of singular events concurred to prove that the sins which brought desolation on their country, and subjected them for a period of seventy years to the Babylonish yoke, had not dissolved that covenant relation which, as the God of Abraham, Jehovah had en- tered into with them ; and that any act of indignity perpe- trated against an afflicted people, or any insult cast upon the service of their temple, would be regarded as an affront to the majesty of Heaven, and not suffered to pass with impunity, though the perpetrators were the princes and otentates of the earth. Belshazzar was a remarkable instance of this. He had an opportunity of seeing, in the case of his ancestor, how hateful pride is, even in royalty itself; how instantly God can blast the dignity of the brightest crown, and reduce him that wears it to a level with the beasts of the field; and consequently how much the prosperity of kings and the stability of their thrones depend upon acknowledging that “the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will.” But all these awful lessons were lost upon Bel- shazzar. - The only circumstances of his reign recorded, are the visions of the prophet Daniel, in the first and third years, Dan. 7: 1. 8: 1; and his sacrilegious feast and violent death, Dan. 5:1–30. Isaiah, who represents the Baby- lonian dynasty as “the scourge of Palestine,” styles Nebu- chadnezzar “a serpent,” Evil-Merodach “a cockatrice,” and Belshazzar “a fiery flying serpent,” the worst of all, Isa. 14: 4–29. And Xenophon confirms this prophetic character by two atrocious instances of cruelty and barba- rity, exercised by Belshazzar upon some of his chief and most deserving nobles. He slew the only son of Gobryas, in a transport of rage, because at a hunting match he hit with his spear a bear, and afterwards a lion, when the king had missed both ; and in a fit of jealousy, he brutally castrated Gadatus, because one of his concubines had commended him as a handsome man. His last and most heinous offence was the profanation of the sacred vessels belonging to the temple of Jerusalem, which his wise grandfather, and even his foolish father Evil-Merodach, had respected. In that very night, in the midst of their mirth and revelling, the city was taken by surprise, Bel- shazzar himself put to death, and the kingdom transferred to Darius the Mede. If the character of the hand-writing was known to the magi of Babylon, the meaning could not be conjectured. Perhaps, however, the character was that of the ancient Hebrew, or what we now call the Sa- maritan; and in that case, it would be familiar to Daniel, though rude and unintelligible to the Chaldeans. But even if Daniel could read the words, the import of this solemn graphic message to the proud and impious mo- narch could only have been made known to the prophet by God. All the ideas the three words convey, are num- bering, neighing, and dividing. It was only for the power which sent the omen, to unfold, not in equivocal terms, like the responses of heathen oracles, but in explicit lan- guage, the decision of the righteous Judge, the termination of his long-suffering, and the instant visitation of judgment. See BABYLoN.— Watson. BELTESHAZZAR ; the name given to Daniel at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1: 7. BELUS; a river of Palestine. On leaving Acre, and turning towards the south-east, the traveller crosses the river Belus, near its mouth, where the stream is shallow enough to be easily forded on horseback. This river rises out of a lake, computed to be about six miles distant, to- wards the south-east, called by the ancients Palus Cendo- via. Of the sand of this river, according to Pliny, glass was first made; and ships from Italy continued to convey it to the glass-houses of Venice and Genoa, so late as the middle of the seventeenth century. BEMA, (Gr.); a tribunal; the name of the bishop's throne, in the ancient church. This seat, or throne, toge- ther with those of the presbyters, were always fixed at the upper end of the chancel, in a semicircle above the altar. For anciently, the seats of the bishops and presbyters were joined together, and both called thrones. The manner of their sitting is related by Gregory Nazianzen, in his de- scription of the church of Anastasia, where he speaks of himself as bishop sitting upon the high throne, and the presbyters on lower benches, on both sides about him. Some learned men think this was done in imitation of the Jewish synagogues, in which, according to Maimonides, at the upper end, looking towards the holy land, the lan) was placed in the wall, in an arch, and on each side were seated the elders in a semicircle. … • Augustine tells Maximus, the Donatist bishop, that “when bishops come to stand before the tribunal of Christ, at the last judgment, they will then have no tribu- mals, no lofty seats, or covered chairs; though such honors are granted them for a time in this world, for the benefit and advantage of the church.” See CHURCII. The bishop's throne was likewise called sedes and cathe- dra ; whence come our English names cathedral and see, for a church where the bishop's chair or seat is fixed. See CATHEDRAL and SEE. - The term bema was also given by the Manichees to their altar, and to the day on which Manes was killed, because on that day they adorned their bema or altar with great magnificence.—Henderson's Buck. BENAIAH, son of Jehoiada; captain of David's guard. He took “ the two lions of Moab,” that is, the two cities of Ar, or Ariel; or the city Ar, divided into two parts by the river Arnon. He also killed a lion in a pit, in time of snow. He killed a giant five cubits high, who was armed with sword and spear, though he himself had a staff only in his hand. He adhered to Solomon against Adonijah ; was sent by Solomon to kill Joab; and was made general. issimo in his place, 1 Kings 1:36. 2: 29.—Some persons of this name returned from Babylon with Ezra.—Calmet. BEND. God's bending Judah for himself, and the filling the bow with Ephraim, is his enabling them to defeat the Syro-Grecian forces in the time of the Maccabees. Zech. 9: 13. The vine, the royal family of Judah, bent her roots tonwards the king of Egypt, when king Zedekiah entered into a covenant with, and depended on him for assist- ance against the king of Babylon. Ezek. 17: 7. The gen- tiles come bending to the church, when, in the apostolic or after-ages, they unite with it, with great readiness, af. fection, and humility. Isa. 60: 14. To be bent to back-slid- ing, is to be earnestly set upon it. Hos. 11: 7–Bronm's Bib. Dict. * BENEATH. Men, especially if wicked, are said to be from beneath; their bodies are sprung of the earth, and live on it, their affections sadly cleave to it, and they are children of hell. John 8: 23.−Bromwn. BENEDICT, (ST.,) one of the originators of monas- tic institutions in the West, was born at Norscia, in Italy, in 480. Early in life, he retired into a desert, and spent three years in a cavern. Being discovered, his sanctity drew to him such numbers of people, that he founded twelve convents. In 529, he went to Monte Cassino, built a monastery on the site of the temple of Apollo, gave rise to the Benedictine order, and died in 543 or 547 —Davenport. - . BENEDICT XIII., (pope,) son of the duke of Gravina- a Neapolitan nobleman, was born in 1649, and was raised to the papal chair in 1724. He was pious, virtuous, and liberal; but, unfortunately, placed too much confidence in cardinal Coscia, his minister, who shamefully oppressed the people. A fruitless attempt which he made to recon- cile the Romish, Greek, Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, bears honorable testimony to his tolerant spirit. His theo- logical works form three folio volumes. He died in 1730. —Davenport. - +. BENEDICT XIV., (pope,) whose name was Prosper Lambertini, was of an illustrious family at Bologna, in which city he was born, in 1675. After having been bishop of Ancona, and archbishop of Bologna, he was elected pope in 1740. He protected the arts and sciences, endeavored to heal the dissensions and reform the disci- pline of the church; and displayed such a liberal spirit, that B E N B E N [ 217 He was sometimes called the Protestant pope. In private life he was extremely amiable. IIe died in #. His works fill sixteen volumes in ſolio.—Davenport. - BENEDICTINES; an order embracing almost all the monks in the West from the sixth to the tenth century. They were so called, because they followed the rule of Benedict, of Norscia. The rules which the monasteries in France and Spain had received from their bishops, as well as that of St. Columba, were essentially the same as those of Benedict. He established himself in a monastery on Monte Cassino, near Naples, in 529, in a grove of Apollo, after the temple had been destroyed, and this monastery became the model of all the others. After this time, the monks, who had worn different dresses, now wore black. These monasteries were afterwards reformed by the Clu- niacs, a branch of the Benedictines, who had their origin and name from the convent of Clugny, in Burgundy, founded in the year 910. In the twelfth century, the order contained two thousand monasteries. In the middle ages, they were the asylums of literature and science; and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they had at- tached to them a considerable number of abbeys and pri- ories in different parts of France. They are still found in Italy, Sicily, Spain, Germany, and Austria; but many of them are very lax in their rules.—Henderson's Buck. BENEDICTINE FATHERS ; celebrated editions of the writings of the fathers, edited by some of the most º of the Benedictine monks in France.—Henderson’s wek. BENEDICTION ; in a general sense, the act of bless- ing, or giving praise to God, or returning thanks for his favors. . The Jews, it is said, are obliged to rehearse a hundred benedictions every day, of which eighty are to be spoken in the morning. It was usual to give a benedic- tion to travellers on their taking leave, a practice which is still preserved among the monks. Benedictions were like- wise given among the ancient Jews, as well as Christians, by imposition of hands. And when at length the primitive simplicity of the Christian worship began to give way to ceremony, they added the sign of the cross, which was made with the same hand as before, only elevated or ex- tended. Hence benediction in the modern Romish church (benedictio sacerdotalis) is used, in a more particular man- ner, to denote the sign of the cross made by a bishop or prelate, as conferring some grace on the people. The pope gives a solemn benediction three times every year; viz. on Maunday Thursday, on Easter, and on As- cension day. The term is also employed to denote the blessing pronounced by the priest at the death-bed of the sick, when it is called benedictio beatica. Among Protestants, the word is commonly applied to the blessing implored by the minister and congregation at the close of public worship, only with this difference, that consistent Dissenters, instead of aping the Romish priest, who really professes to impart the blessing, use the form, “be with Us,” instead of “be with you.” Benediction is also used for an ecclesiastical ceremony, whereby a thing is rendered sacred or venerable. In this sense, benediction differs from consecration, as in the latter, unction is applied, which is not in the former: thus the chalice is consecrated, and the pix blessed; as the former, not the latter, is anointed, though in the common usage these two words are applied promiscuously. The spirit of piety, or rather of superstition, has introduced into the Romish church benedictions for almost every thing: we read of forms of benedictions for wax candles, for boughs, for ashes, for church vessels, for ornaments, for flags, or ensigns, arms, first-fruits, houses, ships, paschal eggs, cici- lium, or the hair-cloth of penitents, church-yards, &c. In general, these benedictions are performed by aspersions of holy water, signs of the cross, and prayers suitable to the nature of the ceremony. The forms of these benedictions are found in the Roman pontifical, in the Roman missal, in the book of ecclesiastical ceremonies, printed in pope Leo X.'s time, and in the rituals and ceremonies of the different churches, which are found collected in father Martene's work on the rites and discipline of the church.- Henderson's Buck. - BENEFACTORS; such as do good to others; espe- cially if in important station; and on an extensive Scale. 2 Every Christian is called by his religion to earn this truly glorious name. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good. Rom. 12:21. As me therefore have opportunity, let us do good unto all men, especially unto them nºbo are of the household of faith. Gal. 6: 10. Flatterers have often ap- plied the glorious title of benefactors to rulers and princes who have little deserved the name, (as to Ptolemy Euer- getes, king of Egypt,) though their office requires them to be such. To this custom our Lord refers in Luke 22: 25. See Cotton Mather's excellent “Essays to do Good,” to the early reading of which Franklin ascribed that love of prac- tical usefulness, which so eminently distinguished his sub- sequent life. That usefulness might have been still greater, if, like Howard's, it had been ennobled and quickened by Christian principles—by the grateful, ardent, and admiring love of that HEAVENLY BENEFACTOR, who when on earth nvent about doing good. - - BENEFICE, in the ecclesiastical sense of the word, means a church endowed with a revenue for the perform- ance of divine service, or the revenue itself assigned to an ecclesiastical person, by way of stipend for the service he is to do that ghurch. As to the origin of the word, we find it as follows, in Alet’s “Ritual.” “This word was anciently appropriated to the lands which kings used to bestow on those who had fought valiantly in the wars, and was not used in this particular signification but during the time that the Goths and Lombards reigned in Italy, under whom those fiefs were introduced, which were peculiarly termed benefices, and those who enjoyed them beneficiarii, or vassals; for though the Romans also bestowed lands on their captains and soldiers, yet those lands had not the name of benefices appropriated to them; but the word benefice was a general term, which included all kinds of gifts or grants, according to the ancient signification of the Latin word. In imita- tion of the new sense in which that word was taken with regard to fiefs, it began to be employed in the church when her temporalities began to be divided, and to be given up to particular persons, by taking them out of those of the bishops. This the bishops themselves first introduced, pur- posely to reward merit, and assist such ecclesiastics as might be in necessity. However, this was soon carried to greater lengths, and at last became unlimited, as has since been manifest in the clericate and the monasteries. A bene- fice, therefore, is not merely a right of receiving part of the temporalities of the church for the service a person renders it; a right which is founded upon the Gospel, and has al- ways subsisted since the apostolic age; but it is that of enjoying a part of the temporalities of the church, assigned and determined in a special form, so as that no other cler- gyman can lay any claim or pretension to it. And in this age, it is not barely the right of enjoying a part of the tem- poralities of the church, but is likewise a fixed and perma- nent right, in such a manner that it devolves on another after the death of the incumbent, which anciently was otherwise; for, at the rise of benefices, they were indulged to clergymen only ſor a stated time, or for life; after which, they reverted to the church.” - It is not easy to determine when the effects of the church were first divided. It is certain, that in the fourth century, all the revenues were in the hands of the bishops, who dis- tributed them by their accomomi or stencards; and they con- sisted chiefly in alms and voluntary contributions. When the church came to have inheritances, part of them were assigned for the maintenance of the clergy, of which we find some footsteps in the fifth and sixth centuries; but the allotment seems not to have been a fixed thing, but to have been absolutely discretional, till the twelfth century. Benefices were divided, by the canonists, into simple and sacerdotal. The first sort lays no obligation, but to read prayers, sing, &c. Such kind of beneficiaries are canons, chaplains, chanters, &c. The Second is charged with the cure of souls, the guidance and direction of consciences, &c. Such are rectories, vicarages, &c. The canonists likewise specify three ways of vacating a benefice; viz. de jure, de facto, and by the sentence of a judge. A benefice is void de jure, when a person is guilty of crimes for which he is disqualified by law to hold a benefice: such are he- resy, Simony, &c. A benefice is void both de facto and de jure, by the natural death or resignation of the incum- B E N B E N [218 bent. Lastly, a benefice is vacated by scutence of the judge, when the incumbent is dispossessed of it, by way of punish- ment for immorality, or any crime against the state. The Romanists, again, distinguish benefices into regular and secular. Regular benefices are those held by a reli- gious or monk of any order, abbey, priory, or convent. Secular benefices are those conferred on the secular priests, of which sort are most of their cures. The church distinguishes between dignities and benefices. The former title is only applicable to bishoprics, deaneries, archdeaconries, and prebends: the latter comprehends all ecclesiastical preferments under those degrees; as rectories and vicarages. It is essential to these latter, that they be bestowed freely, reserving nothing to the patron; that they be given as a provision for the clerk, who is only an usu-fructuary, and has no inheritance in them; and that all contracts concerning them be in their own nature void. See PLURALITIES ; Restor NCI: ; and SIMony.—Henderson’s Buck. - BENEFICIARY ; in Europe, a beneficed person, or one who receives and enjoys one or more benefices. He is not, however, the proprietor of the revenues of his church; he has only the administration of them, unaccountable for the same to any but God.—Henderson’s Buck. In the United States, it is more generally used ſor one who receives aid from an Education society. BENEFIT ; (1.) the giſts and favors of God. 2 Chron. 32: 25. (2.) The favors and useful deeds of men one to another. 2 Cor. 1: 15. Phil. 14. Salvation from sin and misery to holiness and happiness is called the benefit ; it is the greatest display of God's favor to us, and comprehends all kindness, 1 Tium. 6: 2.—Brown. - BENEFIT OF CIERGY; a privilege enjoyed by those in holy orders, which originated in a religious regard for the honor of the church, by which the clergy of Roman Catholic countries were either partially or wholly exempt. ed from the jurisdiction of lay tribunals. It extended, in England, only to cases of felony; and though it was in- tended to apply only to clerical felons or clerks, yet as every one who could read was, by the laws of England, considered to be a clerk, when the rudiments of learning came to be diſused, almost every man in the community came to be entitled to this privilege. Peers were entitled to it whether they could read or not ; and by the statutes of 3 and 4 William and Mary, c. 9; and 4 and 5 William and Mary, c. 24, it was extended to women. In the earlier periods of the Catholic church in England, the clerk, on being convicted of felony, and claiming the benefit of clergy, was handed over to the ecclesiastical tribunal for a new trial or purgation, the pretty uniform result of which was his acquittal. His pretended trial of purgation gave rise to a great deal of abuse and perjury, so that at length the secular judges, instead of handing over the cul- prit to the ecclesiastics for purgation, ordered him to be detained in prison until he should be pardoned by the king. By the statute of 18 Eliz. cap. 7, persons convicted of felony, and entitled to benefit of clergy, were to be dis- charged from prison, being first branded in the thumb, if laymen ; it being left to the discretion of the judge to de- tain them in prison not exceeding one year; and by the Statute of 5 Anne, c. 6, it was enacted, that it should no longer be requisite that a person should be able to read in order to be entitled to the privilege; so that from the pass- ing of this act, a felon was no more liable to be hanged be. cause of his deficiency in learning. The statutes formerly made speciſic provisions, that, in particular cases, the cul- prit should not be entitled to benefit of clergy; but the statute of 7 and 8 George IV. c. 28, provides, that “benefit of clergy, with respect to persons convicted of felony, shall be abolished.” In North America, this privilege has been formally abolished in some of the states, and allowed only in one or two cases in others; while in others, again, it does not appear to have been known at all. By the act of Congress of April 30, 1790, it is enacted, that “benefit of clergy shall not be used or allowed, upon conviction of any crime for which, by any statute of the United States, the punishment is or shall be declared to be death.”—En. cyc. Amer. BENEFIELD, (SEBASTIAN,) an eminent divine of the seventeenth century, was born August 12, 1559, at Pres. tonbury, in Gloucestershire. He was educated at Oxford. In 1608, he took the degree of D. D., and five years after. ward, was chosen Margaret professor in that university. Dr. Benefield was so eminent a scholar, disputant, and di- vine, and particularly so well versed in the fathers and schoolmen, that he had not his equal in the university. IIe was strongly attached to the doctrinal opinions of Cal- vin. He was remarkable for strictness of life and sincerity; of a retired and sedentary disposition; and consequently less easy and affable in conversation. He died, August 24, 1630. His works, in ten volumes, are devoted to doc- trinal and practical theology.—Middleton's Biog. BENEZET, (ANTHONY,) a distinguished philanthropist of Philadelphia, was born at St. Quintins, a town in the province of Picardy, France, January 31, 1713. About the time of his birth, the persecution against the Protestants was carried on with relentless severity; in consequence of which many thousands found it necessary to leave their native country, and seek a shelter in a foreign land. Among these were his parents, who removed to London in February, 1715, and, after remaining there upwards of sixteen years, came to Philadelphia in November, 1731. During their residence in Great Britain, they had imbibed the religious opinions of the Quakers, and were received into that body immediately after their arrival in this country. In the early part of his liſe, Benezet was put an appren- tice to a merchant; but soon after his marriage, in 1740, when his affairs were in a prosperous situation, he left the mercantile business, that he might engage in some pursuit which would afford him more leisure for the duties of reli- gion, and for the exercise of that benevolent spirit, for which, during the course of a long life, he was so conspi- cuous. But no employment which accorded perfectly with his inclination presented itself, till the year 1742, when he accepted the appointment of instructer in the Friends’. Finglish school of Philadelphia. The duties of the honora- ble, though not very lucrative office, of a teacher of youth, he ſrom this period continued to fulfil with unremitting assiduity and delight, and with very little intermission, till his death. During the two last years of his life, his zeal to do good induced him to resign the school which he had long superintended, and to engage in the instruction of the blacks. In doing this, he did not consult his worldly in- terest, but was influenced by a regard to the welfare of men, whose minds had been debased by servitude. He wished to contribute something towards rendering them fit for the enjoyment of that freedom, to which many of them had been restored. So great was his sympathy with every being capable of feeling pain, that he resolved towards the close of his life, to eat no animal food. This change in his mode of living is supposed to have been the occasion of his death. His active mind did not yield to the debility of his body. He persevered in his attendance upon his school, till within a few days of his decease. He died, May 3, 1784, aged seventy-one years. - Such was the general esteem in which he was held, that his funeral was attended by persons of all religious deno- minations. Many hundred negroes followed their friend and benefactor to the grave; and by their tears they proved, that they possessed the sensibilities of men. An officer, who had served in the army during the war with Britain, observed at this time, “I would rather be Anthony Benezet in that coffin, than George Washington with all his ſame.” He exhibited uncommon activity and industry in every thing which he undertook. He used to say, that the highest act of charity, was to bear with the unreasona- bleness of mankind. He generally wore plush clothes, and gave as a reason for it, that, after he had worn them for two or three years, they made comfortable and decent garments for the poor. So disposed was he to make him. self contented in every situation, that when his memory began to fail him, instead of lamenting the decay of his powers, he said to a young friend, “This gives ºne one great advantage over you; for you can find entertainment in reading a good book only once; but I enjoy that plea- sure as often as I read it, for it is always new to me.” Few men, since the days of the apostles, ever lived a more disinterested life; yet upon § death-bed he ex- pressed a desire to live a little longer, “that he might bring down self.” The last time he ever walked across B E N. B E N [ 219 ) his room, was to take from his desk six dollars, which he gave to a poor widow whom he had long assisted to main- tain. In his conversation, he was affable and unreserved; in his manners, gentle and conciliating. For the acquisi- tion of wealth, he wanted neither abilities nor opportunity; but he made himself contented with a little; and with a competency, he was liberal beyond most of those whom a bountiful Providence had encumbered with riches. By his will he devised his estate, aſter the decease of his wife, to certain trustees, for the use of the African school. While the British army was in possession of Philadelphia, he was indeſatigable in his endeavors to render the situation of the persons who suffered from captivity, as easy as possible. He knew no fear in the presence of a fellow mºn, however dignified by titles or station; and such was the propriety and gentleness of his manners in his intercourse with the gentlemen who commanded the British and German troops, that, when he could not obtain the object of his requests, lie never ſailed to secure their civilities and esteem. Although the life of Mr. Benezet was passed in the in- struction of youth, yet his expansive benevolence extended itself to a wider sphere of usefulness. Giving but a small portion of his time to sleep, he employed his pen both day and might in writing books on religious subjects, composed chiefly with a view to inculcate the peaceable temper and doctrines of the Gospel in opposition to the spirit of war, and to expose the flagrant injustice of slavery, and fix the stamp of infamy on the traffic in human blood. His writ- ings contributed much towards meliorating the condition of slaves, and undoubtedly had influence on the public mind in effecting the complete prohibition of that trade, which, until the year 1808, was a blot on the American national character. In , order to disseminate his publica- tions and increase his usefulness, he held a correspond- ence with such persons, in various parts of Europe and America, as united with him in the same benevolent de- sign, or would be likely to promote the objects which he was pursuing. No ambitious or covetous views impelled him to his exertions. Regarding all mankind as children of one common Father, and members of one great family, he was anxious that oppression and tyranny should cease, and that men should live together in mutual kindness and affection. He himself respected, and he wished others to respect, the sacred injunction, “Do unto others, as you would that they should do unto you.” On the return of peace, in 1783, apprehending that the revival of commerce would be likely to renew the African slave trade, which during the war had been in some measure obstructed, he addressed a letter to the queen of Great Britain, to solicit her influence on the side of humanity. At the close of this letter he says, “I hope thou wilt kindly excuse the free- dom used on this occasion by an ancient man, whose mind, for more than ſorty years past, has been much separated from the common course of the world, and long painfully exercised in the consideration of the miseries under which so large a part of mankind, equally with us the objects of redeeming love, are suffering the most unjust and grievous oppression, and who sincerely desires the temporal and eternal felicity of the queen and her royal consort.” He published, among other tracts, an Account of that Part of Africa inhabited by Negroes, 1762; a Caution to Great Britain and her Colonies, in a short Representation of the Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes in the British Dominions, 1767; some Historical Account of Guinea, with an Inquiry into the Rise and Progress of the Slave Trade, 1771; a Short Account of the Religious Society of Friends, 1780; a Dissertation on the Plainness and Sim- plicity of the Christian Religion, 1782; Tracts against the Use of Ardent Spirits; Observations on the Indian Natives of this Continent, 1784.—Rush’s Essays, 311-314; Vaua’s Memoir; New and Gen. Biog. Dict. : Amer. Mus. ix. 192– 194; Rees's Cycl. : Allen's Biog. Dict. * e * B£NGEL, or BENGELIUS, (John ALBERT,) a distinguish: ed pious German theologian, and a celebrated b.blical critic. He was born at Winneden, in Wurtemberg, 1687, studied at Stuttgart and Tübingen, and in 1713 be- came preacher and professor at Denkendorf. In 1741, he was made councillor and dean of the cloister Herbrichtin- gen; and, in 1749, he was created abbot or prelate of Al- pirsbach, where he died, November 2, 1752. His chief Jerusalem. not want a man to stand before me forever.” studies were the New Testament and the fathers. He was the first Lutheran divine who applied to the criticism. of the New Testament a grasp of mind which embraced the subject in its whole extent, and a patience of investiga- tion which the study required. While a student, he was much perplexed by the various readings, which led him to form the determination of making a text for himself, which he executed in a very careful and scrupulous manner, ac- cording to very rational and critical rules, excepting that he would not admit any reading into the text which had not been previously printed in some edition. In the book of Revelation alone, he deviated from this rule. His con- scientious piety tended greatly to allay the fears which had been excited among the clergy with respect to various readings; and to him belongs the honor of having struck out that path which has since been trod with so much eclat by Wetstein, Griesbach, and others. * Besides his Greek New Testament, printed at Tübingen, 1734 and 1763, 4to. Bengel published a Gnomon which is highly esteemed, and an Exposition of the Apocalypse, which laid the foundation of a prophetical school in Ger- many, which exists at this day. According to his system, the end of the forty-two months, and of the number cf the beast, was May 21, 1810; and the destruction of the beast is to take place June 18, 1836.—Henderson’s Buck. I. BEN-HADAD, a son of Tabrimon, king of Syria, who came to assist Asa, king of Judah, against Baasha, king of Israel, and obliged him to return and succor his own country, and to abandon Ramah, which he had un- dertaken to ſortify, 1 Kings 15: 18. This Benhadad is probably Hadad, the Edomite, who rebelled against Solo- mon, 1 Kings 11:25.-II. A king of Syria, Son of the above Ben-hadad, who made war against Ahab, A. M. 3103. See AHAB, and HazAEL.—III. A son of Hazael, above mentioned, from whom Jehoash, king of Israel, re- covered all that Hazael had taken from his predecessor, 2 Kings 13: 3, 24, 25. Jehoash defeated him three times, and compelled him to surrender all the country beyond Jordan, namely, the lands belonging to Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh, which IIazael had taken. t Josephus calls those princes Hadad, who, in Scripture, are named Ben-hadad, or son of Hadad; adding that the Syrians of Damascus paid divine honors to the last Hadad, and Hazael, in consideration of the benefits of their go- vernment, and particularly because they adorned Damas- cus with magnificent temples.—Calmet. BEN-HENNON, or BEN-HINNON, or GEII-IIINNoN, or GEH- BENI-IIINNoN, that is, “the valley of the children of Hin- mon,” or, “the son of intense lamentation,” south-east of Some say, it was the common sewer to Jeru- salem, and an emblem of hell, which is called gehenna. See GERENNA. This valley was likewise called Tophet. See Tophet.—Calmet. BENI RHAIBIR ; sons of Reber, the descendants of the Rechabites, to whom it was promised, Jer. 35: 19, “Thus saith the Lord, Jonadab, the son of Rechab, shall They were first brought into notice in modern times by Mr. Samuel Brett, who wrote a narrative of the proceedings of the great council of the Jews in Hungary, A. D. 1650. He says of the sect of the Rechabites, “that they observe their old rules and customs, and neither sow, nor plant, nor build houses; but live in tents, and often remove from one place to another with their whole property and families.” They are also mentioned in Niebuhr's travels. Mr. Wolff, a converted Jew, gives the following account in a late jour- mal. He inquired of the rabbins at Jerusalem, relative to these wandering Jews, and received the following informa- tion : “Rabbi Mose Secot is quite certain that the Beni Khaibir are descendants of the Rechabites; at this present moment they drink, no wine, and have neither vineyard, nor field, nor seed; but dwell, like Arabs, in tents, and are wandering nomades. They receive and observe the law . of Moses by tradition, for they are not in possession of the written law.” Mr. Wolff afterwards himself visited this people, who have remained, amidst all the changes of na- tious, a most remarkable monument of the exact fulfillment of a minute, and apparently at first sight an unimportant, prophecy. So true is it, that not one jot or tittle of the word of God shall pass away ! See RechABITEs.--TVatson. B E N B E N [220 BENJAMIN ; the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel, Gen. 35: 16, 17, &c. Rachel died immediately after he was born, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, the son of my sorrow ; but Jacob called him Benjamin, the son of my right hand. His history may be found in Genesis. He is often called in Scripture Jemini, only, that is, my right hand. Of his tribe Jacob says, “Benjamin shall ra- ven as a wolf; in the morning he shall devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil;” (Gen. 49: #} and Moses, in his last song, says, “The beloved of the Lord shall dwell in safety by him; and the Lord shall cover him all the day long, and he shall dwell between his shoulders.” Deut. 33: 12. The words—“Benjamin is a ravening wolf,” are allusively applied to Paul, who was of the tribe of Ben- jamin; but much more properly to the valor of the tribe. See Judg. chapter 20. and CANAAN.—Calmet. BENSON, (GeoRGE, D.D.)an eminently learned non-con- formist divine, was descended from a good family, and born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, in the year 1699. Be- ing very early distinguished for a remarkable seriousness of temper, and a great attachment to his books, his parents determined to educate him for the ministry; with which view, when he had passed through a course of grammar learning, he was went to an academy at Whitehaven, where he continued about a year, and from thence he was removed to the university of Glasgow, where he completed his academical studies. In the year 1721, Mr. Benson came to London, and hav. ing been examined and approved by several of the most eminent Presbyterian ministers, he began to preach, first at Chertsey, and afterwards in London, where the learned Dr. Calamy took him into his family, and treated him with great kindness. By the recommendation of this friend, he afterwards went to Abington in Berkshire, and was una- nimously chosen pastor of the congregation of Protestant Dissenters in that town, where he continued seven years, diligently employing that time in the study of the sacred writings, and in laboring to instruct and edify the people under his care. * - - His first publication was “A Defence of the Reasona- bleness of Prayer, with a Translation of a Discourse of Maximus Tyrius, on the Subject, and Remarks on it.” This appeared during his continuance at Abingdon; whence he removed in the year 1729, upon an invitation to become minister to a congregation in King John's Court, Southwark; where he performed the duties of the pastoral office with great diligence and fidelity for eleven years, and was much beloved by his congregation. The attempt which Mr. Locke had made to throw light upon some of the most obscure and difficult parts of Paul's Epistles, by close attention to the original design with which they were written, and by carefully pursuing the thread of the author's reasoning, induced and encouraged Mr. Benson to attempt the illustration of the other Epistles of St. Paul, in a similar method. Accordingly, in the year 1731, he E. in quarto, “A Paraphrase and Notes on Paul's pistle to Philemon, attempted in imitation of Mr. Locke's manner. With an Appendix; in which is shown, that Paul could neither be an Enthusiast, nor an Impostor; and consequently, the Christian Religion must be (as he has represented it) heavenly and divine.” This publica- tion meeting with a very favorable reception, our author proceeded, with great diligence, and increasing reputation, to publish Paraphrases and Notes on the two Epistles to the Thessalonians, the first and second Epistle to Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus; adding some Dissertations on several important subjects. In 1735, Mr. Benson published, in three thin volumes, quarto, “The History of the first planting of the Christian Religion, taken from the Acts of the Apostles, and their Epistles. Together with the remarkable Facts of the Jew. ish and Roman History, which affected the Christians within this period.” In this work, besides illustrating throughout, the history of the Acts, and most of the Epis. tles, by a view of the history of the times, the occasion of . the several Epistles, and the state of the churches to which they were addressed, the learned author hath established the truth of the Christian religion, on a number of facts, the most public, important, and incontestible; the relations of which we have from eye-witnesses of unquestionable integrity; and which produced such great and extensive alterations in the moral and religious state of the world, as cannot be rationally accounted for, without admitting the reality of these facts, and the truth of these relations. In 1740, Mr. Benson was chosen pastor of the congre- gation of Protestant Dissenters in Crutched Friars, Lon- don, in the room of Dr. William Harris; and in this situa- tion he continued till his death. He had, for several years as his assistant, the very eminent and learned Dr. Lard. ner; and they constantly lived together in the greatest friendship. In 1743, Mr. Benson published, in octavo, his treatise on “The Reasonableness of the Christian Re- ligion, as delivered in the Scriptures;” and, the following year, in consideration of his great learning and abilities, the university of Aberdeen conferred on him the degree of doctor in divinity. - Dr. Benson, having finished those Epistles of Paul on which he intended to write paraphrases and notes, pro- ceeded to explain, after the same manner, the seven Epis- tles, commonly called Catholic Epistles; namely, the Epis- tle of James, the two Epistles of Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the three Epistles of John. These, and his other la- bors in sacred literature, met with a very favorable recep- tion in foreign countries, and particularly in Germany, as well as at home; where they procured him the friendship and esteem of many eminent persons in the established church, as well as amongst the Dissenters. He died, in a very composed and resigned manner, on the 6th of April, 1762, in the sixty-third year of his age. Dr. Benson was a man of great piety and learning—in- tensely studious, and unwearied in his researches after theological truth, which was the principal business of his liſe. On all occasions, he was a zealous advocate for free inquiry, and the right of private judgment; but, though his integrity was unquestioned, yet the freedom with which he expressed his sentiments on some points controverted amongst Christians, exposed him to censures and indecent reflections from men of little candor and contracted views. The doctor left behind him, in manuscript, “The His- tory of the Life of Jesus Christ, taken from the New Tes- tament, with Observations and Reflections proper to illus- trate the Excellence of his Character, and the Divinity of his Mission and Religion.” Several critical dissertations were annexed to this performanee; and the whole was published together, in the year 1764, in one volume, quarto; to which was prefixed, a mezzotinto print of the author. Dr. Amo- ry, who was the editor of this work, hath also added to it, “Memoirs of the Liſe, Character, and Writings of Dr. Benson.”—Jones's Chris. Biog. - BENTHAM, (Jeremy,) an English writer of great repu- tation in legislation, metaphysics, and morals, was born in 1747. At three years of age he is said to have read Ra- pin's History of England as an amusement, and at Seven, he read Telemaque in French. Such was the contempla- tive turn of his mind, and the clearness and accuracy of his observation, from early childhood, that at the age of five years he had acquired the name of “the philosopher.” While at Westminster school, he obtained from Helvetius on the Mind a glimpse of that “greatest happiness princi- ple,” which he afterwards so powerfully developed. At thirteen, he entered Oxford, and at sixteen took his degree of A. B. being the youngest graduate then known at either of the universities. He was early acquainted with Ho- garth, Blackstone, and Johnson. While at Oxford, the expulsion of five students under the stigma of Methodism, for “reading and talking over the Bible,” awakened a dis. gust with the Church of England which continued through life. On being required to sign the Thirty-nine Articles, he makes these remarks, “When out of the multitude of his attendants Jesus chose twelve for his apostles, by the men in office he was declared to be possessed by a devil; by his own friends he was set down for mad. The like faté, were my conscience to have showed itself more scrupulous than that of my official casuist, was before my eyes. Be- fore the eyes of Jesus stood a comforter—his Father—an Almighty one. Before my weak eyes stood no comforter.” In the year 1772, he was called to the bar, but saw so much chicane in legal business as then conducted, as led him at first to determine on quitting the profession, and eventually on working a complete reform in the system of B E N B E N | 221 J English jurisprudence. To this immense labor he devoted the whole of his long and laborious life; and before his death he had constructed a systematic plan of civil and criminal law, founded entirely upon reason, and having for its object the happiness of the human race. He died, June 6, 1832. His ruling passion was strong in death. Sending all but a single attendant from his bedside, he said, “I now feel that I am dying: our care must be to minimize the pain.”. The influence of his utilitarian prin- ciples has been extensive in legislation, its proper sphere; its application in morals is not less just, but is attended with difficulties, perhaps insuperable to the human under- standing without the aid of revelation. Happily, in morals we have a sure guide already in the New Testament. Among Mr. Bentham’s intimate friends, were Howard, Romilly, and Lafayette. He availed himself of every lmeans in his power of forming and cherishing a friendship with whoever in any country indicated remarkable bene- volence. But, that he might be in the less danger of falling under the influence of any wrong bias, he kept himself as much as possible from all personal contact with what is called the world. With such care over his intel- lectual faculties and moral affections, and with the excel- lent direction which he gave to both, his own happiness could not but be sure. He was capable of great severity and continuity of men tal labor. For upwards of half a century, he devoted sel- dom less than eight, often ten, and occasionally twelve hours of every day, to intense study. This was the more remarkable, as his physical constitution was by no means strong. His health, during the periods of child- hood, youth, and adolescence, was infirm ; it was not until the age of manhood that it acquired some degree of vigor. But that vigor increased with advancing age; so that dur- ing the space of sixty years he never labored under any serious malady, and rarely suffered even from slight indis- position. At the age of eighty-four, he looked no older, and constitutionally was no older than most men at sixty; thus adding another illustrious name to the splendid catalogue which establishes the fact, that severe and constant mental labor is not incompatible with health and longevity, but conducive to both, provided the mind be unanxious, and the habits temperate. He was a great economist of time. He knew the value of minutes. The disposal of his hours, both of labor and repose, was a matter of systematic arrangement; and the arrangement was determined on the principle, that it is a calamity to lose the smallest portion of time. He did not deem it sufficient to provide against the loss of a day or an hour: he took effectual means to prevent the oceur- rence of any such calamity to him : he was careful to pro- vide against the loss even of a single minute; and there is on record no example of a human being who lived more habitually under the practical consciousness that his days are numbered, and that “the night cometh, in which no man can work.” The serenity and cheerfulness of his mind, when he became satisfied that his work was done, and that he was about to lie down to his final rest, was truly affecting. On that work he looked back with a feel- ing which would have been a feeling of triumph, had not the consciousness of how much still remained to be done, changed it to that of sorrow that he was allowed to do no more. But this feeling again gave place to a calm but deep emotion of exultation, as he recollected that he left behind him able, zealous and faithful minds, that would enter into his labors and complete them. His various publications amount to about one hundred; and several of the greatest iumportance have been trans- lated into most European languages.--The Museum ; An- nual Biography, 1833. - Y BENTLEY, (DR. Richard,) an eminent divine and most rofound linguist, was born at Wakefield, in the county of ork, in the year 1662, but on what day or month seems to be uncertain. His father was either a blackSmith, or a tan- ner; but he appears to have possessed some means, and a desire that his son should reap the benefit of them by a learned education ; nor was Richard indifferent to, or careless of these advantages. After making considerable progress in the learned languages, he was entered at Ring's college, Cambridge, where he soon distinguished himself by his assiduous application, and before he was twenty-four years of age, he had complied for himself a sort of Hexapla, a thick quarto, in the first column of which he arranged all the words in the Hebrew Bible, while the five others exhibited the different acceptations of them, in the Chaldee, Syriac, and Septuagint versions, those of Aquila, and Symmachus, and that of Theodosius. He likewise wrote another quarto volume of the various readings and emendations of the Hebrew text, found in those ancient versions, a work that would have done honor to a more aged critic. Having taken the degree of master of arts at Cambridge, he was incorporated into the uni- versity of Oxford, and soon afterwards became domestic chaplain to Dr. Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, in whose family he had resided for fourteen years, in the capacity of tutor to his son. A Latin letter to Dr. Mill, containing some observations relative to Johannes Malala, the Greek historiographer, published in 1691, affords a convincing evidence of Dr. Bentley's deep learning, and was highly spoken of by that profound scholar, Graevius, who wrote to him on the occasion in the highest terms of commenda- tion. About this time, the doctor was appointed one of f the preachers of the course of lectures founded by the Hon. Mr. Robert Boyle, afterwards lord Orrery; and in the year 1694, he published eight sermons, preached at this lecture. In the same year, he was made keeper of the royal library at St. James’s, when an incident occurred, which gave Occasion to the controversy that was so long carried on between him and the Hon. Mr. Boyle. During this contro- versy, he published his edition of Callimachus, to which he prefixed a short, but excellent, essay on the Greek Pronun- ciation. In the year 1700, his majesty king William III. was pleased to present Dr. Bentley to the mastership of Trinity college, Cambridge, worth about 1000l. a year; and the following year, the archdeaconry of Ely was con- ferred upon him. During his situation in the college, the doctor met with much to try him : being rather of an arbi- trary disposition, he excited the opposition of some of the fellows, who complained of him to the bishop of Ely, one of the visiters, with the design of getting him removed ſrom the office of master. The doctor presented to the bishop his defence in the form of a pamphlet, entitled, “The Present State of the University;” and thus com, menced a quarrel, which lasted for twenty years, with great animosity on both sides, and was at last dropped without any decision. He was afterwards chosen Regius professor of divinity at Cambridge. In 1720, Dr. Bentley issued proposals for a new edition of the New Testament in Greek, accompanied with the Latin version of Jerome: taking up that father’s observa- tion, that in the translation of the Holy Scriptures, “the very order of the words is mystery,” he conjectured that if the most ancient Greek manuscripts were compared with Jerome’s Latin, they might be found to agree with that version, both in the words and order; and upon trial, his ideas were realized even beyond his expectations. He stated also in these proposals, that he believed he had re- covered, with very few exceptions, the exemplar of Origen, the great standard of the most learned fathers, for more than two hundred years after the council of Nice; and ob- served, that by the aid of the Greek and Latin manuscripts, the text of the original might be so far settled, that instead of thirty thousand different readings, found in the best modern editions, not more than two hundred would de- Serve much serious consideration. To these proposals he annexed a specimen, the last chapter of the Book of Reve- |B E. R. B E R L 222 | lation, with a Latin version, and the various readings in the notes; but Dr. Conyers Middleton, who had opposed him on a former occasion, wrote some very severe re- marks upon them; and the tide of opposition ran so high, that the doctor thought proper wholly to drop his design, - Dr. Bentley died on the 14th of July, 1742, at the age of eighty, and was buried in the chapel of Trinity college. With regard to his attainments, he was a profound scholar, and the greatest critic in the learned languages of the time in which he lived; but his uncommon learning was better appreciated abroad than in his own country. In his man- ners he was rather haughty and overbearing, and too often treated others with contempt : this was particularly illus- trated by his saying of Joshua Barnes, that “he understood as much Greek as a Greek cobbler;” and of himself, “When I am dead, Christopher Wasse will be the most learned man in England.”—Jones’s Chr. Biog. BEREA ; a city of Macedonia, near mount Cithanes, where Paul preached the gospel with success, Acts 17: 11 —13. There is a medal of Berea extant, which is re- markable for being inscribed, “ of the second Macedonia,” and also for being the only Macedonian medal of the date (A. U. C. 706.) inscribed with the name of the city where it was struck. Compare Acts 17: 11.—“noble Bereans.”— Calmet. BERE ANS ; a small sect of dissenters from the church of Scotland, who take their title from, and profess to follow the example of, the ancient Bereans, (Acts 17: 11,) in building their system of faith and practice upon the Scrip- tures alone, without regård to any human authority what- eVer. - Mr. Barclay, a Scotch clergyman, was the founder of this denomination. They first assembled as a separate society of Christians in Edinburgh, in 1773. The Bereans agree with the established churches of England and Scotland respecting the Trinity, predestina- tion, and election, (though they allege that these doctrines are not consistently taught in either;) but they differ from them in various points—particularly, 1. They reject all natural religion, as undermining the cause of revealed religion, by rendering it unnecessary and superfluous. 2. They consider faith in Christ and assurance of salva- tion as inseparable, or rather, as the same thing, because God has said, “He that believeth shall be saved.” If we, therefore, credit this testimony, (which is all that they mean by faith,) it must be impious to doubt of our salva- tion. Mr. Barclay says, “By whatever evidence I hold the resurrection of Jesus, by the same precise evidence I must hold it for a truth that I am justified—for God hath equally asserted both.” But on this M'Lean remarks— “The resurrection is a truth independent of my believing, and the subject of direct testimony; but my justification is not declared to be a truth until I believe the former; nor is it directly asserted, but promised on that provision, ‘If thou shalt believe,’ &c. Rom. 10: 9.” (See M*Lean's Commission of the Apostles.) This seems to be the most dangerous tenet of the Bereans, because it reduces faith to fancy, since it amounts to this, “If I persuade myself that I am a believer, then I am one.” 3. They say, that the sin against the Holy Ghost is no- thing else but unbelief; and that the expression, “It shall not be forgiven, neither in this world, nor that which is to come,” means only that a person dying in unbelief would not be forgiven, neither under the former dispensation by Moses, nor under the Gospel dispensation, which, in re- spect of the Mosaic, was a kind of future world, or world to come.—This however is more than doubtful. See AION. 4. They consider the whole of the Old Testament pro- phecies, and especially the book of Psalms, as typical or prophetic of Christ, and never apply them to the experi- ence of private Christians. Under this and the first head, they agree with the followers of Mr. Hutchinson. See HUTCHINsonIANs. 5. They maintain the sovereignty of God, and uncondi- tional election, in the strongest language of the Calvinists. The Bereans practise infant baptism, and administer the Lord's supper monthly; but, in admitting to communion, they do not requirc that account of personal experience, which many other churches do; but, after due admonition, they exclude unworthy members for immoral conduct, though they do not pretend to “deliver them over to Sa- tan,” as the apostles did." - The denomination has several congregations in Scotland, and some few in England and America.-Barclay's As- surance of Faith vindicated ; M'Lean's Commis. p. 92. N; Supplement to Ency. Brit, ; Williams. BERLNGARIUS, or BERENGER ; a celebrated reformer of the eleventh century. He was a man of most acute genius, extensive learning, and exemplary sanctity of life and manners. He denied the doctrine of the real prescnce, as it was then commonly termed ; and by writing against it, called forth all the learned of the church of Rome to defend the doctrine of transubstantiation. Berenger was a native of France, educated under Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, a very learned man; and taking orders in the church, becaume deacon of St. Maurice, and ultimately archbishop of Angiers, in the province of Anjou. He was also principal of the academy of Tours. The prevalent sentiment of his day relative to the eucharist was, that the bread was the identical body, and the wine the very blood of Christ—not only figuratively, but substantially and pro- perly. Berenger, on the contrary, insisted that the body of Christ is only in the heavens; and that the elements of bread and wine are merely the symbols of his body and blood. Several of the bishops wrote against him, most bitterly complaining of his heresy; but not feeling the force of their arguments, Berenger remained unmoved, and defended his opinions with the utmost pertinacity. He wrote a letter on the subject to Lanfrank, who was at that time at the head of the convent of St. Stephen's at Caen, in Normandy, and called from thence by William the Conqueror to be archbishop of Canterbury, which being opened while the latter was from home, was officiously transmitted by the convent to pope Leo. The pontiff, shocked at its heretical contents, summoned a council at Fercelli, at which Berenger was commanded to he present. His friends, however, advised him against going, and he consequently sent two persons to attend the council and answer in his behalf. Lanfrank also was present and pleaded for Berenger; but the latter was condemned, the two persons who appeared for him imprisoned, and Lan- frank commanded by the pope to draw up a refutation of the heresy of Berenger, on pain of being himself reputed a heretic; with which injunction he thought it prudent to comply. This example was ſollowed also by the council of Paris, summoned the very same year by Henry I., in which Berenger and his numerous adherents were threa- tened with all sorts of evils both spiritual and temporal— evils which were in part executed against the heretical pre- late ; for the monarch deprived him of all his revenues. But neither threatenings nor fines, nor the decrees of sy- nods, could shake the firmness of his mind, or oblige him to retract his sentiments. In the mean while, the opinions of Berenger were everywhere spreading rapidly, insomuch that, if we may credit contemporary writers, “his doctrine had corrupted all the English, Italian, and French na- tions.” Thuanus adds, that “in Germany were many of the same doctrine, and that Bruno, bishop of Treves, ba- mished them all out of his diocese, sparing only their blood.” Three times Berenger was compelled to abjure "his sentiments, at Rome; and as often, on returning to France, avowed and spread them with renewed zeal, un- til, disgusted with a controversy in which the first princi- ples of reason were so impudently insulted, and exhausted by an opposition which he was unable to overcome, he aban- doned all his worldly concerns, and retiring into solitude, passed the remainder of his days in fasting, prayer, and the exercise of piety. In the year 1088, death put a period to the affliction which he suffered in retirement, occasioned by bitter reflection upon his repeated dissimulations at Rome; leaving behind him, in the minds of the people, a deep impression of his extraordinary sanctity. It is not so generally known, that Berengarius also strenuously op- posed papal celibacy, and the baptism of infants. His fol-. lowers were as numerous as his fame was illustrions.— Jones ; Mosheim ; Milner; Ivimey, vol. i. p. 22. BERENGARIANS ; a denomination, in the eleventh century, who adhered to the opinions of Berengarius, The B E R B E R [ 223 J Catholics ranked them among the most dangerous heretics. See BERENG ARIUS. . . . . BERICELEY, (DR GeoRGE,) the learned and ingenious bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland, and a distinguished benefac- tor of Yale college, (Con.) was born in that kingdom, at I(ilcrin, near Thomastown, March 12, 1684. He acquired the rudiments of his education at the school of Kilkenny; was admitted pensioner of Trinity college, Dublin, at the age of fifteen ; and chosen fellow of that college, July 9, 1707, having been placed under the tuition of Dr. Hall. The first public proof that he gave of his literary abilities, was in a Latin treatise on arithmetic, written before he was twenty years old, though not published till 1707. Two years afterwards, came forth “The Theory of Vision,” which, of all his works, seems to do the greatest honor to his sagacity; being, as Dr. Reid remarks, “the first at- tempt with which we are acquainted, to distinguish the immediate and natural objects of sight, from the conclu- sions which we have been accustomed from infancy to draw from them.” In 1710, appeared “The Principles of IIuman I(nowledge;” and in 1713, “Dialogues between Hylas and Philoneus :” the design of both which pieces is to prove the commonly-received notion of the existence of matter to be false: that sensible material objects, as they are called, are not external to the mind, but exist in it, and are nothing more than impressions made upon it by the immediate act of God, according to certain rules, termed laws of nature, from which, in the ordinary course of his government, he never deviates; and that the uni- form adherence of the Supreme Spirit to these rules is what constitutes the reality of things to his creatures. These works, if the author himself is to be credited, were drawn up against, or in opposition to, Sceptics and atheists; ne- vertheless, Mr. Hume, speaking of these writings of the very ingenious author, as he calls him, declares that “they form the best lessons of scepticism, which are to be found either among the ancient or modern philosophers, Bayle not excepted.” Whatever were Berkeley's intentions in com- posing them, that they are in reality merely sceptical, ap- pears from this, that they admit of no answer, and produce no conviction. Their only effect is, to cause that momentary amazement, and irresolution, and confusion, which are the results of scepticism. But our author had not reached his lººseventh year when he propounded this whimsical theory. Our present concern, however, is with Dr. Berkeley, not as a philosopher or metaphysician, but as a Christian and friend to revelation, and therefore we proceed to add, that in 1712, he published three sermons in favor of passive obedience and non-resistance, which went through at least three editions at the moment. To such an extent was the duty of allegiance carried in these sermons, that they brought upon the author the reproach of Jacobitism, and it cost his friend Mr. Molineux no little pains to wipe off that impression at court. But the graces of his composi- tion procured him many admirers; for acuteness of parts and beauty of imagination were so conspicuous in his writ- ings, that his reputation was soon established, and his com- any sought, even where his opinions did not find admission. n 1721, he accompanied the duke of Grafton on his mis- sion to Ireland as viceroy, in the capacity of chaplain; and in the same year obtained the degree of doctor in divinity. On the 18th of May, 1724, he was promoted to the deanery of Derry, worth twelve hundred pounds per annum. In 1725, he published “A Proposal for converting the savage Americans to Christianity, by a College to be erected in the Summer Islands, otherwise called the Isles of Bermu- da;” a scheme which had employed his thoughts for three or four years past, and he evinced his earnestness in the noble undertaking by the sacrifices he made to carry it into effect. He made a voluntary offer to resign all his preferments, and to dedicate the remainder of his life to the office of instructing the American youth, on a salary from government of one hundred pounds yearly. He prevailed on three junior fellows of Trinity college, Dublin, to give up all their prospects of preferment at home, and to exchange their fellowships for a settlement in the Atlantic ocean of forty pounds a year. He procured his plan to be laid be- fore George I., who commanded Sir Robert Walpole to submit it to the consideration of the house of commons; the result of which was the granting of a charter to him for erecting a college in Bermuda, to consist of a president and nine fellows, who were obliged to maintain and edu. cate Indian scholars, at ten pounds a year each. He alsc obtained from the commons the grant of a sum, the amount to be determined by the king; and accordingly ten thou- sand pounds were promised by the minister, for the pur- chase of lands, and erecting the college. Having married the daughter of the Hon. John Foster, speaker of the Irish house of commons, on the 1st of August, 1728, Dr. Berke- ley set sail in the following month for Rhode Island, on his way to Bermuda, taking with him his wife, a single lady, and two gentlemen of fortune. Yet the scheme en- tirely failed, and Berkeley was obliged to return home, af. ter residing nearly two years at Newport, Rhode Island. The reason assigned is, that Sir Robert Walpole never heartily embraced the project, and the sum voted by par- liament was converted by him to other purposes. At his departure, he distributed the books he had brought with him among the clergy of Rhode Island. For further par- ticulars of his residence in this country, of his literary influence, and liberality to Yale college, see Allen's Ame. rican Biographical Dictionary. In 1732, he published “The Minute Philosopher,” in two volumes, octavo. This masterly work, which was com- posed at Newport, Rhode Island, is written by way of dia- logue, on the model of Plato, a philosopher he is said to have much admired; and in it he pursued the freethinker through the various characters of atheist, libertine, enthu- siast, scorner, critic, metaphysician, fatalist, and sceptic. The same year, he printed a sermon which he had preach- ed before the Society for propagating the Gospel in foreign parts. In 1733, he was made bishop of Cloyne, and there took up his residence, faithfully prosecuting the duties of his elevated station, and continuing his studies with un- wearied application. In person, bishop Berkeley was remarkably handsome with a countenance full of expression and benignity, o muscular strength, and a robust constitution. He was an early riser, and much devoted to his studies. The excel- lence of his moral character is indeed conspicuous in his writings: he was certainly a very amiable, as well as a very Superior man ; and Pope is scarcely thought to have dealt in hyperbole, when he attributed “To Berkeley every virtue under heaven.” In July, 1752, bishop Berkeley removed, with his lady and family, to Oxford, partly to superintend the education of a son, but chiefly to indulge the passion for learned re- tirement, which had ever strongly possessed him, and which was one motive with him in forming the Bermuda project. Here he lived highly respected, till the evening of Sunday, January 14, 1753, when, as he was in the midst of his family, listening to a sermon which his lady was reading to him, he was seized with what was called a palsy in the heart, and instantly expired.—Jones's Chr. Bio. BERNARD OF MENTHON, archdeacon of Aosta, was born in 923, near Annecy, in Savoy, and was celebrated among his contemporaries for his learning and piety; but his claims to the notice of later ages rest on his having been the benevolent founder of the two admirable institu. tions on the Great and Little St. Bernard, by means of which the lives of so many travellers have been saved. He died in 1008–Davenport. BERNARD OF THURINGLA; a fanatical hermit of the tenth century, who threw almost all Europe into conster. nation, by preaching that the end of the world was at hand. Multitudes relinquished their occupations, and be. came pilgrims; and others were so frightened at an eclipse of the sun which then occurred, that they hid themselves in caverns and holes in the rocks. The terror spread by this man was not wholly removed till towards the close of the eleventh century—Davenport. BERNARD, (ST,) the celebrated abbot of Clairvaux, was born at Fontaine, in Burgundy, in 1091, of noble pa. rents. An austere manner of living, solitary studies, an inspiring eloquence, boldness of language, and the reputa- tion of a prophet, rendered him an oracle to all Christian Europe. He was named the honeyed teacher, and his writ ings Were styled a stream from Paradise. He was the an- tagonist of the schoolmen, and uniform advocate of prac. B E R B E R [ 224 J tical Christianity. But it ought to be confessed, that, like Athanasius, Augustine, and other Catholic fathers, he was misled by the love of ecclesiastical conformity, to false pretensions, and persecuting principles. All ecclesiastical dignities he constantly refused; but his virtues and talents gained him a higher influence in the Christian world than was possessed even by the pope himself, and the disputes of the church were often referred to his arbitration. His eloquence was powerfully displayed in the multitudes that he induced to assume the characters of crusaders. He died in 1153. Luther says of him, “If there has ever been a pious monk who feared God, it was St. Bernard; whom alone I hold in much higher esteem than all other monks and priests throughout the globe.” His devotional Medi- tations are still read and admired, even among Protestants. They were translated into English by dean Stanhope. There are editions of his works in six volumes, and in two volumes, folio.—Davenport. BERNARD, (CLAUDE,) a native of Dijon, born in 1588, who assumed the title of “the poor priest,” is worthy of commemoration for his ardent and persevering charity. His whole life was devoted to assisting the poor, attending the sick in the hospitals, and preparing criminals for death. For these purposes, he not only solicited benefactions from the rich, but sold his own inheritance, which was worth nearly twenty thousand pounds. He died in 1641.-Da- tyenſ)0rt. #fin ARDINES; an order of monks, founded by Ro- bert, abbot of Molerne, and reformed by St. Bernard, a celebrated Franciscan friar of the fourteenth century. They wear a white robe, with a black scapulary; and when they officiate, they are clothed with a large gown, which is all white, and has great sleeves, with a hood of the same color. They differ very little from the Cister- cians, and had their origin towards the beginning of the twelfth century.—Henderson's Buck. author of the celebrated “Studies of Nature,” was born at \ 2-3 jºš. º Havre, in 1737, and is said to have been a descendant of the celebrated Eustace de St. Pierre, the patriotic mayor of Calais. At the age of twenty, he entered into the en- gineer service; and he successively served at Malta, in Russia, and in Poland. On his revisiting his native coun- try, he obtained a captain's commission in the engineer corps, and was sent to the Isle of France, from whence, however, aſter a residence of three years, he returned, with no other fortune than a collection of shells and insects, and a narrative of his voyage. The latter, which was his first literary effort, was published in 1773; and he, thenceforth, devoted himself to literature. His Studies of Nature ap- peared in 1784, and passed rapidly through several edi- tions. Paul and Virginia was published in 1788, and this delightful tale acquired an unprecedented popularity, and set the seal on his reputation. During the reign of terror, he narrowly escaped the scaffold. From Napoleon and his brother Joseph he received pensions, which gave com- fort to his latter days. He died in 1814. His Harmonies of Nature was given to the press after his death. The best edition of his works is in twelve octavo volumes. The philosophy of St. Pierre is occasionally eccentric ; but the piety of his sentiments, the purity of his morality, and the beauty of his style, deserve the highest praise.—Davenport BERNICE, or BERENice; daughter of Agrippa the Great, king of the Jews, and sister of Agrippa the young- er, also king of the Jews. She was first betrothed to Mark, son of Alexander Lysimachus, alabarch of Alexandria; but afterwards she married Herod, king of Chalcis, her §§ :Nº! § sº -º-º-ºſ #2. N Jesus, receive my spirit. own uncle, by the father's side. After the death of Herod, she proposed to Polemon, king of Pontus and part of Cili- cia, that if he would be gircumcised she would marry him. Polemon complied, but Berenice did not continue long with him. She returned to her brother Agrippa, with whom she lived in such a manner as to excite scandal. She was pre- sent with him, and heard the discourse of Paul before Fes- tus, at Caesarea of Palestine, Acts 25: 23.—Calmet. BEROSUS, the Babylonish historian, was, by nation, a Chaldean ; and by office, a priest of Belus. Tatian says, he lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and dedicated his work to king Antiochus, the third after Alexander, that is, Antiochus Theos, or perhaps, Antiochus Soter; for the many years between Alexander and Antiochus Theos (some reckoning sixty-four from the death of Alexander to the first year of Antiochus Theos) might induce us to prefer this sense. Berosus, having learned Greek, went first to the isle of Cos, where he taught astronomy and as- trology; and afterwards to Athens, where he acquired so much reputation by his astrological predictions, that in the gymnasium, where the youth performed their exercises, a statue, with a golden tongue, was erected to him. Jose- phus and Eusebius have preserved some valuable frag- ments of Berosus's history, which greatly elucidate many places in the Old Testament; and without which, it would be difficult to produce an exact series of the kings of Ba- bylon.—Calmet. * BERQUIN, (ARNOLD,) an elegant, pious, and amiable writer, who devoted his pen to the instruction of youth, was born at Bordeaux, in 1749, and died at Paris, in 1791. His works, consisting of Idylls; the Children's Friend; the Youth's Friend; the Little Grandison; the Family Book; and several similar productions, form twenty vo lumes. The Children's Friend is, in part, imitated from the German of Weiss-Davenport. • * BERSMAN, (George ;) a very eminent classical au- thor, professor of poetry and Greek in the universities of Wittemberg and Leipsic, and well versed in various other departments of science and literature. Born 1539, died 1611, aged seventy-two. In his last sickness he mani- fested great humility and prayerfulness, and delighted in repeating the words of Job, I know that my Redeemer liv- eth : and also of John, God so loved the world, &c. And that of the apostle, No one of us liveth to himself; together with the 42d, 51st, and 90th psalms; also the German hymn from the words of the proto-martyr Stephen, Lord And thus, at length, placidly, and without any discomposed gesture or motion, like one be- ginning to fall asleep, he restored his happy spirit to God — Clissold. . . - BERTHA ; daughter of Charibert, king of France, and wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent, during the heptarchy in England. Ethelbert was one of the wisest and most pow- erful of the Saxon princes, but a pagan. It was expressly stipulated on the marriage, that Bertha, who was a Chris- tian, should profess her own religion unmolested. Listen- ing to the doctrines of her faith, Ethelbert became a convert to it in 597.—Betham. g BERTRAM, or RATRAM, monk of Corby in France; a celebrated writer in the ninth century, who deserves the first rank among those that refuted the doctrine of Rad- bert concerning the real presence of Christ in the eucharist. He defended the Latin church against Photius, the hymn Trina Deitas against Hincmar, and the doctrine of Godes- chalcus concerning predestination.—Mosheim. BERYL ; a pellucid gem of a bluish green color, whence 1t is called by the lapidaries, aqua marina. Its Hebrew name is a word also for the same reason given to the sea, Psalm 48: 7. It is found in the East Indies, Peru, Sibe- ria, and Tartary. It has a brilliant appearance, and is generally transparent. It was the tenth stone belonging to the high-priest's pectoral, Exod. 28: 10, 20. Rev. 21: 20.—Watson. BERYLLIANS ; so called from one Beryllus, a learned Arabian bishop, in the third century. He taught, that Christ did not exist before Mary; but that a Spirit from God himself, a portion of the divine nature, was united to him at his birth. His sentiments, therefore, nearly corre- sponded with those of the modern Socinians, which see He is said, however, to have yielded to the arguments of B ET B E T [ 225 J Origen, and to have returned to the bosom of the Christian church.-Mosheim,. .."; , BESET; to surround as an army. Judg. 19:20. God besets men behind and before j he exactly knows, upholds, and governs them, that they can go nowhere but as he ermits, and where they are surrounded with his presence. j 139: 5. Men's sinful doings beset them, when they ap- pear charged on them, and with mighty force entangle them in their deserved punishment, Hos. 7: 2. The sin that easily besets men is the sin of their nature and tem- perament, or, their predominant, lust, which, being º rooted in their heart and affections, and connected wit their outward circumstances in life, readily, and without much opposition, instigates, and, as it were, shuts them up to the commission of wicked acts. Heb. 12: 1– Bronn. BESOM; an instrument to sweep with. God's judg- ments are called a besom of destruction ; they make a great stir and confusion ; they often cut off multitudes, and with ease sweep them into trouble, the dunghill of contempt, or pit of endless misery. Isa. 14: 23.−Brown. BESOR, or Bosor ; a brook which flows into the Medi- terranean a few miles south of Gaza. 1 Sam. 30: 9, 10, 21. This should be carefully distinguished from the River of Egypt, which is the Rhinocolura, now Wady el 'Arish, some ſorty miles farther to the south-west.— T. BETHABARA, beyond Jordan, where John baptized, (John 1: 28,) was the common ford of the river, and prob- ably the same as Beth-barah, Judg. 7: 24.—Calmet. BETHANY; (John 11: 18.) now el 'Aziriyeh, that is, Lazarus' town; a village about two miles from Jerusa- lem, on the eastern slope of the mount of Olives. It is a poor village of about twenty families, with a modern counterfeit sepulchre of Lazarus.—T. BETH-ARBEL, see ARBela. BETH-DAGON; IIouse, or Temple of Dagon ; the name of a town in Judah, and another in Asher, the site of neither of which is known. There is a Beit Dejan six miles south-east from Joppa, and another seven or eight miles nearly east from Nabulus. These, doubtless, were anciently called Beth Dagon; but neither is mentioned in scripture.—T. BETH-AWEN i Bethel; so called from the idolatrous worship of the golden calf. Hosea 4: 15. See Aven. Also, a town near Bethel, on the east, Josh. 7: 2. BETHEL; a city of Benjamin, ten miles north from Jerusalem. Its ruins cover the southern point of a low hill, between two shallow valleys, which unite just below, and flow off to the south-east. It is shut in, on almost every side, by higher land. On the hill just across the eastern Valley, Abraham pitched his tent on his first arrival in Palestine; and again on his return from Egypt. Gen. 12: 8; 13: 3. . Here, too, Jacob slept on his way to Padan- Aram, and had his remarkable dream, from which he called the place Bethel, the house of God. The Israelites under Joshua ſound a city here called Luz ; but having conquered and rebuilt it, they restored the name of Bethel. During the worship of the golden calf, set up there by Jeroboam, the prophet Hosea called it, sarcastic. ally, Beth-aven, the house of vanity. See Aven. Its ruins are now, by a change in the final letter, not unknown to the Arabic, called Beilin.—T. - BETHER ; a fortified city, not far from Jerusalem, to which the Jews retired aſter the conquest of Jerusalem by Hadrian ; probably the same as Bethel. of Bether, mentioned in Cant. 2: 17, should probably be rendered, craggy mountains; as mountains of that name are not elsewhere mentioned.—T. BETHESDA. This word signifies the house of mercy, * , , . and was the name of a pool, or public bath, at Jerusalem, which had five porticos, piazzas, or covered walks around it. John 5: 2–4. This bath was called Bethesda, be- cause, as some observe, the erecting of baths was an act of great kindness to the common people, whose infirmities in hot countries required frequent bathing ; but the gene- rality of expositors think it had this name rather from the great goodness of God manifested to his people, in bestow- ing healing virtues upon its waters. The word kolumbethra, which in that passage is translated pool, signifies a reser- voir of water, deep enough." which to allow a person to The mountains: swim. There were two pools of that description formerly. Compare 2 Kings 18: 17, with Neh. 3:15. It was at the latter of these pools that Jesus directed the blind man to wash for the recovery of his sight. John 9: 7. The five porches mentioned by the evangelist, John 5: 2–4, are supposed to have been five apartments for the accommo- dation of the multitude that came to the pool to be cured of their bodily diseases. Mr. Maundrell says, that when he was at Jerusalem, he saw what was supposed to have been the pool of Bethesda, on the one side adjacent to St. Stephen's gate, and on the other to the area of the temple, in Jerusalem, near the mount on which the temple stood; one of them was called “the Upper Pool,” and the other “the Pool of Siloam,” which was near the king's garden. “It is,” says he, “an hundred and twenty paces long, forty broad, and at least eight deep. At its west end it disco- vers some old arches, which are now dammed up.” Maun. drell, ubi supra, pp. 107, 108. “In these porches,” says the evangelist, “lay a great number of impotent people, blind, halt, withered, waiting for the moving of the water. For an angel went down at a certain season into the pool, and troubled the water; whosoever then first, after the troubling of the water, stepped in, was made whole of whatsoever disease he had,” John 5: 2–4. Whether the miracles performed at the pool of Bethesda, were confined to the season of the particular ſeast mentioned in the first verse of the chapter, as the words “at a certain season” seem to imply, or whether that expression may be taken in a more enlarged sense to signify that the water had its healing quality at other Jewish festivals, cannot now be ascertained. That it did not possess these properties at all times, but only when an angel went down and agitated the water, is clear from the words of the evangelist. The agitation of the water; its suddenly healing virtue as to all diseases; and the limitation to the first that should go in, are all miraculous circumstances. Commentators have, however, resorted to various hypotheses to account for the whole without divine agency. Dr. Hammond, Michaelis, Kuinoel, and others, suppose it received medicinal proper- ties from the warm blood of the temple sacrifices; Mead, from metallic salts at the bottom ; Mr. Taylor, from a cold spring which flowed only at particular seasons. Doddridge combines the common hypothesis with that of Mead; namely, that the water had at all times more or less of a medicinal property; but at some period, not far distant from that in which the transaction here recorded took place, it was endued with a miraculous power; an extra- ordinary commotion being probably observed in the water, and Providence so ordering it, that the next person who accidentally bathed here, being under some great disorder, found an immediate and unexpected cure : the like pheno- menon in some other desperate case, was probably ob- served on a second commotion: and these commotions and cures might happen periodically. All those hypotheses, however, which exclude miracle in this case, are very unsatisfactory, nor is there any reason whatever to resort to them ; for, when rightly viewed, there appears a mercy and a wisdom in this miracle, which must strike every one who attentively-considers the ac- count, unless he be a determined unbeliever in miraculous interposition. For, 1. The miracle occurred kata kairon, from time to time, that is, occasionally, perhaps frequent ly. 2. Though but one at a time was healed, yet, as this might often occur, a singularly gracious provision was made for the relief of the sick inhabitants of Jerusalem in desperate cases. 3. The angel probably acted invisibly, but the commotion in the waters was so strong and pecu- liar as to mark a supernatural agent. 4. There is great probability in what Doddridge, following Tertullian, sup- poses, that the waters obtained their healing property not long before the ministry of Christ, and lost it after his re- jection and crucifixion by the Jews. In this case, a connex- ion was established between the healing virtue of the pool and the presence of Christ on earth, indicating HIM to be the source of this benefit, and the true agent in conſerring it; and thus it became, afterwards at least, a confirmation of his mission. 5. The whole might also be emblematical, “intended,” says Macknight, “to show that Ezekiel's vi. sion of waters issuing out of the sanctuary was about to be fulfilled, of which waters it is said, They shall be heal- B E T B E T. [ 226 J ed, and every thing shall live where the river cometh.” It cannot-be objected that this was not an age of miracles; and if miracles be allowed, we see in this particular Super- natural visitation, obvious reasons of fitness, as well as a divine compassion. If, however, the ends to be accom- plished by so public and notable a miraculous interposition were less obvious, still we must admit the fact, or either force absurd interpretations upon the text, or make the evangelist carelessly give his sanction to an instance of vulgar credulity and superstition.—Watson; Calmet; Jones. Dr. Robinson has shown that the excavation described by Maundrell, and usually shown as the Pool of Bethesda, is the remaining part of a trench, which defended the tower of Antonia on the north. The true Bethesda, he supposes, may have been the Fountain of the Virgin, about 850 feet south of the Temple area, and near the ancient wall of the city. This ſountain is partially inter- mittent, flowing in an increased quantity at irregular intervals, two or three times a day in winter, and once in two or three days in summer. It probably comes from reservoirs under the temple, and passes off, through a winding channel cut in the solid rock, to the Pool of Siloam.—T. - BETH-HACCEREM ; the name of a city situated on an eminence between Jerusalem and Tekoah. Jer. 6: 1. Malchiah, the son of Rechab, was prince of Beth-haccerem, Neh. 3: 14.—Jones. BETH-HOGLA; a city of Benjamin, on the boundary between that tribe and Judah, and near the Jordan. The fountain 'Ain Hajla, two miles west of the Jordan and three miles north of the Dead Sea, still preserves the name, and doubtless nearly marks the site.—T. BETH-HORON. The Nether Beth-horon, now Beit "Ur et Tahta, is on the northern road from Joppa to Jeru- salem, eleven miles about northwest from the latter, and the same distance from Lydda. It is situated on a low ridge, at the western base of the mountain range. A steep, rough, winding path, in some places cut into the rock, leads, in a direction a little south of east, to the Upper Beth-horon, now called Beit *Ur el Foka. Here commences a high table land of broken hills, with a gradual ascent towards the east. It was at the Upper Beth-horon, while the discomfited Amorites were rushing down the pass to the lower city, pursued by tremendous hail-stones, that Joshua commanded the Sun and moon to stand still.—T. - BETH-JESHIMOTH ; a city in the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 13: 20, afterwards possessed by the Moabites. Eze- kiel foretold the destruction of this and other cities of Mo- ab, chapter 25: 9. Eusebius places it ten miles from the river Jordan.—Jones. r - - - BETHLEHEM ; a city in the tribe of Judah, Judg. 17: 7; and likewise called Ephrath, Gen. 48: 7; or Ephratah, Mic. 5: 2; and the inhabitants of it, Ephrathites, Ruth 1: 2. 1 Sam. 17: 12. Here David was born, and spent his early years as a shepherd. And here also the scene of the beautiful narrative of Ruth is supposed to be laid. But its highest honor is, that here our divine Lord conde- scended to be born of woman :-‘And thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me, that is to be ruler in Israel, whose goings forth have been of old, from everlasting.” Travellers describe the first view of Bethlehem as imposing. The town appears covering the ridge of a hill on the southern side of a deep and extensive valley, and reaching from east to west. The most conspi- cuous object is the monastery erected over the supposed “Cave of the Nativity;” its walls and battlements have the air of a large fortress. From this same point, the Dead sea is seen below on the left, seemingly very near, “but,” says Sandys, “not so found by the traveller; for these high, declining mountains are not to be directly de- scended.”. The road winds round the top of a valley, which tradition has fixed on as the scene of the angelic vision which announced the birth of our Lord to the shepherds; but different spots have been selected, the Romish authori. ties not being agreed on this head. Bethlehem (called in the New Testament Bethlehem Ephrata and Bethlehem of Judea, to distinguish it from Bethlehem of Zabulon) is situated on a rising ground, about two hours' distancé, or not quite six miles from Jerusalem. Here the traveller meets with a repetition of the same puerilities and disgust- ing mummery which he has witnessed at the church of the sepulchre. “The stable,” to use the words of Pococke, “in which our Lord was born, is a grotto cut out of the rock, according to the eastern custom.” It is astonishing to find so intelligent a writer as Dr. E. D. Clarke gravely citing Jerome, who wrote in the fifth century, as an authori- ty for the truth of the absurd legend by which the cave of the nativity is supposed to be identified. The ancient tombs and excavations are occasionally used by the Arabs as places of shelter; but the gospel narrative affords no countenance to the notion that the Virgin took refuge in any cave of this description. On the contrary, it was evi- dently a manger belonging to the inn or khan : in other words, the upper rooms being wholly occupied, the holy family were compelled to take up their abode in the court allotted to the mules and horses, or other animals. But the New Testament was not the guide which was followed by the mother of Constantime, to whom the original church owed its foundation. The present edifice is represented by Chateaubriand as of undoubtedly high antiquity; yet Doubdan, an old traveller, says that the monastery was destroyed in the year 1263 by the Moslems; and in its present state, at all events, it cannot lay claim to a higher date. The convent is divided among the Greek, Roman, and Armenian Christians, to each of whom separate parts are assigned as places of worship and habitations for the monks; but, on certain days, all may perform their devo- tions at the altars erected over the consecrated spots. The church is built in the form of a cross; the nave being adorned with forty-eight Corinthian columns in four rows, each column being two feet six inches in diameter, and eighteem feet high, including the base and the capital. The mave, which is in possession of the Armenians, is separated from the three other branches of the cross by a wall, so that the unity of the edifice is destroyed. The top of the cross is occupied by the choir, which belongs to the Greeks. Herc is an altar dedicated to the wise men of the east, at the ſoot of which is a marble star, corresponding, as the monks say, to the point of the heavens where the miracu- lous meteor became stationary, and directly over the spot where the Savior was born in the subterranean church below ! A flight of fifteen steps, and a long narrow pas- sage, conduct to the sacred crypt or grotto of the nativity, which is thirty-seven feet six inches long, by eleven feet three inches in breadth, and nine feet high. It is lined and floored with marble, and provided on each side with five oratories, “answering precisely to the ten cribs or stalls for horses that the stable in which our Savior was born contained " The precise spot of the birth is marked by a glory in the floor, composed of marble and jasper en- circled with silver, around which are inscribed the words, Hic de Virgine Mariá Jesus Christus natus est. Over it is a marble table or altar, which rests against the side of the rock, here cut into an arcade. The manger is at the dis- tance of seven paces from the altar; it is in a low recess hewn out of the rock, to which you descend by two steps, and consists of a block of marble, raised about a ſoot and a half above the floor, and hollowed out in the form of a manger. Beſore it is the altar of the Magi. The chapel is illuminated by thirty-two lamps, presented by different princes of Christendom. Chateaubriand has described the scene in his usual florid and imaginative style: “Nothing can be more pleasing, or better calculated to excite devo- tional sentiments, than this subterraneous church. It is adorned with pictures of the Italian and Spanish schools, which represent the mysteries of the place. The usual ornaments of the manger are of blue satin, embroidered with silver. Incense is continually burning before the cradle of our Savior. I have heard an organ, touched by no ordinary hand, play, during mass, the sweetest and most tender tunes of the best Italian composers. These concerts charm the Christian Arab, who, leaving his camels to feed, repairs, like the shepherds of old, to Bethlehem, to adore the King of kings in the manger. I have seen this inhabitant of the desert communicate at the altar of the Magi, with a fervor, a piety, a devotion, unknown among the Christians of the West. The continual arrival of caravans from all the nations of Christendom; the pub- B E T B E T [ 227 ) lic prayers; the prostrations; nay, even the richness of the presents sent here by the Christian princes, altogether produce feelings in the soul, which it is much easier to conceive than to describe.” . Such are the illusions which the Roman superstition casts over this extraordinary scene ! In another subterra- neous chapel, tradition places the sepulchre of the Inno- cents. From this, the pilgrim is conducted to the grotto of St. Jerome, where they show the tomb of that father, who passed great part of his liſe in this place; and who, in the grotto shown as his oratory, is said to have trans- lated that version of the Bible which has been adopted by the church of Rome, and is called the Vulgate. He died at the advanced age of ninety-one, A.D. 422. The village of Bethlehem contains about three thousand inhabitants, the greater part of whom gain their livelihood by making beads, carving mother-of-pearl shells with sacred subjects, and manufacturing small tables and crucifixes, all which are eagerly purchased by the pilgrims. - Bethlehem has been visited by many modern travellers. The following notice of it by Dr. E. D. Clarke will be read with interest: “After travelling for about an hour from the time of our leaving Jerusalem, we came in view of Beth- lehem, and halted to enjoy the interesting sight. The town appeared covering the ridge of a hill, on the south- ern side of a deep and extensive valley, and reaching from east to west; the most conspicuous object being the mo- nastery, erected over the cave of the nativity, in the su- burbs, and upon the eastern side. The battlements and walls of this building seemed like those of a vast fortress. The Dead sea below, upon our left, appeared so near to us that we thought we could have rode thither in a very short space of time. Still nearer stood a mountain upon its western shore, resembling in its form the cone of Vesuvius near Naples, and having also a crater upon its top, which was plainly discernible. The distance, however, is much greater than it appears to be; the magnitude of the objects beheld in this fine prospect causing them to appear less remote than they really are. The atmosphere was re- markably clear and serene; but we saw none of those clouds of smoke, which, by some writers, are said to ex- hale from the surface of the lake, nor from any neighbor- ing mountain. Every thing about it was in the highest degree grand and awſul. Bethlehem is six miles from Jerusalem. Josephus describes the interval between the two cities as equal only to twenty stadia; and in the pas- sage referred to, he makes an allusion to a celebrated well, which, both from the account given by him of its situation, and more especially from the text of the sacred Scriptures, 2 Sam. 23: 15, seems to have contained the identical foun- tain, of whose pure and delicious water we were now drinking. Considered merely in point of interest, the sa- cred narrative is not likely to be surpassed by any circum- stance of pagan history. The well still retains its pristine renown ; and many an expatriated Bethlehemite has made it the theme of his longing and regret.”— Watson. BETHLEHEMITES; a sect, also called Star-bearers, because they were distinguished by a red star having five rays, which they wore on their breast, in memory of the star which appeared to the wise men. Several authors have mentioned this order, but none of them have told us their origin, nor where their convents were situated; if we except Matthew Paris, who says that, in 1257, they ob- tained a settlement in England, which was at Cambridge, in Trumpington street. There still exists, in the Spanish West Indies, an order of Bethlehemites, who are habited like capuchins, except that they wear a leathern girdle instead of a cord, and on their right side an escutcheon representing the nativity of Christ.—Hend. Buck. - - BETHPHAGE ; a village closely connected with Beth- any. Jesus, on his way from Jericho to Jerusalem, seems to have arrived at Bethphage first, Mat. 21: 1; and to have been “nigh” both villages at the same time, Luke 19:29; and to have reached them on arriving at the mount of Olives from the east. Bethphage, therefore, was near Bethany, on the eastern slope of the mount of Olives; and not, as some have said, on the western.—T. BETHUNE, (Divie,) an eminent philanthropist and Christian, was born at Dingwall, Rosshire, Scotland, in zº of the circumstances of the time. 1771. In early life he resided at Tobago, where his only brother was a physician. At the command of His pious mother, he left the irreligious island and removed to the |United States, in 1792, and settled as a merchant in New York. He soon joined the church of Dr. Mason; in 1802, became one of its elders. He died, September 18, 1824. His wife was the daughter of Isabella Graham. Before a tract society was formed in this country, Mr. Bethune printed ten thousand tracts at his own expense, and him- self distributed many of them. He also imported Bibles for distribution. From 1803 to 1816, he was at the sole expense of one or more Sunday schools. The tenth of his gains he devoted to the service of his heavenly Master. In his last sickness, he said, “I wish my friends to help me through the valley by reading to me the word of God. I have not read much lately but the Bible: the Bible ! the Bible! I want nothing but the Bible ! O, the light, that has shined into my soul through the Bible !” His end was peace. Such a benefactor of the human family is incom- parably more worthy of remembrance, than the selfish philosophers and the great warriors of the earth.--Allen : N. Y. Observer ; B. Recorder, Oct. 16. BETHSAIDA ; a city, whose name in Hebrew imports a place of fishing or of hunting, and for both of these exer- cises it was well situated. As it belonged to the tribe of Naphtali, it was in a country remarkable for plenty of deer; and as it lay on the north end of the lake Gennesa- reth, just where the river Jordan runs into it, it became the residence of fishermen. Three of the apostles, Philip, Andrew, and Peter, were born in this city. It is not men- tioned in the Old Testament, though it frequently occurs in the New : the reason is, that it was but a village, as Josephus tells us, till Philip the tetrarch enlarged it, mak- ing it a magnificent city, and gave it the name of Julias, out of respect to Julia, the daughter of Augustus Caesar. The evangelists speak of Bethsaida ; and yet it then possessed that name no longer : it was enlarged and beau- tified nearly at the same time as Caesarea, and called Julias. Thus was it called in the days of our Lord, and so would the sacred historians have been accustomed to call it. But if they knew nothing of this, what shall we say of their age? In other respects, they evince the most accurate knowledge The solution is, that, though Philip had exalted it to the rank of a city, to which he gave the name of Julias, yet, not long afterwards, this Julia, in whose honor this city received its name, was ba- nished from the country by her own father. The deeply- wounded honor of Augustus was even anxious that the world might forget that she was his daughter. Tiberius, whose wife she had been, consigned the unfortunate prin- cess, after the death of Augustus, to the most abject pover- ty, under which she sank without assistance. Thus adu- lation must under two reigns have suppressed a name, from which otherwise the city might have wished to derive benefit to itself; and for some time it was called by its ancient name, Bethsaida, instead of Julias. At a later period, this manne again came into circulation, and appears in the catalogue of Jewish cities by Pliny. By such inci- dents, which are so easily overlooked, and the knowledge of which is afterwards lost, do those who are really ac- quainted with an age disclose their authenticity.—Wat- SO?l. There were two cities of this name, by confounding which, writers have involved themselves in no slight difficulties. They were, 1. Beths AIDA, which was also called Julias. Its ruins are still visible at a place called et Tell, that is, The Hill, on the eastern bank of the Jordan, about three miles north of its entrance into the Sea of Galilee. Its position is very accurately described by Josephus, and distinctly reſerred to by Pliny, and by Jerome. On leaving the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, Jesus repaired to Decapolis, on the east of the Jordan and Sea of Galilee. Mark 7: 31. Here he miraculously fed the four thousand ; and then took ship and came into the coasts of Magdala, which Mark here calls Dalmanutha. Mat. 15: 39; Mark 8: 10. Magdala,-now Mejdel, was on the western shore of the sea, about half way between its northern and south- ern extremities. Here the Pharisees began to question him; but “he left them, and entering into a ship again, B E. T B E T [ 228 departed unto the other side;” that is, the eastern side; followed the eastern shore to Bethsaida ; there healed a blind man; and then pursued his journey up the valley of the Jordan, to its head waters, among “the towns of Cae- sarea Philippi.” 2. BETHSAIDA of GALILEE, expressly so called, John 12: 21, to distinguish it from the other Bethsaida, was the birthplace of Andrew and Peter and Philip. Epiphanius says it is not far from Capermaum. Jerome places it, with Capernaum, Chorazin and Tiberias, on the western shore. Eusebius says it lay on the shore. It was in the land of Gennesaret, as appears from Mark 6: 45, 52. This was a fertile tract, extending along the coast, four or five miles southward from Capernaum. Its exact location is unknown.—T. BETHSHEAN, or BETHSHAN ; afterwards called Scy- thopolis, and by some, Nysa ; now Beisan, a village with seventy or eighty houses, with extensive ruins; was situated at the eastern extremity of the great Plain of Jezreel, four miles west of the Jordan, fourteen miles south of the Sea of Galilee, and fifty-five from Jerusalem. It lay within the borders of Issachar, but belonged to Ma- nasseh, though not at first subdued. Against the walls of this town the Philistines hung the body of Saul, after the battle on mount Gilboa, six or eight miles to the west. For some time after the Christian era, it was one of the most important towns in Palestine.—T. - BETH-SHEMESH, the House of the Sun, called also IR-shemesh, the City of the Sun, and now 'Ain Shems, Fountain of the Sun, just as Beth-Shemesh or Heliopolis in Egypt is now called 'Aim Shems, was a city of Judah, on the Borders of Dan, and afterwards assigned to the priests. It was fifteen miles from Jerusalem, a little to the south of west; twenty-four miles from Joppa, and eighteen from Hebron, in a right line between them. Hither the Philistines sent the ark from Ekron, about ten miles farther west. The ruins indicate the site of an extensive city. There was another Beth-Shemesh, belong- ing to Issachar, and still another belonging to Naphtali. The name was also applied to On, or Heliopolis, in Egypt.—T. BETH-SHITTAH; a place south-west of the sea of Tiberias, to which Gideon pursued Midian, Judg. 7:22.— Calmet. - BETH-TAPPUAH; a city of Judah, four miles west from Hebron. Josh. 15: 53. It is now called Tefſīāh. Tappuah was a different place, “in the valley,” ten or twelve miles to the north-west; in the vicinity of Socoh and Azekah. Josh. 15: 34.—T. BETHUEL, son of Nahor and Milcah, was Abraham's nephew, and father of Laban, and of Rebecca, Isaac's wife. Bethuel does not appear in the affair of Rebecca's marriage, but Laban only, Gen. 24: 50. See LABAN.— Calmet. BETHUL, or BETHUEI, ; a city of Simeon, (Josh. 19:4. 1 Chron. 4:30,) the same, probably, as Bethelia, which Sozomen speaks of, as a town belonging to the inhabitants of Gaza, well peopled, and having several temples remark- able for their structure and antiquity; particularly a pan- theon, (or temple dedicated to all the gods,) situated on an eminence made of earth, brought thither for the purpose, which commanded the whole city. He conjectures that it was named Bethelia, which signifies the house of God, by reason of this temple.—Calmet. BETH-ZUR ; a city of Judah, (Josh. 15:58,) which was ſortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chron. 11: 7. Lysias, regent of Syria under young Antiochus, son of Antiochus Epipha- nes, besieged Bethaur with an army of sixty thousand foot and five thousand horse; but Judas Maccabæus coming to Succor the place, Lysias was obliged to raise the siege, 1 Macc. 4: 28.6: 7; Judas put his army to flight, and af. terwards, making the best use of the arms and booty found in the enemy’s camp, the Jews became stronger and more formidable than they had heretofore been.—Calmet. 'Beth-zur was about five miles north from , Hebron, where are the ruins of a tower, called by the Arab inhab. itants Beit Stir. . Near it, and probably within the site of the ancient city, are the ruins of a fortress called edh-Dhirnieh. The pointed arches of the tower show it to be not older than the times of the Saracens.— T. BETROTHMENT ; a mutual promise or compact be. tween two parties for a future marriage. The word im, ports as much as giving one's troth; that is, true faith, or promise. . Among the ancient Jews, the betrothing was performed either by a writing, or by a piece of silver given to the bride. After the marriage was contracted, the young people had the liberty of seeing each other, which was not allowed them before. If, after the betrothment, the bride should trespass against that fidelity she owed to her bride- groom, she was treated as an adulteress. See MARRIAGE. God betroths or espouses his people to himself, when he leads them by faith into union with the Lord Jesus Christ, forming with him a relation so close, tender and sacred, that they enjoy a saving interest in his person, righteous- ness, grace, and glory, and he and they may rejoice in one another. He betroths them forever, by an everlasting co- venant, that neither time, sin, nor any thing else can dis- annul ; and in righteousness, consistently with his essential righteousness, and clothed with his imputed righteousness; and in judgment, with great wisdom and prudence; and in faithfulness, in fulfilment of his covenant and promise, and sincerely determined to fulfil the marriage trust to- wards them ; and in loving-kindness and mercies to their persons, so base, wretched, guilty, vile, and rebellious. Song 3: 11. Hos. 2: 19, 20. Of this, ministers, by the preaching of the Gospel, are means and instruments. 2 Cor. 11:2–Watson ; Bronm. - BETTER. On the definite understanding of this little word, as used in Scripture, depends much of our right conception, both of the superior excellence of spiritual to providential blessings, and of the Christian dispensation to the patriarchal and Mosaic which preceded it. In both cases, we are to look upon the former as simply preparato- ry, the latter final and eternal. God's love is better than life, is more sweet, pleasant, profitable, Sure, and honora- ble. Psalm 63: 3. Christ's love is better than wine ; we cannot sinfully exceed in desire of, and delight in it: it is enjoyed without money and without price; it never loses its sweetness and virtue; our living on it by faith renders us active, holy, and zealous for God, content with our lot, happy in ourselves, and a comfort to all around us. Song 1: 2. His obedience and suffering are better sacrifices than the Jewish, in respect of matter, manner of oblation, effi- cacy, and fruit. Heb. 9:23. His blood speaks better things than that of Abel : it purchases and procures full remission and eternal salvation to his enemies and murderers; whereas Abel's imprecated vengeance on his murderer. Heb. 12: 24. He, his ſruit, word, and saving instruction, are better than gold, than rubies; are more valuable, de- lightful, useful, exalting, and durable. Prov. 8: 14–19. and 3: 14. Psalm 119: 72. His priesthood, and the pro- mises of the Gospel, are a better hope, a more clear, honora- ble, and extensive ground of hope for all the blessings of time and eternity, than the Jewish sacrifices and shadows could be. Heb. 7: 19. The better covenant; established on better promises, is the covenant of grace, which, in respect of its party contracted with, its freedom, firmness, benefits conferred, honor and use, is far preferable to the covenant of works:–and is better than the national covenant made with the Hebrews at Sinai; it promises far more valuable blessings than the quiet possession of Canaan, and is more sure and permanent;-and the New Testament dispensa- tion of it is far more spiritual, easy, clear, and extensive than the Old. Heb. 7:22. and 8; 6. Our revelation is more plain, full and extensive : our ordinances are more clear, spiritual, and easy: we have the substance ºf their cere. monies with infinite advantage, in Christ's birth, life, death, resurrection, and ascension; have a more abundant and wide-spread effusion of the Holy Ghost, and a more eminent freedom from the impression of the broken law on our conscience. Heb. 11:40. A day in God’s courts is better than a thousand elsewhere. Fellowship with him is infinitely more delightful, profita- ble and honorable than any earthly advantage. Ps. 84: 10. A little that a righteous man hath, his dinner of herbs, or. dry morsel, is better than the wealth or delicate provision of the wicked. . It springs from God's redeeming love, is blessed of him, is a pledge of glory, and a means of draw. ing the affections and thoughts to God in Christ. Ps. 37: 16, Prov. 15: 16, 17, and 16:8, and 17 1. The saints' B E v. B E Z I 220 resurrection is better, more glorious and happy than a re- covery from a state of affliction; or a miraculous restora- tion to natural life; or the resurrection of the wicked to everlasting damnation. Heb. 11: 35. Heaven is a better country; its inhabitants, exercises, and enjoyments are far more holy, honored, and happy than those on earth ; and to be with Christ is far better than to be with Saints and ordinances on earth; as one is freed from every stain of sin, every temptation and trouble, and clearly sees, and fully delights in God as his all in all. Heb. 11: 16. Phil. 1:23. BEULAH, married; a name given to the Jewish church, importing its marriage with God, as their husband and sovereign Lord, Isa. 62:4.—Calmet. BEVERIDGE, (WILLIAM, D. D.) bishop of St. Asaph, was born at Barrow, in Leicestershire, in the year 1638. He was distinguished, when young, for his seriousness and in- telligence; and when only of the age of fifteen, was sent to St. John's college, Cambridge. There his industry, his knowledge, and his rapid improvement surprised, and delighted his tutors; and when only eighteen, he took his degree of bachelor of arts. His incessant application to the study of the learned languages, and of oriental learn- ing, had been so astonishing, that at that time he wrote “A Treatise on the Excellency and Use of the Oriental Tongues;” and at the age of twenty, he published a Sy- riac Grammar, both of which works demonstrated him to be a scholar of no ordinary powers. Nor was he less dis- tinguished for his moral than his mental qualifications. He was serious, pious, and exemplary in all his transac- tions with men, and in all the connexions of life. At the age of twenty-two, the seclusion and classic pursuits of the college he exchanged for the duties of a clergyman. In 1660, he was ordained deacon in the church of St. Botolph, Aldersgate: afterwards, in the same month, a priest; and Dr. Sheldon, then bishop of London, immediately collated him to the vicarage of Yealing in Middlesex. At that time he was engaged in writing an interesting work, afterwards published, and entitled “Private Thoughts upon Religion, digested into Twelve Articles, with Practical Resolutions founded thereon.” To the performance of his clerical duties at Yealing he was conscientiously attentive, and gained the esteem of his parishioners. In 1669, he published his celebrated work on chronology, to the study of which it is a good introduction. In 1672, he was chosen, by the mayor and aldermen of London, rector of St. Peter's, Cornhill ; and persuaded that, connected with such appointment, many and arduous duties would be imposed on him, he conscientiously resigned the vicarage of Yealing. In the same year he presented to the world an elaborate and most valuable work—A Collection of all the Apostolical Canons, consisting of those attributed to the Apostles; of the Councils of Nice, Ephesus, Constantinople, Chalcedon, Trullo, Carthage, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Laodicea ; the Arguiments and Arabic Paraphrases of Jo- seph the Egyptian, on the Canons of the Four General Councils; the Canons of Dionysius Alexandrinus, Petrius, St. Athanasius, St. Basil, Theophilus, Archbishop of Alex: andria; the Catholic Epistles of Cyril ; with a variety of other Letters; and an Alphabetical Index of the Contents of all the Canons and various Synods ; to all of which in- teresting and important documents he subjoined learned and voluminous notes. His time, though thus occupied, was not however wholly engaged by the acquisition or communication of sacred learning. He applied himself with the utmost zeal and industry to the discharge of the duties of his ministry. His discourses were instructive and serious, his private exhortations warm and affection- ate; his attendance at the church, and to all his pastoral functions, was regular and uniform; and his labors were crowned with such eminent success, that he was then call- ed “The great Reviver and Restorer of Primitive Piety.” In 1704, he accepted the see of St. Asaph, vacant by the translation of Dr. George Hooper to Bath and Wells. Thus placed in a station far more eminent, his care and diligence increased in proportion as his power in the church be- came sº His labors in his study were most impor- tant. He wrote an admirable work—“Private Thoughts upon a Christian Life; or, Necessary Directions for its Beginning and Progress upon Earth, in order to its Final Perfection in the Beatific Vision.” . Also a treatise, which has been repeatedly published, and as repeatedly admit. ed, called “The Great Necessity and Advantage of Publie Prayer and frequent Communion; designed to revive Pri- mitive Fiery, with Mediations, Ejaculations, and Prayers before, at, and after the Sacrament.” In addition to the works which, in this sketch of his life, have been enume- rated, he composed—1. “Thesaurus. Theologicus, or a Complete System of Divinity, summed up in brief. Notes upon select Places of the Old and New Testament, &c.”— 2. “A Defence of the Book of Psalms, collected into Eng- lish Metre by Sternhold and Hopkins, with Critical Obser- vations on the New Version compared with the Old.” And 3. “An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles;” on which many strictures have been wisely and justly made. . Bishop Beveridge was a person of sincere piety, of strict integrity, and of great zeal for religion. . It was said of him, when living, and, though long since dead, it may be repeated, that “he was one of the greatest and best men that England ever bred.” He was never married, and had but few relations. But to them he was invariably kind and affectionate ; and thus distinguished himself in all his relations of life, and connexions with men. At length, at the age of seventy-one, fall of grace and good works, he died, March 5, 1708, at his lodgings in the Cloisters, in Westminster abbey, and was buried in St. Paul’s cathedral. To the societies for the Propagation of the Gospel, and Promoting Christian Knowledge, he left the greatest part of his estates. For further account of this excellent man, see his Life and Works. Also, Complete History of England, vol. iii.; Preface to his Private Thoughts on Religion; Preface to his Sermons; Life of Bishop Bull,—Jones' Chris. Biog. - …- BEWARE. To ben are of Christ, is to have a due and holy awe of him on our spirit, and carefully guard against every thing tending to offend him, Ex. 23:21. To ben are of men, is to take heed lest they deceive us. Mark 12:38. To beware of sin, is to avoid every appearance of it, and temptation to it; and to the utmost of our power watch against and oppose it. Matt. 16. 6.-Brown. BEWITCH; wickedly to deceive and hurt, by juggling tricks and diabolic charms. Acts 8: 9. False teachers he- witch men, when by satanic methods of guileful reasoning, specious pretences to holiness or learning, apparent mira- cles, or proud boasting, they deceive their mind, and de- stroy their soul. Gal. 3: 1-Brown. BEYOND. To know the signification of beyond, on the other side, or, on this side, it is necessary to know where the sacred writer was at the time of writing. Thus, beyond or on the other side of Jordan, with Moses, who gave his finished books to the Hebrews eastward of Jordan, signifies the west side of that river; while such as lived or wrote on the west side of Jordan, call the east side beyond, or the other side. Deut. 3: 25. and 11:30. Josh. 9:10. and 13: 8. Some critics think the Hebrew word Hheber ought some- times to be rendered on this side, as Josh. 12: 7. Deut. 1: 1, and perhaps Gen. 1: 10. Beyond measure, is exceedingly. Mark 6: 51. To go beyond and defraud, is to exceed the conditions of a bargain, and laws of honesty; or to trans- gress the rules of chastity and rites of marriage. 1 Thess. 4: 6.-Brown. - - BEZA, or Beze, (THEODoRE,) one of the most eminent of the reformers, was born at Wezelai, in the Nivernois, in 1519, and was originally a Catholic, and intended for the law. At the age of twenty, he gained an unenviable repu- tation, by the composition of Latin poetry which was at once elegant and licentious, and which, some years after- B1 B B I B [ 230 wards, he published under the title of Juvenile Poems. Though not in orders, he possessed benefices of considera- ble value. These, however, he abandoned in 1548, and retired to Geneva, where he publicly abjured Popery. To this he was induced by his having meditated, during ill- ness, upon the doctrines which he had heard from his Pro- testant tutor, Melchior Wolmar; and perhaps also, in some measure, by his attachment to a lady, whom he carried with him to Geneva, and married. He now accepted the Greek professorship at Lausanne, which he held for ten years. It was while he was thus occupied, that he pro- duced his tragedy of Abraham's Sacrifice, his version of the New Testament, and his hateful defence of the right of the magistrate to punish heretics. In 1559, he removed to Geneva, and became the colleague of Calvin, through whom he was appointed rector of the academy, and theo- logićal professor. Two years after this, he took a promi- nent part in the conference at Poissy, and was present at the battle of Dreux. He returned to Geneva, in 1563, suc- ceeded Calvin in his offices and influence, and was thence- forward considered as the head of the Calvinistic church. After an exceedingly active life, he died on the 13th of October, 1605. His theological works are numerous, but are now nearly forgotten.—Davenport. BEZALEEL; a ſamous artificer, son of Uri, (Exod, 31: 2. 35:30,) of whom it is said, that he was filled with the Spirit of God, to devise excellent works in gold, silver, and all other workmanship.–A remarkable testimony to the antiquity of the arts, to the esteem in which they were held, to the source whence they were understood to spring, and to the wisdom (by inspiration) of this artist. BEZEK; a city where Saul reviewed his army, before he marched against Jabez-Gilead. 1 Sam. 11:8. Euse- bius says there were two cities of this name near one an- º seven miles from Sichem, in the way to Scythopolis. —Calmet. - BEZPOPOFTSCHINS; a class of Russian dissenters, including all those which either have no regular priests, or who refuse to acknowledge those of the established church : they are the Duhobortsi, Pomoryans, Theodosians, and some others—Pinkerton's Greek Church, p. 305. (See RASKONNIKI.)—Williams. BIBLE ; (biblia,) the name applied by Christians, by way of eminence, to the collection of sacred writings of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. I. BIBLE, History of.-It is thought that Ezra published the Scriptures in the Chaldee character; for, that language being generally used among the Jews, he thought proper to change the old Hebrew character for it, which hath since that time been retained only by the Samaritans, among whom it is preserved to this day. Prideaux is of opinion that Ezra made additions in several parts of the Bible, where anything appeared necessary for illustrating, connecting, or completing the work; in which he appears to have been assisted by the same Spirit in which they were first written. Among such additions are to be reck- oned the last chapter of Deuteronomy, wherein Moses seems to give an account of his own death and burial, and the succession of Joshua after him. To the same cause our learned author thinks are to be attributed many other interpolations in the Bible, which created difficulties and objections to the authenticity of the sacred text, no ways to be solved without allowing them. Ezra changed the names of several places which were grown obsolete, and, instead of them, put their new names by which they were then called in the text. Thus it is that Abraham is said to have pursued the kings who carried Lot away captive as far as Dan ; whereas that place in Moses’ time was called Laish, the name Dan being unknown till the Dan- ites, long after the death of Moses, possessed themselves of it. The Jewish canon of Scripture was then settled by Ezra, yet not so but that several variations have been made in it. Malachi, for instance, could not be put in the Bible by him, since that prophet is allowed to have lived after Ezra ; nor could Nehemiah be there, since that book mentions, ğ. 12. v. 22.) Jaddua as high-priest, and Darius Codomanus as king of Persia, who were at least a hundred years later than Ezra. It may be added, that, in the first book of Chronicles, the genealogy of the sons of Zerubbabel is carried down for so many generations as must necessarily bring it to the time of Alexander; and consequently this book, or at least this part of it, could not be in the canon in Ezra's days. It is probable the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Mala- chi, were adopted into the Bible in the time of Simon the Just, the last of the men of the great synagogue. II. BIBLE, ancient Divisions and Order of.-After the re- turn of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, Ezra col- lected as many copies as he could of the sacred writings, and out of them all prepared a correct edition, arranging the several books in their proper order. These books he divided into three parts: I. The law. II. The prophets. III. The Hagiographa, i. e. the holy writings. I. The law contains—1. Genesis; 2. Exodus; 3. Leviticus; 4. Numbers; 5. Deuteronomy. II. The writings of the prophets are—1. Joshua ; 2. Judges, with Ruth ; 3. Sam uel; 4. Kings; 5. Isaiah ; 6. Jeremiah, with his Lamen- tations; 7. Ezekiel; 8. Daniel ; 9. The twelve minor prophets; 10. Job; 11, Ezra; 12. Nehemiah; 13. Es ther. III. The Hagiographa consists of 1. The Psalms; 2. The Proverbs; 3. Ecclesiastes; 4. The Song of Solo- mon. This division was made for the sake of reducing the number of the Sacred books to the number of the let- ters in their alphabet, which amount to twenty-two. After- wards the Jews reckoned twenty-four books in their canon of Scripture; in disposing of which, the law stood as in the former division, and the prophets were distributed into former and latter: the former prophets are Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings; the latter prophets are Isaiah, Jere- miah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets; and the Hagiographa consists of the Psalms, the Proverbs, Job, the Song of Solomon, Ruth, the Lamentations, Ecclesias- tes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, the Chronicles. Under the name of Ezra they comprehend Nehemiah; this order hath not always been observed, but the variations from it are of no moment. The five books of the law are divided into fifty- four sections. This division many of the Jews hold to have been appointed by Moses himself; but others, with more probability, ascribe it to Ezra. The design of this division was, that one of these sections might be read in their synagogues every sabbath-day : the number was fifty-four, because, in their intercalated years, a month being then added, there were fifty-four sabbaths: in other years they reduced them to fifty-two, by twice joining to- gether two short sections. - - III. BIBLE, modern Divisions of.-The division of the Scriptures into chapters, as we at present have them, is of modern date. Some attribute it to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reigns of John and Henry III. ; but the true author of the invention was Hugo de Sancto Caro, commonly called Hugo Cardinalis, because he was the first Dominican that ever was raised to the degree of cardinal. This Hugo flourished about A. D. 1240: he wrote a comment on the Scriptures, and projected the first concordance, which is that of the vulgar Latin Bible. The aim of this work being for the more easy finding out any word or passage in the Scriptures, he found it necessary to divide the book into sections, and the sections into subdivisions; for till that time the vulgar Latin Bibles were without any division at all. These sections are the chapters into which the Bible hath ever since been divided; but the subdivision of the chapters was not then into verses, as it is now. Hugo's method of subdividing them was by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, placed in the margin, at an equal distance from each other, according to the length of the chapters. The sub- division of the chapters into verses, as they now stand in . our Bibles, had its original from a famous Jewish rabbi, named Mordecai Nathan, about 1445. This rabbi, in imitation of Hugo Cardinalis, drew up a concordance to the Hebrew Bible, for the use of the Jews. But though he followed Hugo in his division of the books into chap- ters, he refined upon his inventions as to the subdivision, and contrived that by verses. This being found to be a much more convenient method, it has been ever since fol- lowed. And thus, as the Jews borrowed the division of the books of the holy Scriptures into chapters from the Christians, in like manner the Christians borrowed that of the chapters into verses from the Jews. The pre- sent order of the several books is almost the same (the F: I B B I B [ 231 J Apocrypha excepted,) as that made by the council of Trent. - - - . IV. BIBLE, MSS. of.-Notwithstanding the tendency of the art of printing to supersede, and even to occasion the total loss of written copies of the Scriptures, numerous apographs still exist, some of which are of great antiqui- ty, and possess great authority in determining certain questions of biblical criticism. Others of great value are known to have existed till within a late period, and served, ere they disappeared, as exemplars from which others were taken. - 1. Hebrew MSS.—These are either rolls designed for the use of the synagogue, or square manuscripts designed for private use. The former are all on parchment, and written with the greatest care and accuracy: the latter are either on vellum or paper, and are of various sizes. . The characters vary in their appearance: the Spanish being perfectly square and elegant; the German crooked and rude; and the Italian holding a middle place between both. A family relationship has also been discovered be- tween these three classes. The Spanish are held in great estimation among the Jews, on account of their having been corrected after the Codex of Hillel—a MS. of the highest antiquity. The German MSS. frequently vary from the Masoretic text, and are greatly valued by bibli- cal critics. The Italian differ from both these classes, and form a separate family. - All the Hebrew manuscripts of note, known to be ex- tant, were written, according to Dr. Kennicott, between the years 1000 and 1457—a circumstance which leads him to infer, as bishop Walton had done before him, that some measures had been adopted by the Jews for the general destruction of such as did not agree with the corrected or genuine copies. They have been collated by Kennicott and De Rossi, and amount in all to eleven hundred and nine. One of the most remarkable is the Codex Laudia- nus, which contains not fewer than fourteen thousand *ions from Wander Hooght's edition of the Hebrew ible. 2. Samaritan MSS.—Of the Pentateuch, written in the Samaritan character, seventeen manuscripts are known to be extant: they are preserved in the Bodleian, the British *...* and the libraries at Leyden, Paris, Milan, and OIſle. 3. Greek MSS.—Of these, an immense number are still in existence; some of them containing the books both of the Old and New Testaments, and others only certain parts, divisions, or books. letters, others in cursive or small letters; some without any division of words, in what is called scriptio continua ; some on vellum or parchment, and others on paper. They are of various ages, from the fourth to the fifteenth cen- tury. Some of them are what is called rescripti, or tran- scribed on parchment which has since been used, the wri- ting on which having been obliterated to give place for the more recent text. Some are bi-lingual, i. e. they exhibit, besides the Greek text, the Latin version in the opposite page or column. [1] Greek MSS. of the Old Testament.—The number of these extant has not yet been ascertained ; but Dr. Holmes collated one hundred and thirty-five for his edition of the LXX. The principal, which are in uncial charac- ters, are the Alexandrian, Vatican, Cottonian, Sarravian, Colbertinian, Caesarean, Ambrosian, Coislinian, Basiliano- Vatican, and Turinian. [2] Greek MSS. of the New Testament.—Nearly five hundred of these were either wholly or partially collated previous to the publication of the more recent critical editions of the New Testament: in the execution of which, Griesbach took a distinguished part, having collated for his own edition not fewer than three hundred and fifty-five ; but Professor Scholz, who is now editing a critical edition, is said to have consulted six hundred manuscripts that were totally unknown to Griesbach. It has been customary, since the time of Bengel, to distinguish between certain families, recensions, or editions of the MSS., according to their supposed affinity or relationship; and various sys- tems of affinity have been constructed by Bengel, Semler, Griesbach, Michaelis, Hug, and Scholz. That of Gries- bach, according to which he classifies them into the Alex- Some are written in uncial or capital andrian, Occidental, and Byzantihe, has been not unsue. cessfully attacked by Matthaei, Dr. Laurence, and Mr. Nolan; while that of Hug has been greatly modified by the results brought out by the indefatigable researches of his pupil, Professor Scholz. Some of the principal uncial MSS. are the Alexandrian of the fourth century, now pre- served in the British Museum; the Vatican, of the fifth ; the Codex Bezae, or Cantabrigiensis, of the fifth ; Ephremi, a rescript of the sixth or seventh ; Clermont, of the seventh or eighth. For a full account of these, and most of the the other MSS. see the Introductions of Michaelis and Horne. - . W. PRINTED EDITIONs of the Hebrew and Greek Texts.- Since the invention of printing, nearly one hundred diffe- rent editions of the Hebrew Bible have been issued from the press, and about three hundred and fifty editions of the Greek New Testament. It is of course impossible to de- scribe all these editions in a work like the present; but the following list will be ſound to contain the more im, portant :- 1. HEBREw BIBLE.—By a collation of the different edi- tions of the Hebrew Bible, it has been ascertained that they admit of a distinct classification. [1] The Soncinian Recension of 1488, the first printed Hebrew Bible.—The Pentateuch was reprinted from the Bologna edition of the same in 1482, and the other books were based on other earlier editions of the several parts of the Bible. From this Bible were derived the Brixian of 1494; the rabbinical Bibles of Bomberg, 1518–21; and the editions of Munster, 1536; and Stephens, 1539–44. [2] The Complutensian Recension, in the famous Poly- glot, of 1514–17.—The only edition derived from this source is the Hebrew text of Bertram's Triglott, 1586. [3] The Bombergian Recension, in Bomberg's Bible of 1525–28.-The text of this edition was altered through- out, to make it agree with the Masora. It was edited by the celebrated rabbi, Jacob ben Haiim, and gave birth to the following: Bomberg’s, of 1528, in 4to., 1533, 1544, and his rabbinical Bible of 1547–49; Stephens', 1544– 46; Justinian's, 1551, 1552, 1563, 1573; Elon’s, of 1618; De Gava's, 1566, 1568, 1582; Bragandin’s, 1614, 1615, 1619, 1628, 1707; Plantin's, 1566; Hartman's, 1595, 1598; and a Wittenberg edition of 1586 or 1587. [4] Editions containing a mixed text.—1. The Antwerp Polyglot, 1569, 1572, from which sprang the Paris Poly- glot, 1628, 1645; the London Polyglot, 1657; the Leipsic Polyglot, 1750; Arias Montanus's Bible, 1571; Reineccii, 1725, 1739, 1756, and in 1793 by Doederlein and Meisner, with the various readings of Kennicott and De Rossi. 2. The Hutterian text, 1587; from this were derived the texts of Wolder, 1596, and Nisselius, 1662. 3. The Buxtorfian text, 1611; Janson's 1639; Buxt. Rabbinical Bible, 1618, 1619; Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible, 1724. 4. Text of Me- nasse ben Israel, 1630, 1631, 1645. 5. The text of Joseph Athi- as, 1661, 1667; from this text is taken that of Clodius, 1677, 1692, 1716; Jablonsky, 1699, 1712; Opitius, 1709; J. D. Michaelis, 1720; and the celebrated edition of Vander Hooght, 1705, of the text of which the following are re- prints —Prop's, 1724; Schmidius, 1740; Houbigant's, 1753; Simonis's, 1752, et freq.; Kennicott's, 1776, 1780; Jahn's, 1806; Boothroyd's, 1810; Frey's, 1812; Hahn's, 1832; and the stereotype edition now printed by Mr. Duncan. 2, GREEK New Test AMENT.—The principal editions of the Greek New Testament may be divided into the more ancient and the more modern : the former are of importance, inasmuch as they are the sources from which so many others have been derived; the latter, because they are the result of a more complete collation of MSS. and editions, and have been conducted on more matured principles of biblical criticism. (A.) More ancient editions.—1. The Complutensian text, 1514, followed in the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots, and in the editions of Plantin and many others. 2. The edi. tions of Erasmus, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, &c. 3. Stephens', 1546, 1549, 1550; London Polyglot, 1657; Mill, 1707; Kuster, 1710; Bagster's Polyglots. 4. Beza, 1565, 1576, 1582, 1589, 1598; ELZEVIR, 1624, &c (B.) More modern editions.—1. Well's Greek and English New Testament, 1709, 19. 2. Bengelius's, 1734, 3 Wet. B I B B l B | 232 J stsin's, 1751, 1752. 4. Bonyer's, 1763; Harwood's, 1776, 1784; Matthai's, Riga, 1782,1788, 1803, 1804,1807; Alter's, 1786, 1787; Griesbach's, 1796; 1806, 1809, 1818; Knapp's iº, isis, 1837. Vaiºs, 13%. VI. BIBLE, Versions of.-The number of translations of the Scriptures is now very great. Some of them are de- rived from a common origin; some are made immediately from the originals; others are mediate, or versions made rom other versions. N. * (A.) Genealogy of Biblical Versions. - i.) Versions made immediately from the HEBREw.—1. The Greek of the LXX. 2. That of Aquila. 3. Theodo- tion. 4. Symmachus. 5th, 6th, and 7th, or the three anonymous versions. 8. The version of St. Mark, Venice. 9. The Samaritan version. 10–17. The different Chaldee Targums. 18. The Syriac. 19. The Arabic of Saadias. 20. That of Joshua in the Polyglot. 21. That of Erpe- nius. 22. That of Ben Levi. 23. Samaritan-Arabic, 24. Jenish-Arabic. 25. Malay-Arabic. 26. Persic. 27. Jenvish-Tartar. 28. Jennish-Greek. 29. Jenish-Spanish. 30. Jenish-German. , 31–43. The Latin versions of Jerome, (or the Vulgate,). Pagninus, Montanus, Malvenda, Caje- tan, Houbigant, Munster, Leo Juda, Castalio, Junius and Tremelius, S. Schmidt, Dathe, Schott and Winzer. 44– 46. German, of Luther, Michaelis, Augusti, and De Wette. 47–50. English, King James's Bible of 1611, Purves's, Geddes's, Boothroyd's, with translations of single books by Lowth, Blayney, Horsley, Stock, Goode, and others. 51. Resen’s Danish version. 52. Sniedish version of 1774. 53. Gaelic. 54. Dutch. 55. Modern Russ. 56. Carnio- lan. 57. Italian of Bruccioli. 58. French. 59. Polish of Radzivil. 60. Burman of Judson. (ii.) Versions made from the GREEK.—1–10. The Syriac of the Hexapla; the Philoxenian ; Figurata; those of Jacob of Edessa, Mar Abba, Thomas of Heraclea, Simeon of Licinius, Ephraim Syrus, the Karkuphic, and the Syriac Targum. 11–14. The Arabic of the Penta- teuch in MSS. ; of the Pentateuch in the Parisian and London Polyglots ; of the Hagiographa and the version in use among the Melchites. 15, 16. The Latin, the Itala. and Jerome's corrected version. 17. Gothic. 18. Arme- nian. 19. Sclavonic. 20. Georgian. 21. Ethiopic. 22. Coptic. , 23. Sahidic. 24. Bashmuric. 25. Anglo-Ameri- can version, by Thompson. Besides these, with the ex- ception of the Samaritan and the mixed Jewish dialects, there does not exist a language into which the Old Testa- ment has been translated from the Hebrew, which does not possess a translation of the New Testament from the Greek. (iii.) Versions made from the SYRIAc.—1. The Arabic of Job and the Chronicles in the Polyglots. 2. And va- rious Psalters and Pentateuchs. (iv.) Versions derived from the LATIN.—1. The Anglo- Saxon. 2. The English versions of Wickliffe and other early translators. 3. That of Rheims. 4–6. The Arabic of Don Juan, Raphael Tuki, and the Propaganda. 7. The German versions, made before the Reformation, and those of Eckius and Ulemberg. 8. The French of De Lacy. 9, 10. The Italian of Malermi and Martini. 11, 12. The Spanish of 1478, and 1793–4. 13. The Hunga- nian by Kaldi. 14. The Polish. 15. The Bohemian. 16. The Portuguese by Peveyra. - (v.) Versions from the GERMAN.—1. The First Danish Version. 2. Swedish. 3. Finnish. 4. Icelandic. 5. Pomc- zamian. 6. Lon, Sazon. 7. First Dutch. 8. Greenlandic. 9. Esquimaux. - (vi.) From the ENGLISH.—1. The Irish. 2. The Welsh. 3. The Mohanyk. vii.) From the ETHIOP1c.—The Amharic. viii.) From the CoPTIc.—An Arabic version in the Ma- ronite monastery at Rome. (ix.) From the ARMENIAN.—The Armeno-Turkish New- Testament. (x.) From the ScLAvonic.—The Tchuvashian, Tchermisian, Mordvinian, Carelian, and Zirianic Gospels. In the absence of authentic accounts, respecting the manner in which most of the more recent versions have been executed, it is at present impossible to determine whether they have been done immediately from the origi- nals, or whether they claim as their parent one or other of the pre-existing translations. (B.) History of Biblical versions. We have already mentioned the first translation of the Old Testament by the LXX. Both Old and New Testaments were after- wards translated into Latin by the primitive Christians; and while the Roman empire subsisted in Europe, the reading of the Scriptures in the Latin tongue, which was the universal language of that empire, prevailed every- where; but since the face of affairs in Europe has been changed, and so many different monarchies erected upon the ruins of the Roman empire, the Latin tongue has by degrees grown into disuse; whence has arisen a necessity of translating the Bible into the respective languages of each people; and this has produced as many different versions of the Scriptures in the modern languages, as there are different nations professing the Christian religion. Besides which, many versions have recently been made by the missionaries and others, for the benefit of the heathen. Of most of these, as well as of the ancient translations, and the earliest printed editions, we shall now take notice in their order. I. THE ANCIENT VERSION. 1. Anglo-Saxon versions of the Psalms were made b bishop Ådheim, about the year 706, and by king Alfred, who died in the year 900. The whole Bible was translat- ed by the venerable Bede, about the beginning of the . eighth century. The Heptateuch, translated by Elfric towards the close of the tenth century, was published at Oxford in 1699; and the Gospels were printed, London, 1571, 1658; Dordrecht and Armsterdam, 1665, 1684. 2. The Arabic.—In this language there exist numerous versions of different portions of the Bible. Of these the more important are the Pentateuch, by Saadias, made in the tenth century, and published at Constantinople in 1546. It is printed also in the Polyglots, the text of the other books in which is from unknown authors. The Arabic version of the four Gospels was first published at Rome in 1590, 1591; the New Testament by Erpenius, at Leyden, in 1616, and another under the editorship of Salomon Negri, in London, in 1729. The whole Bible was printed for the Propaganda at Rome, 1671, in three vols. folio. - 3. The Armenian version was made towards the close of the fourth century, by Miesrob and Isaac, two of the most learned men of the nation. It was first printed at Amsterdam, 1666, under the care of Uscan, an Armenian archbishop, who has been charged with altering it after the Vulgate. It has since appeared at Constantinople, 1705; Venice, 1805; and Petersburgh and Serampore, 1817. The edition of 1805 is highly critical. The New Testament was first published separately in 1668. 4. Of the Bashmuric, an Egyptian dialect, fragments only have been published, by Pastor Engelbreth, Copen- hagen, 1816. They exist in the Borgian museum, at Velitri. - 5. The Coptic New Testament was published by Wil. kins, Oxford, 1716. The version is of high antiquity, probably ſrom the fourth century, and is greatly esteemed by critics. 6. The Ethiopic version is also supposed to have been made in the fourth century. Separate books of the Old Testament have been published at different times, and in the London Polyglot. The New Testament was first printed in 1548, 1549, but very incorrectly; and indeed the present text of this version, which otherwise would be of great service in biblical criticism, is altogether in such a state, as to be comparatively of little value. That of the Polyglot edition is still more incorrect than the Roman. 7. The Georgian was made about the year 600, by na- tives qualified for the undertaking, who had spent some time in Greece, and made themselves well acquainted with sacred literature. The first edition of the New Testament was printed at Tiflis about the beginning of last century, and the whole Bible, at Moscow, in 1743. 8. The Gothic version was made by Ulphilas, bishop of the Moeso-Goths, about the middle of the fourth century. It comprised all the books of the Scripture; but with the exception of the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles, and some fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah, they have either been lost, or remain undiscovered in some of the libraries B 1 B B I B | 233 J of Italy. The ſour Gospels are preserved in the Codex Argenteus, or “Silver Book,” in the university library at Upsala, in Sweden, and were first published by Junius, at Dordrecht, 1665. The last edition, by Zahn, printed at Wºenſes, 1805, is an elegant and complete critical WOTK. . . . . w - 9. Greek of the LXX. (See SEPTUAGINT.) 10. Latin. The Latin versions were numerous, and some of them of high antiquity. The most celebrated are, 1. The Vetus, or Itala, which appears to have been made about the beginning of the second century. Few fragments of it now remain, but such as have been preserved were collected and published from various sources, by Blanchini, Rome, 1720, and Sabatier, Rheims, 1743. 2. The Revised Version of Jerome. Owing to the great confusion which had been introduced into the ancient Vulgate, by the discrepancies existing between the diffe- rent copies of the Ante-Hexaplar Septuagint, from which it was made, it was found necessary, towards the close of the fourth century, to undertake a revision of it, which task pope Damasus devolved upon Jerome, the first biblical scholar of that age. Of this version only the Book of Job and the Psalms have come down to our times. 3. The Neny Version of Jerome, now partly contained in the modern Vulgate. This was made from the original He- brew, and closely follows the rabbinical interpretation at that time current in Palestine, where Jerome made him- self thoroughly acquainted with the Hebrew language. It was violently opposed at first, but gradually superseded the less correct translations, and, after the time of Gregory the Great, was universally received in the western church. In the council of Trent, it was declared to be the only authentic text, and the standard by which all disputations, expositions, and sermons were to be tried. It has under- gone several revisions, the two most remarkable of which are those made by popes Sixtus V. and Clement VIII. Though the former of these pontiffs had affixed the seal of infallibility to the edition published under his auspices, it was ordered by his successor to be suppressed, as swarm- ing with errors ; and another equally infallible edition was brought out, differing from the former in upwards of two thousand instances ! • 11. The Persic version of the Pentateuch, published in the Constantinopolitan Polyglot, 1546, was made by Jacob ben Joseph, a native of Tus, in Persia, and is not more ancient than the ninth century. It is barbarously servile. The Gospels exist in two Persic translations; that pub- lished in the London Polyglot, and that published by Wheelor and Pierson, 1652–57. They are neither of them very ancient. 12. The Sahidic version is supposed to have been made in the second or third century, and is considered of great value for critical purposes. The most complete collection of the fragments which we possess of this version was prepared by Dr. Woide, and published at Oxford, 1799. - 13. The Samaritan version, made some time between the second and eighth centuries. It is done from the Sa- maritan text, but the translator has made considerable use of the Targum of Onkelos. It is found in the Paris and London Polyglots. - - - 14. The Syriac versions are four in number:-1. The Peshito, or accurate version, most probably made early in the second century; and, of all the translations now ex- tant, so far as the New Testament is concerned, the most deserving to be thoroughly studied by every biblical scholar. The text of the Old Testament was first printed by Ga- briel Sionita in the Paris Polyglot; and the editio princeps of the New Testament by Widmanstad, Vienna, 1555. The most useful edition of the Syriac New Testament is that published by Schaff, with an excellent lexicon : the most convenient and elegantedition is that lately furnished by Mr. Bagster. 2. The Philoxenian, made by Polycarp, the rural bishop of Philoxenus, bishop of Hierapolis or Mabug, in the government of Aleppo, A. D. 488–508. It is servile in the extreme, but is of great use in deter- mining certain readings of the New Testament. It was published at Oxford, 1778, 1779, accompanied with a Latin translation. 3. The Hexaplar version, made by Paul, bishop of Tela, in the years 616 and 617. Only the books of Joshua, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel have been pub- lished. As the name indicates, it was made from the Septuagint text in Origen's Hexapla. 4 The Jerusalem Syriac version, of which some fragments nave been dis- covered and published by Professor Alder. II. THE Modern VERSIONs. 1. The Amharic version, undertaken by M. Asselin, French consul at Cairo, is in the royal dialect spoken at the court of Gondar, in Abyssinia, and prevalent in the eastern parts of Africa. The four Gospels were published by the Bible Society, in 1823. - 2. The Assamese, in the language of the kingdom of Assam, in the East Indies. The New Testament in this language was printed at Serampore, in 1819. 3. The Basque New Testament was first printed at Ro- chelle, 1571. 4. The Bikaneer New Testament has been published by the Serampore missionaries, for the use of the natives who live to the south of the Punjab. 5. The Bohemian. Of the Scriptures in the Bohemian language, not fewer than fourteen translations have come down to our times. The oldest was made in 1400, and is still preserved in Dresden. The New Testament was first published in 1474, and the whole Bible in 1488. The Protestants have a version made by eight of their learned men, who were sent to Wirtemberg and Basle to study the Oriental languages, and make themselves well ac- quainted with the principles on which other translations had been conducted. It was first published in 1579–93, in six vols. 4to., at the expense of the baron John Zerotimus. 6. The Brija-Bhassa Gospels have been prepared by the iº pore missionaries, and that of Matthew was finished in 1816. 7. The Bullom version of the four Gospels and the Acts has recently been inade by the Rev. Mr. Rylander, a mis- sionary on the west coast of Africa, where that language is spoken. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in 1816. 8. The Bulocha or Buloshee, another Serampore version, made for the use of the natives of Budochistan, a province in the north-west of India. - 9. The Bundelkundee, undertaken at the same place. 10. The Burman New Testament was translated by Felix Carey, but was lost at sea; a new translation has since been prepared and printed by Mr. Judson, the American missionary in the Burman empire; to which he has added the Old Testament. 11. The Calmuc version of the New Testament has been prepared by Mr. Schmidt of St. Petersburg, and part of it has been printed by the Russian Bible Society. 12. The Canarese New Testament, translated by the Rev. Mr. Hands, into the language of the Carnatic, was printed in 1820. The Old Testament is far advanced. 13. The Chinese. Two versions of the entire Bible exist in the Chinese language; the one executed by Dr. Marsh- man, 1814–21, the other by Dr. Morrison and Milne, 1812—23. Vast numbers of copies of the New Testa. ment, and separate books, have been circulated among the Chinese who live out of China Proper, or who trade in the Eastern seas. 14. The Cingalese, originally prepared by the Dutch for the inhabitants of Ceylon. The four Gospels were first printed at Columbo in 1739; the entire New Testament, with Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus, in 1783. A new version has been undertaken by the missionaries resident on the island, and part of it has already gone through more than one edition. 15. The Creolese version, made for the use of the ne- groes in the Danish West India Islands, was published at Copenhagen, 1781, at the expense of the king of Denmark. Another for the use of the slaves in Surinam, has been published by the Bible Society. 16. The Croatian New Testament, by Pastor Truber, was first published at Tubingen, 1551. The whole Bible was first printed at Wittemberg in 1584. 17. The Curdish version of the New Testament is pro- ceeding under the auspices of the Bible Society, but has not yet been completed. - 18. The first Danish New Testament, by Mikkelson, was published in 1524; the whole Bible in 1550. one of the best of the European versions of the Scriptures, * * 1 * * 30 B I B B I B [ 234 j 19. The Dutch have three versions : the first made from the version of Luther, and published in 1560; the Second, which is now commonly in use, and is of high value, was prepared, by order of the synod of Dort, from the origi- mal languages. It was first printed in 1637. The third version comprises the New Testament only, and was pub- lished for the use of the Remonstrants, in 1680. 20. The Delanare version comprises only the three epis- tles of John. It was prepared by Mr. Dencke, a Mora- vian missionary, and printed at New York, 1818. 21. The English Bible. The first English Bible we read of was that translated by J. Wickliffe, about the year 1360, but never printed, though there are manuscript copies of it in several of the public libraries. A transla- tion, however, of the New Testament by Wickliffe, was printed by Mr. Lewis, in 1731, J. de Trevisa, who died about 1398, is also said to have translated the whole Bible; but whether any copies of it are remaining does not appear. The first printed Bible in our language was that translated by W. Tindal, assisted by Miles Coverdale, Srinted abroad in 1526; but most of the copies were |. up and burnt by bishop Tonstal and Sir Thomas More. Tindal's first publication only contained the New Testament, and was revised and republished by him in 1530. The prologues and prefaces added to it, reflect on the bishops and clergy; but this edition was also Sup- pressed, and the copies burnt. In 1532, Tindal and his associates finished the whole Bible, except the Apocrypha, and printed it abroad; but, while he was afterwards pre- baring a second edition, he was taken up and burnt for º in Flanders. On Tindal's death, his work was carried on by Coverdale and John Rogers, (superintendant of an English church in Germany, aid the first martyr in the reign of queen Mary,) who translated the Apocrypha, and revised Tindal's translation, comparing it with the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, and adding prefaces and notes from Luther’s Bible. He dedicated the whole to Henry VIII, in 1537, under the borrowed name of Thomas Matthews; whence this has been usually called Matthews's Bible. It was printed at Hamburgh, and li- cense obtained for publishing it in England, by the favor of archbishop Cranmer, and the bishops Latimer and Shaxton. The first Bible printed by authority in England, and publicly set up in churches, was the same Tindal’s version, revised and compared with the Hebrew, and in many places amended by Miles Coverdale, after. wards bishop of Exeter; and examined after him by archbishop Cranmer, who added a preface to it; whence this was called Cranmer's Bible. It was printed by Graſ. ton, of the largest volume, and published in 1540; and, by a royal proclamation, every parish was obliged to set one of the copies in their church, under the penalty of forty shillings a month; yet, two years after, the popish bish- ops obtained its suppression by the king. It was restored under Edward VI., suppressed again under queen Mary’s reign, and restored again in the first year of queen Eliza- beth, and a new edition of it given in 1562. Some Eng- lish exiles at Geneva, in queen Mary's reign, viz. Cover- dale, Goodman, Gilbie, Sampson, Cole, Wittingham, and l{nox, made a new translation, printed there in 1560, the New Testament having been printed in 1557; hence called the Geneva Bible, containing the variations of readings, marginal annotations, &c. on account of which it was much valued by the Puritan party in that and the follow- ing reigns. Archbishop Parker resolved on a new trans- lation for the public use of the church, and engaged the bishops, and other learned men, to take each a share or portion; these being aſterwards joined together and printed, with short annotations, in 1568, in large folio, made what was afterwards called the Great English Bible, and com- monly the Bishops' Bible. In 1589, it was also published in Octavo, in a small, but fine black letter; and here the chapters were divided into verses, but without any breaks for them, in which the method of the Geneva Bible was followed, which was the first English Bible where any distinction of verses was made. It was aſterwards printed in large folio, with corrections, and several prolegomena, in 1572 : this is called Matthew Parker's Bible. The ipitial letters of each translator's name were put at the end of his part; e. gr. at the end of the Pentateuch, W. E., for William Exon, that is, William, bishop of Exeter, whose allotment ended there; at the end of Samuel, R. MI., for Richard Menevensus, or bishop of St. David's, to whom the second allotment fell; and the like of the rest. The archbishop oversaw, directed, examined, and finished the whole. This translation was used in the churches for forty years, though the Geneva Bible was more read in private houses, being printed above twenty times in as many years. King James bore it an inveterate hatred on account of the notes, which, at the Hampton court con- ference, he charged as partial, untrue, seditious, &c. The Bishops' Bible, too, had its faults. The king frankly owned that he had seen no good translation of the Bible in English; but he thought that of Geneva the worst of all. After the translation of the Bible by the bishops, two other private versions had been made of the New Testament; the first by Laurence Thompson, from Beza's Latin edition, with the notes of Beza, published in 1582, in quarto, and afterwards in 1589, varying very little from the Geneva Bible; the second by the Papists at Rheims, in 1584, called the Rhemish Bible, or Rhemish translation, These, finding it impossible to keep the people from hav. ing the Scriptures in their vulgar tongue, resolved to give a. version of their own, as favorable to their cause as might be. It was printed on a large paper, with a fair letter and margin ; one complaint against it was, its re- taining a multitude of Hebrew and Greek words, untrans- lated, for want, as the editors express it, of proper and adequate terms in the English to render them by ; as the words azymes, tunike, holocaust, prepuce, pasche, &c.; how- ever, many of the copies were seized by the queen's search- ers, and confiscated; and Thomas Cartwright was so- licited by secretary Walsingham to refute it; but, after a good progress made therein, archbishop Whitgift pro- hibited his further proceeding, as judging it improper that the doctrine of the church of England should be committed to the defence of a Puritan; and appointed Dr. Fulke in his place, who refuted the Rhemists with great spirit and learning. Cartwright's refutation was also afterwards published in 1618, under archbishop Abbot. About thirty years after their New Testament, the Roman Catholics published a translation of the Old at Douay, 1609 and 1610, from the Vulgate, with annotations, so that the Eng- lish Roman Catholics have now the whole Bible in their mother-tongue; though, it is to be observed, they are for. bidden to read it without a license from their superiors. The last English Bible was that which proceeded from the Hampton court conference, in 1603, where, many ex- ceptions being made to the Bishops' Bible, king James gave order for a new one ; not, as the preface expresses it, for a translation altogether new, nor yet to make a good one better; or, of many good ones, one best. Fifty-four learned men were appointed to this office by the king, as appears by his letter to the archbishop, dated 1604, which being three years before the translation was entered upon, it is probable seven of them were either dead, or had de- clined the task, since Fuller's list of the translators makes but ſorty-seven, who, being ranged under six divisions, entered on their province in 1607. It was published in 1611, with a dedication to James, and a learned preface, and is commonly called King James's Bible. After this, all the other versions dropped, and fell into disuse, except the epistles and gospels in the Common Prayer Book, which were still continued according to the Bishops' trans. lation, till the alteration of the liturgy in 1661, and the psalms and hymns, which are to this day continued as in the old version. The judicious Selden, in his Table-Talk, speaking of the Bible, says, “The English translation of the Bible is the best translation in the world, and renders the sense of the original best, taking in for the English translation the Bishops' Bible, as well as King James's. The translators in king James's time took an excellent way. That part of the Bible was given to him who was most excellent in such a tongue, (as the Apocrypha to Andrew Downs,) and then they met together, and one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, or Italian, &c. If they found any fault, they spoke; if not, he read on.” [King James's Bible is that now read by authority in all the churches in Britain..] Notwith. B I B B I B [ 235 | standing, however, the excellency of this translation, it must be acknowledged that our increasing acquaintance with oriental customs and manners, and the changes our language has undergone since king James's time, are very powerful arguments for a new translation, or at least a correction of the old one. A very considerable change has been unwarrantably introduced into the text in the subsequent editions, by turning into italics what did not thus appear in the editio princeps and several which fol- lowed it; by means of which, numerous passages are rendered unavoidably perplexing to the mere English reader. There have been various English Bibles with marginal references, by Canne, Hayes, Barker, Scatter. good, Field, Tennison, Lloyd, Blayney, Wilson, Scott, and Bagster. n - 22. The Esquimaux version of the New Testament has been prepared at different times by the Moravian mission- aries, and printed between the years 1809 and 1826. 23. The Esthonian New Testament was first printed in 1685, and the whole Bible in 1689. & 24. The Faroese Gospel of Matthew was printed at Copenhagen, 1823, for the use of the inhabitants of the Faroe Islands. 25. The Finnish New Testament was first printed at Stockholm, 1548, and the whole Bible at the same place, 1642. It was executed by certain professors and clergy- men well qualified for the task. 26. The Formosan version of the Gospels of Matthew and John, was prepared by Robert Junius, a Dutchman, and printed at Amsterdam in 1661. 27. The French Bible.—The oldest French Bible is the version of Peter de Vaux, (Waldo,) chief of the Wal- denses, about the year 1160. Raoul de Preste translated the Bible into French in the reign of king Charles V. of France, about A. D. 1383. Besides these, there are seve- ral old French translations of particular parts of the Scrip- ture. The doctors of Louvain published the Bible in French at Louvain, by order of the emperor Charles W., in 1550. There is a version by Isaac le Maitre de Sacy, published in 1672, with explanations of the literal and spiritual meaning of the text, which was received with wonderful applause, and has often been reprinted. Of the New Testaments in French, which have been printed Separately, one of the most remarkable is that of F. Ame- lotte, of the Oratory, composed by the direction of some French prelates, and printed, with annotations, in 1666, 1667, and 1670. The author pretends he had searched all the libraries in Europe, and collated the oldest manu- Scripts; but, in examining his work, it appears that he has produced no considerable various readings which had not before been taken notice of either in the London Poly- glot, or elsewhere. The New Testament of Mons, printed in 1665, with the archbishop of Cambray's permission, and the king of Spain’s license, made great noise in the world. It was condemned by pope Clement IX. in 1668, by pope Innocent XI. in 1669, and in several bishoprics of France at several times. The New Testament, pub- lished at Trevoux, in 1702, by M. Simon, with literal and critical annotations upon diſficult passages, was condemned by the bishops of Paris and Meaux in 1702. F. Bohours, a Jesuit, with the assistance of F. F. Michael Tellier and Peter Bernier, Jesuits, likewise published a translation of the New Testament in 1697; but this translation is for the most part harsh and obscure, which was owing to the author's adhering too strictly to the Latin text. There are likewise French translations published by Protestant authors; one by Robert Peter Olivetan, printed in 1535, and often reprinted with the corrections of John Calvin and others; another by Sebastian Castalio, remarkable for particular ways of expression never used by good judges of the language. John Diodati likewise published a French Bible at Geneva in 1644; but some find fault with his method, in that he rather paraphrases the text than trans- lates it. Faber Stapalensis translated the New Testa- ment into French, which was revised and accommodated to the use of the Reformed churches in Piedmont, and printed in 1534. Lastly, John le Clerc published a New Testament in French at Amsterdam, in 1703, with anno- tations, taken chiefly from Grotius and Hammond ; but the use of this version was prohibited by order of the ^ States general, as tending to revive the errors oſ Sabellius and Socinus. - ... 28. The Gaelic.—The New Testament in this language was first published in 1765; and the Old Testament, in three volumes, printed at different times, in 1785, 1787, and 1801. The translation has since been revised and improved, and new editions have issued from the press in 1807 and 1826. - - 29. The German versions.—Of these there exists a great number; but the most important are, 1. The version of Luther, of which the New Testament appeared in 1522, and the entire Bible in 1530; the different books appeared in the interval either separately or coupled together, as they were got ready. The edition of 1546 was printed under the reformer's immediate superintendence ; and, giving to it all the perfection in his power, he was desirous that it should be considered as the standard copy of this great work. It was made immediately from the Hebrew and Greek originals; but in order to render it as correct as possible, he collected a number of learned men, to re- vise every sentence by a collation not only of the version with the original text, but with the Targums, the LXX, the Vulgate, and other versions. Of these, Melancthon appears to have taken the most active part in the assist- ance rendered to Luther. It is highly distinguished for its energy and perspicuity; and the style is so pure and elegant, as to be considered a model of the vernacular language even in the present day. 2. The version of Piscator, professor at Herborn, at which place it appeared in 1602. It was designed to give a closer rendering of the words and phrases of the original, and appears to have derived considerable coloring from the Latin version of Tremellius and Junius. It was in great repute among the members of the Reformed church. 3. The version of J. D. Michaelis, published between the years 1773 and 1791, and accompanied with notes for the unlearned, is professedly an improved translation of the Scriptures, ac- cording to more enlightened principles of criticism and interpretation. In many respects, it unquestionably pos. sesses great merit; but the unwarrantable liberties which the author has not infrequently taken with the text, and the fondness for conjecture which he has indulged, detract from its claims on public conſidence and adoption. 4. The version of Augusti and De Wette, 1809–1814, one of the last that has appeared in the German language, is cer- tainly one of the best translations ever published in any language. Simple, close, yet easy and elegant, it must be read with pleasure; and though one of the translators is well known to occupy the first rank among the neolo- gians of the present day, it is a remarkable circumstance that his peculiar dogmatical views appear to have exerted no influence on the version. Translations of the Bible into German existed some time before the Reformation : the oldest known was printed in the year 1466. 30. The modern Greek or Romagc version of the New Testament was made by Maximus Calliergi, and printed at Geneva, 1638. A translation of the Old Testament is now being made in Greece, under the auspices of the Bible Society. 31. The Grcenlandish New Testament exists in two translations; the one printed in 1799, and the other in 1822. 32. The Grisonic.—The Bible, in the language or dialect of the Grisons, was published in 1719. 33. The Guzeratee version of the entire Scriptures has been made and printed for the use of the inhabitants of the peninsula of Guzerat. 34. The Hebrew New Testament.—Several attempts have been made to furnish a good translation of the books of the New Testament in the original language of the Old. The first edition is that of Elias Hutter, published in his Polyglot of 1599: the second was published by Professor Robertson in 1661, but most of the copies perished in the great fire of London: a third and greatly revised text was published by the Jews' Society in 1821; but the best is that lately executed by the lamented Mr. Greenfield, and published by Bagster in 1831. 35. The Helvetian.—In this language there are two ver- sions: the former was executed by Leo Juda, and pub- lished between the years 1525 and ſä29: the latter, called, B I B- B I B [ 236 || by way of distinction, the New Zurich Bible, was made by the learned orientalist, Hottinger, assisted by several other biblical scholars of acknowledged’ ability. It was published at Zurich in 1667. - 36. The Hindee or Hindostanee New Testament, prepared in two different translations by the Serampore missiona- ries, and by the Rev. Henry Martyn, is extensively in cir- culation among the inhabitants of Hindostan. 37. The Hungarian.—Besides a popish version made from the Vulgate, there exists a Protestant version, exe- cuted with great care by Caspar Caroli, and first published in 1589. 38. The Icelandic New Testament, done by O. Gottschalk- son, was printed in 1539, at Copenhagen; and the whole Bible was published at Holum, in 1584, under the Super- intendence of bishop Thorlakson, who liberally contributed to defray the expense of the undertaking. 39. The Irish version of the New Testament was exe- cuted by Dr. Daniel, archbishop of Tuam; and that of the Old Testament by Mr. King, but revised by Dr. Be- dell, bishop of Kilmore. The whole was printed in 1685, at the expense of the Hon. Robert Boyle. 40. The Italian.—The first Italian Bible, published by the Romanists is that of Nicholas Malermi, a Benedictine monk, printed at Venice in 1471. It was translated from the Vulgate. The version of Anthony Bruccioli, published at Venice in 1532, was prohibited by the council of Trent. The Calvinists likewise have their Italian Bibles. There is one of John Diodati, in 1607 and 1641; and another of Maximus Theophilus, in 1551, dedicated to Francis de Medicis, duke of Tuscany. - . . . . The latest version that has appeared in Italian is that of Martini, printed in 1769–1779. 41. The Karelian.—In this Finnish dialect the Gospel of Matthew was printed at Petersburgh in 1820. 42–45. Into the Khassee, the Kashmeeree, the Kanooj; and the Kunkuna dialects, versions of different portions of the Scriptures have been prepared by the missionaries of Se- rampore. - 46. The Lapomese New Testament was first printed in 1755, and the whole Bible at the printing-office of Dr. Nordin, bishop of Hermosand, in 1810. 47. The Lithuanian version of the Bible is said to have been first made by one Chylinsbey, and printed in Lon- don, 1660; but it is merely stated by Le Long, without giving his authority. It was afterwards printed at Koen- igsberg, 1735. 48. The Livonian or Lettish, made by Ernest Glück, was published at Riga, 1689. 49. The Lusatian, in what is called the Sorabic dialect of the Wendish, printed at Bautzen in 1728. 50. The Madagassee or Madagascar version of the New Testament has recently been completed by the missiona- ries belonging to the London Missionary Society. 51. The Mahratta version of the New Testament, and the historical books of the Old, have been prepared and printed at Serampore. 52. The Malay.—Into this language the entire Scrip. tures have been translated at different times by learned Dutchmen, connected with the East India company. The New Testament was printed in 1668, and the whole Bible in 1731, 1733, in Roman characters. It was aſterwards printed in Arabic characters in 1758. - 63. The Malayalim language, spoken on the coast of Ma- labar, has recently received a translation of the Scriptures by the Rev. B. Bailey, of the Church'Missionary Society. 54. The Maltese, a remnant of the ancient Punic. Into this dialect the New Testament has been recently trans- lated by a learned native, under the superintendence of the Rev. Mr. Jowett; and a version of the Old Testament is in progress. 55. The Manks New Testament was first printed in 1756–1760; and the whole Bible at Whitehaven, 1775. 56. The Mohanks have as yet only had the Gospels of Matthew, Mlark, and John, and a few chapters of the Old Testament translated into their language. , . " 57. Into the Mohegan language the whole of the New Testament, and several portions of the Old, were trans- lated by the Rev. Mr. Freeman, but do not appear ever to have been printed. t 58. The Mongolian Gospels have been prepared by Mr. J. Schmidt of Petersburgh, with the assistance of two native Mongolians; and the whole of the Old Testament, in a very superior manner, by the Rev. Messrs. Swan and Stallytrass, missionaries in Siberia. The gospels were printed in 1815, 1816. - 59. The Mordvashian Gospels, translated and printed at Petersburgh, 1821. 60. Into the Orissa language, the whole Bible has been translated by the Serampore missionaries; and the New Testament has already gone through two editions. 61. The Pali is the learned language of Ceylon and the Burman empire, and is spoken in South Bahar. The New Testament in this language was undertaken by W. Tol- frey, Esq., in 1813, and is being completed by the mission- aries Chater and Clough. - 62. Besides the Persic, specified among the ancient ver- sions, there is a version of the four Gospels by Lieut. Col. Colebrooke, printed at Calcutta, 1804; a version of the New Testament, by the Rev. Henry Martyn, printed at Petersburgh in 1815; and two distinct translations of the Old Testament are at present in progress: the one, by the Rev. William Glen, at Astracan; and the other by the Rev. T. Robinson, chaplain at Poonah. 63. The Polish language possesses three versions of the Scriptures; a Roman Catholic, a Protestant, and a So. cinian version. The first was printed at Cracow in 1561; the last under the patronage, and at the expense of prince Radzivil, at Pinckzow, in 1563; and that of the Calvinistic Protestants in 1596. A version into the Judeo-Polish dialect has recently been prepared, and is now circulating among the Jews in that country. 64. The Pomeranian version, done from Luther’s Bible, was printed in 1588. It is no longer in use. 65. The Portuguese have two versions; the one done by Protestants, and printed,—the New Testament at Am- sterdam, 1681, and the Old Testament at Batavia, 1748– 1753; and the other by Antonia Pereira, a Roman Catho- lic, from the Vulgate. The New Testament was printed at Lisbon in 1781, and the Old Testament in 1783. 66. The Pushtoo version of the New Testament, begun by Dr. Leyden, and finished by individuals employed by the Serampore missionaries, was printed in 1818. The version of the Old Testament, in the same language, is in progress. - 67. The Punjabee or Sikh version of the entire Bible has been prepared and printed by the same individuals. 68. The Russian versions.—Into a Polish dialect of the Russian, a translation of the Pentateuch, and other parts of the Scriptures, was made by Dr. F. Scorina, and pub- blished, 1517–1525. A version of the entire Bible was made by Dean Glück towards the close of the seventeenth century, but the MS. was destroyed at the siege of Mari- enburg, in 1702. In consequence of the establishment of the Russian Bible Society, a modern version has been prepared by proper persons, selected for the undertaking, of which the four Gospels appeared in 1819; the Gospels and Acts in 1820; and the entire New Testament in 1823. A translation of the Psalms was printed in 1822, and the first eight books of the Old Testament were printed in 1824, but have never been published, in consequence of the interference of those who are inimical to the spread of the Scriptures. These last mentioned were made from the original Hebrew. - 70. The Romanese version.—In the Churnwelsche dialect of this language, the Bible was published in 1657; and in that of Ladin in 1719. - • 71. Into the Samogitian language, a version of the New Testament was made by a Roman Catholic bishop, at the º of the Russian Bible Society, and printed in 1820. • , - 72. The Sanscrit, or learned language of India, pos- sesses a version of the entire Scriptures, executed by the Serampore missionaries, and printed between the years 1808 and 1818. - 73. A Servian version of the New Testament was prepared for the Russian Bible Society, and printed in 1825. - - 74. The Spanish versions are various. The earliest, dome from the Vulgate, was printed at Valencia, 1478. B I B B I B [ 237 J Pinel's version of the Old Testament, for the use of the Jews. was printed at Ferrara in 1553. There are also the versions of De Reyna, 1569; San Miguel, 1793, 1794; and Arnata, begun in 1823, and not yet completed. 75. The Snedish versions are two : that made from Luther's version, and published in 1541; and the revised version, undertaken by order of the king in 1774. The latter translation, though executed in accordance with the more enlightened critical principles of the period at which it was made, has never gained the approbation of the Swedish public, and has not superseded the more early authorized version. - 76. The Taheitian version, executed by the London So- ciety's missionaries, comprises most of the books of the New Testament, and several of those of the Old. The rest are in progress. - 77. The Tamul versions are also two in number : that executed by the German missionaries, the New Testament of which was printed at Tranquebar, 1715; and the Old Testament at the same place, 1723–1728; and another by Fabricius, also a German missionary, and printed at Madras, 1777. 78. The Tartar versions exist in different dialects; but none of them contain more than a single book or two, excepting that executed by the Scotch missionaries at Karass, on the north of the Caucasus, and that in the Orenburg-Tartar dialect, both of which comprise the whole New Testament. The ſormer was printed at Karass in 1813; the latter at Astracan in 1820. 79. The Teleegoo or Telinga New Testament, was trans- lated by the missionaries at Serampore, where it was printed in 1818. They also completed a translation of the Pentateuch into the same language. - 80. In the Turkish language, there exist three versions of the New Testament. The first was executed by Dr. Lazarus Seaman, and printed in 1666. The second was made by Albertus Bobovsky or Ali Bey, dragoman to the Sultan Mahomet IV., and completed in the foremen- tioned year; but it was not printed till 1819, when it was carried through the press at Paris, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In consequence, how- ever, of egregious faults and improprieties having been detected in the style, and in many of the renderings, the committee of that society were ultimately obliged to sup- press the edition; and a new impression, purged from the objectionable matter, appeared in 1827. An edition from a revised and corrected copy of Bobovsky's version of the Old Testament also appeared at the same place in 1828. The third version of the Turkish New Testament was undertaken by Mr. Dickson, one of the Scotch missiona- ries at Astracan. It is partially based on the Karass New Testament, and that of Bobovsky. A considerable por- tion of the Old Testament was also completed by the same translator; but, owing to the change of biblical affairs in Russia, no part of either has been published. 81. The Virginian translation of the Scriptures was executed by Eliot, the apostle of the Indians. The New Testament was printed at Cambridge, 1661, and the whole Bible in 1685. - - 82. The Wallachian New Testament was first printed at Belgrade in 1648; the entire Bible in 1668, at Buk- harest. . - - 83. The Welsh version was made in consequence of an act of parliament passed in the reign of queen Elizabeth. The New Testament appeared in 1567, and the whole Bible in 1588. It has since been revised and corrected, and has gone through many editions. - 84. The New Testament has been translated and printed in the Wutch or Multanee dialect, which is spoken on the eastern bank of the Indus. VII. Binles, Polyglot.—Bibles printed in several lan. guages, exhibiting, in general, the text of the different versions on the same page, or at least on the two open pages of the volume, are called Polyglots, from polus, many, and the Attic glotta, a language. 1. The earliest attempt of the kind was made by Aldus, the celebrated Venetian printer; but it contains only the first fifteen verses of the first of Genesis. The Psalter, by Justinian, Genoa, 1516, in Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, Chaldean, and Latin, is the first Polyglot of any biblical book. His example was followed by Potken, who, in 1518, published the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Ethiopic, and Latin. 2. The first Polyglot of the whole Bible was the Com. plutensian, so called from its having been printed at Cam. plutum, in Spain, 1502–1517, and published in 1522, in 6 vols. folio. It contains the Hebrew, Latin Vulgate, and Greek of the Old Testament, and the Greek and Latin Vulgate of the New. It was undertaken and superin- tended by Cardinal Ximenes, whom it cost about 50,000 ducats, though only six hundred copies were printed. It contains the first printed, though not the first published, edition of the Greek New Testament. - 3. The Royal Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, 1569–72, in 8 vols. folio. It was published at the expense of Philip II. of Spain, and edited by Arias Montanus. In addition to the texts in the Complutensian, this edition exhibits part of the Targum, and the Syriac version of the New Testament, with literal Latin translations. 4. The Parisian Polyglot, published by Le Jay, 1628– 45, in 10 vols. large folio, adds to the former the Samari- tan Pentateuch and version, the Syriac version of the Old Testament, and an Arabic translation both of the Old and New. It also gives a Latin version of each of the Oriental texts. - 5. The London Polyglot, published 1657, in 6 vols. folio, contains, besides the texts of all the former Polyglots, the Psalms, Song of Solomon, and the New Testament in Ethiopic, and the Gospels in Persic. It also contains the Chaldee paraphrase in a more complete state than any of the preceding works. It was edited by Brian Walton, afterwards bishop of Chester, and generally has accom- panying it the invaluable Heptaglot Lexicon by Castell, a work which is indispensable to those who would consult the Oriental texts to advantage, since the Latin transla- tions in the Polyglot itself are not to be depended on. To the first volume are prefixed important prolegomena; and the last is entirely occupied with various readings and other critical matters. 6. Reinecii Polyglot, Leipsic, 1750, in 3 vols. folio, con- tains the Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Seb. Schmidt’s Latin translation, and Luther's German ; and the New Testament in ancient and modern Greek, the Syriac, the same Latin and German versions. It is very accurately printed, cheap, and convenient. 7. Bagster’s Polyglots.--For elegance, accuracy, and convenience, the productions of Mr. Bagster's press far surpass all preceding editions of Polyglot Bibles. They are so printed that any selection of texts may be had at the option of the purchaser. There are, however, two prin- cipal works of this desciption: the Quarto Polyglot, 1821, containing the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English texts of the Old Testament; and the Greek, Syriac, Latin, and English of the New ; and the Folio Polyglot, in 1831, one of the most splendid volumes ever published, con. taining the Bible in the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Latin, English, French, German, and Italian languages.—Hend. Buck. BIBLIANDER ; a learned Lutheran divine, and dis. tinguished writer, of the sixteenth century.—Mosheim. BIBLIAS; a Christian martyr at Lyons in the second century, during the persecution of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. At first, she had the weakness to apostatize from fear; but still a Christian in her heart, she abhorred herself for the crime, and could not conceal the horror she felt at the rites of paganism. She was again arrested and put to the torture. Believing her to have intelligence with the Christians, they thought to make her own the crimes they were accused of; amongst others, that of eating children. “How can that be,” cried Biblias, “when they are forbidden to shed blood tº Resolute to expiate her former fault, she continued to justify them, and suffered martyrdom.—Betham. BIBLICAL CRITICISM, is the science by which we arrive at a satisfactory acquaintance with the origin, his- tory, and present state of the original text of Scripture. In the wide extent of its investigations, it embraces the languages in which the Scriptures were originally written, together with the cognate or kindred dialects; the mate. rials used for writing ; the composition, collection, and B I B B I D [ 238 ) preservation of the diſſerent books; the age, character, and relationships of MSS.; the ancient versions; the various readings; the printed editions; and the various philological and historical means to be employed in order to determine what the text was as it proceeded from the original penmen, . It has been divided into two kinds : lower criticism, which is more of a verbal and historical nature, and is confined to the words, or the collocation of the words, as they stand in the manuscript or printed texts, the ancient versions, and other légitimate sources of appeal; and higher criticism, which consists in the ex- ercise of the judgment in reference to the text, on grounds taken from the nature, form, method, subject, or argu- ments of the different books; the nature and connexion of the context; the relation of passages to each other; the known circumstances of the writers, and those of the persons for whose immediate use they wrote. Of the two, the former is obviously the more important, as it presents a firm basis on which to rest our investigations: the lat- ter, lying more open to conjecture and variety of opinion, may easily be abused, and has indeed been carried to a most unwarrantable length by many German critics. The science of biblical criticism should be assiduously cultivated by all who venture to interpret the Bible: for in attempting to expound a work of such high antiquity, which has passed through a variety of copies, both ancient and modern, written and printed, copies which differ from each other in very numerous instances, they should have some reason to believe that the copy or edition which they undertake to interpret, approaches as nearly to the origi- nal, as it can be brought by human industry, or human judgment. Or, to speak in the technical language of criti- cism, before they expound the Bible, they should procure the most correct text of the Bible. This principle, which is justly deemed important in reference to mere human productions, must necessarily commend itself as of para- mount and indispensable importance in its application to the Scriptures. Without attending to it, we never can be satisfied that what we interpret, really is what it professes to be—the word of God. - - The object of this science is not to expose the word of the Lord to the uncertainties of human conjecture (a charge which his sometimes been brought against it); for there is no principle which it more firmly resists than conjectural emendation, or emendation not ſounded on documentary evidence. Its object is not to weaken, much less to destroy the edifice, which “for ages has been the subject of just veneration,” but to show the firmness of the ſoundation on which the sacred edifice is built, and prove the genuineness of the materials of which it is constructed. See Marsh's Lectures, pp. 24, 26.-Henderson's Buck. - BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION; the science of teach- ing or expounding the meaning of the Bible. Strictly speak- ing, it is either grammatical, when the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is made out from the usus loquendi, and the context; or historical, when the meaning is illus- trated and confirmed by historical arguments, which serve to evince that no other sense can be put upon the passage, whether regard be had to the nature of the subject, or the genius and manner of the writer. It presupposes a know- jedge of biblical criticism, and an acquaintance with ancient geography, chronology, the civil, religious, and political history, the manners, customs, &c. of the Jews and of the surrounding nations, and especially with the doctrinal and preceptive contents of the Bible itself as a whole, and of its different parts in particular. As the same method, and the s. me principles of interpretation are common both to the sa- cred volume, and to the productions of uninspired men, it fol- lows, that the signification of words in the Holy Scriptures must be sought precisely in the same way in which the meaning of words in other works usually is, or ought to be sought. Hence also it follows, that the method of investi- gating the signification of words in the Bible is no more arbitrary than it is in other books, but is in like manner regulated by certain laws, drawn from the nature of lan- guages. And since no text of Scripture has more than one meaning, we must endeavor to find out that one true sense precisely in the same manner as we would investigate the sense of Homer or any other ancient writer; and in that fense, when so ascertained, we ought to acquiesce, unless, uncertain science. One. Mystics. the Chanter, Walter of St. Victor, and others. by applying the just rules of interpretation, it can be shown that the meaning of the passage has been mistaken, and that another is the only just, true, and critical sense of the place. In order to assist in determining what is this one meaning, the following rules have been laid down –1. Ascertain the usus loquendi, or the notion aſſixed to a word by the persons in general by whom the language either is now or formerly was spoken, and especially in the particu- lar connexion in which such notion is affixed. 2. Retain the received signification of a word, unless weighty and necessary reasons require that it should be abandoned. 3. Where a word has several significations in common use, that must be selected which best suits the passage in ques- tion, and which is consistent with an author's known cha- racter, sentiments, and situation, and the known circum- stances under which he wrote. 4. Although the force of particular words can only be derived from etymology, yet too much confidence must not be placed in that frequently 5. The distinctions between words which are apparently synonymous, should be carefully examined and considered. 6. The epithets introduced by the sacred writers are also to be carefully 'weighed and considered, as all of these have either a declarative or ex- planatory force, or serve to distinguish one thing from an- other, or unite these two characters together. 7. General terms are used sometimes in their whole extent, and somc- times in a restricted sense; and whether they are to be understood in the one way or in the other, must depend on the scope, subject-matter, context, and parallel passages. 8. The most simple and obvious sense is always the true 9. Since it is the design of interpretation to render in our own language the same discourse which the sacred authors originally wrote in Hebrew or Greek, it is evident that an interpretation, or version, to be correct, ought not to affirm or deny more than the inspired penmen affirmed or denied at the time they wrote: consequently we must always take a sense from Scripture, and not bring one to it. 10. No interpretation can be just, which brings out of any passage a sense that is repugnant to the ascertained nature of things. The subsidiary means for ascertaining the sense of Scripture are the usus loquendi, context, scope, subject-mat- ter, philological and doctrinal parallelisms and analogies, historical circumstances, quotations and exegetical com- mentators-Hend. Buck; Stuart's Ernesti; Horne's Introd. to the Scriptures; Bib. Repository, for 1831. BIBLICISTS, or BIBLicſ; a class of divines in the twelfth century, who in opposition to the scholastics, and in conformity with the example of the ancient doctors, drew their systems of theology from the Holy Scriptures, as illustrated by the writings of the fathers. In this last particular, they differed from the Waldenses, whose theo- logy was purely biblical. They were also opposed to the Paris was the centre of their influence, and was, at this time, frequented by students of divinity from all parts of Europe, who resorted thither in crowds, to receive instruction from the most celebrated masters in the bibli- cal, mystic, and scholastic theology. The Biblicists were sometimes distinguished by the title of Positivi, or Ancient Theologists, because they explained the doctrines of reli- gion, in a plain and simple manner, by passages drawn from the Holy Scriptures, from the decrees of councils, and the writings of the ancient doctors; and very rarely made use of the succors of reason, or philosophy, in their theological lectures, though they did not reject them alto- gether. Of this class were St. Bernard, Peter, surnamed Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfrank, and Hildebert, of the preceding century, were their chief models.--Mosheim. BIDDELIANS ; so called from John Biddle, A. M. of the university of Cambridge, and one of the first persons who publicly propagated Socinianism in England. He taught that Jesus Christ, to the intent that he might be our brother, and have a ſellow-feeling of our inſirmities, and so become the more ready to help us, hath no other than a human nature; and therefore in this very nature is not only a person, since none but a human person can be our brother, but also our Lord and our God. He was cruclly persecuted, and died in prison, in 1662. Biddle, as well as Socinus and others of similar senti- B I L R I L [ 239 ) ments before and since, made no scruple of calling Christ God, though he believed him to be a human creature only, on account of the divine sovereignty with which he was invested. Toulmin calls him the father of the modern Unitarians. He was the author of various small works in defence of his sentiments, which are now scarce. His “Scripture Catechism” met with an able refutation from the pen of Dr. Owen. See his works, vol. viii.-H. Buck. BIDDING PRAYER. It was part of the office of the deacons in the ancient church, to be monitors and directors of the people in their public devotions in the church. To this end they made use of certain known forms of words, to give notice when each part of the service began. Agree- able to this ancient practice is the form, “Let us pray,” repeated before several of the prayers in the English litur- gy. Bishop Burnet, in his “History of the Reformation,” vol. ii. p. 20, has preserved the form as it was in use before the reformation, which was this:—After the preacher had named and opened his text, he called on the people to go to their prayers, telling them what they were to pray for : “Ye shall pray,” says he, “for the king, the pope,” &c. After which, all the people said their beads in a general silence, and the minister kneeled down likewise, and said his : they were to say a pater-noster, ave Maria, &c. and then the sermon proceeded.—Hend. Buck. BIGOTRY consists in being obstinately and perversely attached to our own opinions; or, as some have better de- fined it, “a tenacious adherence to a system or opinion, adopted without investigation, and defended without argu- ment, accompanied with a malignant intolerant spirit to- wards all who differ.” It must be distinguished from love to truth, which influences a man to embrace it wherever he finds it; and from true zeal, which is an ardor of mind ex- citing its possessor conscientiously to defend and pººl. the principles he maintains with the meekness of wisdom. Bigotry is a kind of prejudice, combined with a certain de- gree of malignity. It is thus exemplified and distinguished by a sensible writer: “When Jesus preached, Prejudice cried, Can any good thing come out of Nazareth? Crucify him, crucify him, said Bigotry. Why, what evil hath he dome 2 replied Candor.” Bigotry is mostly prevalent with those who are ignorant; who have taken up principles without due examination; and who are naturally of a morose and contracted disposition. It is often manifested more in unimportant sentiments, or the circumstantials of religion, than the essentials of it. Simple bigotry is the spirit of persecution without the power; persecution is bigotry armed with power, and carrying its will into act. As it is the effect of ignorance, so it is the nurse of it, be- cause it precludes free inquiry, and is an enemy to truth : it cuts also the very sinews of charity, and destroys mode- ration and mutual good will. If we consider the different makes of men’s minds, our own ignorance, the liberty that all men have to think for themselves, the admirable exam- ple our Lord has set us of a contrary spirit, and the bane- ful effects of this disposition, we must at once be convinced of its impropriety. How contradictory is it to sound rea- son, and how inimical to the peaceful religion we profess to maintain as Christians ! See CATHOLICISM; LIBERALI- TY; PERsecution, and books under that article.—Hend. Buck; Draper on Bigotry; Fuller's Works, vol. i. p. 239. BILLOWS. Grievous afflictions succeeding one another are called in the Scriptures God's waves or billons. Sent and ordered by God, they terrify, perplex, and threaten to destroy men. Ps. 43: 7. and 88: 7. This phrase also signi- fies frequently the Divine wrath which broke on Jesus' soul. Ps. 69: 1, 2. The billows or swellings of Jordan denote the greatest trials, or perhaps death. Jer. 12: 5. BILNEY, (Thomas,) one of the English reformers and martyrs, was born near the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury, and educated at Cambridge. At an early age he be- came bachelor of both laws; but soon after, in reading the New Testament in the translation of Erasmus, he was de- livered from the errors of popery and the bondage of sin; and leaving the study of human law, devoted himself wholly to the study of divinity. In a letter to Cuthbert Tonstal, bishop of London, he gives the following lively picture of his conversion, and inward call to the Gospel ministry. Referring to 1 Tim. 1: 15, This is a faithful suyung, &c., he says, “This one sentence, through God's instruction, and inward working, did so exhilarate my heart, which before was wounded with the guilt of my sins, and almost in despair, that immediately I found wonderful comfort and quietness in my soul; so that my bruised bones leaped for joy. After this, the Scriptures became sweeter to me than honey or the honey-comb. For by them. I learned that all my travels, fastings, watchings, redemption of masses, and pardons, without faith in Christ, were but, as St. Augustine calls them, “a hasty running out of the right way;” and as the fig-leaves, which could not cover Adam's nakedness. And as Adam could find no rest to his guilty soul, till he believed in the promise of God, that Christ, the seed of the woman, should tread upon the serpent's head; so neither could I find deliver: ance from the sharp stings and bitings of my sins, till I was taught of God that lesson which Christ spake of in the third chapter of John : As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of man be lifted up ; that n:hosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlast- ing life. As soon as, by the grace of God, I began to taste the sweets of this heavenly lesson, which no man can teach, but God alone, who revealed it to Peter, I begged of the Lord to increase my faith. And at last I desired nothing more, than that I, being so comforted by him, might be strengthened by his Holy Spirit and grace, that I might teach sinners his ways, which are mercy and truth, and that the wicked might be converted unto him by me, who also was once myself a sinner indeed.”—In another letter, speaking of the scholastic divines and popish priests, he remarks, “This is the root of all mischief in the church, that they are not sent inwardly of God. For without this inward calling of God, it helpeth nothing to be a hun- dred times consecrated by a thousand bulls, either of pope, king, or emperor. God beholdeth the heart, and his judg- ment is according to truth, howsoever we deceive the judg- ment of men for a time; though they also at last shall see the abomination. This, Isay, is the original of all mischief in the church, that we thrust in ourselves into the charge of souls, whose salvation and the glory of God (which is to enter in by the door, John 10: 1–9) we do not thirst nor seek for, but altogether our own lucre and profit.” The ministry of Bilney was crowned with success. Many gownsmen of the university, among whom was the celebrated Latimer, were led by his instrumentality to the Savior. He extended his labors into the country with great effect; until cardinal Wolsey, alarmed by his suc- cess, arrested him, Nov. 25, 1527, and brought him to trial for preaching the doctrines of Luther. After four appear- ances before his judges, his firmness was overcome, rather by the persuasions of his friends than from conviction, and he signed a recantation, December 7, 1529. After this, he returned to Cambridge; but the consideration of what he had done embittered his peace, and brought him to the brink of despair. Latimer, who was intimate with him, tells us that “Mr. Bilney's agony was such that nothing did him good, neither eating nor drinking, nor any other communication of God’s word ; for he thought that all the whole Scriptures were against him, and sounded to his condemnation.” Being restored, however, by the grace of God and conferences with good men, to peace of con- science, he resolved to give up his life in defence of the truth he had sinfully abjured. Accordingly, in 1531, he went into Norfolk, and there preached the Gospel, at first privately and in houses, afterwards openly in the fields; bewailing his former recantation, and begging all men to take warning by him, and never to trust the counsels of friends, so called, nhen their purpose is to dran, them from the true religion. Being thrown into prison, Drs. Call and Stokes were sent to persuade him again to recant; but the former of these divines, by Bilney's doctrine and conduct, was greatly drawn over to the side of the Gospel. Find- ing him inflexible, his judges condemned him to be burned. - - To some of his friends who visited him in prison the night before he suffered, and who expressed surprise at his perfect cheerfulness, Bilney, putting his hand into the flame of the candle, (as he had often done before,) replied, “I feel by experience that the fire is hot, yet I am per- suaded by God's holy Word, and by the experience of some spoken of in it, that in the flame they felt no heat, and in B I N B I O 20 the fire no consumption. And I believe, that though the stubble of my body shall be wasted, yet my soul shall thereby be purged; and that after short pain, joy unspeak- able shall follow,” With like serenity, on his way to the stake, he remarked: “When the mariner undertakes a voyage, he is tossed on the billows of the troubled seas, yet in the midst of all, he beareth up his spirits with this consideration, that ere long he shall come into his quiet harbor; so (added he) I am now sailing upon the troubled sea, but ere long my ship shall be in a quiet harbor. I doubt not, but, through the grace of God, I shall endure the storm ; only I would entreat you to help me with your §. His friend Dr. Warner, who had accompanied im in prison and to the stake, in taking his last leave of his beloved friend, was so much affected that he could say but little for his tears. Bilney accosted him with a hea- venly smile, thanked him kindly for all his attentions, and bending towards him, whispered, in a low voice, his fare- well words, of which it is hard to say whether they convey more of love to his friend, or faithfulness to his Master: “Pasce gregem tuum, pasce gregen tuum ; ut cum venerit Do- minus, inveniat te sic facientem: Feed your flock, feed your # * ; that the Lord, when he cometh, may find you so doing.” His afflicted friend could make no answer, but retired from the awful scene overwhelmed with grief and tears. Some mendicant friars who had been present at his condemnation, having been accused by the people of insti- gating his death, and fearing to lose their customary alms, at this moment besought him to assure the people to the contrary. Bilney instantly complied, and assured the peo- ple of their innocence in this sad affair. The faggots were then applied, and the body of the dying martyr was consumed to ashes, A. D. 1531, in the reign of Henry the Eighth ; leaving behind him the cha- racter of distinguished learning and piety.—Middleton's Evang. Biog. |BILSON, (THoMAs;) an English prelate, born at Win- chester, in 1536, where, and at Oxford, he was educated. The Perpetual Government of Christ's Church, which he published in 1593, led to his obtaining the see of Worces- ter, whence he was translated to that of Winchester. In the Hampton court conference he bore a prominent part ; and, in conjunction with bishop Smith, had the revision of the new translation of the Bible. He died in 1616. He produced various controversial works and sermons.—Da- venport. BIND, To, AND Loose, is a figurative expression derived from carrying burdens; that is, confirming or removing a burden of the mind. It is also taken for condemning or absolving : º 16; 19.) “I will give unto you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever ye shall bind on earth, shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth, shall be loosed in heaven.” Binding and loosing, in the language of the Jews, expressed per- mitting, or forbidding, or judicially declaring any thing to be permitted, or forbidden. In the promotion of their doc- tors, they put a key into their hands, with these words: “Receive the power of binding and loosing;” whence the allusion, “Ye have taken away the key of knowledge,” Luke 11: 52. “I am not come to unloose the law, but to complete it,” says our Savior, Matt. 5: 17, that is, as in our translation, “not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it.” The religion of Jesus has perfected the law of Moses, dis- covered its true spirit, unfolded its secret meanings, and accomplished all its types and figures. abrogated some of its ceremonial institutions, it is only for the purpose of accommodating mankind at large, and causing the essential principles of it to be better observed. “To bind the law upon one's hand for a sign ;” to “wear it like a bracelet on one's arm,” (Deut. 6: 8,) was meant figuratively, implying an intimate acquaintance with its precepts; but the Jews took it literally, and bound parts of the law about their wrists. See PHYLACTERIEs. In Isa. 8: 16, “Bind up the testimony, seal the law,” is to be un- derstood thus, “Seal what thou hast been writing, bind it about with thread or riband, and set thy seal upon it :— for closure and confirmation of its contents; to witness thy confidence in its veracity, and thy expectation of com- pletion.” It is said that Daniel was the most learned of the magi, interpreters of dreams, &c., “for showing (ex- If it have also plaining) hard sentences, and dissolving of doubts;” (Heb. wntying of knots ;), also, chapter 5: 16, where “loosing” things which were bound is used to express—the explana- tion of things concealed. See DANIEL.—Calmet. BINGHAM, (Joseph,) an eminent divine, was born at Wakefield, in Yorkshire, in 1668, and educated at Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship, which he resigned, in con- sequence of being censured for heterodox opinions concern- ing the Trinity. He then retired to his living of Head- bourne Worthy, in Hampshire. In 1712, he obtained the rectory of Havant; in 1720, he was nearly ruined by the South sea bubble; and he died in 1723. His Origines Ec- clesiastica, or Christian Antiquities, is a valuable work.-- Davenport. BIOGRAPHY. It has been remarked by Dr. Johnson, that “no species of writing seems more worthy of cultiva- tion than biography, since none can be more delightful or more useful : none can more certainly enchain the heart by irresistible interests, or more widely diffuse instruction to every diversity of condition.” Our great English mo- ralist might have gone further than this, in praise of his own favorite theme, and added, that to treasure up memo- rials of the wise, the learned, and the virtuous, is to fulfil an exalted duty to mankind. It is gratifying to reflect how much this branch of useful knowledge has been culti- vated since the commencement of the last century. To say nothing of the memoirs of individuals published in a detached form, we have now the “General, Historical, and Critical Dictionary,” in ten volumes, folio;-the “Biogra- phia Britannica,” in seven volumes, folio;-a “General Biography; or, Lives, Critical and Historical, of the most Eminent Persons of all Ages and Countries,” in ten vo- lumes, quarto, by Dr. Aikin and others;–“ The General Biographical Dictionary, by Mr. A. Chalmers,” in thirty- two volumes, octavo ;-the “British Biography,” in ten volumes, octavo, edited by the late Dr. Towers; besides many similar collections of minor interest, such as the compilations of Lodge, Granger, Birch, Lempriere, Daven- port, Betham, and others. These noble collections do ho- nor to our literature. But every reflecting mind must be aware, that the extent and costliness of these works place them entirely out of the reach of the great mass of the reading population of this country, to whom a single vo- lume of well-selected lives might be a desideratum. To supply this deficiency, has been one object aimed at in the present undertaking, which, it is hoped, will not be found without its use. The editor, however, claims the privilege of adopting the words of Mr. Jones, with the view of ob- viating some objections that may arise respecting the plan on which he has proceeded : for he is quite aware that some persons may censure it, as being too confined, while others may view it as quite latitudinarian. Taking a review of the numerous sections into which Christendom is now divided, the Church of England may be fairly allowed, with the exception of Germany, to take the precedence on the score of erudition. In her academic bowers, biblical literature has been cultivated in times past to great extent and valuable purpose. To her minis- ters and members, consequently, something like a promi- mence will be found to be given in this manual ; and so far, the editor trusts, he shall stand clear of the charge of having indulged any sectarian bias. Let it, however, be recorded to the honor of this generation, that the English statute book is no longer disgraced by those odious penal enactments, the test and corporation acts, which formerly placed the conscientious non-conformist “under the ban.” That middle wall of partition is now removed out of the way; and, accordingly, the modest dissenter is, in these pages, permitted to take his place, without a blush, by the side of his conforming brother; to whom, though he may be expected to yield the palm in respect of the number of learned men, and the extent of their literary attainments, he comes not a whit behind, in the less showy, but more solid and useful acquisitions in theological lore. Some little pains have also been taken to adjust, with an impar- tial hand, the conflicting claims of the different classes of English dissenters. The Presbyterian will here find that his favorite Knox, Maclaurin, Baxter, Doddridge, Davies, Henry, Campbell, Stewart, Witherspoon, and many others, of whom he may be justly proud, have mot been overlooked B I R. B I R. [ 241 | in this compilation. The Independent, or Congregationalist, will be gratified to meet with his Owen, Watts, Howe, Chandler, Grosvenor, Leland, Jennings, Mather, Edwards, Dwight, and a long et cetera of illustrious names; while the Baptist would have good reason to complain of injustice, had we omitted Gale, Gill, Bunyan, Robinson, Stennett, Booth, Fuller, Ryland, Hall, cum multis aliis. The Method- ists will find that a niche in the temple of fame has been reserved to their Whitefield and Wesley, Fletcher and As- bury, Clarke and Watson;–and even the peaceful Quaker has not been forgotten: he will recognise in the memorials of Barclay and Penn, the founders of the denomination to which he belongs. But our catalogue of classification is not yet complete. The English Catholics have triumphed after a mighty struggle, and are placed, in respect of civil and religious privileges, as in this country, on an equality with their other fellow citizens. They had a right to ex- pect that such men as Bossuet and Fenelon, Fleury and Massillon, Pascal and Rollin, whose writings have done so mugh honor to their church, and been the source of so much delight and information to all who have dissented from it, should here be allowed to repose in peaceful soli- tude among the mighty and illustrious dead of other com- munions. A word to the tyro in the study of ecclesiastical history shall close this article. Though it cannot be denied that the alphabetical plan of arrangement is better fitted to fa- cilitate reference than any other, it nevertheless has its dis- advantages. By reading the lives in this volume chronolo- gically, it will be found a useful compendium of church history. For instance; would the reader form an estimate of the state of society in regard to morals and religious knowledge prior to the dawn of the Reformation ? It is recommended to him to take the lives in something like the following rotation :-Bacon (Roger), Bede, Claude (of Tu- rin), Grosseteste (Robert), and Arnold (of Brescia). From these he will discover, that the state of Europe at that time, may be fitly termed one of “darkness visible, serving only to discover sights of woe.” And this will prepare him for reading advantageously the lives of Wickliffe, Huss, Je- rome (of Prague), Luther, Melancthon, Erasmus, Calvin, Beza, Grotius, Zuinglius, and the other continental re- formers: after which he will be prepared to enter on the “noble army” cf reſormers and martyrs of England; such as Bilney, Tyndal, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer, Colet, Hooper, with many others who were the glory of the six- teenth century—men “who loved not their lives unto the death”—but whose memorials ought to be held in ever- lasting remembrance. He may then advance to the seven- teenth century, when he will find fully verified the truth of an observation once made concerning it, by George the Third, “There were giants in the earth in those days.” Such indeed is their number, so extensive the acquire- ments, and so profound the erudition of the divines and others of that period, that we gaze and admire, and are humbled at the view . The reader may wish, of many of these lives, that they had been given more in detail : and to say the truth, the editor could have wished so too; but to have indulged his own feelings in this respect, must have necessarily en- larged the size and price of the book, and consequently, defeated the end which throughout this work it was indis- pensable to keep in view.—Jones's Chr. Biog. BIRCH, (Thomas, D. D.) a valuable historical and bio- graphical writer, was born in London, in the year 1705. His parents were both of them Quakers; and his father, who was a coffee-mill maker by trade, endeavored to bring him up to his own business; but so ardent was the youth’s passion for reading, that he solicited his father to be in- dulged in this inclination, promising, in that case, to pro- vide for himself. After gaining an education, he took orders, obtained various literary honors and church preſer- ments, and was one of the secretaries of the Royal society. By a fall from his horse, while riding for his health, he was unfortunately killed, in 1766. , The first great work. of Dr. Birch was “The General Dictionary, Historical and Critical,” wherein a new translation of that of the cele- brated Mr. Bayle was included, and which was interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. It was m the year 1734, that Dr. Biº in conjunction with some - J other persons, agreed with the booksellers to carry on this important undertaking. The whole design was completed in ten volumes, folio; the first of which appeared in 1734, and the last in 1741. It is universally allowed that this work contains a very extensive and useful body of biogra- phical knowledge. We are not told what were the parti- cular articles written by Dr. Birch; but there is no doubt of his having executed a great part of the Dictionary. The next great design in which Dr. Birch engaged, was the publication of “Thurlow's State Papers.” This collec- tion, which consists of seven volumes, in folio, came out in the year 1742. In 1744, Dr. Birch published, in octavo, “The Liſe of the Honorable Robert Boyle, Esq.;” which hath since been prefixed to the quarto edition of the works of that excellent man and eminent philosopher. In 1751, Dr. Birch published, in two volumes, octavo, “The Mis- cellaneous Works of Sir Walter Raleigh;” to which was prefixed the life of that great, unfortunate, and injured man. The same year, he revised the quarto edition of “Miltoſſ's Prose Works,” and added a new life of that incomparable man. - What enabled Dr. Birch to go through such a variety of undertakings, was his being a very early riser; whereby he had executed the business of the morning before num- bers of people had begun it. But with all this closeness of application, he was not a solitary student. He was of a cheerful and social temper, and entered much into con- versation with the world. He was personally connected with most of the literary men of his time, and with some of them he maintained an intimate friendship. Dr. Birch was entitled to that highest praise, of being a good man, as well as a man of knowledge and learning. His sentiments, with respect to subjects of divinity, were rational and enlarged; and he was a zealous friend to reli- gious and civil liberty. His turn of thinking was similar to that of the late bishop Hoadley; and surely the wise and liberal minded will not esteem it a dishonor to him, that he had a conformity to the principles of that eminent and excellent prelate.—Jones’s Chr. Biog. BIRDS; one of the most beautiful and numerous class- es of animated nature. A few introductory observations may be permitted, before we proceed to describe the seve- ral individuals that are presented to our notice, in review- ing the ornithology of the Bible. The common name for a bird in the Hebrew Scriptures, is tzephur, the rapid mover, or hurrier ; a name very ex- pressive of these volatile creatures. A more general and indefinite name is ouph, a flier; but this appellation de- notes every thing that flies, whether bird or insect. It is frequently translated “fowl” in the English Bible. A bird of prey is called oith, a rusher, from the impetuosity with which it rushes upon its prey. In several of the pas- sages where it occurs, our translators have rendered its plural form by “fowls.” . The first thing which claims our attention, is the struc- ture of the feathered tribes. In a comparative view with man, their formation seems much ruder and more imper- fect; and they are in general found incapable of the do- cility even of quadrupeds. To these, however, they hold the next rank; and far surpass fishes and insects, both in the structure of their bodies, and in their sagacity. In reference to the structure of birds of the most perfect order, a few things demand our attention. The whole body is shaped in the most convenient man- ner for making its way through the air; being, as Mr. Ray observes, constructed very near Sir Isaac Newton's form of least resistance. According to Barr, in his conti- nuation of Buffon, “it is neither extremely massive, nor equally substantial in all its parts; but being designed to rise in the air, is capable of expanding a large surface without solidity. The body is sharp before, to pierce and make its way through that element: it gradually increases in bulk, till it has acquired its just dimensions, and falls off in an expansive tail.” The motion of birds being two- fold, walking and flying, they are provided with legs, at once wonderfully contrived to walk with, and raise them like a spring for their flight; wings to buoy them up, and waft them along; and a tail to keep them steady in the air, assist them in their evolutions, and direct them in their course. B I R B I R [ 242 ) Although the feathery covering of birds is admirably constructed for lightness and buoyancy, their wings are furnished with a strength that is amazing; and by these they are enabled to impel themselves forward with an inconceivable rapidity. To fit them the better for their flight, the feathers are disposed in the most perfect order, lying one way; and, that they may glide more smoothly along, they are ſurnished with a gland situated on the rump, from which they occasionally press out oil with the bill, and anoint the feathers. - - Their beak or bill is a curious piece of art, formed of a hard, horny substance, constructed in the most commodious manner for piercing the air. Their ears stand not out from their head to retard their flight; and their eyes are placed in such situations as to take in nearly a hemisphere on either side. Birds have no teeth to chew their food; but those of the granivorous kind are provided with two stomachs, in one of which the victuals is softened and macerated before it enters the other to be completely digested. Being often employed in traversing the upper regions, where they would be much incommoded did they bring forth their young in the manner of quadrupeds, their mode of gene- rating is wisely made to differ, and their offspring are pro- duced by means of eggs. In the speedy growth of young birds, by which they acquire a degree of strength and size, so as to be able so soon to provide for themselves, we have also an instance of the tender care of Providence. What unseen power inspires these little creatures with “the passion of the groves,” at the most fit season for forming their alliances; that is, when the genial temper of the weather covers the trees with leaves, the fields with grass, and produces such swarms of insects for the support of their future progeny? And how comes it to pass, that no sooner is the connubial league formed, than the little warblers immediately set about building their nests, and making preparation for their tender offspring 2 In the building of their nests, what art and ingenuity are dis- played Whether they are constructed from the collected portions of clay and mortar, or from the more light mate- rials of moss and straw, they contrive to mould them into the most convenient forms, and to give them a durability proportionate to their wants. Nor is the wonder less, that birds of the same kind, however widely separated, should all follow the same order of architecture, in the construc- tion of their habitations: that each should make choice of the situation most suitable to 1ts kind; and that all should agree in laying as many eggs as to be sufficient to keep up their species, yet no more than they can conveniently hatch and bring up. y In the incubation, with what patience do these little creatures sit on their eggs when necessary, till the young are ready to be hatched, and then how officious in assisting the little prisoners to escape . With what inimitable care do they afterwards watch over and provide for their brood, until it is capable of doing so for itself; and with what scrupulous exactness, during this period, do they distribute to each its allotted portion of food : The observations we have made are applicable to the feathery tribe in general; but when we turn to the pecu- liarities of a few of the different species, we shall observe that the wisdom and the goëdness of God are no less con- spicuous. How wonderful is the migration of some birds; or that surprising instinct by which “the stork in the hea. vens knoweth her appointed times,” and “ the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming!” Jer. 8: 7. These are a few of the proofs of the wisdom and good- ness of God, which this part of creation exhibits; but, few as they are, they are sufficient to excite our admiration, and inspire us with sentiments of adoring gratitude to the Author of all being. - The number of birds already known, amounts, we be- lieve, to between three and four thousand. To distinguish the different kinds from each other, and the varieties of the same kind, when they happen to differ, is a work of great difficulty; and perhaps the attainment, when made, would not repay the labor. I.innaeus divides all birds into six classes, namely; birds of the rapacious kind—birds of the pickind—birds of the poultry kind–birds of the sparrow kind—birds of the duck kind—and birds of the crane kind. answered his purpose equally well. The first four comprehend the various kinds of land birds; the two last, those that belong to water. From the Hebrew legislator, who had issued the strictest injunctions on the subject of animals, clean and unclean, we might maturally expect directions equally strict respect- ing birds; a class no less distinguished among themselves, by their qualities and modes of life. But here his animal characteristics, derived from the feet, failed; nor was it easy to fix on marks which should, in every instance, guide the learned and the unlearned to a right conclusion. Hence there is not, in the Mosaic institutes, any reference to conformation, as the means of distinguishing birds into clean and unclean, lawful and unlawful ; a list of excep- tions forms the sacred directory, and certain kinds are forbidden, without a word concerning those that are al lowed.—Abbott's Scrip. Nat. History. . BIRTH, is taken for the natural descent of offspring from its parent: figuratively, New BIRTH imports an en- tire change of principles, manners, and conduct. See REGENERATION. * There have been great difficulties started, on the nature of the instrument rendered stools in our translation, Exod. 1: 16. “And the king of Egypt said to the Hebrew mid- wives, When ye do the office of a midwife to the Hebrew wómen, and see them upon the stools, if it be a son, then ye shall kill him ; but if it be a daughter, then she shall live.” Now the Hebrew word (ABeNIM) rendered stool, plainly signifies “a stone vessel for holding water,” in Exod. 7: 19. By referring the pronoun to the children, therefore, the sense of the passage would be this : “When you see the new-born children, for the purpose of being washed, in the vessels of store for holding water, ye shall destroy the boys.” Upon this subject Mr. Taylor remarks, (1) that this custom in relation to children is justified by Eastern usages; (2) that this destruction of boys (or children) at their nativity is actually practised in the courts of Eastern monarchs. Thevenot (Part ii. p. 98) hints at these maxims and practices: “The kings of Persia are so afraid of being deprived of that power which they abuse, and are so apprehensive of being dethroned, that they de- stroy the children of their female relations, when they are brought to bed of boys, by putting them into an earthen trough, where they suffer them to starve :” that is, we suppose, under pretence of preparing to wash them, they let them pine away, or contrive to destroy them in the water. Apply this to the situation of Israel in Egypt : it was not every child, every son born throughout all Israel, as well those in the country of Goshen as those in the city of Mizraim, that was included in the directions of Pharaoh ; but those of the chiefs, the principals; for, had Pharaoh thus treated all Israel, he had undoubtedly raised a rebel- lion; he had diminished his stock of slaves, which was his property; whereas, the depriving that people of chiefs He acted much ac- cording to the custom of his own court and seraglio, and did not very greatly cxtend it, except by including a dis- tinct race, and a sojourning people. These considerations coincide with the idea previously suggested, that Moses and Aaron were of note and rank, among the Israelites, by birth and by natural condition; and they agree per- fectly with the account of Josephus, who relates that the birth of Moses was predicted, as of a child who should wear the crown of Pharaoh, taking it from him : that is, Pharaoh feared some illustrious youth would rise up to destroy him, and to deliver Israel, which fear became his tornel)t. - These extracts serve to illustrate the conduct of Herod; first, toward his own sons, (see HERod,) secondly, toward the infants of Bethlehem : for, if the kings of Persia de- stroy the infants of their own relations, and if the king of Egypt, fearing the birth of Moses, was peculiarly jealous and vigilant, where is the wonder, that Herod destroyed the infants of Bethlehem, under the idea, that among them was concealed a pretender to his crown He did no more than was approved and practised in the East in such gases; nay, perhaps he might applaud his own clemency in that he did not destroy the parents also, with their elder offspring, but only infants entering on their second year. In confirmation of the proposition, that the children, no the mothers, were washed in the stone vessels containing B I R. B I S [ 243 | water, Mr. Taylor has given in his Fragments an engrav- ing from an ornamental basso relievo on a sepulchral urn, which shows a midwife in the act of placing a new-born infant in a vessel, apparently of the same nature, and for the same purpose, as the Hebrew abenim ; her intention . is, evidently, to wash the child; while the mother sits in an enfeebled attitude, looking on. An attendant holds a capacious snather, to receive the child after washing; and the notice of the time of the child's birth, and perhaps its horoscope, occupies a female, who stands behind, and who inscribes it with a stylus on a globe. This representation, he remarks, proves that children were committed to the midwife for the purpose of being washed; Pharaoh might therefore say to the Hebrew midwives, or to those Egyp. tian women who were midwives to the Hebrew women, as was the opinion of Josephus, “When you are engaged in washing the Israelite infants, if they be boys, contrive to drown them in the water.” This order not succeeding to his mind, he directed his officers to seize, and to drown by forcé, whatever young Israelites (boys) they could lay their hands on. - The ancients bestowed considerable attention on the washing of a new-born infant; and, indeed, it was in some degree ceremonious. “The Lacedemonians,” says Plutarch, in his Life of Lycurgus, “washed the new-born inſant in wine, (principally, no doubt, persons of property,) meaning thereby to strengthen the infant;” but generally they washed the child in water; warmed, perhaps, in Greece; cold, perhaps, in Egypt; or according to the sea- son. We see, them, that the washing of a child newly born was a business of some consideration: how easily, there- fore, did the hearers, and readers of Christ and his apostles comprehend the phrase “the washing of regeneration ;” or of “the new birth.” Mr. Taylor's engraving suggests another subject of in- quiry, respecting the swaddling clothes appropriate to in- ſants; an article but imperfectly known by us. Our translation has, as it may be thought somewhat unhappily, used the term swaddling BANDs; which implies a number of small pieces—narrow rolls—strips—bands: but the true import of the word is, more probably, that of a large cloth, or wrapper; such as the female figure in the engraving holds up, extended, ready to receive the child; an enve- lope of considerable capacity and amplitude. The idea may be applied to an occurrence in the New Testament; of the propriety of which application the reader will judge with candor. “The virgin mother brought forth her son, the first-born ; and she enveloped him in an ample swaddling robe, such as befitted, at least in some degree, the heir of David's house; and she took that kind of care of him which persons in competent cir- cumstances take of their new-born infants.” If this be a fact, observe, how it became a sign to the shepherds: “You shall find the babe wrapped in a handsome swaddling cloth -—though lying in a manger.” For aught we know, they might have found in Bethlehem, then crowded to excess, a dozen or a score of infants lying in mangers; but none with those contradictory marks of dignity and indignity; of noble descent, and of personal inconvenience; of re- spectable station, and of refuge-taking poverty.— Calmet. BIRTH-RIGHT, or PRiMogeniture, was the right of the first-born or eldest son, to take the precedence of his brethren. In ancient times, and particularly among the Hebrews, many privileges were annexed to the right of primogeniture. The first-born son was consecrated to the Lord. Exod. 22:29. To him belonged “the excellency of dignity and the excellency of power,” Gen. 49: 3. He had a double portion of the estate allotted him, Deut. 21: 17, and, in the royal families, succeeded to the government of the kingdom. 2 Chron. 21: 3. The right of primoge. niture, and the privileges belonging to it, might, neverthe- less, be forfeited by improper conduct, and consequently transferred from an elder to a younger brother, as we see was actually done by Isaac in the case of his two sons, Esau and Jacob. The apostle terms Esau “a profane person, who for one morsel of meat, sold his birth-right,” Heb. 12; 16. And in Gen. 27:37, we are informed how the patriarch Isaac transferred the privileges of his birth- right to his brother Jacob. “And Isaac answered and said unto Esau, Behold I have made him thy lord, and all his brethren have I given to him for servants; and with corn and wine have I sustained him.” Hence it appears that to confer the dominion or rule on any one, is to consti- tute him the first-born. See Ps. 89: 27. A proper attention to what has been now remarked is necessary, to lead us into the meaning of much that is said in the apostolic writings respecting the dignity which was conſerred upon Christ, as the head of his body, the church, when he was raised from the dead, and for the sufferings of death crowned with glory and honor. He is termed the “first-born,” or “first begotten from the dead,” and “the heir of all things,” Col. 1: 18. Rev. 1: 5. Heb. 1:2. The Father, by raising him from the dead and exalting him to the throne of his glory in the heavens, is said to have con- stituted him “both Lord and Christ,” Acts 2: 36, “LoRD of ALL,” chapter 10:36, which is equivalent to his being “heir of all things;” and it imports his supreme dominion as the lord, proprietor, ruler, and disposer of all persons and things; all power and authority being given unto him both in heaven and on earth. Matt. 28: 18. Hence it is said, “The Father loveth the Son, and hatli given all things into his hands,” John 3: 35. Christ, considered in reference to his divine nature, was “before all things,” Col. 1: 17, and “had glory with the Father before the world was made,” John 17: 5. He in the beginning was with God, and was God, by whom all things were made. John 1: 1. He is said to have existed “in the form of God,” and to have “thought it no robbery to be equal with God,” Phil. 3: 6, but he emptied himself of the form or majesty of Deity ; took upon him a mortal body; was made, for a little while, lower than the angels, for the suf ſerings of death, and to accomplish our salvation, humbled himself, even to the death of the cross. Phil. 2: 8. Heb. . 2: 9, 10, 14. This is that obedience of the Savior's which was so acceptable in the sight of his heavenly Father, John 10: 17, in which he is represented as delighting, Eph. 5: 2, and as rewarding, by conferring upon his Son, “domi- nion and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and languages, should serve him,” Dan. 7: 14, Heb. 1: 2– 4, having put all things under his feet. 1 Cor. 15:27. All the angels of God are now his subjects, and are com- manded to worship him. 1 Pet. 3:22. Heb. 1: 6. All the redeemed company are his heritage, his peculiar people. 1 Pet. 5:3. Titus 2: 14. They are his brethren to whom he stands related as the first-born among them. Rom. 8: 29. He is their head, their Lord, and their lawgiver; the object of their love, worship, and obedience. He is also the dispenser of all spiritual blessings; for “it hath pleas- ed the Father that in Him should all fulness dwell,” Col. 1: 19. And not to enlarge further, he is “heir of the hea- venly inheritance,” for it is in his right, and as joint-heirs with him that all his redeemed brethren obtain it. Luke 22: 29. Col. 3: 14. Rom. 8: 17,-Jones. BISHOP,” (Gr. episkopos ;) an overseer, superintendent, or inspector. The English word comes immediately from the Saxon, bischop, which is only a derivative of the Greek. I. In the New Testament it is once applied to Christ, (1 Pet. 2: 25.) but in every other passage is spoken of men who have the oversight of Christ's flock. Because the same men are called both bishops and presbyters or elders, the inference has been drawn by the advocates of a parity in the ministerial office, that this community of name in- dicated community of office and authority. The reverse of this however appears from the fact, that over the per- sons called indifferently elder, presbyter and bishop, an office will be found of oversight and authority held by Timothy and Titus, and directions how to discharge it, and a strict injunction to Timothy, “the same commit thou to faithful men who shall be able to teach others also.” In the church of Ephesus, there were ministers thus ealled, before Timothy was fixed there, as may be seen from Acts 20. If those ministers had the power of ordination, it would not have been necessary to set Timothy over that church in order to exercise these very powers. (See ORDI- NATION.) Similar to the authority which Timothy possess- ed at Ephesus was that which was exercised by Titus over * The article which appeared under this head in the first edition of this work not being satisfactory to Episcopalians, the Rev. Mr. Bayaral, of New York, has furnished the #. argument for Bºy, * f {, , B [ {S B I S [.244 the island of Crete, which is represented as very populous, and famous in history for its hundred cities. In every one of these Titus was authorized by St. Paul to “ordain elders, and set in order the things that are wanting.” The fact is, that during the lives of the apostles, the three orders of the ministry were distinguished by the names of apostles; bishops, presbyters or elders; and deacons. After the death of the apostles, their successors in the first order of the ministry, not choosing to retain the name which by way of eminence had been applied to the twelve, took the name of bishops, which was never afterwards º. to the second order of the ministry, but was con- sidered as the appropriate name of the first order. Theo- doret says expressly, that “in process of time those who succeeded to the apostolic office left the name of apostle to the apostles strictly so called, and gave the name of bishop to those who succeeded to the apostolic office.” Thus the name of bishop and that of elder or presbyter, which were promiscuously used for the same office in Scripture, came to be distinct in the ecclesiastical use of words, as the offices were from the beginning. Bishops,” as they are distinct from presbyters, do not derive their succession from those who are promiscuously called in the New Testament bishops or elders, but from the apostles themselves, and their successors, such as Timothy, Titus, Silvanus, Epaphroditus, &c. - II. Episcopacy, according to the views of Episcopalians, is the divine constitution of the Christian church in the first order of her ministry. . In the preface to the ordinal of the Church of England, and of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, it is declared as “evident unto all men diligently reading Holy Scripture and ancient authors, that from the apostles' time there have been these orders of ministers in Christ's church, bishops, priests and deacons.” In the office of making deacons, in that of ordaining priests, and in that of consecrating bishops, the same truth is solemnly declared in the supplications to Almighty God, who is addressed as having by his divine providence and Holy Spirit instituted divers orders of ministers in his church, and bishops, priests and deacons are enumerated as these orders. An external commission, conveyed by episcopal consecration or ordination, is considered necessary to constitute a lawful ministry, and it is therefore in the ordinal declared that no man shall be accounted or taken to be a lawful bishop, priest, or deacon in this church, or suffered to execute any of said functions, unless he has had episcopal consecration or ordination; and the power of ordaining, setting or laying hands upon others is vest- ed in the bishops. The proof of this solemn and official declaration is, 1st. from Scripture. “Paul and Timotheus,” the one an apos- tle, the other having the episcopal power of ordination, ad- dress themselves as servants of Jesus Christ to all the Saints which are at Philippi, with the “bishops,” then the interchangeable name of presbyters or elders, “and the deacons.” . Here are certainly three orders. The apostle Paul, writing to Timothy, who is elsewhere termed an apostle, (compare 1 Thess. 1: 1, with 2: 6.) also gives him particular directions as to an order of ministers whom he calls bishops, (the same who in another place are called elders or presbyters,) and also as to an order inferior to them, whom he calls deacons. Here also there are to be observed three orders of ministers. That of these three orders bishops were superior, is very evident in the cases of Timothy and Titus. Presbyters or elders had been already ordained at Ephesus and Crete. Had they the power of ordination ? No: but Timothy and Titus are sent there for the express purpose of laying on hands, of ordaining to the ministry. It is alleged by some, that Timothy and Titus were extraordinary officers and held * “ çºncerning the signification of the word bishop,” says the judi. cious Hooker, “it is clearly untrue that no other thing is thereby signified but only an oversight in respect of a particular church and congregation; for, I beseech you...of what parish or particular congre. gation was Matthias bishop? His office Scripture doth term episco. pal, which being no other than was common unto all the apostiès of Christ, foragmuch as in that number there is not any to whom the oversight of many pastors did not belong by force and virtue of that office, it followeth that the very word doth sometimes, even in Scripture gi nifty an oversight such as includeth chtſvge orer pristors film. &6/ves. 12 are in sundry ſorms and conditions admitted, as the state o this power as evangelists. But presbyters and deacons were also evan: gelists. If them the powers of Timothy and Titus ceased with them be- cause they were evangelists, ſor the same reason ceased the powers of the presbyters and deacons. Thus, in destroying their episcopal power, these writers would also destroy the Christian ministry. Again, it is said that St. Paul's charge, to Timothy implies that presbyters had the power of ordination. “Neglect, not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee by prophecy, with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery.” But he also says in his second epistle, “Stir up the giſt of God, which is in thee by the putting on of my hands.” . . . . . St. Paul then ordained Timothy, it would hence appear, with the concurrence of the presbytery; and that their concurrence was intend. ed to express approbation, and not to convey authority, seems evident from the phraseology, “by the putting om of my hands,”—“with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery.” In the Church of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, this concurrence is still observed. - III. If from Scripture proof we proceed to the historical proof oſ episcopacy, we shill find the declaration of the ordinal fully establish- ed. * , , The writings of Ignatius abound throughout with testimonies. To the Tralliams he says, “He that is within the altar is pure, but he that is without, that is, does any thing without the bishop and presbyters and deacons, is not pure in his conscience.” To the Smyrneans, “Let no man do any thing of what belongs to the church without the bishop.” Irenaeus says, “We can reckon up those whom the apostles ordained to be bishops in the several churches, and who they were that succeed- ed them, to our times.” Clemens of Alexandria thus enumerates the three orders of the ministry: “There are other precepts without num- ber, some which relate to pº others which belong to bishops, others respecting deacons,”, Tertullian, writing of baptism, asserts, “The power of baptizing is lodged in the bishops, and that it may be also exercised by presbyters and deacons, but not without the bishop's commission.” Origem, commenting on that petition, “forgive us our debts,” thus writes: “Besides these there is a debt due to widows who are maintaincq by the church, another to the deacons, another to the presbysters, and another to bishops, which is the greatest of all, and exacted by the church.” Cyprian, whose epistles are many of them addressed to the presbyters .P deacons, in his 32d epistle writes, “When our Lord, whose precepts we ought to follow, was settling the honors of his bishop, and the regimen of his church, we find him speaking thus to Peter : ‘I say unto thee that thou art Peter,’ &c. From thence in a regular succes- sion downwards, we date the ordination of bishops, and the course of ec- clesiastical administrations, so as that we understood the church to be settled upon her bishops. The deacons ought mo more to attempt any thing against bishops by whom deacons are made, than deacons should against God who makes bishops.” . To add authoritics would be unnecessary. One fact is however worthy of considoration—that there is no ancient ecclesiastical writer extant who does not speak of certain individuals as bishops of particular churches; for instance, Ignatius, bishop of Antioch; º bishop of Smyrna; or who mentions as cotemporary with them in their par- ticular churches any other bishops. This uniformity is not to be ex- plained, but on the principle that there was in each of those churches some one individual supreme in the powers of ordination and govern- ment, on whom was bestowed the title of bishop. It is proper in this place to make a distinction between the ministers and government of the church properly so called. The ministry is of divine constitution, in the three orders of bishop, priest and deacons. But the government of the church is of human regulation, susceptible of such modifications as circumstances may render advisable. Offices may be organized; the mode in which her ministers are invested with jurisdiction may be va. ried; the constitution of her legislative, executive and judiciary powers may assume such organization as expediency may dictate. “I may se- curely,” (says Hooker.) “therefore conclude that there are at this day in the Church of England no other than the same degrees of ecclesias- tical orders, namely, bishops, priests, and deacoms, which had their be- gimming from Christ and his blessed apostles themselves. As for deans, prebendaries, parsons, vicars, curates, archdeacoms, and such like mames being not found in the Scriptures, we have been thereby, through some men's errors, thought to allow ecclesiastical degrees not known nor ever heard of in the better ages of former times. All these are in truth but titles of office, whereunto partly ecclesiastical persons and pº others the church ". need, degrees of order still remaining the same they were from the inning.” -- -- - §. conclude with a challenge from the matchless Hooker—which, as has been well remarked, has remained two hundred years unan- swered :-"We require you to find out but one church upon the face of the whole earth that hath not been ordered by episcopal regiment since the time that the blessed apostles were here conversant.” And though departures from it, (says bishop Doane,) since the time of which he spoke have been but too frequent and too great, “episcopal regi- ment” is still maintained as Christ's ordinance for the perpetuation and government of his church, and is received as such by eleven twelfths of the whole Christian world. - ANTI-EPISCOPAL ARGUMENT. It is now generally conceded, that there is no distinction made in the New Testament between bishops and elders or presbyters.” The terms are used interchangeably. * In a celebrated work, “The Institution of the Christian Man,” approved expressly by archbishop, Cranmer, bishops Jewell, Miller, and Stillingfleet, and the main body of the English clergy, together with the king and parliament, it is declared, “In the New Testament there is no mention of any other degrees but deacons or ministers, and º or bishops.” The celebrated Hoºker, the ablest advocate, y far, of episcopacy, says, “The necessity of polity and regimen in all churches may be believed. without holding any one certain form to be necessary in them all. And the general principles are such as do not particularly describe any one; but sundry ſorms of discipline may be B I S B 1 S [ 245 Bishop Onderdonk, in his “Episcopacy tested by Scripture,” says “the name bishop, which now designates the highest grade in the ministry, is not appropriated to this office in Scripture. That name is given to the middle order or presbyters, (elders,) and all that we read in the New Testa- ment concerning bishops is to be regarded as pertaining to the middle grade.” The ground assumed now by those who contend for the authority of prelatical bishops is, that the apostles (to whom they say bishops have succeeded) were a superior order of officers in the primitive church ; pres- byters or elders a second grade; and deacons a third. To maintain this ground, it must be shown, 1. That the peculiarity of the apostles' office was, that they exclusively ordained, administered discipline or rule, and exercised an oversight of the churches, these being the peculiar powers now claimed by bishops; 2. That they transmitted their office and powers to others; 3. That there has been an uninterrupted succession of such officers to the present bishops. Failing to establish either of these points, it is clear, is fatal to their cause. But, I. The commission in Matt. 28: 19, 20 is plainly given to all ministers, to the end of the world, and conveys the same authority to all. '- The very same duties are assigned to all ministers in the New Testament. Episcopalians deny this in refer- ence to ordination and discipline. In 1 Tim. 3:2, 4 and 5, “a bishop must be one that ruleth well his own house;” otherwise “how shall he take care of the church 2’’ 1 Tim. 5: 17, “let the elders who rule well be counted wor- thy of double honor,” &c. Here ruling is as expressly assigned to elders as bishops; and this is the only place where ruling is expressly assigned to a bishop. Ordination (see article ORDINATION) is spoken of as hav- ing been exercised both by the apostles, Acts 6:6. 13: 3. 14: 23, and by the presbyters,” 1 Tim. 4: 14. The only case in which ordination can possibly be ascribed to any per- son who was a bishop in the modern sense, is 1 Tim. 5: 22, and this depends wholly on the supposition that Timothy was such a bishop, which cannot be proved. . It is a proper exhortation to a presbyter, and is often used at modern ordinations. Timothy was himself ordained by the presbytery, and of course was no more than a common presbyter. - But on the power of ordination, as well as of discipline, the Scriptures lay very little stress. tioned but nine times, and in all cases but two, incidental- ly; ruling six times, and without a hint of its peculiar consequence. Preaching (the duty of presbyters) is ex- hibited as the great and important duty of a minister, and ordination and ruling powers as altogether inferior. In 1 Tim. 5: 17, superior honor is given to those who preach, on account of the superiority of their employment. Of course the peculiar powers claimed ſor bishops (the al- leged superior officers) are far below those assigned to presbyters (the inferior officers :) It is important also to observe, particularly, 1st. The manner in which ministers are spoken of in Mark 10: equally consistent with the general axioms of Scripture.” Dr. Rey- molds, professor of divinity at Oxford, Eng., declares that all who labored for five hundred years before his time, thought that “all pastors, whether entitled bishops or priests, have equal power and authority by the word of God;” and this he declares to be the common judgment of the reformed churches in Switzerland, Savoy, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Netherlands, Scotland and England, embracing the aphole firotestant world. Dr. Holland, king's professor of divinity at Oxford, says “that to affirm the office of bishop to be different from that of presbyter is false and contrary to Scripture, the fathers, and to the doctrines of the church of England.” Bishop Burmet acknowledges the same thing. The London Christian Observer, the leading Episco- pal periodical in England, said in 1804, “Episcopalians found not the merits of their cause upon any express injunction or delineation of ecclesiastical government in the Scriptures, for there is none.” . * In 1 Tim, 4: 14 is a clear case of presbyterian, or congregational ordination. “Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee by prophecy, with the laying on of the hands of the {{...}. ” (or assembly of elders.) Here the presbytery laid on their hands and bore a material part in the transaction. In vain will Episcopalians say the presbytery were present, mot to convey authority, but for concurrence. }. of hands always denotes conferring some giſt. But, say they, from Paul was derived the virtue of the act, (“by the putting on of my hands,” 2 Tim. 1: 6.) That Faul assisted there is no doubt; but that he took any superior part, there is no proof. One text is as strong as the other, and the only mode of reconciling the twº is to understand Paul and the presbyters to have had an equal, and joint agency in the transaction. As to the use of the word “with ” in one case and “by” in the other, there cannot be shown to be any essen- tial difference in the meaning or force. Ordaining is men- 42, 45 and the parallel passage; and our Lord's reproof of James and John when they sought an office of su- perior power and dignity. See also Matt. 23: 6–12. 2d. Whenever the officers of the church are mentioned together, no more than two classes are ever spoken of, and Peter and John certainly styled themselves explicitly elders; thus, so far as ministerial power and rank are concerned, putting themselves on a par with all other ministers. No bishop would do it at the present day. In 1 Tim. 3, where Paul instructs Timothy in the qualifica- tions of ecclesiastical officers more extensively than is done in any other part of the New Testament, we find no officers mentioned but bishops or elders, and deacons. 3d. Notice the circumstances recorded in Acts 15. II. Moreover, (1.) there is no command in the New Testa ment to the apostles to transmit the peculiarities of their of fice. (2.) There is no intimation that it would be so trans- mitted, no directions (as in the case of other officers) as to the qualifications and duties of such officers, and no exhor- tation to ministers or churches to submit to them. (3.) It was impossible that the peculiarity of the office could be transmitted. (See ApostLE.). (4.) It cannot be proved, though often affirmed, that Timothy and Titus were pre- latical bishops.” III. But admitting all that is claimed on these points by the advocates of episcopacy, there is not the shightest reason to believe that the superior office (of bishops) has been uninterruptedly transmitted to the present incum- bents. The chief ground relied on to prove the succes. sion is the testimony of the fathers. But this testimony is not deserving of the credit sometimes given to it. For, . (1) those who have testified on this subject have given erroneous testimony on other subjects. (2.) The works of several of the fathers have been corrupted and partially lost. Mosheim says of Ignatius' writings, (often appealed to in this controversy,) “the authenticity of the epistle to Polycarp is extremely doubtful, and the question con- cerning all his epistles involved in much obscurity and many difficulties.”, (3) The testimony of the fathers does not establish the distinction in the clergy contended for;f but Irenaeus, the best witness, particularly testifies that ministerial power is presbyterian, not episcopal. (4.) The succession, if traced at all, must be through the church of Rome,' a precarious, and uncomfortable ground of Christian confidence. That any powers of a divine na- ture passed through such impure hands, will be slowly ad- mitted by a man of piety. (5.) The ordination of Eng- lish bishops cannot be traced up to the church of Rome.]] * That Timothy was ever sole and permanent bishop or diocesan of Ephesus, is nowhere declared in the New Testament. The subscription at the close of 2 Tim. is admitted on all hands not to have been inspir- ed, and is of no authority. The same remarks apply to the case of Titus. But Dr. Hoadley asks, “Why were Timothy and Titus com- manded to ordain elders ?” It does not appear that this was the chief reason of Timothy's being at Ephesus. Neither he or Titus had any stated residence in what are claimed to have been their dioceses. Both made a temporary visit to the respective places, and there exercised the various duties of a presbyter. f Irenaeus testifies that Linus was made bishop of Rome by Paul and Peter; and after him Anacletus; and after him Clement. Tertullian says. that Clement was first bishop of Rome, after the death of Peter and Paul. He also says that Peter was first bishop of Antioch. Again, that Euodias was first bishop of Antioch. Jerome says that Peter sat at Rome twenty-five years, till the last year of Nero. Again, that Ignatius was..third bishop of Antioch after Peter. This shows that, ez- cept as to facts passing under their own eyes, the fathers are not to be relicil on, they received traditionary accounts so loosely, : The bishop of whom Ignatius speaks, was pastor of a single ohurch, and performed all the ordinary duties of a minister. He ex- horts Polycarp to preach, to see that widows were not neglected, to know all his parishioners, even man and maid servants, and to inspect , all denounced each other as usurpers. every marriage. He speaks of the bishops of the church in Magnesia. in the plural number. Jero?ne says “a presbyter is the same as bishop, and originally the churches were governed by the joint council of the presbyters.” Again, “the bishops know that they are greater than resbyters, rather by custom than by real appointment of the Lord.” ertullian says, “elders preside in the government of the church.” Firmillian says, “in elders is vested the power of baptizing, imposition of hanels, and ordination.” Jerome. “The presbyters of Alexandria ordained their bishop for more than two hundred years.” These extracts might be enlarged. § There were in the church of Rome at one time ſour pontiffs, who It is not agreed who were the first seven bishops of Rome. Eusebius himself acknowledges it is no easy matter to tell who succeeded the apostles. Contested elections in nearly every considerable city, and decrees of councils rendering mull all those ordinances where any simoniacal contract existed, render it doubtful who were true bishops, and impossible to prove that any person on earth is a legal or lineal successor to the a - tles. | Doddridge refers to Jones' and Bede's Ecclesiastical History to B I T B L A [ 240 That a distinction in the ministry was introduced early after the apostolic age is admitted. But it appears to have been of human origin, and to have taken place gradually, See articles Episcopacy; ARchbishop ; Cho- REPIscort ; Diocese; METRoroLITAN ; PATRIARCII; Pri- MATE ; SUFFRAGAN : TRANSLATION, &c.; Dwight's Theolo- gy; Works of Dr. J. M. Mason, vol. III. ; Christian Spec- tator for March 1834 and 1835; Episcopacy examined and re-examined, published at the Episcopal press, New York; and works mentioned under Episcopacy. BISSELL, (Josi AH,) a generous philanthropist of this country, was the son of deacon Josiah Bissell. About the year 1814 or 1815, he was one of a number of young men, who removed from Pittsfield, Mass., to the new town of Rochester, N. Y. The increase in the value of the land which he had purchased made him rich; but his wealth he very liberally employed in promoting the various bene- volent operations of the age. He expended many thou- sands of dollars. Were his example followed by the rich, the face of the world would soon be renewed. At great expense, he was the principal promoter of the “Pioneer” line of stages, so called, which did not run on Sunday, and which was established for the sole purpose of preventing the desecration of that holy day. His piety was ardent; his courage unshaken by the calumnies and revilings of men who preferred gain to godliness. As he had lived for Christ, he died in the triumphs of faith, early in April, 1831, aged forty years. When told that he would soon die, he said, “Why should I be afraid to die? The Lord knows, I have loved his cause more than all things else; I have wronged no man; I possess no man's goods; I am at peace with all men; I have peace, and trust, and con- ſidence; I am ready, willing, yea, anxious to depart.” When told the next day, that he was better, he said, “I desire to go; my face is set.” “Tell my children to choose the Lord Jesus Christ for their portion, and to serve him better than I have done. Say to the church,- G9 on gloriously. Say to impenitent sinners, If they wº know the value of religion, look at a dying bed.” '672. BITE. Angrily to contend with and injure others is called by St. Paul a biting of them; it is learned from the old serpent, it manifests malice, and spreads a destructive infection. Gal. 5; 25. (See BackBiting.) Divine judg- ments are sometimes compared to the bite of a serpent, to indicate their suddenness, sharpness, and destructive pow- er. Eccl. 10:8, Jer. 8: 17. Hab. 2: 7. For the like rea- son, reiné, when for a long time used to excess, hics like a serpent, and stings like an adder. Prov. 23: 32. , BITHYNLA; (1 Pet. 1: 1.) a province of Asia Minor, in the northern part of that peninsula; on the shore of the Euxine, having Phrygia and Galatia to the south. It is famous as being one of the provinces to which the apostle Peter addressed his first epistle; also, as having been un- der the government of Pliny, who describes the manners and characters of the Christians there, about A. D. 106; also for the holding the most celebrated council of the Christian church in the city of Nice, its metropolis, about .A. D. 325. It should seem to be, with some justice, con- sidered as a province taught by Peter; and we read (Acts 16; 7.) that when Paul attempted to go into Bithynia, the Spirit suffered him not. It is directly opposite to Constan- tinople.—Calmet. -- BITTERNESS, waters of. (See Adultery.) BITTER HERBS, (merurim.) Exod. 12:8, and Num. 9:11. The Jews were commanded to eat their passover with a salad of bitter herbs; but whether one particular plant was intended, or any kind of bitter herbs, has been made a question. By the Septuagint it is rendered epi pºkridon ; by Jerome, “cum lactucis agrestibus; and by the Gr,Venet, ept pikrisin. Dr. Geddes remarks, that ºf it is highly probable that the succory or wild lettuce is meant.” * šubstantiate the fact, “that in the year 668, the successors to Austin the monk being almost extinct in Eagland, by for the greater part of the bishops were of Scottish ordination. by Aidan and Finan, who came ºut of the Cullee monastery, and were nothing more than presbyters; though when the northern princes were converted by them, they made them bishops.”. Batter, says, remarking on the testimony of Bede “You will find that the English had a succession of bishops by the Scottish presbyters' ordination, and there is no mention ºpje"; any scruple of the lawfulness of the course.” The Mischna in Pesachim, cap. 2, reckons ſive species of these bitter herbs: 1. Chazareth, taken for lettuce; 2. Ul. sin, supposed to be endive or succory; 3. Tamca, proba- bly tansy : 4. Charubbinim, which Bochart thought might be the nettle, but Scheuchzer shows to be the camomile; 5. Meror, the sow-thistle, or dent-de-lion, or wild lettuce. Mr. Forskal says, “the Jews in Sana and in Egypt eat the lettuce with the paschal lamb.” He also remarks, that moru is centaury, of which the young stems are eaten in February and March.-Watson. - BITTERN; a singular bird, about the size of the com- mon heron, but differing from it greatly in the color of its plumage. The crown of the head is black, with a black spot also on each side about the angle of the mouth; the back and upper part are elegantly variegated with differ- ent colors, black, brown, and gray, in beautiful arrange- ment. This species of bird is common only in fen coun- tries, where it is met with skulking about the reeds and sedge; and its usual posture is with the head and neck erect, and the beak pointed directly upwards. It permits persons to approach near to it, without rising. It flies principally towards the dusk of the evening, and then rises in a very singular manner, by a spiral ascent, till quite out of sight. It makes a curious noise when among the reeds, and a very different, though sufficiently singu- lar one, as it rises on the wing in the night. See Wil. loughby's Ornithology. • . - faiah, foretelling the destruction of Babylon, says, “I will make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of water.” Isa. 14:23. And Zephamiah prophesying against Nineveh, says, “The flocks shall lie down in the midst of her; all the beasts of the nations, both the cormorant and the bittern, shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; their voice shall sing in the windows.” Zeph. 2: 14.—Jones. BLACKBURNE, (FRANcis,) a theologian, was born at Richmond, in Yorkshire, in 1705, and was educated at Cambridge. In 1750, he was made archdeacon of Cleve- land. He was a friend to religious liberty, and hostile to confessions of faith. On this subject he was deeply in volved in controversy. The most celebrated of his per- formances on it is the Confessional, which appeared in 1776. His works have been collected in six volumes oc- tavo. He died in 1787.—Davenport. BLACKLOCK, (Thomas,) a divine and poet, was born at Annan, in Dumfries, in 1721, and lost his sight by the small pox, when he was only six months old. To amuse and instruct him, his father and friend used to read to him, and by this means he acquired a fund of information, and even some knowledge of Latin. At the age of twelve, he began to versify, and his devotion to the muses was con- tinued through life. Considering his circumstances, his poems have great merit. He studied at the university of Edinburgh for ten years, and his progress in the sciences was very considerable. He was ordained minister of ICircudbright, but, being opposed by the parishioners, be retired on an annuity, and received students at Edinburgh as boarders, and assisted them in their studies. Besides his poems, he is the author of some theological works, and an article on the education of the blind; the latter was printed in the Encyclopædia Britannica. He died in July, 1791, regretted by all his friends.--Davenport. BLACKMAN, (ADAM,) first minister of Stratford, Conn., was a preacher in Leicestershire and Derbyshire, England. After he came to this country, he preached a short time at Scituate, and then at Guilford; in 1640, he was settled at Stratford, where he died in 1665. His successors were Israel Chauncey, Timothy Cutler, Hezekiah Gould, Isra- hiah Wetmore, and recently Mr. Dutton, afterwards pro- fessor at Yale. Notwithstanding his name, Mather re- presents him as for his holiness “purer than snow, whiter than milk.” With almost the same name as Melancthon, he was a Melancthon among the reformers of New Ha- ven, but with less occasion, than the German, to complain, that “old Adam was too hard for his young namesake.” Mr. Hooker so much admired the plainness and simplicity of his preaching, that he said, if he could have his choice, he should choose to live and die under his ministry. His son, Benjamin, a graduate of Harvard college in 1663, preached for a time at Malden, but left that place in 1678; and afterwards at Scarborough. In 1683, he was a repre- ^ * B L A B L A [ 247 J sentative of Saco, in which town he was a large land- holder, and owner of all the mill privileges on the east Side of the river. He probably died in Boston.— Magna- lia, iii. 94; Folsom's Hist. Saco, 164. - ... BLACKSTONE, (SIR WILLIAM,) an eminent and re- ligious lawyer, was the third son of a silk mercer, and was born in London, in 1723. After having been for se- veral years at the Charter house, he completed his educa- tion at Pembroke college, Oxford, and at both seminaries displayed superior talent. Having chosen the profession of the law, and entered the Middle Temple, in 1741, he wrote his elegant valedictory poem, the Lawyer's Fare- well to his Muse. He remained in comparative obscurity till 1753, when he began to deliver, at Oxford, his lectures on the English laws; which, in 1765 and the four follow- ing years, he published, with the title of Commentaries on the Laws of England. In consequence of these lec- tures, he was elected Winerian professor of law in the uni- versity, and obtained a great accession of business. In 1761, he sat in parliament as member for Hindon, and was made king's counsel, and solicitor-general to the queen. In 1770, he was offered the place of solicitor-ge- neral, but declined it, and was made a judge of the king's bench, whence he was soon after transferred to the com- mon pleas. He died in 1780. Blackstone was the first who wrote on the dry and repulsive subject of English law, in such a manner as not to excite disgust in a reader of taste. Like almost all lawyers, he leans to the side of prerogative; nor is there much more of enlargement in his principles of religious liberty. For this reason he was exposed to attack from Priestley, Junius, and Bentham.— Davenport. BLAIR, (RoperT,) a divine and poet, was born at Ed- inburgh, in 1699, and educated at that university. He was minister of Athelstameford, in East Lothian, where he died in 1747. His poem of the Grave is popular, and deservedly so, and has obtained him a place among our standard poets.--Davenport. . .* BLAIR, (DR. #jºs born at Edinburgh in 1718, *ºs and was the son of a merchant. He was educated at the university of his native city, and was licensed to preach in 1741, when he became minister of Colessie, in Fife. In 1743, he was appointed minister of the Canongate, Edinburgh; in 1754, he was removed to Lady Yester's ; and in 1759 to the High Church, where he continued dur- ing the remainder of his life. A professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres having been founded by his majesty; in 1762, Dr. Blair was appointed professor; and here origi- nated his Lectures on Composition, which he published in 1783. The first volume of his Sermons was published in 1777, and acquired such a rapid popularity, that he not only obtained a large sum of money for the succeeding r volumes, but was rewarded with a pension of two hun. dred pounds per annum, Dr. Blair died at Edinburgh, in 1800. In his sermons, his style is elegant, and he enforces the moral duties with great felicity of language and argu. His lectures still remain a standard work. . Davenport. BLAIR, (JAMEs,) first president of William and Mary college, Virginia, and a learned divine, was born and edu- cated in Scotland, where he obtained a benefice in the episcopal church. On account of the unsettled state of religion, which then existed in that kingdom, he quitted his preferments and went into England near the end of the reign of Charles II. The bishop of London prevailed on him to go to Virginia as a missionary, about the year 1685; and in that colony, by his exemplary conduct and unwearied labors in the work of the ministry, he much promoted religion, and gained to himself esteem and repu- tation. % Perceiving that the want of schools and seminaries for literary and religious instruction would in a great degree defeat the exertions which were making, in order to propa- gate the gospel, he formed the design of establishing a college at Williamsburg. This object he effected, and he was its first president. After a life of near sixty years in the ministry, he died in a good old age, August 1, 1743, and went to enjoy the glory for which he was destined. He published our Savior's Divine Sermon on the Mount explained, and the Practice of it recommended, in divers Sermons and Discourses, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1742. This work is spoken of with high approbation by Dr. Doddridge, and by Dr. Williams in his Christian Preacher.—Introduc. tion to the above work ; Miller's Retz. ii. 335, 336; New and Gen. Biog. Dict. ; Burnet's Hist. Omn Times, ii. 129, 130, folio; Keith, 168; Beverley ; Allen. BLAIR, (SAMUEL,) a learned minister in Pennsylvania, was a native of Ireland. He came to America very early in life, and was one of Mr. Tennent's pupils in his acade- my at Neshaminy. About the year 1745, he himself opened an academy at Fog's manor, Chester county, with particular reference to the study of theology as a science. He also took the pastoral charge of the church in this lace. p Mr. Blair was one of the most learned and able, as well as pious, excellent, and venerable men of his day. He was a profound divine, and a most solemn and impressive preacher. To his pupils he was himself an excellent model of pulpit eloquence. In his life he gave them an admirable example of Christian meekness, of ministerial diligence, of candor, and catholicism, without a derelic- tion of principle. He was eminently serviceable to the part of the country where he lived, not only as a minister of the gospel, but as a teacher of human knowledge. From his academy, that school of the prophets, as it was frequently called, there issued forth many excellent pupils, who did honor to their instructer, both as scholars and Christian ministers. Among the distinguished characters, . who received their classical and theological education at this seminary, were his nephew, Alexander Cumming, Samuel Davies, Dr. Rodgers of New York, and James Finley, Hugh Henry, and a number of other respectable clergymen.—Allen; Miller's Retr. ii. 343; Mass. Miss. Mag. iii. 362; Davies' Life. BLAIR, (John,) one of the associate judges of the Su- reme court of the United States, died at Williamsburg in Virginia, August 31, 1800, aged sixty-eight. He was an amiable, accomplished, and truly virtuous man. He discharged with ability and integrity the duties of a num- ber of the highest and most important public trusts; and in these, as well as in the relations of private life, his conduct was upright and so blameless, that he seldom or never lost a friend, or made him an enemy. Even ca- lumny, which assailed Washington, shrunk from his friend, the unassuming and pious Blair. Through life he in a remarkable manner experienced the truth of our Savior's declaration, “Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth;” and at death he illustrated the force of the exclamation, “Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his.”—Claypoole's Adv. Sept. 12, 1800; Marshall, v. 216; Allen. BLAKE, (Robert,) one of the most celebrated of Bri- B L A B L A [ 248 ) -: tish admirals, was born at Bridgewater, in 1399, and edu- cated at Wadham college, Oxford. By the interest of the Puritans, he was elected member for Bridgewater, in 1640. In the struggle between Charles I. and his people, he es- poused the cause of liberty, and distinguished himself by his gallant defence of Taunton, and other exploits. In 1649, he was put in command of the fleet. His first achievement was the destruction of prince Rupert's squad- ron, at Malaga. In 1652 and 1653, he ſought four despe- rate engagements with the Dutch fleet, under Van Tromp, in two of which the enemy were defeated with great loss. The next theatre of Blake's glory was the Mediterranean, to which he sailed in 1654, and where he destroyed the Tu- nisian castles of Goletta and Porto Ferino, and intercepted the Spanish plate fleet. Having received intelligence that another plate fleet was lying at Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, he sailed thither, forced his way into the harbor, burned the ships, and came out without having suffered any loss. His health was now entirely broken, and he bent his course homeward, but expired, August 27, 1657, while the fleet was entering Plymouth Sound. Admiral Blake was not merely a man of courage and talent; he was pious, just, and singularly disinterested.—Davenport. BLAME. That certain actions are wrong, and deserve blame, is generally admitted; but in settling the applica- tion of blame, there has been not a little discussion among philosophers. The question lies at the foundation of morals. In treating it, three inquiries are necessary : Who is the agent? What rule had he to direct him? In what circumstances was he placed? For in the first place, we never attribute blame to any merely physical agent, but only to a moral agent. When a house is set ou fire, we attach no blame to the ſirebrand, but only to the incendiary. , Nor is even a moral agent subject to blame, unless complete in his faculties; the idiot and the lunatic are therefore free. In the next place, a complete moral agent, under given circumstances, nye com- pare with some rule. Different views of blame arise from applying different rules as the standard of judgment. This is evident among the heathem, in the absence of divine revelation. And in Christian communities, the difference springs from not understanding the revealed rule of right. God has given us the true standard in his word. Con- formity to this standard is virtue; want of such conſorm- ity is vice, or in other words, sin. Every deviation from it, or defect in coming up to it, resulting from choice or inclination, is worthy of blame. An action or emotion of the soul is not blameworthy, unless it flows from design or evil disposition. Evil disposition is in fact essential to blame. If we find this in a moral agent, we find all that is necessary to lay the foundation for blame. The evil lies in the nature of the disposition, not in its cause. Hence the folly and futility of common excuses, founded on natu- ral propensities or peculiar circumstances of temptation. Hence the criminality of men, who attempt to excuse , themselves for the same things they blame in others. Rom. 2: 1–10. Some place all blame in actions; but our Lord has taught us to place it chiefly on wrong affections, (Matt. 6, 1–34, Mark 7: 20–23.) and reason echoes to his voice ; for all actions take their moral character and coloring from the disposition. Circumstances do indeed modify the hues of guilt, giving it a softer or a sterner shade ; and blame is graduated accordingly. But the original ground of blame is found in voluntary deviation from the divine rule of rectitude. Who can understand his errors 2 Ps. 19: 12. - BLANCHE OF CASTILE, daughter of Alphonso IX. king of Castile, and Eleanor of England, wife of Lewis VIII. and mother of Lewis IX. king of France, was born 1185, and died 1253. She was the second of eleven children, and educated by her mother, a wise and virtuous princess, with great care. When about fifteen or sixteen years of age, she became the wife of prince Lewis, son of Philip Augustus of France. During the reign of Philip, Lewis and Blanche were much at court, where the beauty and fine qualities of the latter made her equally loved and ad- mired. In 1223, she mounted the throne; and by her conduct in this high station justified the choice of her hus- band. They had nine sons and two daughters. After her husband's death, from the absence or ſlight of the mobility, many of whom refused, on various pretences, to attend her son's coronation, she found herself in a species of solitude; but putting her trust in Heaven, she exerted her utmost powers in spite of discouragement. This extraor- dinary woman, who to unrivalled beauty, wit, eloquence, and address, joined the undaunted spirit of a hero, and the foresight and prudence of the most enlightened poli- tician, having assumed the regency, soon gave a form to the government, and confided the education of her son to the constable de Montmorenci, the greatest statesman and warrior in France. All those she placed about the prince and her other children, were remarkable for their knowledge and piety. The wisdom and energy of her administration crushed the spirit of rebellion, and gave peace to her dis- tracted country. When her son Lewis, in 1248, under- took an expedition to the Holy Land, she remonstrated against it; for, though pious, she was elevated above the political errors of her age. When delivering the sovereign authority into his hands, she said, “I nould rather a thou- sand times consent to lose you, all royal as you are, and more dear to me than all the rvorld contains, than knomy you to com- mit a fault n’hich may deprive you of the protection of Heaven.” —Betham. - BLANDINA; a Christian martyr of Lyons, who suſ. fered in the second century, in the severe persecution under Marcus Antoninus, (or Aurelius.) Though of so weak and delicate a constitution, that her friends feared she would not be able to sustain the tortures with the rest of her fellow- sufferers, they were all deceived. She was tortured in different ways, from morning till night, and while her body was torn and mangled, she only said, “I am a Chris- tian, and no evil, is committed among us.” Being aſter- wards thrust, with others, into a horrid dungeon, their feet distended in a wooden trunk, till many died, she appears to have aided in confirming and comforting her companions. They were at length led out into the amphitheatre, and exposed to wild beasts. Blandina, suspended to a stake in the form of a cross, was engaged in earnest prayer, and greatly encouraged her fellow-sufferers by her meek and undaunted behavior. None of the beasts at that time touching her, she was reserved for a future trial. On the last day of the spectacles, Blandina was again brought from the prison, with Pontius, a Christian youth of fifteen. They were ordered to swear by the idols; and the mob, perceiving that all their menaces availed noth- ing, became incensed, and aggravated their tortures by all possible methods. Pontius, after a magnanimous exercise of patience, died under his sufferings. And Blandina, last of all, who had exhorted her now lifeless friends, as a mother her children, soon followed them to the presence of the Lord; rejoicing in the triumph which his grace had won in their fidelity, even unto death. Even her enemies confessed that no woman among them had ever suffered So much. - - These sufferers of Lyons disclaimed the name of mar- tyrs as too glorious for them ; but they showed a constancy, mildness, and charity truly apostolical. They reproached not those who fell away from the faith, but prayed to God for them ; and many who had shrunk back like Peter, now returned with penitent hearts, and voluntarily declared that they were Christians.—Betham; Milner. - BLASPHEMY, blasphemia, properly denotes calumny detraction, reproachful or abusive language, against whomso- ever it be vented. That blasphemia and its conjugates are very often applied, says Dr. Campbell, to reproaches not aimed against God, is evident from the following passages : Matt. 12: 31, 32. 27:39. Mark 15:29. Luke 22: 65. 23: 39. Rom. 3: 8, 14: 16. 1 Cor. 4: 13. 10: 30. Eph. 4; 31. 1 Tim. 6: 4. Titus 3: 2. 1 Peter 4: 14. Jude 9, 10. Acts 6: 11, 13. 2 Peter 2: 10, 11; in the much greater part of which the English translators, sensible that they could admit no such application, have not used the words blas- pheme or blasphemy, but rail, revile, speak evil, &c. In one of the passages quoted, a reproachful charge brought even against the devil, is called ºn mºniº (judºg) and rendered by them, “railing accusation.” The import of the word blasphemia, is maledicentia, in the largest accepta. tion; comprehending all sorts of Zerbal abuse, impreca. tion, reviling, and calumny. A.d let it be observed, that when such abuse is mentioneſ, as uttered against God, B L A B I, E | 249 j there is properly no change made in the signification of the word: the change is only in the application ; that is, in the reference to a different object. ..The idea conveyed in the explanation now given is always included, against whomsoever the crime be committed. every term is understood that is applicable to both God and man. Thus, the meaning of the word disobey is the same, whether we speak of disobeying Gód or of disobey- ing man. The same may be said of believe, honor, fear, &c. As therefore, the sense of the term is the same, though differently applied, what is essential to constitute the crime of detraction in the one case, is essential also in the other. But it is essential to this crime, as commonly understood, when committed by one man against another, that there be in the injurious person the will or disposition to detract from the person abused. Mere mistake in re- gard to character, especially when the mistake is not con- ceived by him who entertains it to lessen the character, nay, is supposed, however erroneously, to exalt it, is never construed by any into the crime of defamation. Now, as blasphemy is in its essence the same crime, but immensely aggravated by being committed against an object infi- nitely superior to man, what is fundamental to the very existence of the crime will be found in this, as in every other species which comes under the general name. There can be no blasphemy, therefore, where there is not an impious purpose to derogate from the divine Majesty, and to alienate the minds of others from the love and reve- rence of God. The blasphemer is no other than the ca- lumniator of Almighty God. To constitute the crime, it is as necessary that this species of calumny be intentional. He must be one, therefore, who by his impious talk en- deavors to inspire others with the same irreverence towards the Deity, or perhaps abhorrence of him, which he in- dulges in himself. And though, for the honor of human nature, it is to be hoped that very few arrive at this enor- mous guilt, it ought not to be dissembled, that the habitu- al profanation of the name and attributes of God, by common swearing, is but too manifest an approach towards it. There is not an entire coincidence : the latter of these vices may be considered as resulting solely from the de- fect of what is good in principle and disposition ; the former, from the acquisition of what is evil in the ex- treme : but there is a close connexion between them, and an insensible gradation from the one to the other. To accustom one’s self to treat the Sovereign of the universe with irreverent familiarity, is the first step; malignly to arraign his attributes, and revile his providence, is the last. The first divine law published against it, “He that blasphemeth the name of the Lord,” (or Jehovah, as it is in the Hebrew,) “shall be put to death,” (Lev. 24; 16.) when considered along with the incident that occasioned it, suggests a very atrocious offence in words, no less than abuse or imprecations vented against the Deity. And if we add to this the only other memorable instance in sacred history, namely, that of Rabshakeh, it will lead us to con- clude that it is solely a malignant attempt, in words, to lessen men's reverence of the true God, and, by vilifying his perfections, to prevent their placing confidence in him, which is called in Scripture blasphemy, when the word is employed to denote a sin committed directly against God. This was manifestly the attempt of Rabshakeh, when he said, “Neither.let Hezekiah make you trust in the Lord,” (the word is Jehovah,) “saying, Jehovah will surely de- liver us. his land out of the hand of the king of Assyria 2 Where are the gods of Hamath and of Arpad? Where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Iva º Have they deliv- ered Samaria out of my hand? Who are they, among all the gods of the countries, that have delivered their country out of mine hand, that Jehovah should deliver Jerusalem out of mine hand?” 2 Kings 18:30, 33–35. —Watson. . - BLASPHEMY AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST. It will naturally occur to inquire, what that is, in particu- lar, which our Lord denomirates “blasphemy against the Holy Spirit.” Matt. 12:31, 32. Mark 3: 28, 29. Luke 12:10. But without entering minutely into the discussion of this question, it may suffice here to observe, that this blasphemy is certainly not of the constructive kind, but a- In this manner, , Hath any of the gods of the nations delivered direct, manifest, and malignant. First, it is mentioned as comprehended under the same genus with abuse against men, and contradistinguished only by the object. Second- ly, it is further explained by being called speaking against in both cases: “Whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man.”—“Whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost.” The expressions are the same, in effect, in all the evangelists who mention it, and imply such an oppo- sition as is both intentional and malevolent. This cannot have been the case of all who disbelieved the mission of Jesus, and even decried his miracles; many of whom, we have reason to think, were afterwards converted by the apostles. But it was the wretched case of some who, in- stigated by worldly ambition and avarice, slandered what they knew to be the cause of God; and, against convic- tion, reviled his work as the operation of evil spirits. This view of the sin against the Holy Ghost is confirmed by the circumstances under which our Lord spoke. (See UNPARDONABLE SIN.)—Watson. BLESILLA ; daughter of Paula, a celebrated Roman lady, and sister of Eustochium ; died at Rome in 389, aged twenty. She was a woman of great sensibility, piety, and learning. She was very beautiful, and in early life much addicted to dress ; but becoming more deeply impressed with religious ideas, she gave herself up to study and prayer. On the death of her husband, though so young, she refused to enter into any other engage- ment, and is much extolled by St. Jerome, for her memory and eloquence. She knew perfectly the Greek and Latin languages, and had conquered so well the difficulties of the Hebrew, as to speak it with facility.—Betham. BLEMISH ; whatever renders a person or thing imper- ſect or unlovely. The Jewish law required the priests to be free from blemishes of person. Lev. 21: 17—23. 22: 20–24. Scandalous professors are blemishes to the church of God, (2 Peter 2: 13. Jude 12.) and therefore ought to be put away from it, in the exercise of a godly discipline. BLESS, BLESSING. There are three points of view in which the acts of blessing may be considered. The first is, when men are said to bless God, as in Psalm 103: 1, 2. We are then not to suppose that the divine Being, who is over all, and, in himself, blessed for evermore, is capable of receiving any augmentation of his happiness, from all the creatures which he has made : Such a suppo- sition, as it would imply something of imperfection in the divine nature, must ever be rejected with abhorrence; and, therefore, when the creatures bless the adorable Cre- ator, they only ascribe to him that praise and dominion, and honor, and glory, and blessing, which it is equally the duty and joy of his creatures to render. But when God is said to bless his people, (Gen. 1: 22. Eph. 1: 3.) the meaning is, that he confers benefits upon them, either temporal or spiritual, and so communicates to them some portion of that blessedness which, in infinite fulness, dwells in himself. James 1: 17. Psalm 104: 24, 28. Luke 11: 9–13. In the third place, men are said to bless their ſel- low-creatures. From the time that God entered into co- venant with Abraham, and promised extraordinary bless- ings to his posterity, it appears to have been customary for the father of each family, in the direct line, or line of promise, previous to his death, to call his children around him, and to inform them, according to the knowledge which it pleased God then to give him, how, and in what manner, the divine blessing conferred upon Abraham was to descend among them. Upon these occasions, the pa- triarchs enjoyed a divine illumination; and under its in- fluence, their benediction was deemed a prophetic oracle, foretelling events with the utmost certainty, and extending to the remotest period of time. Thus Jacob blessed his sons, (Gen. 49:) and Moses, the children of Israel. Deut. 33:. When Melchisedek blessed Abraham, the act of benediction included in it not merely the pronouncing solemn good wishes, but also a petitionary address to God that he would be pleased to ratify the benediction by his concurrence with what was prayed for. Thus Moses instructed Aaron, and his descendants, to bless the con- gregation, “In this wise shall ye bless the children of Is- rael, saying unto them, The Lord bless thee, and keep thee; the Lord make his face to shine upon thee; the Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee B I, I B L I { 250 peace.” Num. 4; 23. David says, “I will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord.” Ps. 116: 13. This phrase appears to be taken from the prac- tice of the Jews in their thank-offerings, in which a feast was made of the remainder of their sacrifices, and the , offerers, together with the priests, did eat and drink before the Lord; when, among other rites, the master of the feast took a cup of wine in his hand and solemnly blessed God for it, and for the mercies which were then acknowledged, and gave it to all the guests, every one of whom drank in his turn. To this custom it is supposed our blessed Lord alludes in the institution of the cup, which also is called, (1 Cor. 10: 16.) “the cup of blessing.” At the family feasts also, and especially that of the passover, both wine and bread were in this solemn and religious manner dis- tributed, and God was blessed, and his mercies acknow- ledged. . They blessed God for their present refreshment, for their deliverance out of Egypt, for the covenant of cir- cumcision, and for the law given by Moses; and prayed that God would be merciful to his people Israel, that he would send the prophet Elijah, and that he would render them worthy of the kingdom of the Messiah. See also 1 Chron. 16: 2, 3. In the Mosaic law, the manner of blessing is appointed by the lifting up of hands. Our Lord lifted up his hands, and blessed his disciples. It is probable that this action was constantly used on such oc- casions. The palm of the hand held up was precatory; and the palm turned outwards or downwards was bene- dictory. (See BENEDICTION, and Lord's SUPPER.)—Watson. BLINDFOLDING. This is the treatment which Christ received from his enemies. It refers to a sport which was common among children, called muinda, in which it was the manner first to blindfold, then to strike, and to ask who gave the blow, and not to let the person go till he had named the right man who had struck him. It was used in reproach of our blessed Lord as a prophet, or divine instructer, and to expose him to ridicule. Luke 22: 63, 64. — JVatson. - BLINDNESS, is often used in Scripture to express ig- norance, or a want of discernment in divine things, as well as the being destitute of natural sight. (See Isa. 42: 18, 19. 6: 10. Matt. 15: 14.) “Blindness of heart” is the want of understanding arising from the influence of vi- cious passions. “Hardness of heart” is stubbornness of will, and destitution of moral feeling. Moses says, “Thou shalt not put a stumbling-block before the blind,” (Lev. 19: 14.) which may be understood literally ; or figurative- ly, as if Moses recommended that charity and instruction should be shown to them who want light and counsel, or to those who are in danger of going wrong through their ignorance. Moses says also, “Cursed be he who maketh the blind to wander out of his way,” (Deut. 27: 18.) which may also be taken in the same manner. An ignorant or erring teacher is compared by our Lord to a blind man leading a blind man;–a strong representation of the pre- Sumption of him that professes to teach the way of salva- tion without due qualifications, and of the danger of that implicit faith which is often placed by the people in the authority of man, to the neglect of the Holy Scriptures. Blindness, as a disease of the organ of vision, may be produced by drying up the natural humors of the eyes, through which the rays of light pass; and this may be the effect of old age, which produces dimness and at length blindness; or it may be the consequence of great heat, applied to the eyes, and in this manner one of the kings of England is said to have been blinded, by the holding of a heated brass bason before his eyes, which gradually exhaled their moisture. If the eyes are dried up, they must be hardened. Or, blindness may proceed from a cataract, or thick skin, growing over a part of the eye, and preventing the passage of the rays of light to the in. terior, the proper seat of vision ; this might anciently be thought to give the appearance of hardness to the eye; and we ourselves call such an appearance a waſ.I.-EYE.— The reader may recollect other instances. º Mr. Taylor wishes by these considerations to account for the seeming contrariety, which appears sometimes be- tween the margin and the text in our translation, (and in other translations also,) which renders the same word blind. wess and hardness : for it is by no means unusual, for young their surfeits and dissoluteness. persons especially, to discover the strong distinction be- tween the terms blindness and hardness; while the cause of their adoption to express the same distemper, entirely escapes them. So we read, gº; 3: 5.) “Being grieved for the blindness—hardness—of their hearts.” So (Rom. 11: 25.) “Blindness—hardness—in part hath happened to Is- rael.” Eph. 4: 18. “Because of the blindness—hardness— of their hearts.” 2 Cor. 3: 14, “Their minds were blinded” —hardened : and elsewhere. Now, if in these and other places, the disorder alluded to were a blindness occa- sioned by desiccation of the visual agents, or any of their parts, whether arising from causes already suggested, or from any other, then we readily perceive by what means the two ideas of blindness and hardness might originate from the same word; and that, in fact, both renderings may be correct, since by one we are led to the cause, hard- ness ; and by the other to the effect, blindness. There is another sense in which our English word set is used, in reference to the eyes; which, for aught we know, may be derived metaphorically from the state of plaster drying or hardened; that is, when it describes a stiff, im- mobile condition ; a fixed, staring, effectless exertion of looking : but, the brain being in a state incompetent to profit by the sensations it receives from the optic nerves, (if indeed it do receive those sensations,) the party can hardly be said to see ; and, it is questionable, whether the optic nerve itself be in a state to convey sensations to the brain, or the retina to receive that depicturation of objects upon it, which is the sine qua non of vision. It is gene- rally understood, (or ought to be,) that the phrase “make this people's heart fat,” alludes to the effect of full feed- ing, of greedy gratification of the appetite, whereby a quantity of fat seats itself on the heart, and there increases, till it overburdens that important source of activity, In like manner, this setting of the eyes is the effect of that drowsy disposition which attends excess. - This investigation removes objections which have been raised from the commission given by God to the prophet. Some have said, God commands the prophet to do a cer- tain thing to this people, and then punishes the people: nay, this appears stronger still, where the passage is quoted, as, (John 12:40.) He hath blinded their eyes and hardened their hearts; which seems to be contradictory to Matt. 13: 15. where the people themselves are said to have closed their own eyes: and so Acts 28: 27. These seeming con- tradictions are very easily reconciled, by taking the phrase- ology in its true import: (1) “SET the eyes of this peo. ple”—prophesy such flowing times, such abundant jollity, that the people, devoting themselves to gormandizing, may be inebriated with the very idea ; and still more with the enjoyment itself, when it arrives. (2.) God, by giving plenty and abundance, affords the means of the people's abusing his goodness, and becoming both over-fat with food, and intoxicated with drink; and thus, his very be- neficence may be said to make their heart fat, and their eyes heavy : while, (3.) at the same time, the people by their own act, their over-feeding, become unwieldy—indo- lent—bloated—over-fat at heart; and, moreover, so stupi- fied by liquor and strong drink, that their eyes and ears may be useless to them : with wide open eyes, “staring, they may stare, but not perceive ; and listening, they may hear, but not understand ;” and in this lethargic state they will continue ; preferring it to a more sedate, rational con- dition, and refusing to forbear from prolonging the causes of it, lest at any sober interval they should see truly with their eyes, and hear accurately with their ears; in conse. quence of which they should be shocked at themselves, be converted, be changed from such misconduct, and Í should heal them ; should cure these delusory effects of Compare Isa. 5: 11. 28: 7. Where is now the contradiction between these different . representations of the same event 2–-Is it not an occurrence of daily notoriety, that God gives, but the sinner abuses his giſts to his own injury, of body and mind No person who has witnessed the progress of intoxication, will deny that whatever efforts the party makes to see, those efforts are fruitless; his eyes goggle, wander, decline all manner of ways, notwithstanding this set-ness of their internal parts:–in fact, the muscles which move the eye may act, after a sort, while the eye itself is incapable of accurate B L O B O A [ 251 ) vision, because incapable of transmitting correct images of external objects. . . This may also hint a reason why our Lord spoke in parables; that is, the people were too much stupified to see the plain and simple truth; but their attention might possibly be gained by a tale, or be caught by an inference. — Watson ; Calmet. BLOOD. Besides its proper sense, the fluid of the veins of men and animals, the term in Scripture is used, 1. For life. “God will require the blood of a man,” he will punish murder in what manner soever.committed. “His blood be upon us,” let the guilt of his death be imputed to us. “The voice of thy brother's blood crieth ;” the mur- der committed on him crieth for vengeance. “The avenger of blood:” he who is to avenge the death of his relative. Numb. 35: 24, 27. 2. Blood means relationship, or con- sanguinity. 3. Flesh and blood are placed in opposition to a superior nature: “Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven.” Matt. 16: 17. 4. They are also opposed to the glorified body : “Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God.” 1 Cor. 15:50. 5. They are opposed also to evil spirits: “We wrestle not against flesh and blood,” against visible enemies composed of flesh and blood, “but against prin- cipalities and powers,” &c. Eph. 6: 12. 6. Wine is called the pure blood of the grape : “Judah shall wash his garments in the blood of the grape.” Gen. 49: 11. Deut. 32: 14. 7. The priests were established by God to judge between blood and blood; that is, in criminal mat- ters, and where the life of man is at stake;—to determine whether the murder be casual, or voluntary; whether a crime deserve death, or admit of remission, &c. 8. In its most eminent sense, blood is used for the sacrificial death of Christ; whose blood or death is the price of our salvation. His blood has “purchased the church.” Acts 20: 28. “We are justified by his blood.” Rom. 5: 9. “We have redemption through his blood.” Eph. 1; 7, &c. (See ATONEMENT.) That singular and emphatic prohibition of blood for food from the earliest times, which we fine in the holy Scriptures, deserves particular attention. God expressly forbade the eating of blood alone, or of blood mixed with the flesh of animals, as when any creature was suffocated, or strangled, or killed without drawing its blood from the carcass. Exod. 9: 4. Lev. 17: 10–14. (See ANIMAL.) This restraint, than which nothing can be more express, was also, under the new covenant, enjoined upon believing Gentiles, as “a burden,” which it seemed necessary to the Holy Spirit to impose upon them.” Acts 15: 28, 29. For this prohibition, no moral reason seems capable of being offered; nor does it clearly appear that blood is an un- wholesome aliment, which some think was the physical reason of its being inhibited; and if, in fact, blood is de- leterious as food, there seems no greater reason why this should be pointed out by special revelation to man, to guard him against injury, than many other unwholesome aliments. There is little force in the remark, that the eat- ing of blood produces a ferocious disposition; for those nations that eat strangled things, or blood cooked with other aliments, do not exhibit more ferocity than others. The true reason was, no doubt, a sacrificial one. Let any one attempt to discover any reason for the pro- hibition of blood to Noah, in the mere circumstance that it is “ the life,” and he will find it impossible. It is no reason at all, moral or instituted, except that as it was Life substituted for LIFE, the life of the animal in sacri- fice ſor the life of man, and that, therefore, blood had a sacred appropriatiºn. See ABEL.— Watson. BLOT; a sinful stain; a reproach. Job 31: 7. Prov. 9: 7. To blot out living things, or one's name or remem- brance, is to destroy, abolish. Gen. 7: 4. Deut, 9: 14, and 25: 19, and 29:20. Cöl. 2: 14. To blot out sin, is fully and finally to forgive it. Isa. 44; 22. God's blotting men out of his book, is to deny them his providential favors, and cut them off by an untimely death. Ps. 39; 28. Exod. 32: 32, 33. His not blotting their name out of the book of life imports his clearly manifesting their etermal election. Rev. 3: 5.--Brown. - BLOW ; a stroke; a heavy judgment inflicted by the rod of God’s anger. Ps, 39; 10. Jer, 14: 7. To BLow, as wind doth. The bloning of the Holy Ghost is his mysteri- ous exertion of his power to convince, purify, refresh, and comfort his people. Song 4: 16. John 3: 8,-Bronn. BOANERGES. This word is neither Hebrew nor Sy. riac, and some have thought that the transcribers have not exactly copied it, and that the word was benereen, which expresses the sound of the Hebrew of the phrase, “sons of thunder.” The name Boanerges, therefore, given to James and John, imports that they should be eminent instruments in accomplishing a wondrous change, and should, like an carthquake or thunder, mightily bear down all opposition, by their inspired preaching and miraculous powers. That it does not relate to their mode of preaching is certain ; for that clearly appears to have been calmly argumentative, and sweetly persuasive—the very reverse of what is usu- ally called a thundering ministry.—Watson. BOAR, wild. This animal, which is the original of all the varieties of..the hog kind, is by no means so stupid nor so filthy a beast as that we have reduced to tameness. He is something smaller than the domestic hog, and does not So vary in his color, being always found of an iron gray, inclining to black; his snout is much larger than that of the tame animal, and the ears are shorter, rounder, and black; of which color are also the feet and the tail. But the tusks are larger than in the fame breed; they bend upwards circularly, and are exceedingly sharp at the points. - The wild boar roots up the ground in a different manner from the common hog; the one turns up the earth in little spots here and there; the other ploughs it up like a ſurrow, and does irreparable damage in the cultivated lands of the ſarmer, destroying the roots of the vine and other plants. From this we may see the propriety with which the psalmist represents the subversion of the Jewish common- wealth, under the allegory of a vine, destroyed by a boar: “Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her? The boar out of the woods doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it,” Psalm 80: 8–13. If this psalm was written, as is supposed, during the Baby- lonian captivity, the propriety of the allegory becomes more apparent. Not satisfied with devouring the plants and fruit which have been carefully raised by the skill and at- tention of the husbandman, the ferocious boar lacerates and breaks.with his powerful tusks the roots and branches of the surrounding vines, and tramples them beneath his feet. The reader will easily apply this to the conduct pur- sued by the Chaldeans towards the Jewish state, whose desolation is thus pathetically bewailed by the prophet: “The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty men in the midst of me: he hath called an assembly against me to crush my young men : the Lord hath trodden the vir- gin, the daughter of Judah, as in a wine-press.” Lam. 1: 15. The boar is exceedingly fond of marshes, fens, and reedy places; a disposition which is probably referred to in Ps. 68; 30, “Rebuke the company of the spearmen,”—or, as it is literally, “the beast of the reeds,” or canes.—Abbott's Script. Nat. History. BOAST. The saints boast of or in God, or GLORY in Christ, when they rejoice in, highly value, and commend him, and loudly publish the great things he has done for them. Ps. 34: 2. Isa. 45: 25. Glory not, and lie not against the truth ; do not proudly and deceitfully pretend to have true wisdom and zeal for God when you have it not. Jam. 3: 14.— Brown. BOAZ; the name of one of those brazen pillars which Solomon erected in the porch of the temple, 1 Kings 7: 21. The other, called Jachin, was on the right hand of the en- trance, Boaz on the left. Boaz signifies strength, firmness. They were together thirty-five cubits high : as in 2 Chron. 3:15; i. e. each separately was seventeen cubits and a half; 1 Kings 7: 15. and Jer. 52:21. say eighteen cubits, in round numbers. Jeremiah says the thickness of these columns was four fingers, for they were hollow; the cir- cumference of them was twelve cubits, or four cubits dia- meter; the chapiter of each was in all fiye cubits high, B O D E O G. [ 252 | These chapiters, in different parts of Scripture, are said to be of different heights, of three, four, or five cubits; be- cause they were composed of different ornaments or mem- bers, which were sometimes considered as omitted, some- times as included. The body of the chapiter was of three cubits, the ornaments with which it was joined to the shaft of the pillar, were of one cubit: these make four cubits; the row which was at the top of the chapiter was also of one cubit; in all five cubits.-Calmet. . BOCHART, (SAMUEL;) a learned French Protestant di- vine and general scholar, born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1599. His father was a Protestant minister, and his mo- ther was the sister of Peter du Moulin. His studies were prosecuted under Thomas Dempster, at Paris, and after- wards at Sedan and Saumur. He made a very early pro- gress in learning, particularly in the Greek language, of which we have a proof in the verses he composed in praise of his first master. Having gone through a course of phi- losophy, and studied theology under Camero, he followed the latter to London, where, however, he made but a short stay, for, about the end of 1621, he was at Leyden, applying himself to the study of the Arabic, under Erpenius. When Iłochart returned to France, he was chosen minister of Ca- en, where he distinguished himself by public disputations with father Veron, a very famous controvertist. The dis- pute was held in the castle of Caen, in the presence of a great number of Catholics and Protestants. Bochart came off with honor and reputation, which was not a little in- creased on the publication of his Phaleg and Canaan, which are the titles of the two parts of his “Geographia Sacra,” 1646. In 1652, the queen of Sweden invited him to Stock- holm, where she gave him many proofs of her esteem and regard. At his return into France, he continued his ordi- mary exercises, and was one of the members of the Acade- my of Caen, which consisted of all the learned men of that place, whither several of the sons of the English gentry resorted for education; and among others, the earl of Ros- common, afterwards an eminent poet. One of his most learned works, and by which he acquired great ſame, was his “Kierozicon,” which treats of the natural history of the Scripture, particularly the animals, and which was printed in London in 1663. He died of apoplexy, while cngaged in the academy in a public discussion with his friend Huet, May 16, 1667, at the age of sixty-eight. Besides what we have mentioned, Bochart wrote a trea- tise on the Terrestrial Paradise, on the Plants and Precious Stones mentioned in Scripture, and some other pieces; but he left them unfinished. As many of his dissertations as could be collected were published in the edition of his works printed in Holland, 1692. The learned Rosenmueller pub- lished his Hierozicon in three volumes, quarto, Leipsic, 1793–1799, much enlarged and improved.—Bayle and Morer; ; Jones’s Chr. Biog. . - BOCHIM, the place of mourners, or of veepings; a place near Shiloh, where the Hebrews celebrated their solemn feasts. Here the angel of the covenant appeared to them, and denounced the sinfulness of their idolatry, which caused bitter weeping among the people; whence the place had its name, Judg. 2: 10.-Calmet. ; : . BODE, (CHRISTOPHER AUGUSTUs,) a learned German orientalist, was born at Wernigerode, in 1723, and acquir- ed, by his own exertions, the Arabic, Syriad; Chaldee, Sa- maritan, Ethiopian, rabbinical Hebrew, Armenian, Turk- ish, and Coptic languages. He was professor of philosophy in the university of Helmstadt. He died in 1796. His principal works consist of translations of the Scriptures from the oriental languages.—Davenport. . . BODY; a real substance; an organized system ; gene- rally the animal frame of man, as distinguished from his spiritual nature. opposition to the animal, 1 Cor. 15:44, The body which we animate, and which returns to the earth, is an animal body; but that which will rise hereafter, will be spiritual, neither gross, heavy, frail, mortal, nor subject to the wants which oppress the present body. - * Body is opposed to shadow, or figure, Col. 2: 17. The ceremonies of the law are figures and shadows realized in Christ and the Christian religion. . . - A regularly organized community, like the Christian church, is called a body. 1 Cor. 10; 17. - Paul also speaks of a spiritual body, in . “The body of sin,” Rom. 6: 6, called also “the body of this death,” Rom. 7:24, is the system and habit of sin in which Christians lived before conversion, and which after- wards is viewed as a loathsome burden. By an extension of the same-figure, the disposition to sin is called “the old man.” As the latter is “crucified with Christ,” by faith through the Holy Spirit; so the former is “put off” in baptism, “that the body of sin might be destroyed, that henceforth we should not serve sin.” “Where the body is, there the eagles assemble,” (Matt. 24; 28,) is a sort of proverb used by our Savior. In Job 29: 30, it is said that the eagle—viewing its prey from a distance—as soon as there is a dead body—it immediately resorts thither. Our Savior compares the wicked to a dead body, by God in his wrath given up to birds and beasts of prey; wherever they are, there will be likewise the judg: ments of God to seize and condemn them. Corpus, in good Latin authors, is sometimes used to signify a carcass, or dead body. (See EAGLE.) In this passage, there seems to be an allusion to the body of the Jews, preyed on by the Roman eagles: the eagle being the standard of that people.—Calmet. - * , BODY OF DIVINITY. See THEOLogy, BOERHAAVE, (HERMAN,) one of the most eminent of modern physicians, was born, in 1668, at Voorhout, near atººs 2 ºz (, 2 SS º - - - ºßs=º iſſa . \º ſ' º .-- -* - § - * . ./ --~~~ ºS * * & tº tº ſº. sº º §§ - iº ! iſ ºğ2 Leyden. His father, the minister of Voorhout, educated him for his own profession, and he made an honorable progress in his studies. But, on the death of his parent, who leſt him slenderly provided for, he obtained a subsist- ence by mathematical lectures, and at length devoted him: self to the medical profession. He took the degree of M. D. at the university of Harderwick, in 1693. At first, his success was limited; but at length he became professor of physical botany at Leyden, and his lectures at once en- hanced the fame of the university and established his own. In 1714, he became rector of the university. Pa- tients thronged to him from all quarters, wealth conse- quently flowed in upon him, and he confessedly stood at the head of modern physicians. From his multifarious knowledge, Boerhaave has been called the Voltaire of Sci- ence. But unlike Voltaire, Boerhaave was a decided Chris- tian. His daily habits were those of a man who walked with God. And in the agonies of his last sickness, he ob- served : He that loves God ought to think nothing desirable but what is most pleasing to Supreme Goodness. He died, September 23, 1738. His works are numerous ; among the principal may be mentioned, Institutiones Medica: ; Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis; Index. Plan- tarum ; and Elementa Chimiae.—Davenport. . . . BOETHIUS, a Latin statesman, philosopher, and writer, was of a noble Roman family, and was born in 455. He was thrice consul, and was for many years a favorite of Theodoric, king of the Goths. His zeal for orthodoxy, however, at length excited the anger of Theodoric, who was an Arian. Boethius was unjustly charged with trea- son, his property was confiscated, and he was thrown into F. where he was beheaded, in 526. While a captive, e wrote his famous Consolations of Philosophy; a work which has been translated by two of the most illustrious of the British sovereigns, Alfred and Elizabeth. The whole of his compositions occupy two folio volumes.—Davenport. BOGOMILI, or Bog ARMITAE; a sect of heretics which arose about the year 1179. They held that the use of churches, of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and all prayers except the Lord’s prayer, ought to be abolished; that the baptism of Catholics is imperfect; that the per. B O G. B O H. £ 253 ] sons of the Trinity are unequal, and that they often made themselves visible to those of their sect.—Hend. Buck. BOGUE, (DAVID, D. D.) many years president of a dis- senting academy at Gosport, and one of the ſounders of the London Missionary society, was a native of North Britain, and born February 18, 1758. Being intended by his pa- rents for the clerical profession, young Bogue was sent in the year 1762, when only twelve years of age, to the uni- versity of Edinburgh, where he pursued his studies during a period of nine years. On quitting the university, in 1771, he received the degree of master of arts, and was soon after licensed to preach in the kirk of Scotland. His ordination took place, at Gosport, June 18, 1777, the only minister officiating on the occasion being Dr. Henry Hun- ter, of the Scots' church, London Wall; from which it may be inferred that his own church was at that time up- on the Presbyterian plan. - - . In 1784, he visited the continent of Europe, “wandering through France and Flanders,” where the aspect of things, in regard to religion, threw him into melancholy. In 1785, his congregation had increased to such a de- gree, that he and his friends were encouraged to build a new place of worship, which was opened, May 22, with. two sermons preached by Dr. Hunter, of London. He now prosecuted his ministry with considerable success; and in 1789, in consequence of a visit which he paid to some friends in London, and particularly through the zeal and liberality of George Welch, Esq., an opulent banker of London, he was induced to open a seminary for the education of young men for the ministry, on a more ex- tended scale than heretofore; and to qualify himself for the various departments of this office was an herculean labor. At first, he had no assistant; but in a little time he obtained the co-operation of Mr. Weston, a man of solid parts, and with his aid, the academy went on prosperously. After some years, Mr. Weston removed to Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, and was succeeded in the academy by Mr. Bennett, in conjunction with whom our author wrote the “History of the Dissenters.” Soon after this, the seminary at Gosport was much enlarged by the liberal proposal of Robert Haldane, Esq., of Edinburgh, who sent ten addi- tional students to the seminary at Gosport, for whose edu- cation he engaged to pay the annual. sum of ten pounds each, for three years. But the character of the seminary received its greatest revolution from the rise of the London Missionary society. That body soon learned the necessity of preparing its agents for their arduous work; and as Mr. Bogue had been very instrumental in founding the society, it was resolved he should be the tutor of its mis- sionaries, who, from that period, formed the majority of the students at Gosport. 3. The Baptist Mission to India had been recently, set on foot, and this, no doubt, operated as an additional impetus to missionary exertions on the part of Mr. Bogue and his friends. Accordingly, in the month of September, 1795, the affair of missions was taken up in good earnest : ser- mons were preached at different places by various minis- ters, Mr. Haweis, Mr. Burder, Mr. Greathead, Mr. Row- land Hill, and by Mr. Bogue, who took for his text, Hag. 1: 2. “This people say, the time is not come; the time that the Lord’s house should be built.” This discourse had such a powerful effect upon the audience, that it paved the way for the formation of the London Missionary socie- ty : twenty-five directors were chosen, among whom was Mr. Bogue; a treasurer and secretaries were appointed, and the society put in train. - In 1796, an application was made to Mr. Bogue, by his friend, Robert Haldane, Esq. to become a missionary in person. This latter gentleman had formed the project of quitting his native country, like the good bishop Berkeley, and in company with Mr. Ewing and Mr. Innes, both of whom had lately resigned their stations in the church of Scotland, of proceeding to Bengal, to preach the Gospel among the Hindoos. A further object which Mr. Haldane had in view, was to form a seminary in India for the in- struction of others, who might diffuse the light of the Gos- pel to the widest extent; and to furnish the necessary funds for this grand and benevolent enterprise, Mr. Hal- dane disposed of his fine estate at Airdrie, near Glasgow. To this proposal Mr. Bogue gave his consent; and on De- cember 9, 1796, accompanied Mr. Haldane to London, to wait on Mr. Dundas, then president of the board of control for Indian affairs; the government, however, refused to sanction the project, and the scheme failed, mainly through the influence of the East India company. From this time, Mr. Bogue bent all his efforts to promote the interests of the Missionary society; and to effect this, he was instant in season and out of season. He traversed the British islands in every direction, to make known the Missionary society, and stimulate exertions in its behalf, in doiſig which he was “in labors more abundant.” But we must now attend him chiefly in his career as an author; and passing by some of the earlier and minor productions of his pen, we may mention his “Essay on the Divine Au- thority of the New Testament,” which, though composed in English, was translated into French, Italian, German, and Spanish, a circumstance that shows the high estima- tion in which the work was held. It forms a comprehen- sive treatise on the divinity of the Christian religion. Ano- ther of Mr. Bogue's works is a volume of discourses on the subject of the millennium. His “History of the Dissenters,” in four volumes, octavo, written in conjunction with Dr. Bennett, has already been adverted to. It is his greatest undertaking in point of extent, and was projected as a continuation of Neal's History of the Puritans. The work, however, has not been a favorite with the public, having dragged heavily through the first edition. It certainly comprises a mass of interesting and valuable materials, which will be found highly useful when the subject shall be taken up by some master mind, who, to the mere in- ductive application of historical facts, shall possess the faculty of compression, and imbue the whole with the phi- losophy of history. Mr. Bogue died at Brighton, on the 25th of October, 1825, in his seventy-sixth year. In his bodily frame, Mr. Bogue was muscular, and ra- ther athletic; his constitution sound and vigorous; inso- much that he scarcely knew, in his own person, what sickness or infirmity meant. His life was one of almost herculean labor; but as a preacher he was not very popu- lar. His learning and talents, though not ef the highest order, were certainly above mediocrity; and it was his unwearied study to render himself useful in his day and generation. In praise of his disinterestedness, it deserves to be recorded, that on one occasion he refused to accept the sum of two hundred pounds, voted him by the Mis- sionary society, as an expression of the sense they enter- tained of his services in its behalf-Jones's Chr. Biog. BOHAN, (a stone;) a Reubenite, who had a stone erected to his honor, on the frontier between Judah and Benjamin, to commemorate his exploits in the conquest of Canaan, Josh. 15: 6. 18: 17.-Calmet. BOHEMIAN BRETHREN; the name of a Christian sect, which arose in Bohemia, about the middle of the fif. teenth century, from the remains of the Hussites. Dissa- tisfied with the advances made towards popery, by which the Calixtines had made themselves the ruling party in Bohemia, they refused to receive the compacts or articles of agreement between that party and the council of Basle (November 30, 1433); and began about 1457, under the direction of a clergyman of the name of Michael Bradatz, to form themselves into separate parishes, to hold meetings of their own, and to distinguish themselves from the rest of the Hussites by the name of Brothers, or Brothers' Union; but they were often confounded by their opponents with the Waldenses and Picards, and, on account of their seclu- sion, were called Cavern-hunters. Amidst the hardships and sufferings which they suffered from the Calixtines and the Catholics, without offering any resistance, their num- bers increased so much, through their constancy in belief, and the purity of their morals, that in the year 1500, their parishes amounted to two hundred, most of which had chapels belonging to them. The peculiarities of their reli- gious belief are exhibited in their confessions of faith, especially their opinions in regard to the Lord's supper. They rejected the idea of transubstantiation, and admitted only a mystical spiritual presence of Christ in the eucha- rist. On all points they professed to take the Scriptures - as the ground of their doctrines, and for this, but more es pecially for the constitution and discipline of their churches, they received the approbation of the reformers of the six- B Ö I, B O N [ 254 ) teenth century. This constitution they endeavored to mo: del according to the accounts which they could collect re- specting the primitive churches. They aimed at the resto: ration of the primitive purity of Christianity, by the exclu. sion of the vicious from their communion; by the careful. separation of the sexes; and by the distribution of their members into three classes:-the beginners, the proficients, and the perfect. Their strict system of superintendence, extending even to the minute details of domestic life, con- tributed much towards promoting this object. To carry on their system, they º a multitude of officers, of differ. ent degrees, as bishops, seniors and conseniors, presbyters or preachers, deacons, cediles, and acolytes, among whom the management of the ecclesiastical, moral, and civil af. fairs of the community were judiciously distributed. Their first bishop received his ordination from a Waldensian bishop, though their churches held no communion with the Waldenses in Bohemia. They were destined, however, to experience a like fate with that oppressed sect. When, in conformity to their principle not to perform military service, they refused to take up arms in the Smalcaldic war against the Protestants, Ferdinand took their chapels from them; and, in 1548, one thousand of their society retired into Poland and Prussia, where they at first settled. at Marienwerder. The agreement which they entered into at Sentomir, April 14, 1570, with the Polish Lutherans and Calvinistic churches, and, still more, the dissenters' peace act of the Polish convention, 1572, obtained toleration for them in Poland, where they united more closely with the Calvinists under the persecutions of the Swedish Sigis- mund, and have continued in this connection to the present day. Their brethren who remained in Moravia and Bo- hemia, recovered a certain degree of liberty under Maxi- milian II., and had their chief residence at Fulneck, in Moravia, and hence have been called Moravian Brethren. The issue of the thirty years' war, which terminated so unfortunately for the Protestants, occasioned the entire destruction of their churches, and their last bishop, Come- nius, who had rendered important services in the educa- tion of youth, was obliged to flee. From this time they made frequent emigrations, the most important of which took place in 1712, and occasioned the establishment of the New Brethren's church by count Zinzendorf. Though the Old Bohemian Brethren must be regarded as now extinct, this society deserves ever to be had in re- membrance, as one of the principal guardians of Christian truth and piety, in times just emerging from the barbarism of the dark ages; as a promoter of a purity of discipline and morals, which the reformers of the sixteenth century failed to establish in their churches; and as the parent of the widely-extended association of the United Brethren, whose constitution has been modelled after theirs.-Hend. Buck. - *. BOILEAU, (JAMEs,) an elder brother of the celebrated poet, born at Paris, in 1635, was a doctor of the Sorbonne, a canon, and dean and grand vicar of Sens. He died in 1716. He is the author of several theological and other works in the Latin language, the most celebrated of which is the Historia Flagellantium. James Boileau, like his brother, was caustic and witty. Being asked why he al- ways wrote in Latin, he replied, “For fear the bishops should read me, in which case I should be persecuted.” The Jesuits he designated as men “who lengthened the creed, and abridged the decalogue.”—Davenport. BOLINGBROKE, (HENRY ST. JoHN,) celebrated for his political career, his talents and eloquent writings, and for his hostility to Christianity, was born at Battersea, (Eng.) 1672, and died 1751. In his religious system, he acknowledges a God, but is for reducing all his attributes to misdom and power; blaming divines for distinguishing between his physical and moral attributes; and asserting that we cannot ascribe justice and goodness to God accord- ing to our ideas of them, nor argue with any certainty about them ; that it is absurd to deduce moral obligations from the moral attributes of God, or to pretend to imitate him in those attributes. He resolves all morality into self. love as its first principle, and final centre; as many others have done, although, as has been acutely observed, “this is the same thing as for every individual to treat himself as the Supreme Being.” In the details of morality he is equally lax, and his bad temper and dissipated habits but too un- happily confirmed the bad tendency of his principles, * f gº \. - * * , Christianity is honored, not injured, by such assailants. Rarely have finer powers been more fatally abused. “His argument,” it has been said, “is of that elevated quality that deals in lofty language and privileged assertion; and of that intrepid character, that fears not, as occasion may demand, to beat down the very positions, which when, other occasions demanded, it had been found convenient to maintain.” See his Philosophical Works and Letters on History.—Davenport ; Ency. Amer. ; Fuller's Works ; Magee on Atonement. # * BOLIVAR, (SIMON,) the great captain of South Ameri- ca, was born in the city of Caraccas, in 1783, and died in 1830, at San Pedro Alejandrino, a country seat about a league from Santa Martha. His body was embalmed and laid in state for three days; the people flocking in crowds to look upon the remains of their liberator. Four days previous to his death, he issued a decree to the citizens of Colombia, which concluded in the following words: “Co- lombians—I leave you—but my last prayers are offered up for the tranquillity of Colombia—and if my death will . contribute to this desirable end, by a discontinuance of party feeling, and consolidate the union, I shall descend with feelings of contentment into the tomb which will soon be prepared for me.”—Davenport. BOLLANDUS, (John,) a Jesuit, born in the Netherlands, in 1596, was chosen by his fraternity to carry into cffect Rossweide's plan of the Acta Sanctorum, or Lives of the Saints. He completed five folio volumes, the first part of which he published in 1643. Since his decease, in 1663, the work has been continued, by Henschenius and others, to the extent of fifty-three volumes, and is still incomplete. —Davenport. -- BOLLANISTS; a society of Jesuits in Antwerp, whichs published, under the title of “Acta Sanctorum,” the tradi- tions and legends of the saints. They received this name from John Bolland, who first undertook to digest the ma- terials already accumulated by Heribert Roswey.—Hend. Buck. . - BOND ; literally a band or chain, Acts 25: 14; meta- phorically, oppression, captivity, affliction, Psalm 116; 16. Phil. 1: 7; morally, an obligation of any kind. Numb. 30: 12. Jer. 5: 6. Ezek. 20: 37. The bond of iniquity is the state of sin, wherein by the curse of the law and his own corruption, the unconverted sinner, in all his desires, thoughts, words, and actions, is shut up to the service and wages of unrighteousness. Acts 8:23. On the other hand, peace with God through Christ, with our own con- sciences and with one another, is a beautiful bond which unites the affections, designs, exercises, and operations of the several members of the Christian church. Ephes. 4: 3, Charity, that is, Christian love, is called by St. Paul the bond of perfectness, because it completes the Christian character, promotes a close union in church relation, and renders the gifts and graces of all subservient to mutual progress towards perfect holiness, happiness, dignity, use. fulness and glory. Col. 3: 14. The bond of the covenant is a confirmed state in the covenant of grace which decrees our salvation, and which binds us under the most deep and lasting obligations to be the Lord's. Ezek. 20: 37–Bronn. BONDAGE OF CORRUPTION. This phrase of St. Paul, Rom. 8:21, has been differently understood, as has the whole magnificent passage of which it forms a part. Some, mistaking the connection and Scope of the passage, have explained it of moral corruption, and have hence ar- B O O B O O. I 255 | gued the final restoration of all men to holiness and happi- ness. But the context plainly shows that the apostle is treat- ing exclusively of the future glory which awaits the believer in Christ, in consequence of his adoption as a child of God and joint-heir with Christ. A part of that glory is the de- liverance of this visible creation from its present subjection to change, decay and death, in the day that this mortal shall put on immortality. 1 Cor. 15: 50–54. 2 Cor. 5: 4. BONIFACE, (ST.) whose real name was Wilfrid, was born at Crediton, in Devonshire, about A. D. 680; travel- led, about 716, through many parts of Germany (of which he is called the apostlé), to convert the heathens; was con- secrated a bishop, at Rome, by Gregory II. in 723; returned to Germany, and reclaimed the Bavarians from paganism, and was, finally, massacred in Friesland, in 755.-Da- venport. - BONOSIANS ; the followers of Bonosus, bishop of Sar- dica, who is said to have been of the same sentiments with the Photinians, which see.—Williams. BONES; the hard parts of animal bodies which support their form. To be bone of one's bone and flesh of his flesh, Gen. 2:23, 2 Sam. 5: 1, or a member of his body, of his flesh and of his bones, Eph. 5:30, is to have the same na- ture, and to be united in the nearest relation and affection. Iniquities are said to be in men's bones, when their body is polluted by them, or is suffering under the consequences and curse of them. Job 20: 11. Ez. 22: 27. A penitent or troubled spirit is often compared to broken, burnt, pierced, shaking or rotten bones; to represent the acuteness of its distress, the prostration of its powers, the agony of its fears, the depth of its disorders, and the extreme difficulty of its cure. The valley of dry bones in Ezekiel’s vision, represents a state of utter helplessness, apart from divine interposition and aid. Ez. 37: 1–17.—Bronyn. BONNER, (EDMUND,) a prelate, “damned to everlasting fame,” under the appellation of “bloody bishop Bonner.” was the son of a peasant, at Hanley, in Worcestershire, and was educated at Pembroke college, Oxford. Henry VIII. made him his chaplain, bishop of Hereford, and then of London, and employed him on embassies to France, Germany, and the pope. He was imprisoned and deprived of his bishopric, in the reign of Edward VI. ; but was re- stored by Mary, and signalized himself by his vindictive and persecuting spirit. Queen Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Marshalsea, and he died there, in 1569, after ten years’ confinement. Bonner was a man of learning and talent; but so sanguinary, that, in allusion to his excessive corpulence, he was quaintly said to have abundance of guts, but no bonels.--Davenport. BONNET, was a covering for the head, worn by the Jewish priests. Josephus says, that the bonnet worn by the private priests was composed of several rounds of linen cloth, turned in and sewed together, so as to appear like a thick linen crown. The whole was entirely covered with another piece of linen, which came down as low as their forehead, and concealed the deformity of the seams. See Exod, 28: 40. The high-priest's bonnet was not much different from that which has been described. These bon- nets appear to have resembled the modern turban of the East.— Watson. - BONZES; priests of the religion of Fo, in Eastern Asia, particularly in China, Burmah, Tonkin, Cochin-China, and Japan. Living together in monasteries, unmarried, they greatly resemble the monks of corrupt Christian churches; the system of their hierarchy also agrees, in many respects, with that of the Catholics. They do penance, and pray for the sins of the laity, who secure them from want by en- dowments and alms. The female bonzes may be compared to the Christian nuns, as the religion of Fo admits of no priestesses, but allows of the social union of pious virgins and widows, under monastic vows, for the performance of religious exercises. The bonzes are commonly ac- quainted only with the external forms of worship and the idols, without understanding the meaning of their religious symbols.-Hend. Buck. - BOOK; a writing composed on some point of knowledge by a person intelligent therein, for the instruction or amuse- The word is formed from the Gothic ment of the reader. huka, or Saxon boc, which comes from the northern buech, of buochaus, a beech or service-tree, on the bark of which our ancestors used to write. Book is distinguished from pamphlet, or single paper, by its greater length; and from tome or volume, by its containing the whole writing on the subject. Isidore makes this distinction between liber and codex: ; that the former denotes a single book, the latter a collection of several; though, accozºng to Scipio Maffei, codez signifies a book in the square form; liber, a book in the roll form. The primary distinction between liber and codez seems to have been derived, as Dr. Heylin has observ- ed, from the different materials used for writing, among the ancients: from the inner side of the bark of a tree, used for this purpose, and called in Latin liber, the name of liber applied to a book was deduced; and from that tablet, formed from the main body of a tree, called caudez, was derived the appellation of codex. 1. Several sorts of materials were formerly used in making books: stone and wood were the first materials employed to engrave such things upon as men were de- sirous of having transmitted to posterity. Porphyry makes mention of some pillars preserved in Crete, on which the ceremonies observed by the Corybantes in their sacrifices were recorded. The works of Hesiod were originally writ- ten on tables of lead, and deposited in the temple of the muses in Boeotia. The moral law of Jehovah was written on tables of stone. The laws of Solon were cut on wooden planks. Tables of wood and ivory were common among the ancients: those of wood were very frequently covered with wax, that persons might write on them with more ease, or blot out what they had written. And the instrument used to write with was a piece of iron, ealled a style; and hence the word “style” came to be taken for the composition of *º- the writing. The leaves of the palm tree were afterwards used instead of wooden planks, and the finest and thinnest part of the bark of such trees as the lime, ash, maple, and elm ; and especially the tilio, or phillyrea, and Egyptian papyrus. Hence came the word liber, (a book,) which sig- nifies the inner bark of the trees. And as these barks were rolled up in order to be removed with greater ease, each roll was called volumen, a volume; a name afterwards given to the like rolls of paper or parchment. From the Egyptian papyrus, the oldest material commonly em- ployed for nºriting on, the word paper is derived. After this, leather was introduced, especially the skins of goats and sheep. For the king of Pergamus, in collecting his library, was led to the invention of parchment made of those skins. The ancients likewise wrote upon linen. Pliny says, the Parthians, even in his time, wrote upon their clothes; and Livy speaks of certain books made of linen, lintei libri, upon which the names of magistrates, and the history of the Roman commonwealth, were writ- tem, and preserved in the temple of the goddess Moneta. 2. The materials generally used by the ancients for their books, were liable to be easily destroyed by the damp, when hidden in the earth; and in times of war, devastation, and rapacity, it was necessary to bury in the earth whatever they wished to preserve from the attacks of fraud and vio- lence. . With this view, Jeremiah ordered the writings, which he delivered to Baruch, to be put in an earthen ves- sel; Jer. 32. In the same manner, the ancient Egyptians made use of earthen urns, or pots of a proper shape, for containing whatever they wanted to inter in the earth, and which, without such care, would have been soon destroyed. We need not wonder then, that the prophet Jeremiah should think it necessary to inclose those writings in an earthen pot, which were to be buried in Judea, in some place where they might be found without much difficulty on the return of the Jews from captivity. Accordingly, two dif. ferent writings, or small rolls of writing, called books in the original Hebrew, were designed to be inclosed in such B O O B O O | 256 | an earthen vessel; but commentators have been much embarrassed in giving any probable account of the neces- sity of two writings, one sealed, the other open; or, as the passage has been commonly understood, the one sealed up, the other left open for any one to read; more especially, as both were to be alike buried in the earth and concealed from every eye, and both were to be examined at the re- turn from the captivity. But the word translated open, in reference to the evidence, or book which was open, § Sam. 3: 7, 21. Dan. 2: 19, 30. 10: 1.) signifies the revealing of future events to the minds of men by a divine agency; and it is particularly used in the book of Esther, 8: 13, to express a book's making known the decree of an earthly king. Consequently the open book of Jeremiah seems to signify, not its being then lying open or unrolled before them, while the other was sealed up; but the book that had revealed the will of God, to bring back Israel into their own country, and to cause buying and selling of houses and lands again to take place among them. This was a book of prophecy, opening and revealing the future return of Israel, and the other little book, which was or- dered to be buried along with it, was the purchase deed. 3. By adverting to the different modes of writing in eastern countries, we obtain a satisfactory interpretation of a passage in the book of Job, 19:23, 24, and a distinct view of the beautiful gradation which is lost in our trans- lation: “O that my words were now written O that they were printed (written) in a bookſ that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock forever!” In the East there is a mode of writing, which is designed to fix words in the memory, but the writing is not intended for duration. Accordingly, we are informed by Dr. Shaw, that children learn to write in Barbary by means of a smooth, thin board, slightly covered with whiting, which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure. Job expresses his wish not only that his words were written, but also written in a book, from which they should not be blotted out, may, still further, graven in a rock, the most perma- ment mode of recording them, and especially if the engraved letters were filled with lead; or the rock was made to re- ceive leaden tablets, the use of which was known among the ancients. So Pliny, “At first, men wrote on the leaves of palm, and the bark of certain trees; but afterwards pub- lic documents were preserved on leaden plates, and those of a private nature on wax, or linen.” 4. The first books were in the form of blocks and tables, of which we find frequent mention in Scripture, under the appellation sepher, which the Septuagint render accines, that is, square tables: of which form the book of the covenant, book of the law, book, or bill of divorce, book of curses, &c. appear to have been. As flexible matters came to be written on, they found it more convenient to make their books in form of rolls, called by the Greeks kontakia, by the Latins volumina, which appear to have been in use among the ancient Jews as well as the Grecians, Romans, Persians, and even Indians; and of such did the libraries chiefly consist, till some centuries after Christ. The form which obtains among us is the square, composed of sepa- rate leaves; which was also known, though little used, among the ancients,; having been invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, the same who also invented parch- ment: but it has now been so long in possession, that the oldest manuscripts are found in it. Montfaucon assures us, that of all the ancient Greek manuscripts he has seen, there are but two in the roll form ; the rest being made up much after the manner of the modern books. The rolls, or volumes, were composed of several sheets, fastened to each other, and rolled upon a stick, or umbilicus; the whole making a kind of column, or cylinder, which was to be managed by the umbilicus, as a handle; it being reputed, a kind of crime to take hold of the roll itself. The outside of the volume was called frons; the ends of the umbilicus were called cornua, “horns;” which were usually carved and adorned likewise with silver, ivory, or even gold and precious stones. Whilst the Egyptian papyrus was in common use, its brittle nature made it proper to roll up what they wrote ; and as this had been a customary prac- tice, many continued it when they used other materials, which might very safely have been treated in a different manner. To the form of books belongs the economy of the inside, or the order and arrangement of points and letters into lines and pages, with margins, and other appurte- mances. This has undergone many varieties: at first, the letters were only divided into lines, then into separate words; which, by degrees, were noted with accents, and distributed by points and stops into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. In some countries, as among the orientals, the lines began from the right, and ran to the left ; in others, as in northern and western na- tions, from the left to the right; others, as the Grecians, followed both directions alternately, going in the one and returning in the other, called boustrophedon, because it was after the manner of oxen turning when at plough. In the Chinese books, the lines ran from top to bottom. Again: the page in some is entire, and uniform ; in others, divided into columns; in others, distinguished into texts and notes, either marginal, or at the bottom: usually it is furnished with signatures and catch-words; also with a register to discover whether the book be complete. To these are oc- casionally added the apparatus of summaries, or side-notes; the embellishments of red, gold, or figured initial letters, head-pieces, tail-pieces, effigies, schemes, maps, and the like. The end of the book, now denoted by finis, was an- ciently marked with a \S$º sº, TA “For his father,” he tells us, “had a perfect aversion for the fondness of those parents, which made them breed their children so nice and tenderly, that a hot sun or a good shower of rain as much endangers them, as if they were made of butter or of sugar.” He thus gained a strong and vigorous constitution ; which, however, he afterwards lost in a considerable degree, by its being treated too delicately. When he was about three years old, he lost his mother, who was a most accomplished woman ; and whom he regrets on that account, because he did not know her. A second misfortune was, that he learned to stutter, by mocking some children of his own age, of which, though no endeavors were spared, he could never be per- fectly cured. Eton has the honor of his early education, which was perfected by private tutors, and lastly at Ge- neva. After having travelled over various parts of the continent, he settled in England, and devoted himself to science, especially to natural philosophy and to chemistry; and till the close of his existence, he unremittingly perse- vered in his scientific pursuits. Of the Royal Society he was one of the first members; but he declined the office of president, as he did also that of provost of Eton col- lege. Philosophy, however, did not whokly engross his time; much of his leisure was given to theological studies, to the composition of moral and religious works, and to the advancement of religion, for which latter object he expended very considerable sums. Among his pious acts was the founding of a lecture for the defence of natural and revealed religion. As an experimental philosopher, he displayed indefatigable ardor, and uncommon penetration and skill, and he, undoubtedly, opened the way to many modern discoveries. As a man, his character was of the most estimable kind; his manners were singularly mild and courteous, and he possessed piety without bigotry, learning without arrogance, and charity without ostenta- tion. Boyle was never married. He died on the 30th of December, 1691, a week after his favorite sister, lady Ranelagh, to whom he was affectionately attached, and with whom he had lived for the most part of nearly half a century. r - “His knowledge,” says bishop Burnet, “was of so vast an extent, that if it were not for the variety of vouchers in their several sorts, I should be afraid to say all I know. He carried the study of the Hebrew very far into the rab- binical writings, and the other Oriental tongues. read so much of the fathers, that he had formed a clear judgment of all the eminent ones; he had read a vast deal on the Scriptures, had gone very nicely through the various controversies in religion, and was a true master of the whole body of divinity; he entertained so profound a veneration for the Deity, that the very name of God was never mentioned by him without a pause and a visible stop in his discourse; in which Sir Peter Pett, who knew. him for almost forty years, affirms, that he was so exact, that he did not remember him once to fail in it. To those who conversed most with him in his inquiries into nature, it was obvious that it was his leading object in that, on which, as he had his own eye constantly fixed, so he took care to put others often in mind of it, viz. to raise in him- self and others more exalted thoughts of the greatness and glory, and wisdom and goodness of the Deity. Such was the impression of this upon his own mind, that he con- cludes the article of his will, which has a reſerence to the Royal society, in these words: “Wishing them also a He had happy success in their laudable attempts to discover the true nature of the works of God, and praying that they, and all other searchers into physical truths, may cordially refer their attainments to the glory of the great Author of nature, and to the comfort of mankind.” His charities were princely, and of which some notice has been already taken, in his efforts for disseminating the knowledge of the gospel in various parts. He expended seven hundred pounds in printing an edition of the Bible in the native Irish, and having it distributed among those who spoke it. He contributed largely to an impression of the Bible in Welsh; and during his life, he contributed three hundred pounds annually to advance the design of propagating Christianity in America. His liberality also towards such literary persons as needed his assistance, was extraordi- nary; and, according to bishop Burnet, who was often his almoner, for several years before his death, he dis- tributed one thousand pounds a year among the French refugees, who had fled from that country to escape perse- cution, and others who had taken refuge in England from the calamities of Ireland. And in all his charities he adhered as strictly as possible to the injunction of his di- vine Master, “Let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth.” The works of this eminent philosopher were collected and printed in five volumes, folio, London, 1744; and a valuable abridgment has been published by Dr. Shaw, in three volumes quarto. See Birch's Life of the Hon. Robert Boyle.—Davenport ; Jones. BOYLE'S LECTURES; a course of eight sermons, preached annually; set on foot by the Hon. Robert Boyle, by a codicil annexed to his will, in 1691, whose design, as expressed by the institutor, is to prove the truth of the Christian religion against infidels, without descending to any controversies among Christians, and to answer new difficulties, scruples, &c. For the support of this lecture he assigned the rent of his house in Crooked Lane, to some learned divine within the precincts of London, to be elected for a term not exceeding three years. But the fund proving precarious, the salary was ill paid ; to remedy which inconvenience, archbishop Tennison procured a yearly stipend of fifty pounds forever, to be paid quarter- ly, charged on a farm in the parish of Brill, in the county of Bucks. To this appointment we are indebted for many excellent defences of natural and revealed religion.— Hend. Buck. . - BOYLSTON, (ZABDIEL, F.R.S.) was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1684. He studied medicine at Boston, and entered into the practice of his profession in that place. In 1721, when the small-pox broke out in Boston, and spread alarm through the whole country, the practice of inoculation was introduced by Dr. Boylston, notwithstand- ing it was discouraged by the rest of the faculty, and a public ordinánce was passed to prohibit it. He persevered in his practice in spite of the most violent opposition, and had the satisfaction of seeing inoculation in general use in New England, for some time before it became common in Great Britain. In 1725, he visited England, where he was received with much attention, and was elected a fel- low.of the Royal Society. Upon his return, he continued at the head of his profession for many years, and accu- mulated a large fortune. Besides communications to the Royal Society, he published two treatises on the small-pox, He died in 1766, in Christian hope-Davenport; Allen. BOX TREE, tashur; so called from its flourishing, or perpetual viridity—an evergreen. Isaiah says, “I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together.” 41; 19. The nature of the box tree might lead us to look for ever- greens among the foregoing trees, and perhaps by tracing this idea we might attain to something like satisfaction respecting them, which at present we cannot. A planta- tion of evergreens in the wilderness is not unlikely to be the import of this passage. The contrast between a per- petual verdure, and sometimes universal brownness, not enlivened by variety of tints, must be very great.-Calmet. BOZRA; one of the chief cities of Edom. Gen. 36:33. Isa. 34: 6, and 63: 1. Jer. 49: 13, 22. Amos 1: 12. It is now called el Busaireh, and is about twenty-two miles south-eastwardly from the Dead Sea, and thirty miles B R A B R A [ 265 ) nearly north from Petra, the ancient Sela. There was another Bozra, in the cxtreme south-east of the land of Bashan; but it seems not to be mentioned in the Scrip- tures.—T. - - * BRACELET. A bracelet is commonly worn by the oriental princes, as a badge of power and authority. When the caliph Cayem Bemrillah granted the investiture of cer. tain dominions to an eastern prince, he sent him letters patent, a crown, a chain, and bracelets. This was proba- bly the reason that the Amalekite brought the bracelet which he found on Saul’s arm, along with his crown, to David. 2 Sam. 1: 10. It was a royal ornament, and be- longed to the regalia of the kingdom. The bracelet, it must be acknowledged, was worn both by men and women of different ranks; but the original word, in the Second Book of Samuel, occurs only in two other places, and is quite different from the term which is employed to express the more common ornament known by that name. And besides, this ornament was worn by kings and princes in a different manner from their subjects. It was fastened above the elbow; and was commonly of great value.— Watson. - BRADBURY, (THOMAs,) a dissenting minister, born at Wakefield, in 1677, became the successor of Daniel Bur- gess, and an imitator of that preacher's style of pulpit eloquence. He died in 1759. His sermons possess con- siderable merit, and his character was much esteemed.— Davenport ; Doddridge's Lectures, 25. BRADFORD, (WILLIAM,) second governor of Plymouth colony, and one of the first settlers of New England, was born at Ansterfield, a village in the north of England, in 1588. He was educated in the practice of agriculture. His paternal inheritance was considerable; but he had no better education than such as usually falls to the share of the children of husbandmen. At the age of twelve years, his mind was seriously impressed by divine truth in reading the Scriptures, and an illness of long continu- ance conspired to preserve him from the follies of youth. His good impressions were confirmed by attending upon the ministry of Mr. Richard Clifton. As he advanced in years, he was stigmatized as a separatist; but such was his firmness, that he cheerfully bore the frowns of his relatives and the scoffs of his neighbors, and connected himself with the church, over which Mr. Clifton and Mr. Robinson presided, fearless of the persecution, which he foresaw this act would draw upon him. Believing that many practices of the established church of England were repugnant to the directions of the word of God, he was fully resolved to prefer the purity of Christian worship to any temporal advantages which might arise from bending his conscience to the opinions of others. Accordingly, at the age of eighteen, he emigrated to Holland, and joined his brethren at Amsterdam. . Mr. Bradford, after a residence of about ten years in Holland, engaged with zeal in the plan of removal to America, which was formed by the English church at Leyden under the care of Mr. Robinson. He accordingly embarked for England, July 22, 1620, and on the sixth of September set sail from Plymouth with the first company. While the ship in November lay in the harbor of Cape Cod, he was one of the foremost in the several hazardous attempts to find a proper place for the seat of the colony. Before a suitable spot was agreed upon, his wife fell into the sea, and was drowned. Soon after the death of gov- ernor Carver, at Plymouth, April 5, 1621, Mr. Bradford was elected governor in his place. He was at this time in the thirty-third year of his age, and was most conspicu- ous for wisdom, fortitude, piety, and benevolence. One of the first acts of his administration was to send an em- bassy to Massasoit for the purpose of confirming the league with the Indian sachem, of procuring seed corn for the next season, and of exploring the country. It was well for the colony that the friendship of Massasoit was thus secured, for his influence was extensive. In conse- quence of his regard for the new settlers, nine sachems in September went to Plymouth, and acknowledged them- selves loyal subjects of king James. In the same month, a party was sent out to explore the bay of Massachusetts. They landed under a cliff, supposed to be Copp's hill in Boston, where they were received with kindness by Ob- batinewa, who gave them a promise of his assistance against the squaw Sachem. On their return, they carried with them so good a report of the country, that the people lamented that they had established themselves at Ply- mouth; but it was not now in their power to remove. In the beginning of 1622, the colony began to experi- ence a distressing famine, occasioned by the arrival of new settlers, who came unfurnished with provisions. In the height of their distress, a threatening message was re- ceived from Canonicus, Sachem of Narragansett, expressed by the present of a bundle of arrows, bound with the skin of a serpent. The governor sent back the skin filled with powder and ball. This prompt and ingenious reply termi- nated the correspondence. The Narragansetts were so terrified, that they even returned the serpent's skin with- out inspecting its contents. It was however judged neces- sary to ſortify the town; and this work was performed by the people, while they were suffering the extremity of famine. For some time they subsisted entirely upon fish. In this exigency, governor Bradford found the advantage of his friendly intercourse with the Indians. He made several excursions among them, and procured corn and beans, making a fair purchase by means of goods, which were brought by two ships in August, and received by the planters in exchange for beaver. The whole quantity of corn and beans, thus purchased, amounted to twenty-eight hogsheads. But still more important benefits soon re- sulted from the disposition of governor Bradford to pre- serve the friendship of the natives. During the illness of Massasoit in the spring of 1623, Mr. Winslow was sent to him with cordials, which contributed to his recovery. In return for this benevolent attention, the grateful sachem disclosed a dangerous conspiracy, then in agitation among the Indians, for the purpose of totally extirpating the English. This plot did not originate in savage malignity, but was occasioned by the injustice and indiscretion of some settlers in the bay of Massachusetts. As the most effectual means of suppressing the conspiracy, Massasoit advised, that the chief conspirators, whom he named, should be seized and put to death. This melancholy work was accordingly performed by captain Standish, and the colony was relieved from apprehension. When the report of this transaction was carried to Holland, Mr. Robinson in his next letter to the governor, expressed his deep con- cern at the event. “O that you had converted some,” said he, “before you had killed any P’ The scarcity which had been experienced by the plant- ers, was in part owing to the impolicy of laboring in com- mon, and putting the fruit of their labor into the public store. To stimulate industry by the prospect of individual acquisition, and thus to promote the general good by re- moving the restraints upon selfishness, it was agreed in the spring of 1623, that every family should plant for themselves, on such ground as should be assigned them by lot. After this agreement, the governor was not again obliged to traffic with the Indians in order to procure the means of subsistence for the colony. Thus will fail the common-stock projects of Ann Lee, Owen, and other en- thusiasts. - * * Such was the reputation of Mr. Bradford, acquired by his piety, wisdom, and integrity, that he was annually chosen governor, as long as he lived, excepting in the years 1633, 1636, and 1644, when Mr. Winslow was ap- pointed, and the years 1634 and 1638, when Mr. Prince was elected chief magistrate. At these times it was by his own request, that the people did not re-elect him. Governor Winthrop mentions the election of Mr. Winslow in 1633, and adds, “Mr. Bradford having been governor about ten years, and now by importunity got off.” What a lesson for the ambitious, who bend their whole influence to gain and secure the high offices of stateſ Mr. Brad- ford strongly recommended a rotation in the election of governor. “If this appointment,” he pleaded, “was any honor or benefit, others beside himself should partake of it; if it was a burden, others beside himself should help to bear it.” But the people were so much attached to him, that for thirty years they placed him at the head of the government, and in the five years when others were chosen, he was first in the list of assistants, which gave him the rank of deputy governor. After an infirm and 34 B R A B R A [ 266 J declining state of health for a number of months, he was suddenly seized by an acute disease, May 7, 1657. In the night, his mind was so enraptured by contemplations upon religious truth and the hopes of futurity; that he said to his friends in the morning, “The good Spirit of God has given me a pledge of mys happiness, in another world, and the first fruits of eternal glory.” The next day, May 9, 1657, he was removed from the present state of existence, aged sixty-eight, greatly lamented by the peo- ple, not only in Plymouth, but in the neighboring colonies. Though he never enjoyed great literary advantages, governor Bradford was much inclined to literary pursuits. He was familiar with the French and Dutch languages, and attained considerable knowledge of the Latin and Greek; but he more assiduously studied the Hebrew, be- cause, as he said, “he would see with his own eyes the ancient oracles of God in their native beauty.” He had read much of history and philosophy; but theology was his favorite study. His life was exemplary and useful. He was watchful against sin, a man of prayer, and con- spicuous for holiness.--Allen. BRADLEY, (JAMEs, D. D.) an eminent astronomer and mathematician, was born in 1702, at Shireborn, in Glou- cestershire, educated at Baliol college, Oxford, and took orders, but resigned two livings, in order to give himself up wholly to astronomy. He was successively Savilian professor at Oxford, lecturer on astronomy and experi- inental philosophy, and astronomer royal. . The latter office he held, with high reputation, from 1741 till his death, in 1762. In 1751, George II. offered him the rich living of Greenwich, but Bradley declined it as incompati- ble with his other studies: a pension of two hundred and fifty pounds was, in consequence, conferred on him. Brad- ley immortalized his name, and extended the bounds of astronomical science, by his discoveries of the aberration of the fixed stars, and the nutation of the earth's axis. A part of his voluminous and valuable observations, made at the royal observatory, was published in 1798. In addi- tion to his merit as a man of science, Dr. Bradley was pious, modest, benevolent, humane, and generous in pri- vate life.—Davenport ; Encyclop. Americ. ; Jones's Christian Iłiography. * BRADWARDINE, (THOMAS,) denominated the pro- found doctor, was born at Bradwardine, in Herefordshire, late in the thirteenth century, and educated at Merton col- lege, Oxford. He was the confessor of Edward III, and attended him to France. In 1349, he was made archbishop of Canterbury, but died six weeks subsequently, deeply lamented on account of his genuine piety, his extensive erudition, and humble yet earnest zeal for the instruction of the people committed to his care. Bradwardine was scarcely less eminent as a mathematician than as a theo- logian. Among his works are Geometria Speculativa. But of all his writings, that which he wrote against the Pelagians is the most celebrated. Its title is, De Causa Dei, Of the Cause of God. The late Dr. Gill, in his Cause of God and Truth, refers to Bradwardine more than once, and calls him a second Augustine. This commendation is great. He did not make a formal opposition to popery as such ; but is thought in his opinions to have favored the follow- ers of Lollard, and to have diffused much of that evan- gelical light, which Wickliffe afterwards imbibed, and re- flected more boldly.—Davenport ; Mosheim ; Ivimey. BRAHMINISM. See HINDoors.M. BRAINARD, (John G. C.) a poet, was the son of judge Jeremiah G. Brainard, of New London, Conn., and was born about the year 1797. He was graduated in 1815 at Yale college. Brainard studied law, and commenced the practice at Middletown ; but not finding the success which he desired, in 1822 he undertook the editorial charge of the Connecticut Mirror at Hartford. Thus was he oc- cupied about seven years, until, being marked as a victim for the consumption, he returned about a year before his death to his father's house. He died September 26, 1828, aged thirty-two. - He was an excellent editor of the paper which he con- ducted, enriching it with his poetical productions, which have originality, force, and pathos, and with many beauti- ful prose compositions, and refraining from that personal abuse, which many editors seem to think essential to their vocation. In this respect, his gentlemanly example is worthy of being followed by the editorial corps. He, who addresses himself every week or every day to thousands of readers, sustains a high responsibility. If, destitute of good breeding and good principles, he is determined to at- tract notice by the personalities, for which there is a greedy appetite in the community; if he yields himself a slave to the party which he espouses, and toils for it by con- tumelies upon his opponents; if, catching the spirit of an infuriated zealot, and regardless of truth and honor, he scatters abroad his malignant slanders and inflammatory traducements; then, instead of a wise and benevolent teacher and guide, he presents himself as a Sower of dis- cord and a minister of evil. In an Utopian common- wealth, or a republic constructed by pure reason and right, if the laws subject the teacher of ten children to an exa- mination and approval before he can commence his labors, they would not allow a beardless youth, without judgment or principle, nor a man of full age, without conscience or honor, to send forth from day to day into the houses of the people, a foul and malignant spirit, to corrupt, them by indecencies and blasphemies, and drive them to madness by falsehoods and bitter incitements. Mr. Brainard pos- sessed a kindness of heart and rectitude of mind, which would not allow him to traduce and revile. He could not be the drudge of some patriotic impostor, who, hungry for office, clamorously boasts of seeking the interests of the dear people. The change experienced by the renovated, pardoned sinner, is described by him in the following lines: “All sights are fair to the recovered blind; All sounds are music to the deaf restored; The lame, made whole, leaps like the sportive hind; And the sad, bow’d down sinner, with his load Of shame and sorrow, when he cuts the cord, And leaves his pack behind, is free again In the light yoke and burden of his Lord.” In his last illness he said, “This plan of salvation in the gospel is all that I want; it fills me with wonder and gratitude, and makes the prospect of death not only peace- ful, but joyous.” He published Occasional Pieces of Poetry, 12mo, 1825.—Spec. Amer. Poet. iii. 198—212; IHarves's Serm. ; Allen. BRAINERD, (DAVID,) an eminent preacher and mission- ary to the Indians, was born at Haddam, Connecticut, April 20, 1718. As his mind was early impressed by the truths of religion, he took delight in reading those books which communicate religious instruction; he called upon the name of God in secret prayer; he studied the Scrip- tures with great diligence; and he associated with seve- ral young persons for mutual encouragement and assist- ance in the paths of wisdom. But in all this he afterwards considered himself as self-righteous, as completely desti- tute of true piety, as governed by the fear of future pun- ishment and not by the love of God, as depending for salvation upon his good feelings and his strict life, without a perception of the necessity and the value of the mediation of Christ. At this time he indeed acknowledged, that he deserved nothing for his best works, for the theory of sal- vation was familiar to him ; but while he made the ac- knowledgment, he did not feel what it implied. He still secretly relied upon the warmth of his affections, upon his sincerity, upon some quality in himself, as the ground of acceptance with God; instead of relying upon the Lord Jesus, through whom alone there is access to the Father. At length, he was brought under a deep sense of his sin- fulness, and he perceived, that there was nothing good in himself. This conviction was not a sudden perturbation of mind; it was a permanent impression, made by the view of his own character, when compared with that holy law of God, which he was bound to obey. But the dis- covery was unwelcome and irritating. He could not readily abandon the hope, which rested upon his religious exercises. He was reluctant to admit, that the principle, whence all his actions, proceeded, was entirely corrupt. He was opposed to the strictness of the divine law, which extended to the heart as well as to the life. He murmured against the doctrine, that faith was indispensably neces. sary to salvation, and that faith was completely the gift of God. He was irritated in not finding any way pointed B R A B R A [ 267 J out, which would lead him to the Savior; in not finding any means prescribed, by which an unrenewed man could of his own strength obtain that, which the highest angel could not give. He was unwilling to believe, that he was dead in trespasses and in sins. But these unpleasant truths were fastened upon his mind, and they could not be shaken off. It pleased God to disclose to him his true character and condition, and to quell the tumult of his soul. He saw that his schemes to save himself were en- , tirely vain, and must forever be ineffectual; he perceived that it was self-interest, which had before led him to pray, and that he had never once prayed from any respect to the glory of God; he felt that he was lost. In this state of mind, while he was walking in a solitary place in the evening of July 12, 1739, meditating upon religious sub- jects, his mind was illuminated with completely new views of the divine perfections; he perceived a glory in the character of God and in the way of salvation by the cru- cified Son of the Most High, which was never before dis- cerned ; and he was led to depend upon Jesus Christ for righteousness, and to seek the glory of God as his princi- pal object. In 1739, he became a member of Yale college, where he was distinguished for application and general correct- mess of conduct. He was expelled from this institution in 1742, in consequence of having said, in the warmth of his religious zeal, that one of the tutors was as devoid of grace as a chair. In the spring of 1742, he began the study of divinity, and at the end of July was licensed to preach. Having received, from the Society for propa- gating Christian knowlege, an appointment as missionary to the Indians, he commenced his labors at Kaunameek, a village of Massachusetts, situated between Stockbridge and Albany. He remained there about twelve months, and on the removal of the Kaunameeks to Stockbridge, he turned his attention towards the Delaware Indians. In 1744, he was ordained at Newark, New Jersey, and fixed his residence near the forks of the Delaware in Pennsyl- vania, where he remained about a year. From this place, he removed to Crosweeksung, in New Jersey, where his efforts among the Indians were crowned with great success. The Spirit of God seemed to bring home effectually to the hearts of the ignorant heathen the truths which he de- livered to them with affection and zeal. His Indian in- terpreter, who had been converted by his preaching, co-operated cheerfully in the good work. It was not un- common for the whole congregation to be in tears, or to be crying out under a sense of sin. In less than a year, Mr. Brainerd baptized seventy-seven persons, of whom thirty-eight were adults, and gave satisfactory evidence of having been renovated by the power of God; and he beheld, with unspeakable pleasure, between twenty and thirty of his converts seated round the table of the Lord. The Indians were at the time entirely reformed in their lives. They were very humble and devout, and united in Christian affection. The lives of these Indian converts in subsequent years, under John Brainerd and William Tennent, were in general holy and exemplary, furnishing evidence of the sincerity of their faith in the gospel. In the summer of 1746, Mr. Brainerd visited the Indians on the Susquehannah, and on his return in September, found himself worn out by the hardships of his journey. His health was so much impaired, that he was able to preach but little more. Being advised in the spring of 1747 to travel in New England, he went as far as Boston, and returned in July to Northampton, where, in the family # Jonathan Edwards, he passed the remainder of his ays. - Mr. Brainerd was a man of vigorous powers of mind. . While he was favored with a quick discernment and ready invention, with a strong memory and natural eloquence, he also possessed in an uncommon degree the penetration, the closeness and force of thought, and the soundness of judgment, which distinguish the man of talents from him, who subsists entirely upon the learning of others. His knowledge of theology was uncommonly extensive and accurate. President Edwards, whose opinion of Mr. Brainerd was founded upon an intimate acquaintance with him, says, that “he never knew his equal, of his age and standing, for clear, accurate notions of the mature and es- sence of true religion, and its distinctions from its various false appearances.” Mr. Brainerd had no charity for the religion of those, who, indulging the hope that they were interested in the divine mercy, settled down in a state of security and negligence. He believed, that the good man would be continually making progress towards perfection, and that conversion was not merely a great change in the views of the mind and the affections of the heart, pro- duced by the Spirit of God; but that it was the beginning of a course of holiness, which, through the divine agency, would be pursued through life. In his own character were combined the most ardent and pure love to God, and the most unaffected benevolence to man, an alienation from the vain and perishable pursuits of the world, the most humbling and constant sense of his own iniquity, which was a greater burden to him than all his afflictions, great brokenness of heart before God for the coldness of his love and the imperſection of his Christian virtues, the most earnest breathings of soul after holiness, real delight in the gospel of Jesus Christ, sweet complacence in all his disciples, incessant desires and importunate prayers that men might be brought to the knowledge and the obedience of the truth, and that thus God might be glorified and the kingdom of Christ advanced, great resignation to the will of his heavenly Father, an entiré distrust of his own heart, and a universal dependence upon God, the absolute re- nunciation of every thing for his Redeemer, the most clear and abiding views of the things of the eternal world, a continual warfare against sin, and the most unwearied exertion of all his powers in the service, and in obedience to the commands, of the Most High. He loved his Savior, and wished to make known his precious name aniong the heathen. In his last illness, and during the approaches of death, Mr. Brainerd was remarkably resigned and composed. He spoke of that willingness to die, which originates in the desire of escaping pain, and in the hope of obtaining F. or distinction in heaven, as very ignoble. The eaven which he seemed to anticipate, consisted in the love and service of God. When he was about to be sepa- rated forever from the earth, his desires seemed to be as eager as ever for the progress of the gospel. He spoke much of the prosperity of Zion, of the infinite importance of the work which was committed to the ministers of Jesus Christ, and of the necessity which was imposed upon them, to be constant and earnest in prayer to God for the success of their exertions. Eternity was before him, with all its interests. “”Tis sweet to me.” said he, “to think of eternity. But Oh, what shall I say to the eternity of the wicked! I cannot mention it, nor think of it. The thought is too dreadful P’ In answer to the inquiry, how he did, he said, “I am almost in eternity; I long to be there. My work is done. I have done with all my friends. All the world is now nothing to me. Oh to be in heaven, to praise and glorify God with his holy angels ſ” At length, after the trial of his patience by the most excruciating sufferings, his spirit was released from its tabernacle of clay, and entered those mansions, which the Lord Jesus hath prepared for all his faithful disciples, Oct. 9, 1747, aged twenty-nine years. The exertions of Mr. Brainerd in the Christian cause were of short éontinuance; but they were intense, and in. cessant and effectual. One must be either a very good or a very bad man, who can read his life without blushing for himself. If ardent piety and enlarged benevolence, if the supreme love of God and the inextinguishable de- sire of promoting his glory in the salvation of immortal Souls, if persevering resolution in the midst of the most pressing discouragements, if cheerful self-denial and un- remitted labor, if humility and zeal for godliness, united with conspicuous talents, render a man worthy of remem- brance, the name of Brainerd will not soon be forgotten. A new edition of his Memoirs was published in 1822, by Sereno Edwards Dwight, including his Journal. Presi. dent Edwards, his biographer, had omitted the already printed journals, which had been published in two parts; the first, from June 19, to November 4, 1745, entitled Mr rabilia Dei inter Indicos ; the second from November 21, 1745, to June 19, 1746, with the title, Divine Grace dis- played, &c. These journals Mr. Dwight has incorporated B R E B R. E. | 268 J in a regular chronological series with the rest of the diary, as alone given by Edwards.—Brainerd's Life ; his Journal ; Edwards' Fun. Serm. ; Middleton's Biog. Evang. iv. 262— 264; Assembly's Miss, Mag. ii. 449–452; Boston Recorder, 1824, p. 196. ---, BRAMBLE, (atad,) a prickly shrub. Judg. 9:14, 15. Ps. 58: 9. In the latter place it is translated “thorn.” Hiller supposes atad to be the cynobastus, or sweet-brier. The author of “Scripture illustrated ” says, that the bram- ble seems to be well chosen as the representative of the original ; which should be a plant bearing fruit of some kind, being associated, (Judg. 9: 14.) though by oppo. sition, with the vine. The apologue or fable of Jotham has always been admired for its spirit and application. It has also been considered as the oldest fable extant.— lyatson. - - BRANCH ; a title of Messiah : “And there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a BRANch shall grow out of his roots.” Isa. 11: 1. See also Zech. 3: 8, 6: 12. Jer. 23: 5. 33: 15. When Christ is represented as a slen- der twig, shooting out from the trunk of an old tree lopped to the very root and decayed, and becoming itself a mighty tree, reference is made, 1. To the kingly dignity of Christ, springing up from the decayed house of David; 2. To the exaltation which was to succeed his humbled condition on earth, and to the glory and vigor of his me- diatorial reign.— PWatson. - - BRANDENBURG, confession of ; a formulary or confession of faith, drawn up in the city of Branden- burg by order of the elector, with a view to reconcile the tenets of Luther with those of Calvin, and to put an end to the disputes occasioned by the confession of Augsburg. See AUGSBURG Confession.—Hend. Buck. BRANDT, (GERARD,) a poet and divine, was born at Amsterdam in 1626, and died there in 1685. He was pastor of a congregation of Remonstrants. His most important works are, a History of the Reformation in the Low Countries, four volumes quarto; a life of De Ruyter; and Latin Poems.-Davenport. BRASS. The word brass occurs very often in our trans- lation of the Bible; but that is a mixed metal, for the making of which we are indebted to the German metal- Jurgists of the thirteenth century. That the ancients knew not the art of making it, is almost certain. None of their writings even hint at the process. There can be no doubt, that copper is the original metal intended. This is spoken of as known prior to the flood; and to have been discovered, or at least wrought, as was also iron, in the seventh generation from Adam, by Tubal-cain: whence the name Vulcan. The knowledge of these two metals must have been carried over the world afterwards with the spreading colonies of the Noachidae. Agreeably to this, the ancient histories of the Greeks and Romans speak of Cadmus as the inventor of the metal which by the former is called chalkos, and by the latter as ; and from him had the denomination cadmea. According to others, Cadmus discovered a mine, of which he taught the use. The name of the person here spoken of was undoubtedly the same with Ham, or Cam, the son of Noah, who pro- bably learned the art of assaying metals from the family of Tubal-cain, and communicated that knowledge to the people of the colony which he settled.— Watson. - BRAY, (Thomas, D. D.) ecclesiastical commissary for Maryland and Virginia, was sent out by the bishop of London in 1699, and was indefatigable in his efforts to promote religion in the colonies, and among the Indians and negroes. missionaries and for parishes. several times, and spent the greater part of his life in these labors. Soliciting the charities of others, he also in his disinterested zeal contributed the whole of his small fortune to the support of his plans. Through his exer- tions, parish libraries were established in England, and various benevolent societies in London were instituted, particularly the Society for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts. He died February 15, 1730, aged seventy-three.—Allen. - - - BREACH ; a breaking, or place broken. God's breach of promise is not his falsification of his word, but the just interruption of its fulfilment on account of ſsrael's sin; in general. Libraries were instituted by him both for He crossed the Atlantic . and it may be remarked, that God never promised that those who came out of Egypt should enter Canaan. Moreover the words may be thus understood : When your children are brought into Canaan, then shall it appear I have made no breach of my promise, as you have falsely charged me. Numb. 14:34. Moses stood in the breach : Israel's sins had opened the way for the destruc- tive vengeance of God to destroy them utterly, but Moses' powerful intercession prevented it; Ps. 106: 23. The Jews' iniquity was like a breach swelling out in a high vall ; it had brought the righteous judgments of God just to the very point of ruining them. Isa. 30: 13.—Brojvn. BREAD ; a word which in Scripture is taken for food Gen. 3: 19. 18: 5. 28: 20. Exod. 2: 20. Manna is called bread from heaven. Exod. 16:15. The ancient Hebrews had several ways of baking bread: they often baked it under the ashes, upon the hearth, upon round copper plates, or in pans or stoves made on pur- pose. At their departure out of Egypt, they made some of these unleavened loaves for their journey. Exod. 12: 39. Elijah, when fleeing from Jezebel, found at his head a cake, which had been baked on the coals, and a cruse of water. 1 Kings 19: 5. The same prophet desired the widow of Sarepta to make a little bread (cake) for him, and to bake it under the ashes. 1 Kings 17: 13. The Hebrews call this kind of cake huggoth : and Hosea (7: 8.) compares Ephraim to one of them which was not turned, but was baked on one side only. Busbequius .# nop. p. 36.) says, that in Bulgaria this sort of Ioaf is still very common. They are there called hugaces. As soon as they see a guest coming, the women immediately pre- pare these unleavened loaves, which are baked under the ashes, and sold to strangers, there being no balkers in this country. See BAKING. - As the Hebrews generally made their bread very thin, and in the form of little flat calces, or wafers, they did not cut it with a knife, but broke it; which gave rise to that expression so usual in Scripture, of breaking bread, to signify eating, sitting down to table, taking a repast. In the institution of the eucharist, our Savior broke the bread which he had consecrated; whence, to break bread, and breaking of bread, in the New Testament, are used for celebrating the eucharist. The forms given to bread in different countries, how- ever, are varied according to circumstances, whether it be required to sustain keeping for a longer or a shorter time; that bread which is to be eaten the same day it is made is usually thin, broad, and flat; that which is meant for longer keeping, is larger and more bulky, that its moisture may not too Soon evaporate. So far as we recol- lect, the loaves most generally used among the Jews were round; though the rabbins say the shew-bread was square. . We have representations of loaves divided into twelve parts: we cannot affirm, that the loaf used by our Lord at the eucharist was thus divided; but if it were, it shows how conveniently it might be distributed among the dis- ciples, to each a part : and possibly such a compartition of it might be thought to tend towards settling the ques- tion, whether Judas partook of it. We think he did not; but that our Lord in some degree complied with a customi mentioned in the article EATING. We conceive, too, that such a divided loaf gives no improper comment on the passage, “We being many are one bread”—many par. takers, each having his portion from the same loaf. 1 Cor. 10: 17, Bread and water are used for sustenance in general. Deut. 9: 9, 18, &c. “Bread of affliction, and water of affliction,” (1 Kings 22: 27.) are the same as a little bread and a little water, or prison-bread and prison-water. Prison allowance. The psalmist speaks of the bread of tears, and the bread of sorrows. Ps. 42: 3. 127: 2. Meaning continual sor- row and tears, instead of food; or which make us lose the desire of eating and drinking. “Bread of wickedness, bread of deceit,” is bread acquired by fraudulent and criminal practices. These metaphors are very energetic. BREAD, DAII.Y. To show an entire dependence on our heavenly Father's care, we are instructed to pray day by day for our daily bread. Matt. 6: 11. The Greek word epiousias, sufficient, used by the evangelists, may be under. B R. E. B R. E. [ 269 stood as opposed to pervousios, superfluous. Many commen- tators include in this petition, a prayer for the daily supply for the spiritual wants of the believer by divine grace, as well as a daily supply for his temporal need by divine providence.—Calmet. - BREAD OF THE PRESENCE, or Shew-BREAD, was bread offered every Sabbath day to God on the golden table placed in the holy place. Exod. 25: 30. The He- brews affirm, that the loaves were square, having four sides, and covered with leaves of gold. They were twelve in number, in memory of the twelve tribes of Israel, in whose names they were offered. Every loaf was com- posed of two assarons of flour, which make about five pints one tenth. The loaves had no leaven, were pre- sented hot every Sabbath day, the old loaves being taken away, which were to be eaten by the priests only. With this offering there was salt and incense; and even wine, according to some colºmentators. Scripture mentions only salt and incense; but it is presumed wine was added, because it was not wanting in other sacrifices and offer- ings. It is believed that the loaves were placed one upon the other in two piles, of six each; and that between every loaf there were two thin plates of gold, folded back in a semicircle, the whole length of them, to admit air, and to hinder the loaves from growing mouldy. These golden plates, thus turned in, were supported at their extremities by two golden forks which rested upon the ground. But there is much difference of opinion among com- mentators as to the manner in which these loaves were placed upon the table. It is more difficult, however, to ascertain the use of the shew-bread, or what it represented, than almost any other emblem in the Jewish economy. The learned Dr. Cud- worth has the following remarks on the subject in his treatise on the Lord's supper: “When God had brought the children of Israel out of Egypt, resolving to manifest himself in a peculiar manner present among them, he thought good to dwell amongst them in a visible and ex- ternal manner; and therefore, while they were in the wil- derness, and sojourned in tents, he would have a tent or tabernacle built, to sojourn with them also. This mystery of the tabernacle was fully understood by the learned Nachmanides, who, in few words, but pregnant, expless- eth himself to this purpose: ‘The mystery of the taber- nacle was this, that it was to be a place for the Shekinah, or habitation of Divinity, to be fixed in :’, and this, no doubt, as a special type of God’s future dwelling in Christ's human nature, which was the true Shekinah : but when the Jews were come into their land, and had there built them houses, God intended to have a fixed dwelling-house also; and, therefore, his movable tabernacle was to be turned into a standing temple. Now, the tabernacle or temple being thus as a house, for God to dwell in visibly, to make up the notion of dwelling or habitation complete, there must be all things suitable to a house belonging to it.—Calmet. BREAK. To break with breach on breach, is to afflict with one sore trouble aſter another. Job 16: 14. The breaking of the heart denotes great inward grief and trou- ble, or a deep and kindly conviction of, and sorrow for, sin. Acts 21: 13. Luke 4: 18. Isa. 61: 1. To break up our fallow ground, is to study a deep conviction of sin and misery, and care to be reformed by means of God's word. Jer, 4:3. Hos. 10: 12. The breaking of the day signifies the first appearance of the morning light, (Gen. 32: 25.) the first beginning of the gospel dispensation, and of the state of perfect and everlasting glory. Song 2:17. Break- ºng of bread signifies the giving and receiving of the Lord's supper. Acts 2:42, and 20: 7.—Brown. BREATHE ; to draw natural breath; to live. Josh. 10:40, and 11:11. God's breathing imports his powerful and easy formation of man's soul in him. Gen. 2: 7, Christ's breathing on his disciples figured his inspiring them with the noted gifts and graces of the Holy Ghost. John 20:22. . The Spirit's breathing on the dry bones im- ports his giving zeal, courage, and hope, to the captive Jews at Babylon, his giving spiritual life and activity to his elect, and his quickening the bodies of saints at the last day. Ezek. 37: 9. The saints breathing towards God is prayer, whereby our spiritual life is maintained and manifested, and our weakness and pressure discovered. Lam. 3: 56, Wicked men breathe out slaughter and cru- elty; heartily hate their neighbors, chiefly the saints, and take pleasure to threaten and destroy them. Acts 9:1. Ps. 27: 12.-Brown. BREAST, bosom. The females in the East are more anxiously desirous than those of northern climates, of a full and swelling breast: in fact, they study embonpoint of appearance, to a degree uncommon among ourselves; and what in the temperate regions of Europe might be called an elegant slenderness of shape, they consider as a meagre appearance of starvation. They indulge these notions to excess. It is necessary to premise this, before we can enter thoroughly into the spirit of the language in Cant. 8: 10.—Calmet. - BREAST-PLATE, MILITARY. (See ARMoR.) BREAST-PLATE, a piece of embroidery about ten inches square, (Exod. 28: 15.) of very rich work, which the high-priest wore on his breast. It was made of two pieces of the same rich embroidered stuff of which the ephod was made, having a front and a lining, and forming a kind of purse, or bag, in which, according to the rab- bins, the Urim and Thummim was inclosed. The front of it was set with twelve precious stones, on each of which was engraved the name of one of the tribes. They v ere placed in four rows, and divided from each other by the little golden squares or partitions in which they were et, i. according to the following order; :* 5 agº. Yºº - §: C *::::º:º-º-A- º § - - - º sº ºf NSE - --~~- º * * * * Rºº-º-º: \s § NäSº # E. º º: ºf ſº #) Eº EžºE- Q--> -º Şāº º, $3: ==º --~~iº-Aº \ſ. º § JUD = E- := º º ºº::, ºr, .…. º iP= º º §e:Sesºs &Sºs. já ſ ºf ſº AH § Issachar ||% § ZFaulon iſ: ". ºf ſº ai K aw § 93 vºw A' |& * tº # Jardonyx § Teposs. : Riº W. º §:#Esº §§ -- º sº …A. ū º: ( # Šºšº YX/Y,3 X § Emerald... lºt * * * * * $ àºsºsºsºsºs † : *ºr - Sºº º & P : wº Exº~ : Ş...: . . . . . - §: sº §º §§ …' W = y:z: º ºr "2: "Sº- *Sºzºsºs. º: §t- º § SIMEON § # ſ: §X º: § º ºpiº lºft F- º *...* ; : • ? ... º.º. zºº . xer 7 GAD § Y 7 3. Jasper. § . º: Z Fº * * ºr sº º * º S º F. &º ſº º [. - ... sº º ." ~ £º . - * * * * * *-* ~ * - - - - º Yº > great rivers, such as the Euphrates, the Nile, the Jordan, and others, being called brooks. Thus the Euphrates (Isa. 15: 7) is called the brook of willows. It is observed that the Hebrew word, nahal, which signifies a brook, is also the term for a valley, whence the one is often placed for the other, in different translations of the Scriptures. To deal deceitfully “as a brook,” and to “pass away as the stream thereof,” is to deceive our friend when he most needs and expects our help and comfort, (Job 6: 15;) because brooks, being temporary streams, are dried up in the heats of summer, when the traveller most needs a supply of water on his journey.—Watson. *- BROOKE, (LADY ELIZABETH,) daughter of Thomas Cul- pepper, Esq., of Wigsale, in Sussex, was born at that place, in the month of January, 1601. In infancy she was de- prived, by death, of the counsels and advice, assistance and prayers of her mother; but her godmother, Lady Slaney, superintended her early education with great care and kindness. At the age of nineteen, she was married to Sir Robert Brooke, whose fortune was respectable, and whose character was virtuous. In very early life, this lady devoted herself to God and religion, and maintained an unexceptionable character, until she exchanged the tri- als of earth for the joys of heaven. By many eminent men, she was considered to be one of the most intelligent females. Her knowledge of divinity and the holy Scrip- tures was very considerable; nor was that knowledge merely practical; it was doctrinal and critical. Though comparatively unacquainted with the Greek and Hebrew tongues, yet her chaplains used often to say, that her con- versation was frequently more profitable and pleasant than their own studies; and that whilst they were teaching, practice of medicine. they were being instructed. Her investigation of sacred subjects was profound. With the surface of knowledge she was not content. On difficulties she consulted all the learned men with whom she was acquainted; and, by the astonishing rapidity of her reading, and the retentive pow- ers of her mind, she accumulated daily some increase to her stock of knowledge. She was very industrious to pre- serve all that affected or instructed her in the sermons which she heard; attending to them when delivered, re- peating them in her family, writing down the substance of them, and digesting them into questions and answers, or under heads of common places. To the management and regulation of her family, she did not, however, forget to attend. Of their spiritual interests she was habitually regardful; and, not contented with a personal devotion to God, she was anxious that her house also should serve the Lord. In her breast, bigotry and intolerance never found an abode. All the servants of Jesus Christ, of whatever sect or party, she loved as fellow pilgrims and fellow heirs. Her charity was unbounded, and her generosity was very great. Her mind was habitually devotional ; and in prayer, reading the Scriptures, and pious meditations, she spent the greater part of her life. Of her it has been justly said— “She had the knowledge of a divine, the faith, holiness, and zeal of a Christian, the wisdom of the serpent, and the innocency of the dove.” For further account of this inte- resting woman, see Burder's Memoirs of Pious Women.— Jones's Chr. Biog. BROOKS, (ELEAzAR,) an American brigadier-general, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, in 1726. Without the advantages of education, he acquired a valuable fund of knowledge. It was his practice in early life to read the most approved books, and then to converse with the most intelligent men respecting them. In 1774, he was chosen a representative to the general court, and continued thirty- seven years in public life, being successively a representa- tive, a member of the senate, and of the council. He took a decided part in the American revolution. At the head of a regiment he was engaged in the battle at White Plains, . in 1776, and distinguished himself by his cool, determined bravery. From the year 1801, he secluded himself in the tranquil scenes of domestic life. He died at Lincoln, No- vember 9, 1806, aged eighty years. General Brooks pos- sessed an uncommonly strong and penetrating mind, and his judgment as a statesman was treated with respect. He was diligent and industrious, slow in concerting, buy expeditious in performing his plans. He was a firm be- liever in the doctrines of Christianity, and in his advanced years accepted the office of deacon in the church at Lin- coln. This office he ranked above all others which he had sustained in life.—Stearns's Fun. Serm. ; Columb. Cent. Nov. 22, 1806; Allen. BROOKS, (John, LL.D.) governor of Massachusetts, was born at Medford, in 1752. His father was captain Caleb Brooks, a farmer; and his early years were spent in the toils of a farm, with no advantages of education but those of a town school. He was afterwards equally dis- tinguished as a physician, a soldier, and a statesman. In the battle of Saratoga, October 7, at the head of his regi- ment, he stormed and carried the intrenchments of the German troops. In the battle of Monmouth, he was acting adjutant-general. When the conspiracy at Newburgh, in March, 1783, had well nigh disgraced the army, Washing- ton rode up to Brooks, and requested him to keep his offi- cers within quarters to prevent their attending the insur- gent meeting; the reply was, “Sir, I have anticipated your wishes, and my orders are given.” With tears in his eyes, Washington took him by the hand and said, “Colonel Brooks, this is just what I expected from you.” From the army, Brooks returned to private life, free from the vices incident to soldiership, rich in honor, es- teem, and affection, but without property, and without the means of providing for his family, except by resuming his º By Washington he was appointed marshal of the district and inspector of the revenue; in the war of 1812, he was appointed adjutant-general of Massachusetts by governor Strong, whom he succeeded as , chief magistrate, in 1816. For seven years successively he was re-elected; and with great dignity and faithfulness he presided over the affairs of the commonwealth. In TABLE OF SHEw BREAD.—Page 269. B. R O B R O [ 273 | 1823, he retired to private life, being succeeded by Wil- liam Eustis. IIe died, March 1, 1825, aged seventy-two years. - Governor Brooks held a high rank as a physician. He was scientific and skilful. His manners were dignified, courteous, and benign ; and his kind offices were doubled in value by the manner in which he performed them. In the office of chief magistrate, he labored incessantly for the public good. His addresses to the legislature manifested large and liberal views. No one could doubt his integrity and devoted patriotism. He was the governor of the pco- ple; not of a party. In his native town, of which he was the pride, the citizens were accustomed to refer their dis- utes to his arbitrement, so that lawyers could not thrive in Medford. In private life he was most amiable and highly esteemed, the protector and friend of his numerous relatives, and the delight of all his acquaintance. The Sweetness of his temper was evinced by the composurc and complacency of his countenance. Towards the close of his life, he connected himself with the church in Medford under the pastoral care of Dr. Osgood. A short time be- fore he died, he said, “I see nothing terrible in death. In looking to the future, I have no fears. I know in whom I have believed; and I feel a persuasion, that all the trials appointed me, past or present, will result in my future and eternal happiness. I look back upon my past life with humility. I am sensible of many imperfections that cleave to me. I know, that the present is neither the season nor the place, in which to begin the preparation for death. Our whole life is given us for this great object, and the work of preparation should be early commenced, and be never relaxed till the end of our days. To God I can ap- peal, that it has been my humble endeavor to serve him in sincerity; and wherein I have failed, I trust in his grace to forgive. I now rest my soul on the mercy of my adorable Creator, through the only mediation of his Son, our Lord. Oh, what a ground of hope is there in that saying of an apostle, that God is, in Christ, reconciling a guilty world to himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them? In God I have placed my eternal ALL, and into his hands I commit my spirit!”. To the Medical society he bequeathed his library. Besides his valuable official communications as chief magistrate, he published a dis- course before the Humane society, 1795; discourse on Preumonia, before the Medical society, 1808.-Thacher's Med. Biog, 197—207; Dixwell's Memoir; Columb. Continel, May 18, 1825; Allen. BROTHER. 1. A brother by the same mother, an ute- rine brother, Matt. 4:21. 20: 20. 2. A brother, though not by the same mother, Matt. 1: 2. 3. A near kinsman, a cousin, Matt. 13:55. Mark 6: 3. Observe, that in Matt. 13:55, James, and Joses, and Judas, are called the adelphoi, brethren, of Christ, but were most probably only his cousins by his mother's side ; for James and Joses were the sons of Mary, Matt. 27: 56; and James and Judas, the sons of Alpheus, Luke 6: 15, 16; which Alpheus is therefore pro- bably the same with Cleophas, the husband of Mary, sister to our Lord’s mother, John 19:25.—Watson, BROUGHTON, (THoMAs,) a learned divine and literary character, was born in London, in 1704, studied at Eton and Cambridge, and died, vicar of Bedminster, St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, and a prebendary of Salisbury, in 1774. He was one of the principal contributors to the Biographia Britannica, and also wrote several works, among which is a Dictionary of all Religions, two volumes, ſolio. See HANNAH ADAMS.–Davenport, BROWN, (John,) of Haddington, a celebrated, though self-educated Scotch divine, was born, in 1722, at Kerpoo, in Perthshire, became a minister and divinity professr, and died in 1787. He was a man of eminent piety, and great usefulness. His principal works are, a Body of Divinity, one volume, octavo; the Self-Interpreting Bible, two vol- umes, quarto; and a Dictionary of the Bible, two volumes, octavo, often referred to in this work.--Davenport. BROWN, (CHADD ;) minister of the first Baptist church, Providence, Rhode Island. He fled thither from persecu- tion in Massachusetts, in 1636, and became, in 1639, one of the members of the Baptist church formed at that time by Roger Williams, when William Wickenden was ap- pointed first elder. With him Mr. Brown was associated . . * 35 - x- in the pastoral care of the church in 1642, and was a de- voted and successful minister. He died about 1665; and his colleague in 1669. In 1792, the town of Providence voted to erect a monument to his memory. His descend- ants, for nearly two centuries, have been among the most distinguished citizens of Rhode Island. His grandso James Brown, was a minister of the same church; and four of the grandsons of James have been patrons of Brown university;-Nicholas; Joseph, LL.D. who died Decem- ber, 1785; John, an eminent merchant, who died, Septem- ber 20, 1803, aged sixty-seven; and Moses Probably also Elisha was a grandson, who was lieutenant-governor, and died in April, 1802, aged eighty-five-Coll. Hist. Soc. s. s. ix. 197.-Denedict, i. 477; Allen. BROWN, (NICIIoIAs,) an eminent merchant of Rhode Island, died at Providence, May 29, 1791, aged sixty-one. From early youth his attention had been directed to mer- cantile pursuits, and by the divine blessing upon his dili- gence and uprightness he acquired a very ample fortune. But although he was rich, he did not make an idol of his wealth. His heart was liberal, and he listened to every call of humanity or science. The interests of government, of learning, of religion, were dear to him. He loved his country, and rejoiced in her freedom. The public buildings in Providence, sacred to religion and science, are monu- ments of his liberality. He was an early and constant patron of the college. In his religious principles he was a Baptist, and he was a lover of good men of all denomi- nations. He was not ashamed of the Gospel, nor of the poorest of the true disciples of the Redeemer. His general knowledge and the fruitfulness of his invention furnished him with an inexhaustible fund of entertaining conversa- tion.—Stillman's Fun. Serm. ; Providence Gaz. ; Allen. BROWN, (CHARLES BRocKDEN,) a distinguished Ameri- can writer, was born in Philadelphia, January 17, 1771. After a classical education under Robert Proud, author of the History of Pennsylvania, he was, at the age of eigh- teen, apprenticed to a lawyer, Alexander Wilcox ; but his time was chiefly employed, not in the study of the law, but in various literary pursuits. Timidity and an invincible dis- like to the legal profession prevented him from becoming a member of the bar. He devoted himself entirely to lite- rature, and in six years, from 1798 to 1804, published six novels of an original and powerful character. At this pe. riod his opinions were unsettled and sceptical; but soon after, he declared himself a firm believer and advocate of Christianity. He now abandoned novel writing, and de- voted his powers to more serious and useful pursuits; and his character seems to have undergone a perceptible and pleasing change. He had previously conducted a periodi- cal work, in 1799 and 1800, the Monthly Magazine and American Review ; and in 1805, he commenced the Lite- rary Magazine and American Register, avowedly on new principles. He also wrote three political pamphlets. In 1806, he commenced the semi-annual American Register, five volumes of which he lived to publish. He died, Feb. 22, 1810, at the age of thirty-nine.—N. A. Review, June, 1819; Enc. Amer. ; Allen ; Memoir prefixed to his Works. BROWN, (FRANCIS, D. D.) president of Dartmouth col- lege, was born at Chester, New Hampshire, January 11, 1784, and graduated, in 1805, at Dartmouth, where he was a tutor from 1806 to 1809. In January, 1810, he was or- dained the minister of North Yarmouth, Maine, as the successor of Tristram Gilman, whose daughter he married. Of Bowdoin college he was an overseer and trustee. In 1815, he was appointed president of Dartmouth college. He died of the consumption, July 27, 1820, aged thirty-six. His predecessor was Dr. Wheelock; his successor Dr. Da- na. “His talents and learning, amiableness and piety, eminently qualified him for the several stations which he filled, and rendered him highly useful and popular.” He published several sermons, among which are the follow- ing : at the ordination of Allen Greely, 1810; at a fast on account of the war, 1812; on the evils of war, 1814; be. fore the Maine Missionary society, 1814.—Lord's Lempr. ; Allen. BROWN, (CATHARINE,) a Cherokee, was born about the year 1800, at a place, now called Wills-Valley, in a beau- tiful plain of tall forest trees, within the chartered limits of Alabama, a few miles west of the Georgia line, and twen- B R o B. R O [ 274 J ty-five miles south-east of the Tennessee river. On each side of the valley rose the Raccoon and Lookout moun- tains. Her parents were half-breeds; they were ignorant of the English language; and the amount of their religion was, that there was a Creator of the world, and also a future state of rewards and punishments. In 1801, the Moravians commenced a mission at Spring- place in the Cherokee country, about forty or fifty miles east of Wills-Valley; soon afterwards, Rev. Gideon Black- burn made efforts for several years to establish a school among the Cherokees. In 1816, Rev. Cyrus Kingsbury, employed by the American board for foreign missions, ap- peared at a Cherokee council and obtained permission to establish schools. He selected, as the place for the first school, Chickamaugah, now called Brainerd, twenty or thirty miles north of Spring-place, within the limits of Ten- messee. Catharine heard of this school, and, though living at a distance of a hundred miles, she became a member of it, in July, 1817, being then seventeen years of age. In three months she learned to read and write. In Decem- ber, 1817, she cherished the hope, that she had experienced the power of the gospel in her heart. She was baptized, January 25, 1818, and admitted as a member of the church, March 29. In June, 1820, she undertook to teach a school at Creek path, near her father's. For sweetness of temper, meekness, and gentleness, she was unsurpassed. To her parents she was very dutiful and affectionate. A weekly prayer meeting was instituted by her; and she was zealous to instruct her ignorant neighbors in the great truths of the gospel. She formed the purpose of perfecting her education, that her usefulness might be increased. But in the spring of 1823, her health declined, she had a settled consumption, and it became evident that her death was near. She said, “I feel perfectly resigned to the will of God. I know he will do right with his children. I thank God, that I am entirely in his hands. I feel willing to live, or die, as he thinks best. My only wish is, that he may be glorified.” Having been conveyed about fifty miles, to the house of her friend, Dr. Campbell, she there died, July 18, 1823, aged twenty-three. Let any scoffer at missions contemplate this lovely child of the wilderness, won from the gloom of paganism to the joyous, lofty hopes of Chris- tianity, and triumphing over the king of terrors, and then say, if he can; that the missionary enterprise is idle, and useless, and a waste of money. An interesting memoir of Catharine Brown was compiled by Rufus Anderson, as- sistant secretary of the American board for foreign mis- sions, and published in 1825.—Anderson's Memoir; Allen. BROWN, (DAvid,) a Cherokee, was a brother of the receding, who followed her to the school at Brainerd. In November, 1819, he assisted John Arch in preparing a Cherokee spelling-book, which was printed. At the school, he became convinced of his sinfulness, and embraced the salvation offered in the gospel. Soon after he was ad- mitted to the church, he set out for New England, to at- tend the foreign mission School at Cornwall, Connecticut, that he might be prepared to preach the gospel. His visits to Boston and other towns had a favorable effect in excit- ing a missionary zeal. school, with Elias Boudinot and six other Cherokees, he remained a year at Andover, enjoying many advantages for improvement. In the mean time, his brother, John, had become a convert and made a profession, and died in peace: his parents also, and other members of his family, had become pious. He returned to them in 1824, having first delivered, in many of the principal cities and towns, an address on the wrongs, claims, and prospects of the American Indians. In the spring of 1829, he was taken ill, and bled at the lungs. He wrote, June 1st, “On the bed of sickness I have enjoyed sweet communion with my Sa- vior.” He died at Creek-path, September 14, 1829, at the house of Rev. Mr. Potter, giving evidence that he died in the faith of the gospel.—Anderson; Miss. Her. ; Allen. BROWN, (DP. Thomas,) a man eminent as a metaphysi- cian, moral philosopher, and poet, was born at Kirkmabreck, in Scotland, in 1777, and displayed an early acuteness and thirst for knowledge. His first education was received in the vicinity of London, and was completed at the univer. sity of Edinburgh. At the age of twenty, he wrote a mas- terly answer to Darwin's Zoonomia. In 1810, he succeeded After passing two years at the Mr. Stewart, at Edinburgh, as professor of moral philoso- phy, and Soon gained universal admiration as a lecturer, by his eloquence and talents, and affection by his kindness to the students. Dr. Brown was a professed believer in Christianity; and though he too seldom adverts to the Bl- ble in his philosophical lectures, yet his system of meta- physics and morals approaches nearer, to the simplicity and purity of the sacred volume, than that of many pro- fessed expounders of it. He has thrown more light on the essential distinction of the mind and the body, and on the mental emotions and associations, than perhaps any pre- ceding writer. His brilliant career was unfortunately cut short, by consumption, on the 2d of April, 1820. As an analytical philosopher, his reputation is established by his inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect; Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind; and Physiology of the Mind: as a poet, by his poems, in two volumes; Agnes; the Wanderer of Norway; and the Paradise of Coquettes.— Davenport. - BROWNE, (George, D. D.) archbishop of Dublin. The birthplace of this eminent prelate is uncertain, nor have we any precise account of his parents. But he was the first prelate who embraced the reformation in Ireland. He received the principal part of his education at Hally well, in Oxford, but was originally a friar of the order of St. Augustine. In 1534, he took the degree of doctor in divi- nity in some foreign university, but was admitted to the same honor at Oxford and Cambridge. Henry the Eighth became attached to him, for inculcating into the minds of the people of England, the necessity of discarding the doc- trine of the invocation of saints, and for enforcing on them the necessity of applying alone to Christ for salvation. To him, that king, in the year 1535, presented the archbishop- ric of Dublin. In May, 1536, Browne made so admirable a speech on the subject of a bill that was at that time de- pending, for establishing the king's Supremacy over the church of Ireland, that in consequence thereof, the act, with much difficulty, passed. At the time when Henry the Eighth ordered the monasteries in England and Ire- land to be destroyed, archbishop Browne immediately or- dered, that every vestige of superstitious relics, of which there were many in the two cathedrals of St. Patrick and the Holy Trinity in Dublin, should be removed. Not con- tented with this direction, he caused the same to be done in the other churches of his diocese, and supplied their places with the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord’s prayer. In 1545, a command having been issued, that the liturgy of king Edward the Sixth should be com- piled, it was violently opposed, and only by Browne's party received. Accordingly, on Easter day following, it was read in Christ church, Dublin, in the presence of the mayor and the bailiffs of that city; when the archbishop delivered a judicious, learned, and able sermon against keeping the Bible in the Latin, tongue, and the worship of images. In October, 1551, the title of primate of all Ireland was con- ferred on Browne; which the malignant and persecuting Mary soon deprived him of, on account of his zeal in the reformation. Archbishop Browne died in the year 1556. As to his character, he was a man of considerable natural parts, great industry, and indefatigable application. To truth he was a sincere friend, and would often declare, that he would rather sacrifice his life than resign his princi- ples. None of his works are extant, except his “Sermon on the Liturgy.” See Wood's Hist, and Antiq. Univ. Ox- on.; Liſe and Death of George Browne, Esq.; Cox's Hist. of Ireland; Sir James Warr's Works.-Jones's Chr. Biog. BROWNE, (SIR THOMAs,) a physician and eminent writer, was born in London, in 1605, and educated at Wim- chester and Oxford. He took his degree at Leyden, and settled at Norwich, where he gained extensive practice. His Religio Medici having been surreptitiously published, he gave to the world a correct edition in 1642, which was soon translated into several languages, and repeatedly re- printed. It was attacked by many writers, some of whom, with equal absurdity and injustice, accused the author of being an infidel, and even an atheist. This work was fol- lowed by his celebrated Treatise on Vulgar Errors; and Hydriotaphia, or a Treatise on Urn Burial, published to. gether with the Garden of Cyrus. He died in 1682. Browne was a man of great benevolence, and of extensive erudi. B. R O B R U [ 275 J tion. His style is singular and pedantic, but has generally strength, and often felicity of expression.—His son Ed. ward, who was born about 1642, and died in 1708, was president of the College of Physicians, and is the author of an Account, in two volumes quarto, of his own Travels in Austria, Hungary, Thessaly, and Italy.—Davenport. RROWNE, (SIMON,) was born at Shepton Mallet, in 1680, and became a dissenting minister, first at Ports- mouth, and next in the Old Jewry, in which latter situa- tion he remained till 1723, when his reason was shaken by the loss of his wife and his only son. The monomania which afflicted him was of an extraordinary kind. Though retaining th: power of reasoning acutely, he believed that God “had annihilated in him the thinking substance,” and that though he seemed to speak rationally, he had “no more notion of what he said than a parrot.” Imagining himself no longer a moral agent, he refused to bear a part in any act of worship. While in this state, however, he continued to write forcibly, and, among other things, produced a De- fence of the Religion of Nature, and the Christian Revela- tion, against Tindall's Christianity as old as the Creation. To this he prefixed a dedication to queen Caroline, in which he affectingly exp ºtiated on his soulless state. His friends suppressed this relancholy proof of his singular insanity; but it is preserved in the Adventurer. He died in 1732. He is the author of hymns, sermons, and various contro- versial and theological pieces.—Davenport. BROWNISTS; a sect that arose among the Puritans towards the close of the sixteenth century; so named from their leader, Robert Brown. He was educated at Cam. bridge, and was a man of good parts and some learning. He began to inveigh openly against the ceremonies of the church, at Norwich, in 1580; but, being much opposed by the bishops, he, with his congregation, left England, and settled at Middleburgh, in Zealand, where they obtained leave to worship God in their own way, and form a church according to their own model. They soon, however, began to differ among themselves, so that Brown, growing weary of his office, returned to England in 1589, renounced his principles of separation, and was preferred to the rectory of a church in Northamptonshire. He died in prison in 1630. The revolt of Brown was attended with the dissolu- tion of the church at Middleburgh; but the seeds of Brown- ism which he had sown in England were so far from being destroyed, that Sir Walter Raleigh, in a speech in 1592, computes no less than twenty thousand of this sect. The articles of their faith seem to be nearly the same as those of the church of England. The occasion of their separation was not therefore any fault they found with the faith, but only with the discipline and form of government of the churches in England. They equally charged cor- ruption on the Episcopal and Presbyterian forms; nor would they join with any other reformed church, because they were not assured of the sanctity and regeneration of the members that composed it. They condemned the so- lemn celebration of marriages in the church, maintaining that matrimony, being a political contract, the confirma- tion thereof ought to come from the civil magistrate; an opinion in which they are not singular. They would not allow the children of such as were not members of the church to be baptized. They rejected all forms of prayer, and held that the Lord’s prayer was not to be recited as a prayer, being only given for a rule or model whereon all our prayers are to be formed. Their form of church go- vernment was nearly as follows:—When a church was to be gathered, such as desired to be members of it made a confession of their faith in the presence of each other, and signed a covenant, by which they obliged themselves to walk together in the order of the gospel. The whole pow- er of admitting and excluding members, with the decision of all controversies, was lodged in the brotherhood. Their church officers were chosen from among themselves, and separated to their several offices by fasting, prayer, and imposition of hands. But they did not allow the priest- hood to be any distinct order. As the vote of the brethren made a man a minister, so the same power could discharge him from his office, and reduce him to a mere layman again; and as they maintained the bounds of a church to be no greater than what could meet together in one place, and join in one communion, so the power of these officers was prescribed within the same limits. The minister of one church could not administer the Lord's supper to another, nor baptize the children of any but those of his own socie- ty. Any lay-brother was allowed the liberty of giving a word of exhortation to the people; and it was usual for some of them, after sermon, to ask questions, and reason upon the doctrines that had been preached. In a word, every church on their model is a body corporate, having full power to do every thing in itself, without being ac- countable to any class, synod, convocation, or other juris- diction whatever. The reader will judge how near the Independent churches are allied to this form of govern- ment. See INDEPENDENTs. The laws were executed with great severity on the Brownists; their books were prohibited by queen Eliza- beth ; their persons imprisoned, and some hanged. Brown himself declared on his death-bed that he had been in thirty-two different prisons, in some of which he could not see his hand at noon-day. They were so much persecuted, that they resolved at last to quit the country. According- ingly many retired and settled at Amsterdam, where they formed a church, and chose Mr. Johnson their pastor, and after him Mr. Ainsworth, author of the learned Commen- tary on the Pentateuch. Their church flourished near a hundred years. Among the Brownists, too, were the fa- mous John Robinson, a part of whose congregation from Leyden, in Holland, made the first permanent settlement in North America; and the laborious Canne, the author of the marginal references to the Bible.—Hend. Buck. BRUCKER, (John JAMEs,) a learned Lutheran clergy- man, was born at Augsburg, in 1696, and died minister of St. Ulric's, in his native city, in 1770. Of his works, the most valuable and the best known is the History of Philo- sophy, in six volumes quarto, of which Dr. Enfield pub- lished an English abridgment. Brucker was nearly fifty years employed on it; and it displays a degree of erudition, judgment, and impartiality, which is highly honorable to its author.—Davenport. . BRUEN, (MIATTHIAs,) a distinguished minister in New York, was born at Newark, New Jersey, April 11, 1793. He dated his renovation of mind by the divine Spirit at the age of eighteen. After graduating at Columbia. college, in 1812, he studied theology with Dr. Mason. In 1816, he travelled in Europe with his distinguished pre- ceptor. About the beginning of 1819, being invited to preach in the American chapel of the oratory at Paris, he was ordained in London, and then passed six months at Paris. In 1822, he was employed as a missionary in the city of New York, but refused to receive any compensa- tion. During his labors, he collected the Bleecker street congregation. Of this people he became the stated pastor, and continued such till his death, by inflammation of the bowels, September 6, 1829, aged thirty-six years. Mr. Bruen engaged earnestly in various benevolent in- stitutions. He was agent and corresponding secretary of the Domestic Missionary Society; and when it was changed into the American Home Missionary Society, he still as- sisted by his counsels. Bible, Sunday school, tract, and foreign mission’societies engaged his efforts; and in the Greek cause he cheerfully co-operated. He was accom- plished in manners, in literature, and in the knowledge of mankind. Though he had high and honorable feelings. abhorring every thing mean, yet he had humble views of his own acquisitions, intellectual and moral. All his dis- tinctions he laid at his Master's feet. In the last week of his life, he suffered extreme pain. It was a sudden sum B R U B.U.C. : [ 276 ) mons to depart; yet was he calm and resigned. “I die,” said he, “in peace and love with all men.” Thus, after embracing his wife and two babes, and most impressively addressing his relatives, he fell asleep in Jesus. He pub- lished a sermon at Paris on the death of a lady of New York; and Sketches of Italy.—Cox's and Skinner's Serm. ; Rome Miss. Mag. ; Bost. Record, Nov. 11, 1829; Allen. BRUISE. The bruise of a soul implies doubts, fears, anguish, inward trouble on account of the prevalence of sin, God's wrath, &c. Matt. 12; 40. 2. God bruised Christ, in inflicting on his soul and body the fearful punishment due to our sin. Isa. 53: 5. 3. Satan bruises Christ's heel, in harassing his humble manhood, and afflicting his mem- bers on earth. Gen. 3: 15. Rom. 16:20. 4. Christ bruises Satan's head, when he crushes his designs, despoils him of his power, triumphs over him on the cross, or in the conquest of his chosen; and when he enables his people to oppose, conquer, and tread his temptations under foot. —The king of Egypt is called a bruised reed, to mark the weak and broken state of his kingdom, and his utter ina- bility to help such as depended on him. 2 Kings 18: 21. ‘Weak saints and their feeble graces, are bruised, or bruised reeds, which Christ will not break ; they are trodden down and afflicted by Satan, by false teachers, by the world, by their own lusts, and are in a pained and disjointed case, unable to oppose their spiritual enemies; but Jesus will protect, heal, comfort, and deliver them. Isa, 42: 3. Luke 4: 18.—Brown. - BRULIUS, (PETER,) one of the reformers of the six- teenth century. He succeeded Calvin as pastor of the church in Strasburg, on the Rhine, and was much beloved by the people, who were edified by his valuable ministry. There prevailed at this time throughout the Netherlands the most earnest desire to be instructed in the reformed religion; so that in places where the truth was not or dar- ed not to be preached, private invitations were sent to the ministers who resided in towns where the pure gospel was preached openly. Some people in Tourney invited Bru- lius, from Strasburg. Ready to every good word and work, this excellent man complied with their request, and came to Tourney, September, 1544, where he was joyfully received by the friends who invited him. After staying Some time, he made an excursion to Lisle, in Flanders, for the same object, and returned to Tourney in October. But the governors of the city, being papist, having heard of his arrival, shut the gates and made strict search for him ; so that his friends were obliged to let him over the wall by a rope. Unhappily, on his reaching the ground, a stone fell on him, by which his leg was broken, and his enemies seized him. . He was put in prison, and notwithstanding the efforts of the senate of Strasburg, he was put to death, being burned in a slow fire, February 19, 1545, to the grief of all good men. Brulius in prison and at the stake behaved nobly; no- thing could shake his faith, or triumph over his firmness. Among other things, he assured his papal judges “that he neither knew or cared for any other purgatory, than the blood of Christ, which alone remits both the guilt and punishment of sin.” The day before he suffered, he wrote to his wife, informing her what he was to undergo, and exhorting her to be satisfied with the consolations of God, concluding that she ought not to grieve on his account, but to rejoice, since this whole dispensation was an honor that his heavenly Father had conferred on him ; that Jesus Christ had suffered infinitely more for him; and that the servant’s condition ought not to be better than his Lord's. What an admirable comment on the omnipotence of divine grace in the soul!—Middleton. -* * - BRUNTON, (MARy,) the daughter of colonel Balfour, was born in Barra island, one of the Orkneys, in 1776, married a minister of the Scotch church in 1796, and died in 1818, equally admired for her talents and beloved for her disposition and virtues. She is the author of Disci- pline and of Self-Control, two excellent novels; and she left an unfinished tale called Emeline, and some minor pieces, which her husband published.—Davenport. - - BRUIS,(PETER DE;) a distinguished reformer and martyr of the twelfth century. . Mosheim says, after speaking of the Catharists, “A much more rational sect was that which 'as ſounded about the year 1110, in Languedoc and Pro- vence by Peter de Bruys, (or Bruis,) who made the most laudable attempts to reform the abuses, and to remove the superstitions that disfigured the beautiful simplicity of the Gospel.” During a laborious ministry of about twenty years, he engaged a great number of followers, who were called after him Petrobrussians, or from the principal place of their residence, Vaudois, Waldenses, or Waldenses. Probably he was, strictly speaking, not the founder of the sect, for that people claim a far higher antiquity, but was one of their most distinguished preachers, or barbs. This last is, in fact, the Waldensian account of him. To him is ascribed that admirable treatise on Antichrist, an extract from which may be found under the word ANTI- cHRIST, in this volume. De Bruis was burned at St. Giles, in 1130, by an enraged populace, instigated by the clergy, “whose traffic,” says Mosheim, “ was in danger from the enterprising spirit of this reformer.” If we may judge from the above treatise, his piety, judgment, courage, talents, knowledge of the Scriptures, spiritual understanding of the true gospel, zeal, and eloquence, were of a very high order, and would not suffer by comparison with any of the reformers of the sixteenth century; nor will any one who knows how Dr. Mosheim applies the term, think the worse of him, but the higher, for what he calls his “mixture of famaticism.” Happy had it been for the Protestant churches, had such a “mixture” existed in the later re- formers, as would have broken the adulterous alliance of church and state, and given to those fettered churches the primitive purity and freedom which De Bruis intrepidly asserted in life and in death. As, among other things, he taught “that no persons are to be baptized before they had the full use of their reason,” he is justly claimed by the modern Baptists, as belonging to their fraternity.—Mo- sheim ; Ivimey. - BRYANT, (JAcOB,) a philologist and antiquary, was born at Plymouth, in 1715, and received his education at Eton and King's college, Cambridge. The duke of Marl- borough, to whom he had been tutor, gave him a place in the ordnance department. He settled at Cypenham, in Berkshire, and died Nov. 4, 1804, of a mortification in the leg, occasioned by bruising the skin against a chair. Bry- ant was an indefatigable and a learned writer, but fond of paradox. He wrote one work to maintain the au- thenticity of the pseudo Rowley’s poems, and another to prove that Troy never, existed. His principal production is a New System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology, in three volumes quarto, which was published in 1774 and 1776. It is ingenious and erudite, but often fanciful and erroneous. Among his other compositions are, Observa- tions relative to Ancient History; a Treatise on the Au- thenticity of the Scriptures; Observations on the Plagues of Egypt; and Dissertations on the Prophecy of Balaam, &c.—Davenport. BUCER, (MARTIN,) was born in 1491, at Scholestadt, a town of Alsace. At the age of seven, he took the religious habit of the order of St. Dominic, and, with the leave of the prior of his convent, went to Hiedelberg to learn logic and philosophy. Having, after this applied himself to the study of divinity, he made it his endeavor to acquire a thorough knowledge of both Greek and Hebrew. About this time, some of the writings of Erasmus came abroad, and Bucer read them with avidity. Soon aſter, he got possession of several tracts of Luther's, and, comparing the tenets of that reformer with the Scriptures, to which the latter appealed, he began to entertain doubts concern- ing several points of the religion in which he had been educated. His uncommon learning, and his eloquence, the latter of which was assisted by a strong and musical voice, together with his free censure of the vices of the times, recommended him to Frederic, the elector palatine, who made him one of his chaplains. In 1521, he passed some time with Luther, at Hiedelberg, and discussed many points of doctrine with the great champion of the Refor- mation; the result of which was, his adopting most of his religious opinions, particularly his doctrine of justification by faith, and not by works. This change in his doctrinal sentiments naturally enlisted him on the side of the re- former, and he proved an efficient coadjutor to him. Some time after this, falling in with the writings of Zuinglius. who differed from Luther on some points of minor impor. B U C B U C [ 277 ) tance, particularly with regard to the eucharist, Bucer, after mature consideration, was induced to give the prefe- rence to the sentiments of Zuinglius, and sided with him ; though he used his utmost endeavors to unite the two par- ties, both of whom opposed the popish religion. . . Bucer is regarded as one of the first authors of the Re- formation, at Strasburg, where he taught theology for twenty years, being one of the ministers of the town. He assisted at most of the conferences that were held between the Catholics and the Reformed; and, in 1548, was sent for to Augsburg, to sign that agreement between the two parties which was called the Interim. It did not, however, meet his approbation, and his warm opposition to it expos- ed him to many difficulties and hardships, the news of which reaching England, where his character stood high, Cranmer, then archbishop of Canterbury, invited him over, which he readily accepted. - In 1549, a handsome apartment was assigned him in the university of Cambridge, and a salary appointed him as a teacher of theology. King Edward the Sixth entertained the highest respect for him ; and, on being told that he suffered much from the cold of the climate, sent him a hundred crowns to purchase a German stove. He, nevertheless, survived only two years; for in 1551, he died of a complication of disorders, and was buried at Cambridge with great funeral pomp. Five years after, in the reign of queen Mary, his body was dug up, and pub- licly burned, and his tomb demolished; but it was after- wards set up again, by order of queen Elizabeth. His character is thus given by bishop Burnet: “Martin Bucer was a very learned, judicious, pious, and moderate person. He was, probably, inſerior to none of the reformers in point of learning; but for zeal, for true piety, and a most tender care ſor preserving unity among the foreign church- es, Melancthon and he, without disparaging the rest, may be ranked apart by themselves. He was much opposed by the popish party at Cambridge; who, though they com- plied with the law, and so kept their places, yet, either in the way of argument, or, as if it had been for dispute sake, set themselves much to disparage him. Nor was he fur- nished, naturally, with the quickness that is necessary for a disputant, from which they studied to draw advantages; and, therefore, Peter Martyr advised him to avoid all pub- lic disputations.” His writings were partly in Latin, and partly in German, and exceedingly numerous.-Jones's Christ. Biog. . . - BUCHANAN, (GeoRGE,) one of the boasts of Scottish literature, was born, in 1506, at Killairn, in Dumbarton- shire, and, after having pursued his studies at Paris and St. Andrew’s, and served for a while in the army, he was appointed tutor to the earl of Cassilis, with whom he re- mained in France during five years. Returning from Pa- ris with the earl, he was made tutor to the natural son of James W. Two satires which he wrote on the monks soon drew down their vengeance upon him, and he was impri- soned, but was fortunate enough to escape. Once more visiting the continent, he successively taught at Paris, at Bordeaux, and at Coimbra, at which latter city the freedom of his opinions again caused his imprisonment. He next spent four years at Paris, as tutor to the marshal de Bris- 22 - & - - N \ { - - sac's son. During this continental residence, he composed his Baptistes and Jepthes, translated the Medea and Alces- tes of Euripides, and began his Latin version of the Psalms. In 1560, he returned to his native land and em- braced Protestantism. Yet he had the favor of the court, obtained a pension from Mary, was made principal of St. Leonard's college, at St. Andrews, and was chosen as pre- ceptor to James VI. When subsequently reproached with having made his royal pupil a pedant, Buchanan is said to have replied, that “it was the best he could make of him.” Buchanan died poor, in 1582. As an historian, he is elegant and vigorous, but partial and deficient in judge ment; as a man, he was unamiable; as a politician, he was too unscrupulous and violent; as a Latin poet, he ranks among the highest of the modern, especially for his version of the Psalms.-Davenport. . BUCHANAN, (CLAudius,) vice-provost of the college of Fort William, in Bengal, was born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, on March the 12th, 1766. His father, Mr. Alex: ander Buchanan, was a man of respectable learning, and of excellent character, and was highly esteemed in various parts of Scotland, as a laborious and faithful teacher. His mother, the daughter of Mr. Claudius Somers, was a wo- man of great piety and superior understanding. By his parents, Buchanan was early trained in religious principles and habits; and the future usefulness of this very excel- lent man may probably, in some degree, be traced to his early impressions. At the age of seven, Buchanan was sent to the grammar school of Inverary, in Argyleshire, of which his father was master; and under his tuition the son made considerable progress in the knowledge of the Greek and Latin tongues. Until the age of thirteen, he, continued at Inverary, and in the following year was . appointed tutor to the two sons of Mr. Campbell of Dun. stanage. For two years he continued in that situation,” and evinced much knowledge and information, and a ca. pacity to teach, which in one so young could scarcely be expected. At this time he was under considerable im- pressions of a religious nature, and frequently spent an hour in devotion amidst the rocks on the sea-shore : but his serious thoughts were dissipated by gay society. In 1787, he went to London. He here attended on the minis- try of the pious Mr. Newton, to whom he applied by letter for advice; and, by desire of Mr. Newton, had an inter- view with him. In him he found an enlightened and ex- perienced guide, a wise and faithful counsellor, and a steady and affectionate friend. Mr. Buchanan, after his conversion, felt a strong desire to become a minister of the gospel, and communicated his wish to Mr. Newton. That desire the good man cherished, introduced him to a phi- lanthropic individual, (Mr. Thornton,) and by his advice and prayers assisted in fitting him for his future duties and trials. Mr. Thornton determined on sending him, at his expense, to the university of Cambridge; and in Mi- chaelmas term, 1791, he was admitted a member of Queen’s college. Mr. Buchanan took his degree of ba- chelor of arts before he left college, and received the una- nimous approbation of the professors. On the 20th of September, 1795, he was ordained a deacon at Fulham, by the late bishop Porteus; and in March, 1796, was appoint- ed a chaplain in the East India Company’s service. British India is under great obligations to Mr. Buchanan, for various and important services rendered by him; but, for his zeal, and energy, and perseverance, which, in spite of opposition, he continued to manifest for the translation of the Holy Scriptures into the vernacular tongues of In- dia, the obligations are incalculable. Bigotry, short-sight- ed and interested, opposed this effort of Christian apostolic zeal; but that opposition was eventually compelled to cede to the force of truth; and in the year 1804, the first ver sion of any of the gospels in Persian and Hindostanee, which were printed in India, issued from the press of the college of Fort William, of which, in 1801, he had been appointed vice-provost and professor of classics, by the marquis of Wellesley. He was also much engaged, at this time, in the institution of a civil fund for widows and orphans. Mr. Buchanan now wrote his celebrated “Me- moir of the Expediency of an Ecclesiastical Establish- ment for British India,” which was extensively read, and generally approved. Early in the year 1806, Mr. Bucha- nan drew up proposals for a subscription for translating the Holy Scriptures into fifteen oriental languages; and, in consequence of his exertions in their distribution, the college of Fort William, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Glasgow, supported or contributed to the cause. In the B U C B U C [ 278 ) month of May in this year, Mr. Buchanan departed from Calcutta on a journey to the coast of Malabar. He visit. ed Jellasore, Cuttack, Juggernaut, Visagapatam, Madras, Pondicherry, Tranquebar, Tanjore, Madura, Ceylon, Tra- vancore, the Syrian churches of Malayala, Cochin; and returned from thence by sea, in March, 1807, to Calcutta. The knowledge which he attained by that journey was immense, and was only equalled by the fatigues he en- dured, the privations to which he submitted, and the scenes of superstition and ignorant idolatry which he witnessed. The journey was one of more than five thousand miles. Lord Minto was now appointed to the government of India. Mr. Buchanan thought that some of the measures he had taken were unfavorable to religion, and therefore, in No- vember, 1807, presented his celebrated “Memorial,” com- plaining, 1st, Of the withdrawing the patronage of go- vernment from translations of the Holy Scriptures. 2d, Of the suppression of such translations. 3d, Of improper conduct to the venerable missionary Swartz. And 4th, Of restraining the Protestant missionaries from the exer- cise of their functions, and establishing an imprimatur for theological works. To this memorial the Bengal govern- ment did not attend; and he therefore transmitted a copy to the East India directors, in England. Buchanan now determined on again visiting the coast of Malabar, and proceeding to Europe; he then preached an affecting and important farewell sermon, and on the 27th of November, 1807, sailed from Calcutta, and visited Ceylon, Cochin, Tellicherry, Goa, and Bombay. At the latter of these places, he promoted, by his exertions and pecuniary as- sistance, the publication of the gospels into the Malayaline language; and, on the 14th of March, 1808, he sailed from Point de Galle to England. In the month of August, 1808, he arrived in England, and visited Scotland and Bristol; and, at the latter place, on February 26th, 1809, he preach- ed his celebrated sermon for the Church of England Mis- sionary Society, entitled “The Star in the East.” He af. terwards visited Oxford and Cambridge; presented orien- tal manuscripts to the latter university, and received, from that university, the degree of doctor in divinity. For some time he was then engaged to preach at Welbeck chapel, London, where he labored with great advantage ; and in November, 1809, was married to the daughter of Henry Thompson, Esq. of Kirby Hall, Yorkshire. He afterwards retired to that county; undertook the charge of the parish of Ouseburn; and labored, in season, and out of season, for the salvation of his parishioners. On the 12th of June, he preached the annual sermon before the Church Mis- sionary Society. On the 1st of July, he preached two commencement sermons before the university of Cam- bridge, for which he received the thanks of many eminent men, and prepared them, at the request of the university, for publication. Those sermons were published with his celebrated “Christian Researches in Asia.” Of the latter work, no praise can be excessive. In 1811, Buchanan was again greatly indisposed by a paralytic attack. He pro- posed, however, to visit Palestine, and announced his de- termination. In the month of May he visited Buxton, and preached a sermon, which he afterwards published, on “The Healing Waters of Bethesda.” In the autumn, he again visited Scotland, and returned through Ireland; but, on his journey, he once more experienced a severe para- lytic affection. . Notwithstanding the shock, his mind was uninjured; and he published, in the Christian Observer, in 1812, “A Defence of the Syrian Christians from the Charges of some Danish Missionaries in India;” and con- tinued his exertions, to supply the Syrian Christians with a translation of the Scriptures. In 1812, he once more di- rected his attention to the organization of a more exten- sive ecclesiastical establishment for British India. The time approached for the renewal of the charter of the East India Company; and the friends of religion, in England, availed themselves of it, for the purpose of obtaining from the company the recognition of more liberal principles; and Buchanan prepared, for the consideration of the Eng. lish government, a sketch of an ecclesiastical establish- ment for British India. During the concluding period of the life of Dr. Buchanan, he was actively engaged in the proceedings in parliament, on the subject of promoting Christianity in India. He published a work, entitled “Colonial Ecclesiastical Establishment;” and another, “Apology for promoting Christianity in India.” The re. sult of his efforts was highly serviceable to the cause of Christianity in India; and the house of commons deter- mined to adopt a line of proceeding, which all wise and good men desired. He finally settled at Broxbourne, in Hertfordshire, for the purpose of superintending a new edition of the Syriac New Testament. The health of Dr. Buchanan now gradually declined; yet he continued his exertions for the cause of God and truth, till, on February the 9th, 1815, after a paralytic seizure, and an illness of a few days, his labors terminated in death. He was inter- red at Little Ouseburn, in Yorkshire; and over his tomb was placed a plain but expressive monumental inscription. See his Life, written by the Rev. Hugh Pearson, M. A. of St. John's college, Oxford.—Jones' Christ, Biog. BUCHANITES; a sect of enthusiasts who sprang up at Irvine, in the west of Scotland, about the year 1783. Mr. White, the minister of a relief congregation in that- town, having been invited to preach in the neighborhood of Glasgow, a female named Elizabeth Buchan, the wife of a painter, was captivated with his eloquence, and, wri- ting to him, announced that he was the first that had spo- ken to her heart, and requested permission to pay him a visit at Irvine, that the work of her conversion might be perfected. On her arrival, she was joyfully received by the members of the congregation; engaged without intermission in religious exercises; went from house to house; conducted family worship; answered questions, resolved doubts, explained the Scriptures, and testified that the end of the world was at hand, and that it was the duty of every Christian to abandon the concerns of time, and prepare for the reception of Christ. Mr. White, favoring her and her views, was complained of to the presbytery, by which he was deposed from his ministry. Thus a dis- tinct party was formed, the meetings of , which were commonly held at night, and on these occasions the new prophetess indulged in her reveries, styling herself the woman of the twelfth of Revelations, and Mr. White her first-born. Such gross outrage on the common sense of the inhabitants occasioned a popular tumult, to save her from whose fury the magistrate sent her under escort to some distance; after which, with her clerical friend and about forty deluded followers, she wandered up and down the country, singing, and avowing that they were travellers for the New Jerusalem, and the expectants of the imme- diate coming of Christ. They had a common fund on which they lived, and did not consider it necessary to work, as they believed God would not suffer them to want. Mrs. Buchan died in 1792, and the sect soon after broke up.– Henderson’s Buck. BUCKMINSTER, (Joseph, D. D.) minister of Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, was born October 14, 1751. Be- ing the delight and hope of his parents, they were desirous that he should become a minister of the gospel. He was graduated at Yale college in 1770, and from 1774 to 1778, was tutor in that seminary. At this period he became temporarily attached to a lady, then of reputation and celebrity, whose character is the basis of oue of the produc. tions of Mrs. Foster. He was ordained over the north church in Portsmouth, January 27, 1779, as successor of Dr. Langdon, after whose death Dr. Stiles had supplied the pulpit one or two years. After a ministry of thirty- three years, he died, June 10, 1812. Dr. Buckminster was an eminently pious man. He left an unsullied reputation, and was greatly beloved and deeply lamented. His mind had been well cultivated. A brilliant imagination, his most distinguishing faculty, gave a richness to his style. He had a heart of sensibility. His voice, strong and musical, expressed the various emo- tions of his soul. His' attitude and gestures were unaſ. fected and impressive, while his countenance itself was eloquent. But his popularity as a preacher is to be as- cribed also to the boldness and the energy, with which he proclaimed the great and all-important truths of the gos- pel. In his preaching, he dwelt much on the iniquity of the human heart, on the character and value of the atone. ment by the crucified Son of God, and on the necessity of regeneration by the Holy Spirit, of ſaith and repentance, and the holiness, without which there is no admission into B U C B.U D [ 279 j . heaven. In his own opinion, he began to preach before he was truly a servant of God; and afterwards he ceased to preach for a time, in the persuasion that his motives were selfish and unworthy. But after a long period of distress, light broke in upon his mind. A few years after his settlement, on the anniversary of his ordination, he wrote as follows:–% Blush, O my soul, and be ashamed, that thou hast felt no more of thy own worth, and the worth of thy fellow immortals, the infinite love and com- passion of God, of thy dear Redeemer, and the excellency of the gospel. Shall God call me, who have been so great and aggravated an offender, to the high and honorable office of publishing the glad tidings of salvation, and of an ambassador for him, to woo and beseech men to be re- conciled to him; and shall I be lukewarm and indifferent?” But notwithstanding the talents, the piety, the faithfulness, and the ſervent zeal of Dr. Buckminster, no very remark- able effects attended his preaching; showing, that, after all the skilful and diligent toil of the planter, it is God only, who according to his sovereign pleasure giveth the increase. On account of his catholic disposition, Dr. Buck- minster possessed the regard of other denominations of Christians besides his own. In the private relations of life, he was faithful, affectionate, and interesting.—Panoplist, viii. 105–111 ; Adams's Ann. of Portsm. 353–355; Par- ker's Fun. Serm. ; Farmer's Coll. iii. 121 ; Allen. BUCKMINSTER, (Joseph S.,) a celebrated minister of Boston, was the son of the preceding, and was born May 26, 1784. Under the cultivation of his devoted parents, his talents were early developed. At the age of four years, he began to study the Latin grammar; at the age of twelve, he was ready for admission into college. He gra- duated at Harvard with distinguished honor in 1800. The next four years were spent partly in the family of his re- lative, Theodore Lyman, of Waltham, partly as an assis- tant in the academy at Exeter, and in the prosecution of theological studies. In October, 1804, he began to preach at Brattle street, Boston, where he was ordained as the successor of Dr. Thacher, January 30, 1805. A severe ill- ness immediately followed, which interrupted his labors un- til March. In the course of this year, the return of the epi- lepsy, which he had previously experienced, excited his ap- rehensions, that his mental faculties would be destroyed. He wrote in October—“The repetition of these fits must at length reduce me to idiocy. Can I resign myself to the loss of memory, and of that knowledge, I may have vain- ly prided myself upon 3 O God! enable me to bear this thought.” A voyage to Europe being recommended, he sailed in May, 1806, and visited England, Holland, Swit. zerland, and France. In Paris he spent five months; and there, and in London, he collected a valuable library of nearly three thousand volumes. After his return in Sep- tember, 1807, he was occupied in the ministry about five years, with occasional attacks of the epilepsy, till his death, caused by that disorder, June 9, 1812, aged twenty-eight €3.1 S. - y Mr. Buckminster was a very interesting and eloquent preacher. Though of Scarcely the middle size, yet a fine countenance, combining sweetness and intelligence, ap- propriate and occasionally animated gestures, a brilliant imagination, and a style of winning elegance, caused his hearers to hang with delight upon his lips. Deeply inte- rested in biblical criticism, he superintended the publica- tion of Griesbach's New Testament, and in 1812 was ap- pointed the first professor at Cambridge on the Dexter foundation. In his religious sentiments, as appears from the two volumes of his sermons, published since his death, he differed in some important respects from his father. His literary taste and associations appear to have unfor- tunately beguiled his noble mind from the simplicity of the gospel, and betrayed him into an indefinite and lax theology. Deeply as this is to be regretted, and radically de- ſective as his sermons are in this respect, yet in others they cannot be read without admiration and profit by the evan- gelical believer. His views seem not to have sunk to the low standard of the Socinians, for he speaks of “the incarnation” of the Son of God, “the vicegerent of Jeho- vah,” and he saw in his life a “wonderful contrast of pow- ers—divine greatness and mortal debility, ignominy and glory, suffering and triumph, the servant of all and the Lord of all.”—Memoir; Mass. Hist. Col. s. s. ii. 271; Christian *g v. 145; Allen. - BUCKLER. See ARMs, MILITARY. º BUDHISM, or Boophism. This religion is spread ove the Burman empire, Siam, Ceylon, Japan, Cochin China, and the greater part of China Proper. It has been con- tended, that it was also the ancient religion of Hindostan itself, and that the P. brahminical superstitions were the invention of later times. It is indeed probable, that all the idolatrous systems of religion, which have ever existed in the world, have had a common origin, and have been modified by the different fancies and corrup- tions of different nations. The essence of idolatry is eve- ry where the same. It is every where “abominable” in its principles and its rites, and every where the cause of indescribable and manifold wretchedenss. It is asserted by Mr. Ward, that two of the six schools of philosophy which once flourished among the Hindoos, taught the same atheistical principles as the disciples of Boodh now maintain ; and it is indisputable, that these two sects were numerous before the appearance of Boodh. This personage is said, in Burman books, to have been a son of the king of Benares, and to have been born about the year 600 before Christ. He is supposed to have adopt- ed the atheistical system of these sects, and his principles were espoused and maintained by the successive mo- marchs of his family, who are charged by the brahmins with the crime of destroying their religion, and substitu- ting atheism. At length, however, the brahmins obtained the ascendency, and arming themselves with the civil power, they so effectually purified Hindostan from the of. fensive heresy, that scarcely a vestige of the Boodhist su- perstition is now to be traced in that country. It found a refuge in Ceylon, and neighboring regions; and the most learned Burmans assert, that it was introduced into that empire, about four hundred and fifty years after the death of Boodh, or (as he is more commonly called) Gaudama. The Boodhists believe, that, like the Hindoo Vishnu, Boodh has had ten incarnations, which are described in the Jatus, amounting, it is said, to five hundred and fifty books. The following summary statement of the princi- ples of Boodhism is copied from the valuable work of Mr. Ward on the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindoos : “The Boodhists do not believe in a First Cause; they consider matter, as eternal; that every portion of ani- mated existence has in itself its own rise, tendency and des- tiny; that the condition of creatures on earth is regula- ted by works of merit and demerit: that works of merit not only raise individuals to happiness, but as they pre- vail, raise the world itself to prosperity; while on the other hand, when vice is predominant, the world degene- rates till the universe itself is dissolved. They suppose, however, that there is always some superior deity, who has attained to this elevation by religious merit; but they do not regard him as the governor of the world. To the present grand period, comprehending all the time in- cluded in a kulpu, they assign five deities, four of whom have already, appeared, including Gaudama or Boodh, whose exaltation continues five thousand years, two thou. sand three hundred and fifty-six of which had expired A. D. 1814. After the expiration of the five thousand years, another saint will obtain the ascendency, and be deified. Six hundred millions of Saints are said to be canonized with each deity, though it is admitted that Boodh took only twenty-four thousand devotees to heaven with him, “The lowest state of existence is in hell; the next, is that in the forms of brutes: both these are states of pun ishment. The next ascent is to that of man, which is probationary. The next includes many degrees of honor and happiness, up to demi-gods, &c. which are states of reward for works of merit. The ascent to superior deity is from the state of man. “The Boodhists are taught, that there are four superior heavens, which are not destroyed at the end of a kulpus that below these, there are twelve other heavens, followed by six inferior heavens; after which follows the earth, then the world of snakes, and then thirty-two chief hells; to which are to be added, one hundred and twenty hells of milder torments, * B U D B U E [ 280 | * The highest state of glory is absorption. The person who is unchangeable in his resolution, who has obtained a knowledge of things past, present, and to come, through one kulpu, who can make himself invisible, go where he pleases, and who has attained to complete abstraction, will enjoy absorption. . “The Hindoo idea of absorption is, that the soul is re- ceived into the divine essence; but as the Boodhists reject the doctrine of a separate Supreme Spirit, it is difficult to say what are their ideas of absorption. Dr. Buchanan says, (A. Researches, vol. vi. p. 180,) Nigban ‘implies, (that is, among the Burmans,) exemption from all the miseries incident to humanity, but by no means annihi- lation.’ “Those who perform works of merit, are admitted to the heavens of the different gods, or are made kings or great men on earth; and those who are wicked, are born in the forms of different animals, or consigned to different hells. The happiness of these heavens is wholly sensual. “The Boodhists believe, that at the end of a kulpu, the universe is destroyed. To convey some idea of the extent of this period, the illiterate Cingalese use this comparison; if a man were to ascend a mountain mine miles high, and to renew these journeys once in every hundred years, till the mountain were worn down by his feet to an atom, the time required to do this, would be nothing to the fourth part of a kulpu. “Boodh, before his exaltation, taught his followers, that after his ascent, the remains of his body, his doctrine, or an assembly of his disciples, were to be held in equal re- verence with himself. When aſ Cingalese, therefore, ap- proaches an image of Boodh, he says, “I take refuge in Boodh ; I take refuge in his doctrine; I take refuge in his followers.” - “There are five commands delivered to the common Boodhists: the first forbids the destruction of animal life; the second ſorbids theft; the third, adultery; the fourth, falsehood; the fifth, the use of spirituous liquors. There are other commands for the superior classes, or devotees, which forbid dancing, Songs, music, festivals, perfumes, elegant dresses, elevated seats, &c. Among works of the highest merit, one is the feeding of a hungry, infirm tiger with a person’s own flesh. “The temples erected in honor of Boodh, in the Burman empire, are of various sizes and forms, as quadrangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, heptagonal, or octagonal. Those of a round spiral form can be erected only by the king, or by persons high in office. An elevated spot is preferred for the erection of these edifices; but where such an eleva- tion cannot be ſound, the building is erected upon the se- cond, third, fourth, fifth and sixth terrace. “When the author asked a Boodhist, why, since the object of their worship was neither creator nor preserver, they honored him as God, he was answered, that it was an act of homage to exalted merit. “The priests worship at the temples daily, or ought to do so. The worship consists in presenting flowers, in- cense, rice, betel-nuts, &c., repeating certain prayers. The priest cleanses the temple, preserves the lights, and receives the offerings. A worshipper may present his own offerings, if he is acquainted with the formulas. commands are repeated by a priest twice a day to the peo- ple, who stand up and repeat them after him. “Boodh, as seen in many temples, appears seated upon a throne placed on elephants, or encircled by a hydra, or in the habit of a king, accompanied by his attendants. In most of the modern images, however, he is represented in a sitting posture, with his legs folded, his right hand rest- ing upon his right thigh, and his left upon his lap : a yel- low cloth is cast over his left shoulder, which envelopes his right arm. His hair is generally in a curling state, like that of an African ; his ears are long, as though dis- tended by heavy ear-rings. The image is generally placed in the centre of the temple, under a small arch prepared for the purpose, or under a small porch of wood, neatly gilded. Images of celestial attendants, male and female, are frequently placed in front of the image. “It appears evident from their writings, that the ancient religion of the Burmans consisted principally in religious austerities. The five When a person becomes initiated into the priesthood, he immediately renounces the secular state, lives on alms, and abstains from food after the sun has passed the meridian. The ancient writings of the Bur- mans mention an order of female priests; but it is likely that these were only female mendicants. - “Priests are forbidden to marry; they are to live by mendicity; are to possess only three garments, a begging dish, a girdle, a razor, a needle, and a cloth to strain the water which they drink, that they may not devour insects. “The priests reside in houses which are built and of. fered to them as works of merit. There are numerous colleges, which are built in the style of a palace, by per- sons of wealth, and in which boys are taught. “The priests are the school-masters, and teach gratui- tously as a work of merit, the children being maintained at home by their parents. If a priest finds a pupil to be of quick parts, he persuades the parents to make him a priest; but if a boy wishes to embrace a secular life after º has been some time in the college, he is at liberty to O SO. * - - “The Burman feasts are held at the full and change of the moon. At these times, all public business is suspend- ed; the people pay their homage to Gaudama, at the tem- ples, presenting to the image rice, fruits, flowers, candles, &c. Aged people often fast during the whole day. Some visit the colleges, and hear the priests read portions of the Boodhist writings. “According to the religion of Boodh, there are no dis- tinctions of cast. The Burmans burn their dead with many ceremonies, especially the bodies of the priests.” (Ward's View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindoos, vol. ii. pp. 387–393.) '' The religion of Boodh, then, is, in effect, atheism; and the highest reward of piety, the object of earnest desire and unwearied pursuit, is annihilation. How wretched a sys; tem is this; how devoid of adequate motives to virtue; and how vacant of consolation O how must every humane heart, and much more every Christian, desire, that the pure and glorious gospel may shed its light upon this gross darkness.-Knon-les's 1Memoir of Mrs. Judson. BUDSO ; a form of idolatrous worship, introduced into Japan, from China and Siam. Its author is supposed to have been Budha, whom the Indian brahmins conceive to be their god Vishnu, who, they say, made his ninth appear- ance in the world, under the form of a man so named.— JVilliams. --- . BUDNAEANS ; a sect in Poland, who disclaimed the worship of Christ, and ran into many wild hypotheses. Budnaeus, the founder, was publicly excommunicated in 1584, with all his disciples; but afterwards he was admit- ted to the communion of the Socinians.—Henderson's Buck. BUELL, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) an eminent Presbyterian minister on Long island, was born at Coventry, in Con- necticut, September 1, 1716. In the seventeenth year of his age, it pleased his merciful Father in heaven to renew his heart, and teach him those truths which are necessary to salvation. He was graduated at Yale college in 1741. While in this seminary, his application to his studies was intense, and his proficiency was such as rewarded his toils. It was here that he first became acquainted with David Brainerd, with whom he was very intimate till death separated them. Their friendship was the union of hearts, attached to the same Redeemer, having the same exalted views, and animated by the same spirit. - It was his intention to spend a number of years with Mr. Edwards, of Northampton, in theological studies; but the extensive revival of religion at this period rendering the zealous preaching of the truth peculiarly important, he immediately commenced those benevolent labors, which occupied and delighted him through the remainder of his life. After being licensed, he preached about two years in different parts of New England; and such was the pathos and energy of his manner, that almost every assembly was melted into tears. In November, 1743, he was or- dained as an itinerant preacher, in which capacity he was indefatigable and very successful. He was the instrument of doing much good, of impressing the thoughtless, of re- forming the vicious, and of imparting to the selfish and worldly the genuine principles of benevolence and godli- mess, Carrying with him testimonials from respectable i \; tº 2. º, - 22. . . " % º | º, % % % % - % § º % % - º * * B U G B U L [ 281 ministers, he was admitted into many pulpits, from which other itinerants were excluded. While he disapproved of the imprudence of some in those days, when religious truth was brought home remarkably to the heart, he no less reprehended the unreasonable opposition of others to the work of God. During this period, his health was much impaired, and a severe fit of sickness brought him to the very entrance of the grave; but it pleased God, who holds the lives of all in his hand, to restore his health and pro- long his useſulness for many years. He was led to East Hampton, on Long island, by a di- rection of Providence in some respects extraordinary, and was installed pastor of the church in that place, Sept. 19, 1746. For a number of the first years of his ministry, he seemed to labor without effect. His people paid but little attention to the concerns of religion. But in 1764, he wit- nessed an astonishing change. Almost every individual in the town was deeply impressed, and the interests of eternity received that attention, which their transcendent importance demands. He had the happiness at one time of admitting into his church ninety-nine persons, who, he believed, had been renewed, and enlightened with correct views of the gospel, and inspired with benevolent princi- ples of conduct. In the years 1785 and 1791, also, he was favored, through the influence of the Holy Spirit on the hearts of his hearers, with great success. After a life of eminent usefulness he died, July 19, 1798, aged eighty- Oſle. Dr. Buell presents a remarkable instance of disinterested exertion for the good of others. He was an example of all the Christian virtues. He was attached to literature and science, and was the father and patron of Clinton academy, in East Hampton. His house was the mansion of hospitality. Possessing a large fund of instructive and en- tertaining anecdote, his company was pleasing to persons of every age. In no respect was he more distinguished, than for a spirit of devotion. In his last hours, his mind was in perfect peace. He had no desire to remain any longer ab- sent from his Savior. He observed, as the hour of his de- pārture approached, that he felt all his earthly connections to be dissolved. The world, into which he was just enter- ing, absorbed all his thoughts; so that he was unwilling to suffer any interruption of his most cheering contempla- tions from the last attention of his friends. While they were endeavoring to prolong the dying flame, he would put them aside with one hand, while the other was raised towards heaven, where his eyes and soul were fixed. In this happy state of mind he expired. He published a narrative of the revival of religion among his people in 1764, and fourteen occasional dis- courses, which evince the vigor of his mind and the ardor of his piety.—Con. Evan. Mag. ii. 147–151, 179–182; Daggett's Fun. Serm. ; Allen. f FFIER, (CLAUDE,) a jesuit, was born in Poland, of French parents, in 1661, and studied at the college of Rou- en, where he afterwards held the situation of theological professor. He died in 1737. Buffier was employed in the Memoires de Trevoux, and likewise produced a great number of theological, metaphysical, biographical, and geographical works. Several of them were collected in a folio volume, with the title of a Course of Sciences on new and simple Principles. Though sometimes superficial, he is, on the whole, an elegant and instructive writer.—Da- venport. BUGENHAGIUS, (John,) one of the reformers of the sixteenth century, distinguished not more for his talents than for his meekness and humility, was born at Julia, in Pomerania, in 1485. His education was liberal, and his proficiency so great that at the age of twenty he opened a school at Treptow, which he taught with great reputation. Here he received so much light from Erasmus' Lucubra- tions, that he began to lecture publicly on the Scriptures. He was soon called from his school to the church, and his reaching was attended by multitudes of all ranks. Prince ogislaus also employed him in writing a history of Pome- rania. In 1520, Luther's book on the “Babylonish Cap- tivity” was put into his hands. Having looked over a few leaves, as he sat at dinner with his colleagues, he said, “there never was a more pestilent heretic than the author of that book.” But a few days after, having read it with great diligence and attention, his mind was changed, and he made this recantation before them all: “What shall I say of Luther? All the world hath been blind and in Cimmerian darkness; only this one man has found out the truth.” It was not long before most of his colleagues were led to form a similar judgment. The new views of Bugenhagius respecting the law, and gospel, justification by faith, &c. being publicly preached with great success, the Catholic º was enraged, and stirred up a persecu- tion. Upon this, Bugenhagius went to Wittemburg, and formed a personal acquaintance with Luther, in 1521. Here he was soon chosen pastor of the church, in which he labored with much inward happiness through many changes of affairs for thirty years; never leaving the flock over nihich the Holy Ghost had made him overseer, neither be- cause of the dangers of war or of pestilence; preferring the very homely fare among the people where God had made him useful, to the proffered riches and preferment, both of his own prince and of the king of Denmark. He assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible. He also assisted greatly in reforming the churches in Brunswick, Hildesheim, and Denmark; and finished his devoted and useful life, by a peaceful death, April 20, 1558, in the seventy-third year of his age.—Middleton's Evan. Biog. BUILD. Besides the proper and literal signification of this word, it is used with reference to children and a nu- merous posterity. Sarah desires Abraham to take Hagar to wife, that by her she may be builded up, that is, have children to uphold her family. Gen. 16: 2. The midwives who refused obedience to Pharaoh’s orders, when he com- manded them to put to death all the male children of the Hebrews, were rewarded for it; God built them houses, that is, he gave them a numerous posterity. The prophet Nathan tells David that God would build his house; that is, give him children and successors. 2 Sam. 7:27. Mo- ses, speaking of the formation of the first woman, says, God built her with the rib of Adam. Gen. 2: 22.— Watson. BUL ; the eighth month of the ecclesiastical year of the Jews, and the second month of the civil year. It answers to October, and consists of twenty-nine days. On the sixth day of this month the Jews fasted, because on that day Nebuchadnezzar put to death the children of Zedekiah in the presence of their unhappy father, whose eyes, after they had been witnesses of this sad spectacle, he ordered to be put out. 2 Kings 25: 7. We find the name of this month mentioned in Scripture but once. 1 Kings 6: 38.— Watson. BULKLEY, (PETER,) first minister of Concord, Massa- chusetts, was born at Woodhill in Bedfordshire, England, January 31, 1583. He was educated at St. John’s, in Cambridge, and was fellow of the college. He had a gen- tleman's estate left him by his father, Dr. Edward Bulkley, of Woodhill, whom he succeeded in the ministry. For twenty-one years he continued his faithful labors without interruption; but at length, being silenced for non-confor- mity to some of the ceremonies of the English church, he came to New England in 1635, that he might enjoy liberty of conscience. After residing some time at Cambridge, he began the settlement of Concord in 1636, with a num- ber of planters who had accompanied him from England. He formed, July 5, 1636, the twelfth church which had been established in the colony, and in 1637 was constituted its teacher, and John Jones its pastor. He died in this town, March 9, 1659, aged seventy-six. His first wife was a daughter of Thomas Allen, of Goldington; his second, a daughter of Sir Richard Chitwood. By these he had fourteen children, three of whom were educated for the ministry. Edward, who succeeded him about 1659, died at Chelmsford, January 2, 1696, and was buried at Con- cord : his son Peter, a graduate of 1660, was agent in England in 1676; was speaker of the house and assistant from 1677 to 1684; and died, May 24, 1688. Mr. Bulkley was remarkable for his benevolence. He expended a large estate by giving farms to his servants, whom he employed in husbandry. It was his custom when a servant had lived with him a certain number of years, to dismiss him, giving him a piece of land for a farm, and to take another in his place. He was familiar and pleasant in his manners, though while subject to bodi- ly pains he was somewhat irritable, and in preaching was 36 B U L B U I, [ 282 ) at times considered as severe. So strict was his own vir- tue, that he could not spare some follies, which were thought too inconsiderable to be noticed. In consequence of his pressing importunately some charitable work, contrary to the wishes of the ruling elder, an unhappy division was produced in the church; but it was healed by the advice of a council, and the abdication of the elder. By means of this troublesome affair, Mr. Bulkley said he knew more of God, more of himself, and more of men. He was an excellent scholar, and was distinguished for the holiness of his life and his diligent attention to the duties of the ministry. He gave a considerable part of his library to Harvard college. He published a work entitled, the Gospel Covenant, or the Covenant of Grace opened, &c. London, 1646, 4to. pp. 383. This book was so much esteemed, that it passed through several editions. Mr. Bulkley also wrote Latin poetry, some specimens of which are preserved by Dr. Mather in his history of New England.— Mather's Magn. iii. 96, 98; Neal, i. 321; Non-conform. Memor. last ed. ii. 200; Holmes, i. 314; Coll. Hist. Soc. x. 168; Ripley's Ded. Serm. ; Allen. BULL; the name applied to the males of all the species of the ox. (Bos, Lat.) See Ox. ...” DULL, PAPAL ; a written letter despatched by order of the pope, from the Roman chancery, and sealed with lead. It is a kind of apostolical rescript, or edict, and is chiefly in use in matters of justice or grace. If the former be the intention of the bull, the lead is hung by a hempen cord; if the latter, by a silken thread. It is this pendant lead, or seal, which is, properly speaking, the bull, and which is impressed on one side with the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, and on the other with the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The bull is written in an old round Gothic letter, and is divided into five parts; the nar- rative of the fact; the conception; the clause; the date; and the salutation, in which the pope styles himself Servus Servorum, the servant of servants. These instruments, be- sides the lead hanging to them, have a cross, with some text of Scripture, or religious motto, about it. Thus, in those of pope Lucius III., the device was, Adjuva nos, Deus Salutaris noster; that of Urban III., Ad te, Domine, levavi animam mean ; and that of Alexander III., Vias tuas, Do- amine, demonstra mihi. Bulls are granted for the consecration of bishops, the promotion to benefices, the celebration of jubilees, &c. Those brought into France are limited by the laws and customs of the land; nor are they admitted till they have been examined, and found to contain nothing contrary to the liberties of the Gallican church. After the death of a pope, no bulls are despatched during the vacancy of the see. Therefore, to prevent any abuses, as soon as the pope is dead, the vice-chancellor of the Roman church takes the seal off the bulls, and, in the presence of several persons, orders the name of the deceased pontiff to be erased, and covers the other side, on which are the faces of St. Peter and St. Paul, with a linen cloth, sealing it with his own seal. The word bull is derived from bullare, to seal letters; or from bulla, a drop or bubble. Some derive it from the Greek boule, council: Pezron from the Celtic buil, bubble. BULL IN coeNA DOMINI is a particular bull, read every year on the day of the Lord’s Supper, or Maunday Thursday, in the pope's presence; containing excommunications and anathemas against heretics, and all who disturb or oppose the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the holy sec. After the read- ing of the bull, the pope throws a burning torch into the pub- lic place to demote the thunder of this amathema. The coun- cil of Tours, in 1510, declared the hull in cºrna Domini void in regard to France.—IIend. Duck. BULL, (GEORGE 5) an eminent prelate and theologian, born at the city of Wells, in 1644, was educated at Tiverton and Oxford, and was ordained at the age of twenty-one. Having passed through the minor dignifies of the church, he was made bishop of St. David's, in 1705, and died in 1709. His Harmonia Apostolica was published in 1669; his main work, Defensio Fidei Nicenae, appeared in 1685; and his Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicum, in 1694. For the latter production he received the thanks of Bossuet and various French divines. He likewise produced other pieces of less note, and many sermons *. With the increase of his revenue, his charity and hospi- tality increased even in greater proportion, so that they frequently exceeded his means. The mean idea of ma- king his fortune by church preferment never entered his mind; but, after securing a very slender provision for his family, for whom he esteemed God’s blessing the best in- heritance, he devoted the remainder to the relief of the ne- cessitous poor, about sixty of whom, every Sunday, either were supplied with meat or received money, at his charge. Widows and orphans were much indebted to his liberality, and he often lightened the sufferings of the prisoner by his timely bounty. On perceiving his dissolution to be approaching, and observing that his medical attendant was reluctant to express his opinion of him, he thus ad- dressed him : “Doctor, you need not be afraid to tell me freely what your opinion of me is; for I thank my good God that I am not afraid to die. It is what I have expected long ago, and I hope I am not unprepared for it now.” He spent his last hours in exhorting all around him to de- vote their lives to the service of God; urging upon them the importance of religion, and the vanity of all earthly things. He was a profoundly learned and pious man, and most exemplary in his conduct. In his opinions he was rather inclined to Arminianism; but he was accounted one of the ablest advocates for the doctrine of the Trinity, of the time in which he lived.—Davenport; Jones's Christ. Diog. BULLINGER, (HENRY ;) one of the early reformers, was born in the canton of Zurich, at Baumgarten, in 1504. The works of Melancthon converted him to Protestantism, and he became closely connected with Zuingle, to whom he succeeded as pastor of Zurich. He was one of the au- thors of the Helvetic confession, and assisted Calvin in drawing up the formulary of 1549. Bullinger was a mo- derate and conscientious man; and it is much to his honor that, on the ground of its being inconsistent with Chris- tianity for any one to hire himself out to slaughter those who had never injured him, he successfully opposed a treaty for supplying France with a body of Swiss merce- naries. He died in 1575. His printed works form ten folio volumes.—Davenport ; Middleton. BULRUSH ; gimah. Exodus 2: 3.; Job 8: 11. ; Isaiah 18; 2. 35: 7. A plant growing on the banks of the Nile, and in marshy grounds. The stalk rises to the height of six or seven cubits, besides two under water. The stalk is triangular, and terminates in a crown of small filaments resembling hair, which the ancients used to compare to a thyrsus. This reed, the Cyperus-papyrus of Linnaeus, com- monly called “the Egyptian reed,” was of the greatest use to the inhabitants of the country where it grew ; the pith contained in the stock served them for food, and the woody part for building vessels, figures of which are to be seen on the engraven stones and other monuments of Egyptian antiquity. For this purpose they made it up, like rushes, into bundles; and, by tying these bundles to: gether, gave their vessels the necessary shape and solidity. “The vessels of bulrushes,” or papyrus, “ that are men. tioned in sacred and profane history,” says Dr. Shaw, “were no other than large fabrics of the same kind with that of Moses, (Exodus 2: 3.;) which, from the late intro- duction of plank and stronger materials, are now laid aside.” Thus Pliny takes notice of the “naves papyraceas armamentaque Nili,” “ships made of papyrus, and the equipments of the Nile;” and he observes, “ex ipsſ, qui- dem papyro navigia texunt,” “of the papyrus itself they con- struct sailing vessels.” Herodotus and Diodorus have re- corded the same fact; and among the poets, Lucan, “Con- seritur bibulê Memphitis cymba papyro,” “the Memphian” or Jºgyptian “boat is made of the thirsty papyrus;” where the epithet bibulá, “drinking,” “soaking,” “ thirsty,” is particularly remarkable, as corresponding with great ex- actness to the nature of the plant, and to its Hebrew name which signifies to soak or drink up. These vegetables re- quire much water for their growth; when, therefore, the river on whose banks they grew was reduced, they perish- ed sooner than other plants. This explains Job 8: 11. where the circumstance is referred to as an image of tran- sient prosperity : “Can the flag grow without water ? Whilst it is yet in its greenness, and not cut down, it with. ereth before any other herb.”—TWatson, B U N B U R. [ 283 J |BUN YAN, (John,) the author of the Pilgrim's Progress, an admirable allegory, which enjoys an unexampled but deserved popularity, was of humble birth, being the son . *. of a travelling tinker, and was born, in 1628, at Elstow, in Bedfordshire. For some time he followed his father's occupation, and led a wandering, dissipated life, after which he served in the parliament army, and was at the siege of Deicester, where, being drawn out to stand sentinel, an- other soldier of his company desiring to take his place, he consented, and thereby, probably, avoided being shot through the head, by a musket ball, which killed his com- rade. It is impossible, when reading the account of the first twenty years of his life, as recorded in his “Grace Abounding,” not to be forcibly impressed with the truth of the doctrine, now generally received by all Christians, of the special Providence of God. His preservation from drowning, from destruction by an adder, by a musket shot, and from death by various ways, demonstrate that doc- trine to be unquestionably true ; and the facts which he has communicated, as to his conversion, additionally con- firm the veracity of that doctrine. For although some al- Jowances are to be made for his enthusiasm, and, there- fore, for the language which he frequently adopted, yet, the facts which he records are unquestionably true; and, if they be true, the inference appears to be obvious. It appears, however, that he still continued unacquaint- ed with the sinfulness of his nature, and the necessity of faith in Christ, till he met with four poor women, at Bed- ford, “sitting at a door, in the sun, talking about the things of God—about a new birth—about the work of God in their hearts, as also how they were convinced of their miserable state by nature—of the mercy of God in Jesus Christ—of his word and promises—of the temptations of Satan—and of their wretchedness of heart and unbelief.” Bunyan was so affected with the conversation of these good women, that he availed himself of every opportunity to converse with them. His irreligious companions perceiv- ed a difference in him, which was to them offensive; and being unable to disturb in him that steady purpose of his mind, to seek ſor happiness in God alone, they resigned his society. As soon ass Mr. Bunyan obtained a good hope, that he was interested in the salvation of Jesus Christ, he communicated the state of his mind to Mr. Gif- ford, a Baptist dissenting minister, residing at Bedford; attended his preaching, and obtained from it much advan- tage; and, believing that baptism, by immersion, on a personal profession of faith, was most scriptural, he was so baptized, and admitted a member of the church, A. D. j653. In 1656, Mr. Bunyan, conceiving that he was called, by God, to become a preacher of the Gospel, delayed not to comply with that call. The measure excited considerable notice, and exposed him to great persecution. Subsequent to the restoration, his preaching brought him within the gripe of the law, and he was for nearly thirteen years im- mured in Bedford jail, where he supported himself and his family by tagging laces. His leisure hours were spent in writing the Pilgrim's Progress, and other works, similar in kind, but inferior in merit. He was at last released, through the interposition of Dr. Owen and bishop Barlow, of Lincoln, and he resumed his ministry at Bedford. Af. ter his enlargement, he travelled into several parts of England, to visit the dissenting congregations, which pro- cured him the epithet of bishop Bunyan. In king James the Second's reign, when that prince's declaration, in favor of liberty of conscience came, Mr. Bunyan, by the volun- tary contributions of his followers, built a large meeting- house at Bedford, and preached constantly to great con- gregations. He also, annually, visited London, where he was very popular; and assemblies of twelve hundred have been convened in Southwark to hear him, on a dark win- ter's morning, at seven o’clock, even on week days. In the midst of these and similar exertions, he closed his life; and, at the age of sixty, on the 31st of August, 1688, “he resigned his soul into the hands of his most merciful Re- deemer.” He was interred in Bunhill Fields burying-ground, and over his remains a handsome tomb was erected. Of Bun- yan it has been said, and with seeming propriety, “that he appeared in countenance to be of a stern and rough temper, but in his conversation mild and affable; not given to loquacity or much discourse in company, unless Some urgent occasion required it; observing never to boast of himself or his parts, but rather seem low in his own eyes, and submit himself to the judgment of others; abhorring lying and swearing; being just, in all that lay in his pow. er, to his word; not seeming to revenge injuries; loving to reconcile differences, and making friendship with all. He had a sharp quick eye, accompanied with an excellent discerning of persons, being of good judgment and quick Wit.” - - Of the “Pilgrim’s Progress,” but one opinion seems to be entertained. Mr. Grainger said, that the Pilgrim's Progress was one of the most ingenious books in the Eng- lish language; and in this opinion, he states, Mr. Merrick and Dr. Roberts coincided. Dr. Radcliffe termed it “a. phoenix in a cage.” Lord Kaimes said, “it was composed in a style enlivened, like that of Homer; by a proper mix- ture of the dramatic and narrative, and upon that account has been translated into most European languages.” Dr. Johnson remarked, “that it had great merit, both for in- vention, imagination, and the conduct of the story; and it had the best evidence of its merit—the general and con- tinued approbation of mankind. Few books,” he said, “had had a more extensive sale; and that it was remar- kable that it began very much like the poem of Dante, yet there was no translation of Dante when Bunyan wrote.” Dr. Franklin said, “Honest John Bunyan is the first man I know of, who has mingled narrative and dialogue to- gether; a mode of writing very engaging to the reader, who, in the most interesting passages, finds himself ad- mitted, as it were, into the company, and present at the conversation.” Dean Swift declared, that he “had been better entertained and more informed by a chapter in the Pilgrim’s Progress, than by a long discourse upon the will and the intellect, and simple or complex ideas.” And Cowper, (in his “Miscellanies,” vol. i. p. 283,) has immor- talized him in some beautiful lines, which the length of this memoir precludes from being inserted. Still more re- cently, it has been commended in the strongest terms by the London Quarterly, Edinburg, and North American Reviews; and its author is classed with Milton, as one of the only two great original creative geniuses of the seven- teenth century. In addition to his “Pilgrim’s Progress,” he wrote two otherallegorical pieces: “Solomon’s Temple spiritualized,” and “The Holy War;” the latter of which has excited a degree of attention nearly equal to that displayed to his “Pilgrim’s Progress.” His works form two folio volumes. Bunyan had a talent for repartee. A quaker visited him in Bedford jail, and declared that, by order of the Lord, he had sought for him in half the prisons of England. “If the Lord had sent you,” replied Bunyan, “you need not have taken so much trouble to find me out; for the Lord knows that I have been a prisoner in Bedford jail for the last twelve years.” See his own account of himself, entitled “Grace Abound- ing,” &c. His works in folio, and Liſe prefixed; “Wil- son’s History of Dissenting Churches;” “Middleton's Evangelical Biography;” “The Life of Mr. John Bun- yan, by Joseph Ivimey.”—Davenport; Jones' Christ. Biog. BURCHET, (JAMEs Robert, Esq.,), of Doctors’ Com- mons, London, was born 1765, and died 1810, aged forty- ſive, aſter a life of Christian usefulness. In his last ill- ness, he said to a friend, “You and I have spent many happy hours together, and you will maturally be desirous B U R B U R. [ 284 ) of knowing something of the state of my mind; but such is the weakness of my body that I shall not be able to say much. I now feel that if the important concerns of religion had not been attended to before, this is not the time; but blessed be God, Jesus Christ has done all things well; his salvationis complete; and I desire to renounce all my own doings, and to throw myself at his feet as a poor sinner, entirely de- pending upon his atoning blood and righteousness for ac- ceptance with God. You and I have been walking many years together, and devising many plans for the glory of God and the good of souls, and I hope you will long be spared as an instrument to promote his cause; but O, do let me, as a dying man, recommend to you to look well to all your motives. I now see that the best of plans may be formed, and the best works done, without the best motives. You do not know a hundredth part of what has daily and hourly passed in my mind. Ihave nomy such a sense of the inft- nite holiness of God, that if it were not for the promise of his nord, I sometimes think I should be ready to sink in despair. I trust I can say I know in whom I have believed. My mind is very comfortable, my faith is unshaken, the fear of death is taken anay. I long to depart and be with Christ. I would not exchange, for ten thousand worlds, the glory I have in prospect.”—Clissold. BURCKHARDT (John Lewis,) the son of a Swiss colonel, was born at Lausanne, in 1784, and studied at Leipsic and Gottingen. Being of an enterprising disposi- tion, he offered his services to the African Association, to explore Africa. They were accepted; and, after he had acquired Arabic and a knowledge of physic and surgery at Cambridge, he sailed in 1809. In Syria he remained two years and a half, in the character of a mussulman, and learned the spoken Arabic dialects. His first journey included Nubia, the eastern coast of the Red sea, Mecca, and Medina. He reached Cairo in 1815, and was preparing to penetrate to Timbuctoo, when he died of a dysentery. His valuable Travels have been published.—Davenport. BURDEN ; a heavy load. The word is commonly used in the prophets for a disastrous prophecy. The burden of Babylon, the burden of Nineveh, of Moab, of Egypt. The Jews asking Jeremiah captiously, What was the burden of the Lord? he answered them, You are that burden; you are, as it were, insupportable to the Lord ; he will throw you on the ground, and break you to pieces, and you shall become the reproach of the people, Jer. 23: 33–40. The burden of the desert of the sea, (Isa. 21: 1.) is a calamitous prophecy against Babylon, which stood on the Euphrates, and was watered as by a sea; and which, from being great and populous, as it then was, would soon be reduced to a solitude. See BABYLON.—Calmet. BURGH (JAMEs,) the author of the Dignity of Human Nature; Political Disquisitions; and other works of merit; was born, in 1714, at Madderty, in Perthshire, and was educated at St. Andrew’s. After having been a . draper, an assistant at a grammar School, and a corrector in Bowyer's printing office, he opened an academy at Stoke Newington, which he conducted for nineteen years. He died in 1775.—Davenport. BURGHERS, a numerous and respectable class of seceders from the church of Scotland, originally con- nected with the Associate Presbytery; but some difference arising about the lawfulness of the burgess oath, a sepa- ration took place in 1739, and those who refused the oath were called Anti-burghers (which see); but as these sects have been lately happily reunited, it is not now necessary to enter into the merits of the dispute. See SECEDERs.- Williams. - BURGESS (DANIEL,) an able but eccentric dissenting divine, was born, in 1645, at Staines, in Middlesex; was educated at Westminster and Oxford; resided in Ireland, from 1667 to 1674, as chaplain and school-master; was imprisoned, under the act of uniformity, aſter his return to England; became an exceedingly popular minister, for many years, in London; and died in 1713. His piety and learning were alloyed by too much of humor and drollery. In one sermon, he declared, that the reason why the descen- dants of Jacob were named Israelites was, that God would not have his chosen people called Jacobites. In another, he exclaimed, “If you want a cheap suit, you will go to Monmouth street; if a suit for life, you will go to the court of chancery ; but for an eternally durable suit, you must go to the Lord Jesus, and put on his robe of righteous- ness.”—Davenport: . . BURIAL, the interment of a deceased person; an office held so sacred, that they who neglected it have in all nations been held in abhorrence. As soon as the last breath had fled, the nearest relation, or the dearest friend, gave the lifeless body the parting kiss, the last farewell and sign of affection to the departed relative. This was a custom of immemorial antiquity; for the patriarch Jacob had no sooner yielded up his spirit, than his beloved Joseph, claiming for once the right of the first-born, “fell upon his face and kissed him.” It is probable he first closed his eyes, as God had promised he should do: “Joseph shall put his hands upon thine eyes.” The parting kiss being given, the company rent their clothes, which was a custom of great antiquity, and the highest expression of grief in the primitive ages. This ceremony was never omitted by the Hebrews when any mournful event hap- pened, and was performed in the following manner: they took a knife, and holding the blade downwards, gave the upper garment a cut in the right side, and rent it an hand's breadth. For very near relations, all the garments are rent on the right side. After closing the eyes, the next care was to bind up the face, which it was no more lawful to behold. The next care of surviving friends was to wash the body, probably, that the ointments and perfumes with which it was to be wrapped up, might enter more easily into the pores, when opened by warm water. This ablution, which was always esteemed an act of great charity and devotion, was performed by women. Thus the body of Dorcas was washed, and laid in an upper room, till the arrival of the apostle Peter, in the hope that his prayers might restore her to life. Aſter the body was washed, it was shrouded, and swathed with a limen cloth, although, in most places, they only put on a pair of drawers and a white tunic ; and the head was bound about with a napkin. Such were the napkin and grave-clothes in which the Savior was buried. - 2. The body was sometimes embalmed, which was performed by the Egyptians after the following method : the brain was removed with a bent iron, and the vacuity filled up with medicaments; the bowels were also drawn out, and the trunk being stuffed with myrrh, cassia, and other spices, except frankincense, which were proper to exsiccate the humors, it was pickled in nitre, in which it lay for seventy days. After this period, it was wrapped in bandages of fine linen and gums, to make it adhere; and was then delivered to the relations of the deceased entire ; all its features, and the very hairs of the eyelids, being preserved. In this manner were the kings of Judah embalmed for many ages. But when the funeral obse- quies were not long delayed, they used another kind of embalming. They wrapped up the body with sweet spices and odors, without extracting the brain, or removing the bowels. This is the way in which it was proposed to embalm the lifeless body of our Savior, which was pre- vented by his resurrection. The meaner sort of people seem to have been interred in their grave-clothes, without a coffin. In this manner was the sacred body of our Lord committed to the tomb. The body was sometimes placed upon a bier, which bore some resemblance to a coffin or bed, in order to be carried out to burial. Upon one of these was carried forth the widow's son of Nain, whom our compassionate Lord raised to life, and restored to his mother. We are informed in the history of the kings of Judah, that, Asa being dead, they laid him in the bed, or bier, which was filled with sweet odors. Josephus, the Jewish historian, describing the funeral of Herod the Great, says, his bed was adorned with precious stones; his body rested under a purple covering; he had a diaden) and a crown of gold upon his head, a sceptre in his hand; and all his house followed the bed. The bier used by the Turks at Aleppo is a kind of coffin, much in the form of ours, only the lid rises with a ledge in the middle. 3. The Israelites committed the dead to their native dust, and from the Egyptians, probably, borrowed the practice of burning many spices at their funerals, “They buried Asa in his own sepulchres, which he made for himself in the city of David, and laid him in the bed which was filled B U R B U R [ 285 ) with sweet odors, and divers kinds of spices, prepared by the apothecaries' art; and they made a very great burning for him,” 2 Chron. 16, 14. Thus the Old Testament his. torian entirely justifies the account which the evangelist gives, of the quantity of spices with which the sacred body of Christ was swathed. The Jews object to the quantity used on that occasion, as unnecessarily profuse, and even incredible; but it appears from their own writings, that spices were used at such times in great abundance. In the Talmud it is said, that no less than eighty pounds of spices were consumed at the funeral of rabbi Gamaliel the elder. And at the funeral of Herod, if we may believe the account of their most celebrated historian, the procession was followed by five hundred of his domestics carrying spices. Why then should it be reckoned incredible, that Nicodemus brought of myrrh and aloes about a hundred pounds' weight, to embalm the body of Jesus? 4. The funeral procession was attended by professional mourners, eminently skilled in the art of lamentation, whom-the friends and relations of the deceased hired, to assist them in expressing their sorrow. They began the ceremony with the stridulous voices of old women, who strove, by their doleful modulations, to extort grief from those that were present. The children in the streets through which they passed, often suspended their sports, to imitate the sounds, and joined with equal sincerity in the lamentations. “But whereunto shall I liken this generation? It is like unto children sitting in the markets, and calling unto their fellows, and saying, We have mourned unto you, and ye have not lamented,” Matt. 9: 17. Music was afterwards introduced to aid the voices of the mourners: the trumpet was used at the funerals of the great, and the small pipe or flute for those of meaner condition. Hired mourners were in use among the Greeks as early as the Trojan war, and probably in ages long before ; for in Homer, a choir of mourners were planted around the couch on which the body of Hector was laid out, who sung his funeral dirge with many sighs and tears :— - “A melancholy choir attend around, With plaintive sighs and music’s solemn sound; Alternately they sing, alternate flow The obedient tears, melodious in their woe.” Pope. In Egypt, the lower class of people call in women, who play on the tabor; and whose business it is, like the hired mourners in other countries, to sing elegiac airs to the sound of that instrument, which they accompany with the most frightful distortions of their limbs. These women attend the corpse to the grave, intermixed with the female relations and friends of the deceased, who commonly have their hair in the utmost disorder; their heads covered with dust ; their faces daubed with indigo, or at least rubbed with mud; and howling like maniacs. minstrels whom our Lord found in the house of Jairus, making so great a noise round the bed on which the dead body of his daughter lay. The noise and tumult of these retained mourners, and the other attendants, appear to have begun immediately after the person expired. It is evident that this sort of mourning and lamentation was a kind of art among the Jews: “Wailing shall be in the streets; and they shall call such as are skilful of lamentation to wail,” Amos 5: 16. Mourners are still hired at the obse- quies of Hindoos and Mahometans, as in former times. To the dreadful noise and tumult of the hired mourners, the following passage of Jeremiah indisputably refers, and shows the custom to be derived from a very remote antiquity: “Call for the mourning women that they may come; and send for cunning women, that they may come, and let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run down with tears, and our eyelids gush out with waters,” Jer. 9: 17. The funeral processions of the Jews in Barbary are conducted nearly in the same manner as those in Syria. The corpse is borne by four to the place of burial: in the first rank march the priests, next to them the kindred of the deceased; after whom come those that are invited to the funeral; and all singing in a sort of plaintive song, the forty-ninth Psalm. Hence the prophet, (Amos 8: 3,) warns his people that public calamities were approaching, so numerous and severe, as should make them forget the usual rites of burial, and Such were the even to sing one of the songs of Zion over the dust of a departed relative. This appears to be confirmed by a prediction in the eighth chapter: “And the songs of the temple shall be howlings in that day, saith the Lord God; there shall be many dead bodies in ‘...} place ; they shall cast them forth with silence ;” they shall have none to lament and bewail; none to blow the funeral trump or touch the pipe and tâbor; none to sing the plaintive dirge, or express their hope of a blessed resurrection, in the strains of inspiration. All shall be silent despair. See SEPULCHREs.-Watson. BURKE, (EDMUND,), whose name fills so large a space in the political and literary annals of Great Britain, was the son of an eminent attorney, and was born at Dublin, January 1, 1730. After having received his early education from Abraham Shackleton, a quaker school-master of Ballytore, he went to Trinity college, Dublin, in 1746, where he remained three years, and pur- sued an extensive course of study, on a plan of his own. In 1753, he entered as a law student at the Temple, but applied himself almost wholly to literature; his unremit- ting attention to which at length injured his health. Du- ring his illness, he became an inmate in the house of Dr. Nugent, a physician, to whose daughter he was afterwards united. This union he always described as the chief blessing of his life. His first acknowledged work, which was of course published anonymously, was his Windica- tion of Natural Society; an admirable imitation of lord Bolingbroke's style and manner of reasoning which de- ceived even some of the best judges. This was followed, in the ensuing year, by his Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. It completely established his reputation as a man of genius and a fine writer, and brought him ac- quainted with some of the most eminent personages of the age. His political career did not commence till 1761, when he accompanied the Irish secretary, William Gerard Hamilton, to Ireland. Nor can he be said to have entered fully on that career till 1765, when he became the private secretary and friend of the marquis of Rockingham, then the first lord of the treasury, who brought him into parlia- ment, as member for Wendover. Thenceforth he took a prominent part in the debates of the house of commons. In 1774, without any solicitation on his part, he was elected for Bristol; but this seat he lost at the next election, in consequence of his having displayed too much liberality of principle, with respect to the Catholics and to Ireland. He subsequently sat for Malton. In the mean while, he gave to the public his Observations on Grenville's State of the Nation; a Short Account of a late short Adminis- tration; Thoughts on the Causes of the present Discon- tents; and his speeches on American Affairs. To the impolitic contest with America, he made a strenuous and eloquent resistance as a senator. On the downfall of lord North's ministry, Burke obtained the office of pay- master-general, and a seat in the council; and he availed himself of this opportunity to carry his celebrated reform bill, which he had previously brought forward in vain. The expulsion of the coalition ministry, of course, deprived him of his office. The prosecution of Mr. Hastings, and the opposition to Mr. Pitt's regency bill, were among his next and greatest parliamentary efforts. Though the former of these has drawn down upon him much censure, and even calumny, there can be no doubt that he under- took it as a sacred and imperative duty. This is irrefra- gably proved by his recently published letters to Dr. Law- B U R I3 U. R. | 286 ) fence. When the French revolution took place, he early foresaw the result, and, in 1790, he produced his celebrated Reflections on that event. A breach between him and Mr. Fox was also occasioned by their difference of opinion on this important subject. In 1794, he retired from par- liament, and a pension of one thousand two hundred pounds a year was bestowed on him by the government. rom the time when his Reflections were published, till his decease, his literary hostility to the doctrines of revo- lutionary France was continued with unabated vigor. The last work which he gave to the press was Two Letters on a Regicide Peace: the concluding two were posthumous. He died on the 8th of July, 1797. His compositions have been collected in sixteen volumes octavo. In private life, Burke was amiable and benevolent; in public, indefatiga- ble, ardent, and abhorrent of meanness and injustice. It was this latter quality which rendered him a persevering advocate of the Irish Catholics. As an orator, he ranks among the first of modern times; and as a writer, whether we consider the splendor of his diction, the richness and variety of his imagery, or the boundless stores of knowledge which he displays, it must be acknowledged that there are few who equal, and none who transcend him. Burke was a sincere believer in Christianity, and his noble mind was rnoulded and elevated by its pure and generous sentiments. Unlike some of his greatest contemporaries, he made nei- ther the bottle nor the dice his household deities; he had no taste for pursuits that kill time rather than pass it; “I have no time,” said he, “to be idle.” His fame is spot- less. Although in the judgment of the world, he was the greatest statesman and orator of his own and perhaps of any age, his humility was even more rare and remarkable than his genius. He declined the honor of an interment in the great national receptacle of illustrious men, West- minster abbey, and even forbid it in his will; assigning as his reason, “I have had in my life but too much of noise and compliment.” To the approach of death he submitted with a calm, and Christian resignation, undis- turbed by a murmur, hoping, as he said, to obtain the divine mercy through the intercession of a blessed Redeemer, which (in his own words) “he had long sought with unſeigned humiliation, and to which he looked with a trembling hope.” The first clause in his will marks in a manner equally striking his deliberate views and deepest feelings on this great subject, and is a sort of testamentary witness to the world of the truth and value of the Gospel of Christ. “According to the ancient, good, and laudable custom of which my heart and understanding recognise the propriety, I bequeath my soul to God, hoping for his mercy only through the merits of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. My body I desire to be buried in the church at Beaconsfield, near to the bodies of my dearest brother, and my dearest son, in all humility praying that as we have lived in perfect unity together, we may together have a part in the resurrection of the just.” There never was a more beautiful alliance between virtue and talents. All his conceptions were grand, all his sentiments generous. The great leading trait of his character, and that which gave it all its energy and its color, was that strong hatred of vice which is no other than the passionate love of virtue. It breathes in all his writings; it was the guide of all his actions. But even the force of his eloquence was insufficient to transfuse it into the weaker or perverted minds of his contemporaries. Mr. Burke was too superior to the age in which he lived. —Davenport; Prior's Memoirs of Burke. BURKITT, (WILLIAM, M. A.) This exemplary divine, and useful commentator, was born at Hitcham, in Suf- folk, July 25, 1650. In childhood, he appeared endowed with an excellent memory, which, by the grace of God and a good education, became a sacred repository. Of his conver- sion he thus speaks: “While I continued at school at Cam- bridge, it pleased God to visit me with the small pox, but very favorably, and, as I hope, in great mercy laying the foundation of my spiritual health in that sickness; work- ing, as I hope, a prevailing thorough change in the very frame and disposition of my soul. May my soul and all that is within me bless thy name, O Lord, that this sickness should by the blessing of thy Holy Spirit, open my blind eyes, which hath closed the eyes of so many in darkness and death O happy sickness, that ends in the recovery of the Soul to God P’ * w - From the college, he came to Bilston Hall in Suffolk, and was chaplain there. He entered upon the ministry very early, after having been ordained by bishop Rey- nolds, and not long after was settled in Milden in Suſſolk, where he remained twenty-one years, preaching evangeli- cal truth in a clear and lively manner. In 1692, he removed to Dedham in Essex, which was blessed with his labors about eleven years and a half. He died by a ma- lignant fever at the age of fifty-three, deeply lamented by all who knew him. Mr. Burkitt was a devoted and successful minister. He delighted in his Master's work. His preaching was clear and easy to be understood. To matter the most edi- fying and heavenly, was added the charm of a sweet and musical voice, which made him a very acceptable preach- er. His family religion was indeed such as became the gospel. He was a great redeemer of time; variety and improvement were his chieſ diversions. Few have been more dead to the world and its vanities. He expended much of his living on poor students of divinity. In his last sickness he was very happy. He blessed God espe- cially that he had finished his Practical Exposition of the New Testament, which he said, he had ushered into the world with many, very many prayers.-Middleton. - BURLEIGH, (MILDRED, LADy,) eldest daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, was born 1526, and died 1589. Dr, Wot- ten, in his Reſlections on ancient and modern Learning, as- Sures us that “no age was so productive dſ learned women as the sixteenth century. The fair sex seemed to believe that the Greek and Latin added to their charms; and Plato and Aristotle, untranslated, were frequent ornaments of their closets.” Probably this may be ascribed to the noble art of printing, which had just then awakened the minds of people, and furnished them with a vast variety of books to improve their understanding. The utmost care was taken of the education of lady Mildred by her excellent father, and his pains were well repaid; she being as cmi- ment for her great learning and good sense, as for her piety and charity. She took great delight in reading the works of the Greek fathers, Basil, Cyril, Chrysostom, Gregory, Nazianzen, and others, and even translated one of the works of Chrysostom into English. And when she presented the university library in Cambridge with the great Bible in Hebrew and other languages, she sent it with an epistle in Greek, written with her own hand. In 1546, she was married to Sir William Cecil, after- wards lord Burleigh, lord high-treasurer of England, and privy counsellor to queen Elizabeth. Her union was long and happy; but all her children died young, except- ing two daughters. Five days after the decease of this exemplary woman, her husband wrote his Meditation on the Death of his Lady, in which his sorrow is blended with grateful praises of her zeal for learning; her benefactions to Cambridge, &c.; her widely extended benevolence; and the admirable secrecy, by which during her life-time they were hidden even from him.—Betham. BURNET, (GILBERT,) the celebrated bishop of Salisbu- ry, was born at Edinburgh on the 18th of September, 1643. He received his early instructions from his father, §[2-24. $º ~) º &ſé ë §§ ſ º &: § & *g c ,-, WN º ºf Al 3 /\\\\"N"W 22 %| \ Ø º %2% ºft SN " ** who was eminent for his zeal and piety, and under whose guardianship he made so rapid an advancement in the acquisition of knowledge, that at the age of ten years he perfectly understood the Latin language. At this time, bis ſaſher sent him to the college of Aberdeen, where he B U R. B U R. [ 287 ) acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek language, and went through the usual course of Aristotelian logic and philosophy with great applause. At the early age of fourteen, he took the degree of master of arts; and though so young, applied himself to the study of civil law, though he soon became weary of that study, and turned his mind and exertions to divinity; perused attentively and criti- cally the Old and New Testaments; read the most noted controversial writers in divinity; and to these studies ap- plied fourteen hours during every day. In 1665, Mr. Bur- nett was ordained priest, by the bishop of Edinburgh, and presented by Sir Robert Fletcher, to the living of Saltoun; and, by his attention to the welfare of his flock, soon gained their affections and well-wishes. He regularly preached twice on every Sabbath day, and once in the week; catechized three times a week; and went round, from house to house, instructing and exhorting the inha- bitants. The sick he visited twice a day, and gave as much from his income as remained beyond the sum ex- º: in his bare subsistence. The same year in which e was ordained, he was so disgusted with the conduct of Some of the Scotch bishops, who, as he said, were “remiss in their functions, as some did not live within their diocese, and those who did, took no care of them; in fact, that there was a levity and carnal way of living about them, that very much scandalized him;” that he drew up a me- morial of the abuses of the Scotch bishops, which exposed him to their spleen. In 1669, he was made professor of divinity at Glasgow, which office he honorably filled. He was unwearied in his attentions to the interests of his pupils, and studied from four in the morning till ten, in order that more time might be allotted to his charge. He continued in his office for four years and a half, exposed, through his liberal moderate principles, to the reproaches and ill-will of the Episcopalian and Presbyterian parties. In this year he published his modest and free Conference between a Conformist and Non-conformist. In 1672, Bur- net married lady Margaret Kennedy, (daughter of the earl of Cassilis,) who was as distinguished for her piety as for her extensive knowledge. Shortly after his mar- riage, he published his “Vindication of the Authority, Constitution, and Laws of the Church and State of Scot- land;” which was dedicated to the earl of Lauderdale. This work gained him so much credit, and so greatly in- creased his reputation, that he was requested to accept of a bishopric, with a promise of the next vacant archbish- opric ; but he refused them both. Burnet at that time lost the favor of the court, owing to some misrepresenta- tions of the earl of Lauderdale. In 1675, he was appointed preacher at the Rolls chapel; and shortly after this, be- came a useful and popular preacher at St. Clement's. At this time, by the entreaties of Sir William Jones, he pub- lished his “History of the Reformation of the Church of England;” which met with great success, and is allowed by all to be the execution of a masculine pen, and to con- tain a very comprehensive view of all the events of that important period, from the reign of Henry the Eighth to Elizabeth. On its completion he received the thanks of both houses of parliament: but in the following spring, the court was so much displeased with him, for some of his publications, that he was discharged from his lecture at St. Clement's ; and on the death of Charles, he visited Paris, and from thence he went to Italy, Switzerland, Ge- neva, and Utrecht. On his arrival at that place, he was invited to the Hague, by the prince and princess of Orange. The invitation he accepted, and took an active part in the councils then carrying on in relation to the affairs of England, and his instructions were of service to the prince. This so much disgusted the English court, that a charge of high treason was alleged, and his person was in danger; but the States refused to deliver him up to the malice of his enemies. At this period, Dr. Burnet married Mrs. Mary Scott, a lady as famed for her private virtues as for her noble birth. In 1688, Dr. Burnet was advanced to the see of Salis- bury; yet so disinterested was he, and so little did he esteem worldly grandeur and honors, that he solicited for it in favor of Dr. Lloyd, then bishop of St. Asaph. He went down on his accession to his diocese, and discharged the duties of that office with piety and zeal, and made it a rule, every summer, to make a tour for six of seveti weeks, to go through the livings of his diocese, and to watch their progress. . During his residence at Salisbury, he constantly preached every Thursday, and in the even- ing he had a lecture in his own chapel, when he ex- pounded some portion of Scripture. He also instituted a little nursery for students in divinity, which he regularly attended to himself; and to these students he allowed thirty pounds a year. “He was a warm and constant enemy to pluralities, where non-residence was the cause of them.” In the year 1692, he published a treatise, entitled “The Pasto. ral Care ;” in which the duties of a minister are scrupulous. ly and with great propriety enforced. In 1698, bishop Bur net was deprived of his second wife; but his large family, united to the tenderness of their ages, inclined him to seek for a prudent, confidential nurse, which he found in the person of Mrs. Berkley, to whom he was united by mar- riage in the following year: shortly after his marriage, he became tutor to the duke of Gloucester, to whose edu cation, morally and religiously, he paid the utmost atten- tion. About this time he published his “Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England;” and was the first who projected the scheme for the augmenta- tion of poor livings. Thus was the life of this excellent prelate devoted to acts of charity and usefulness; he was learned, yet modest and unassuming; pious, yet cheerful; and he proved religion not to be incompatible with a con- sistent attention to the concerns of this life. He departed this life on the 17th of March, 1714, at the venerable and patriarchal age of seventy-four, and was interred in the parish church of St. James, Clerkenwell. For further account of this eminent scholar, Christian, and divine, see Life of Burnet, by Thomas Burnet, Esq.; Burnet's His- tory of his Own Times; Kennet's History of England.— Jones's Chris. Biog. BURNET, (ELISABETH,) eldest daughter of Sir Rich- ard Blake, was born 1661, and died 1708. At eleven years of age, she began to have a true sense of reli- gion, and read with great application the books which were put into her hands; but was not quite satisfied, aspiring after more sublime notions than what she found in them. On this account, more than ordinary care was taken in her education to make her think less highly of herself. At seventeen, she was married to Robert Berkley, Esq. of Worcester. With him she visited the continent, and re- sided some time at the Hague ; but returned to England about the time of the revolution in 1688. * Her knowledge and virtues attracted many acquaint- ance. Dr. Stillingfleet was her intimate friend, and used to say that he knew not a more considerable woman in England. Her husband dying in 1693, she applied her- self wholly to devotion, reading, acts of charity, and offi- ces of friendship, especially to her late husband's Protest- ant relations. She also took an active part in founding a hospital for which Mr. Berkley had left a valuable be- quest. She also established many Schools for the instruc- tion of poor children, and employed her pen in useful compositions. - In 1700, she was married to the celebrated bishop Bur- net, and was a mother indeed to his family of children; of which her husband was so sensible that by his will, then made, he left them entirely under her care and au. thority. Such was her benevolence that she was uneasy at using even a fifth part of her income for herself. Her death, like her life, was that of a calm and happy Chris- tian.—Betham. BURNING BUSH, that in which the Lord appeared to Moses at the foot of mount Horeb. Exod. 3: 2. Such was the splendor of the Divine Majesty, that its efful- gence dazzled his sight, and he was unable to behold it; and in token of his humility, submission and reverence, “Moses hid his face.” So did Elijah in after-times. 1 Kings 19:12. Yea, the very angels cover their faces in the presence of God. Isa. 6: 2. When the Hebrew lawgiver, just before his death, pronounced his blessing upon the chosen tribes, he called to mind this remarkable event, and supplicated in behalf of the posterity of Joseph, “the good will of him that dwelt in the bush,” Deut. 33:16. These last words of Moses seem to indicate, that there was, in this memorable transaction, something of an alle- BUR B UT | 288 gorigal or mystical import, though there are different i. as to the particular thing that it was designed to Shadow forth. Some have thought that Jehovah dwelling in the bush, in a blaze of fire, and the former not being consumed by it, might possibly be intended as an emblem of the manifestation of God in the flesh; that mystery of godliness which was exhibited in the fulness of the times, when “the WoRD, who was with God, and was God, and by whom all things were created, was made flesh, and tabernacled among men”—the brightness of the Father's glory, and in whom all the fulness of the Godhead dwelt bodily. 1 John 1: 1–14. Col. 1: 15–19; ch. 2:9. And that this was the truth, reality, and ultimate import of the Shechinah, there can be no reasonable doubt. But others consider that the particular thing intended to be taught the Hebrews by this phenomenon, namely, the bush of thorns or briars, burning yet not consumed, was to intimate to them that God was present with them in their great afflic- tion and tribulations, and, by his providence, so ordering matters that their afflictions did not consume them ; agree- ably to the words of the prophet: “In all their afflictions he was afflicted, and the angel of his presence saved them.” Isa. 63: 9. “This fire, also,” says bishop Pa- trick, “might be intended to show that God would there meet with the Israelites and give them his law in fire and lightning, and yet not consume them.”—Jones. BURNT—OFFERINGS.–See OFFERINGs. BURR, (JonATHAN,) minister of Dorchester, Mass. was born at Redgrave in Suffolk, England, about the year 1604. Being silenced in England with many others for resisting the impositions of the prelatical party, and ap- prehending that calamities were in store for the nation, he came to New England in 1639, with his wife and three children, willing to forego all worldly advantages, that he might enjoy the ordinances of the gospel in their purity. He was admitted a member of the church in Dorchester under the pastoral care of Richard Mather, December 21. He was in a short time invited to settle as a colleague with Mr. Mather in the ministry. The most experienced Chris- tlans in the country found his ministry and his whole de- portment breathing much of the spirit of a better world. The eminent Mr. Hooker, once hearing him preach, re- marked, “Surely this man will not be long out of heaven, for he preaches, as if he were there already.” He died, after a short sickness, August 9, 1641, aged 37 years. Mr. Burr was esteemed both in England and in this country for his piety and learning. In proportion to the ardor of his piety was the extent of his charity. He sin- cerely loved his fellow-men, and while their eternal in- terests pressed with weight on his heart, he entered with lively sympathy into their temporal afflictions. . Rarely did he visit the poor without communicating what was comfortable to the body, as well as what was instructive and salutary to the soul. When he was reminded of the importance of having a greater regard to his own interest, he replied, I often think of those words, “he that soweth sparingly shall reap sparingly.” For the general interests of religion in the world he felt so lively a concern, that his personal joys and sorrows seemed inconsiderable in comparison. He was bold and zealous in withstanding every thing which brought dishonor on the name of God; but under personal injuries he was exemplarily meek and atient. When informed that any thought meanly of him, his reply was, “I think meanly of myself, and therefore may well be content, that others think meanly of me.” When charged with what was faulty, he re- marked, “If men see so much evil in me, what does God see ?–Mather's Magn., iii. 78–81; Panoplist, Sept. 1808; Savage's Winthrop, ii. 22; Harris’ Hist. of Dorchester in Coll. Hist. Soc. ix. 175—183; Allen. BURR, (AARON,) president of New Jersey college, a descendant of the preceding, was a native of Fairfield in Connecticut, and was born in the year 1714. He was graduated at Yale college in 1735. In 1742, he was in- vited to take the pastoral charge of the Presbyterian church at Newark in New Jersey. Here he became so eminent as an able and learned divine and an accomplished scho- lar, that in 1748 he was unanimously elected president of the college, which he was instrumental in founding, as successor to Mr. Dickinson. The college was removed about this time from Elizabethtown to Newark, and in 1757, a short time before the death of Mr. Burr, to Prince- ton. In 1754 he accompanied Mr. Whitefield to Boston, having a high esteem for the character of that eloquent itinerant preacher, and greatly rejoicing in the success of his labors. After a life of usefulness and honor, devoted to his Master in heaven, he was called into the eternal, world, September 24, 1757, in the midst of his days, being in the forty-third year of his age. - • President Burr had a slender and delicate frame; yet to encounter fatigue he had a heart of steel. To amazing . talents for the despatch of business he joined a constancy of mind, that commonly secured to him success. As long as an enterprise appeared possible, he yielded to no dis- couragement. When his services were requested by the trustees of the college in soliciting donations for the pur- chase of a library and philosophical apparatus, and for erecting a building for the accommodation of the students, he engaged with his usual zeal in the undertaking, and every where met with the encouragement, which the de- sign so fully deserved. A place being fixed upon at Princeton for the site of the new building, the superintend- ance of the work was solely committed to him. Until the spring of 1757, when the college was removed to Newark, he discharged the duties both of president and pastor of a church. Few were more perfect in the art of rendering themselves agreeable in company. He knew the avenues to the human heart, and he possessed the rare power of pleasing without betraying a design to please. As he was free from ostentation and parade, no one would have sus- pected his learning, unless his subject required him to display it, and then every one was surprised that a person, So well acquainted with books, should yet possess such ease in conversation and such freedom of behavior. He inspired all around him with cheerfulness. His arms were open to good men of every denomination. A sweetness of temper, obliging courtesy and mildness of manners, joined to an engaging candor of sentiment, spread a glory over his reputation, and endeared his person to all his acquaintance.—Allen. BURR, (Joseph,) a philanthropist, died at Manchester, Vt., without a family, April 14, 1828, aged 56, bequeath. ing more than 90,000 dollars to various objects of charity. He bequeathed for foreign missions 17,000 dollars, 15,000 to the Bible society, 12,000 to Middlebury college, 10,000 to the American Home Missionary society, 5,000 to the Tract, Colonization, and Vermont Missionary so- cieties each, 5,000 to the parish in Manchester, 3,000 to an Education society, 1,000 to Dartmouth and Williams colleges each, 10,000 for a public seminary of learning in Manchester. He bequeathed these thousands of dollars, besides bestowing a large amount of property upon his relatives. With a small patrimony he had acquired his estate by his unfailing judgment and prudence. He was the banker of his region. He was honorable and con- scientious. With correct religious views and a moral deportment, he yet avowed no hope of a spiritual reno. vation, until a short time before his death. On his last morning he said, “I think I am waiting for the coming of my Lord.”—Mission. Herald, xxiv. 226; Jones. BUSHEL; a Jewish measure, containing about a pint less than a peck.-Matt. 5: 15. . .” BUTLER, (Joseph, Bishop,) the celebrated author of “The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature,” was the youngest of eight children of Mr. Thomas Butler, residing at Wan- tage, in Berkshire, and was born in that town in the year 1692. He received his primary education at the free grammar school of Wantage, under the tuition of the Rev. Philip Barton. At that school he received much sound instruction, and became as distinguished for his steady, moral, serious character, as for his genius and learning. His father was a Dissenter; and Mr. Butler, having quited the grammar school, was sent to a Presby. terian dissenting academy at Tewkesbury. Mr. Butler, at that academy, received from Mr. Jones, the principal tutor, who was a man of extraordinary learning, the greatest attention, and made a progress in the study of theology which was truly surprising. His letters, written at that time to the celebrated Dr. Samuel Clarke, contain. B U T BUT [ 289 J . . . . . & ing his doubts as to the tenable nature of some of the arguments made use of by that divine, in demonstrating the being and attributes of God, displayed a sagacity and depth of thought which excited the notice and even re- spect of Dr. Clarke. The whole correspondence is now annexed to that incomparable treatise. His mind, at that tume, was also much occupied in examining the principles of non-conformity, and in endeavoring to satisfy himself whether he should become a dissenting clergyman or a minister of the established church. The result of that investigation appears to be, that he considered, on the whole, Episcopacy to be preferable; and accordingly, on the 17th of March, 1714, he was admitted a commoner of Oriel college, Oxford. With Mr. Edward Talbot, who was the second son of Dr. Edward Talbot, he formed at college a very intimate acquaintanceship; and through the medium of Mr. Talbot, many of Mr. Butler's subse- quent preferments may be traced. It was thus that, in 1718, he was appointed preacher at the Rolls, by Sir Joseph Jekyll ; and in 1721, he took the degree of bachelor of laws. He continued at the Rolls until 1726, in which year he published, in one volume, octavo, Fifteen Sermons, preached at that chapel. By the continued friendship of Dr. Talbot, then bishop of Durham, he had presented Mr. Butler to the rectory of Haughton, near Darlington, and afterwards to that of Stanhope. At Stanhope he after- wards much resided; and, during seven years, he per- formed with unremitting assiduity and piety, all the duties of a parish priest. In 1733, he quitted the retirement of Stanhope, to become chaplain to lord Charles Talbot. He at the same time was admitted at Oxford to the degree of doctor of laws, and was shortly aſterwards presented by the chaplains with a prebend in the church of. Roches- ter. In 1736, Dr. Butler was appointed clerk of the closet to queen-Caroline ; and, in the same year, presented a copy of the treatise for which his name has been so long, so extensively, and so justly celebrated. That work, and his uniformly consistent conduct, insured him the respect and esteem of the queen ; and, in 1738, he was conse- crated to the bishopric of Bristol. In 1740, king George II promoted him to the deanery of St. Paul’s, London; but finding the demands of that dignity to be incompatible with his parish duty at Stanhope, where he had still re- sided six months of the year, he immediately resigned that rich benefice. In 1750, he was translated to the see of Durham, in consequence of the decease of Dr. Edward Chandler. In the following year he distinguished him- self by his charge “On the Importance of External Reli- gion.” In consequence of that charge, bishop Butler has been accused of being addicted to superstition, of being inclined to popery, and of dying in the communion of the church of Rome; but such calumnies have been long since refuted by the evidence of facts. Rank and talents, and usefulness and piety, present, however, neither separate nor combined, any impediments to the advances of death ; for he had been but a short time seated in his new bish- opric, when his health declined; and at Bath, on the 16th of July, 1752, he expired. His corpse was conveyed to Bristol; and there, in the cathedral, was interred all that was mortal of this learned prelate. Of bishop Butler's Analogy but one opinion has been entertained. It has always been regarded as a work of very superior merit, and as displaying a depth of thought and a profundity of mind, acquired or possessed but by few. It is a standard work on the evidences of Chris- tianity.—Hend. Buck. |BUTTER, is taken in Scripture, as it has been almost perpetually in the East, for cream or liquid butter, Prov. 30: 33. 2 Sam, 17; 29. The ancient way of making butter in Arabia and Palestine was probably nearly the same as is still practised by the Bedoween Arabs and Moors in Barbary, and which is thus described by Dr. Shaw : “Their method of making butter is by putting the milk or cream into a goat’s skin turned inside out, which they suspend from one side of the tent to the other; and then pressing it to and fro in one uniform direction, they quickly separate the unctuous and wheyêy parts. In the Levant, they tread upon the skin with their feet, which produces the same effect.” The last method of separating the butter from the milk, perhaps may throw light upon a passage in Job of some difficulty: “When I washed my steps with butter, and the rock poured me out rivers of oil,” Job 31: 6. The method of making butter in the East illustrates the conduct of Jael, the wife of Heber, de- scribed in the book of Judges: “And Sisera said unto her, Give me, I pray thee, a little water to drink, for I am thirsty ; and she opened a bottle of milk, and gave him drink, and covered him.” In the song of Deborah, the statement is repeated : “He asked water, and she gave him milk; she brought forth -butter in a lordly dish,” Judges 4: 19. 5: 25. The word hemah, which our trans- lators rendered butter, properly signifies cream ; which is undoubtedly the meaning of it in this passage: for Sisera complained of thirst, and asked a little water to quench it;-a purpose to which butter is but little adapted. Mr. Harmer, indeed, urges the same objection to cream, which, he contends, few people would think a very proper beve- rage for one that was extremely thirsty; and concludes that it must have been butter-milk which Jael, who had just been churning, gave to Sisera. But the opinion of Dr. Russel is preferable,_that the hemah of the Scriptures is probably the same as the haymak of the Arabs, which is not, as Harmer supposed, simple cream, but cream produced by simmering fresh sheep's milk for some hours over a slow fire. It could not be butter newly churned, which Jael presented to Sisera, because the Arab butter is apt to be foul, and is commonly passed through a strainer before it is used : and Russel declares, he never saw butter offered to a stranger, but always haymak; nor did he ever observe the orientals drink butter-milk, but always leban, which is coagulated sour milk, diluted with water. It was leban, therefore, which Pococke mistook for butter-milk, with which the Arabs treated him in the Holy Land. A simi- lar conclusion may be drawn concerning the butter and milk which the wife of Heber presented to Sisera: they were forced cream or haymak, and leban, or coagulated Sour milk, diluted with water, which is a common and re- freshing beverage in those sultry regions. In Isaiah 7: 15, butter and honey are mentioned as food which, in Egypt and other places in the East, is in use to this day. The butter and honey are mixed, and the bread is then dipped in it.—Watson. BUTTERWORTH, (John,) pastor of the Baptist church in Coventry, and author of the valuable Concordance, was born in Lancashire, (Eng.) Dec. 13, 1727. His parents were deeply pious, and had the singular happiness to see all their five sons become so ; four of them became min- isters of Baptist churches. When about fifteen years of age, John became a constant hearer of the Methodists, and imbibed their religious sentiments; but left them soon after his conversion, which was in his nineteenth year. His own account of that event, though much abridged, is interesting. “I was frequently under convictions of sin; and though outwardly moral, yet knew that my nature was inclined to alliniquity. I was only restrained through education, frequent converse with professors, and fear of open shame; not from any dislike I had to sin. Yet my conscience was frequently awakened, and I formed many resolutions of living a holy life; but a few days or a week would wear off these impressions, and worldly things occupied my mind; so that the older I grew, the more wicked I became. One night after hearing Mr. John Nelson preach from Matt. 8: 2, I thought all seemed more affected than myself. The hardness of my heart had always been my trouble ; because of which all the sermons I had heard were ineffectual.. I returned home with a heavy spirit, crying to God that he would take anay my heart of stone, and give me a heart of flesh. I then ex- perienced a longing after holiness; a desire to be holy as God is holy. I hoped to live without sin, which I then thought was attainable in this life. I used to govern my thoughts daily, as much as in me lay ; and those words impressed my mind, Blessed are they nihich do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled. Still I found unbelief a great burden; laboring hard to believe, but could not ; for indeed I was ignorant of the nature of faith. One morning, I was in deep thought on this sub- ject, reasoning with myself why I was still in unbelief, when these words dropped into my mind, By grace are ye saved, through faith ; and that not of yourselves: it is the 37 B U Y B Y Z I 200 gift of God. This word gift revolved in my mind. A gift, thought I, is not merited; if it were, it would be a debt, and not a gift. I had leaned all along towards the doctrine of merit, and of obtaining grace by good works; but now I saw faith to be an undeserved gift, and that God might bestow it on my vilest neighbors, and leave me in my moral duties without faith. This led me, to think there was some truth in the doctrine of election ; and that it was not upon foresight of faith and obedience, but of pure sovereignty; and that faith and obedience were the fruits and effects of election, and not causes thereof. My sentiments began to change from Arminianism to Calvin- ism. I searched the Bible all that day; and the evidence in favor of election shone like the sun, and came forcibly upon me. As I saw it in the Bible, so I saw the doctrine exemplified in the world. I concluded that if ever God would show me favor and give me faith, it would be of mere mercy. I was not left to neglect the worship of God, but I sought him sorrowing. One evening I was reading in the Bible, and cast my eye upon these words of our Lord, (John 6:47,) Verily, verily, I say unto you, he that be- lieveth in me hath everlasting life. passage—it was as if spoken to me. I did immediately believe that Jesus Christ was a suitable, precious, and almighty Savior; I trusted in him alone for salvation; and therefore in him I had everlästing life. I could not but believe and rejoice. I said, Who can help believing 2 for I thought it as easy then as I had found it hard before. I was transported with the love of Christ. The Bible was my delight and meditation all the day. I attained more knowledge of Scripture in a month after this, than I have done in years since. I was not satisfied unless I knew every text that related to doctrine or practice, and where it was ; and thus I soon attained a general knowledge of the whole Bible.” Soon after this, Mr. Butterworth cntered the ministry. In 1751, he accepted the call of the Baptist church in Coventry, was ordained to the pastoral office among them; and there labored until his death in 1803, a period of fifty- two years. He was greatly beloved by the people of his charge, and not undeservedly, for he possessed the main qualifications for pastoral usefulness in great perfection ; and while enjoying the love of his family and flock on earth, he held sweet communion with Heaven. In the decline of life, that passage was finely exemplified in him, The path of the just is as the damning light, mºhich shineth more and more unto the perfect day. As death advanced, he cheerfully advanced to meet him, and all his letters breathe the spirit of the ripened saint. “We are thankful, (he says, in 1800,) and we have abundant cause to be so ; having all the comforts of this liſe, (which multitudes have not) the means of grace; the exercise of faith in Christ; and in general, comfort of mind and peace of con- science ; reconciliation to God, both respecting the way of salvation, and providential dispensations.—I often think that I am one of the richest men in Coventry; for he is not rich who wants more, but he who has enough ; and like Jacob and Paul, I have enough ! Yea, I have all, and abound.—I have much to bless God for ; his comforts delight my soul.” In 1803, he wrote to one of his grand- sons, “Nothing in the creation is so important as an in- terest in Christ; if you are favored herewith, you are made forever. This is my consolation under the infirmi- ites of age, that I am going home to a better country, and to a fairer and larger inheritance than ever I had in Eng- land.” A week afterwards, this good man entered into his eternal rest in the 76th year of his age, coming to the grave as a shock of corn in his season. His excellent Con- cordance however still lives to instruct and benefit the world. venience, copiousness, and accuracy; it being far more full and complete than Brown or Taylor, and less expen- sive than Cruden.—Memoir of Mr. Butternworth. BUY.—To buy from men is to obtain right to, and pos- session of, a thing by giving a price for it. Gen. 41: 2. To buy from Christ is, under a sense of need, and a belief of their excellence and fitness for us, to receive himself and his blessings freely as the eternal portions of our souls, and to forsake whatever stands in opposition thereto. Isa. 65: 1. Rev. 3: 18. Matt. 13:44. To buy the truth and not I was struck with the ` It has met with general approbation for its con- . sell it, imports the most diligent consideration and em- bracement of it and cleaving to it, whatever hazard, ex- pense or trouble it costs us. To buy the merchandise of Rome is, at the eternal hazard of our souls, to embrace her abominations; or by money, intercession, or the like, to Fº antichristian dignities, offices, relics, pardons. ev. 18: 11. God bought his chosen people by giving his Son to the death as an infinite ransom for them. 1 Cor. 6 : 19. He bought the Hebrew nation in exerting his power and goodness on their behalf, bringing them from Egypt, and loading them with mercies unnumbered, that they might be his peculiar people, Deut. 32: 6. He buys professed Christians in giving them his word; and at much expense of power and goodness delivering them from hea- thenism, popery or profaneness, that they might serve him, 2 Pet. 2: 4. Christ bought his church by paying the infinite price which the law demanded, and therefore it is his property. Acts 20: 28. 1 Cor. 6: 14. Eph. 1 : 14.—Bromwn. - - BUXTORF, (John,) an eminent Calvinistic divine, was born in 1554, at Camen, in Westphalia. Being very learned in Hebrew and Chaldaic, in the acquirement of which he obtained the assistance of many learned Jews, he was engaged, by the magistrates of Basil, in the pro- fessorship of those languages, which he taught with great success. He died at Basil, in 1629. His works are, Lexicon Chaldaicum, Thalmudicum, et Rabbinicum ; The- saurus Linguæ Hebraica: ; Hebrew Bible, with the Rabbi- nical and Chaldaic Paraphrases, the Massora, &c.; He- brew and Chaldaic Dictionary; Hebrew Grammar; Syna- goga Judaica, a Collection of Modes and Ceremonies; Bibliotheca Rabbinica ; Institutio Epistolaris Hebraica; ; Con- cordantiae Hebraica, &c. &c.—Ency. Amer. . . BUXTORF, (John,) son of the preceding, was born at Basil, in 1599, and was made professor of the Oriental languages there. He published a Chaldaic and Syriac Lexicon; Tractatus de Punctorum Vocalium et Accentuum in Libris Veteris Testament; Hebraicis Origine, Antiquitate et Auctoritate ; and Anti-Critica, seu Vindicia Veritatis Hebra- icar j in the two last of which he defended his father's opinions concerning the Hebrew vowel points. He was also the author of Dissertations on the Old and New Testament; Florilegium Hebraicum ; Exercitationes Philologica-critica, &c. He died at Basil in 1664.— Ency. Amer. BUZ, son of Nahor and Milcah, and brother of Huz, Gen. 22: 21. Elihu, one of Job’s friends, was descended from Buz, son of Nahor. Scripture calls him an Arame- an, or Syrian, (Job 32: 2.) where Ram is put for Aram. The prophet Jeremiah (chap. 25: 23.) threatens the Buz. ites, who dwelt in Arabia. Deserta, with God’s wrath.- Calmet, BYZANTINE CHURCH, comprehending all the churches which acknowledge the supremacy of the ecu- menical patriarch of Constantinople. Of the population included within its pale, reduced as it now nearly is to the limits of Turkey in Europe, Greece, and Palestine, it is not easy to form a correct estimate. The Greek popula- tion (properly so called) of the Morea, the islands Liva- dia, Epirus, Thessaly, and Macedonia, cannot be estimated at more than a million and a half; and those resident in the other provinces of European Turkey, including the º: of Moldavia and Wallachia, in Asiatic Tur- Key and Egypt, would probably be overrated at the same number. Three millions, we are inclined to think, would be a full allowance for the subjects of the universal bishop of the Eastern world.—Hend. Buck. - BYZANTINE RECENSION ; the text of the Greek New Testament, as propagated within the limits of the patriarchate of Constantinople. The readings of this recension are those which are most commonly found in the koine Ezdosis, or common printed Greek text, and are also most numerous in the existing manuscripts which correspond to it, a very considerable additional number of which have recently been discovered and collated by Pro- fessor Scholz. The Byzantine text is found in the four Gospels of the Alexandrian manuscript; it was the origi- nal from which the Sclavonic version was made, and was cited by Chrysostom and by Theophylact, bishop of Bul. garia.—Horne's Introduction, t C A B C A l { 291 ) C J/ © CAB; a Hebrew measure, the sixth part of a seah, or Satum; and the eighteenth part of an ephah. A cab con- tained three pints, one third of our wine measure; or two pints, five sixths of our corn measure.—Calmet. CABALA, (Heb.) traditions. Among the Jews, it principally means the mystical interpretations of their Scriptures, handed down by tradition. The manner in which Maimonides explains the cabala, or traditions of the Jews, is as follows:—“God not only delivered the law to Moses on mount Sinai, but the explanation of it likewise. When Moses came down from the mount, and entered into his tent, Aaron went to visit him, and Moses ac- quainted Aaron with the laws he had received from God, together with the explanation of them. After this, Aaron placed himself at the right hand of Moses, and Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons of Aaron, were admitted, to whom Moses repeated what he had just before told to Aaron. These being seated, the one on the right, the other on the left hand of Moses, the seventy elders of Israel, who com- posed the Sanhedrim, came in. Moses again declared the same laws to them, with the interpretations of them, as he had done before to Aaron and his sons. Lastly, all who pleased of the common people were invited to enter, and Moses instructed them likewise in the same manner as the rest. So that Aaron heard four times what Moses had been taught by God upon mount Sinai; Eleazar and Ithamar three times; the seventy elders twice; and the people once. Moses afterwards reduced the laws which he had received into writing, but not the explanations of them : these he thought it sufficient to trust to the memo- ries of the above-mentioned persons, who, being perfectly instructed in them, delivered them to their children, and these again to theirs, from age to age.” The cabala, therefore, is properly the oral law of the Jews, delivered down, by word of mouth, from father to son; and it is to these interpretations of the written law our Savior's censure is applied, when he reproves the Jews for making the commands of God of none effect through their traditions. Mark 7: *~. Some of the rabbins pretend that the origin of the ca- bala is to be referred to the angels; that the angel Raziel instructed Adam in it; that the angel Japhiel, Shem; the angel Zedekiel, Abraham, &c. But the truth is, these ex- plications of the law are only the several interpretations and decisions of the rabbins on the law of Moses; in the framing of which they studied principally the combina- tions of particular words, letters, and numbers, and by that means pretended to discover clearly the true sense of the difficult passages of Scripture. This is properly called the artificial cabala, to distin- guish it from simple tradition; and it is of three sorts. The first, called Gematria, consists in taking letters as figures, and explaining words by the arithmetical value of the letters of which they are composed. For instance, the Hebrew letters of Jabo-Schiloh, (Shiloh shall come,) make up the same arithmetical number as Mashiach (the Messiah ;) from whence they conclude that Shiloh signifies the Messiah. The second kind of artificial cabala, which is called Notaricon, consists in taking each particular letter of a word for an entire diction. For example, of Bereschith, which is the first word of Genesis, composed of the letters B, R, A, S, C, H, J, T, they make—Bara-Rakia-Arez- Schamaim-Jam-Tehomoth, i.e. he created the firmament, the earth, the heavens, the sea, and the deep; or in form- ing one entire diction out of the initial letters of many : thus, in Atah-Gibbor-Leolam-Adonai (thou art strong for- ever, O Lord,) they put the initial letters of this sentence together, and form the word Agla, which signifies either, I will reveal, or a drop of dew, and is the cabalistic name of God. - The third kind, called Themura, consists in changing and transposing the letters of a word: thus of the word Bereschith, (the first of the book of Genesis,) they make A-hetisfi, the first of the month Tisri, and infer from thence that the world was created on the first day of the month Tisri, which answers very nearly to our September. The cabala, according to the Jews, is a noble and sub- lime science, conducting men by an easy method to the profoundest truths. Without it, the holy Scriptures could not be distinguished from profane books, wherein we find some miraculous events, and as pure morality as that of the law, if we did not penetrate into the truths locked up under the external cover of the literal sense. As men were grossly deceived, when, dwelling upon the sensible object, they mistook angels for men ; so also they fall into error or ignorance, when they insist upon the surface of letters or words, which change with custom, and ascend not up to the ideas of God himself, which are infinitely more noble and spiritual. g Some visionaries, among the Jews, believe that Jesus Christ wrought his miracles by virtue of the mysteries of the cabala. Some learned men are of opinion that Py- thagoras and Plato learned the cabalistic art of the Jews in Egypt: others, on the contrary, say the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato furnished the Jews with the ca- bala. Most of the heretics in the primitive Christian church fell into the vain conceits of the cabala, par- ticularly the Gnostics, Valentinians, and Basilidians.— Hend. Buck. - CABALISTS; those Jewish doctors who profess the study of the cabala. In the opinion of these men, there is not a word, letter, or accent in the law, without some mystery in it. The first cabalistical author that we know of is Simon the son of Joachai, who is said to have lived a little before the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. His book, entitled Zohar, is extant; but it is agreed that many additions have been made to it. The first part of this work is entitled Zeniutha, or Mystery; the second, Idra Rabba, or the Great Synod ; the third, Idra Lata, or the Little Synod ; which is the author's adieu to his disci- ples.—Hend. Buck. CABIRI, (great, powerful ;) the four great gods of the ancient pagans, particularly the Samothracians. They were named Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, and Cas- millus, which are explained by Bochart to be Ceres, Pluto, Proserpine, and Mercury ; all children of Jupiter.— Broughton's Dict ; Danet's Dict. of Ant. ; Williams. CABUL ; the name which Hiram, king of Tyre, gave to the twenty cities in the land of Galilee, of which Solo- mon made him a present, in acknowledgment for the great services in building the temple. 1 Kings 9: 31. These cities not being agreeable to Hiram, on viewing them, he called them the land of Cabul, which in the Hebrew tongue denotes displeasing; others take it to signify binding or adhesive, from the clayey nature of the soil.— Watson. CADARIANS, (pomerful 5) a sect of Mussulmen, ac- cording to D'Herbelot, who maintain free-will in opposition to ſate, from which they are charged with admitting two first principles, like the Manichaeans.—Broughton's Dict. ; Williams. CADIZADELITES; a sect of mongrel Mahometans, in their doctrine and manners resembling the ancient Sto- ics, and remarkably grave; believing in Mahomet as the Paraclete, yet, some of them at least, reverencing Jesus Christ, and favoring the Christians. They receive both the Bible and the Koran, practise circumcision, and scru- ple not to drink wine. CAESAREA : See CesAREA. CAIAPHAS, high-priest of the Jews, succeeded Simon, Son of Camith; and after possessing this dignity mine years, from A. M. 4029 to 4038, he was succeeded by Jonathan, Son of Ananas, or Annas. Caiaphas was high- priest, A. M. 4037, which was the year of Jesus Christ's death. He married a daughter of Annas, who also is called high-priest in the gospel, because he had long en- joyed that dignity. When the priests deliberated on the seizure and death of Jesus Christ, Caiaphas declared, that there was no room for debate on that matter, “because it was expedient that one man should die for the people, -- "C A' I C A K [ 292 ) that the whole nation should not perish.” John 11: 49, 50. This sentiment was a prophecy, which God suffered to proceed from the mouth of the high-priest on this occa- sion, importing, that the death of Jesus would be for the salvation of the world. When Judas had betrayed Jesus, he was first taken before Annas, who sent him to his son- in-law, Caiaphas, who possibly lived in the same house. John 18:24. The priests and doctors of the law there assembled to judge our Savior, and to condemn him. The depositions of certain false witnesses being insuffi- cient to justify a sentence of death against him, and Jesus continuing silent, Caiaphas, as high-priest, said to him, “I adjure thee by the living God, that thou tellus whether thou art the Christ, the Son of God!”. To this adjura- tion, so solemnly made by the Superior judge, Jesus an- swered, “Thou hast said; nevertheless I say unto you, hereafter shall ye see the Son of man sitting on the right hand of power, and coming in the clouds of heaven.” On hearing these words, Caiaphas rent his clothes, saying, “What farther need have we of witnesses? Behold now you have heard his blasphemy. What think ye ** They answered, “He is worthy of death.” And, as the power of life and death was not at this time in their hands, but was reserved by the Romans, they conducted him to Pi- late, that he might confirm their sentence, and order his execution. Two years after this, Vitellius, governor of Syria, com- ing to Jerusalem at the passover, was received very mag- nificently by the people. As an acknowledgment for this honor, he restored the custody of the high-priest's orna- ments to the priests, he remitted certain duties raised on the fruits of the earth, and deposed the high-priest Caia- phas. From this it appears that Caiaphas had fallen under popular odium, for his deposition was to gratify the people.—Watson. CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Eve. Iſe was the first man who had been a child, and the first man born of woman. For his history, as connected with that of Abel, see ABEL. The mark set upon Cain, “lest any one finding him should kill him,” has been variously inter- preted. Some have supposed it a change in the color of his skin, others a certain horror of countenance. The LXX. understood the passage to mean, that the Lord gave him a sign, to assure him that his life should be preserved. Whatever it was, its object was not to aggravate, but to mitigate his punishment, which may intimate that Cain had manifested repentance. Mr. Taylor, in illustration of the history of Cain, ob- serves : Caim had slain Abel his brother; this being a very extraordinary and embarrassing instance of guilt, and perhaps the first enormous crime among mankind which required exemplary punishment, the Lord thought proper to interpose, and to act as judge on this singularly affecting occasion. Adam might be ignorant of this guilt, ignorant by what process to detect it, and ignorant by what penalty to punish it; but the Lord (metaphorically) hears of it, by the blood which cried from the ground; and he detects it, by citing the murderer to his tribunal; where, after examination and conviction, he passes sen- tence on him:—“Thou art cursed from the earth, nºbich hath opened her mouth to receive thy brother's blood; a fugitive and a vagabond shalt thou be in the earth.” And Cain said to the Lord, “Is my iniquity too great for expiation ? Is there no fine, no suffering, short of such a vagabond state, that may be accepted ? Behold, thou hast banished me this day from the face of the land (adamah) where I was born, where my parents dwell, my native country and from thy presence also, in thy public worship and institu- tions; I must non hide myself from all my heart holds dear, being prohibited from approaching my former inti- mates, and thy venerated altar. I shall be a fugitive, a vagabond on the earth ; and any one (in future years) who findeth me may slay me without compunction, as if I were rather a wild beast than a man.” The Lord said, “I mentioned an expiation formerly, on account of your crime of ungovernable malice and anger, bidding you lay a sin-offering before the sacred entrance; but then you disregarded that admonition and command. Neverthe- less, as I did not take the life of your father Adam, though forfeited, when I sat in judgment on him, but abated of that rigorous penalty; so I do not design that you should be taken off by sudden death; neither immediately from myself, nor mediately by another, I pronounce, there- fore, a much heavier sentence on whoever shall destroy Cain. Moreover, to show that Cain is a person suffering under punishment, since no one else has power to do it; since he resists the justice of his fellow-men; since his crime has called me to be his judge, I shall brand his forehead with a mark of his crime; and then, whoever observes this mark will avoid his company: they will not smite him, but they will hold no intercourse with him, fearing his irascible passions may take offence at some unguarded word, and should again transport him into a fury, which may issue in bloodshed. Beside this, all mankind, wherever he may endeavor to associate, shall fear to pollute themselves by conference with him.”—The uneasiness continually arising from this state of seques- tration, led the unhappy Cain to seek repose in a distan settlement. - - He retired into the land of Nod, lying east from the province of Eden. While he dwelt in this country, which is generally understood to be Susiana, or Chusistan, he had a son, whom he named Enoch, in memory of whom he built a city of the same name. This is all we learn from Scripture concerning Cain.—Watson ; Calmet. CAINAN, son of Enos, born A. M. 325, when Enos was ninety years of age. Gen. 5: 9. At the age of seventy, Cainan begat Mahalaleel; and died, aged nine hundred and ten, A. M. 1235. CAINAN, a son of Arphaxad, and father of Salah. He is neither in the Hebrew nor in the Vulgate of Gen. 11: 12–14., but is named between Salah and Arphaxad, in Luke 3: 36. The LXX. in Gen. 10: 24. 11: 12. admit him. Some have suggested, that the Jews suppressed the name Cainan out of their copies, designing to render the LXX. and Luke suspected. Others, that Moses omitted Cainan, being desirous to reckon ten generations only from Adam to Noah, and from Noah to Abraham. Others, that Arphaxad was father of both Cainan and Salah ; of Salah naturally, of Caiman legally. Others, that Cainan and Salah were the same person, under two names; this they allege in support of that opinion which maintains Cainan to be really son of Arphaxad, and father of Salah. Many learned men believe, that this name was not origi- nally in the text of Luke, but is an addition by inadver- tent transcribers, who, remarking it in some copies of the LXX., added it.—Calmet. CAINITES; a sect that sprung up about the year 130; so called, because they esteemed Cain worthy of the greatest honors. They honored those who carry in Scrip- ture the most visible marks of reprobation; as the inha- bitants of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. They had in particular great veneration for Judas, under the pretence that the death of Christ had saved mankind —Hend. Buck. - CAKES. The Hebrews had several sorts of cakes, which they offered in the temple, made of meal, of wheat, or of barley; kneaded sometimes with oil, sometimes with honey; sometimes only rubbed over with oil when baked, or fried with oil in a frying-pan. For offering, these cakes were salted, but unleavened. If the cakes which were offered were balced in an oven, and sprinkled or kneaded with oil, the whole was pre- sented to the priest, who waved the offering before the Lord, then took so much of it as was to be burned on the altar, threw that into the fire, and kept the rest himself. Lev. 2: 4. If the offering were a cake kneaded with oil, and dressed in a frying-pan, it was broken, and oil was poured on it; then it was presented to the priest, who took a handful of it, which he threw on the altar-fire, and the rest was his own. It should be observed, that oil in the East answers the purpose of butter among us in Europe. Cakes or loaves, offered with sacrifices of beasts, as was customary, (for the great sacrifices were always accom- panied by offerings of cakes, and libations of wine and oil,) were kneaded with oil. The wine and oil were not poured on the head of the animal about to be sacrificed, (as among the Greeks and Romans,) but on the fire in which the victim was consumed. Num, 28: 1, &c. The C A L C A L [ 293 ) law regulated the quantity of meal, wine, and oil, for each kind of victim. See BREAD.—Calmet. CALAH; a city of Assyria, built by Ashur. Gen, 10: 12. From it the adjacent country, on the north-east of the Tigris, and south of the Gordian mountains of Armenia, was called Callachene, or Callacine.— Watson. CALAMUS, kanha; (Exod. 30:23. Cant. 4:14. Isa. 43: 24. Jer. 6:20. Ezek. 27; 19.) an aromatic reed, growing in moist places in Egypt, in Judea, near lake Genesareth, and in several parts of Syria. It grows to about two feet in height; bearing from the root a knotted Stalk, quite round, containing in its cavity a soft white pith. The whole is of an agreeable aromatic smell; and the plant is said to scent the air even while growing. When cut down, dried, and powdered, it makes an ingredient in the richest perfumes. It was used for this P. by the Jews. CALAMUs ScFIPTORIUS ; a reed answering the purpose of a pen to write with. The ancients used styles, to write on tablets covered with wax ; but reeds, to write on parchment or papyrus. The Psalmist says, “My tongue is the pen of a ready writer.” 45: 1. The He- brew signifies rather a style. The third book of Macca- bees states, that the writers employed in making a list of the Jews in Egypt, produced their reeds quite worn out. Baruch wrote his prophecies with ink, (Jer. 36: 4.) and, consequently, ºf reeds; for it does not appear that quills were then used to write with. In 3 John 13, the apostle says, he did not design to write with pen (reed) and ink. The Arabians, Persians, Turks, Greeks, and Armenians, to this day, write with reeds, or rushes.— |Watson. CALAMY, (EDMUND,) a celebrated non-conformist di- vine, was born at London, in 1600, and studied at Cam- bridge. Having embraced Presbyterianism, he took an active part in the religious disputes of the age, and was one of the authors of the treatise which bore the title of Smectymnus, and was directed against Episcopacy. He was a member of the assembly of divines at Westmin- ster; but he strenuously opposed the trial of the king, and the usurpation of Cromwell, and had a share in effect- ing the restoration of Charles the Second. The restored monarch offered him the bishopric of Litchfield, but he refused it, and he was subsequently expelled from his liv- ing by the act of uniformity. . Such was the shock to his health, in consequence of the fire of London, that he is said to have died of it, in 1666. He produced many ser- mons and controversial writings. Calamy was a learned, yet a plain, faithful, pious, and practical preacher. On one occasion, after the restoration, when preaching before general Monk on the subject of “filthy lucre,” he said, “And why is it called filthy, but because it makes men do base and filthy things? Some men will betray three king- doms for filthy lucre's sake;” at the same time throwing his handkerchief towards the general’s pew.—Davenport. CALAMY, (EDMUND, DR.) an eminent non-conformist divine, grandson of the preceding, was born in London, April 5th, 1671. His father, bearing the same name, was one of the ministers ejected by the act of uniformity, from his living at Moreton, in Essex. His father early placed him in the merchant tailors' school, where he obtained the esteem of his master, Mr. Hartcliffe, and gained much elementary knowledge. He was subsequently instructed at the seminary of Mr. Cradock, in Suffolk, where he procured, by his talents and worth, the esteem of many persons, who afterwards attained to great eminence in the church of England. At the age of seventeen, he was re- moved to the university of Utrecht, and placed under the tu’.ion of two distinguished professors, De Uries and Graevius. There he studied intensely. One whole night of every week, in addition to all his protracted days, he devoted to the acquisition of knowledge. In 1691, when Principal Carstairs was sent to Holland, in quest of a gen- tleman to fill a professor's chair in the university of Edin- burgh, he applied to Calamy, and pressed him to accept the situation; but he declined the proffered honor, though soon afterwards he returned to England, for the purpose of pursuing his studies in the Bodleian library. After studying the controversy between the conformists and non- conformists, he determined on entering the ministry among the latter, and frequently preached in the meeting-house * , at Oxford, and round the neighborhood. In 1672, he was requested to assist the minister of a Presbyterian congre. gation in Blackfriars'; and in 1673 was ordained at Little St. Helen's. In 1702, he was chosen to assist Dr. Wil. liams, and elected one of the Tuesday lecturers at Salters’ hall. In 1703, the Rev. Mr. Alsop being removed, by death, from his congregation in Westminster, Dr. Calamy succeeded him; and there, to persons of high rank and considerable knowledge and information, he for many years preached with pious ardor and wise fidelity. In 1702, he published an “Abridgment of Baxter's History of his Life and Times,” and an “Apology for Non-con- formists.” In 1703, he answered bishop Hoadley’s Reasonableness of Conformity to the Church of England, in a work entitled “A Defence of Moderate Non-conform- ity,” &c. Soon after this publication, bishop Hoadley wrote a work, entitled, “A Serious Admonition to Mr. Calamy.” In 1704, Mr. Calamy, published the second part of his Defence of Moderate Non-conformity, which the celebrated Locke pronounced to be unanswerable. In 1705, he wrote the third part of his Defence, and added thereto a Letter to Hoadley, in reply to his “Defence of the Reasonableness of Conformity.” In 1707, Hoadley published his “Defence of Episcopal Ordination,” and Calamy wrote a reply to it; but that reply, from pruden- tial motives, he did not print. In 1709, at the request of several distinguished persons in Scotland, he visited that country; was received with the highest marks of respect and esteem, and was honored by the universities of Edin- burgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, with the degree of doctor of divinity. In 1713, he published a second edition of his “Abridgment of Baxter's Life and Times,” and continued, as usual, faithfully and zealously to preach to a large and attentive congregation. In 1718, he wrote a vindication of his grandfather and other ejected ministers, from the charges brought against them by Echard, in his history of England; and in 1720, his far celebrated “Non-con- formists' Memorial” first made its appearance. That work contains biographical notices of the two thousand ministers, lecturers, masters, and fellows of colleges, who were ejected and silenced by the act of uniformity. His mind was not, however, solely devoted to the cause of non-conformity, but he was often engaged in recom- mending the doctrines or duties of religion. In 1722, he dedicated a volume of sermons on the “Doctrine of the Holy Trinity,” to the king, who ordered him to be pre- sented with fifty pounds. He wrote a short life of Mr. Howe, published many single sermons, and left behind him the manuscript of an Historical Account of his own Life, with some Refiections on the Times in which he had lived. That account consisted of three volumes folio, and has recently been published. He died on the 3d of June, 1732, aged sixty-two. To Dr. Calamy dissenters were much attached, in con- sequence of the zeal, and ability, and kindness with which he pleaded their cause; and most men allow that he was a sincere Christian, a good scholar, and a sound theolo- gian. See Mayo's Sermon on the Death of Calamy; Cala- my's Abridgment of the Life of Baxter, &c.—Jones's Chr. Biog. CALAS, (John,) an unfortunate merchant of Toulouse, of the Protestant religion. When his son, Marc Antoine, who had embraced the tenets of the Catholics, had stran- gled himself in a fit of melancholy, the father was seized by the suspicious government, as guilty of the murder. No proof could be offered against him, and self-evident as it was that a weak old man could not execute such a deed of violence on a youth full of strength, in a house where the family was then resident, even if the feelings of a parent were put out of the question, yet he was condemned and broken upon the wheel in 1762, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. . The family of the unhappy masa retired to Geneva, and Voltaire subsequently undertook to defend his memory. . He succeeded in drawing public attention towards the circumstances of the case, and a revision of the trial was granted. Fifty judges once more examined the facts, and declared Calas altogether innocent.— Davenport. CALASIO, (MARIUs,) a Franciscan friar, was born at Calasio, near Aquila, in the Neapolitan territory, about C A L. C A L | 294 | 1550. He died in 1620, just as he was on the point of publishing his Concordance of the Bible, in four folio volumes; an excellent work, which forms a complete He- brew Lexicon, and on which he had spent forty years of incessant labor, Hebrew was as familiar to Calasio as his native language. His Concordance appeared in 1621, and was republished by Romaine, in 1747–Lavenport. CALATRAVA, THE NUNS OF THE ORDER OF, were founded in 1219, by Don Gonsalves Yanes, grand-master of the knights of Calatrava, in Spain. They wore the habit of the Cistercians, and performed the same probations as the knights.-Broughton's Dict, , Williams. GALDERARI, (braziers,) a politico-religious sect of Italy, set on foot, during the reign of Murat, in opposition to the Carbonari, which see.—Williams. CALDERWOOD, (DAVID,) a Scotch Presbyterian di- vine, was born in 1575, and strenuously opposed the plan of James VI. to establish conformity between the English and Scotch churches; for which opposition he was ba- nished. Retiring to Holland, he published, in 1625, his work, entitled Altare Damascenum; a severe attack on Episcopacy. He returned to Scotland; contributed greatly to the establishment of Presbyterianism; and died in 1651: Calderwood left a voluminous history of the church of Scotland, of which only a portion has been printed. He was a man endowed with extraordinary powers of mind; and was, during the whole of his useful life, a firm friend to non-conformity, devoted to the cause, and con- tinually wrote in its favor: nor was he less distinguished as a Christian than as a divine. His piety was undis- sembled and eminent; and though the correctness of his creed may be questioned, the sincerity of his religion must be admitted. See Calderwood’s History of the Church of Scotland, and Spotwood's History of the Church of Scotland.—Davenport; Jones's Chr. Biog. CALDWELL, (ELIAs B.) clerk of the supreme court of the United States, graduated at Princeton in 1796, and died at Washington in May, 1825, gladdened by the pro- mises of the religion which he professed. He zealously assisted in forming and conducting the American Coloni- zation Society, of which he was the corresponding secre- tary. In honor of him, the managers of the society gave the name of Caldwell to a town in their African colony. Mr. C., in order to bring religious instruction to the un- taught in the country near Washington, obtained a license to preach from the presbytery, and was accustomed to preach on the Sabbath.-African Repos. i. 126; Miss. Herald, 22: 81. ; Allen. - CALEB, son of Jephunneh, a heroic prince of Judah, was sent with Joshua and others to view the land of Ca- naan. Num. 13. They brought with them some of the finest fruits as specimens of its productions; but some of the spies discouraging the people, they openly declared against the expedition. Joshua and Caleb encouraged them to go forward, and the Lord sentenced the whole multitude except these two to die in the desert. 14: 1–10. When Joshua invaded and conquered great part of Ca- naan, Caleb with his tribe came to Gilgal, and asked for a particular possession, which Joshua bestowed upon him with many blessings. ch. 14: 6—15. Caleb, there- fore, with his tribe, marched against Kirjath-arba, (after- wards Hebron,) took it, and killed three giants of the race of Anak; from thence he went to Debir, or Kirjath-sepher, which was taken by Othniel ; 115:13–19. Caleb is thought to have survived Joshua.—Calmet. - CALENDAR ; the order and series of the months that make up a year : it comes from the word Calenda, the name which the Romans gave to the first days of the month. The Roman calendar was composed by Romu- lus, founder of Rome, who being better versed in martial affairs than acquainted with the stars, made a year of ten months, whereof the first was March, then April, May, June, Quintil, called afterwards Julius, and Sextil, called also in process of time, August, September, October, No- vember, December : he gave March, May, Quintil, and October, each thirty-one days, and but thirty each to the other six ; so that altogether made but three hundred and four days. Numa Pormpilius reformed this, and imitated the Grecians, to allow the year twelve lunar months, of thirty and twenty-nine days each, one after the other, which made three hundred and fifty-four days; but be. cause he loved an uneven number, through a superstition that he held from the Egyptians, he made his of three hundred and fifty-five days, and gave it twelve months, viz. January, February, March, &c. January was of twenty-nine days, February of twenty-eight, March, May, July, and October, of thirty-one, and the other six of twenty-nine each : it did not matter, February's being an even number, because he designed it for the sacrifices that were made for the gods of hell, to which that number, be- cause unlucky, better belonged. Numa would have the month of January, which he placed at the winter solstice, to be the beginning of the year, and not March, which Romulus placed at the equinox of the spring. He also made use of the intercalation of the Grecians, who added a supernumerary month every second year, which con- sisted successively of twenty-two and twenty-three days; and that to equal the civil year to the motion of the sun, which makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days, and about six hours, he ordered the chief pontiffs to show the people the time and manner of inserting these extraordinary months; but whether it was through igno- rance, superstition or interest, they confounded things so much, that the feasts which should be kept according to this institution at certain times, fell upon quite different seasons, as the feasts of autumn upon the spring, &c. This disorder was so great, that Julius Caesar, dictator and sovereign pontiff, after he had won the battle of Phar- salia, did not look upon the reformation of the calendar as a thing unworthy his care. He sent for the famous astrologer, Sosigines, from Alexandria, who ordered the year according to the course of the sun, and having com- posed a calendar of three hundred and sixty-five days, he left the six hours to form a day at the end of every fourth year, which day was to be inserted in the month of Feb- ruary, after the 24th of that month, which the Romans, according to their way of counting, called the sixth of the calends; and hence came the word bissectile, because they said twice Seacto Calendas, to imply the ten days by which the solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days surpassed Numa's of three hundred and fifty-five; he added two days to January, Sextil, and December, who had before but twenty-nine; and added to April, June, September, and November, a day to each, leaving the month of February but twenty-eight days in the ordinary years, and twenty-nine in the bissextile. And as by the negligence of those who were to order and distribute the intercalary months, the beginning of the year was found to be seventeen days before the winter solstice, and that it was then also a year of the intercalation of the month of twenty-three days, which in all made ninety ; for this reason, I say, this year of the correction of the calendar by Julius Caesar. was of fifteen months, and of four hun- dred and forty-five days, and was therefore called the year of confusion. It is of importance to observe that this emperor, willing to accommodate himself to the humor of the Romans, who were used so long to the lunar year, begun the Julian year upon a day of the new moon, which followed the winter solstice, and which was at that time eight days after it, and that was the reason why the year begun since eight days after the solstice of Capricorn. It was not hard for the Romans, who then commanded most part of the earth, to make this correction of Julius Caesar to be received, and bring it in use amongst the remotest nations. The Grecians left off their lunar, and the inter- calation of their forty-five days every fourth year. The Egyptians fixed their Thot, or the first day of their year, which before changed from one season to another; the Hebrews did the like, so that it became the calendar of all nations. The primitive Christians kept the same name of the months, the same number of days of the months, and the intercalation of a day in the bissextile year; but took out of the Julian calendar the mundinal letters, which marked the days of assembly, or ſeria, and put other let- ters in their place to mark Sunday, and the other days of the week; and instead of the profane feasts, and the plays of the Romans, they placed in order the ſeasts and ceremonies of the true religion. About the beginning of the sixth age, Dennis the abbot, surnamed the Little, see- ing the different customs of the eastern and western C A L C A L [ 205 J churches about the time of celebrating Easter, he pro- posed a calendar according to the Victorian period, com- posed of cycles of the sun and moon, with reference to the birth of Jesus Christ; for until then the greatest part of the Christians counted their eras from the foundation of Rome, or from the consuls and emperors, always keep- ing to the custom of the Romans as to the beginning of the year, fixed on the first of January. This calendar of the ancient church showed precisely enough the new moon, and consequently the time of the feast of Easter; but in succeeding ages, it was discovered that this calculation did not agree altogether with the course of the sun and moon, and that the feast of Easter was no more held upon the full moon of the first month. And this error in astronomy was of evil consequence, because the feast of Easter would have insensibly fallen in winter, and then in au- tumn and summer. To remedy this disorder, pope Gre- gory XIII. sent briefs to all Christian princes, and to all famous universities, to desire them to seek means to re- establish the vernal equinox in its right place; and after he had received the opinions of all the learned, he cut off ten days in the calendar, and confirmed it with a bull in 1581, so that the day after St. Francis, which is the 4th of October, was called fifteen instead of five; by this cor- rection, what was before the 11th of October became the 21st; and the equinox of spring, which fell upon the 2d of March, was changed to the 12th, as it was in the time of the council of Nice, in 325. The same pope found a way to hinder the like disorder for the future, in cutting off one bissextile day every hundred years. This cor- rection was received by all those that are of the church of Rome, but has not been allowed of by the Protestants of England, Germany, &c. And there were several learned men that wrote against this reformation; amongst others. Maestlinus, professor of mathematics at Tubingen, Scaliger, and Georgius Germanus; and there was a new modelled calendar made by Mr. Viete, and presented to the pope, with his notes upon the faults that he observed in the Gregorian. This is also called the new and perpe- tual calendar, because the disposition of the epacts, which are substituted for the golden number, will make it of use in all times, whatever may be discovered in the motion of the stars.-Blondel; Hend. Buck. CALENDARS; books containing the memorials of the days on which the martyrs suffered. At first, the calendar contained the mention of the martyrs only; but, in the course of time, the confessors, or those who, without ar- riving at the glory of martyrdom, had confessed their faith in Christ, by their heroic virtues, were admitted to the same honor. The calendars were preserved in the churches. A calendar of the church of Rome was pub- lished by Boucher, another by Allatius, a third by Joannes Wanto, chancellor of Paris. A most ancient calendar of the church of Carthage was published by Mabillon. But the principal work of this kind is Joseph Assemann's “Calendar of the Universal Church, illustrated with notes.”—Butler's Life of Alban Butler ; Henderson's JBuck. CALENDERS ; Mahometan friars, so called from Santon Calenderi, their ſounder, who went bare-headed, and clothed in the skins of wild beasts, whom they resem- bled in their morals, or rather want of morals.-Brough- loit's Dict, ; Williams. CALEPODIUS ; a Christian minister of Rome, who suffered martyrdom in the persecution of the emperor Maximinus. After being inhumanly treated, and bar- barously dragged about the streets, a millstone was fastened about his neck, and he was thrown into the river Tiber, A. D. 235.-Fox. CALIGULA, (CAIUs,) emperor of Rome, succeeded Tiberius, A. D. 37; and reigned three years, nine months, and twenty-eight days. It does not appear that he mo- lested the Christians. Caius having commanded Petro- nius, governor of Syria, to place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem, for the purpose of adoration, the Jews so vigorously opposed it, that, fearing a sedition, he sus- pended the order. He was killed by Chaereas, one of his guards, while coming out of the theatre, A. D. 41, in the fourth year of his reign ; and was succeeded by Claudius. —Calmét, CALISTUS; a bishop of Rome, who suffered martyrdom, A. D. 224. The manner of his death is not recorded.—Foz, CALIXTUS, properly CALLISBN, (GEORGE ;) the most able and enlightened theologian of the Lutheran church in the seventeenth century, was born in 1586, at Melby, in Holstein, and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt. In 1607, in the latter university, he turned his thoughts to theology; in 1609, visited the universities of the south of Germany; in 1612, those of Holland, England, and France, where his intercourse with different religious par- ties, and the greatest scholars of his time, developed that independence and liberality of opinion, for which he was distinguished. After a brilliant victory, in 1614, in a dis- pute with the Jesuit Murianus, he was made professor of theology, and died in 1656. His treatises on the authority of the Holy Scriptures, transubstantiation, celibacy, su- premacy of the pope, and the Lord's Supper, belong, even according to the judgment of learned Catholics, to the most profound and acute writings against Catholicism. But his genius, and the depth of his exegetic and his- torical knowledge, exposed him to the persecutions of the zealots of his time. His assertion that the points of difference between Calvinists and Lutherans were of less importance than the doctrines in which they agreed, and that the doctrine of the Trinity was less distinctly ex- pressed in the Old Testament than in the New, and his recommendation of good works, drew upon him the re- proaches of crypto-papism. His heresy was termed Syn- cretism. See below. The elector John George I. of Saxony, protected him, in 1655, at the diet of Ratisbon, against the Lutheran theologians. His historical investigations and his philosophical spirit shed new light on dogmatic the- ology and the exegesis of the Bible, and gave them a more scientific form. He made Christian morality a distinct branch of science, and by reviving the study of the Chris- tian fathers, and of the history of the church, prepared the way for Spener, Thomasius, and Semler. He edu- cated his son, Frederick Ulrick Calixtus, and many other enlightened theologians.—Ency. Amer. CALIXTINS ; a branch of the Hussites in Bohemia and Moravia, in the fifteenth century. The principal point in which they differed from the church of Rome, was the use of the chalice (calix,) or communicating in both kinds. Calixtins was also a name given to those among the Lutherans who followed the opinions of George Calixtus, a celebrated divine in the seventeenth century, who en- deavored to unite the Romish, Lutheran, and Calvinistic churches, in the bonds of charity and mutual benevo- lence. He maintained, 1. That the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, by which he meant those elementary principles whence all its truths flow, were preserved pure in all three communions, and were contained in that an- cient form of doctrine that is vulgarly known by the name of the apostles' creed. 2. That the tenets and opinions which had been constantly received by the ancient doctors during the first five centuries, were to be considered as of equal truth and authority with the express declarations and doctrines of Scripture.—Hend. Buck. CALL; to name a person or thing, Acts 11: 26. Rom, 7: 3. 2. To cry to another for help; and hence, to pray. The first passage in the Old Testament in which we meet with this phrase, is Gen. 4: 26, where we read, “Then began men to call on the name of the Lord,” or Jehovah; the meaning of which seems to be, that they then first begun to worship him in public assemblies. In both the Old and New Testament, to call upon the name of the Lord, imports invoking the true God in prayer, with a confession that he is Jehovah, that is, with an acknow- ledgment of his essential and incommunicable attributes. In this view the phrase is applied to the worship of Christ. Acts2:21, 7:59, 9: 14, 22: 16. Rom. 10: 12. 1 Cor. 1:2. — Watson. - CALLING. Divines have disputed much in modern times concerning “the calls and invitations of the gospel;” and difficulties have been started about reconciling them with the scripture doctrines of election and particular re- demption. Many, no doubt, have obscured and perverted the doctrine of divine grace by what have been termed ministerial calls, and exhortations, and gospel offers. Per- Sons, while in a state of unbelief, hove been directed what C A L C A L [ 296 | they should do in order to work themselves into a converted state, and become qualified for trusting in Christ. Faith has been represented as some laborious exercise of the mind; and sinners have been urged to strive hard to per- form the great work of believing, that they may be justi- fied. These things are unquestionably both improper and pernicious ; because instead of exhibiting Christ as the immediate, the free, and the all-sufficient relief of the guilty, they convert the gospel into a law of works, and give the sinner as much to do, in order to obtain an inter- est in Christ and his salvation, as if he were to obey the whole law. 1. But though the calls of the gospel may have been misrepresented, and converted into a self-righteous system, nothing is more plain than that there are invitations, calls, and exhortations addressed to unbelievers, in the Scrip- tures. Such are Isa. 55: 1–4. Matt. 11: 28. John 7: 37. Rey, 22; 16, 17. Christ represents the preaching of the gospel under the similitude of inviting persons to a mar- riage supper, where every thing was prepared and ready for their use. Matt. 22: 2–15. Luke 14: 16–24. Paul speaks of himself and fellow-apostles as Christ's ambas- sadors, commissioned by him to beseech, to pray, and to entreat men to be reconciled to God. 2 Cor. 5: 18–21. And this corresponds with the words in the parable, “Com- pel them to come in.” Luke 14; 23. No doubt, this compulsion is only to be effected by persuasion, the forci- ble persuasion of truth; and there is in the gospel testi- mony and promise every thing that is calculated to pro- mote that object. If indeed the gospel resembled some cold mathematical problem which persons might examine and re-examine, and then lay aside as a thing in which they had no immediate interest or concern, it would be as supposed; but if we reflect upon its important and inte- resting nature to every one who hears it, and how deeply their present peace and final happiness are involved in the reception which they give it, we must at once perceive how much the state of the question becomes thereby al- tered; for “it is not only a faithful saying, but a saying that is worthy of all acceptation,” that is, supremely ex- cellent and desirable, “that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners.” 1 Tim. 1: 15. Accordingly, when the first preachers of the word went abroad among the nations as the heralds of salvation, they pressed home the doctrine of reconciliation upon men, declaring that God was now accessible to sinners by the death of his Son; and they urged this as the grand motive and argument why men should be reconciled unto God : and these things they enforced upon their consciences with a view to excite their affections, their hopes and their fears. On the other hand, “knowing the terrors of the Lord, they persuaded men” to flee from the wrath to come, awakening the care- less and unconcerned to a proper consideration of their state, and of the danger they incurred in rejecting the great salvation. They, at the same time, set before them the glorious suitableness and freedom of that salvation, the evidence by which it is supported, and the happiness which results from enjoying it; thus alluring them by the mercies of God; and in all this, addressing themselves, not merely to the speculative fancy, but “to every man's conscience as in the sight of God.” 2 Cor. 4: 2. Thus they “compelled them to come in.” And the divine wis- dom and condescension were equally manifested in this ; for we often see the pressing invitations and importunate entreaties, even of our fellow-creatures, influencing the most obdurate minds, when every other method has proved ineffectual. And to this method the blessed God hath condescended to have recourse, to work upon the human mind, in sending the message of peace, pardon, and re- conciliation among his rebellious creatures. Thus far both the Arminian and the Calvinist are agreed. 2. If now the word of God does contain invitations, calls, and entreaties to sinners, while dead in trespasses and sins, to repent and believe the gospel ; and if, on the other hand, it asserts that no man can come unto Christ, or believe in him, except the Father draw him ; neither of which pro- positions can be denied ; then, certainly, the difficulty which we may feel in harmonizing them, should not influ- ence us to deny the truth of either. We ought rather to confess our ignorance, and leave it to God to harmonize these apparent difficulties, and to justify his own ways to man. The Arminian, it is true, has his theory for this purpose, and the Calvinist has his ; but neither, it seems, has yet given universal satisfaction. The Arminian, dis- satisfied with the obvious distinction between a natural and a moral inability, pleads for sufficient grace to all; to which the Calvinist replies, that this hypothesis, while denying in every case that of sovereign efficiency, ascribes to man and not to God, the very turning point of his own salvation. See ARMINIANISM, and CALVINISM. 3. “On this difficult question,” says a late writer, “what must we answer? Must we say that God could not fore- see the event? This cannot be admitted without doing injustice to his perfections as well as to Scripture, which foresaw and foretold the rejection of the Messiah by the Jews, and the rejection of the Jews for murdering the Messiah. Must we say that God expostulates with none but the elect 2 But this is rather cutting the knot than untying it. Must we then say that God is insincere in addressing them? This is dreadful : for if God can speak falsely, dangerous is the state of those who trust him. Neither of these inferences can be admitted; indeed it would answer no end; for to admit either of these, is to plunge ourselves into a thousand difficulties for the sake of removing one. Let us then rest, where we ought to rest. Let us believe the Scripture propositions to be true, and, applying ourselves to practice, let us leave the man ner of reconciling them to God. I call it but the shadow of a difficulty; for indeed a man must know very little of God, very little of himself, and very little of Scripture, not to know that two truths may be both certain, and yet the harmony of them be beyond his comprehension. 4. There is then a universal call of the gospel to all men; for wherever it comes, it is the voice of God's Spirit to those who hear it, calling them to repent and believe the divine testimony unto the salvation of their souls; and it leaves them ir,excusable in rejecting it. John 3: 14 —19. Heb. 10; 26––29. This universal call, however, is not inseparably connected with salvation; for it is in reference to that, that Christ says, “Many are called, but few are chosen.” Matt. 22: 14. 5. Though these words, therefore, are well understood, as they occur in general use, it must nevertheless be ap- parent to all who read the New Testament with attention, that they have a sacred and appropriate signification as used by the evangelists and apostles, the proper under- standing of which is of considerable importance. For the Scripture also speaks of a calling which is effectual, and which consequently is more than the outward ministry of the word; yea, more than some of its partial and tempo- rary effects upon many who hear it, for it is always as- cribed to God’s making his word effectual through the en- lightening and sanctifying influences of his Holy Spirit. In the golden chain of spiritual blessings which the apos- tle enumerates in Rom. 8:30., originating in the divine predestination, and terminating in the bestowment of eter- nal glory on the heirs of salvation, that of CALLING forms an important link. “Moreover, whom he did predesti- mate, them he also called, and whom he called, them he also justified, and whom he justified, them he also glori- fied.” Thus it is said, “Paul may plant, and Apollos water, but God giveth the increase.” 1 Cor. 3: 6, 7. Again, he is said to have “opened the heart of Lydia, that she attended to the doctrine of Paul.” Acts 16: 14. Hence, faith is said to be the gift of God. Eph. 2: 8. Phil. 1: 29. The Spirit takes of the things of Christ, and shows them to men, (John 16: 14.) and thus opens their eyes, turning them from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto God. Acts 26: 18. And so God saves his people, not by works of righteousness which they have done, but according to his mercy, by the wash- ing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit. Titus 3: 5. Thus they are saved, and called with an holy calling, not according to their works, but according to the divine purpose and grace which was given them in Christ Jesus before the world began. 2 Tim 1:9. It is evident that in these and the like passages, the term calling has much the same meaning as conversion ; only that it more forcibly suggests the idea of the Gospel as the instrument, and of God as the author, See also Rom. 1: 6, 8: 28, 30. C A L \! A L [ 297 9:11, 23, 24. 11; 29. 1 Cor. 1: 24–31. 1 Thess. 1: 5. 2 Thess. .2: 14. Every unbiassed mind must admit this conclusion. 6. Effectual calling has been more particularly defined be the call of the gospel, accompanied with the inward work of God's Spirit, whereby convincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening our minds with the knowledge of Christ, and renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in the gospel. This may further be considered as a call from darkness to light, (1 Pet. 2:9.); from bondage to liberty, (Gal. 2: 13.); from the fellowship of the world to the fel- lowship of Christ, (1 Cor. 1:9.); from misery to happi- ness, (1 Cor. 7: 15.); from sin to holiness, (1 Thes. 4:7); finally, from all created good to the enjoyment of eternal felicity. 1 Pet. 5: 10. It is considered in the Scripture as an holy calling, (2 Tim. 1:9.); an high calling, (Phil. 3: 14.); an heavenly calling, (Heb. 3: 1.); and without re- pentance, as God will never cast off any who are once drawn to him. Rom. 11: 29.-Jones; Watson ; Buck ; Gill ; Ridgeley; Bennet ; McLean ; Fuller. CALLENDER, (ELISHA,) minister of the first Baptist church in Boston, was the son of Ellis Callender, who was a member as early as 1669, and minister of the same church from 1708 till 1726. In early life the blessings of divine grace were imparted to him. He was graduated at Harvard college in the year 1710. At his ordination, May 21, 1718, Drs. Increase and Cotton Mather and Mr. Webb, though of a different denomination, gave their as- sistance. He was very faithful and successful in the pas- toral office till his death, March 31, 1738. He was succeeded by Mr. Condy. A few days before his death he said, “When I look on one hand, I see nothing but sin, guilt, and discouragement; but when I look on, the other, I see my glorious Savior, and the merits of his precious blood, which cleanseth from all sin. I cannot say, that I have such transports of joy, as some have had; but through grace I can say, I have gotten the victory over death and the grave.” The last words which fell from his lips were, “I shall sleep in Jesus.” His life was unspotted; his conversation was always affable, religious, and dignified; and his end was peaceful and serene.— Backus's Hist. of New England, iii. 124; Boston Eve. Post, April 3, 1738; Allen ; Benedict. CALLENDER, (John,) an eminent Baptist minister and writer in Rhode Island, was a nephew of Elisha Cal- lender, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1723. He was ordained colleague with Mr. Peckam as pastor of the church at Newport, Oct. 13, 1731. This was the second Baptist church in America. It was founded in the year 1644. Mr. Callender died January 26, 1748, aged forty- one. He was a man of very considerable powers of mind, and of accomplished education. The purity and evangelical simplicity of his doctrine, confirmed and em- bellished by the virtuous and devout tenor of his life, en- deared him to his flock, and justly conciliated the esteem of all the wise, worthy, and good. Humanity, benevo- lence, and charity breathed in his conversation. He was distinguished equally for his candor, and piety. He col- lected many papers relating to the history of the Baptists in this country, which were used by Mr. Backus. A cen- tury after the deed of Rhode Island was obtained of the Narragansett Indians, he delivered at Newport, March 24, 1738, a sermon on the history of the colony, which was published in 1739, with additions. This historical dis- course, usually called the Century Sermon, brings down the history of Rhode Island and Providence plantations, from 1637 to the end of the first century. This is but a small work; yet it is the only history of Rhode Island which has been written, and it is honorable to its author. He published also a sermon at the ordination of Jeremiah Condy, 1739, and a sermon on the death of Mr. Clap of Newport, 1745–Backus's Hist. of New England, iii. 229; Allen ; Benedict. * , t , CALMET, (AugustiNE,) an erudite divine and critic, and a monk of the Benedictine order, was born near Com- mercy, in Lorraine, in 1672; became abbot of St. Leo: old, near Nancy, and, afterwards, of Senones; and died in 1757, Calmet is a voluminous author, and his works abound in information; but they are exceedingly prolix, and written in an ungraceſul style. The most popular of his numerous productions is, a Historical and "Critical Dictionary of the Bible, in four volumes quarto, which, in a compressed form, has been naturalized in the English and other languages.—Davenport. CALNEH ; a city in the land of Shinar, built by Nim- rod, and one of the cities mentioned, Gen. 10: 10., as belonging to his kingdom. It is believed to be the same with Calno, mentioned in Isa. 10:9. It is said by the Chaldee interpreters, as also by Eusebius and Jerome, to be the same with Ctesiphon, standing upon the Tigris, about three miles distant from Seleucia, and that for some time it was the capital city of the Parthians. Bochart, Wells, and Michaëlis agree in this opinion.—Watson. . CALOYERS; a general name given to the monks of the Greek church. It is taken from the Greek kalogeroi, which signifies good old men. These religious consider Basil as their father atla founder, and look upon it as a crime to follow any other rule than his. There are three degrees among them—the novices, who are called Archa- ri; the ordinary professed, called Microchemi; and the more perfect, called Megalochemi. They are likewise divided into Coenobites, Anchorets, and Recluses. The coenobites are employed in reciting their office from midnight to sunset; and as it is impossible, in so long an exercise, they should not be overtaken with sleep, there is one monk appointed to wake them ; and they are obliged to make three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and, returning, to bow to the right and left to their brethren. The anchorets retire from the conversation of the world, and live in hermitages in the neighborhood of the monas- teries. They cultivate a little spot of ground, and never. go out but on Sundays and holidays, to perform their de- votions at the next monastery : the rest of the week they employ in prayer and working with their hands. As for the recluses, they shut themselves up in grottos and ca- verns on the tops of mountains, which they never go out of, abandoning themselves entirely to Providence. They live on the alms sent them by the neighboring monas- teries. In the monasteries, the religious rise at midnight, and repeat a particular office, called from thence Mesonycti- con, which takes up the space of two hours; after which, they retire to their cells till five o’clock in the morning, when they return to the church to say matins. At nine o'clock, they repeat the terce, sexte, and mass; after which they repair to the refectory, where is a lecture read till dinner. Before they leave the refectory, the cook comes to the door, and, kneeling down, demands their blessing. At four o’clock in the afternoon, they say vespers; and at six, go to Supper. After supper they say an office, from thence called apodipho; and, at eight, each monk retires to his chamber and bed till midnight. Every day, after matins, they confess their faults on their knees to their superior. They have four lents. The first and greatest is that of the resurrection of our Lord. They call it the grand quarantain, and it lasts eight weeks. During this lent, the religious drink no wine, and their abstinence is so great, that, if they are obliged, in speaking, to name milk, butter, or cheese, they always add this parenthesis, Timitis agias saracostis, i.e. saving the respect due to the holy lent. The second lent is that of the holy apostles, which begins eight days after Whitsunday; its duration is not fixed, it continuing sometimes three weeks, and at other times longer. During this lent, they are allowed to drink wine. The third lent is that of the Assumption of the Virgin; it lasts fourteen days, during which they abstain from fish, excepting on Sundays, and the day of the transfiguration of our Lord. The fourth lent is that of Advent, which they observe after the same manner as that of the apostles. * The caloyers, besides the usual habit of the monastic life, wear over their shoulders a square piece of stuff, on which are represented the cross, and the other marks or the passion of our Savior, with these letters, JC. XC. NC. i. e. Jesus Christus vincit, * * - All the monks are obliged to labor for the benefit of their monastery, as long as they continue in it. Some have the care of the fruits, others of the grain, and others 38 C A I, C A L [ 298 ) of the cattle. The necessity the caloyers are under of cultivating their own lands, obliges them to admit a great number of lay-brothers, who are employed the whole day lm working. * Over all these caloyers there are visiters or exarchs, who visit the convents under their inspection, only to draw from them the sums which the patriarch demands of them. Yet, notwithstanding the taxes these religious are obliged to pay, both to their patriarch and to the Turks, their con- vents are very rich. - The most considerable monastery of the Greck caloyers in Asia, is that of mount Sinai, which was ſounded by the emperor Justinian, and endowed with sixty thousand crówms revenue. The abbot of this monastery, who is also an archbishop, has under him two hundred religious. This convent is a large square building, surrounded with walls fifty ſect high, and with but one gate, which is blocked up to prevent the entrance of the Arabs. On the castern side there is a window, through which those within draw up the pilgrims in a basket, which they let down by a pulley. Not many miles beyond this, they have another, dedicated to St. Catharine. It is situated in the place where Moses made the bitter waters sweet. It has a garden, with a plantation of more than ten thousand palm trees, from whence the monks draw a considerable reve- nue. There is another in Palestine, four or five leagues from Jerusalem, situated in the most barren place imagi- nable. The gate of the convent is covered with the skins of crocodiles, to prevent the Arabs setting ſire to it, or breaking it to pieces with stones. It has a large tower, in which there is always a monk, who gives notice by a bell of the approach of the Arabs, or any wild beasts. The caloyers, or Greek moulºs, have a great number of monasteries in Europe; anong which that of Penteli, a mountain of Attica, near Athens, is remarkable for its beautiful situation, and a very good, library. That of Callimachus, a principal town of the island of Chios, is remarkable for the occasion of its foundation. It is called Niamogni, i. e. the sole Virgin, its church having been built in memory of an image of the holy virgin, miracu- lously found on a tree, being the only one left of several which had been consumed by fire. Constantine Mono- machus, emperor of Constantinople, being informed of this miracle, made a vow to build a church in that place, if he recovered his throne, from which he had been driven ; which he executed in the year 1050. The convent is large, and built in the manner of a castle. It consists of about two hundred religious, and its revenues amount to sixty thousand piastres, of which they pay five hundred yearly to the grand seignior. There is in Amourgo, one of the islands of the Archi- pelago, called Sporades, a monastery of Greek caloyers, dedicated to the Virgin ; it is a large and deep cavern, on the top of a very high hill, and is entered by a ladder of fifteen or twenty steps. The church, refectory, and cells of the religious who inhabit this grotto, are dug out of the sides of the rock with admirable artifice. But the most celebrated monasteries of Greek caloyers are those of mount Athos, in Macedonia. They are twenty-three in number; and the religious live in them so regularly, that the Turks themselves have a great esteem for them, and often recommend themselves to their prayers. Every thing in them is magnificent; and, not- withstanding they have been under the Turk for so long a time, they have lost nothing of their grandeur. The principal of these monasteries are De la Panagia and Anna Laura. The religious, who aspire to the highest dignities, come from all parts of the East, to perform here their noviciate, and, after a stay of some years, are re- ceived, upon their return into their own country, as apostles. The caloyers of mount Athos have a great aversion to the pope, and relate, that a Roman pontiff, having visited their monasteries, had plundered and burned some of them, because they would not adore him. There are female caloyers, or Greek nuns, who like- wise follow the rule of Basil. Their nunneries are always dependent on some monastery. The Turks buy sashes of their working, and they open their gates freely to the Turks on this occasion. Those of Constantinople are widows, some of whom have had several husbands. They make no vow, nor confine themselves within their convents. The priests are forbidden, under severe penal- ties, to visit these religious.-Hend. Buck. - CALWARY ; or, as it is called in Hebrew, Golgotha, “a skull,” or “place of skulls,” supposed to be thus de- nominated from the similitude it bore to the figure of a skull or man's head, or from its being a place of burial. It was a small eminence or hill to the north of mount Sion, and to the west of old Jerusalem, upon which our Lord was crucified. The ancient summit of Calvary has been much altered, by reducing its level in some parts, and raising it in others, in order to bring it within the area of a large and irregular building, called “The Church of the Holy Sepulchre,” which now occupies its site. But in doing this, care has been taken that mone of the parts connected with the crucifixion should suffer any altera- tion, The same building also incloses within its spacious walls several other places reputed sacred. The places which claim the chief attraction of the Christian visitant of this church, and those only perhaps which can be relied on, are, the spot on which the crucifixion took place, and the sepulchre in which our Lord was afterwards laid. The first has been preserved without mutilation : being a piece of ground about ten yards square, in its original position ; and so high above the common floor of the church, that there are, according to Chateaubriand, twenty- one steps to ascend up to it. Mr. Buckingham describes the present mount as a rock, the summit of which is as- cended by a steep ſlight of eighteen or twenty steps from the common level of the church, which is equal with that of the street without ; and besides this, there is a descent of thirty steps, from the level of the church, into the chapel of St. Helena, and by eleven more to the place where the cross was said to be found. On this little mount is shown the hole in which the cross was fixed; and near it, the position of the crosses of the two thieves: one, the penitent, on the north ; and the other on the south. Here, also, is shown a cleft in the rock, said to have been caused by the earthquake which happened at the crucifixion. The sepulchre, distant, according to Mr. Jolliffe, forty- three yards from the cross, presents rather a singular and . unexpected appearance to a stranger; who, for such a place, would naturally expect to find an excavation in the ground, instead of which, he perceives it altogether raised, as if artificially, above its level. The truth is, that in the alterations which were made on Calvary, to bring all the principal places within the projected church, the earth around the sepulchre was dug away; so that, what was originally a cave in the earth has now the appearance of a closet or grotto above ground. The sepulchreitself is about Six feet square and eight high. There is a solid block of the Stone left in excavating the rock, about two feet and a half from the floor, and running along the whole of the inner side ; on which the body of our Lord is said to have been laid. This, as well as the rest of the sepulchre, is now faced with marble : partly from the false taste which prevailed in the early ages of Christianity, in disguising With profuse and ill-suited embellishments the spots ren. dered memorable in the history of its Founder, and part- ly, perhaps, to preserve it from the depredations of the visitants. This description of the holy Sepulchre will but ill accord with the notions entertained by some English readers of a grave; but a cave or grotto, thus excavated in rocky ground, on the side of a hill, was the common receptacle for the dead among the eastern nations. Such was the tomb of Christ; such that of Lazarus; and such are the Sepulchres still found in Judea and the east. It may be useful further to observe, that it was customary with Jews of property to provide a sepulchre of this kind on their own ground, as the place of their interment after death; and it appears that Calvary itself, or the ground immediately around it, was occupied with gardens; one of which belonged to Joseph of Arimathea, who had then recently caused a new sepulchre to be made for himself. It was this sepulchre, so close at hand, and so appro riate, which he resigned for the use of our Lord; little thinkin perhaps, at the time, how soon it would again be left vacant for its original purpose by his glorious resurrection. ºc A L C A L ſ 299 | So much for the similarities between the evangelists' description of the sacred places and those appearances which they now present: it remains to inquire, what proof we have that their localities were accurately pre- served. It is certain that many thousands of strangers resorted every year to Jerusalem, for purposes of devotion, who would find themselves interested, in a more than ordinary degree, in the transactions which that city had lately witnessed, and with the multitudinous reports con- cerning them, which were of a nature too stupendous to be concealed. The language of Luke (24; 28.) plainly imports wonder that so much as a single pilgrim to the holy city could be ignorant of late events; and Paul appeals to Agrippa's knowledge, that “these things were not done in a corner.” It is, in short, impossible, that the natural curiosity of the human mind—to adduce no su- perior principle—should be content to undergo the fatigues of a long journey to visit Jerusalem, and yet, when there, should refrain from visiting the scenes of the late aston- ishing wonders. So long as access to the temple was free, so long would Jews and proselytes from all nations pay their devotions there; and so long would the inquisi- tive, whether converts to Christianity, or not, direct their attention to mount Calvary, with the garden and sepulchre of Joseph. The apostles were at hand, to direct all in- quiries; neither James nor John could be mistaken ; and during more than thirty years, the localities would be ascertained beyond a doubt, by the participators and the eye-witnesses themselves. It is worth our while to examine the evidence in proof of the continued veneration of the Christians for the holy places, which should properly be divided into two periods; the first to the time of Adrian’s MElia; the second from that time to the days of Constantine. Jerome, writing to Marcella concerning this custom, has this remarkable passage : (Ep. 17. ad Marcell.) “During the whole time from the ascension of the Lord to the present day, through every age as it rolled on, as well bishops, martyrs, and men eminently eloquent in ecclesiastical learning, came to Jerusalem; thinking themselves deficient in religious knowledge, unless they adored Christ in those places from which the gospel dawn burst from the cross.” It is a pleasing reflection that the leading men in the early Christian communities were thus diligent in acquiring the most exact inſormation. They spared no pains to obtain the sacred books in their complete and perfect state, and to satisfy themselves by ocular inspection, so far as possi- ble, of the truth of those facts on which they built the doctrine they delivered to their hearers. So Melito, bishop of Sardis, (A. D. 170,) writes to Onesimus, “When I went into the East, and was come to the place where those things were preached and DoNE :”—so we read that Alex- ander, bishop of Cappadocia, (A. D. 211,) going to Jeru- salem for the sake of prayer, and to visit the sacred places, was chosen assistant bishop of that city. This seems to have been the regular phraseology on such occasions; for- to this cause Sozomen ascribes the visit of Helena to Je- rusalem, for the sake of prayer, and to visit the sacred places.” This may properly introduce the second period in this history, on which we lay great stress; —it is no longer the testimony of friends; it is the testimony of enemies; it is the record of their determination to destroy to their utmost every vestige of the gospel of Christ. On that determination we rest our confidence; they could not be mistaken ; and their endeavors guide our judgment. Jerome says, (Ess. 13. ad Paulin.) “From the time of Hadrian to that of the government of Constantine, about the space of one hundred and eighty years, in the place of the resurrection was set up an image of Jupiter; in the rock of the cross a marble statue of Venus was stationed, to be worshipped by the people; the authors of these persecutions supposing, that they should deprive us of our faith in the resurrection and the cross, if they could but pollute the holy places by idols. Bethlehem, now our most venerable place, and that of the whole world, of which the Psalmist sings, “Truth is sprung out of the earth,’ was overshadowed by the grove of Thammuz, i.e. of Adonis; and in the cave where once the Messiah appeared as an infant, the lover of Venus was loudly lamented.” . This is a general account of facts; a few additional hints may be gleaned from other writers. Sozomen is more particular. We learn from him, that “the Gentiles by whom the church was persecuted, in the very infancy of Christianity, labored by every art, and in every manner, to abolish it: the holy place they blocked up with a vast heap of stones; and they raised that to a great height, which before had been of consider- able depth; as it may now be seen. And moreover, the entire place, as well of the resurrection, as of Calvary, they surrounded by a wall, stripping it of all ornament. And first they overlaid the ground with stones, then they built a temple of Venus on it, and set up an image of the goddess. And that the evidence of this desecration should not rest on “monkish historians,” Providence has preserved incontestible witnesses in the medals of Adrian, which mark him as the founder of the new city, AElia, and exhibit a temple of Jupiter, another of Venus, and various other deities, all worshipped in it. It is evident, that if the rock of Calvary and the holy Sepulchre were surrounded by the same wall, as Sozomen asserts, they could not be far distant from each other; and this wall, with the temples and other sacra it inclosed, would not only mark these places, but, in a certain sense, would preserve them ; as the mosque of Omar preserves the site of the temple of Solomon, at this day. While, therefore, we abandon to the doubts of Dr. Clarke and Capt. Light the commemorative altars and stations, which we think it not worth while to defend, and while we heartily wish that all these places had been leſt in their original state, to tell their own story, we must be allowed to relieve the memory of Helena, the Christian empress, from the guilt of deforming by intentional honors these sacred localities; and the monks, however ignorant or credulous, from the imputation of imposing on their pil- grims and visiters, in respect to the site of the places they now show as peculiarly holy.— Watson ; Calmet. Still, it is certain that the present church of the Holy Sepulchre does not occupy the place where Christ was cru- cified. The historical proof ſails in many points. 1. That the apostles and their cotemporary Christians felt any of that regard for relics and “sacred places” which aſter- wards became so prevalent, is inconsistent with all we know of them. 2. Christian writers before the time of Constantine speak of pilgrimages to Jerusalem; but none of them mentions the exact spot of the crucifixion or the sepulchre as being visited, or as then known. 3. That a heathen temple had been erected, before the time of Con- stantine, on the spot where the Church of the Holy Sepul- chre now stands, is probably true; but that it was erected by Adrian, or in his time; or that it was erected for the purpose mentiomed by Jerome; or erected on the spot known, at the time of its erection, as Calvary, is asserted by no writer before the time of Constantime. From Euse- bius, the historian, who was in Palestine at the time, we learn that the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, visited Palestine in A. D. 326, and founded churches on the supposed places of the nativity and the ascension; but he does not inform us that the place of the crucifixion was then known or ascertained. A few years afterwards, he tells us, the emperor Constantine ordered the place of the resurrection to be purified and adorned with splendid buildings. But both he and Constantine himself speak of the discovery of the place as a miracle ; and Eusebius expressly says that it had been “given to oblivion and forgetfulness.” 4. Finally, the place of crucifixion was “without the gate” of Jerusalem, Heb. 13: 12. John 19: 20. But the late discoveries of Dr. Robinson and others show conclusively, that the present site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was ºrithin the walls of the city, as they were in the time of Christ. See JERUSALEM.–T. . CALVIN, (John,) was born July 10, 1500, at Noyon, in Picardy. His father, Gerard, was neither distinguished by aſſluence nor learning; but by his judicious, prudent and upright conduct, he obtained, as he merited, the pa- tronage of the Montmor family, in Picardy. Calvin was educated, in early life, under their roof; and afterwards studied some subsequent years at the college de la Marche, in Paris, under the tuition of Marturin Cordier, for whose learned and pious instructions he entertained C A L C A L [ 300 J the most sincere and grateful recollection. From the col: lege de la Marche, he proceeded to that of Montaign; and whilst he advanced in the attainment of profound know- ledge, he became increasingly pious. His father, accu- rately estimating his talents, and wisely attending to the peculiar habits of his mind, obtained for him, when only twenty years of age, the rectory of Pont L'Evéque, at Noyon, and a benefice in the cathedral church. For some reason, however, which it appears impossible accurately to ascertain, Calvin afterwards directed the energies of his mind to the study of the law at Orleans, under the direc- tion of the celebrated civilian, Pierre de l'Etoile, and attained a proficiency in the science which astonished his contemporaries. The death of his father compelled his return to Noyon, and for a short time retarded his studies. But revisiting Paris, he again renewed them; and, at the age of twenty-four, published his Commentary on the celebrated work of Seneca on Clemency. Calvin had already discovered the absurdities of popery, and freely written on them to his friends; and by his intimacy with Nicholas Cop, who about this time was summoned before the French court, for having exposed the errors of the national religion, had raised many suspicions against him, and his flight to Basle became necessary. The revival of letters, and the exertions of Luther and Melancthon, two celebrated reformers, combined at this era to en- courage a disposition which prevailed, to investigate the doctrines of the church of Rome, and assisted in effecting a reformation, which all wise men must applaud, and at which all good men must rejoice. From Paris, Calvin directed his footsteps to Xaintonge, and in its retirement pursued his studies in theology; composed some formula- ries, to be used as homilies; and, above all, grew in per- sonal holiness, and thus prepared his mind for his future labors in the cause of truth. Calvin then visited Nerac ; resided some time with Jacques le Fevre d'Estaples, who was formerly the instructer of the offspring of Francis the First ; and then revisited Paris. In the succeeding year, Francis the First determined, if possible, to extinguish the spark of reformation in Paris; directed not merely the torture, but the death, of many eminent and pious indi- viduals, of both sexes, for their antipathy to a church which they considered as idolatrous, and to rites and cere- monies which they regarded as superstitious. From such Scenes the mind of Calvin revolted. From such a church he was determined to separate. He therefore published “La Psychopannyschie,” or a refutation of the doctrine, that the souls of the just sleep till the general resurrec. tion;–and he then fled the kingdom. He retired to Basle, and devoted, with Simon Grinee, much time to the study of Hebrew. The apology made by Francis the First for the persecu- tion of the reformed, and which was, that they were bad citizens, disobedient subjects, and clamorous anabaptists, at this time excited the holy displeasure of Calvin, and he ublished his “Christian Institutes,” dedicating them to ºrancis. In Italy, about the same period, the principles of the Reformation began to dawn; and the reformer, beholding with the purest satisfaction, the first beams of a clearer light, hastened to that country; and, aided by the wise and accomplished daughter of Louis XII, the duchess de Farrare, he assisted in promoting the spread of the Protestant faith. At the town of Piedmont, he ventured publicly to preach the doctrines of the Reformation; but, in the commencement of the year 1536, he was compelled to quit this scene of his lahars. In the autumn of the same year he visited Geneva ; was prevailed on by Farel and Pierre Wiret, to settle there; and immediately com menced the arduous duties of a reformed Christian min- ister in the consistory. In Geneva, the Protestant religion lºad much spread, and that city had contracted a close alliance with Bern; but the state of morals was very low, and, therefore, whilst the talents of Calvin commanded respect, his austerity and sanctity were reprobated or ridi. culed. Calvin was accused of Arianism ; but the charge he refuted. He opposed the re-establishment of supersti- tious ceremonies and feasts; but himself and his two friends, Farel and Wiret, were hated by the Catholics, and were ultimately banished from Geneva. At Strasburg, however, he found a shelter from the storm of persecu. tion ; and, aided by Bucer, he was appointed professor of theology, and pastor of a French church. Though ban- ished from Geneva, he cherished for its inhabitants a Christian regard; he frequently addressed them by letters; he wrote an admirable reply to a publication by Cardinal Sadolet, which was calculated, by the falsity of its reason- ings (though disguised by ability and ingenuity,) to shake the faith of the reformed. He directed the energies of his mind to the conversion of all schismatics; and he repub- lished his “Christian Institutes.” In 1540, he was invited to return to Geneva. He at first declined; but, at length, solicited by two councils, and by the ministers and inhabi- . tants of the city, he quitted Strasburg in the spring of 1541, with an understanding that he should speedily re- turn ; and was received with transport at Geneva. Active and energetic, zealous and persevering, Calvin instantly commenced the work of reformation. The ecclesiastical laws he assisted in revising; the ordinances he altered ; and before the year had closed, this work of usefulness was accomplished, and approved by a general council. Those laws were as efficient and salutary, as they were wise-and equitable. At this time he wrote a catechism, which was translated into various languages, and met with general approbation. He also published a “Commentary on the Epistle to Titus,” and dedicated it to his old friends Wiret and Farel. His labors now rapidly increased. He preached nearly every day; he lectured very frequently in theology; presided at meetings; instructed churches; and defended the Protestant faith in works celebrated for their perspicuity and genius. Nor was he less active in his duties as a citizen than as a theologian, or a minister of Jesus Christ. In 1543, he composed a liturgy for the church at Geneva. He also wrote a work on the necessity of a reformation in the church, and exposed the absurdi- ties of a frivolous translation of the Bible, by Castalio, in the compilation of which fancy had been consulted at the expense of truth, and Sound instead of sense. The ene- mies to the reformation were numerous and potent when combined, but singly they were nothing. . The truth of this remark was felt by Calvin ; and he, therefore, refuted the various works of their enemies as they appeared. Thus he answered Albert Pighius. But his efforts were not all controversial. He estab- lished, at Geneva, a seminary for the education of pious young men in the Protestant faith, who, by their future ministrations, should extend the borders of the true church ; and in that great work of usefulness he was assisted by the celebrated Beza. At that time also, the Waldenses, inhabiting Cabriers, and other places, who were persecuted by order of the parliament of Aquitaine, and who fled to Geneva, found in Calvin a sincere and zealous friend. He vindicated in public their cause, and in private relieved their necessities. In the year 1546, the efforts of Calvin were various, though painful. Charles V., who was a determined enemy to the Protest- ant religion, had alarmed some by his threats, and cor- rupted others by his promises. Calvin exerted himself to counteract all his efforts. But this was not all. Whilst some were lukewarm at Geneva, others were additionally profligate. To convert and convince them, he labored with incessant anxiety, though with but inadequate suc- cess. In 1547, whilst Germany was the scene of war, and France the theatre of persecution, Calvin wrote his “L’Antidote,” being a controversial work on the doctrine of the first seven sections of the council of Trent, and also “a Warning Letter to the Church of Rouen,” against 2: Ss. **º -. c AL the doctrines of a monk who taught the Gnostic and Antinomian heresies. In the same year he also continued his pastoral duties, and proceeded in the composition of his “Commentaries on Paul's Epistles.” In 1548, Beza retired to Geneva, and, with Calvin, ſormed future plans of yet more extended and important usefulness. Calvin, accompanied by Farel, in the following year visited the Swiss churches; and wrote two very able and learned letters to Socinus, the founder of the sect called Socinians. In 1550, he assisted yet further in the work of reforma- tion, by obtaining the direction of the consistory at Ge- neva, for the communication of private as well as public religious instruction to its inhabitants, and for a total dis- regard, by every one, of all feast and saint days. The next year was less favorable to the peace of Calvin. A controversy on the doctrine of predestination agitated the church ; the enemies of Calvin misrepresented his senti- ments, and endeavored to excite a general antipathy, not merely to his doctrines, but also to his person. But Providence rendered their attempts abortive. Calvin is accused of having, at this time, acted with a tyrannical and persecuting spirit towards the heretical Servetus. With him Calvin was once intimate, and also corresponded. , Servetus, by his conduct and publications, especially by his “Restitutio Christianismi,” attracted the attention of the pope, and of the persecuting cardinal Tournon. It is stated that Calvin declared, “If that heretic (Servetus) came to Geneva, he would take care that he should be capitally punished.” But this statement his friends confidently deny ; and reply, that he persuaded Servetus not to visit Geneva; that he disapproved of all religious persecution ; that he could, if he had thought #. for three years before Servetus was so punished, ave exposed him to his enemies, but which he would not do ; and that, Calvin, in his writings, declares, that with his original imprisonment and prosecution he was not at all implicated. It cannot, however, be denied, that it was at the instigation of Calvin he was prosecuted, as his secretary was his accuser at Geneva, and exhibited arti- cles against him. By the council of Geneva, Servetus was condemned to be burned to death; and, on the 27th of October, the punishment was inflicted. The impro- priety of that punishment is admitted by all the friends of civil and religious liberty, and the apologists for Calvin alike condemn it. But they contend, and with seeming propriety, that it was consonant with the spirit of the age, with the laws of Geneva, and with even the opinions of many of the great, and even good men, who then lived. About this time Calvin was much affected by the per- secution of his friend and fellow-laborer, Farel, for having condemned the immorality of the Genevese; and was almost incessantly occupied in acts of kindness to the persecuted Protestants, who, on the death of Edward, king of England, had been compelled to quit the country. He was also engaged in writing his “Commentary on the Gospel of John.” Nor could the spirit of bigotry and persecution, which prevailed in England, fail of at- tracting his attention. He communicated with the suffer- ers, both in England and France, and was indefatigable in rooting up all heresies which then disturbed the peace of the church. Towards the close of the year, Calvin visited Frankfort, for the purpose of terminating the con- troversy as to the Lord's supper, which had been so long agitated. He returned to Geneva much indisposed, but devoted his time to writing his “Commentary on the Psalms;” and to active, energetic, and successful ex- ertions, through the medium of German ambassadors, on behalf of the Protestants at Paris, who, in that year (1555,) were unjustly and inhumanly persecuted. At this time, a sect called the Tritheists, headed by Gentilis, who believed that God consisted not merely of three distinct persons, but also of three distinct essences, was revived; and Calvin directed his attention to a refutation of the system. In the succeeding year, he proposed the estab- lishment of a college at Geneva, for the education of youth ; and in three years his wishes were accomplished, and himself was elected to the situation of professor of divinity, jointly with Claudius Pontus. This college after- wards became eminently useful, and was much distin- guished for the learned and pious men who emanated .. § [ 301 | C A L from it. In the same, and the following year, Calvin was presented with the freedom of the city of Geneva; re- rinted his “Christian Institutes,” as well in French as atin ; , prepared for the press his “Commentary on Isaiah;” and combated, with success, a new heresy which had arisen, as to the mediatorial character of Christ. In 1561, Calvin was summoned before the council of Geneva, at the desire of Charles IX., as being an enemy to France and her king. But, on examination, it appeared, that the only charge which could be established against him, was that of having sent Protestant missionaries to that king- dom. Soon afterwards, he published his “Commentary on Daniel;” and much interested himself on behalf of the Protestants in France, who were then persecuted by the duke of Guise. In 1562, his health rapidly declined; and he was compelled to restrict his labors to Geneva and his study. But in this and the following year, he lectured on the doctrine of the Trinity; completed his “Commenta- ries on the Books of Moses and Joshua,” and published his celebrated “Answers to the Deputies of the Synod of Lyons.” In the year 1564, his health became gradually worse; but yet he insisted on performing as many of his duties as his strength would possibly allow. On the twenty-fourth of March, he was present at the assembly. On the twenty-seventh, he was carried into the council, and delivered, before the seigneurs who were assembled, his farewell address ; and on the second of April, he ap- peared at church, received from Beza, the sacrament of the Lord's supper, and joined in the devotions of the great congregation. To the syndics, in the ensuing month, he delivered an able and affecting oration ; and to the ministers of the town and country, assembled on an occasion in his room, he addressed a pathetic and admi- rable discourse. This was his last public labor. The remaining moments of his life were dedicated to acts of devotion, until May the twenty-fourth, at eight P. M., when he expired, aged fifty-four. The grief of the Genevese was inconceivably great. - As a citizen, a pastor, a reformer, a father, he was uni- versally regretted, and his memory was embalmed in the tears and sorrows of a wide-spread population. Calvin was of a middling stature, with sallow com- plexion; but his eyes were celebrated for their brilliancy. He was sincere, disinterested, and benevolent. The style of his writings is elegant and chaste, and they contain much of the softest and most persuasive eloquence. As an expositor of the Scriptures, Calvin was sober, spiritual, penetrating. As a theologian, he stands in the very foremost rank of those of any age or country. His Institutes, composed in his youth, amidst a pressure of duties, and the rage and turbulence of the times, invinci- ble against every species of assault, give him indisputably this pre-eminence. As a civilian, even though the law was a subject of subordinate attention, he had few equals among his contemporaries. In short, he exhibited, in strong and decided development, all those moral and in- tellectual qualities which marked him out for one who was competent to guide the opinions, and control the commotions, of inquiring and agitated nations. Through the most trying and hazardous period of the Reformation, he exhibited, invariably, a wisdom in counsel, a prudence of zeal, and at the same time, a decision and intrepidity of character which were truly astonishing. Nothing could for a moment deter him from a faithful discharge of his duty; nothing detrude him from the path of recti- tude. When the very ſoundations of the world seemed to be shaking, he stood erect and firm, the pillar of the truth. He took his stand between two of the most pow- erful kingdoms of the age, resisted and assailed alter- nately the whole force of the papal domination—main- tained the cause of truth and of God against the intriguing Charles on the one hand, and the courtly and bigoted Francis on the other. The pen was his most effectual weapon; and this was beyond the restriction or refutation of his royal antagonists. Indeed, on the arena of theolo- gical controversy, he was absolutely unconquerable by any power or combination of powers, which his numerous opponents could bring against him. He not only refuted and repressed the various errors which sprang up so abundantly in consequence of the commotion of the C A L C A L [ 302 ) times, and which threatened to defeat all the efforts which were making for the moral illumination of the world; but the publication of the Institutes contributed, in a wonder- ful degree, to give unity of religious belief to the friends of the Reformation, and, of course, to marshal the strength, and combine and give success to the efforts, of all contend- ers for the faith once delivered to the Saints. Notwithstanding all that has been said to his disparage- ment, it is certainly true that Calvin was a great and good man. In the full import of the phrase, he may be styled a benefactor of the world. Most intensely and effectually, too, did he labor for the highest temporal, and especially for the eternal, interests of his fellow-men. He evidently brought to the great enterprise of the age a larger amount of moral and intellectual power than did any other of the reformers. Even the cautious Scaliger pronounces him the most exalted character that has appeared since the days of the apostles, and, at the age of twenty-two, the most learned man in Europe. And the immediate influ- ence of his invincible mind is still deeply felt through the masterly productions of his pen, and will continue to be felt in the advancement of the pure interests of the church, until the complete triumph of her principles. Calvin deserves the thanks, and not the curses, of pos- terity. He was ardently esteemed by all the good of his own time; and he has since been, is now, and will conti- nue to be, esteemed, so long as high moral excellence and the severe majesty of virtue shall, to any extent, be objects of human approbation. . His works first appeared in a collected form, at Geneva, in twelve vols. fol. 1578; they were reprinted at the same place in seven vols, fol. 1617; and in nine vols. fol. at Am- sterdam, in 1671. This last is the best edition. (See Mac- kenzie's Life of Calvin ; Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. Cent. xvi.; JDéfense de Calvin, par Drelincourt; Narrative of Calvin, by Beza; Histoire Littéraire de Genève, by M. J. Senebier; Jones’s Christ. Biog, and Christ. Spect, for May, 1828.)— IHend. Buck. CALVINISM; the name given to that system of reli- gious faith which corresponds in the main with that of Calvin; though in Some points differing from the views of the illustrious reformer. Calvin considered every church as a separate and independent body, invested with the power of legislation for itself. He proposed that it should be governed by presbyteries and synods, composed of clergy and laity, without bishops, or any clerical subor- dination; and maintained that the province of the civil magistrate extended only to its protection and outward accommodation. He acknowledged a real, though spirit- ual presence of Christ in the eucharist; and he confined the privilege of communion to pious and regenerate be- lievers. These sentiments, however, are not imbibed by all who are called Calvinists. - In 1536, Calvin was appointed professor of divinity at Geneva, where he established that system of church polity called Presbyteriantsm, originally considered as an essential part of Calvinism; but since the synod of Dort (or Dor- drecht), which embraced, digested, and established his theological principles, in 1618, above forty years after his decease, the term Calvinism is generally confined to those principles, independent of his system of church polity. Calvinists, however, contend that their system did not originate with Calvin, but is as ancient as the Scriptures from which it is drawn. They also say it is in substance the same as that of Augustine, and it is certainly very difficult to distinguish them. Mr. Toplady (in his “His- toric Proof,”) has indeed traced the doctrine, in a series of quotations, from the times of the apostles to those of the reformation ; and though some of his extracts may be ob- jected to, the work, as a whole, seems scarcely to admit of refutation. Our present object however is, to represent the Sentiments of Calvin, and those denominated from him, which have been distinguished into High (hyper, or ultra) Calvinists, Strict Calvinists, and Moderate (or mo- dern) Calvinists. The first class will be found described in this work, un- der ANTINOMIANs, CRISPITEs, and HopkinsLANs, to which it is sufficient to refer. Strict Calvinists are those who adopt the opinions of Calvin himself, and the synod of Dort, above referred to. The most offensive point in Calvin’s system, is the doctrine of absolute predestination, and its counterpart, reprobation; on these points, therefore, we shall quote his own words, in which if he errs by exces sive rigor in his statements, the origin of his error can be See Il. . - “Predestination,” says Calvin, “by which God adopts some to the hope of life, and adjudges others to eternal death, no one, desirous of the credit of piety, dares abso- lutely to deny. But it is involved in many cavils, espe- cially by those who make fore-knowledge the cause of it. We maintain, that both belong to God; but it is preposte- rous to represent one as dependent on the other, . “Predestination we call the eternal decree of God, by which he hath determined, in himself, what he would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny; but eternal liſe is fore-ordained for some, and eternal damnation for others. Every man, therefore, being created for one or the other of these ends, we say he is predestinated either to life or to death.” - - This point, this eminent reformer proceeds to argue from the conduct of the Almighty respecting the seed of Abraham, and toward certain individuals, as Jacob and Esau. (Institutes, Book III. chap. xxi., § 5, &c. Allen's Trans. vol. ii. pp. 404–5.) - “Now, with respect to the reprobate, (proceeds Calvin,) whom the apostle introduces in the same place:—as Jacob, without any merit yet acquired by good works, is made an object of grace, so Esau, while yet umpolluted by any crime, is accounted an object of hatred, Rom. 9:13. If we turn our attention to works, we insult the apostle, as though he saw not that which is clear to us: now that he saw none is evident, because he expressly asserts the one to have been elected, and the other rejected, while they had not yet done any good or evil, to prove the foundation of di- vine predestination not to be in works.-Secondly, when he raises the question, whether God is unjust, he never urges, what would have been the most absolute and obvi- ous defence of his justice, that God rewarded Esau accord- ing to his wickedness; but contents himself with a differ- ent solution,-that the reprobate are raised up for this purpose, that the glory of God may be displayed by their means.—Lastly, he subjoins a concluding observation, that ‘God hath mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hardeneth.’ You see how he attributes both to the mere will of God. If, therefore, we can assign no reason why he grants mercy to his people, but because such is his pleasure, neither shall we find any other cause but his will for the reprobation of others: for when God is said to harden, or show mercy to whom he pleases, men are taught by this declaration to seek no cause beside his will.” (Ibid., § 11. Allen's Trans. p. 425.) It is most clear, however, from his words elsewhere, that this great divine did not mean to destroy human responsi- bility, nor to set aside the use of means; since the Scrip- ture addresses to man exhortations and reproofs, though it constantly attributes to the grace of God the Spirit and power of obedience. (See Inst. Book III. chap. v. § 4.) We shall subjoin only, as immediately connected with this subject, Calvin’s opinion of the corruption of human nature, by original sin. The following is nis doctrine on this mysterious point:— “Original sin appears to be an hereditary pravity and corruption of our nature, diffused through all the parts of the soul, rendering us obnoxious to the divine wrath, and producing in us those works which the Scripture calls works of the flesh. . . . These two things, therefore, should be strictly observed : first, that our nature, being so totally vitiated and depraved, we are, on account of this very cor- ruption, considered as convicted and justly condemned in the sight of God; to whom nothing is acceptable but right- eousness, innocence, and purity. And this liableness to punishment, arises not from the delinquency of another; for when it is said, that the sin of Adam renders us ob- noxious to the divine judgment, it is not to be understood as if we, though innocent, were undeservedly loaded with the guilt of his sin; but because we are all subject to a curse in consequence of his transgression—he is therefore said to have involved us in guilt. Nevertheless, we de- rive from him, not only the punishment, but also the pol. C A L C A L [ 303 ) lution, to which the punishment is justly due.” (Instit. Book II. chap. i. § 3. Allen's Trans. vol. ii. pp. 266–7.) We now proceed to exhibit an abstract of the same sys- tem, as arranged and matured in the articles of the synod of Dort, in reference to the five points in dispute with the Arminians, (as stated under that article,) which forms the general standard of strict Calvinism. . 1. OF PREDESTINATION. “As all men have sinned in Adam, and have become exposed to the curse and eternal death, God would have done no injustice to any one, if he had determined to leave the whole human race under sin and the curse, and to condemn them on account of sin; according to those words of the apostle, ‘all the world is become guilty before God.” Rom. 3:19, 23;. 6: 23. . . . . “That some, in time, have faith given them by God, and others have it not given, proceeds from his eternal decree; for ‘known unto God are all his works from the begin- ning,’ &c. (Acts 15: 18. Eph. 1: 11.) According to which decree, he graciously softens the hearts of the elect, how- ever hard, and he bends them to believe : but the non-elect he leaves, in just judgment, to their own perversity and hardness. And here, especially, a deep discrimination, at the same time both merciful and just, a discrimination of men equally lost, opens itself to us; or that decree of elec- tion and reprobation which is revealed in the word of God: which, as perverse, impure, and unstable persons do wrest to their own destruction, so it affords ineffable consolation to holy and pious souls.” (Comp. Art. XVII. of the Church of England.) . “But election is the immutable purpose of God; by which, before the foundations of the earth were laid, he chose, out of the whole human race, fallen by their own fault from their primeval integrity into sin and destruc- tion, according to the most free good pleasure of his own will, and of mere grace, a certain number of men, neither better nor worthier than others, but lying in the same mi- sery with the rest, to salvation in Christ; whom he had, even from eternity, constituted Mediator and head of all the elect, and the foundation of salvation; and therefore he decreed to give them unto him to be saved, and effect- ually to call and draw them into communion with him, by his word and Spirit: or he decreed himself to give unto them true faith, to justify, to sanctify, and at length pow- erfully to glorify them,” &c. Eph. 1: 4–6, Rom. 8:30. “This same election is not made from any foreseen faith, obedience of faith, holiness, or any other good quality and disposition, as a pre-requisite cause or condition in the man who should be elected, &c. “He hath chosen us, . be- cause we were,) but that we might be holy,’ &c. Eph. 1: '4. Rom. 9: 11—13. Acts 13: 48. “Moreover, holy Scripture doth illustrate and commend to us, this eternal and free grace of our election, in this more especially, that it doth testify all men not to be elect- ed; but that some are non-elect, or passed by, in the eternal election of God, whom truly God, from most free, just, ir- reprehensible, and immutable good pleasure, decreed to leave in the common misery, into which they had, by their onyn fault, cast themselves; and not to bestow on them living faith, and the grace of conversion; but having been left in their own ways, and under just judgment, at length, not only on account of their unbelief, but also of all their other sins, to condemn and eternally punish them, to the manifestation of his own justice. And this is the decree of reprobation, which determines that God is in no wise the author of sin, (which, to be thought of, is blasphemy,) but a tremendous, incomprehensible just judge and aven- ger.” (Scott's Synod of Dort, pp. 112–124.) - 2. Of THE DEATH of CHRIST. Passing over, for brevity’s sake, what is said of the necessity of atonement, in order to pardon, and of Christ having offered that atonement and satisfaction, it is added:—“This death of the Son of God is a single and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for sins; of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world: but because many who are called by the Gospel do not repent, nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief: this doth not arise from defect, or insufficiency of the sacrifice offered by Christ upon the cross, but from their own fault. . . . . “God willed that Christ, through the blood of the cross, should, out of every people, tribe, nation, and language, efficaciously redeem all those, and those only, who were frotti eternity chosen to salvation, and given to him by the Fa- ther; that he should confer on them the gift of faith,” &c. (Scott's Synod, &c. pp. 128–130.) - - 3. OF MAN's CoRRUPTION, &c. “‘All men are con- ceived in sin, and born the children of wrath,’ indisposed (inepti) to all saving good, propense to evil, dead in sin, ...'. slaves of sin; and without the regenerating grace of the Holy Spirit, they neither are willing nor able to re- turn to God, to correct their depraved nature, or to dispose themselves to the correction of it.” This will not be found to differ materially from the third article of the ARMINIANs, (page 118,) and therefore need not here be enlarged on, though both widely differ from the doctrine of the latter remonstrants and Anti-calvinists in general. (Scott's Sy- nod, pp. 125, 126.) 7. OF GRAcE AND FREE-will. “But in like manner as, by the fall, man does not cease to be man, endowed with intellect and will; neither hath sin, which hath pervaded the whole human race, taken away the nature of the hu: man species, but it hath depraved and spiritually stained it; so that even this divine grace of regeneration does not act upon men like stocks and trees, nor take away the properties (proprietates) of his will; or violently compel it, while unwilling; but it spiritually quickens, heals, cor- rects, and sweetly, and at the same time powerfully, in- clines it; so that whereas it before was wholly governed by the rebellion and resistance of the flesh, now prompt and sincere obedience of the Spirit may begin to reign; in which the renewal of our spiritual will, and our liberty, truly consist: in which manner, (or for which reason,) unless the admirable Author of all good should work in us, there could be no hope to man of rising from the fall by that free-will, by which, when standing, he fell into ruin.” (Scott's Synod, p. 141.) 5. ON PERSEVERANCE. “God, who is rich in mercy, from his immutable purpose of election, does not wholly take away his Holy Spirit from his own, even in lamenta- ble falls; nor does he so permit them to decline, (prolabi,) that they should fall from the grace of adoption, and the state of justification ; or commit the sin unto death, or against the Holy Spirit; that, being deserted by him, they should cast themselves headlong into eternal destruction. . . . . So that not by their own merits or strength, but by the gratuitous mercy ef God, they obtain it, that they nei- ther totally fall from faith and grace, nor finally continue in their falls and perish.” (Scott's Synod, pp. 150,151.) Having given this summary of the sentiments of Calvin himself, and of the ancient or strict Calvinists, who are by no means extinct, it is proper to observe, that there are, and always have been, many who embrace the Calvinistic system in its leading features, who object to some particu- lar parts, and to the strong language in which some of the propositions are expressed. These are called MoDERATE, or MoDERN Calvinists, who differ from Calvin, and the synod of Dort, chiefly on two points—the doctrine of re- probation, and the extent of the death of Christ. 1. Reprobation, or “predestination to death or misery as the end, and to sin as the means, I call (says Dr. E. Williams) an impure mixture” with Calvinism, “as having no foundation either in the real meaning of Holy Writ, or in the nature of things; except, indeed, we mean by it, what no one questions, a determination to punish the guilty.”—Dr. W. calls this a “mixture, because its con- nexion with predestination to life is arbitrary and forced; —impure, because the supposition itself is a foul aspersion of the divine character. Augustine, Calvin, Perkins, Twisse, Rutherſord, &c., though highly valuable and excellent men, upon the whole, were not free from this impure mixture of doctrine. But of all modern authors, (if we except the philosophical Necessarians,) Dr. Hopkins, of America, seems the most open in his avowal of the sentiment” above men- tioned. See HoPKINSIANs. (Dr. Williams's Serm. and Charges, p. 128, and Appendix, p. 393.) The term reprobate is indeed scriptural, simply meaning to reject; and stands in Scripture in immediate connexion with the sins of those who are thus rejected. Thus the prophet Jeremiah (chap. 6: 30), speaking of the apostate Jews, “Reprobate silver shall men call them, because the Lord hath rejected them;” not, however, before they had C A L C A. L. [ 304 | rejected him, and turned aside to idols : and the apostle Paul speaks of some “reprobate concerning the faith,” i. e. who had rejected the truths of the gospel; and of others, as “reprobate to every good work,” because they paid no re- gard to its holy precepts, (See 2 Tim, 3: 8, Tit. 1; 26.) Nor does it appear to be ever used in the Scriptures in the sense of non-elected. (See Cruden's Concordance in Re- probate.) Hence it has been contended, and that very re- cently, that reprobation has no connexion with the predes- tination of the Scriptures. (See “The Doctrine of Eternal Reprobation disproved, and sovereign distinguishing Grace defended,” by Philanthropos, London, 1821.) It must be confessed after all, that the election of some men (whether few or many) to everlasting life implies the non-election of others, which is a point to which the mind can never be reconciled, but from a deep conviction, that had we ourselves been left to perish in our sins, God would have been just in our condemnation, and that we have no claim to distinguishing mercy —“It is of the Lord's mer- cies that we are not consumed, and because his compassions fail not.” When viewed in this its true light, the election of any, much more of so vast a multitude as shall finally be saved out of every nation and kindred and tongue and peo- ple, appears an act of grace equally wonderful and glori- ous, and worthy of all the rapturous praise ascribed for it in the Scriptures. As to reconciling the conduct of God with our view of the fitness of things, this is not the only case in which it seems impracticable in the present world. O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God. How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out. Rom. 11: 33–36. In such instances it is wise, as well as pious, to be silent; for “who art thou, O man, that repliest against God?” . - A very ingenious man (Mr. John Bacon, the statuary) used to compare the rashness of our judging of the divine conduct in our present state of imperfection, to the folly of a man who should judge of a room-ſull of complicated ma- chinery, by looking through the key-hole. 2. The other subject on which Modern Calvinists differ from the great reformer, relates to the nature and extent of Christ's death. The doctrines of atonement, and of justification by the imputation of Christ's righteousness, are clearly admitted by all who assume the name of Cal- vinists, and by many others; but there are subordinate points on which they differ. Some contend that Christ not only died restrictively for a certain number, that is, the elect; but that he underwent a certain degree of punish- ment, exactly in proportion to the demerit of those indivi- duals; insomuch, that had their number, or the number of their sins, been greater, he must have suffered still more than he actually did for their redemption. This arises from their not only considering sins as debts (as our Lord him- self teaches us); but from carrying the analogy farther than the subject will allow ; for sins and debts certainly will not in all points agree. As, for instance, debts may be paid in kind, by returning that we owe, which never can apply to sins. Nor does it appear consistent with the divine dignity to represent the covenant of grace as a com- mercial bargain. Many Calvinists therefore represent hu- man redemption (and they think scripturally) as flowing originally from the free and sovereign mercy of God, who having chosen to redeem sinners to himself, gave his only- begotten Son to be their Redeemer, in a way honorable to the divine perfections, as well as abundantly sufficient to obliterate human guilt; and this atonement they consider as expressly made, that “nhosoever believes” in Christ, and cordially approves this way of salvation, “should not perish, but have everlasting liſe;” its merit being fully commensurate to the whole mass of human guilt. So that virtually Christ died for all men, in the most unlimited sense, though those who receive not the atonement, can of course derive no benefit therefrom. And this may be il- lustrated even on the principle of a debt, since the offer of a friend, to give pecuniary satisfaction for a debt, may be rendered nugatory, by the debtor himself refusing utterly to accept the boon. The gospel itself does not insist upon men being saved against their will. Thus Dr. Magee, in his excellent work on the Atone- ment, says:—“The sacrifice of Christ was never deemed by any, who did not wish to caluumniate the doctrine of atonement, to have made God placable; but merely viewed as the means appointed by divine wisdom, by which to be- stow forgiveness. But still it is demanded, in what way can the death of Christ, considered as a sacrifice of expiation, be conceived to operate to the remission of sin, unless by the appeasing a Being, who otherwise would not have for- given us? To this, the answer of the Christian is, I know not, nor does it concern me to lºnow, in what manner the Sa- crifice of Christ is connected with the forgiveness of sins; it is enough that this is declared by God to be the medium through which my salvation is effected —I pretend not to. dive into the councils of the Almighty. I submit to his wisdom, and I will not reject his grace, because his mode of vouchsafing it is not within my comprehension.” So Andrew Fuller, in his “Calvinistic and Socinian Sys- tems compared,” (Letter vii.) strongly reprobates the idea of placating the Divine Being by an atonement; “contend- ing that the atonement is the effect, and not the cause of di- vine love” to men; and insists, “that the contrary, is a gross misrepresentation of the Calvinists in general,” though it must be confessed some Calvinists have giv- en too much countenance to such an idea. Mr. Fuller adds, “If we say a way was opened by the death of Christ, for the free and consistent exercise of mercy, in all the methods which sovereign wisdom saw fit to adopt, perhaps we shall include every material idea which the Scriptures give us of that important event.” - - Mr. Jerram says, (Letters on the Atonement, p. 23.) “I do not believe that any respectable writer, on our side, says, that a satisfaction, or an atonement to divine justice, was required, as a motive to love and pity; but merely as a medium whereby that sentiment could be consistently manifested. No one supposes satisfaction for sins neces. sary to induce God to be merciful; though we do believe that that mercy could not be consistently manifested with- out an atonement. (See Heb. 2:9, 10.) - On the extent of Christ's death, we have remarked above that the church of England, and some of its most illustrious prelates, admitted its universality. So have the most dis- tinguished Calvinistic divines of the present age; as Dr. E. Williams, Dr. T. Scott, Andrew Fuller, Dr. Dwight, &c. It ought to be added, however, that these divines hold this universality of Christ's death, to be perſectly consistent with the particular and efficacious redemption of the church. Hence it is rather a more full development of the ancient doctrine, than a deviation from it. - After all that has been written against “the Calvinism of the church of England,” it appears to many of her mem- bers, and perhaps to all others, that her system is that of MoDERATE Calvinism. (See Overton's True Churchman as- certained.) She embraces the doctrines of election, original sin, &c.; but she is silent on the doctrine of reprobation, and admits the universality of the Savior's death. - It is much to be regretted that preachers and writers who have thought it their duty to oppose Calvinism, have so generally fallen into the same sort of error complained of under the article Arminianism, of not taking proper pains to understand what it is, or else have not possessed candor enough to do it justice. If, as is to be hoped, this is the effect of mere misapprehension, still how deplorable it is that the disciples of one blessed Master should allow themselves to misapprehend one another on subjects of such vast practical moment. Had the late lamented Watson ever read with attention the works of Jonathan Edwards, or Andrew Fuller, or even so common a book as Buck's Theological Dictionary, it is difficult to believe he would have represented Moderate or even Strict Calvinism in the odious form he has, in his Institutes, and Biblical and The- ological Dictionary. “The main characteristic of all these theories,” he says, “from the first to the last, from the highest to the lowest, is, that a part of mankind are shut out from the mercies of God, on some ground irrespective of their refusal. of a sincere offer to them of salvation through Christ, made with a communicated power of em- bracing it. Some power they allow to the reprobate, as natural power, and degrees of superadded moral power; but in no case the power to believe unto salvation.” Now what are the facts of the case ? Did Mr. Watson himself believe that the guilty heathen are condemned for C A L C A M [ 305 refusing the oſſer of salvation through Christ? How could this be, when they never heard of Christ? Again; in reference to such as hear the Gospel, where is the pas- sage of Scripture which speaks of a “communicated pow- er” of embracing it, where it was not actually embraced Unbelievers, it is admitted, do always resist the Holy Ghost; and it wants no other power to receive than to resist. Whe- ther this power be called natural or moral, it is a power which all sinners possess, and exercise daily in every act of sin; but alas, only to their own destruction. No new increase of pover could avail to save them, without a radi- cal change of disposition. Where there is a new disposi- tion wrought in any one, a vill to believe the truth, no Cal- vinist holds that God denies the ponyer. Of course, they hold that all who perish, perish only by their own volun- tary continuance in sin; while all that are saved, are saved by God's distinguishing grace. “Whatever notions of an exaggerated sort (says the profound author of the Natural History of Enthusiasm) may belong to some Calvinists, Calvinism as distinguished from Arminianism, encircles or involves GREAT TRUTHs, which, whether dimly or clearly discerned—whether de- fended in scriptural simplicity of language, or deformed by grievous perversions, will never be abandoned while the Bible continues to be devoutly read, and which, if they might indeed be subverted, would drag to the same ruin every doctrine of revealed religion. Let it be granted that Calvinism has often existed in a state of mixture with crude, or presumptuous, or preposterous dogmas. Yet surely whoever is competent to take a calm, an independ- ent, and a truly philosophic survey of the Christian sys- tem, and can calculate also the balancings of opinion, the antitheses of belief—will grant that if Calvinism, in the modern sense of the term, were quite exploded, a long time could not elapse before evangelical Arminianism would find itself driven helplessly into the gulf that had yawned to receive its rival; and to this catastrophe must quickly succeed the triumph of the dead rationalism of Neology, and then that of Atheism.” (Essay upon Edwards on the Will.) Calvinism originally subsisted in its greatest purity in the city of Geneva; from which place it was first propa- gated into Germany, France, the United Provinces, and Britain. In France it was abolished by the revocation of the edict of Nantz. It has been the prevailing religion of the United Provinces ever since 1571. The theological system of Calvin was adopted and made the public rule of faith in England, under the reign of Edward VI. The church of Scotland was also modelled by James Knox, agreeably to the doctrines, rites, and form of ecclesiastical government established at Geneva. In England, Calvin- ism had been on the decline from the time of queen Eli- zabeth until about sixty years ago, when it was again revived, and has been on the increase ever since. The major part of the clergy, indeed, are not Calvinists, though the articles of the church of England are Calvinistical. It deserves to be remarked, however, that Calvinism is preached in a considerable number of the churches; only several of the evangelical clergy have adopted ultra and exclusive views on the subject; while it is also the distin- guishing characteristic of the discourses delivered by the Congregational and Particular Baptist ministers; by those of lady Huntingdon's connexion, and by the powerful body of Welch Calvinistic Methodists. In Scotland, its principles are commonly taught in the establishment, and with scarcely any exception among dissenters. In the United States, it is embraced and taught by the great ma- jority of churches, including all classes of the Presbyteri- ans, Congregationalists, and Associated Baptists. See Calvin's Institutes; Life of Calvin ; Brine's Tracts; Jonathan Edwards's Works ; Gill's Cause of God and Truth ; Toplady's Historic Proof and Works at large; Assembly's Catechism ; Fuller's Calvinistic and Socinian Systems com- pared, and Fuller's Complete Works. CAMALDOLITES; an order founded by St. Romauld, an Italian fanatic, in the eleventh century. The manner of life he enjoined his disciples to observe was this:—They dwelt in separate cells, and met together only at the time of prayer. Some of them, during the two lents in the year, observed an inviolable silence, and others for the space of a hundred days. On Sundays and Thursdays - they fed on herbs, and the rest of the week only on bread and water.—Hend. Buck. CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT; a copy of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, in Greek and Latin. Beza found it in the monastery of Irenaeus, at Lyons, in 1562, and gave it to the university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a quarto, and written on vellum; sixty-six leaves of it are much torn and mutilated; and ten of these are supplied by a later transcriber. It is written in the scriptio continua, and the Greek is in uncial characters. From this and the Clermont copy of St. Paul's epistles, Beza published his larger annotations in 1582. See Dr. Kipling's edition of it.—Henderson's Buck. CAMEL. The original name of this animal has passed into most languages, ancient and modern. In Hebrew it N \ . . . B is called gemel, from the verb to repay, requite ; proba. bly on account of its revengeful disposition. “A camel's anger,” is an Arabian proverb for an irreconcilable enmity. There is no animal which remembers an injury longer, nor seizes with greater keenness the proper opportunity of revenge ; which is the more remarkable on account of its gentle and docile disposition, when unprovoked by harsh treatment. From the Scriptures we learn that the camel constituted an important branch of patriarchal wealth. Job had at first three thousand, and after the days of his adversity had passed away, six thousand camels. The Arabians estimate their riches and possessions by the number of their camels; and speaking of the splendor and wealth of a noble, or prince, they observe, he has so many camels; not so many pieces of gold. The Midianites and Ama- lekites had camels without number, as the sand upon the sea-shore; many of which were adorned with chains of gold, and other rich and splendid ornaments, Judg. 7: 12. So great was the importance attached to the management and propagation of camels, that a particular officer was appointed in the reign of David, to superintend their keep- ers. Nor is it without a special design, that the inspired writer mentions the descent of the person appointed; he was an Ishmaelite, and therefore supposed to be thoroughly skilled in the treatment of that useful quadruped. There are as many as seven species of camel discrimi- nated by zoologists; but it is only the Arabian camel, or dromedāry, and the Bactrian camel, that are known in Scripture. • The former species is distinguished by having only one bunch or protuberance on the back. Its general height, measured from the top of the dorsal bunch to the ground, is about six feet and a half, but from the top of the head when the animal elevates it, it is not much less than nine feet: the head, however, is usually so carried as to be nearly on a level with the bunch, or rather below it, the animal bending the neck extremely in its general posture. The head is small; the neck very long; and the body of a long and meagre shape; the legs rather slender, and the tail, which is slightly tufted at the extremity, reaches to the joints of the hind legs. The feet are very large, and are hoofed in a peculiar manner, being divided above into two lobes, the extremity of each lobe being guarded by a C. A. M. C A M | 306 | small hoof. The under part of the ſoot is guarded by an extremely long, tough, and pliable skin, which, by yielding in all directions, enables the animal to travel with peculiar ease and security over dry, hot, stony, and sandy regions, which would soon parch and destroy the hoof. On the legs are six callosities, one on each knee, one on the in- side of each fore leg on the upper joint, and one on the inside of each hind leg at the bottom of the thigh. On the lower part of the breast is also a large callous or tough tubercle, which is gradually increased by the constant habit which the animal has of resting upon it in lying down. The native country of the camel is Arabia, from whose burning deserts it has been gradually diffused over the rest of Asia and Africa. The Arab venerates his camel as the gift of heaven, as a sacred animal, without whose aid he could neither subsist, trade, nor travel. * The hair of these animals, which is fine and soft, and is renewed every year, is used by the Arabians to make stuffs for their clothing and furniture. It was of this ma- terial that Elijah the Tishbite wore a dress, (2 Kings 1: 8.); and also John the Baptist, Matt. 3: 1. It must not be supposed, however, that the description of hair-cloth used by these and other prophets mentioned in Scripture, bore any resemblance to the beautiful cashmire shawl, imported into this country: it was a much coarser manufacture of this material, and is still used by the modern dervises. We may probably obtain some idea of its texture, from what Braithwaite says of the Arabian huts: “They are made of camels' hair, something like our coarse hair-cloths to lay over goods.” - Blessed with their camels, the Arabs not only want for nothing, but they fear nothing. In a single day they can traverse a tract of fifty leagues into the desert, and thus escape the reach of their enemies. All the armies in the world, says Buffon, would perish in pursuit of a troop of Arabs. Figure to yourself, for instance, observes this writer, a country without verdure, and without water; a burning Sand, an air always clear, plains of sands, and mountains still more parched, over which the eye extends without perceiving a single animated being; a dead earth, perpetually tossed by the winds, presenting mothing but bones, scattered flints, rocks perpendicular, or overthrown : a naked desert where the traveller never breathes under a friendly shade, where nothing accompanies him, and where nothing recals to mind the idea of animated nature; an absolute solitude, infinitely more frightſul than that of the deepest forest; for to man trees are, at least, visible ob- jects: more solitary and naked, more lost in an un- bounded void, he every where beholds the extended space surrounding him as a tomb : the light of the day, more dismal than the darkness of night, serves only to give him a clearer idea of his own wretchedness and impotence, and to present before his eyes the horror of his situation, by extending around him the immense abyss which separates him from the habitable parts of the carth: an abyss which he would in vain attempt to traverse, for hunger, thirst, and burning heat haunt him every moment that remains between despair and death. . The Arab, nevertheless, by the assistance of his camel, has learned to surmount, and even to appropriate these frightſul intervals of nature to himself. They serve him for an asylum, they secure his repose, and maintain his independence. The Arab is early accustomed to the fatigues of travelling, to want of sleep, and to endure hunger, thirst, and heat. With this view he instructs, rears, and exercises his cannels. A few days aſter their birth, he folds their limbs to remain on the ground, and in this situation he loads them with a pretty heavy weight, which is never removed but for the purpose of replacing a greater. Instead of allowing them to ſeed at pleasure, and to drink when they are thirsty, he regu. lates their repasts, and makes them gradually travel long journeys, liminishing at the same time their quantity of food. When they acquire some strength, he exercises them to the course; he excites their emulation by the ex- ample of horses, and in time renders them equally swift and more robust. At length, when he is assured of the strength, fleetness, and sobriety of his camels, he loads them with whatever is necessary ſor his and their subsist. ence, departs with them, arrives unexpectedly at the con- fines of the desert, robs the first passenger he meets, pil. lages the straggling habitations, loads his camels with the booty, and if pursued is obliged to accelerate his retreat. It is on these occasions that he unfolds his own talents and those of his camels; he mounts one of the fleetest, and conducting the troop, makes them travel night and day, almost without stopping to eat or drink; and in this man- ner he easily passes over the space of three hundred leagues in eight days. During all that time of fatigue and travel, he never unloads his camels, and only allows them an hour of repose, and a ball of paste each day, They often run in this manner for eight or nine days, without meeting with any water, and when by chance there is a pool at some distance, they scent the water, even when half a league from it. Thirst makes them re. double their pace, and they drink as much at once as serves them for the time that is past, and for as much to come; for their journey often lasts them several weeks, and their abstinence continues till their journey is accomplished. The driest thistle and the barest thorn, are all the food this useful quadruped requires; and even these, to save time, he eats while advancing on his journey, without stopping or occasioning a moment of delay. As it is his lot to cross immense deserts where no water is found, and countries not even moistened with the dew of heaven, he is endued with the power, at one watering place, to lay in a store, with which he supplies himself for thirty days to come. To contain this enormous quantity of fluid, nature has formed large cisterns within him, from which, once ſilled, he draws at pleasure the quantity he wants, and pours it into his stomach, with the same effect as if he then drew it from the spring. Notwithstanding that the camel is so extremely revenge- ful as to bear in mind, and resent, in the most terrible manner, any injury it may have sustained, its patience is the most extraordinary. Its sufferings seem to be great; for when it is overloaded, it sends forth the most laumenta- ble cries, but never offers to resist the tyrant who oppress- es it. At the slightest signs it bends its knees, and lies upon its belly, suffering itself to be loaded in this position; at another sign it rises with its load, and the driver getting upon its back, encourages the animal to proceed with his Voice and with a Song. Throughout Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Arabia, Barbary, and various other contiguous countries, all kinds of mer chandise are carried by camels, which, of all conveyances, is the most expeditious, and attended with the least ex- pense. Merchants and other travellers assemble, and Arabs. These caravans are often numerous, and are al- 'ays composed of more camels than men. Each camel is loaded according to his strength; the larger ones carrying from a thousand to twelve hundred pounds weight, and the Smaller, from six to seven hundred. Burckhardt states that a camel can never be stopped while its companions are moving on. The Arabs are therefore highly pleased with a traveller who jumps off his beast, and remounts without stopping it, as the act of kneeling down is troublesome and fatiguing to the loaded camel, and before it can rise again, the caravan is considerably ahead. He also affirms C A M C A M [ 307 J it to be an erroneous opinion, that the camel delights in sandy ground. It is true, he remarks, that he crosses it with less difficulty than any other animal, but wherever the sands are deep, the weight of himself and his load makes his feet sink into the sand at every step, and he groans and often sinks under his burden. Hence, this traveller states it to be, that camels’ skeletons are ſound in great numbers where the sands are deepest. It is the hard, gravelly ground of the desert, which is most agreea- ble to this animal. The Bactrian camel is distinguished from the Arabian camel or dromedary, by having two bunches on his back. It is not so numerous as the other, and is chieſly conſined to some parts of Asia. Unlike the dromedary, whose movement, as we have seen, is remarkably swift, the Bactrian camel proceeds at a slow and solemn pace. From the account now furnished of this animal, we may see the propriety and beauty of several passages of Scripture, in which it is mentioned or alluded to. Reviewing his own passing days, and properly estimat- ing the shortness of human life, Job exclaims— O! swiſter than a courier are my days : They flee away—they see no good. As swell. ING SHIPs they sweep on ; As an eagle swooping oil its prey. This passage has sadly perplexed commentators. The original of the third line, literally rendered, is “ships of Abeh;” or, if Abeh be taken for swiftness, “ships of swiftness.” For the purpose of ascertaining what might probably be the intention of the sacred writer, Mr. Taylor thus ana- lyses the import of the words: My days pass faster than a running messenger, who exerts his speed when sent on im- portant business; they even fly, like a fugitive who escapes for his life from an enemy; they do not look around them to sce for any thing good; they are passed as ships of snift- mess; as a vulture flying hastily to the newly-fallen prey. By marking the climax, we find the messenger swift, the fugitive more swift, the ships swiſter than the fugitive, and the vulture swiſtest of all. In support of this ingenious conjecture, Mr. Taylor cites the following passage from “honest Sandys:” “The whole caravan being now assembled, consisted of a thousand horses, mules, and asses; and of fine hun- dred cAMELs. THESE ARE THE SHIPS of ARABIA; THEIR sEAs ARE THE DESERTs, a creature created for burthen,” &c. It does not clearly appear in this extract, however, though it might be gathered from it, that the camel has the name of the “Ship of Arabia;” but Mr. Bruce comes in to our assistance, by saying, “What enables the shep- herds to perform the long and toilsome journeys across Africa, is the CAMEL, EMPHATICALLY CALLED, BY THE ARABs, THE SHIP OF THE DESERT! he seems to have been created for this very trade,” &c. The idea thus thrown out, and in a great measure confirmed by Sandys and Bruce, is further supported by an account of the swiftness of these metaphorical “ships,” furnished in Morgan’s History of Algiers. This writer states, that the dromedary, in Barbary called Aäshare, will, in one night, and through a level country, traverse as much ground as any single horse can perform in ten. The Arabs affirm, that it makes mothing of holding its rapid pace, n-hich is a most violent hard trot, for four-and-twenty hours on a stretch, without showing the least signs of weariness, or inclina- tion to bait; and that, having swallowed a ball or two of a sort of paste, made up of barley-meal and a little powder of dry dates, with a bowl of water, or camel’s milk, the indefatigable animal will seem as fresh as at first setting out, and ready to continue running at the same scarcely credible rate for as many hours longer, and so on from one extremity of the African desert to the other, provided its rider could hold out without sleep, and other refreshments. During his stay in Algiers, Mr. Morgan was once a party in a di- version in which one of these Aāshari ran against some of the swiftest Barbs in the whole Neja, which is famed for having good ones, of the true Libyan breed, shaped like greyhounds, and which will sometimes run down an os: trich. The reader will not, we apprehend, be displeased at our transferring his account to these pages. “We all started like racers, and for the first spurt, most of the best mounted among us kept pace pretty well; but our grass-fed horses soon flagged: several of the Libyan and §. runners held pace, till we, who still fol- lowed upon a good round hand gallop, could no longer discern them, and then gave out ; as we were told after their return. When the dromedary had been out of sight about half an hour, we again espied it, flying tonwards us with an amazing velocity, and in a very fen moments nas amongst us, and seemingly nothing concerned ; while the horses and mares were all on a foam, and scarcely able to breathe, as was likewise a tall fleet greyhound dog, of the young princess, who had followed and kept pace the whole time, and was no sooner got back to us, but lay down pant- ing as if ready to expire.” This account shows, also, with what propriety the pro- phet calls this animal the “swiſt dromedary,” (Jer, 3: 23.) as well as the wisdom of Esther's messengers, in choosing it to carry their despatches to the distant provinces of the Persian empire, Esth. 8: 10. The writer just quoted informs us, that the Arabs guide their dromedaries by means of a thong of leather, which is passed through a hole purposely made in the creature's nose. Will not this illustrate the expression in 2 Kings 19: 28; “I will put my hook in thy nose, and my bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by the way by which thou camest?” This denotes, no doubt, the depth of the Assyrian's humiliation, and the swiftness of his retreat. Another passage which Mr. Taylor thinks may be illus- trated by the application of the term Aáshare to a swift dromedary, is Prov. 6: 10, 11— A little sleep, a little slumber, A little ſolding of the arms to sleep; So shall thy poverty come as one that travelleth, And thy want as an armed man. It is evident that the writer means to denote the speed and rapidity of the approaches of penury; therefore, in- stead of, “one that travelleth,” we may read “a post, or quick messenger,” an express. But our present business is with the “armed man.” Now, the words thus trans- lated are no where used to denote an armed man, or “a man of a shield,” as some would render them literally ; but the Chaldee paraphrast translates them thus, “sniſt like an Aáshare,” or, mounted on an Aáshare, that is, an Aáshare-rider, to answer to the post or express, in the former line. Thus we shall have an increase of Swiftness sug- gested here, as the passage evidently demands. The Senti- ment, on the principles above suggested, would stand thus: So shall thy poverty advance as rapidly as an express, - And thy penury as a strong and swift antagonist or [-1ashare-rider.] In that sublime prediction, where the prophet foretells the great increase and flourishing state of Messiah’s kingdoms, by the conversion and accession of the Gentile nations, he compares the happy and glorious COncollrSe to a VaSt aS- semblage of camels: “The multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah.” . That peo- ple, rather than irrational animals, are intended, is evident from these words: “All they from Sheba shall come; they shall show forth the praises of the Lord.” Isa. 60: 6. In adopting this figure, the prophet might, perhaps, have his eye on the hicroglyphical writing of the Egyptians, in which the figure of a camel represented a man; and if so, besides its strict conformity to the genius of Hebrew poc- try, we can discern a propriety in its introduction into this illustrious prediction. Some interpreters piously refer the prophecy to Christ himself; and imagine it began to re- ceive its accomplishment when the magi, proceeding from the very places mentioned by the prophet, worshipped the new-born Savior, “and presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense, and myrrh.” But Midian, and the other places mentioned by the prophet, lay to the south of Judea; while the cvangelist expressly says the magi came from the east; which, as well as their name, magi, or wise men, clearly proves that Persia was their native country, and the place of their abode. To pass a camel through the eye of a needle, was a proverbial expression among the nations of high antiquity, demoting a difficulty which neither the art nor the power of man could surmount. Our Lord condescends to employ it in his discourse to the disciples, to show how extremely difficult it is for a rich man to forsake all, for the cause of C. A M C A M [ 308 || God and truth, and obtain the blessings of salvation : “I say unto you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of heaven,” Matt. 19: 24. Many expositors are of opinion, that the allusion is not to the camel, but to the cable by which an anchor is made fast to the ship ; and for camel they read comil, from which our word cable is supposed to be derived. It is not, perhaps, easy to determine which of these ought to be preferred; and some interpreters of considerable note, have accordingly adopted both views. Others have asserted, that there was near Jerusalem a low gate, called the Needle's Eye, under which a camel could not pass without being unloaded. - However, though the exact proverbial expression, which was doubtless well understood by those to whom it was addressed, may be to us unintelligible, the instruction con- veyed is obvious. Riches are a snare and often a hin- drance in the way to heaven; and the heart that is su- premely set upon them, can never be brought to a cordial surrender of itself to the meek, lowly, and self-denying Jesus, without which it is impossible to enter into his kingdom. But the things that are impossible with men, are possible with God. Divine Grace can do away the impossibility, by bringing the heart to a willing compliance with the requirements of the gospel. In Matt. 23:24, is another proverbial expression: “Ye strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel.” Dr. Adam Clarke has proved, that there is an error of the press in the Eng- lish translation; by which at has been substituted for out. The passage as it now stands, conveys mo sense: it should be, “Ye strain out the gnat, and swallow down the ca- mel.” The allusion is to the custom which prevailed among both Gentiles and Jews, of straining the liquor which they drank, for the purpose of ejecting those insects which so swarm in some southern countries, and hence, easily fall into wine-vessels. Some of the commentators have wished to get rid of the camel in this passage, from an idea that our Lord could not have united so huge an animal with so small an insect. They, therefore, propose to understand a larger species of fly. This conjectural emendation, however, cannot be admitted, as it is unsup- ported by all the ancient versions. The expression must be taken hyperbolically. To make the antithesis as strong as may be, two things are selected as opposite as possible; the smallest insect, and the largest animal. And this very antithesis was used by the Jewish and Greek writers, as appears from Wetstein. The expression has generally been understood by Eng- lish readers, as implying an effort to swallow, but reject- ing something very small and inconsiderable, yet receiving without hesitation something much larger and more im- portant: but the fact is, it alludes to a custom the Jews had of straining or filtering their wine, for fear of swal- lowing any forbidden insect. Now, as it would be ridicu- lous to strain liquor for the sake of clearing it from insects, and then eating the largest of those insects; so the conduct of those is not only ridiculous, but highly criminal, who are superstitiously anxious in avoiding small faults, yet Scruple not to commit the greatest sins. Camels are spoken of in Scripture, 1. As an article of wealth and state, Gen. 12: 16. 30: 43. 2 Kings 7: 9. 1 Chron. 27: 30. Ezra 2: 67. Neh. 7: 69. Job 1: 2. 2. As used for travelling, Gen. 24: 64. 31:34. 1 Kings 10: 2. 3. As an important means of traffic, Gen. 37; 25. 1 Chron. 12:40. Isa. 30:6. . 4. As used in war, Judg. 6: 5. Jer. 49: 29. 5. As a spoil in war, Judg. 8:21. 1 Sam. 27: 9. 1 Chron. 5: 21. Job 1: 17. Jer. 49: 32. - 6. As sufferers in the plagues brought upon the brute creation for the sin of man, Ex. 9: 3. 1 Sam. 15: 3. 1. 1 * furnishing an article of clothing, Matt. 3: 4. Zech. 8. Connected with these animals, we have a pleasing instance of industry, humility, and courtesy in a young woman of rank and fortune. Rebeltah was seen at the well, condescending by personal labor to supply the wants of the camels of Abraham's servant; nor did her 7: 12. 1 Sam, 30; 17. in the Old Testament. good disposition and good conduct go unrewarded; those camels shortly after bore her into the Land of Promise, to become the wife of Abraham's son, and one in the line of mothers from whom he should descend, in whom all the families of the earth are blessed. Gen. 24; 19–64. 9. The camel is prohibited for food as unclean, Lev. 11: 14. Deut. 14: 7. • . 10. Camels are prophetically and figuratively mentioned Isaiah (21: 7.) predicts the march of Cyrus's army to the conquest and destruction of Baby- lon in the time of Belshazzar. Isaiah (30:6.), alludes to the folly and presumption of the Israelites, or Jews, or both, who in the time of their trouble carried treasures on camels into Egypt, to purchase the assistance of that peo- ple, and acknowledged not the Lord their God, who alone could save and deliver them, Isa. 60: 6, is part of a most sublime prediction, figurative of the purity and enlarge- ment of the church in the reign of the Messiah, when dif. ferent nations shall with alacrity and zeal dedicate them- selves and their substance to the service of God. - Jer. 49: 29, 32, predicts the confusion and ruin that should befal Kedar and Hazor, enemies of Israel, upon whom God would bring his judgments, by the hand of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. The fulfilment of this prediction took place during the captivity of the Jews, and would tend greatly to encourage their hopes that the pro- mises of their deliverance and return should also in due time be accomplished. Very similar is the prediction, (Ez. 25: 5,) that Rabbah, the chief city of Ammon, should be taken as a stable for camels by the Chaldeans. CAMELS' HAIR ; an article of clothing. John the Baptist was habited in raiment of camels' hair, and Char-, din states, that such garments are worn by the modern dervishes. There is a coarse cloth made of camels' hair in the East, which is used for manufacturing the coats of shepherds, and camel-drivers, and also for the covering of tents.--It was, doubtless, this coarse kind which was adopted by John. By this he was distinguished from those residents in royal palaces who wore soft raiment. Elijah is said in the English Bible to have been “a hairy man,” (2 Kings 1:8.); but it should be “a man dressed in hair;” that is, camels' hair. In Zech. 13:4, “a rough garment,” that is, a garment of a hairy manufacture, is characteristic of a prophet.—Calmet. CAMELEON, or CHAMELEON. In the English Bible, the chameleon is transformed into the mole, (Lev. 11:30,) an animal that has little pretension to be associated with rep- tiles of the lizard species. The Hebrew word, from a root which signifies to breathe, is peculiarly appropriate to this curious animal, which, according to vulgar opinion, is the “creature nourished by the wind and air.” The chameleon nearly resembles the crocodile in form, but differs widely in its size and appetites. Its head is about two inches long, and from thence to the beginning of the tail four and a half; the tail is five inches long, and the feet two and a half; the thickness of the body varies at different times, for the animal possesses the power of blowing itself up and contracting itself, at pleasure. During his visit to the east, Le Bruyn purchased several chameleons, for the purpose of preserving them alive, and making observations on their nature and manners; but the most interesting account of this curious animal is that furnished by the enterprising and lamented Belzoni, which We transcribe. “There are three species of chameleons, whose colors are peculiar to themselves: for instance, the commonest sort are those which are generally green, that is to say, the body all green, and when content, beautifully marked on each side re- gularly on the green with black and yellow, not in a confused manner, but as if drawn. This kind is in great plenty, and never have any other color except a light green when they sleep, and when ill a very pale yellow. Out of near forty I had the first year when I was in Nubia, I had but one, and that a very small one, of the second sort, which had red marks. One chameleon lived with me eight months, and most of that time I had it fixed to the button of my coat; it used to rest on my shoulder, or on my head. I havé observed, when I have kept it shut up in a room for some time, that, on bringing it out in the air, it would begin drawing the air in ; and on putting it on some marjorum, C A M C A M [ 309 | it has had a wonderful effect on it immediately: its color became most brilliant. I believe it will puzzle a good many to say what cause it proceeds from. If they did not change when shut up in a house, but only on taking them into a garden, it might be supposed the change of the colors was in consequence of the smell of the plants; but when in a house, if it is watched, it will [be seen to] change every ten minutes; some moments a plain green, at others all its beautiful colors will come out, and when in a passion it becomes of a deep black, and will swell itself up like a balloon; and, from being one of the most beautiful ani- mals, it becomes one of the most ugly. It is true they are extremely fond of the fresh air; and on taking them to a window where there is nothing to be seen, it is easy to observe the pleasure they certainly take in it: they be- gin to gulp down the air, and their color becomes brighter. I think it proceeds, in a great degree, from the temper they are in : a little thing will put them in a bad humor. If, in crossing a takle, for instance, you stop them, and attempt to turn them another road, they will not stir, and are extremely obstinate : on opening the mouth at them, it will set them in a passion: they begin to arm them- selves, by Swelling and turning black, and will sometimes hiss a little, but not much. The third I brought from Jeru- salem, was the most singular of all the chameleons I ever had : its temper, if it can be so called, was extremely sa- gacious and cunning. This one was not of the order of the green kind, but a disagreeable drab, and it never once varied in its color in two months. On my arrival at Cairo, I used to let it crawl about the room, on the furniture. Sometimes it would get down, if it could, and hide itself away from me, but in a place where it could see me; and sometimes, on my leaving the room and on entering it, would draw itself so thin as to make itself nearly on a level with whatever it might be on, so that I might not see it. It had often deceived me so. One day, having missed it for some time, I concluded it was hid about the room ; after looking for it in vain, I thought it had got out of the room and made its escape. In the course of the evening, after the candle was lighted, I went to a basket that had got a handle across it : I saw my chameleon, but its color entirely changed, and different to any I ever had seen before : the whole body, head and tail, a brown, with black spots, and beautiful deep orange colored spots round the black. I certainly was much gratified. On being dis- turbed, its colors vanished, unlike the others; but after this I used to observe it the first thing in the morning, when it would have the same colors. Their chief food was flies: the fly does not die immediately on being swal- lowed, for on taking the chameleon up in my hands, it was easy to feel the fly buzzing, chiefly on account of the air they draw in their inside : they swell much, and par- ticularly when they want to fling themselves off a great height, by filling themselves up like a balloon. On fall- ing, they get no hurt, except on the mouth, which they bruise a little, as that comes first to the ground. Some- times they will not drink for three or four days, and when they begin, they are about half an hour drinking.” An Italian professor of natural históry, who dissect- ed two of these curious animals, is of opinion that the change of color arises from the fact of their having four skins, extremely fine, whence arise the different colors. —Abbott. . CAMERONIANS, or OLD DissenTERs, as they choose to call themselves in Scotland. They received the first denomination from the Rev. Richard Cameron, a celebrated field preacher, who exercised his ministry in the moun- tains and moors of Scotland, refusing to accept the indul- gence to tender consciences, granted by Charles II., be- cause such an acceptance seemed to him an acknowledg- ment of the king's Supremacy, and that he had before a right to silence them. Cameron separated from his Pres- byterian brethren in 1666; and afterwards, as his enemies assert, was slain at the head of an insurrection at AirS- moss, in Kyle, July 20th, 1680. His followers, however, consider his death most honorable; and say that “he fell by the sword of his bloody persecutors, while he, and a number of his followers, being suddenly and furiously at- tacked, were nobly defending their lives and religious liberties.” Their political opinions accorded with those of Hampden, Sydney, and Russell; and considering that the king (Charles II.) had forfeited his crown, without any probability of success, they declared war against his go. vernment. They were rash and dating in the extreme ; but it is now agreed that they were most cruelly oppressed, and Solomon himself has told us, that “oppression will make a wise man mad.” They were sometimes called Whigs, from their attach- ment to the cause of liberty; and “mountain men,” from their being obliged to take refuge among the mountains. In their religious principles they were rigid adherents to “the solemn league and covenant,” and they warmly supported the Revolution of 1688, though they protested against the ecclesiastical establishment as then settled in Scotland. They have ever since lived in peaceable sub- mission to the laws; and, in proof of the loyalty of their principles, they state that “the twenty-sixth regiment of foot was first raised from their body, and still bears the name of Cameronians.” In 1743, Mr. M'Millan, and others of their preachers, constituted a presbytery, which they called “the Reformed Presbytery,” on account of their strict adherence to the principles of the Reformation in Scotland, in the sixteenth century. This denomination, though not numerous, have three łºś. Scotland, Ireland, and North America. n Scotland they have sixteen congregations—some very small, and two of them are called collegiate charges, hav- ing two ministers each. In Ireland they have six congre- gations, and nine in America; but most of them are stated to be without pastors. See R. Adam’s R. W. vol. ii. p. 157, &c. “A Short Account of the old Presbyterian Dis- senters,” &c., Falkirk, 1806. Dr. S. Charteris's Discourse on the Centenary of the Revolution, (1788.) Blackwood's Mag. 1819.- Williams. CAMISARS, or CAMISARDs; French prophets, or fana- tics of the Cevennes, as they were sometimes called, arose in the latter part of the seventeenth century. M. Gré- goire attributes their origin to a certain “school of the prophets” in Dauphiny, conducted by a Calvinist named Du Serre. As he has not given his authority, we can only say the thing is not incredible. The ebullitions of enthu- siasm have often arisen in the temple of piety; and when real Christians have met for devotion, the exterior signs of piety have sometimes deeply impressed and excited the imitation of persons who were strangers to the inward principle. Such have wrought themselves up to an exag- gerated state of feeling, which they have in some cases mistaken for devotion, and in others for inspiration; and even good and intelligent men have been sometimes drawn into the delusion, as appears to have been the case in the instructive and melancholy instance now before us. These pretended prophets first appeared in Dauphiny and Vivarais. In the year 1688, five or six hundred Pro- testants of both sexes gave themselves out to be prophets, and inspired of the Holy Ghost, and they soon amounted to many thousands. They had strange fits, which came upon them with tremblings and faintings, as in a swoon, which made them stretch out their arms and legs, and stagger several times before they dropped down. They struck themselves with their hands; they fell on their backs, shut their eyes, and heaved their breasts. The symptoms answer exactly to those produced by inspiring nitrous oxide, and were the fact then discovered, we should have been tempted to suspect imposture. They remained a while in trances, and coming out of them, declared that they saw the heavens open, the angels, paradise, and hell. Those who were just on the point of receiving the Spirit of prophecy dropped down, not only in the assemblies, but in the fields, and in their own houses, crying out Mercy. The least of their assemblies made up four or five hun- dred, and some of them amounted to even three or four thousand. The hills rebounded with their loud cries for mercy, and with imprecations against the priests, the pope, and his anti-Christian dominion; with predictions of the approaching fall of popery. All they said at these times was heard and received with reverence and awe. In the year 1706, three or four of these prophets came over into England, and brought their prophetic spirit with C. A. M. C A M [ 310 ) them, which discovered itself in the same way, namely, s by ecstasies, and agitations, and inspirations under them, as it had done in France : and they propagated the like. spirit to others, so that before the year was out, there were two or three hundred of these prophets in and about Lom- don, of both sexes, and of all ages. • The great subject of their prediction was, the near ap- proach of the kingdom of God, the happy times of the church, and the millennial state. Their message was, (and they were to proclaim it as heralds to every nation under heaven,) that the grand jubilee, “the acceptable year of the Lord,” the accomplishment of those numerous Scriptures concern- ing the new heavens, and the new earth, the kingdom of the Messiah, the marriage of the Lamb, the first resurrection, or the nerv Jerusalem descending from above, was now even at the door—that this great operation was to be effected by spiritual arms only, proceeding from the mouths of those who should by inspiration, or the mighty gift of the Spirit, be sent forth in great numbers to labor in the vineyard— that this mission of God's servants should be witnessed to by signs and wonders from heaven, by a deluge of judgments on the wicked universally throughout the world; as famine, pestilence, earthquakes, wars, &c.; that the exterminating angels should root out the tares, and there shall remain upon earth only good corn; and the works of men being thrown down, there shall be but one Lord, one faith, one heart, and one voice among mankind. And they declared that all the great things they have spoke of would be manifest over the whole earth, within the term of three years. These prophets also pretended to the gift of languages, of miracles, of discerning, &c. Discerning the secrets of the heart; the power of conferring the same spirit on others by the laying on of hands, and the gift of healing. To prove they were really inspired by the Holy Ghost, they alleged the complete joy and satisfaction they experienced, the spirit of prayer which was poured forth upon them, and the answer of their prayers by the Most High. These pretensions, however, laid the foundation of their detection and complete overthrow. They went so far as to pretend to raise the dead, and fixed upon one of their own number for the experiment, who was to rise on a par- ticular day. But Dr. Emes did not rise, nor could they raise him. The press teemed on this occasion, as well may be sup- posed, with publications pro and con. One of the most remarkable was entitled, “A Brand snatched from the burning,” &c.; and contained the confessions and re- tractations of one John Keymer, who was apprentice to a printer. His wife and sister, it seeums, were first drawn into the snare, and thus urged him to “seek the blessing,” as it was called, by imposition of the hands of these pro- phets. This accordingly he did receive from the hands of Elias Marion, one of those who had come from France, who pronounced over him several sentences in French, which he did not understand; but they were afterwards translated for him, and given to him written in English. They purported to be the words of God himself, expressed in the first person, and began thus: “My child, till now thou hast been rebellious to my will. I come, I tell thee, to appropriate thy heart to me. ... Resign thyself to follow me. I call thee.” Poor Keymer did so (as he supposed) for a considerable time, till he saw the failure of all the predictions of these prophets; and the extravagance and licentiousness of their conduct, which at last proceeded to open adultery, completely cured him. Among the predic- tions falsified, one was, the burning of London on the 25th of March, and another, the conversion of queen Anne, who was to go and prophesy in Barbican. Among the most celebrated of these prophets was John Lacey, Esq., a member of Mr. Calamy’s congregation, and a man of considerable property, who entered into all their absurdi- ties, except that of a community of goods, to which he strongly objected, having an income of two thousand pounds per annum. In one of his fits of inspiration, Mr. Calamy, (afterwards Dr. C.,) had an opportunity of seeing him, and gives the following account of it : “I went into the room where he sat, walked up to him, and asked him how he did ; and, taking him by the hand, liſted it up, when it fell flat upon his knees, as it lay be. fore. He took no notice of me, nor made mc any answer; but I observed the humming noise grow louder and louder by degrees, and the heaving in his breast increased, till it came up to his throat, as if it would have suffocated him; and then he at last began to speak, or, as he would have it taken, the Spirit spake in him. The speech was syllabical, and there was a distinct heave and breath between each syllable; but it required attention to distinguish the words. When the speech was over, the humming and heaving gradually abated; and I again took him by the hand, and felt his pulse, which moved pretty quick; but I could not perceive by his hands any thing like sweating, or more than common heat.” - - - Mr. Walter Wilson, from whom we take this quotation, adds: “Some time after this, Mr. Lacey, without giving the least motice, got up one morning, left his lady in bed, quitted his house and children, and, taking a few necessa- ries with him, went to live among the prophets. Then he took to himself for wife Betty Gray, who had been a snuf. ſer of candles at the playhouse, but now passed for a per- son inspired. This transaction, in one of his inspirations, which Mr. Calamy saw, he called a quitting Hagar and taking himself to Sarah; and declared that he did it by order of the Spirit !” See Grégoire's Hist, vol. i. p. 370. Chauncey’s Works, vol. iii. p. 2, &c. Hughson's Fr. and Eng. Prophets, Lacey's Prophetic Warnings. A Brand snatched out of the Burning. Wilson's Dissenting Church- es, vol. iv. p. 77-Williams. CAMMERHOF, (FREDERIC,) a Moravian bishop, came to this country in 1746, to assist bishop Spangenberg. In 1748, he visited the establishment at Shomokin, on the Susquehannah; in 1750 he repaired to Onondaga to pro- mote the introduction of the gospel amongst the Iroquois. He died at Bethlehem, his usual place of residence, April 28, 1751, greatly deplored. During four years he had baptized eighty-nine Indians. There was so much sweet- ness and benevolence in his character, as to impress even the savages with respect for him. His mild and fricndly behavior once turned the heart of an Indian, enraged by his reproofs, who had resolved to kill him.—Loskiel : Allen. CAMP, or ENcAMPMENT, of the Israelites. The whole body of the people, consisting of six hundred thousand fighting men, besides women and children, was disposed under four battalions, so placed as to inclose the taberna- cle, in the form of a square, and each under one general standard. (See ARMies.). There were forty-one encamp. ments, from their first in the month of March, at Rameses, in the land of Goshen, in Egypt, and in the wilderness, until they reached the land of Canaan. They are thus enumerated in Numbers 33:- 1. Rameses 21. Haradah 2. Succoth 22. Makheloth 3. Etham, on the edge of 23. Tahath 24. Tarah 25. Mithcah 26. Hashmonah 27. Moseroth. * 28. Bene-jaakan 29. Hor-hagidgad 30. Jotbathah 31. Ebromah 32. Ebion-gaber the wilderness 4. Pihahiroth 5. Marah 6. Elim 7. By the Red sea 8. Wilderness of Sin 9. Dophkah . Alush y 11. Rephidim .* 12. Wilderness of Sinai 33. Kadesh 13. Kibroth-hattaavah 34. Mount Hor 14. Hazeroth 35. Zalmonah 15. Rithmah 36. Punon 16. Rimmon-parez 37. Oboth 17. Libnah 38. Ije-abarim 18. Rissah 29. Dibon-gad 19. Kehelatha. 40 Almon-diblathaim 20. Shapher 41. Mountains of Abarim. In the second year after their exodus from Egypt, they were numbered; and upon an exact poll, the number of their males amounted to six hundred and three thousand, five hundred and fifty, from twenty years old and upwards. Num, 1:2. This vast mass of people, ericamped in beau. tiful order, must have presented a most impressive spec- tacle. That it failed not to produce effect upon the righly • C A M C A M [ 311 | endowed and poetic mind of Balaam, appears from Num- bers 24; 2., “And Balaam lified up his eyes and he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes; and the Spirit of God came upon him, and he took up his para- ble and said, How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel! As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river side, as the trees of lign aloes which the Lord hath planted," and as cedar trees be- side waters.” Grandeur, order, beauty, and freshness, were the ideas at once suggested to the mind of this un- faithful prophet, and called forth his unwilling admiration. Perhaps we may consider this spectacle as a type of the order, beauty and glory of the true “church in the wilder- ness,” in those happy days when God “shall not behold iniquity in Jacob, nor perverseness in Israel;” when it shall be said, “The Lord his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them.”—Watson. CAMP-MEETINGS ; religious festivals held among the Methodists in some parts of England, and the United States of America, and also among the Presbyterians in the back Settlements of the latter country. In Kentucky, and some adjacent parts, not ſewer than fifteen or twenty thousand people assemble on such occasions. They come in wagons or on horseback from distant districts, bring provisions with them, and erecting booths under the dense shade of the forests, they devote a whole week to the reli- gious exercises of the period. They have prayer meet- ings, &c. in separate tents, or in groups in the open air, morning and evening, and four sermons daily, two in the earlier, and two in the latter part of the day, while the festival lasts. The great day is the Sabbath, when the vast population of the more immediate neighborhood assemble and swell the numbers, and the ordinance of the Lord's supper is administered. According to the testimony of those who have been present, nothing can exceed the effect produced by the evening scene, when the otherwise impe- netrable gloom of the woods is lighted up into one blaze by the numerous fires which are kindled and kept burning, and the sound of so many thousands of voices, causing the immense groves to re-echo the praises of the Most High. The general order and propriety which prevail on such oc- casions evince the deep hold which religion has on the minds of those who thus meet for the purposes of spiritual edification and improvement —Hend. Buck. CAMPBELL, (GeoRGE, D.D.,) an eminently learned and liberal divine of the last century, was born on the 25th of December, 1719, at Aberdeen, Scotland. He sprang from a very honorable stock, numbering among his ances- tors several of the descendants of the family of Argyle. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, was one of the minis- ters of the city of Aberdeen, and held in high estimation by good men of all denominations, for his pious and bene- volent disposition; so that he was often intrusted by the provincial synod, and other public bodies, with the distribu- tion of their charitable donations. His wife's name was Margaret, the daughter of Alexander Walker, Esq., who had been provost of the city; by her he had three sons and three daughters, who were in very early life deprived of this worthy guide of their youth, as he died on the 27th of August, 1728, regretted by every one that knew him, both on account of his unaffected manners, diffusive bene- volence, and faithful discharge of the duties of his pro- fession. As George, the subject of this memoir, was the youngest son, his portion of his father's scanty inheritance was very small; it was to his own exertions, and the great natural energy of his mind, that he was chiefly indebted for his progress and advancement in future life. He re- ceived the rudiments of classical instruction at the gram- mar school of his native city, which had been famed for more than a century for the successful teaching of the Latin tongue; and he afterwards entered as student at Marischal college, where the celebrated Dr. Thomas Blackwell, prin- cipal and professor of Greek, had introduced an ardent zeal for prosecuting the study of that very rich and expres: sive language. Thus he laid betimes an ample and solid foundation for that profound and various erudition, and that critical sagacity, by which he afterwards rendered such essential services to the church. It seems to have been once his intention to prepare himself for the study of the law ; and we find him actually engaged as an ap- prentice to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh. He ac- quired in this situation that knowledge of the constitution and laws of his country, and that habit of close reasoning and accurate inditing, for which he was afterwards so much distinguished. He soon, however, became dissatisfied with this profession, and betook himself to the study of the Scriptures, and whatever would tend to qualify him for the office of a minister of the gospel. Before the ex- piration, therefore, of his apprenticeship, he attended the lectures on divinity, then delivered by professor Gobdie, at the university of Edinburgh; and not long afterwards be- came a student of theology, under professor Lumsden, of King's college, and professor Chalmers,of Marischal college, Aberdeen. Here he particularly distinguished himself by his discourses, delivered, according to usual custom, in the Scotch universities. Wishing, however, to acquire further information and greater skill in polemical divinity than these exercises would afford, he entered into a literary asso- ciation, with several of the other students, among whom may be particularly mentioned the Rev. Dr. Glennie, Mr. James MPRail, and Mr. William Forbes. This socie- ty was formed in the month of January, 1742, and a num- ber of young men of great promise were gradually ad- mitted into it; but, according to the account given by several of the members, Mr. Campbell was considered as the life and soul of the society, and as one likely to attain great eminence in his profession. Like most young men of genius, his style was rather florid; but he made no pa- rade of science: the discourses delivered by him, when a youth, displayed much good sense, a sound knowledge of theology, and an intimate acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures; and whenever they appeal to the imagination or the passions, abound in the finest and most touching sentiments, evincing his natural powers of eloquence, and the great success with which he had cultivated them. Af. ter the usual course of theological studies, he was proposed to the synod, and at length licensed as a preacher, on the 11th of June, 1746. Two years after this, he received a presentation to the parish of Banchory Terman, situated seventeen miles from Aberdeen, where his great talents as an expounder of Scripture, began to show themselves in his morning lectures to his congregation, which were remarkable for their great simplicity and perspicuity. While thus explaining the New Testament to his flock, he conceived the idea of translating a part of it, the result of which was his publication, several years after, of his Translation of the Four Gospels. After continuing nine years in this country parish, he was called to succeed Mr. John Bisset, as one of the ministers of Aberdeen; here his talents as a lecturer shone in their proper sphere; and having the advantage of the best libraries, he commenced a course of lectures on rhetoric, criticism, and other sub- jects, which were delivered to the literary society of that place, and afterwards served as the basis of his “Philoso- phy of Rhetoric,” and other works, by which he gained much celebrity. At this time he had not published any thing, except a sermon preached before the synod of Aber- deen, on “The Character of a Minister as a Teacher and Pattern;” but this he has not included in the collection he made some time before his death, probably because of the style being not sufficiently simple. In 1759, Mr. Campbell received a royal presentation to the office of principal of Marischal college, which at that time became vacant. Two other candidates had applied for it, one of whom was supported by the magistrates of Aberdeen, and the other by the landed interest of the county, and many of the heads of the college; but Mr. Campbell having been in-- duced to write to Archibald, duke of Argyle, who had great influence in the affairs of Scotland at that time, and having modestly stated his relation to the duke's family, this application, together with his high character and re- spectable talent, succeeded in procuring him the appoint- ment. Placed thus at the head of the university, he soon approved himself worthy of his dignity. That celebrated infidel, Mr. David Hume, had just published his Essay on Miracles, which excited great attention among the learned of the day; nor did he meet with any opponent whom he deigned to notice, until professor Campbell entered the lists, and preached a sermon on the subject before the pro- vineial synod of Aberdeen, which, at their request, he af. C A M * [ 312 ) C A M terwards formed into a Dissertation on Miracles. Before its publication, however, he transmitted the manuscript, through the medium of his friend, Dr. Blair, of Edinburgh, for Mr. Hume's inspection. The philosopher, notwith- standing all his indifference, evidently felt the force of the arguments used in this learned and acute performance; he objected to a few expressions, and pointed out some in- stances in which he had been misunderstood; on which Mr. Campbell revised the work, generously expunging the offensive expressions, and made use of the remarks of his opponent, to render his dissertation more complete. When published, a copy was sent to Mr. Hume, who was so pleased with his conduct, that he declared he felt an incli- mation to answer it, if he had not in early life made a de- termination never to answer any opponent. This disser- tation appeared in 1763, and was dedicated to the earl of Bute, at that time prime minister: it had a most extensive sale in this country, and was translatéd into the French, Dutch, and German languages; so that the name of Dr. Campbell, (for he had in the mean time received the de- gree of doctor of divinity from King's college,) was re- garded with the greatest respect by the literary men of every European state. For twelve years he discharged the duties of principal of Marischal college, being held in equally high estimation by the professors and the students, and living on the most happy terms with all his colleagues. He was esteemed a most worthy man, a sincere Christian, a good preacher, and above all, one of the best lecturers of his time; he used very few, sometimes not any notes, and where he spoke entirely extempore, he seldom failed in enlightening the understanding, and moving the hearts of his auditors. On the 26th of June, 1771, he was ap- pointed professor of divinity in his college, instead of Dr. Gerard, who was removed to King's ; and as he was thus called to additional labor, he found it necessary to resign his pastoral charge as one of the ministers of the city; as minister of Gray Friars, however, an office connected with the professorship, he preached once on the Lord's day in one of the established churches. Dr. Campbell did not adhere closely to the customary prelections of the former professors, who used to meet the students twice a week during the Session, and spend one of these opportunities in hearing them discourse: he intimated, immediately on commencing his labors, that he should always deliver lec- tures twice in the week, and fixed upon another day for hearing the students' discourses, when they had any to deliver. He was the first professor that ever limited the compass of subjects in the divinity lectures; it had been the custom to extend them far beyond the period usually allotted to the study of those subjects; but Dr. Campbell very wisely confined them within the space of four years, so that every student had, by this means, the advantage of attending the whole course. The chief excellence of these lectures, however, consisted in their ingenuity and profound learning; in their luminous arrangement and admirable perspicuity; and above all, in the method which he always pursued, of leading the students to think for themselves, and not slavishly to depend upon the opinions and systems of others made ready to their hands. His own inderstanding was at once capacious and acute; he was too independent to be fettered by human systems, and too judicious to be led astray by fanciful theories; he would declare the truth, how much soever it might conflict with his own private notions and practices, or those of the body with which he stood connected. Deeply skilled in church history, Scripture criticism, polemical divinity, and every subject of importance to the student and the minister, he was eminently qualified to direct the studies of others, while his public discourses and labors well exemplified the instructions that he gave. His Lectures on Ecclesiastical History furnish ample illustration of these remarks; they were not published till after the author's death, being re- vised and written out for the press only a short time before his last illness. In the month of April, 1771, he preached and published his excellent sermon on the spirit of the gos- É. which will be long read as an admirable specimen of is talents and candor. Five years afterwards, he completed his Philosophy of Rhetoric, the two first chapters of which he had composed at least twenty-five years before. This work abounds with most interesting remarks on style and elocution, and the most accurate criticism; the theory of cvidence which it contains, the Encyclopædia Britannica describes as the most valuable part, “to which there is nothing superior; perhaps nothing equal, in our own, or any other language.” In 1776, on the day appointed for a fast, on account of the American war, Dr. Campbell preached a sermon on the nature, extent, and importance of allegiance. This discourse, in which the author dis- putes the right of the colonies to throw off their allegiance, was written with so much force of argument, and in so excellent a spirit, that, at the request of dean Tucker, six thousand copies were circulated through America. The following year, another discourse appeared on the success of the first preachers of the gospel, considered as a proof of its truth. It was preached before the Society for Pro- pagating Christian Knowledge, and published at their re- quest. Here “the policy of heaven” and “that of this world” are finely contrasted; and the argument for the divine origin of the gospel, from the success of its first publishers, triumphantly stated. In the year 1779, the doctor evinced his liberality of sentiment in “An Address to the People of Scotland, on the alarm raised by the bill in favor of the Roman Catholics.” The following senti- ments, extracted from this able pamphlet, contain at once the happiest illustration of the writer's spirit and manner, and the most luminous statement of the argument itself. “Let popery be as black as you will: call it Beelzebub, if you please; it is not by Beelzebub, that I am for casting out Beelzebub, but by the Spirit of God. We exclaim against popery; and in exclaiming against it, betray but too mani- festly, that we have imbibed the spirit for which we detest it. In the most unlovely spirit of popery, we would fight against popery ! It is not by such weapons, that God has promised to consume the man of sin, but by the breath of his mouth ; that is, his word. Christians, in ancient times, confided in the divine promises; we, in these days, confide in parliament True religion never flourished so much —never spread so rapidly, as when, instead of persecuting, it was persecuted; instead of obtaining support from hu- man sanctions, it had all the terrors of the magistrate and the laws armed against it.” Dr. Campbell published several other discourses; but the last, and most valuable production of his pen, was his “Translation of the Four Gospels,” which is generally admitted to be excellent; and the preliminary dissertations with which it is accompanied, have done much in remov- ing some of those difficulties which are to be met with in the commonly received version. This admirable work has met with a most extensive circulation ; the author, however, did not long survive to witness its success. On the 31st of March, 1796, while sitting with his friends, he was taken ill; but the next morning he was at his desk as usual, though he complained that he could not write with his accustomed ease. The following day he had a paralytic stroke, which deprived him of his speech, under which he languished till his death, which happened on the 7th of April, giving no other signs of sensibility than his frequent efforts to speak. Though he was not permitted to leave a testimony behind at the time of his decease, he had already borne one about five years before, when he was judged to be at the point of death. On that occasion, he expressed himself in the following terms: “God has been pleased to give me some understanding of his promises in the gospel of his Son Jesus Christ. These I have communicated to others in my life. I non entertain the faith and hope of them ; and this may be considered as the testimony of a dying man.” Within a year of his death, he resigned his office of divinity professor in the Marischal college ; and soon after, his majesty having graciously conferred on him a º of three hundred pounds per annum, he gave up is situation as principal, and retired from public life. He was small in stature, and in old age, rather inclined to stoop; his countenance was open, and his eye piercing, and indicative of great mental acumen. He studied very closely, especially towards the latter part of his life, rising generally at five o'clock in the morning, and continuing, with few and short intervals, engaged in study till twelve at night; and yet, owing to his regularity of living and great temperance, his constitution was not impaired; so that he had entered on the seventy-seventh year of his age wae ------**3, wwwupwazo?*®∞ tønddorio：№ſ| � ！2 º-º-º: 5×_arr.-×%“ （p.�šº- ſº ·ſgſ;----ſaevř，t{x}{2}\， ¿?§žģg-ſºº4 |� |· áA， c;№uſſouſ-DŌŌ5) *** （）， **-… Tººr， ſº ’,łſž№- •*… "，,，， ， ，ſaevº |/* ~.?·Źź(_% };ſ, ,'<！º_ºnor ) ; -----~ 、、。。、、。ſºÆ 3@tſS. »innunzº，Jº ©aerae,ºr ae 1וņotogrºſſºº， ſt?3#Œ œ*$%&ſíóg ... “? ！！ 3 |$3@ſ&J, 3, ſ.ſ. ? «10^& 7）/8，73/k/379) *- ...Eº ºr ºn tº. -- --- ===SE º - 3. I ---------- ºsoºttribuv）,Sº,L - Kº I-III-III-T，-S，- Yu e º E It Yº N C E ģ į gael fö £ º × ? * C A N C A. N. [ 313 ) * y. tº Af & & º- , at the period of his decease. His character may be sum- fied up in a ſew words. His imagination was fertile; his º #º. and acute; his learning profound and ºarfouşºof ºrcheerful temper, unfeigned piety, and un- Tolemished morals, of modest and gentle manners, and re- markable for his ingenuousness, and love of truth; in short, as a man and a Christian, in public, or in private life, as a husband, as a minister of the gospel, and as the principal of a college and professor of divinity, he had, perhaps, few equals—certainly no superior.—Life, by the Rev. George Skene Keith ; Jones's Chris. Biog. CAMPHIRE; Canticles 1: 14 ; 4: 13. Sir T. Browne supposes that the plant mentioned in the Canticles, ren- dered kupros in the Septuagint, and cyprus in the Vulgate, is that described by Dioscorides and Pliny, which grows in Egypt, and near to Ascalon, producing an odorate bush of flowers, and yielding the celebrated oleum cyprinum. This is one of the plants which is most grateful to the eye and the smell. The deep color of its bark, the light green of its foliage, the softened mixture of white and yellow with which the flowers, collected into long clusters like the lilac, are colored; the red tint of the ramifications which sup- port them, form an agreeable combination. The flowers, whose shades are so delicate, diffuse around the sweetest odors, and embalm the gardens and apartments which they embellish. The women take pleasure in decking themselves with these nosegays of beauty and clusters of fragrance. With the powder of the dried leaves, also, they give an orange tincture to their nails, to the inside of their hands, and to the soles of their feet. The expression, rendered “pare their nails,” Deut. 21:12, may perhaps rather mean, “adorn their nails;” and imply the antiquity of this prac- tice. This is a universal custom in Egypt, and not to conform to it would be considered indecent. It seems to have been practised by the ancient Egyptians, for the nails of the mummies are most commonly of a reddish hue.— Watson. CAMIUS, (John PETER ;) a French prelate, was born at Paris, in 1582, and was made bishop of Belley by Henry IV. After having held his see for twenty years, he re- signed it to live in retirement; but his virtues and piety soon occasioned him to be drawn from his retreat. He was appointed vicar-general to the archbishop of Rouen; and, subsequently, bishop of Arras. He died in his seven- tieth year, when on the point of going to his new diocese. His works, which are said to amount to more than two hundred volumes, have fallen into oblivion. Of the men- dicant monks he was a determined and persevering enemy, and he incessantly attacked them with the keenest raillery and satire.—Davenport. CANA; the city in which our Lord performed his first miracle, was in Galilee, and pertained to the tribe of Ze- bulon. The village now bearing the name, and supposed to occupy the site of the ancient town, is pleasantly situa- ted on the descent of a hill, about sixteen miles north-west of Tiberias, and six north-east of Nazareth. Dr. Rich- ardson states, that in a small Greek church in this place, he was shown an old stone pot, made of the common com- pact lime-stone of the country, which the hierophant in- formed him was one of the original pots that contained the water which underwent the miraculous change at the wedding, which was here honored by the presence of Christ. “It is worthy of note,” says Dr. Clarke, “that walking among the ruins of a church, we saw large massy stone pots, answering the description given of the ancient vessels of the country; not preserved nor exhibited as reliques, but lying about, disregarded by the present inha- bitants, as antiquities with whose original use they were unacquainted. From their appearance, and the number of them, it was quite evident, that a practice of keeping water in large stone pots, each holding from eighteen to twenty-seven gallons, was once common in the country.” (Travels, P. ii, ch. 14.) Cana of Galilee has preserved its name, in the Arabic form, Kāna el Jelil, to this day. It is in ruins, about seven miles north from Nazareth. Kefr Kenna, which has com- monly been called the same, is a different place, about three miles north-east from Nazareth.--T. CANAAN, the son of Ham. The Hebrews believe § É that Canaan, having first discovered Noah's nakedness, told his father Ham ; and that Noah, when he awoke, having understood what had passed, cursed Canaan, the first author of the offence. Others are of opinion, that Ham was punished in his son Canaan, Gen. 9:25. For though Canaan is mentioned, Ham is not exempted from the malediction; on the contrary, he suffers more from it, since parents are more affected with their children's misfor- tunes than with their own; especially if the evils have been inflicted through some fault or folly of theirs. Some have thought that Canaan may be put elliptically for the father of Canaan, that is, Ham, as it is rendered in the bic and Septuagint translations. g The posterity of Canaan was numerous. His eldest son, Sidon, founded the city of Sidon, and was father of the Sidonians and Phoenicians. Canaan had ten other sons, who were fathers of as many tribes, dwelling in Palestine and Syria ; namely, the Hittites, the Jebusites, the Amo rites, the Girgasites, the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites, the Arvadites, the Zemarites, and the Hemathites. It is believed that Canaan lived and died in Palestine, which from him was called the land of Canaan. Notwithstanding the curse is directed against Canaan the son, and not against Ham the father, it is often supposed that all the posterity of Ham were placed under the malediction, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.” But the true reason why Canaan only was mentioned probably is, that the curse was in fact restricted to the posterity of Canaan. It is true that many Africans, descendants of other branches of Ham's family, have been largely and cruelly enslaved; but so have other tribes in different parts of the world. There is certainly no proof that the negro race were ever placed under this malediction. Had they been included in it, this would neither have justified their oppressors, nor proved that Christianity is not designed to remove the evil of slavery. But Canaan, alone in his descendants, is cursed, and Ham only in that branch of his posterity. It follows that the subjugation of the Canaanitish races to Israel fulfils the prophecy. To them it was limited, and with them it expired. Part of the seven nations of the Canaanites were made slaves to the Israelites, when they took possession of their land ; and the remainder by Solomon. CANAAN, LAND of. In the map it presents the appear- ance of a narrow slip of country, extending along the east- ern coast of the Mediterranean ; from which, to the river Jordan, the utmost width does not exceed fifty miles. This river was the eastern boundary of the land of Ca- naan, or Palestine, properly so called, which derived its name from the Philistines originally inhabiting the coast. To three of the twelve tribes, however, Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, portions of territory were assigned on the eastern side of the river, which were afterwards extended by the subjugation of the neighboring nations. The territory of Tyre and Sidon was its ancient border on the north-west ; the range of the Libanus and Anti-libanus forms a natural boundary on the north and north-east; while in the south it is pressed upon by the Syrian and Arabian deserts. Within this circumscribed district, such were the physical advantages of the soil and climate, there existed, in the happiest periods of the Jewish nation, an immense population. The kingdom of David and Solomon, however, extended far beyond these narrow limits. In a north-eastern direction, it was bounded only by the river Euphrates, and included a considerable part of Syria. It is stated that Solomon had dominion over all the region on the western side of the Euphrates, from Thiphsah, or Thapsacus, on that river, in latitude thirty-five degrees twenty minutes, to Azzah, or Gaza. “Tadmor in the wilderness,” (Palmyra,) which the Jewish monarch is stated to have built, (that is, either founded or fortified,) is considerably to the north-east of Damascus, being only a days’ journey from the Euphrates; and Hamath, the Epiphania of the Greeks, (still called Hamah,) in the territory belonging to which city Solomon had several “store cities,' is seated on the Orontes, in latitude thirty- four degrees forty-five minutes north. On the east and south-east, the kingdom of Solomon was extended by the conquest of the country of Moab, that of the Ammonites, 40 C. A N C A. N. [ 314 ) and Edom ; and tracts which were either inhabited or astured by the Israelites, lay still further eastward. K. which belonged to the tribe of Judah, and was situated in or near the desert of Paran, is described by Abulfeda as the farthest city of Syria towards Arabia, being two days’ journey beyond Zoar. In the time of David, the people of Israel, women and children included, amounted, on the lowest computation, to five millions; besides the tributary Canaanites, and other conquered nations. The vast resources of the country, and the Fº of the Jewish monarch, may be estimated not only y the consideration in which he was held by the contem- porary sovereigns of Egypt, Tyre, and Assyria, but by the strength of the several kingdoms into which the domi- nions of David were subsequently divided. Damascus revolted during the reign of Solomon, and shook off the Jewish yoke. At his death, ten of the tribes revolted under Jeroboam, and the country became divided into the two rival kingdoms of Judah and Israel, having for their capitals Jerusalem and Samaria. The kingdom of Israel fell before the Assyrian conqueror, in the year B. C. 721, after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty years. That of Judah survived about one hundred and thirty years, Judea being finally subdued and laid waste by Nebuchadnezzar, and the temple burned, B. C. 588. Idumea was conquered a few years after. From this period till the era of Alexander the Great, Palestine re- mained subject to the Chaldean, Median, and Persian dynasties. At his death, Judea fell under the dominion of the kings of Syria, and, with some short and troubled intervals, remained subject either to the kings of Syria or of Egypt, till John IIyrcanus shook off the Syrian yoke, and assumed the diadem, B, C, 130. The Asmonean dynasty, which united, in the person of the monarch, the functions of king and pontiff, though tributary to Roman conquerors, lasted one hundred and twenty-six years, till the kingdom was given by Antony to Herod the Great, of an Idumean family, B. C. 39. 2. At the time of the Christian cra, Palestine was di- vided into five provinces: Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea, and Idumea. On the death of Herod, Archclaus, his eldest son, succeeded to the government of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, with the title of tetrarch ; Galilee being assigned to Herod Antipas; and Perea, or the country beyond Jordan, to the third brother, Philip. But in less than ten years, the dominions of Archelaus became an- nexed, on his disgrace, to the Roman province of Syria; and Judea was thenceſorth governed by Roman procura. tors. Jerusalem, after its final destruction by Titus, A. D. 71, remained desolate and almost uninhabited, till the emperor Hadrian colonized it, and erected temples to Jupiter and Venus on its site. The empress Holena, in the fourth century, set the example of repairing in pilgri- mage to the Holy Land, to visit the scenes consecrated by the gospel narrative ; and the country became enriched by the crowds of devotees who ſlocked thero. In the beginning of the Seventh century, it was overrun by the Saracens, who held it till Jerusalem was taken by the crusaders in the twelfth. The Latin kingdom of Jerusa- lem continued for about eighty years, during which the Holy Land streamed continually with Christian and Sa- racen blood. In 1187, Judea was conquered by the illus- trious Saladin, on the decline of whose kingdom it passed though various revolutions, and at length, in 1317, was finally swallowed up in the Turkish empire. Palestine is now distributed into pashalics. That of Acre or Akka extends from Djebail nearly to Jaffa ; that of Gaza comprehends Jaffa and the adjacent plains; and these two being now united, all the coast is under thc jurisdiction of the pasha of Acre. Jerusalem, Hebron, Nablous, Tiberias, and, in fact, the greater part of Pales. time, are included in the pashalic of Damascus, now held in conjunction with that of Aleppo; which renders the present pasha, in effect, the viceroy of Syria. Though both pashas continue to be dutiful subjects to the grand seignior in appearance, and annually transmit considerable sums to Constantinople to insure the yearly renewal of their office, they are to be considered as tributaries, rather than subjects of the porte; and it is supposed to be the religious supremacy of the sultan, as caliph and vicar of ** Mahomct, more than any apprehension of his power, which prevents them from declaring themselves inde- pendent. The reverence shown for the firmans of the porte throughout Syria attests the strông hold which the sultan maintains, in this character, on the Turkish popu- lation. The pashas of Egypt and Bagdad are attached to the Turkish sovereign by the same ecclesiastical tie, which alone has kept the ill-compacted and feeble empire from crumbling to ruin. 3. A few additional remarks upon the topography and climate will tend to elucidate the force of many of those Fº of Scripture which contain allusions to these topics. r. E. D. Clarke, after stating his resolve to make the Scriptures his only guide throughout this interestin territory, says, “The delight afforded by the .# evidences of truth, in every instance where their fidelity of description was proved by a comparison with existing documents, surpassed even all we had anticipated. Such extraordinary instances of coincidence even with the customs of the country as they are now exhibited, and so many wonderful examples of illustration afforded by con- trasting the simple narrative with the appearances pre- sented, made us only regret the shortness of our time, and the limited sphere of our abilities for the comparison.” Judea is beautifully diversified with hills and plains—hills now barren and gloomy, but once cultivated to their sum- mits, and smiling in the variety of their produce, chiefly the olive and the vine ; and plains, over which the Bedouin now roves to collect a scanty herbage for his cattle, but once yielding an abundance of which the inhabitants of a northern climate can form no idea. Rich in its soil; glowing in the sunshine of an almost perpetual summer; and abounding in scenery of the grandest, as well as of the most beautiful kind; this happy country was indeed a land which the Lord had blessed : but Mahometan sloth and despotism, as the instruments employed to execute the curse of heaven, have converted it into a waste of rock and desert, with the exception of some few spots, which remain to attest the veracity of the accounts formerly given of it. The hills of Judea frequently rise into nountains ; the most considerable of which are those of Lebanon and Hermon, on the north ; those which surround the sea of Galilee, and the Dead sea, also attain a respect. ble elevation. The other mountains of note are, Carmel, Tabor, Ebal, and Gerizim, and the mountains of Gil- boa, Gilead, and Abarim ; with the summits of the latter, Nebo and Pisgah : a description of which will be ſound under their respective heads. Many of the hills and rocks abound in caverns, the refuge of the distressed, or the resorts of robbers. 4. From the paucity of rain which falls in Judea, and the heat and dryness of the atmosphere for the greater part of the year, it possesses but few rivers; and as these have all their rise within its boundaries, their course is short, and their size inconsiderable : the principal is the Jordan, which runs about a hundred miles. The other remarkable streams are, the Arnon, the Jabbok, the Kishon, the Ke- dron, the Besor, the Sorek, and the stream called the river of Egypt. These, also, will be found described under their respective heads. This country was once adorned with woods and forests; as we read of the forest of cedars in Lebanon, the forest of oaks in Bashan, the forest or Woºd of Ephraim, and the forest of Hareth in the tribe of Judº . Of these, the woods of Bashan alone remain; the rest have been swept away by the ravages of time and of armies, and by the gradual consumption of the inhabi. tºuts, whose indolence and ignorance have prevented their planting others. 3. There are no volcanoes now existing in Judea or its vicinity : nor is mention made of any in history, although volcanic traces are found in many parts on its eastern side, as they are also in the mountains of Edom on the south, the Djebel Shera and Hesma, as noticed by Burckhardt. There can be no doubt that many of the sacred writers were familiarly acquainted with the phenomena of volca- noes; whence it may be inferred that they were presented to their observation at no great distance, and from which they drew some of their sublimest imagery. Mr. Horne has adduced the following instances: “The mountains quake at him, and the hills melt, and the earth is burned at * - CAN C. A. N [ 315 j are thrown down by him,” Nahum 1: 5, 6. “Behold, the Lord cometh forth out of his place, and will come down and tread upon the high places of the earth. And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft as war before the fire, and as the waters that are poured down a steep place,” Micah 1: 3, 4, “O that thou wouldest rend the heavens, that thou wouldest come down, that the mountains might flow donºn at thy presence. As when the melting fire burneth, the fire causeth the maters to boil, to make thy name known to thine adversaries, that the nations may tremble at thy presence. . . When thou didst terrible things which we looked not for, thou camest down, the mountains ſlowed down at thy presence,” Isa. 64; 1–3, - 6. The climate of Judea, from the southern latitude of the country, is necessarily warm. The cold of winter is, indeed, sometimes greater than in European climates situated some degrees farther to the north ; but it is of short duratien, and the general character of the climate is that of heat. Toth heat and cold are, however, tempered by the nature of the surface; the winter being scarcely felt in the valleys, while in the summer the heat is almost insupportable; and, on the contrary, in the more elevated parts, during the winter months, or rather weeks, frosts frequently occur, and snow sometimes falls, while the air in summer is comparatively cool and refreshing. Many winters pass without either snow or frost; and in the coldest weather which ever occurs, the sun in the middle of the day is generally warm, and often hot; so that the pain of cold is in reality but little felt, and the poor who cannot afford fires may enjoy, during several hours of the day, the more genial and invigorating influence of the sun. This is the ordinary character of the winters; though in some years, as will be seen presently, the coid is more severely felt during the short time that it prevails, which is never more than two months, and more fre- quently not so much as one. Towards the end of No- vember, or beginning of December, domestic fires become agreeable. It was at this time that Jehoiakim, king of Judah, is represented by Jeremiah as sitting in his winter house, with a fire burning on the hearth before him, Jere- miah 36: 22. The same luxury, though frequently by no means necessary, is used by the wealthy till the end of March. . 7. Rain only falls during the autumn, winter, and spring, when it sometimes descends with great violence : the greatest quantity, and that which properly constitutes the rainy season, happening between the autumnal equinox, or somewhat later, and the beginning of December; during which period, heavy clouds often obscure the sky, and several days of violent rain sometimes succeed each other with winds. This is what in Scripture is termed the early or the former rain. Showers continue to fall at uncertain intervals, with some cloudy but more fair weather, till towards the vernal equinox, when they become again more frequent and copious till the middle of April. These are the latter rains, Joel 2: 23. From this time to the end of May, showers come on at irregular intervals, gradually decreasing as the season advances; the sky being for the most part serene, and the temperature of the air agreeable, though sometimes acquiring a high degree of heat. From the end of May, or beginning of June, to the end of Sep- tember, or middle of October, scarce a drop of rain falls, the sky being constantly unclouded, and the heat generally oppressive. During this period, the inhabitants commonly sleep on the tops of their houses. The storms, especially in the autumn, are preceded by short but violent gusts of wind, which, from the surface of a parched soil, raise great clouds of dust; which explains what is meant by, & Ye shall not see wind,” 2 Kings 3: 7. The continuation of the same passage likewise implies, that such circum- scribed whirlwinds were generally considered as the pre- cursors of rain : a circumstance likewise alluded to by Solomon, who says, “Whoso boasteth himself of a false gift, is like clouds and wind without rain,” Prov. 25: 14. Another prognostic of an approaching storm is a small cloud rising in the west, and increasing until it overspreads the whole heavens. Such was the cloud, “like a man's hand,” which appeared to Elijah, on mount Carmel; his presence, His fury is oured out like fire, and the rocks which spread “till therheaven was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain,” 1 Kings 18:44. To this phenomenon, and the certainty of the prognostic, our Savior alludes: “When ye see a cloud” (or the cloud, ten nephelán) “rise out of the west, straightway ye say, There cometh a shower; and so it is,” Luke 12:54. The same appearance is noticed by Homer:— “Slow from the main the ...? vapors rise, jº. in dinil streams, and sail along the skies, Till black as night the swelling tempest shows, The cloud condensing as the west wind blows. He dreads the impending storm,” &c. Pope. Hail frequently falls in the winter and spring in very heavy storms, and with hail-stones of an enormous size. Dr. Russell says that he has seen some at Aleppo which measured “two inches in diameter; but sometimes they are found to consist of irregularly shaped pieces, weighing near three ounces. The copious dew forms another pecu- liarity of this climate, frequently alluded to in Scripture : so copious, indeed, is it sometimes, as to resemble small rain, and to supply the wants of superficial vegetation. Mr. Maundrell, when travelling near mount Hermon, says, “We were instructed by experience what the Psalmist means by the dew of Hermon,” Psalm 133: 3; our tents being as wet with it, as if it had rained all night.” . 7. The seasons are often adverted to in Scripture, under the terms “seed-time and harvest.” The former, for wheat, is about the middle of October to the middle or end of November : barley is put into the ground two and sometimes three months later. The wheat harvest com- mences about the twentieth of May, and early in June the whole is off the ground. The barley harvest, it is to be observed, is generally a fortnight earlier. A survey of the astonishing produce of this country, and of the manner in which its most rocky and, to appearance, in- superably sterile parts, are made to yield to the wants of man, will be sufficient to refute the objections raised by sceptical writers against the possibility of its furnishing subsistence to the multitude of its former inhabitants re- corded in Scripture. Dr. Clarke, when travelling from Napolose to Jerusalem, relates, “The road was moun- tainous, rocky, and full of loose stones; yet the cultivation was every where marvellous; it aflorded one of the most striking pictures of human industry which it is possible to behold. The limestone rocks and stony valleys of Judea. were entirely covered with plantations of figs, vines, and olive trees : not a single spot seemed to be neglected. The hills, from their bases to their utmost summits, were en- tirely covered with gardens : all of these were free from weeds, and in the highest state of agricultural perfection. Even the sides of the most barren mountains had been rendered fertile, by being divided into terraces, like steps rising one above another, whereon soil had been accumu- lated with astonishing labor. Among the standing crops, we noticed millet, cottom, linseed, and tobacco; and occa- sionally small fields of barley. A sight of this territory can alone convey any adequate idea of its surprising produce : it is truly the Eden of the east, rejoicing in the abundanee of its wealth. Under a wise and a benefi- cent government, the produce of the Holy Land would exceed all calculation. Its perennial harvest; the salubrity of its air; its limpid springs; its rivers, lakes, and match- less plains; its hills and dales;–all these, added to the serenity of its climate, prove this land to be indeed ‘a field which the Lord hath blessed: God hath given it of the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine.'” An oriental's ideas of fertility differ, however, from ours; for to him, plantations of figs, vines, and olives, with which the limestone rocks of Judea. were once covered, would suggest the same associations of plenty and opulence that are called up in the mind of an Englishman by rich tracts of corn-land. The land of Canaan is characterized as ſlowing with milk and honey; and it still answers to this description; ſor it contains extensive pasture-lands of the richest quality, and the rocky country is covered with aromatic plants, yielding to the wild bees, who hive in the hollow of the rocks, such abundance of honey as to supply the poorer classes with an article of food. Honey from the rocks is C. A N CAN ** [ 316 J repeatedly referred to in the Scriptures, as a delicious food, and an emblem of plenty, 1 Sam. 14:25; Psalm 81:16, Dates are another important article of consumption; and the neighborhood of Judea was famous for its numerous palm trees, which are found springing up from chance- sown kernels in the midst of the most arid districts. When to these wild productions we add the oil extracted from the olive, so essential an article to an oriental, we shall be at no loss to account for the ancient fertility of the most barren districts of Judea, or for the adequacy of the soil to the support of so numerous a population, notwithstanding the comparatively small proportion of arable land. There is no reason to doubt, however, that corn and rice would be imported by the Tyrian merchants; which the Israelites would have no difficulty in exchanging for the produce of the olive-ground and the vineyard, or for their flocks and herds. Delicious wine is still produced in some districts, and the valleys bear plentiful crops of tobacco, wheat, barley, and millet. Tacitus compares both the climate and the soil, indeed, to those of Italy; and he particularly specifies the palm tree and balsam tree as productions which gave the country an advantage over his own. Among other indigenous productions may be enumerated the cedar and other varieties of the pine, the cypress, the oak, the sycamore, the mulberry tree, the fig tree, the willow, the turpentine tree, the acacia, the aspen, the arbutus, the myrtle, the almond tree, the tamarisk, the oleander, the peach tree, the chaste tree, the carob or locust tree, the Oskar, the doom, the mustard-plant, the aloe, the citron, the apple, the pomegranate, and many flowering shrubs. The country about Jericho was cele- brated for its balsam, as well as for its palm trees; and two plantations of it existed during the last war between the Jews and the Romans, for which both parties fought desperately. But Gilead appears to have been the coun- try in which it chiefly abounded: hence the name “balm of Gilead.” Since the country has fallen under the Turk- ish dominion, it has ceased to be cultivated in Palestine, but is still found in Arabia. Other indigenous productions have either disappeared or are now confined to circum- scribed districts. Iron is found in the mountain range of Libanus, and silk is produced in abundance in the plains of Samaria. 9. The grand distinction of Canaan, however, is, that it was the only part of the earth made, by divine institution, a type of heaven. So it was exhibited to Abraham, and also to the Jews. It pointed to the eternal rest which the spiritual seed of the father of the faithful were to enjoy after the pilgrimage of life; its holy city was the figure of the “Jerusalem above ;” and Zion, with its solemn and joyful services, represented that “hill of the Lord” to which the redeemed shall come with songs, and everlasting joy upon their heads; where they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall fly away.— Watson. * CANAANITES, the posterity of Canaan by his eleven sons, who are supposed to have settled in the land of Ca- naan, soon after the dispersion of Babel. Five of these are known to have dwelt in the land of Canaan; viz., Heth, Jebus, Hemor or Amor, Girgashi, and Hevi or Hivi; and these, together with their ſather Canaan, be- came the heads of so many nations. Sina or Sini was another son of Canaan, whose settlement is not so pre- cisely ascertained; but some authors infer, from the affinity of their names, that the desert of Sin, and mount Sinai, were the places of his abode, and that they were so called from him. The Hittites inhabited the country about Hebron, as far as Beersheba, and the brook Besor, reckoned by Moses the southern limits of Canaan. The Jebusites dwelt near them on the north, as far as the city of Jebus, since called Jerusalem. The Amorites possessed the country on the east side of Jordan, between the river Arnon on the south-east, and mount Gilead on the north, afterwards, the lot of Reuben and Gad. The Girgashites lay next above the Amorites, on the east side of the sea of Tiberias, and their land was afterwards possessed by the half-tribe of Manasseh. The Hivites dwelt north- ward, under mount Libanus, The Perizzites, who make one of the seven nations of the Canaanites, are supposed, by Heylin and others, to be the descendants of Šina of Sini; and it is probable, since we do not read of their abode in cities, that they lived dispersed, and in tents, like the Scythians, roving on both sides of the Jordan, on the hills and plains; and thét they were called by that name from the Hebrew pharatz, which signifies “to dis. perse.” The Canaanites dwelt in the midst of all, and were surrounded by the rest. This appears from the sacred writings to have been the respective situation of those seven nations, which are said to have been doomed to destruction for their idolatry and wickedness, when the Israelites first invaded their country. The learned have not absolutely determined whether the nations proceeding from Canaan’s other six sons should be reckoned among the inhabitants of the land of Canaan. The prevalent opinion is, that they were not included. As to the customs, manners, arts, sciences, and language of the seven nations that inhabited the land of Canaan, they must, from the situation they severally occupied, have been very different. Those who inhabited the sea-coast were merchants, and by reason of their commerce and wealth scattered colonies over almost all the islands and maritime provinces of the Mediterranean. (See PHOENICIA.). The colonies which Cadmus carried to Thebes in Boeotia, and his brother Cilix into Cilicia, are said to have proceeded from the stock of Canaan. Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca, Minorca, Gades, and Ebutris, are supposed to have been peopled by the Canaanites. The other Canaanites, whose situation was inland, were employed partly in pasturage, and partly in tillage, and they were also well skilled in the exercise of arms. Those who dwelt in the walled cities, and who had fixed abodes, cultivated the land; and those who wandered about, as the Perizzites seem to have done, grazed cattle ; so that among the Canaanites, we discover the various classes of merchants, and consequently, mari- ners; of artificers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen. We learn, also, from their history, that they were all ready, however diversified by their occupations or local interests, to join in a common cause; that they were well appointed for war, both offensive and defensive ; that their towns were well fortified; that they were sufficiently furnished with military weapons and warlike chariots; that they were daring, obstinate, and almost invincible ; and that they were not destitute of craft and policy. Their language, we find, was well understood by Abraham, who was an Hebrew, for he conversed readily with them on all occasions; but as to their mode of writing, whether it was originally their own, or borrowed from the Israel- ites, it is not so easy to determine. Their religion, at least in part, seems to have been preserved pure till the days of Abraham, who acknowledged Melchisedek to be priest of the most high God; and Melchisedek was, without doubt, a Canaanite, or, at least, dwelt at that time in Canaan in high esteem and veneration. 2. But we learn from the Scripture history, that the Hittites in particular were become degenerate in the time of Isaac and Rebekah ; for they could not endure the thoughts of Jacob's marrying one of the daughters of Heth, as Esau had done. From this time, then, we may date the prevalence of those abominations which subjected them to the divine displeasure, and made them unworthy of the land which they possessed. In the days of Moses, they were become incorrigible idolaters; for he commands his people to destroy their altars, and break down their images, (statues or pillars,) and cut down their groves, and burn their graven images with fire. And lest they should pervert the Israelites, the latter were strictly en- joined not to intermarry with them; but “to smite them; and utterly destroy them, nor show mercy upon them,” Deut. 7: 1–5. They are accused of the cruel custom of sacrificing men, and are said to have made their seed pass through the fire to Moloch, Levit. 18: 21. Their morals were as corrupt as their doctrine : adultery, bestiality of all sorts, profanation, incest, and all manner of unclean- ness, are the sins laid to their charge. “The Canaanites,” says Mr. Bryant, “as they were a sister tribe of the Mizraim, resembled them in their rites and religion. They held a heiſer, or cow, in high veneration, agreeably to the customs of Egypt. Their chief deity was the sun, whom they worshipped, together with the Baalim, under the titles of Ourehol, Adonis, or Thamuz.” [ 317 J C A. N. 3. When the measure of the idolatries and abominations of the Canaanites was filled up, God delivered their coun- try into the hands of the Israelites, who conquered it under Joshua. However, they resisted with obstinate valor, and kept Joshua employed six years, from the time of his passing the river Jordan, and entering Canaan, in the year B. C. 1451, to the year B. C. 1445, the Sabbatical year beginning from the autumnal equinox; when he made a division of the land among the tribes of Israel, and rested from his conquests. As God had commanded this people, long before, to be treated with rigor, (see Deut. 7:2,) Joshua extirpated great numbers, and obliged the rest to fly, some of them into Africa, and others into Greece. Procopius says, they first retreated into Egypt, but advanced into Africa, where they built many cities, and spread themselves over those vast regions which reach to the straits, preserving their old language with little alteration. In the time of Athanasius, the Aſricans still said they were descended from the Canaanites; and when asked their origin, they answered, “Canani.” It is agreed, that the Punic tongue was nearly the same as the Canaanitish or Hebrew.— Watson. CANAANITES, DesTRUCTION of. On the rigorous treatment of the nations of Canaan by the Israelites, to which infidels have taken so many exceptions, the follow- ing remarks of Paley are a sufficient reply: The first thing to be observed is, that the nations of Canaan were destroyed for their wickedness. This is plain from Lev. 18: 24, &c. Now the facts disclosed in this passage sufficiently testify, that the Canaanites were a wicked people; that detestable practices were general amongst them, and even habitual; that it was for these enormities the nations of Canaan were destroyed. It was not, as some have imagined, to make way for the Israelites; nor was it simply to make away with their idolatry; but it was because of the abominable crimes which usually accompanied the latter. And we may further learn from the passage, that God's abhorrence of these crimes and his indignation against them are regulated by the rules of strict impartiality, since Moses solemnly warns the Israelites against falling into the like wicked courses, “that the land,” says he, “cast not you out also, when you defile it, as it cast out the nations that were before you ; for whosoever shall commit any of these abomina- ...tions, even the souls that commit them shall be cut off from among their people,” Lev. 18:28, 29. Now, when God, for the wickedness of a people, sends an earthquake, or a fire, or a plague amongst them, there is no complaint of injustice, especially when the calamity is known, or expressly declared beforehand, to be inflicted for the wickedness of such people. It is rather regarded as an act of exemplary penal justice, and, as such, consistent with the character of the moral Governor of the universe. The objection, therefore, is not to the Canaanitish nations being destroyed; (for when their national wickedness is considered, and when that is expressly stated as the cause of their destruction, the dispensation, however severe, will not be questioned;) but the objection is solely to the manner of destroying them. I mean there is nothing but the manner left to be objected to : their wickedness accounts for the thing itself. To which objection it may be replied, that if the thing itself be just, the manner is of little signification, of little signification even to the sufferers themselves. For where is the great difference, even to them, whether they were destroyed by an earth- quake, a pestilence, a famine, or by the hands of an enemy Where is the difference, even to our imperfect apprehensions of divine justice, provided it be, and is known to be, for their wickedness that they are destroyed 2 But this destruction, you say, confounded the innocent with the guilty. The sword of Joshua, and of the Jews, spared neither women nor children. Is it not the same with all other national visitations : Would not an earth- quake, or a fire, or a plague, or a famine amongst them have dome the same 2 Even in an ordinary and natural death, the same thing happens; God takes away the life he lends, without regard, that we can perceive, to age, or sex, or character. “But, aſter all, promiscuous massa- cres, the burning of cities, the laying waste of countries, are things dreadful to reflect upon.” Who doubts it? so are all the judgments of Almighty God. The effect, in whatever way it shows itself, must necessarily be tre- mendous, when the Lord, as the Psalmist, expresses it, “moveth out of his place to punish the wicked.” But it ought to satisfy us; at least this is the point upon which we ought to rest and fix our attention; that it was for ex- cessive, wilful, and forewarned wickedness, that all this befel them, and that it is all along so declared in the history which recites it. - But ſurther, if punishing them by the hands of the Israelites rather than by a pestilence, an earthquake, a fire, or any such calamity, be still an objection, we may perceive, I think, some reasons for this method of punish- ment in preference to any other whatever; always bearing in our mind, that the question is not concerning the justice of the punishment, but the mode of it. It is well known, that the people of those ages were affected by no proof of the power of the gods which they worshipped, so deeply as by their giving them victory in war. It was by this species of evidence that the superiority of their own gods above the gods of the nations which they con- quered, was, in their opinion, evinced. This being the actual persuasion which then prevailed in the world, no matter whether well or ill founded, how were the neigh- boring nations, for whose admonition this dreadful ex- ample was intended, how were they to be convinced of the supreme power of the God of Israel above the pre- tended gods of other nations; and of the righteous cha- racter of Jehovah, that is, of his abhorrence of the vices which prevailed in the land of Canaan 2 How, I say, were they to be convinced so well, or at all indeed, as by enabling the Israelites, whose God he was known and acknowledged to be, to conquer under his banner, and drive out before them, those who resisted the execution of that commission with which the Israelites declared themselves to be invested, namely, the expulsion and ex- termination of the Canaanitish nations 2 This convinced surrounding countries, and all who were observers or spectators of what passed, first, that the God of Israel was a real God; secondly, that the gods which other nations worshipped, were either no gods, or had no power against the God of Israel ; and thirdly, that it was he, and he alone, who possessed both the power and the will, to punish, to destroy, and to exterminate from before his face, both nations and individuals, who gave themselves up to the crimes and wickedness for which the Canaanites were notorious. Nothing of this sort would have ap- peared, or with the same evidence, from an earthquake, or a plague, or any natural calamity. These might not have been attributed to divine agency at all, or not to the interposition of the God of Israel. Another reason which made this destruction both more necessary, and more general, than it would have other- wise been, was the consideration, that if any of the old inhabitants were left, they would prove a snare to those who succeeded them in the country; would draw and seduce them by degrees into the vices and corruptions which prevailed among themselves. Vices of all kinds, but vices most particularly of the licentious kind, are astonishingly infectious. A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump. A small number of persons, addicted to them, and allowed to practise them with impunity or en- couragement, will spread them through the whole mass. This reason is formally and expressly assigned, not simply for the punishment, but for the extent to which it was carried; namely, extermination : “Thou shalt utterly destroy them, that they teach you not to do after all their abominations, which they have done unto their gods.” In reading the old Testament account, therefore, of the . Jewish wars and conquests in Canaan, and the terrible destruction brought upon the inhabitants thereof, we are always to remember that we are reading the execution of a dreadful but just sentence pronounced by Jehovah against the intolerable and incorrigible crimes of these nations; that they were intended to be made an example to the whole world of God’s avenging wrath against sins, which, if they had been suffered to continue, might have polluted the whole ancient world, and which could only be checked by the signal and public overthrow of nations motoriously addicted to them, and so addicted as even to C A N C A. N. [ 318 have incorporated them into their religion and their public institutions; and that the Israelites were mere instru- ments in the hands of a righteous Providence for effeeting the extirpation of a people, of whom it was necessary, to make a public example to the rest of mankind; that this extermination, which might have been accomplished by a estilence, by fire, by earthquakes, was appointed to be §. by the hands of the Israelites, as being the clearest and most intelligible method of displaying the power and the righteousness of the God of Israel, his power over the pretended gods of other nations, and his righteous indignation against the crimes into which they were fallen.—Watson ; Paley's Sermons, Ser. 29. CANDACE, the name of an Ethiopian queen, whose eunuch coming to Jerusalem to worship the Lord, was baptized by Philip the deacon, near BethSura, in the way to Gaza, as he was returning to his own country, Acts 8: 27. The Ethiopia here mentioned was the isle or pe- ninsula of Meroë to the south of Egypt, which, as Mr. Bruce shows, is now called Atbara, up the Nile. Candace was the common name of the queens of that country. Strabo and Pliny mention queens of that name as reign- ing in their times. That the queen mentioned in the Acts was converted by the instrumentality of her servant, and that the country thus received Christianity at that early period, are statements not supported by any good testimony. See ABYssini.AN CHURCH.-Watson. CANDLESTICK. The instrument so rendered by our translators was more properly a stand for lamps. One of beaten gold was made by Moses, (Exod. 25:31, 32,) and put into the tabernacle in the holy place, over against the table of shew-bread. The basis of this candlestick was also of pure gold; it had seven branches, three on each side, and one in the middle. When Solomon had built the temple, he was not satisfied with placing one golden candlestick there, but had ten put up, of the same form and metal with that described by Moses, five on the north, and five on the south side of the holy place, 1 Kings 7: 49. After the Jows returned from their captivity, the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been before in the tabernacle by Moses. The lamps were kept burning perpetually ; and were supplied morning and evening with pure olive oil. Josephus says, that after the Romans had destroyed the temple, the several things which were found within it, were carried in triumph to Rome, namely, the golden table, and the golden candle- stick with seven branches. These were lodged in the temple built by Vespasian, and consecrated to Peace; and at the foot of mount Palatine, there is a triumphal arch still visible, upon which Vespasian's triumph is repre: sented, and the several monuments which weie carried publicly in the procession are engraved, and among the rest the candlestick with the seven branches, which are still discernible upon it. In Rev. 1: 12–20, mention is made of seven golden candlesticks, which are said to be emblems of the seven Christian churches.—Watson. CANIKER, or GANGRENE ; a terrible disease, which inflames and mortifies the flesh upon which it seizes; spreads swiftly ; endangers the whole body; and can scarcely be healed without cutting off the infected part. By the microscope it appears, that swarms of small worms, preying on the flesh, constitute this disease; and that new swarms, produced by these, coverrun the neigh- boring parts. Errors and heresies are likened to a canker; they overspread, corrupt, and prey on the souls of men; they destroy the vitals of religion, and afterward the forms of godliness, and bring spiritual ruin and death on persons and churches, and afterwards ruin upon nations, wherever they are allowed, 2 Tim. 2: 17. Covetous men's silver and gold are cankered; the rust thereof bears witness against them, and eats their flesh as fire : the covetous hoarding it up from use is attended with painful anxiety, and brings on a fearful curse, and endless torment. James 5: 3.—Brown. CANKER—WORM, ialek; Psalm 105:34; Jer. 51: 27, where it is rendered caterpillar; Joel 1: 4; 2:25; Nahum 3: 15, canker-norm. As it is frequently mentioned with the locust, it is thought by some to be a species of that insect. It certainly cannot be the canker-worm, as our version renders it; for in Nahum, it is expressly said to have wings and fly, to camp in the hedges by day, and . commit its depredations in the night. But it may be, as the Septuagint renders it in five passages out of eight where it occurs, the bruchus, or “ hedge-chaffer.” Never- theless, the passage, (Jer. 51: 27,) where the ialek is de- scribed as “rough,” that is, with hair standing an end on it, leads us very naturally to the rendering of our transla- tors in that place, “the rough caterpillar,” which, like other caterpillars, at a proper time, casts its exterior cov- ering and flies away in a winged state. Scheuchzer oh- serves that we should not, perhaps, be far from the truth, if with the ancient interpreters, we understood this ialek, after all, as a kind of locust; as some species of them have hair principally on the head, and others have prickly points standing out.—Watson. - CANNE, (John ;) the celebrated author of the marginal references and notes to the Bible, was born in England about the year 1590 or 1600. In early life, this learned and excellent man was a minister in the established church; but adopting the principles of the Non-conformists, he seceded, and joined the Baptists not far from 1630. He was for some time pastor of the church in Southwark, London; being successor to Mr. Hubbard, its first pastor. He was banished to Holland, where not considering baptism a prerequisite to communion, he succeeded the learned Ainsworth (see AINsworth, HENRY, D. D.) as pastor of his church in Amsterdam, and was deservedly popular. While in banishment in 1634, he published a work on the “Necessity of Separation from the Church of England.” In 1640, he returned for a short time, on a visit to Eng- land, and founded the Baptist church in Broadmead, Bristol, of which Robert Hall was the late pastor. It was then called a “gathered church,” to distinguish it ſtom that of the parish. Mr. Canne was equally eminent for learning, piety, knowledge of the Scriptures, and zeal for reformation. In a conference with Mr. Fowler, a pious minister of the establishment, on the duty of “cleaving close to the doctrine of the Lord Jesus in his instituted worship,” Mr. Fowler agreed with him in the necessity and duty of reformation; but objecting that at that time “they should not be suffered, but would be cast out of all the public places,” Mr. Canne answered, “That mattered not, they should have a barn to meet in, keeping the wor- ship and commands of the Lord as they were delivered us !” He was styled by Mr. John Rogers, in 1657, an “old Sufferer and standard against the prelates and tyrants, old and new.” - • But that which has immortalized the name of Canne, is his judicious selection of marginal reſerences to the * C A N C A N [ 319 J Bible. He was the author of three sets of notes, which accompanied three editions of the Bible. The first printed at Amsterdam in 1647, is dedicated To the Right Honor- able the Lords and Commons assembled in the High Court of Parliament. In the preſace to the second, 1664, he says, in allusion to Jacob's seven years' service for Rachel, “I can truly speak it, I have served the Lord in this work more than thrice seven years, and the time hath not seemed long, neither hath the work been any burden to me, for the love I have had to it.” His great ambition was to make the Bible, its own interpreter. He prepared for the press a third edition, with large annotations ; but it seems it was never published, and this greatest labor of his life was lost to the world.—Ivimey's Hist. Eng. Bap. CANON. The word kanon had long been in use among the early ecclesiastical writers, and in very general ac- ceptation, before it was transferred to a collection of holy Scriptures. It meant no more, generally, than a “book,” and a “catalogue;” but in particular:—1. A “catalogue of things that belong to the church ;” or, a “book, that served for the use of the church.” Hence a collection of hymns, which were to be sung on festivals, as also a list, in which were introduced the names of persons belong- ing to the church, acquired the name of kanon. The word was used in a sense yet more limited; of 2. A “publicly approved catalogue of all the books that might be read in public assemblies of Christians, for instruction and edifi- cation.” Finally, but not until very recent times, it has comprised immediately, 3. A “collection of divine and inspired writings.” The last signification most modern Scholars have adopted. They use, therefore, canonical and inspired, (kanonikos and theopneustos,) as perfectly synonymous. I. CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Soon after the re- turn of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, a collec- tion was prepared of all writings of the Hebrews then extant, which, on account of their antiquity, contents, au- thors, and the claims of divine inspiration which they possessed, became revered and holy in the view of all the members of the new government. In the temple was reposited a sacred library of these writings, which, for a considerable time before Christ, the particular year is unknown, ceased to be further enlarged. After the period when this collection was made, there arose, among the Jews, authors of a different kind, histo- rians, philosophers, poets, and theological romancers. Now they had books, very unlike in value, and of various ages. . The earlier were held, as productions of prophets, to be holy; the later were not, because they were com. posed in times when there was no longer an uninterrupted prophetical succession. The ancient were preserved in the temple ; the modern were not. The ancient were in- troduced into a public collection; the modern into none whatever, at least into none of a public nature. And if the Alexandrian Christians had not been such great ad- mirers of them, if they had not added them to the manu- scripts of the Septuagint, º the original, if composed in the Greek language; and in a Greek translation, if the autograph was Hebrew,) who knows whether we might have a single page remaining of all the modern Jewish writers ? - At a late period, a long time since the birth of Christ, these two kinds of writings have been distinguished by appropriate names, derived chiefly from the use which was made of the writings; the earlier were called CA- NONICAL, the more recent, ApochRYPHAL, Books. And the whole collection of the former was comprehended under the appellation of CANoN of THE OLD TESTAMENT. It has been pretty generally agreed that the forming of the present canon of the Old Testament should be attri- buted to Ezra. To assist him in this work, the Jewish writers inform us, that there existed in his time a great Synagogue, consisting of one hundred and twenty men, including Daniel and his three friends, Shadrach, Me- shach, and Abednego; the prophets Haggai and Zacha- riah ; and also Simon the Just. But it is very absurd to suppose that all these lived at one time, and formed one Synagogue, as they are pleased to represent it : for from the time of Daniel to that of Simon the Just, no less than two hundred and fifty years must have intervened, It is, however, by no means improbable, that Ezra was assisted in this great work by many learned and pious men, who were contemporary with him, and as prophets had always been the superintendents, as well as writers of the sacred volume, it is likely that the inspired men who lived at the same time as Ezra, would give attetition to this work. But in regard to this great synagogue, the only thing probable is, that the men who are said to have belonged to it, did not live in one age, but successively, until the time of Simon the Just, who was made high- priest about twenty-five years after the death of Alexan- der the Great. This opinion has its probability increased by the consideration, that the canon of the Old Testament appears not to have been fully completed, until about the time of Simon the Just. Malachi seems to have lived after the time of Ezra, and therefore his prophecy could not have been added to the canon by this eminent. Scribe, unless we adopt the opinion of the Jews, who will have Malachi to be no other than Ezra himself; maintaining, that while Ezra was his proper name, he received that of Malachi from the circumstance of his having been sent to superintend the religious concerns of the Jews, for the import of that name is a messenger, or one sent. But this is not all,—in the book of Nehemiah mention is made of the high-priest Jaddua, and of Darius Codo- manus, king of Persia, both of whom lived at least a hundred years after the time of Ezra. In the third chap- ter of the first book of Chronicles, the genealogy of the sons of Zerubbabel is carried down, at least, to the time of Alexander the Great. This book, therefore, could not have been put into the canon by Ezra; nor much easlier than the time of Simon the Just. The book of Esther, also, was probably added during this interval. The probable conclusion therefore is, that Ezra began this work, and collected and arranged all the sacred books which belonged to the canon before his time, and that a succession of pious and learned men continued to pay attention to the canon, until the whole was completed, about the time of Simon the Just. After which nothing was ever added to the canon of the Old Testament. Most, however, are of opinion, that nothing was added after the book of Malachi was written, except a few names and notes; and that all the books belonging to the canon of the Old Testament were collected and inserted in the sacred volume by Ezra himself. And this opinion seems to be the safest, and is by no means incredible in itself. It accords also with the uniform tradition of the Jews, that Ezra completed the canon of the Old Testa- ment; and that after Malachi there arose no prophet who added any thing to the sacred volume. Whether the books were now collected into a single volume, or were bound up in several codices, is a question of no importance ; if we can ascertain what books were received as canonical, it matters not in what form they were preserved. It seems probable, however, that the sacred books were at this time distributed into three vo- lumes, the law, the prophets, and the hágiographa. This division we know to be as ancient as the time of our Savior, for he says, “These are the words which I spake unto you, while I was yet with you, that all things must be fulfilled, which were written in the law, and in the pro- phets, and in the psalms, concerning me,” Luke 24; 44. Josephus, also, makes mention of this division, and it is by the Jews, with one consent, referred to Ezra, as its author. In establishing the canon of the Old Testament, we might labor under considerable uncertainty and embar. rassment, in regard to several books, were it not that the whole of what are called the Scriptures, and which are included in the threefold division mentioned above, re- ceived the explicit sanction of Our Lord. He was not backward to reprove the Jews for disobeying, misinter- preting, and adding their traditions to the Scriptures, but he never drops a hint that they had been unfaithful, or careless, in the preservation of the sacred books. So far from this, he refers to the Scriptures as an infallible rule, which “must be fulfilled,” and “could not be broken.” We have, therefore, an important point established with the utmost certainty, that the volume of Scripture which existed in the time of Christ and his apostles, was uncor C A N C A N - | 320 tupted, and was esteemed by them as an inspired and in- fallible rule. Now, if we can ascertain what books were then included in the sacred volume, we shall be able to settle the canon of the Old Testament without un- certainty. - To do this, it is necessary to resort to other sources of information; and happily the Jewish historian, Josephus, furnishes us with the very information which we want ; not, indeed, as explicitly as we could wish, but sufficiently So to lead us to a very satisfactory conclusion. He does not name the books of the Old Testament, but he numbers them, and so describes them, that there is scarcely room for any mistake. The important passage to which we refer, is in his first book against Apion, “We have,” says he, “only two-and-twenty books which are to be be- lieved as of divine authority, of which five are the books of Moses. taxerxes, king of Persia, the prophets who were the suc- cessors of Moses, have written in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God, and docu- ments of life for the use of men.” Now the five books of Moses are universally agreed to be Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The thirteen books written by the prophets will include Joshua, Judges, with Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, with La- mentations, Ezekiel, Daniel ; the twelve minor prophets, Job, Ezra, Esther, and Chronicles. The four remaining books will be Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, which make the whole number twenty- two ; the canon then existing is proved to be the same as that”which we now possess. It would appear, indeed, that these books might more conveniently be reckoned twenty-four, and this is the present method of numbering them by the modern Jews; but formerly the number was regulated by that of the Hebrew alphabet, which consists of twenty-two letters; therefore they annexed the small book of Ruth to Judges, and probably it is a continuation of this book by the same author. They added, also, the Lamentations of Jeremiah to his prophecy, and this was natural enough. As to the minor prophets, which form twelve separate books in our Bibles, they were anciently always reckoned one book; so they are considered in all ancient catalogues, and in every quotation from them. But we are able also to adduce other testimony to prove the same thing. Some of the early Christian fathers, who had been brought up in paganism, when they em- braced Christianity were curious in their inquiries into the canon of the Old Testament, and the result of the re- searches of some of them still remain. Melito, bishop of Sardis, travelled into Judea, for the very purpose of satisfying himself on this point. And although his own writings are lost, Eusebius has preserved his catalogue of the books of the Old Testament, from which it appears that the very same books were, in his day, received into the canon, as are now found in our Hebrew Bibles. And the interval between Melito and Josephus is not a hundred years, so that no alteration in the canon can be reasonably supposed to have taken place in this period. Very soon after Melito, Origen ſurnishes us with a catalogue of the books of the Old Testament, which perfectly accords with our canon, except that he omits the minor prophets; which omission must have been a mere slip of the pen in him or his copyist, as it is certain that he received this as a book of holy Scripture ; and the number of the books of the Old Testament, given by him in this very place, cannot be completed without reckoning the twelve minor prophets as one. After Origen, we have catalogues, in succession, not only by men of the first authority in the church, but by councils, consisting of numerous bishops, all which are perfectly the same as our own. It will be sufficient merely to refer to these sources of information. Catalogues of the books of the Old Testament have been given by Atha- nasius, by Cyril, by Augustine, by Jerome, by Rufin, by the council of Laodicea, in their sixtieth canon, and by the council of Carthage. Talmud, which perfectly corresponds with ours. And when it is considered that all these catalogues exactly correspond with our present canon of the Hebrew Bible, the evidence must appear complete to every impartial From the death of Moses to the reign of Ar- There is also a catalogue in the mind, that the canon of the Old Testament is settled upon the clearest historical grounds. There seems to be nothing to be wished for further in confirmation of this point. II. CANoN OF THE New TESTAMENT. Many persons who write and speak on the subject of the New Testament ca- non, appear to entertain a wrong impression in regard to it; as if the books of the New Testament could not be of au- thority until they were Sanctioned by some ecclesiastical council, or by some publicly expressed opinion of the fathers of the church; and as if any portion of their au- thority depended on their being collected into one volume. But the truth is, that every one of these books was of au- thority, as far as known, from the moment of its publica- tion ; and its right to a place in the canon is not derived from the sanction of any church or council, but from the fact that it was written by inspiration. And the appeal to testimony is not to prove that any council of bishops or others, gave sanction to the book, but to show that it is indeed the genuine work of Matthew, or John, or Peter, or Paul, whom we know to have been inspired. The books of the New Testament were, therefore, of full authority before they were collected into one volume; and it would have made no difference if they had never been included in one volume, but had retained that sepa- rate form in which they were first published. And it is by no means certain that these books were, at a very early period, bound in one volume. As far as we have any testimony on the subject, the probability is, that it was more customary to include them in two volumes, one of which was called the gospel, and the other the apostles. Some of the oldest manuscripts of the New Testament extant, appear to have been put up in this form ; and the fathers often refer to the Scriptures of the New Testament under these two titles. The question—when was the canon constituted ?–admits, therefore, of no other proper answer than this, that as soon as the last book of the New Testament was written and published, the canon was completed. But if the question relates to the time when these books were collected and published in a single vo- lume, or in two volumes, it admits of no definite answer; for those churches which were situated nearest to the place where any particular books were published, would. of course, obtain copies much earlier than churches in a remote part of the world. For a considerable period, the collection of these books in each church must have been necessarily incomplete; for it would take some time to send to the church or people with whom the autographs were deposited, and to write off fair copies. This ne- cessary process will also account for the fact, that some of the smaller books were not received by the churches so early nor so universally as the larger. The solicitude of the churches to possess immediately the more extensive books of the New Testament, would doubtless induce them to make a great exertion to acquire copies; but probably , the smaller would not be so much spoken of, nor would there be so strong a desire to obtain them without delay. Considering how difficult it is now, with all our improve- ments in the typographical art, to multiply copies of the Scriptures with sufficient rapidity, it is truly wonderful how so many churches as were founded during the first century, to say nothing of individuals, could all be Sup- plied with copies of the New Testament, when there was no speedier method of producing them, than by writing every letter with the pen . The pen of a ready writer must them, indeed, have been of immense value. The idea entertained by some, especially by Dodwell, that these books lay for a long time locked up in the coffers of the churches to which they were addressed, and totally unknown to the rest of the world, is in itself most im- probable, and is repugnant to all the testimony which exists on the subject. Even as early as the time when Peter wrote his second epistle, the writings of Paul were in the hands of the churches, and were classed with the other Scriptures. 2 Peter 3: 14, 15. And the citation from these books, by the earliest Christian writers, living in different countries, demonstrates that from the time of their publication, they were sought after with avidity, and were widely dispersed. How intense the interest which the first Christians felt in the writings of the apostles, can scarcely be conceived by us, who have been familiar [ 321 C A N with these books from our earliest years. How solicitous would they be, for example, who had never seen Paul, but had heard of his wonderful conversion, and extraor- dinary labors and gifts, to read his writings? And proba- bly they who had enjoyed the high privilege of hearing this apostle preach, would not be less desirous of reading his epistles as well as from testimony, that many uncertain accounts of Christ's discourses and miracles had obtained circula- tion, how greatly would the primitive Christians rejoice to obtain an authentic history, from the pen of an apostle, or from one, who wrote precisely what was dictated by an apostle 7 e need no longer wonder, therefore, that every church should wish to possess a collection of the writings of the apostles; and knowing them to be the productions of inspired men, they would want no further sanction to their authority. All that was requisite was to be certain that the book was indeed written by the apostle whose name it bore. Hence some things in Paul's epistles, which seem to common readers to be of no importance, are of the utmost consequence. Such as, I, Tertius, niho nºrote this epistle, &c. The salutation nith mine on n hand. So I write w every epistle. Ye see hon large a letter I have nritten unto you nyith mine on n hand. The salutation by the hand of me, Paul. The salutation of Paul nith mine onn hand, which is the token in every epistle. This apostle com- monly employed an amenuensis; but that the churches to which he wrote might have the assurance of the genuine- ness of his epistles, from seeing his own hand-writing, he constantly wrote the salutation himself. So much care was taken to have these sacred writings well authenticated on their first publication. And on the same account it was that he and the other apostles were so particular in giving the names and the characters of those who were the bearers of their epistles. And it seems that they were always committed to the care of men of high estimation in the church; and commonly more than one appears to have been intrusted with this important commission. If it be inquired, what became of the autographs of these sacred books, and why they were not preserved, since this would have prevented all uncertainty respecting the true reading, and would have relieved the biblical critic from a large share of labor? it is sufficient to an- swer, that nothing different has occurred, in relation to these autographs, from that which has happened to all other ancient writings. No man can produce the auto- graph of any book as old as the New Testament, unless it has been preserved in some extraordinary way, as in the case of the manuscripts of Herculaneum ; neither could it be supposed, that in the midst of such vicissi- tudes, revolutions and persecutions, as the Christian church endured, this object could have been secured by any thing short of a miracle. And God knew, by a su- perintending providence over the sacred Scriptures, they could be transmitted with sufficient accuracy, by means of apographs, to the most distant generations. Indeed, theré is reason to believe that the Christians of early times were so absorbed and impressed with the glory of the truths revealed, that they gave themselves little concern about the mere vehicle by which they were communi- cated. They had matters of such deep interest, and so novel, before their eyes, that they had neither time nor inclination for the minutiae of criticism. It may be there- fore, that they did not set so high a value on the possession of the autograph of an inspired book as we should, but considered a copy, made with scrupulous fidelity, as equally valuable with the original. And God may have suffered these autographs of the sacred writings to perish, lest, in process of time, they should have become idolized, like the brazen serpent; or lest men should be led super- stitiously to venerate the mere parchment and ink, and form, and letters, employed by an apostle. Certainly, the history of the church is such as to render such an idea far from being improbable. . The slightest attention to the works of the fathers will convince any one that the writings of the apostles were held from the beginning, in the highest estimation; that great pains were taken to distinguish the genuine produc- tions of these inspired men from all other books; that they were sought out with uncommon diligence, and read - - 4.1° - As we know, from the nature of the case, with profound attention and veneration, not only in pri- vate, but publicly in the churches; and that they are cited and referred to universally as decisive on every point of doctrine, and as authoritative standards for the regulation of faith and practice. . This being the state of the case when the books of the New Testament were communicated to the churches, we are enabled, in regard to most of them, to produce testi- mony of the most satisfactory kind, that they were ad- mitted into the canon, and received as inspired, by the universal consent of Christians in every part of the world. And as to those few books, concerning which some per- Sons entertain doubts, it can be shown, that as soon as their claims were fully and impartially investigated, they also were received with universal consent. And that other books, however excellent as human compositions, were never put upon a level with the canonical books of the New Testament; that spurious writings under the names of the apostles, were promptly and decisively re- jected, and that the churches were repeatedly warned against such apochryphal books. I. Catalogues.—Here, as in the case of the Old Testa. ment, we find that, at a very early period, catalogues of these books were published, by most of the distinguished Fathers whose writings have come down to us: the same has been done, also, by several councils, whose decrees are still extant. - These catalogues are, for the most part, perfectly har- monious. In a few of them, some books now in the canon are omitted, for which omission a satisfactory reason can commonly be assigned. 1. The first regular catalogue of the books of the New Testament, which we find on record, is by Origen, who lived about one hundred years after the death of the apostle John, and whose extensive biblical knowledge highly qualified him to judge correctly in this case. In this catalogue, he mentions, “The Four Gospels, The Acts of the Apostles, Fourteen Epistles of Paul, Two of Peter, Three of John,” and “The Book of Revela- tion.” This enumeration includes all the present canon, except the Epistles of James and Jude, but these were omitted by accident, not design; for in other parts of his writings, he acknowledges these Epistles as a part of the canon. And while Origen furnishes us with so full a catalogue of the books now in the canon, he inserts no others, which proves that in his time the canon was well settled among the learned ; and that the distinction be- tween inspired writings and human compositions was as clearly marked as at any subsequent period. 2. The next catalogue of the books of the New Testa. ment (to which I will refer,) is that of Eusebius, the learned historian of the church; to whose diligence and fidelity, in collecting ecclesiastical facts, we are more in- debted than to the labors of all other men, for that period which intervened between the days of the apostles and his own times. Eusebius may be considered as giving his testimony about one hundred years after Origen. His catalogue may be seen in his Ecclesiastical History.— Eusebius, Ecc. Hist. l. iii. c. 25, compared with c. 3. In it he enumerates every book which we now have in the canon, and no others; but he mentions that the Epistle of James, the Second of Peter, and Second and Third of John, were doubted of by some ; and that Revelation was rejected by some, and received by others; but Eusebius himself declares it to be his opinion that it should be received without doubt. There is no single witness among the whole number of ecclesiastical writers, who was more competent to give accurate information on this subject than Eusebius. He had spent a great part of his life in searching into the antiquities of the Christian church ; and he had an inti- mate acquaintance with all the records relating to ecclesi- astical affairs, many of which are now lost; and almost the only information which we have of them has been transmitted to us by this diligent compiler. . . 3. Athanasius, so well known for his writings and his sufferings in defence of the divinity of our Savior, in his Festal Epistle, and in his Synopsis of Scripture, has left a catalogue of the books of the New Testament, which perfectly agrees with the canon now in use. C A. N. C A N [ 322 ) 4. Cyril, in his catechctical work, has also given us a catalogue, perfectly agreeing with ours, except that he omits the book of Revelation. Why that book was so often left out of the ancient catalogues and collections of the Scriptures, shall be mentioned hereafter. Athanasius and Cyril were contemporary with Eusebius; the latter, however, may more properly be considered as twenty or thirty years later. 5. Then, a little after the middle of the fourth century, we have the testimony of all the bishops assembled in the council of Laodicea. The catalogue of this council is contained in their sixtieth canon, and is exactly the same as ours, except that the book of Revelation is omitted, The decrees of this council were, in a short time, received into the canons of the universal church; and, among the rest, this catalogue of the books of the New Testament. Thus we find, that as early as the middle of the fourth century, there was a universal consent, in all parts of the world to which the Christian church extended, as to the books which constituted the canon of the New Testament, with the single exception of the book of Revelation; and that this book was also generally admitted to be canonical, we shall take the opportunity of proving in the sequel of this work. 6. But a few years elapsed from the meeting of this council, before Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, in the island of Cyprus, published his work on Heresies, in which he gives a catalogue of the canonical books of the New Testament, which in every respect, is the same as the canon now received. - . 7. About the same time, Gregory Nazianzen, bishop of Constantinople, in a poem “On the True and Genuine Scriptures,” mentions distinctly all the books now re- ceived, except Revelation. - 8. A few years later, we have a list of the books of the New Testament in a work of Philastrius, bishop of Brizia, in Italy, which corresponds in all respects, with those now received, except that he mentions no more than thirteen of Paul's Epistles. If the omission was designed, it pro- bably relates to the Epistle to the Hebrews. 9. At the same time lived Jerome, who translated the whole bible into Latin. He furnishes us with a catalogue answering to our present canon in all respects. He does, however, speak doubtfully about the Epistle to the He- brews, on account of the uncertainty of its author. But, in other parts of his writings, he shows that he received this book as canonical, as well as the rest.—Epist. ad Paulinum. 10. The catalogue of Rufin varies in nothing from the canon now received.—Expos. in Symbol. Apost. 11. Augustine, in his work on “Christian Doctrine,” has inserted the names of the books of the New Testa- ment, which, in all respects, are the same as ours. - 12. The council of Carthage, at which Augustine was present, have furnished a catalogue which perfectly agrees with ours. At this council, forty-four bishops attended. The list referred to is found in their forty-eighth canon. 13. The unlºnown author, who goes under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, so describes the books of the New Testament as to show that he received the very same as are now in the canon. . - II. Another satisſactory source of evidence in favor of thc canon of the New Testament, as now received, is the fact that these books and these books alone were quoted as sacred Scripture, by all the fathers, living in parts of the world the most remote from each other. The truth of this assertion will fully appear when we come to speak particularly of the books which compose the canon. Now, how can it be accounted for, that thosc books, and these alone, should be cited as authority in Asia, Africa, and Furope 2 No other reason can be assigned, than one of these two,--either, they knew no other books which claimed to be canonical; or, if they did, they did not esteem them of equal authority with those which they cited. On either of these grounds the conclusion is the same, THAT THE BOOKS QUoTED As Scripture ARE ALONE Tire cANONICAL Books. To apply this rule to a particular case,_The First Epistle of Peter is canonical, because it is continually cited by the most ancient Christian writers in every part of the world; but the book called the down lower than the second century. Revelation of Peter is apocryphal, because none of the early fathers have taken any testimonies from it. . The same is true of the Acts of Peter, and the Gospel of Peter. These writings were totally unknown to the primitive church, and are therefore spurious. This argu- ment is perfectly conclusive, and its force was perceived by the ancient defenders of the canon of the New Testa- ment. Eusebius repeatedly has recourse to it; and, therefore, those persons who have aimed to unsettle our present canon, as Toland and Dodwell, have attempted to prove that the early Christian writers were in the habit of quoting indifferently and promiscuously, the books which we now receive, and others which are now rejected, as apocryphal. But this is not correct, as has been shown by Nye, Richardson and others. The true method of de- termining this matter is by a careful examination of all the passages in the writings of the fathers, where other books besides those now in the canon have been quoted. Some progress was made in collecting the passages in the writings of the fathers, in which any reference is made . to the apocryphal books, by the learned Jeremiah Jones, in his “New Method of Settling the Canon of the New Testament;” but the work was left incomplete. This author, however, positively denies that it is common for the fathers to cite these books as Scripture, and asserts that there are only a very few instances in which any of them seem to have fallen,into this mistake. III. A third proof of the genuineness of the canon of the New Testament may be derived from the fact, that these books were publicly read as Scripture in all the Christian churches. - . . IV. A fourth argument, to prove that our canon of the New Testament is substantially correct, may be derived from the early versions of this sacred book into other languages. ' . Although the Greek language was extensively known through the Roman empire when the apostles wrote, yet the Christian church was in a short time extended into regions where the common people, at least, were not ac- quainted with it, nor with any language except their own vernacular tongue. While the giſt of tongues continued, the difficulty of making known the gospel to such people would, in some measure, be obviated; but when these miraculous powers ceased, the necessity of a version of the gospels and epistles into the language of the people would become manifest. As far, therefore, as we may be permitted to reason from the nature of the case, and the necessities of the churches, it is exceedingly probable that versions of the New Testament were made shortly after the death of the apostles, iſ they were not begun before. Can we suppose that the numerous Christians in Syria, Mesopotamia, and the various parts of Italy, would be long left without having these precious books translated into a language which all the people could understand 2 But we are not left to our own reasonings on this subject. We know that at a very early period there existed Latin versions of the New Testament, which had been so long in use before the time of Jerome, as to have become con- siderably corrupt, on which account he undertook a new version, which soon superseded those that were more ancient. Now, although nothing remains of these ancient Latin versións, but uncertain fragments, yet we have good evidence that they contained the same books as were in- serted in Jerome's version, now denominated the Vulgate. But perhaps the old Syriac version of the New Testa- ment, called Peshito, furnishes the strongest proof of the canonical authority of all the books which are contained in it. This excellent version has a very high claim to antiquity; and in the opinion of some of the best Syriac scholars, who have profoundly examined this subject, was made before the close of the first century. The arguments for so early an origin are not, indeed, conclusive, but they possess much probability, whether we consider the external or internal evidence. The Syrian Christians have always insisted that this version was made by the apostle”Thaddeus; but without admitting this claim, which would put it on a level with the Greek . original, we may believe that it ought not to be brought It is universally received by all the numerous sects of Syrian Christians, C A N C A N • I as - and must be anterior to the existence of the oldest of them. Manes, who lived in the second century, proba- bly had read the New Testament in the Syriac, which was his native tongue; and Justin.Martyr, when he testi- fies that the Scriptures of the New Testament, were read in the assemblies of Christians on every Sunday, proba- bly refers to Syrian Christians, as Syria was his native lace, where also he had his usual residence. And Mi- chaelis is of opinion that Melito, who wrote about A. D. 170, has expressly declared that a Syrian version of the Bible existed in his time. Jerome also testifies, explicitly, that when he wrote, the Syriac Bible was publicly read in the churches; for, says he, “Ephren the Syrian is held in such veneration, that his writings are read in several churches immediately after the lessons from the Bible.” It is also well known that the Armenian version, which itself is ancient, was made from the Syriac. - On the general evidence of the genuineness of our Canon, I would subjoin the following remarks:– 1. The agreement among those who have given cata- logues of the books of the New Testament, from the ear- liest times, is almost complete. Of thirteen catalogues to which we have referred, seven contain exactly the same books as are now in the canon. Three of the oth- ers differ in nothing but the omission of the book of Reve- lation, for which they had a particular reason, consistent with their belief of its canonical authority ; and in two of the remaining catalogues, it can be proved that the books omitted or represented as doubtful, were received as authentic by the persons who have given the cata- logues. It may be asserted, therefore, that the consent of the ancient church, as to what books belonged to the ca- non of the New Testament, was complete. The sacred Volume was as accurately formed, and as clearly distin- guished from other books, in the third, fourth, and fifth centuries, as it has ever been since. . - 2. Let It be considered, moreover, that the earliest of these catalogues was given by Origen, who lived within a hundred years of the death of the apostle John, and who by his reading, travels, and long residence in Pales- tine, had a full knowledge of all the transactions and wri- tings of the church, until his own time. In connection with this, let it be remembered, that these catalogues were drawn up by the most learned, pious, and distinguished men in the church, or by councils; and that the persons fur- nishing them, resided in different and remote parts of the world; as, for example, in Jerusalem, Caesarea, Carthage and Hippo in Africa, Constantinople, Cyprus, Alexandria in Egypt, Italy, and Asia Minor. Thus it appears that the canon was early agreed upon, and that it was every where the same ; therefore, we find the fathers, in all their writings, appealing to the same Scriptures ; and none are charged with rejecting any canonical book, except heretics. 3. It appears from the testimony adduced, that it was never considered necessary that any council or bishop should give sanction to these books, in any other way than as witnesses, testifying to the churches that these were indeed the genuine writings of the apostles. These books, therefore, were never considered as deriving their authority from the church, or from councils, but were of complete authority as soon as published : and were deliv- ered to the churches to be a guide and standard, in all things relating to faith and practice. The fathers would have considered it impious for any bishop or council to pretend to add any thing to the authority of inspired books, or to claim the right to add other books to those handed down from the apostles. The church is founded on the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ being the chief cor- ner stone; but the sacred Scriptures are no how depend- cnt for their authority on any set of men who lived since they were written. . - 4. We may remark, in the last place, the benignant providence of God towards his church, in causing these precious books to be written, and in watching over their preservation, in the midst of dangers and persecutions; so that, notwithstanding the malignant designs of the en- emies of the church, they have all come down to us un- mutilated, in the original tongue in which they were pen- ned by the apostles. Our liveliest gratitude is due to the great Head of the church for this divine treasure, from which we are per- mitted freely to draw whatever is needful for our instruc-, tion and consolation. And it is our duty to prize this pre- cious gift of divine revelation above all price. On the law of the Lord we should meditate day and night. . It is a perſect rule; it shines with a clear light; it exerciscs a salutary influence on the heart ; it warns us when we are in danger; reclaims us when we go astray; and comforts us when in affliction. The word of the Lord is “more to be desired than gold, yea, than much fine gold, sweeter also than honey, and the honey-comb.” They who are destitute of this inestimable volume call for our tenderest compassion, and our exertions in circulating the Bible should never be remitted, until all are supplied with this divine treasure; but they who possess this sacred volume and yet neglect to study it, are still more to be pitied, for they are perishing in the midst of plenty. In the midst of light they walk in darkness. God has sent to them the word of life; but they have lightly esteemed the rich gift of his love. O that their eyes were opened, that they might behold wondrous things in the law of the Lord. —Ps. 19: 10.—See also Alexander on the Canon ; Cosin's Scholastical JIistory of the Canon ; Du Pin's Complete Histo- zy of the Canon and JVriters of the Old and New Testament; Jer. Jones's New and Full Method of Settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament ; Blair's Lectures on the Canon of the Old Testament ; Stosch Comment. Histor. Crit. de Libb. N. T. Canone ; Lardner's Credibility, and Eichorn's Introduct. to the Old Testament; Hend. Buck. CANONS, EccLESIASTICAL, statutes or rules fixed by councils, and possessing the force of ecclesiastical law. From the time of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, many councils were held, and canons or laws drawn up, for the government of the church; they were collected into three volumes, by Ivo, bishop of Chartres in France, about the fourteenth year of king Henry I., and are called the decrees; they were corrected about thirty-five years afterwards, by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, and are now the most ancient volumes of the eccle- siastical law. They were published in England in the reign of king Stephen. . The next in order of time were the decretals; they were letters of the popes, for the determination of some controversy; and of these there are likewise three vol- TUI ſºle S. clergy. The first volume of these decretals was com- piled by Raimund Barcinius, chaplain to pope Gregory IX., and published about the fourteenth year of king Henry III. It was appointed to be read in all schools, and admitted as law in all the ecclesiastical courts of England. About sixty years afterwards, Simon, a monk of Walden, read these laws in the university of Cam- bridge, and the next year in that of Oxford. The second They laid an obligation on the laity as well as the volume was collected and methodized by pope Boniface VIII., and published about the twenty-seventh year of king Edward I. The third volume was collected by pope Clement W., and published in the council of Vienna, and likewise in England, in the second year of Edward II. ; they took, from that pope, the name of Clementine. These decretals were never received any where but in the pope's dominions. John Andreas, a famous canonist in the four- teenth century, wrote a commentary on these decretals, which he entitled “Novellae,” from a very beautiful daughter he had, named Novella, whom he bred a scho- lar. But these foreign canons, even when the papal au- thority was at the highest in England, were of no force where they were ſound to contradict the prerogative of the king or the laws of the land. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the see of Rome, in England, was ſounded on the canon law ; and this crea- ted quarrels between kings, and several archbishops and prelates, who adhered to those papal usurpations; for such foreign canons as were received there, had no force from any papal legatine, or provincial authority, but sole- ly from the consent and approbation of the king and people. Besides the foreign canons, there were several laws and constitutions made there for the government of the church ; and all these received their force from the royal assent; and iſ, at any time, the ecclesiastical courts did, by their sentences, endeavor to enforce obedience to such canons, tº c A N c AN [ 324 ) the courts at common law, upon complaint made, would grant prohibitions. These canons were all collected and explained by Lyndwood, dean of the arches, in the reign of Henry VI. But, having been made in the times of papal authority, they were revised, some time after the Reformation, by commissioners appointed for that pur- pose; among whom was archbishop Cranmer. The work is entitled “Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum, ex au- thoritate Regis Hen. VIII. inchoata, et per Edw. VI. pro- vecta.” But the king's death prevented it being con- firmed. This book was put into elegant Latin, by Dr. Hadden, university orator at Cambridge, with the assis- tance of Sir John Cheek, who was tutor to king Edward VI. The authority vested in the church of England, of mak- ing canons, was ascertained by a statue of Henry VIII., commonly called the act of the clergy’s submission ; by which they acknowledged that the convocation had been always assembled by the king's writ; after which follows this enacting clause, viz.:-‘‘That they shall not attempt, allege, or claim, or put in use, any constitutions or canons, without the king's assent.” So that, though the power of making canons resided in the clergy, met in convocation, their force was derived from the authority of the king as- senting to, and confirming them. - The old canons continued in force till the reign of James I., when, the clergy being lawfully assembled in convo- cation, that king gave them leave, by his letters patent, to treat, consult, and agree on canons; which they did, and presented them to the king, who gave his royal as: sent to them, and by other letters patent, did for himself, his heirs, and successors, ratify and confirm the same. These canons were a collection out of the several preced- ing canons and injunctions; and, being authorized by the king's commission, according to the form of the sta- tute of the 25 Hen. VIII., they were warranted by act of parliament, and became part of the law of the land, and as binding in ecclesiastical matters as any statute what- ever in civil. Some of the canons in 1603 are now obso- lete, as the seventy fourth, which requires that the bene- ficed clergy shall wear gowns with standing collars, and square caps. - - In the reign of Charles I., several canons were passed by the clergy in convocation. They were approved by the king and privy council, the judges and other eminent persons of the long robe being present; after which, they were subscribed in the house of lords by the bishops, none refusing but the bishop of Gloucester, for which he was suspended ab officio and beneficio by both houses. Notwith- standing which solemn approbation, these canons gave great offence. Some were displeased with the seventh, entitled “a declaration concerning rites and ceremonies.” But the greatest clamor was against the sixth, entitled “an oath enjoined for the preventing all innovations in doctrine and government.” It was likewise objected to them that they were not made pursuant to the above-men- tioned statute of the 25th of Hen. VIII., because they were made in convocation, after the parliament was dis- solved. After the restoration, when the bishops were re- stored by an act of parliament to their jurisdiction, there was a proviso in the act, that it should not confirm the canons made in 1640; and thus the ecclesiastical laws were left as they were before the year 1640.-Hend. Buck. CANON, a person who possesses a prebend or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathe- dral or collegiate church. Canons are of no great anti- quity. Paschier observes, that the name was not known before Charlemagne; at least, the first we hear of are in Gregory de Tours, who mentions a college of canons instituted by Baldwin XVI., archbishop of that city, in the time of Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the institution of this order to Chrodegangus, bishop of Mentz, about the middle of the eighth century. CANONS, (Book of,) ordinances prepared for Scotland by order of Charles I., and designed completely to subvert the constitution of the Scottish church. They declared the power of the king in all matters spiritual to be abso- lute and unlimited ; and they pronounced sentence of ex- communication against all, who should declare the go- vernment of the church, by bishops and archbishops, to be unscriptural and unlawful,-Heud, Buck. CANONICAL HOURS, are certain stated times of the day consigned more especially by the Romish church to the offices of prayer and devotion; such are matins, lauds, &c. In England, the canonical hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon ; before or after which, mar- riage cannot be legally performed in any church.-Hend. Buck. > - CANONICAL LETTERS, in the ancient church, were testimonials of the orthodox faith which the bishops and clergy sent each other to keep up the Catholic commu- nion, and distinguish orthodox Christians from heretics. —Hend. Buck, - - * CANONICAL LIFE, the rule of living prescribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community. The canoni- cal life was a kind of medium between the monastic and clerical lives.—Hend. Buck. - - CANONICAL OBEDIENCE is that submission which, by the ecclesiastical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to their bishops, and the religious to their superiors.- Hend. Buck. CANSTEIN, (CHARLEs HILDERRAND, von,) founder of a famous establishment for printing Bibles, which goes under his name, was born, in 1667, at Lindenburg, in Germany, studied at Frankfort on the Oder, travelled much in Europe, went, in 1688, to Berlin, where he was appointed page of the elector of Brandenburg, and served as a volunteer in the Netherlands. A dangerous sickness obliged him to leave the military service. He went to Halle, where he became familiarly acquainted with Spe- ner. His wish to spread the Bible among the poor led him to form the idea of printing it with stereotype plates. Thus originated the famous institution, called in German, Die Cansteinche Bibelanstalt. Canstein published some works, wrote the life of Spener, and died, in 1719, in Halle, leaving to the great orphan asylum his library, and a part of his fortune.—Ency. Amer. - - - CANTICLES, (THE Book of,) in Hebrew, shir hashirim, the song of songs. The church, as well as the synagogue, re- ceived this book generally as canonical. The royal author appears, in the typical spirit of his time, to have designed to render a ceremonial appointment descriptive of a spi- ritual relation ; and this song is accordingly considered, by judicious writers, to be a mystical allegory of that sort which induces a more sublime sense on historical truths, and which, by the description of human events, shadows out divine circumstances. The sacred writers were, by God’s condescension, authorized to illustrate his strict and intimate relation to the church by the figure of a mar- riage; and the emblem must have been strikingly becom- ing and expressive to the conceptions of the Jews, since they annexed ideas of peculiar mystery to this appoint- ment, and imagined the marriage union to be a counter- part representation of some original pattern in heaven. Hence it was performed among them with very peculiar ceremonies and solemnity, and with every thing that could give dignity and importance to its rites. Solomon, there- fore, in celebrating the circumstances of his marriage, was naturally led, by a train of correspondent reflections, to consider that spiritual connexion which it was often em- ployed to symbolize; and the idea must have been the more forcibly suggested to him, as he was at this period preparing to build a temple to God, and thereby to furnish a visible representation of the Hebrew church. The spi- ritual allegory thus worked up by Solomon to its highest perfection, was very consistent with the prophetic style, which was accustomed to predict evangelical blessings by such parabolical figures; and Solomon was more immedi- ately furnished with a pattern for this representation by the author of the forty-fifth Psalm, who describes, in a compendious allegory, the same future connexion between Christ and his church. - 2. But though the work be certainly an allegorical re- presentation, many learned men, in an unrestrained eager- ness to explain the song, even in its minutest and most obscure particulars, have too far indulged their imagina- tions; and, by endeavoring too nicely to reconcile the lite- ral with the spiritual sense, have been led beyond the boundaries which a reverence for the sacred Scriptures should ever prescribe, The ideas which the sacred writers furnish concerning the mystical relation between Christ [ 325 C AP and his church, though well accommodated to our appre- hension by the allusion of a marriage union, are too gene- ral to illustrate every particular contained in this poem, which may be supposed to have been intentionally deco- rated with some ornaments appropriate to the literal con- struction. When the general analogy is obvious, we are not always to expect minute resemblance, and should not be too curious in seeking for obscure and recondite allu- sions. Solomon, in the glow of an inspired fancy, and unsuspicious of misconception or deliberate perversion, describes God and his church, with their respective attri- butes and graces, under colorings familiar and agreeable to mankind, and exhibits their ardent affection under the authorized figures of earthly love. No similitude, indeed, could be chosen so elegant and apposite for the illustration of this intimate and spiritual alliance, as a marriage union, if considered in the chaste simplicity of its first institution, or under the interesting circumstances with which it was established among the Jews. 3. This poem may be considered, as to its form, as a dramatic poem, of the pastoral kind. There is a succes- sion of time, and a change of place, to different parts of the palace and royal gardens. The persons introduced as speakers, are the bridegroom and bride, and their respec- tive attendants. The interchange of dialogue is carried on in a wild and digressive manner; but the speeches are adapted to the persons with appropriate elegance. The companions of the bride compose a kind of chorus, which seems to bear some resemblance to that afterwards adopt- ed in the Grecian tragedy. Solomon and his queen as- sume the pastoral simplicity of style, which is favorable to the communication of their sentiments. The poem abounds throughout with beauties, and presents every- where a delightful and romantic display of nature, painted at its most interesting season, and described with every ornament that an inventive fancy could furnish. It is justly entitled the Song of Songs, or most excellent song, as being superior to any that an uninspired writer could have produced, and tending, if properly understood, to pu- rify the mind, and to elevate the affections from earthly to heavenly things. - “Every part of the Canticles,” says a modern writer, “abounds in poetical beauties; the objects which present themselves on every side, are the choicest plants, the most beautiful flowers, the most delicious fruits, the bloom and vigor of spring, the sweet verdure of the fields, flourishing and well-watered gardens, pleasant streams and perennial fountains. The other senses are represented as regaled with the most precious odors, natural and artificial; with the sweet singing of birds, and the soft voice of the turtle; with milk and honey, and the choicest of wine. To these enchantments are added all that is heautiful and graceful in the human form, the endearments, the caresses, the de- licacy of love. If any object be introduced which seems not to harmonize with this delightſul scene, such as the awful prospect of tremendous precipices, or the wildness of the mountains, or the haunts of the lions; its effect is only to heighten, by the contrast, the beauty of the other objects, and to add the charms of variety to those of grace and elegance.”. (Bossuet's Preface to the Canticles.) In the following passage, the force and splendor of de- scription is united with all the softness and tenderness of passion: . . ' . “Get thee up, my companion, My lovely one, come away: For Iol the winter is past, The rain is over, is gone, The flowers are seen on the earth : The season of the song is come, Amd the voice of the turtle is...heard in our land; The fig-tree puts forth its green figs, . And the vine's tender grapes yield a fragrance: Arise, my companion, my fair one, and come.” . . - Ch. 2: 10–13. The following comparisons abound in sweetness and delicacy : - - - “How sweet is thy love, O my sister, O spouse, How much better than wine is thy love, And the odor of thy º thani all spices ! Thy lips, 9 spouse, distil honey from the comb, | Homey and milk are under thy tongue, And the scent of thy garments is like the fragrance of Lebanon.” - - Ch. 4: 10, 11. There are some others which demand a more accurate investigation. - - Thy hair is like ºftoºk ºf goat", That browse upon Mount Gilead.” - Ch. 4: 1–5. The hair of the goat is soft, smooth, of a yellow cast, like that of the bride; see ch. 7: 5, and compare 1 Sam, 19:13, 16. with 16: 12; her beautiful tresses are compared with the numerous flocks of goats which covered this flourishing mountain from the top to the bottom. “Thy teeth are like the shorn flock, Which have come up from the washing place, All of which have twins, - And none among them is bereaved.” - The evenness, whiteness, and unbroken order of the teeth is here admirably expressed. “Like the twice-dyed thread of crimson are thy lips, And thy language is sweet.” That is, thin and ruby-colored, such as add peculiar graces to the sweetness of the voice. - “Like the slice of a pomegranate Are thy cheeks amidst thy tresses.” Partly obscured, as it were, by her hair, and exhibiting a gentle blush of red, from beneath the delicate shade, as the seeds of the pomegranate, the color of which is white tinged with red, surrounded by the rind. . “Thy neck is like the tower of David Built for an armory; A thousand shields are hung up against it, All bucklers for the mighty.” The neck is described as long, erect, slender, according to the micest proportion, decorated with gold, gems, and large pearls. It is compared with some turret of the cita- del of Zion, more lofty than the rest, remarkable for its elegance, and not less illustrious for its architecture than for the trophies with which it was adorned, being hung round with shields and other implements of war. “Thy two breasts are like two young kids, Twins of the gazelle, that browse among the lilies;” delicate and smooth, standing equally prominent from the ivory bosom. The animal with which they are compared is a creature of exquisite beauty, and from that circum- stance it derives its name in the Hebrew. Nothing can be imagined more truly elegant and poetical than these passages; nothing more apt or expressive than these com- parisons. The discovery of these excellencies, however, only serves to increase our regret for the many beauties which we have lost, the perhaps superior graces, which extreme antiquity seems to have overcast with an impene- trable shade. See Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, Lect. xxxi.—Watson ; Jones. CAPERNAUM ; a city frequently mentioned by the evangelists as having been much the place of the Savior's residence, during the period of his public ministry. It stood on the shore of the sea of Galilee in the borders of Zebulon and Naphthalim. Matt. 4: 13, 14. Capernaum is no where mentioned in the Old Testa- ment, under that or any other name like it; and, there. fore, it is not improbable that it is one of those towns which were built by the Jews after their return from the Baby- lonish captivity. It is said to have taken its name from an adjacent spring which was of great repute for its clear and limpid waters, and which, according to Josephus, was by the natives called Capernaum. As this spring was in all probability a particular inducement to the building of the town where it stood, so the town became the usual place to which persons resorted in order to be conveyed from Galilee to any part on the other side of the sea. But that which beyond every other consideration renders this city memorable is, that it was the theatre on which the Son of God manifested his glory, by many stupendous miracles, and where he also delivered some of his most interesting discourses. That divine sermon, for example, which is recorded in the sixth chapter of John's gospel, was delivered in the synagogue of Capernaum. See ver. 59. If the reader will only pursue the simple and artless narrative of the evangelist from Mark 1: 31, to ch. 2: 12, he will have abundant materials before him for realizing what interest was then excited in this city, by the preach- ing and the miracles of the Messiah. The prophet Isaiah *. C.A. P. C A P 326 had indeed long ago predicted these events, and even pointed out the spot where they should occur; see Isa. 9: 1, 2, a passage which we are expressly told met its accom- plishments, in the occurrences at Capernaum, to which we have briefly adverted. See Matt. 4: 12–16. But Ca- pernaum did not improve its privileges! Jesus himself “upbraided the cities in which most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not ;” and of this city in particular how awful is the denunciation which he pro- nounced upon it: “And thou, Capernaum, which art ex- alted unto heaven [in gospel privileges], shalt be brought down to hell: for if the mighty works which have been done in thee, had been done in Sodom, it would have re- mained to this day; but it shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom in the day of judgment than for thee,” Matt. 11: 20–24. It is an obvious reflection from these solemn words, that spiritual privileges cannot be abused with impunity; that those who enjoy the light of divine revelation, will have to render to God a strict account for the use which they have made of it; and that wherever the Lord sends his gospel, and plants the ministry of his word, that place incurs a serious responsibility for which it will be made answerable at a future period, Luke 12: 48, and ch. 16: 31. Jones; Bib. Cyclo. ' Capernaum was probably situated at the northern ex- tremity of the land of Gennesareth, on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, and about six miles from the place where the Jordan enters the sea. The place is now called Rhán Minyeh, and is in ruins.—T. CAPHTOR ; the name of an island or country, whence sprang the people called in Scripture CAPHToRIMs. It is remarkable that the same people are also sometimes called Cherethims, or Cherethites, and Philistines. Gen. 10: 14. Deut. 2: 23. Jer, 47: 4, and Amos 9: 7. The authors of the Universal History, following Bochart, are of opinion, that by Caphtor was meant Cappadocia : but Calmet, who has entered largely into this question, in a dissertation prefixed to the first book of Samuel, endeavors to show that the 'ancient Caphtor was the isle of Crete, and that the Philistines, the Caphtorims, or the Cherethims, who aſter- wards settled in Palestine, came from thence. Compare Ezek. 25: 16. Zeph. 2: 5. 1 Sam. 30: 14. See Blayney's Jeremiah, 8vo. p. 414.—Jones. CAPITO, (WolfGANG FABRICIUs,) one of the reformers, was born in Alsace, 1478, of a family of rank, and after receiving an excellent education applied himself to the study of medicine, law, and divinity, in each of which he took his doctor's degree. At Heidelberg, he became ac- quainted with Oecolampadius, to whom he became united in the strongest ties of friendship; and their mutual com- munication was never interrupted but by death. Having completed a liberal circle of studies, Capito became a preacher, first in Spire, and afterwards in Basil, where he continued many years. From thence he was sent for by the elector Palatine, who made him his counsellor, and sent him on several embassies. Charles V. conferred on him the order of knighthood. At Strasburgh, however, whither he had followed Bucer, he astonished the world by avowing and preaching the reformed religion. His fame soon spread, and Margaret queen of Navarre, sister to the French king, sent James Faber and Gerard Rufus privately to hear him; and thus the Protestant doctrine was introduced into France. In 1525, he returned by re- quest to his native country, where he preached the gospel in its purity. He was present at the dispute of 1528 at Berne, and at the diet of Ratisbon in 1541 for the settling of religion, and greatly distinguished himself. He died of the plague in the end of 1541. Capito was a very prudent and eloquent man, a great critic in Hebrew, and master of the whole circle of human knowledge. This, with the endowment of the highest wisdom—the knowledge of God and his truth-ſurnished him in the most eminent manner for the sacred function : and God blessed him accordingly. He leſt several valua- ble works.-Middleton's Biog. Evan. CAPPADOCIA ; a province of Lydia, in Asia, extend- ing from mount Taurus to the Euxine sea. . It was bound- ed on the east by the river Euphrates and Armenia Minor; on the south by Lycaonia and Armenia Major; on the west by Galatia; and on the north by Pontus; the whole stretching from the thirty-eighth to the forty-first degree of north latitude. The name of the country, according to Pliny, was derived from the river Cappadox. It contained besides the city of Mazaca, which was its metropolis, an which was afterwards called Caesaria, by Tiberius, in ho- nor of Augustus, the following places of note: Comina, Diocaesaria, Neocaesaria, Tyana, Sebastia, and Sebastopo. lis. The principal rivers which fertilize this region are the Melas; the Iris; and the Hylas. The district on the South-east, which environs the Antitaurus, is mountainous and barren: the other parts are fertile, abounding with fruits of every kind; enriched with mines of silver, brass, iron, and alum ; and producing alabaster, crystal, jasper, and onyx. The horses which were reared in this country. were so excellent, that they were purchased by the sur- rounding nations, and at length became so famous at Rome, that none but the emperor was permitted to possess them. The natives are thought to have descended from Togarmah, and to be intended by those who traded with the Tyrians in “horses and mules,” as mentioned in I22ek. 27: 14. - From the feeble light of ancient history, we find that this country was a province of Lydia, in the reign of Croc- sus, about 500 years before Christ. It continued a king- dom till about the birth of Christ, when it was conquered by the Romans, annexed to that empire, and its independ- ence forever extinguished. The religion of the Cappadocians, previous to the intro- duction of Christianity, seems to have been a mixture of the Persian and Grecian superstitions; which instead of promoting the happiness of the state by favoring useful, employments, crowded into one temple, dedicated to Jupi- ter, no less than three thousand ministers, to loll in luxu- rious apathy, or to plot in ambitious cabals; and instead of directing men to the practice of virtue, incited them to the most senseless penances; to lacerate their bodies in honor of Bellona, or to offer human sacrifices to Diana, and other idols. And so proverbial did the wickedness of the Cappadocians ultimately become, that the neighboring nations denominated every person distinguished by his depravity a Cappadocian, as a term of reproach. Chris- tianity, however, was early planted here, and Peter wrote his first epistle, amongst others, to the Christian converts in Cappadocia. See Acts 2: 9, and 1 Pet. 1: 1. The gos- pel long flourished in that country, and the existence of Christian churches is easily traced there till the ninth or tenth century. See Rollin's Ancient History, and Pri deaux's Connexion.—Jones. CAPTIVES. The treatment of persons taken in war among ancient nations, throws great light upon many passages of Scripture. The eastern conqueror often strip- ped his umbappy captives naked, shaved their heads, and made them travel in that condition, exposed to the burning heat of a vertical sun by day, and the chilling cold of the night. Such barbarous treatment was to modest women the height of cruelty and indignity; especially to those who had been educated in softness and elegance, who had figured in all the superſluities of ornamental dress, and whose faces had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of mnan. The prophet Isaiah mentions this as the hardest part of the sufferings in which female captives are involved.: “The Lord will expose their nakedness.” The daughter of Zion had indulged in all the softness of oriental luxury ; but the offended Jehovah should cause her unrelenting enemies to drag her forth from her secret chambers into the view of an insolent soldiery; strip her of her orna- ments, in which she so greatly delighted; take, away her splendid and costly garments, discover her nakedness, and compel her to travel in that miserable plight to a far distant country, a helpless captive, the property of a cruel lord. Arrived in the land of their captivity, captives were often purchased at a very low price. The prophet Joel complains of the contemptuous cheapness in which the people of Is- rael were held by those who made them captives: “And they have cast lots for my people; and have given a boy for a haºlot, and sold a girl for wine, that they might drink.” The custom of casting lots for the captives taken in war appears to have prevailed both among the Jews and the Greeks. The same allusion occurs in the prophecy of Chadiah : “Strangers carried away captive his forces, C AP C. A. P | 327 J and foreigners entered into his gates, and cast lots upon Jerusalem,” Ob. 11. With respect to the Greeks, we have an instance in Tryphiodorus:— - “Shared out by lot the ſemale captives stand, The spoils divided with an equal hand; Each to his ship conveys his rightful share; - Price of their toil, and trophies of the war.” 2. By an inhuman custom, which is still retained in the East, the eyes of captives taken in war were not seldom put out, sometimes literally scooped or dug out of their sockets. This dreadful calamity Samson had to endure from the unrelenting vengeance of his enemies. In a pos- terior age, Zedekiah, the last king of Judah and Benjamin, after being compelled to behold the violent death of his sons and nobility, had his eyes put out, and was carried in chains to Babylon. The barbarous custom long sur- vived the decline and ſall of the Babylonian empire; for by the testimony of Mr. Maurice, in his history of Hin- dostan, the captive princes of that country were often treated in this manner by their more fortunate rivals; a red hot iron was passed over their eyes, which effectually deprived them of sight, and at the same time of their title and ability to reign. To the wretched state of such pri- soners, the prophet Isaiah alludes in a noble prediction, where he describes in very glowing colors the character and work of the promised Messiah: “He hath sent me to heal the broken hearted, to preach deliverance to the cap- tives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised,” as captives too frequently were by the weight of their fetters. 3. It seems to have been the practice of eastern kings, to command their captives taken in war, especially those that had, by the atrociousness of their crimes or the stout- ness of their resistance, greatly provoked their indignation, to lie down on the ground, and then put to death a certain part of them, which they measured with a line, or deter- mined by lot. This custom was not, perhaps, commonly practised by the people of God, in their wars with the na- tions around them ; but one instance is recorded in the life of David, who inflicted this punishment on the Moab- ites: “And he smote Moab, and measured them with a line, casting them down to the ground; even with two lines measured he to put to death, and with one full line to keep alive; and so the Moabites became David’s servants, and brought gifts,” 2 Sam. S: 2. But the most shocking punishment which the ingenious cruelty of a haughty and unfeeling conqueror ever inflicted on the miserable captive, is described by Virgil in the eighth book of the AEmeid; and which even a Roman, inured to blood, could nºt mention without horror:— - “Quid memorem infamdas coedes 2 quid facta tyranni,” &c. - *. Line 4S5. “What words can paint those execrable times, The subjects' sufferings, and the tyrant’s crimes That blood, those murders, O ye gods ! replace On his own head, and on his impious race: 'I'he living and the lead, at his command Were coupled face to face, and hand to hand, Till, choked with stench, in loathed embraces tied, The lingering wretches pined away, and died.”—Dryden, It is to this deplorable condition of a captive that the apostle refers, in that pathetic exclamation, “O wretched man that I am who shall deliver me from the body of this death º' Who shall rescue me, miserable captive as I am, from this continual burden of sin which I carry about with me; and which is cumbersome and odious, as a dead carcase bound to a living body, to be dragged along with it wherever it goes 2—Watson. CAPTIVITY. God generally punished the sins and infidelities of the Jews by different captivities or servi- tudes. The first captivity is that of Egypt, from which they were delivered by Moses, and which should be consi- dered rather as a permission of providence, than as a pu- nishment for sin. Six captivities are reckoned during the government by judges: the first, under Chushan-risha- thaim, king of Mesopotamia, which continued about eight years; the second, under Eglon, king of Moab, from which the Jews were delivered by Ehud ; the third, under the Philistines, from which they were rescued by Shamgar; the fourth, under Jabin, king of Hazor, from which they were delivered by Deborah and Barak; the fifth, under the Midianites, from which Gideon freed them; and the sixth, under the Ammonites and Philistines, during the judicatures of Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Eli, Sam- son, and Samuel. But the greatest and most remarkable captivities were those of Israel and Judah, under their re- gal government. • CAprivities of IsrAEL. In the year of the world 3264, Tiglath-pileser took several cities, and carried away cap- tives, principally from the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, 2 Kings 15:29. In the year of the world 3283, Shalmaneser took and destroyed Samaria, after a siege of three years, and transplanted the tribes that had been spared by Tiglath-pileser, to provinces be: yond the Euphrates, 2 Kings 18: 10, 11. It is generally believed, there was no return of the ten tribes from this second captivity. But when we examine carefully the writings of the prophets, we find the return of at least a great part of Israel from the captivity clearly pointed out. Hosea says, “They shall tremble as a bird out of Egypt, and as a dove out of the land of Assyria; and I will place them in their houses, sºith the Lord,” Hos. 11; 11. Amos says, “And I will bring again my people Israel from their captivity: they shall build their ruined cities, and inhabit them,” &c., Amos 9: 14. Obadiah observes, “The cap- tivity of this host of the children of Israel shall possess that of the Canaanites,” &c., Ob. 18, 19. To the same pur- pose speak the other prophets. “The Lord shall assem: ble the outcasts of Israel, and gather together the dispersed of Judah,” Isa. 11: 12, 13. Ezekiel received an order from God to take two pieces of wood, and write on one, “For Judah and for the children of Israel;” and on the other, “For Joseph and for all the house of Israel;” and to join these two pieces of wood, that they might become one, and designate the re-union of Judah and Israel, Ezek. 37: 16. Jeremiah is equally express: “The house of Ju- dah shall walk with the house of Israel; and they shall come together out of the north, to the land which I have given for an inheritance to their fathers,” Jer. 3: 18. See also Jer. 31: 7–9, 16, 17, 20. 16:15. 49: 2, &c. Zech. 9: 13. 10: 6, 10. Mic. 2: 12. In the historical books of Scrip- ture, we find that the Israelites of the ten tribes, as well as of Judah and Benjamin, returned from the captivity. Among those that returned with Zerubbabel are reck- oned some of Ephraim and Manasseh, who settled at Je- rusalem with the tribe of Judah. When Ezra numbered those who returned from the captivity, he only inquired whether they were of the race of Israel; and at the first passover which was then celebrated in the temple, was a sacrifice of twelve he-goats for the whole house of Israel, according to the number of the tribes, Ezra 6:16, 17. 8: 35. Under the Maccabees, and in our Savior’s time, we see Palestine peopled by Israelites of all the tribes indif. ferently. The Samaritan Chronicle asserts that in the thirty-fifth year of the pontificate of Abdelus, three thou- sand Israelites, by permission of king Sauredius, returned from captivity, under the conduct of Adus, son of Simon. CAPTIVITIEs of JUDAH. The captivities of Judah are generally reckoned four: the first, in the year of the world 3398, under king Jehoiakim, when Daniel and others were carried to Babylon; the second, in the year of the world 3401, and in the seventh year of the reign of Jehoiakim, when Nebuchadnezzar carried three thousand and twenty- three Jews to Babylon; the third, in the year of the world 3406, and in the fourth of Jehoiachin, when this prince, with part of his people, was sent to Babylon; and the fourth, in the year 3416, under Zedekiah, from which peri- od begins the captivity of seventy years, foretold by the prophet Jeremiah. Dr. Hales computes that the first of these captivities, which he thinks formed the commence- ment of the Babylonish captivity, took place in the year before Christ 605. The Jews were removed to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, who, designing to render that city the capital of the East, transplanted thither very great num- bers of people, subdued by him in different countries. In Babylon, the Jews had judges and elders, who governed them, and who decided matters in dispute juridically, ac- cording to their laws. Of this we see a proof in the story of Susanna, who was condemned by elders of her own nation. Cyrus, in the year of the world 3457, and in the . first year of his reign at Babylon, permitted the Jews to return to their own country, Ezra 1: 1. However, they C A P C A R [ 328 did not obtain leave to rebuild the temple; and the comple: tion of those prophecies which foretold the termination of their captivity after seventy years, was not till the year of the world 3486. In that year, Darius Hystaspes, by an edict, allowed them to rebuild the temple. In the year of the world 3537, Artaxerxes longimanus sent Nehemiah to Jerusalem. The Jews assert that only the refuse of their nation returned from the captivity, and that the principal of them continued in and near Babylon, where they had been settled, and where they became very numerous. It may, however, be doubted whether the refuse of Judah was really carried to Babylon. It appears from incidental ob- servations in Scripture that some remained; and Major Rennell has offered several reasons for believing that only certain classes of the Jews were deported to Babylon, as well as into Assyria. Nebuchadnezzar carried away only the principal inhabitants, the warriors, and artisans of every kind; and he left the husbandmen, the laborers, and, in general, the poorer classes, that constitute the great body of the people.—Calmet. - CAPUCHINS ; religious of the order of St. Francis. They owe their origin to Matthew de Bassi, a Franciscan of the duchy of Urbino; who, having seen St. Francis re- presented with a sharp-pointed capuche, or cowl, began to wear the like in 1525, with the permission of pope Clement VII. His example was soon followed by two other reli- gious, named Lewis and Raphael de Fossembrun; and the pope, by a brief, granted these three monks leave to retire to Some hermitage, and retain their new habit. The retire- ment they chose was the hermitage of the Camaldolites near Massacio, where they were very charitably received. This innovation in the habit of the order gave great of. fence to the Franciscans, whose provincial persecuted these poor monks, and obliged them to flee from place to place. At last, they took refuge in the palace of the duke de Camerino, by whose credit they were received under the obedience of the Conventuals, in the quality of Hermits Minors, in the year 1527. The next year, the pope ap- proved this union, and confirmed to them the privilege of wearing the square capuche, and admitting among them all who would take the habit. Thus the order of the Ca- puchins, so called from wearing the capuche, began in the year 1528. Their first establishment was at Colmenzono, about a league from Camerino, in a convent of the order of St. Je- rome, which had been abandoned. But, their numbers increasing, Lewis de Fossembrun built another small con- vent at Montmelon, in the territory of Camerino. The great number of conversions which the Capuchins made by their preaching, and the assistance they gave the peo- ple in a contagious distemper, with which Italy was afflict- ed the same year, 1528, gained them an universal esteem. In 1529, Lewis de Fossembrun built for them two other convents; the one at Alvacina, in the territory of Fabria- no, the other at Fossembrun, in the duchy of Urbino. Matthew de Bassi, being chosen their vicar-general, drew up constitutions for the government of this order. They enjoined, among other things, that the Capuchins should perform divine service without singing; that they should say but one mass a day in their convents: they directed the hours of mental prayer, morning and evening, the days of disciplining themselves, and those of silence: they for- bade the monks to hear the confessions of seculars, and enjoined them always to travel on foot: they recommended poverty in the ornaments of their church, and prohibited in them the use of gold, silver, and silk : the pavilions of the altars were to be of stuff, and the chalices of tin. This order soon spread itself all over Italy, and into Si- cily. In 1573, Charles IX. demanded of pope Gregory XIII, to have the order of Capuchins established in France, which that pope consented to ; and their first settlement in that kingdom was in the little town of Picpus, near Pa- ris; which they soon quitted, to settle at Meudon, from whence they were introduced into the capital of the king- dom. In 1606, pope Paul V. gave them leave to accept of an establishment, which was offered them in Spain. They even passed the seas to labor on the conversion of the infidels; and their order is become so considerable that it is at present divided into more than sixty provinces, consisting of near 1,600 convents, and 25,000 monks, be- low the rule of St. Clara. sides the missions of Brazil, Congo, Barbary, Greece, Sy- ria, and Egypt. - - Among those who have preferred the poverty and humi- lity of the Capuchins to the advantages of birth and fortune, was the famous Alphonso d’Este, duke of Modena and Reggio, who, after the death of his wife Isabella, took the habit of this order at Munich, in the year 1626, under the name of brother John Baptist, and died in the convent of Castelnuovo, in 1644. In France likewise, the duke de Joyeuse, after having distinguished himself as a great ge. neral, became a Capuchin, in September, 1587. Father Paul observes, that “the Capuchins preserve their reputation, by reason of their poverty; and that if they should suffer the least change in their institution, they would acquire no immovable estates by it, but would lose the alms they now receive.” He adds: “It seems therefore as if here an absolute period were put to all fu- ture acquisitions and improvements in this gainful trade ; for whoever should go about to institute a new order, with a power of acquiring estates, such an order would certainly find no credit in the world ; and if a profession of poverty were a part of the institution, there could be no acquisitions made whilst that lasted; nor would there be any credit left when that was broke.” - There is likewise an order of Capuchin nuns, who fol- Their first establishment was at Naples, in 1538, and their foundress was the venerable mother Maria Laurentia Longa, of a noble family of Cata- lonia, a lady of the most uncommon piety and devotion. Some Capuchins coming to settle at Naples, she obtained for them, by her credit with the archbishop, the church of St. Euphebia, without the city; soon after which she built a monastery of virgins, under the name of “Our Lady of Jerusalem,” into which she retired in 1534, together with nineteen young women, who engaged themselves, by so- lemn vows, to follow the third rule of St. Francis. The pope gave the government of this monastery to the Capu- chins; and, soon after, the nuns quitted the third rule of St. Francis to embrace the more rigorous rule of St. Clara, from the austerity of which they had the name of “Nuns of the Passion,” and that of “Capuchines” from the habit they took, which was that of the Capuchins. After the death of their foundress, another monastery of Capuchins was established at Rome, near the Quirinal palace, and was called “The Monastery of the Holy Sa- crament;” and a third, in the same city, built by cardinal Baronius. These foundations were approved, in the year 1600, by pope Clement VIII., and confirmed by Gregory XV. There were afterwards several other establishments of Capuchins; in particular one at Paris, in 1604, founded by the duchess de Mercoeur, who put crowns of thorns on the heads of the young women whom she placed in her monastery.—Hend. Buck. CAPUTIATI; a denomination which appeared in the twelfth century, so called from a singular kind of cap which distinguished their party. They wore upon their caps a leaden image of the virgin Mary, and declared publicly that their purpose was to level all distinctions, to abrogate magistracy, and to remove all subordination among mankind, and to restore that primitive liberty, that natural equality, which were the inestimable privilege of the first mortals.”—Hend. Buck. CARAVAN ; the name given to a company of persons, who, in the eastern Countries, travel through the deserts in a body, in order to be secure against the attacks of the Arabs and robbers with which they are infested. As it is by means of its caravans that almost the whole trade of Asia is carried on, as well as that of some of the northern parts of Africa, and as there are many allusions in the Old Testament to this mode of travelling, and of conducting their traffic, some acquaintance with the subject will be found very useful in throwing light upon that portion of the Holy Scriptures. . B very caravan is commanded by a chief, or aga, who has under him a sufficient number of janizaries or sol- diers, belonging to the states through which they are to pass, for conducting them in safety to the place of their destination. Before a caravan can be formed, it is neces- sary to obtain a written permission from one sovereign prince, and it must have the sanction of at least two CARAVAN RESTING AT NIGHT. º # Eºs* ; º ; É i d Gº sº § f ATTACK ON A CARAVAN, C A R. C A R [ 329 J others. This license must specify the number of men and beasts of burden, as well as the quantity of merchandise of which it is composed. The owners of the caravan may choose the officers, and determine the regulations to be ob- served during its journey. There are commonly four prin- cipal officers attached to each caravan; the first is com- mander in chief; the second commands during the march; the third when it halts; and the fourth, should it happen to be attacked by any of the predatory tribes of Arabs, numbers of which are always lying in wait for that pur- pose, and who subsist by plunder. There is also a purser or treasurer, having under him a number of clerks and interpreters, whose business it is to keep accurate journals of whatever occurs, from which, signed by the principal officers, those concerned may form a judgment how far their interests have been attended to. As the greater part of the Arabian princes have no other revenue than what arises from plunder, they keep spies for the purpose of informing them of the departure of the caravans, which they often attack with Superior force, and frequently suc- ceed in carrying off considerable booty; if they succeed in defeating it, the whole is entirely pillaged, and the es- cort, whether pilgrims, travellers, or merchants, are car- ried away and sold for slaves. The gains of the merchants belonging to these caravans are often incredibly great; as an instance of which, we are told of a traveller, who, with goods for which he paid only thirty pounds, by repeated barters and exchanges, in the course of one journey gained six thousand! These immense profits, which are by no means uncommon, induce numerous adventurers to ac- company the caravans, notwithstanding the hardships and inconveniences of the journey, which in many instances are extremely severe. Unwholesome food, intolerable wa- ter, and often mone at all, long and fatiguing marches over burning sands, are circumstances with which they must invariably lay their account, besides being exposed to the thefts and robberies of a crowd of vagrants, who resort to the caravans for the sole purpose of living at the expense of the simple and unwary. The long and toilsome journeys which these caravans perform through barren deserts, and uninhabited wilds, and the hardship and fatigue which travellers sometimes endure, appear to us almost incredible. Provisions and water must be carried several hundred miles. In these parched regions there are few wells, and fewer still of ri- vers of water, while travellers are every hour exposed to the whirlwinds and the hordes of wandering Arabs. To ac- complish such painful journeys, Providence has furnished the inhabitants of these countries with a beast of burden peculiarly fitted for traversing those burning wastes. From the persevering strength of the camel, which the Arabians emphatically called “the ship of the desert,” from his mo- deration in the use of food, and from the singularity of his internal structure, by which he can lay up a supply of wa- ter for several days, he is enabled to traverse the most inhospitable climes, under the ponderous load of seven hundred weight; and with a pound of food, and short in- tervals of rest, he will travel sixteen hours a-day, perform- ing with astonishing despatch a journey impracticable by any other animal. A caravan usually consists of several hundreds of those loaded camels, attended by Arabs, which are hired by the merchants at a low rate for the perform- ance of the journey. See CAMEI. Perhaps the following extract from the writings of a late traveller, may give the reader a more lively idea of one of those caravans, than many pages of detailed narrative, and preclude the necessity of any further enlarging. “It was midnight,” says he, “when we arrived at the kan of Me- nemen. I perceived at a distance a great number of scat- tered lights; it was a caravan making a halt. On a near approach, I distinguished camels, some lying, others stand- ing, some with their loads, others relieved from their bur- dens. Horses and asses without bridles, were eating bar- ley out of leathern buckets; some of the men were still on horseback, and the women, veiled, had not alighted from their dromedaries. Turkish merchants were seated cross- legged on carpets, in groups round the fire, at which the slaves were busily employed in dressing pilau, . Other travellers were smoking their pipes at the door of the kan, chewing opium, and uſeniº stories. Here were peo- - --" 4 ple roasting coffee in iron pots; there hucksters going about from fire to fire, offering for sale, cakes, fruits, and poultry. Singers were amusing the crowd. Imans were performing their ablutions, prostrating themselves, rising again, and imploring the prophet (Mºhomet), while the camel drivers lay snoring on the ground. The place was strewed with packages, bags of cotton, and couffs of rice. All these objects, now distinct, now confused, and enve- loped in a half shade, exhibited a genuine scene of the Arabian nights.” See M. Chateaubriand’s Travels, vol. i. p. 303, 304; Jackson's Morocco, p. 237.-Jones. CARAVANSERA. See INN. CARAITES, or KAREITEs ; an ancient Jewish sect. The name signifies, “Textualists, or Scripturists,” and was originally given to the school of Shammai, (about thirty years or more before Christ,) because they rejected “the traditions of the elders,” as embraced by the school of Hillel and the Pharisees, and all the fanciful interpreta- tions of the cabala, which see. They claim, however, a much higher antiquity, and produce a catalogue of doctors up to the time of Ezra. The rabbinists have been accustomed to call them Sad- ducees; but they believe in the inspiration of the Scrip- tures, the resurrection of the dead, and the final judgment. They believe that the Messiah is not yet come, and reject all calculations of the time of his appearance : yet they say, “it is proper that even every day they should receive their salvation by Messiah, the son of David.” In the practice of their religion, they differ from the rabbinists in the observance of the festivals, and keep the Sabbath with more strictness. They extend their prohibition of marriage to more degrees of affinity, and admit not of divorce on any slight or trivial grounds. The sect of Caraites still exists, but their number is “very inconsiderable.” They are found chiefly in the Crimea, (where Dr. Edward Clarke visited a settlement of them,) Lithuania, and Persia; at Damascus, Constanti- nople, and Cairo. Their honesty in the Crimea is said to be proverbial; and Dr. Clarke visited one of their rabbies, whom he pronounces to be “highly esteemed, and exceed- ing yº. See Hannah Adams's History of the Jews, pp. 49, 411, 496; Allen's Modern Judaism, chapter xxv.; Enfield's Philos. vol. ii. pp. 160–162; Ency. Brit. —Williams. - CARBONARI, (literally, Charcoal-men ;) a modern po- litico-religious sect, lately sprung up in Italy, Supposed to originate from the Freemasons, and, like them, meeting in secret societies, and observing certain mystical rites and signs. Like the Freemasons, they pretend to derive their first principles from the Scriptures, and to adopt the mo- rality of the gospel and the symbols of Christianity, the which, however, they apply politically, and, it is said, sedi- tiously. The cross, for instance, rendered sacred by the sufferings of our divine Lord, they represent as the instru- ment to crucify those whom they designate as enemies and tyrants, against whom they vow eternal hatred; and they profess to reverence our Savior “as the most deplorable, and the most illustrious victim of despotism.” Before the counter-revolution in Naples, the nation had almost all become Carbonari; and the sect spread into Germany, Switzerland, and other countries; but they by no means ought to be considered as a religious denomina- tion. When they grew numerous and powerful, another sect was formed to oppose and counteract them, who were called Calderari, (or Braziers, which see.) Memoirs of the Secret Societies of Italy, 8vo.; Monthly Maga- zine, vol. li. pp. 201, 597; Literary Gazette, No. 139– Williams. - tº CARBUNCLE ; a very elegant gem, the color of which is a deep red mingled with scarlet. It is commonly found in a pure and faultless state; and is of the same degree of hardness as the sapphire, which is second only to the diamond. It is naturally of an angular figure, and is found adhering by its base to a very heavy and ferrugi- nous stone of the emery kind. Its common size is near a quarter of an inch in length, and two thirds of that in dia- meter. In its thickest parts, when held up against the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and in color resembles a burn- ing charcoal, on which account the ancients gave it the name of anthrax. The fire produces no mutation in its C A R. C. A. R. | 330 ) color. Hitherto it has been ſound only in the East Indies, and there but rarely. (Hill's History of Fossils.) The carbuncle was the third stone in the first row of recious stones gomposing the high-priest's breast-plate. ºx. 28: 17. j ". CARCHEMISH ; the name of a town situated on the banks of the Euphrates, and belonging to the Assyrians, from whom it was taken by Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, 2 Chron. 35. 20. The Egyptians left a garrison in it, and in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, retook it and cut the garrison in pieces. The prodigious slaughter of the Egyptians which took place on this occasion, was foretold by the prophet Jeremiah in a very animated style, and with great poetic energy and liveliness of coloring. Jer. 46: 1– I2. In the third and fourth verses of that chapter, the mighty preparations of the Egyptians for the contest are described, and the prophet, who foresees the defeat, is led to express his astonishment at an event so contrary to what might have been expected. But he accounts for it, (ver. 10,) by resolving the whole into the Divine disposal, Jehovah having decreed that neither swiftness nor strength should avail, or protect from the impending overthrow. In ver. 7, 8, 9, the king of Egypt is represented as coming up to the assistance of his garrison, animated with all the os- tentation and insolence of anticipated success. He is compared to a mighty river such as the Nile, or the Eu- phrates, when they overflow their banks, and threaten to overwhelm the country with desolation and ruin. The prophet seems to hear him calling aloud to the nations of which his army is composed, giving them the signal for action, and rousing them to deeds of desperate valor; but all in vain, since the time is come for God to avenge him- self of his ancient foes, who are doomed to slaughter, and fall a bloody sacrifice on the plains of the north. The whole concludes with an apostrophe to the daughter of Egypt, whose wound is pronounced incurable, and her disgrace universally known; forasmuch as the number of her warriors have only served to augment the Scene of confusion, and more effectually to destroy each other, ver. 11, 12. See 2 Kings 23:29.—Jones. CARDINAL; an eminent dignitary in the Roman church. Among the Latins, the word cardinalis signifies principal, and in this sense were venti cardinales, four cardinal or chief winds; princeps cardinalis, a sovereign prince ; missa cardi- malis, and altare cardinale, for the great mass or great altar of a church. It was also a name that was given to certain officers of the emperor Theodosius, as to generals of ar- mies; to the praefecti in Asia and Africa, because they possessed the chief offices in the empire.—Hend. Buck. CARDINAL, (origin of THE office.) There were two sorts of churches in towns; one sort was as the parish churches of these times, and were called titles; the others were hospitals for the poor, and were called deaneries: the first were served by priests, and the other governed by deans; the other chapels in the towns were called orato- ries, where mass was celebrated without administering the sacraments. The chaplains of these oratories were called local priests, that is, priests that belonged to some particular place. And to put a greater distinction between these churches, the parish churches were called cardinales, or cardinal titles, and the priests that officiated in them, and administered the sacraments, were called cardinals. This was chiefly used at Rome, where the cardinals at- tended the pope whilst he celebrated mass, and in the pro- cessions, and therefore Leon IV. calls them presbyteros sui cardinis. In the council held at Rome in 853, the deacons who looked after the deaneries, had also the title of cardi- mals, either because they were the chiefest deacons, or be- cause they assisted with the cardinals, i. e. priests at the pope's mass. The greatest function of the Roman cardi- nals was to go to the pope's council, and to the synods, and to give their opinions concerning ecclesiastical affairs. It was one of them that was generally chosen pope; for it was rare that any bishop was chosen in those days;–it being recorded in the ecclesiastical history, that pope Ste- phen VII., chosen in 896, caused his predecessor Formosus. to be dug up again, and annulled all his ordinances, al- leging that he was made pope against the disposition of the holy decrees in the time that he was bishop of Ostia. Finally, these cardinals have engrossed to themselves the ower of choosing a pope, since the council celebrated at fº. in 1059, under Nicholas II. In process of time, the name of cardinal, which was common to all titulary, priests or curates, was appropriated to those of Rome, and aſterwards to seven bishops of the neighborhood of Rome. All these cardinals were divided under five patriarchal churches, as St. John of Lateran, St. Mary Major, St. Pe- ter of the Vatican, St. Paul’s, and St. Lawrence's. In following times, the pope gave the title of cardinal to other bishops, besides those here mentioned; and it is said the first that had this honor conferred upon him was Conradus, archbishop of Mayence, who received it from pope Alexan- der III., who also conferred the same honor on Gardin of Sala, archbishop of Milan, in 1165, and since that some bishops were created cardinal priests of Rome, with one of the titles thereof; so William, archbishop of Rheims, was made cardinal, with the title of St. Sabine, by pope Cle- ment III, or, according to others, by Alexander III. And finally, Clement W. and his successors gave the title of cardinal priests to many other bishops, which custom has been followed since. As for the deacon cardinals, it must be observed, that in the beginning there were seven in the church of Rome, and in the other churches, this number was augmented, at Rome, to fourteen, and at last they created eighteen, who were called cardinal deacons, or prin- cipal, to distinguish them from others that had not the care of deaneries. Afterwards were counted twenty-four deane- ries in the city of Rome; and now there are fourteen af. fected to the deacon cardinals. The priest cardinals are to the number of fifty, which, with the six cardinal bishops of Ostia, Porro, Sabina, Palestrina, Frascati, and Albano, who have no other titles but those of their bishoprics, make generally the number of seventy. Innocent IV. gave the cardinals the red cap in the council of Lyons, held in 1243; Paul II. the red gown in 1464. Gregory XIV. be- Stowed the red cap upon the regular cardinals, who wore but a hat before. Urban VIII. gave them the title of emi- nence, for they had before but that of most illustrious. When the pope has a mind to create any cardinals, he writes their names that he designs for this dignity, and gets them read in the consistory, after he has told the cardinals, Fratres habetis, that is, “You have for brothers,” &c. The cardinal patron sends for those that are at Rome, and conducts them to his holiness to receive their red caps from him ; until then they are incognito, and cannet come to the meeting; and as for those that are ab- sent, the pope despatches one of his chambermen of honor to carry them their cap; but they are obliged to receive the hat at his own hands. When they come to Rome, they are received in cavalcade. The cardinal’s dress is a sat- tane, a rochet, a mantelet, or short purple mantle over their rochet; the mozette, and a papal cape over the rochet in public and solemn actions. The color of their garment differs according to the times : either it is red, or of the color of dried roses or violets. The regular cardinals wear no silk, nor any other color but that of their order, but the red hat and cap are common to them all. When cardinals are sent to princes’ courts, it is in quality of legates a late- re; and when they are sent to any town, their government is called legation. There are five legations, viz. that of Avignon, of Ferrara, of Bologna, of Ravenna, and of Pe- rouse. Here follows Fr. Maimbourg's curious remarks upon this subject:—When the cathedral church was va- cant, the pope sent one of the neighboring bishops to go- vern it, until another bishop was chosen, who took posses- sion of it as of his proper church, and received its title, which the administering bishop, or he that took care of it during the vacancy, had not. This was what they called a cardinal bishop in those times, from the word cardo, which signifies a hinge, showing by that, that the titulary bishop was tied to his church to exercise continually of his proper authority all the functions of his bishopric. This is what the word cardinal signifies in its natural and true in- terpretation, as can be clearly seen in many letters of St. Gre- gory the Great; for this pope understanding that the church of Aleria, in the isle of Corsica, was vacant, he wrote to a bishop of Corsica, called Leo, to go to govern it, and after- wards established Martin there to be the cardinal bishop thereof; so here is a succession of two bishops, whereof the C A. R. C A.R [ 331 one was but visiter or administrator, and the other titular. The same Gregory satisfied the clergy and nobility of Na- ples, that he approved their desire of having Paul bishop of Neri, and their visiter made their cardinal bishop; whence it is easy to see, that in this pope's time, and be- fore him, all titular bishops, who by their ordination were tied to their church, were called cardinal bishops. The same may be said of the priests and deacons, to whom their priests had given some benefice or charge that tied them to any church in their diocese; and also the arch- deacons, and the other dignities, were cardinals of the churches they governed. The other priests and deacons that'had no such tie were not called cardinals. And it was for this reason that those the popes sent into pro- vinces, and the nuncios he sent to Constantinople, were indeed deacons of the Roman church, but not cardinals. By this same reason, all the curates, tied by their titles to the parishes wherein they administered the sacraments, were called cardinal priests. He was also called a cardi- nal priest who officiated in chief in any great man's chapel or oratory; so that there were deacon, priest, and bishop cardinals in all the dioceses of the world. And as for the church of Rome, there was no other cardinal bishop in pope Gregory's time but he himself, who in quality of pro- per bishop of the particular church of Rome, was tied there as to his title. The priest cardinals were all the curates of Rome, and all the other priests that served in any other chapel or oratory. The deacons and cardinal archdeacons were such as had a title where to-exercise their functions. This is what the cardinals of the church of Rome were in St. Gregory’s time, and near four hundred years after him. But in the eleventh age, the popes, whose grandeur was much increased, taking crowns, which was begun the first time by pope Dalmasius II., in 1048; they began also to settle a court, and a regular council of cardinals, bish- ops, priests, and deacons, different from those that had this title before. The cardinal bishops were they that were suffragans of the pope as metropolitan. The priest and cardinal deacons were chosen by the pope at pleasure, in all the provinces of Christendom, whether bishops, priests, abbots, princes, commanders, monks, or other re- ligious, to whom he gave the title of churches, without obliging them to officiate in them. And so as the name of pope, which in the five or six first ages was common to all bishops, was afterwards appropriated to the Roman pontiff. So likewise the name of cardinal, which had been common to all titulary bishops, priests, and deacons, in regard of the churches they were linked to, as St. Gregory speaks, does now belong only to the cardinals of the church of Rome, who are in the highest rank of that church. Nevertheless it is observed, that ever since the establishment of this college of cardinals, the bishops, maintaining their pre-eminency, have had the first place In assemblies and public meetings in the pope's own pre- sence. This is seen in the act of the dedication of the church of Marmoutier, by pope Urban II., in 1090, when he came to France to keep the famous council of Cler- mont; for in that ceremony, Huges, archbishop of Lyons, was next the pope, and after him followed the other arch- bishops and bishops, followed by the priests and deacons that were cardinals, and of the pope's retinue. In 769, the council of Rome, held under pope Stephen IV., de- creed, that none should be chosen pope but a priest or deacon cardinal. In 1130, the cardinals began to be mas- ters of the pope's election under Innocent II., and made themselves the sole choosers, to the exclusion of the rest of the clergy of Rome, under Alexander III., in 1160. So rising more and more, it is at last come to this, that though they be but priests and deacons, yet the dignity of cardinal alone places them above bishops.-Hend. Buck. CARE ; thought, and concern about a thing. God's providence towards his creatures, especially his people, is called his care for them. He considers their case, preserves their existence and powers, governs their acts, and pro- motes their welfarc. Matt. 6: 26, 30. 1 Cor. 9: 9. 1 Pet. 5: 7. , Men's care is either, (1.) lanful, consisting in a se- rious thought and earnest endeavor to please God, em- bracing his Son, obeying his law, turning from sin; and to promote our neighbor's temporal or spiritual advantage; and in a moderate endeavor to gain a competent portion of the good things of this life. 2 Cor. 7: 11, 12. Phil. 2: 20. 1 Pet. 5: 7. (2.) Sinful in endeavoring to ſulfil sinful lusts or pleasures; and in immoderate concern and endea- vor to obtain carnal advantages: Such care is forbidden, Matt. 6: 34. Phil. 4: 6. The cares of hºnorld, that choké the word of God, and render it unfruitful, are immoderate and anxious concern for earthly enjoyments, which pre- vents the word from having a proper effect on our hearts. Matt. 13:22. To eat bread with care or carefulness, is to do it under pinching straits, and under apprehension of terrible judgments. Ezek. 4: 16, and 12: 18, 19. We are not careful to answer thee in this matter; we need give no answer in words, being ready to manifest our fixed resolu- tion, by the endurance of suffering. Dan. 3: 16.-Bronm. CAREY, (FELIX,) son of Dr. William Carey the mis- sionary, was born in 1786; assisted his father in his pious labors in Bengal; and died at Serampore, in 1822. Among his works were, a Grammar and Dictionary of the Burmán Language, unfortunately lost at sea in 1812; a Pali Gram- mar; and other philological productions.—Davenport. CARLETON, (GeoRee, D.D.) bishop of Chichester, was born at Norham, Northumberland, 1559, his father being then governor of that important castle. He was prepared for the university under the care of Bernard Gilpin, styled “the Northern Apostle.” He graduated the first of his class, at Edmund hall, Oxford, 1580. While he remained at college, which he did for thirty-seven years after, he had the reputation of a great orator and poet, and subse- quently, of a skilful theological disputant. In 1617, he was made bishop of Landaff. In 1618, he was sent by James I. with three other English divines, (Drs. Hall, Da- venant, and Ward,) to the synod of Dort, where it seems he stood up for episcopacy. He received no answer in public ; but several of the reformed ministers, he says, in private assured him they approved it, but that their state, being republican, could not admit of episcopacy. On his return, the States sent a letter to king James highly commending him and the rest of the divines for their vir- tue, learning, piety, and love of peace. He was advanced to the see of Chichester in 1619, of which he continued bishop until his death, in 1628. He was a man of solid judgment and various reading, particularly in the fathers and Schoolmen; a strenuous opponent of Rome, and a steady, consistent Calvinist. Camden was his friend and admirer. He left many works.—Middleton. CARMEL; a city of Judah, six miles nearly south from Hebron, and less than two miles north from Maon. Josh. 15: 55. 1 Sam. 25: 2. It is now called Kurmul.—T. CARMEL was also the name of a celebrated mountain in Palestine. Though spoken of in general as a single mountain, it ought rather to be considered as a mountain- ous region, the whole of which was known by the name of Carmel, while to one of the hills, more elevated than the rest, that name was usually applied by way of emi- mence. It had the plain of Sharon on the south ; over- looked the port of Ptolemais on the north ; and was bounded on the west by the Mediterranean sea; forming one of the most remarkable promontories that present themselves on the shores of that great sea. According to Volney, it is about two thousand feet in height, and has the shape of a flattened cone. Its sides are steep and rugged; the soil neither deep nor rich ; and among the naked rocks stinted with plants, and wild forests which it presents to the eye, there are at present but few traces of that fertility which we are accustomed to associate with the idea of mount Carmel. Yet even Volney himself ac- knowledges that he found among the brambles, wild vines and olive trees, which proved that the hand of industry had once been employed on a not ungrateful soil. Of its ancient productiveness there can be no doubt; the ety- mology and ordinary application of its name being suffi. cient evidence of the fact. Carmel is not only expressly mentioned in Scripture as excelling other districts in that respect; but, every place possessed of the same kind of excellence obtained from it the same appellation in the language both of the prophets and the people. Mount Carmel is celebrated in the Old Testament, as the usual place of residence of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. It was here that Elijah so successfully opposed the false prophets of Baal, (1 Kings 18.) and there is a certain ad w C A. R. C A R [ 332 ) part of the mountain facing the west, and about eight miles from the point of the promontory, which the Arabs call Mansur, and the Europeans the place of sacrifice, in commemoration of that miraculous event. Near the same place is still shown a cave, in which it is said the pro- phet had his residence. The brook Kishon, which issues from mount Tabor, waters the bottom of Carmel, and falls into the sea towards the northern side of the moun- tain, and not the southern, as some writers have errone: ously stated. Its greatest elevation is about one thousand five hundred feet; hence, when the sea-coast on one side, and the plain on the other, are oppressed with sultry heat, this hill is refreshed by cooling breezes, and enjoys a de- lightful temperature. The fastnesses of this rugged moun- tain are so difficult of access, that the prophet Amos class- es them with the deeps of hell, the height of heaven, and the bottom of the sea : “Though they dig into hell,” (or the dark and silent chambers of the grave,) “thence shall mine hand take them ; though they climb up to heaven, thence will I bring them down; and though they hide themselves in the top of Carmel, I will search and take them out thence; and though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the Ser- pent, and he shall bite them,” Amos 9: 2, 3. Lebanon raises to heaven a summit of naked and barren rocks, covered for the greater part of the year with Snow ; but the top of Carmel, how naked and sterile soever its pre- sent condition, was clothed with verdure which seldom was known to fade. Even the lofty genius of Isaiah, stimu- lated and guided by the Spirit of inspiration, could not find a more appropriate figure to express the ſlourishing state of the Redeemer's kingdom, than “the excellency of Car- mel and Sharon.”— Watson. CARMELITES, or white FRIARs ; religious of the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. They pretend to derive their original from the prophets Elijah and Eli- sha ; and this occasioned a very warm controversy be- tween this order and the Jesuits, about the end of the seventeenth century, both parties publishing several works, and petitioning the popes Innocent XI. and Innocent XII. ; the latter of whom silenced them both, by a brief of the 20th of November, 1698. What we know of their original is, that, in the twelfth century, Almeric, legate of the holy see in the East, and patriarch of Antioch, collected together several hermits in Syria, who were exposed to the violence and incursions of the barbarians, and placed them on mount Carmel, for- merly the residence of the prophets Elijah and Elisha ; from which mountain they took the name of Carmelites, Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, gave them rules in 1205, which pope Honorius III. confirmed in 1224. The peace concluded by the emperor Frederic II, with the Saracens, in the year 1229, so disadvantageous to Christendom, and so beneficial to the infidels, occasioned the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land, under Alan, the fifth general of the order. He first sent some of the reli- gious to Cyprus, who landed there in the year 1238, and founded a monastery in the forest of Fortania. Some Si- cilians, at the same time, leaving mount Carmel, returned to their own country, where they founded a monastery in the suburbs of Messina. Some English departed out of Syria, in the year 1440, to found others in England. Oth- ers of Provence, in the year 1244, founded a monastery in the desert of Aigualates, a league from Marseilles : and thus, the number of their monasteries increasing, they held their first European general chapter in the year 1245, at their monastery of Aylesford, in England. . After the establishment of the Carmelites in Europe, their rule was in some respects altered ; the first time, by pope Innocent IV, who added to the first article a precept of chastity, and relaxed the eleventh, which enjoins absti- mence at all times from flesh, permitting them, when they travelled, to eat boiled flesh. This pope likewise gave them leave to eat in a common refectory, and to keep asses or mules for their use. Their rule was again mitigated by the popes Eugenius IV. and Pius II. Hence the order is divided into two branches, viz. the Carmelites of the an- cient observance, called the moderate or mitigated, and those of the strict observance, who are the barefooted Carmelites ; a reform set on foot, in 1540, by St. Theresa, a nun of the the fast began. convent of Avila, in Castile : these last are divided into two congregations, that of Spain, and that of Italy. The habit of the Carmelites was at first white, and the cloak laced at the bottom with several lists; but pope Ho- norius IV. commanded them to change it for that of the minims. Their scapulary is a small woollen habit, of a brown color, thrown over their shoulders. They wear no linen shirts, but instead of them linsey-woolsey.—Hend. Buck. - CARNAL ; fleshly, sensual, sinful. Worldly enjoy- ments are carnal, because they only minister to the wants and desires of the animal part of man, Rom. 15:27. 1 Cor. 9: 11. The ceremonial parts of the Mosaic dispen- sation were carnal; they related immediately to the bodies of men and beasts, Heb. 7: 16; 9 : 10. The wea- pons of a Christian's warfare are not carnal; they are not of human origin, nor are they directed by human wis- dom, 2 Cor. 10 : 4.—Wicked or unconverted men are repre- sented as under the domination of a “carnal mind, which is enmity against God,” and which must issue in death, Rom. 8: 6, 7. See AFFECTIONs. CARNIVAL ; a Roman festival. By pope Gregory the Great about 600, Ash Wednesday was made the begin- ning of the forty days fast, another day before was called fast-eve, because in the night of this day, at twelve o’clock This fast was preceded by a feast of three days, called the carnival. This is the origin of the present carnival or Faschings, as it is called in the south of Germany, and which continues, in that country, from twelfth day to Ash Wednesday. . The name carnival is de- rived from the Latin words carne and vale (according to Ducange, from the Latin denomination of the feast in the middle ages, carnelevamen,) because at that time people took leave of flesh. Previously to the commencement of their long abstinence, men devoted themselves to enjoyment, particularly during the three last days of the carnival. The carnival is nothing but the Saturnalia of the Christian Romans, who could not forget their pagan festivals. At least, it greatly resembles the Saturnalia, which were celebrated, annually, in December, with all kinds of mirth, pleasure, and freedom, in honor of Saturn, and the gold- en age when he governed the world, and to preserve the remembrance of the liberty and equality of men in the youth of the world. In Rome, the carnival brought to view, in a lively manner, the old Saturnalia in a new form. . During the last days of the carnival, and particu- larly during the day which preceded the long fast, mum- meries, plays, tricks, and freedom of every kind abound- ed. From Italy, the modern Saturnalia passed to the other Christian countries of Europe. The carnival is celebrated, in modern times, with the greatest show and spirit at Venice and Rome. In the former place, it begins after Christmas. The diversions of it are shows, masquerades, the amusements of the place of St. Mark, and sometimes, in case of the visits of great princes, a regatta, or boat race. After this, there was a second carnival at Venice, the Venitian mass, called also the festival of the Ascension, and the Brecentaur festival, because it commonly began on Ascension day, and be- cause the celebration of the marriage of the doge with the Adriatic sea was connected with it. It continued four- teen days. No character-masks were worn there, except Venitian dominos. The carnival at Rome (see Goethe's excellent description, Das Römisch Carneval, and that of lady Morgan) continues but eight days, and is occupied mostly in masquerades and races. Since the return of peace, the carnival has been celebrated again in Cologne, on the Rhine, under the direction of the committee of fools, to the great satisfaction of all who were present. In Spain, the carnival is called carnestolendas.-Ency. Amer. CAROLOSTADIANS, so called from Carolostadt, a colleague of Luther; but he denied the real presence in the eucharist, as taught by Luther, and raised a tumult at Wittemberg in his absence ; on which account he was obliged to retire to Switzerland. Mosheim says he was a man of a warm enthusiastic temper, declaimed wildly against human learning, and countenanced some of the extravagancies of the German Anabaptists.-(See Mo- sheim's E. H. vol. iv. pp. 314—316.)—Williams. . CARPOCRATIANS, a denomination which arose to. C A R C A R [ 333 ] wards the middle of the second century; so called from Carpocrates, whose philosophical tenets agreed in general with those of the Egyptian Gnostics. He acknowledged the éxistence of a supreme God, and of the aions derived from him by successive generations. He maintained the eternity of matter, and the creation of the world from thence by angelic powers, as also the divine origin of souls unhappily imprisoned in mortal bodies, &c. He asserted that Jesus was born of Joseph and Mary, according to the ordinary course of nature, and was distinguished from the rest of mankind by nothing but his superior fortitude and greatness of soul. In short, his sentiments appear to have corresponded with those of the modern Humanitari- ans, with whom they seem also to have agreed in the doc- trine of philosophical necessity, which, probably, gave rise to their being charged with maintaining the innocency of vice, as arising from passions implanted in our nature by the Creator. - Irenaeus charges them with reducing all the essentials of religion to two points, “faith and love,” or charity: but do not the Scriptures assert the same 2 or what point of Christian morals is not herein included ? They are also charged with licentiousness at their love-feasts, “putting out the candles,” &c.; but this story has been too often repeated and reſuted, to be now believed. Considering the ignorance of the times, there is more plausibility in the charge of their being superstitious and inclined to magic; but of this there is little proof. They are, how- ever, certainly chargeable with erroneous doctrine, which probably led to some inconsistencies of practice, though by no means to the extent that their enemies pretended. —(See Turner's Hist. W. pp. 38–40. Lardner's Heretics, pp. 124–140.)—Williams. ... • * CARROLL, (John, D. D.) first Catholic bishop of the Uni- ted States, was born in Maryland, in the year 1734. He was sent at the age of thirteen to the college of St. Omer's in Flanders, where he remained for six years, when he was transferred to the colleges of Liege and Bruges. In 1769, he was ordained a priest, and soon after became a Jesuit. He returned to America in 1775, and when the Roman Catholic clergy in the United States requested from the pope the establishment of a hierarchy, Mr. Carroll was appointed vicar-general, and fixed his residence at Balti- more. In 1789, he was named bishop, and in the ensuing year was consecrated in England. In the same year he returned to his native country, and, from the seat of his episcopal see, assumed the title of bishop of Baltimore. A few years before his death he was raised to the dignity of archbishop. He was a man of the most amiable man- ners, and of deep evangelical piety, the American Fene- lon. He died in 1815, much esteemed and regretted. —Davenport. CARSON, (ALEXANDER,) a distinguished minister of Edinburgh, Scotland. His early life and ministry were among the Presbyterians of Ireland; but in 1802—3, at the sacrifice of his situation he embraced the views of the Independents in relation to church government, and pub- lished a powerful and eloquent defence of those views un- der the title of “Reasons for separating from the Ulster Synod.” His disinterested love of truth led him to fur- ther inquiries respecting the New Testament model of the Christian church, the result of which was his union with the Baptists. The writings of Rev. Mr. Ewing and Dr. Wardlaw on Infant Baptism, brought him once more be- fore the public in a work of singular ability, Baptism in its mode and subjects considered; a recent work which has gained a high reputation. º CARSTARES, (WILLIAM,) a native of Scotland, emi- ment as a divine and a politician, was born, in 1649, at Cathcart, near Glasgow, and completed his studies at the universities of London and Utrecht. While in Holland, he was introduced to the prince of Orange, who honored him with his confidence. After his return to England, he became connected with the party which strove to exclude James from the throne, and, on suspicion of being one of the Rye-house conspirators, he was put to the torture, which he bore with unshrinking firmness. On his liberation, he went back to Holland, and became one of the prince of Orange's chaplains. He accompanied William to Eng- land in 1688; was appointed king's chaplain for Scotland; and, till the death of the monarch, was consulted with oil all Scotch affairs. Queen Anne made him principal of the university of Edinburgh. In favor of the union, and of the establishment of the house of Hanover, he took an active part. He died in 1715. Carstares was an honest, enlightened, and patriotic man, and of such benevolent feelings, that he delighted in succoring even those who professed principles diametrically opposite to his own, Nor was his charity the child of ostentation ; for much of the good which he did was done by stealth.-Davenport, CARTER, (RoPERT,) once a member of the Virginia executive council, and hence commonly called counsellor Carter, memorable for his philanthropy. He was one of the richest men in Virginia, having, as some say, seven or eight hundred negroes, besides immense bodies of land. He professed to experience the power of renewing grace about the year 1778, and joined the Baptist church under the eloquent Lewis Lunsford. Some years after being baptized, he became conscientious about the lawfulness of hereditary slavery. In a letter written at this time to the Rev. Dr. Rippon of London, he says, “the toleration of slavery indicates very great depravity of mind.” In confor- mity to this sentiment, he gradually emancipated the whole that he possessed. This was a sacrifice on the altar of humanity of probably more than a hundred thousand dol- lars; and so noble and disinterested an act, flowing from religious principle, is worthy to embalm his memory in the remembrance of mankind. Some years afterwards, he embraced the opinions of baron Swedenborg; and to propagate that novel and fanciful system, the good man moved to Baltimore, where some years ago he died. He expended large sums of money in the republication of Swedenborg's writings in this country.—Benedict's Hist. Bao. &ARTER, (MRs. ELIZABETH ;) a lady of profound learn- ing and sincere piety, was the eldest daughter of the Rev. Dr. Nicholas Carter, a clergyman in Kent, and born at Deal, December 16th, 1717. In early life, her faculties appeared dull, and her progress in knowledge very slow; but she afterwards became mistress of Latin,Greek, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and attain- ed a partial knowledge of Arabic. At the age of seventeen, her poetical attempts appeared in the Gentleman's Maga- zine, and they were so eminently excellent, that the learn- ed flocked around her with admiration; and at the age of twenty, the proprietor of that magazine, published some of her poems in a quarto pamphlet. In 1741, she formed an intimacy with Miss Catharine Talbot, niece of the lord chancellor Talbot, who, distinguished for her piety and genius, greatly improved Mrs. Carter. To the celebrated Secker she also introduced her; and owing to that ac- quaintance may probably be traced her distinguished and justly estimated “Translation of Epictetus.” In 1754, Mrs. Carter renewed a long existing intimacy with Mrs. Montague, and at her house frequently met with persons of elevated rank, unrivalled talents, and genuine piety, In 1756 Sir George Lyttleton visited her at Deal; and from that time an acquaintance commenced, which only terminated with life. She also became intimate with Wil. liam Pulteney, earl of Bath, who was delighted by her so- ciety, and regarded her intellectual powers and attainments with admiration. In 1763, she accompanied lord Bath, Dr. Douglas, and others, to Spa, and made a short tour to Germany, and Holland. In 1768, she was greatly distress- ed by the loss of her friend and patron, the excellent Secker; and, in 1774, by that of her aged, but beloved father. Mrs. Carter was visited by the royal family, ca- ressed by the great, and beloved by the good. Her learn- ing was great, but her piety was more distinguished. As an authoress, she commands respect; but as a Christian, veneration and love. To the service of God she devoted her youth, her maturer years, and her old age. Her con- science was very scrupulous; her morality properly rigid; and her life unblemished. Her studies were various, but she never forgot her Bible. With that book she was inti- mately acquainted, and spent much time in daily devotions. A life spent in the service of God could not but end in peace and happiness; and those who wish to find an anti- dote to the cold, formal, and speculative professors of the present day, would do well to read the life, and study the C A R C A. R. I 334 J character of the celebrated Mrs. Carter. She lived for many years, blessing her friends by her Intercourse and her prayers; blessing society by her example; and bless- ing posterity by her writings. She expired on February the 19th, 1806, in the eighty-eighth year of her age, and was interred in the burial ground of Grosvenor chapel. See Pennington's Memoirs of Mrs. Carter; and Burder's Pious Women, vol. iii.-Jones's Chr. Biog. CARTESIANS ; a philosophical sect, the followers of Renes des Cartes, a celebrated French philosopher of the seventeenth century, whose ingenious, but visionary opi- nions, excited considerable attention throughout Europe. He admitted two kinds of being, body and mind; the latter of which, in man, exercised its authority over the body by means of the pineal gland of the brain. To other animals he denied, not only mind and reason, but even thought and sensation, and considered them as mere auto- mata. He is supposed to have adopted “the notion of in- nate ideas, and of the action of the soul upon the body, from Plato; the doctrine of a plenum, from Aristotle; and the elements of the doctrine of vortices, from the atomic school of Democritus and Epicurus.” Whatever opinions he adopted, he refined, so fitr indeed as often to render him obscure and inconsistent. His theories, however, much and generally as they were admired in the Schools, have long since vanished; and his speculative mode of philosophizing has happily given place to the more sober methods of Bacon, Locke, and Newton. See DESCARTEs. (Enfield's Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 510.)—Williams. CARTHAGE ; a celebrated city on the coast of Africa; a colony from Tyre. Ezekiel says, the Carthaginians traded to Tyre; but the Hebrew reads Tarshish, which rather signifies Tarsus, in Cilicia, or Tartessus, in Spain, formerly famous for trade. See TARSHIsII.—-Calmet. CARTHUSIANS ; a religious order, founded in the year 1080, by one Bruno, a very learned man, of the bishopric of Cologne, and professor of philosophy at Paris. The occasion of its institution is related as follows:—A friend of Bruno's, who had been looked upon as a good liver, being dead, Bruno attended his funeral. Whilst the ser- vice was performing in the church, the dead man, who lay upon a bier, raised himself up and said, “By the just judgment of God, I am accused.” The company being as- tonished at this unusual accident, the burial was deferred to the next day, when the concourse of people being much greater, the dead man again raised himself up, and said, “By the just judgment of God, I am damned.” This miracle, it is pretended, wrought such an effect on Bruno, and six more, that they immediately retired to the desert of Chartreux, in the diocese of Grenoble, in Dauphiné, where Hugh, bishop of that diocese, assigned them a spot of ground, and where Bruno built his first monastery, un- der the following rigid institutes:— - His monks were to wear a hair-cloth next their body, a white cassock, and over it a black cloak : they were never to eat flesh ; to fast every Friday on bread and water; to eat alone in their chambers, except upon certain festivals; and to observe an almost perpetual silence: none were allowed to go out of the monastery, except the prior and procurator, and they only about the business of the house. The Carthusians, so called from the place of their first institution, are a very rigid order. They are not to go out of their cells, except to church, without leave of their su- perior. They are not to speak to any person, even their own brother, without leave. They may not keep any part of their portion of meat or drink till the next day, except herbs or fruit. Their bed is of straw, covered with a felt or coarse cloth ; their clothing, two hair-cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, a cloak, &c., all coarse. Every monk has two needles, some thread, Scissors, a comb, a razor, a hone, an ink horn, pens, chalk, two pumice-stones; like- wise two pots, two porringers, a basin, two spoons, a knife, a drinking-cup, a water-pot, a salt, a dish, a towel; and, for fire, tinder, flint, wood, and an axe. In the refectory, they are to keep their eyes on the meat, their hands on the table, their attention on the reader, and their heart fixed on God. When allowed to discourse, they are to do it modestly, not to whisper, nor talk loud, nor to be contentious. They confess to the prior every Saturday. Women are not allowed to come into their may provoke them to lewdness. - It is computed there are an hundred and seventy-two houses of Carthusians, whereof five are of nuns, who practise the same austerities as the monks. They are di- vided into sixteen provinces, each of which has two visi- ters. There have been several canonized saints of this order; four cardinals, seventy archbishops and bishops, and a great many very learned writers. - - - The story of the motive of St. Bruno's retirement into the desert was inserted in the Roman breviary, but was afterwards leſt out, when that breviary was reformed, by order of pope Urban VIII. ; and this gave occasion to several learned men of the seventeenth century to publish writings on that subject, some to vindicate the fruth of the story, and others to invalidate it. In the year 1170, pope Alexander III, took this order under the protection of the holy see. In 1391, Boniface IX. exempted them from the jurisdiction of the bishops. churches, that the monks may not see any thing which In 1420, Martin W. exempted them from paying the tenths of the lands belonging to them; and Julius II., in 1508, ordered that all the houses of the order, in whatever part of the world they were situated, should obey the prior of the grand Chartreuse, and the general chapter of the or- der. - - - The convents of this order are generally very beautiful and magnificent : that of Naples, though but small, Sur- passes all the rest in ornaments and riches. Nothing is to be seen in the church and house but marble and jasper. The apartments of the prior are rather those of a prince, than a poor monk. There are innumerable statues, bas- reliefs, paintings, &c. together with very fine gardens; all which, joined with the holy and exemplary life of the good religious, draws the curiosity of all strangers, who visit Naples. The Carthusians settled in England about the year 1180. They had several monasteries, particularly at Witham in Somersetshire, Hinton in the same county, Beauval in Nottinghamshire, Kingston upon Hull, Mount-Grace in Yorkshire, Eppewort in Lincolnshire, Shene in Surrey, and one near Coventry. In London they had a famous monastery, since called, from the Carthusians who were settled there, the Charter-house.—Hend. Buck. CARTWRIGHT, (THOMAs;) an eminent divine, was born in Hertfordshire, about 1535, and was educated at St. John’s and Trinity college, Cambridge. He was greatly admired as a preacher; but, being of puritan principles, he was repeatedly persecuted by Whitgift, Grindall, and Aylmer; was more than once imprisoned, and was com- pelled to reside abroad for two years. He died in 1603. Besides controversial tracts, he wrote a Latin Harmony of the Gospels; a Commentary on the Proverbs; a Con- futation of the Rhenish Testament; and other works.- Davenport. - CARVER, (John,) ſirst governor of Plymouth colony, was a native of England, and was among the emigrants to Leyden, who composed Mr. Robinson's church in that place. When a removal to America was contemplated, he was appointed one of the agents to negotiate with the Virginia company in England ſor a suitable territory. He obtained a patent in 1619, and in the following year came to New England with the first company. Two vessels had been procured, the one called the Speedwell, and the other the May-flower, which sailed from Southampton, carrying one hundred and tweiity passengers, Angust 5, 1620. As one of the vessels proved leaky, they both put into Dartmouth for repairs. They put to sea again, Au- gust 21; but the same cause, after they had sailed about one hundred leagues, obliged them to put back to Ply- mouth. The Speedwell was there pronounced unfit for the voyage. About twenty of the passengers went on shore. The others were received on board the May-flower, which sailed with one hundred and one passengers, be- sides the ship's officers and crew, Scpt. 6. During the voyage the weather was unfavorable, and the ship being leaky, the people were almost continually wet. One young man died at sea, and a child was born, the son of Stephen Hopkins, which was called Oceanus. November 9, they discovered the white, sandy shores of cape Cod. As this land was northward of Hudson's river, to which they were C A R C A. S. [ 335 ) destined, the ship was immediately put about to the south- ward; but the appearance of breakers and the danger from shoals, together with the eagerness of the women and children to be set on shore, induced them to shift their course again to the north. The next day, the northern ex- tremity of the cape was doubled, and the ship was safely anchored in the harbor of cape Cod. As they were with- out the territory of the south Virginia company, from whom they had received the charter, which was thus ren- dered useless, and as they perceived the absolute necessity of government, it was thought proper before they landed, that a political association should be formed, intrusting all powers in the hands of the majority. Accordingly, after Solemn prayers and thanksgiving, a written instrument was subscribed, November 11, 1620, by forty-one persons out of the whole number of passengers of all descriptions on board. Mr. Carver's name stood first, and he was unanimously elected governor for one year. Among the other names were those of Bradford, Winslow, Brewster, Allerton, Standish, Alden, Fuller, Warren, Hopkins, White, Rogers, and Cook. Government was thus regu- larly established on a truly republican principle. On Monday, December 11, they surveyed the bay, and went ashore upon the main land at the place, which they called Plymouth; and a part of the very rock on which they first set their feet, is now in the public square of the town, and is distinguished by the name of the Forefathers' rock. The day of their landing, the 22d of December in the new style, is in the present age regarded as an annual festival. Several of the discourses on the occasion have been published. . * - After the treaty with the Indian sachem, Massasoit, was ratified in the spring of 1621, a few laws were enacted, and Mr. Carver was confirmed as governor for the follow- ing year. In the beginning of April, twenty acres of land were prepared for the reception of Indian corn, and Samo- set and Squanto taught the emigrants how to plant, and dress it with herrings, of which an immense quantity came into the brooks. Six acres were sowed with barley and peas. While they were engaged in this labor, April 5th, the governor came out of the field at noon, complain- ing of a pain in his head, caused by the heat of the sun. In a few hours it deprived him of his senses, and in a few days put an end to his life, to the great grief of the infant plantation. He was buried with all the honors which could be paid to his memory. The men were under arms, and fired several vollies over his grave. His wife, over. come by her loss, survived him but six weeks. When he arrived, there were eight persons in his family. Governor Carver was distinguished for his prudence, integrity, and firmness. He had a good estate in England, which he spent in the emigration to Holland and America. He exerted himself to promote the interests of the colony; he bore a large share of its sufferings; and the people confided in him as their friend and father. Piety, humili- ty, and benevolence, were eminent traits in his character. In the time of the general sickness, which befell the colo- ny, after he had himself recovered, he was assiduous in attending the sick, and performing the most humiliating services for them without any distinction of persons or characters.--Belknap's Amer. Biog. ii. 179—216; Prince, 66–104; Holmes, i. 161, 168; Purchas, v. 1843–1850; Univers. Hist, xxxix. 272; Neal's N. E. i. 99; Davis's Morton, 38—68; Allen. CARY, (LOTT,) an African minister, was born a slave about thirty miles below Richmond, Virginia, on the estate of Wm. A. Christian. In 1804, he was hired out in Rich- mond as a common laborer. He was profane and much addicted to intoxication. But about the year 1807, it pleas- ed God to bring him to repentance, and he became a mem- ber of the Baptist church, of which his father was a pious member. As yet he was not able to read. But having a strong desire to read the third chapter of John, on which he had heard a sermon, he procured a New Testament, and commenced learning his letters in that chapter. He learned to read and write. Being employed in a tobacco warehouse, and for his singularly faithful and useful ser- vices receiving a liberal reward, and being also assisted by a subscription, he was able, soon after the death of his first wiſe in 1813, to ransom himself and two children for eight hundred and ſiſty dollars. He soon became a preacher, and was employed every Sabbath among the colored people on plantations near Richmond. His de- sire to promote the cause of religion in Africa induced him to accompany the first band of emigrants to Africa, sent out by the Colonization society in 1821. He made a sacrifice for this object, for in 1820 he received a salary for his services in Richmond, of eight hundred dollars; and this would have been continued to him. It was pro- bably his resolution, that at an early period prevented the abandonment of the colony of Montserado. In the battles of November and December, 1822, he bravely participated. He said, “there never has been a minute, no, not when the balls were flying around my head, when I could wish myself again in America.” He was health officer and general inspector. During the prevalence of the disease of the climate, he acted as a physician, the only one at the time, having obtained some medical information from Dr. Ayres, and made liberal sacrifices of his property for the poor, the sick, and afflicted. In March, 1824, he had one hundred patients. About 1815, he had assisted in form- ing in Richmond an African Missionary society. In Afri- ca he did not forget its objects, but most solicitously sought access to the native tribes, that he might instruct them in the Christian religion. Through his agency, a school was established about seventy miles from Monrovia. Before he sailed for Africa, a church was formed at Richmond of eight or nine persons, of which he became the pastor. In September, 1826, he was elected vice-agent of the colony. Mr. Ashmun, who had perfect confidence in"his integrity, good sense, public spirit, decision, and courage, cheerfully committed the affairs of the colony to his hands, when ill health compelled him to withdraw. For six months he was the able and faithful chief of Liberia. He was killed by a sudden explosion of powder in the agency house, No- vember 19, 1828; yet will he deserve a perpetual remem- brance in the colony, whose foundation he assisted in laying. “Thy meed shall be a nation’s love 1 Thy praise the ſree-man’s song ! And in thy star-wreathed home above, Thou mayst the theme prolong; For hymns of praise from Afric’s plains Shall mingle with seraphic strains.” Some of the letters of Mr. Cary are published in the Amer. Bap. Magazine, and in the African Repository for Sept., 1828.-Afr. Repos. i. 233; iv. 162,209; v. 10, 64; Allen. CASAS, (BARTHOLOMEw LAs,) bishop Óf Chiapa, was born at Seville, in 1474, and was of French extraction. His father, Antonio, who went to Hispaniola with Columbus, in 1493, and returned rich to Seville, in 1498, made him a present of an Indian slave, while he was pursuing his studies at Salamanca. All the slaves being sent back to their country by the command of Isabella, Las Casas be- came deeply interested in their favor. In 1502, he accom- panied Ovando to Hispaniola, and, witnessing the cruel treatment experienced by the natives, he devoted his whole subsequent life, a period of more than sixty years, to the vindication of their cause, and the melioration of their sufferings. As a missionary, he traversed the wilderness of the new world. As the champion of the natives, he made voyages to the court of Spain, and vindicated their cause with his lips and his pen. He was made bishop of Chiapa in 1544, and returned to Spain in 1551. After a life of apostolic intrepidity and zeal, he died in 1566, at the age of ninety-two, and was buried at Madrid, at the church of the Dominican convent of Atocha, of which fraternity he was a member. He has been justly reproach- ed for lending his encouragement to the slavery of the Africans in 1517. The traffic existed before that period: in 1511, Ferdinand had ordered many Africans to be transported from Guinea to Hispaniola, since one negro could perform the work of four Indians. It was to spare the Indians, undoubtedly, that Las Casas recommended to cardinal Ximenes the introduction of negro slaves, the number being limited to four thousand. In this he tres- passed on the grand rule, never to do evil for the sake of supposed good. He published “A brief relation of the de- struction of the Indians,” about 1542. There was publish- ed at London, in 1656, Tears of the Indians, being a trans- lation from Las Casas, . A French version of his Woyages C. A. S. C A S U 336 J of the Spaniards, appeared in 1697. J. A. Llorente has published a memoir of Las Casas, prefixed to the collec- tion of his works. The most important work of Las Ca- sas is a general history of the Indies, from their discovery in 1520, in three volumes, in manuscript. It was com- menced in 1527, at fifty-three years of age, and finished in 1559, at eighty-five. This work, which was consulted by Herrera and Mr. Irving, exists only in manuscript, the publication of it never having been permitted in Spain on account of its too faithful delineation of Spanish cruelty. —Irving's Columb. iv.; Allen. - CASAUBON, (ISAAc,) a celebrated critic and Calvinist theologian, was born at Geneva, in 1559, and made an early and extraordinary progress in his classical studies. After having held the chair of Greek professor at Geneva for fourteen years, he removed to Montpellier, and thence to Paris, where Henry IV. appointed him royal librarian. On the death of Henry, Casaubon settled in England, where James I. made him a prebend of Westminster and Canterbury, and gave him a pension. He died in 1614, and was buried in Westminster abbey. His liberality of feeling induced many to accuse him wrongfully of leaning towards popery. He published editions of Strabo, Polyae- nus, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Polybius, and several other ancient authors; and produced some original works, among which are nearly one thousand two hundred letters. —Davenport. CASIPHIA. Ezra says, that when returning to Judea, he sent to Iddo, who dwelt at Casiphia ; perhaps mount Caspius, near the Caspian sea, between Media and Hyr- cania, where were many captives. Ezra 8:17. See CAS- PIAN MoUNTAINS.-Calmet. CASSIA. In Exodus 30: 24, Cassia is prescribed as one of the ingredients for composing the holy anointing oil. It is the bark of a tree of the bay tribe, which now grows chiefly in the East Indies. This bark was made known to the ancients, and highly esteemed by them; but, since the use of cinnamon has been generally adopted, the cas- sia bark has fallen into disrepute, on account of its infe- riority. It is thicker and more coarse than cinnamon, of weaker quality, and abounds more with a viscid mucilagi- nous matter. For many purposes, however, cassia, as be- ing much less expensive, is substituted for cinnamom, but more particularly for the preparation of what is called oil of cinnamon. Cassia was one of the articles of merchandise in the markets of Tyre. Ezek. 27: 19. The cassia mentioned in Psalma 45: 8, is thought to have been an extract, or essen- tial oil, from the bark.--Abbott. - CASTE ; certain classes whose burdens and privileges are hereditary. The word is derived from the Portuguese casta, and was originally applied, by the conquerors of the East Indies, to the Indian families, whose occupations, customs, privileges, and duties are hereditary. This term has been sometimes applied to the hereditary classes in Europe; and we speak of the spirit or the prerogatives and usurpations of a caste, to express particularly that unnatural constitution of society, which makes distinction dependent on the accidents of birth or fortune. The divi- sion into castes among the people of the old world, comes to us from a period to wº the light of history does not extend; hence its origin cannot be clearly traced; but it is highly probable, that, wherever it exists, it was origi- nally grounded on a difference of descent, and in the modes of living, and that the separate castes were ori- ginally separate races of people. This institution is found among many nations. - Castes, or casts, the four principal classes, or tribes, into which the Hindoos are divided, and which are said mystically to have sprung from the head, the heart, the thigh, and the feet of their great god Bramha. 1. The sacred, or braminical class, including the priests, or brah- mins, who are also their philosophers and men of letters. 2. The military, or protecting class, commonly called the Sittri, from Chatriya, protectors from evil. 3. The Beise tribe, (from Vaisyas,) includes merchants, tradesmen, hus- bandmen, &c., which are considered, according to their derivation, as the nourishers of the state. 4. The Sudras, (or Sudders,) who, as proceeding from the feet of Bramha, are servants to the higher orders, mechanics, &c. Beside these orders, which are divided into families, under a great variety of rules, there are a number of mix- ed castes, occasioned by intermarriages, &c.; and lastly, the Hari, or outcasts, which are held in utter detestation by all the others.—(See Ward's Hindoos, vol. iii, ch. 2. A paper on the Indian Classes, by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. Asiatic Researches, vol. v. quoted in Mission. Register, 1818, p. 251.)—Ency. Amer. ; Williams, - CASTELL, (EDMUND,) a divine and lexicographer, was born at Hatley, in Cambridgeshire, in 1606, and was edu- cated at Immanuel and St. John's colleges. While at the university, he compiled his Dictionary of Seven Lan- guages, on which he bestowed the labor of seventeen years. The publication of it ruined him. He was, how- ever, rescued from poverty, by being appointed, king's chaplain and Arabic professor at Cambridge, to which was afterwards added a prebend of Canterbury and some liv- ings. He died in 1685, rector of Higham Gobion, in Bed- fordshire. Dr. Walton was assisted by him in the Poly- glot Bible.—Davenport. - CASTOR and POLLUX. It is said that the vessel which carried Paul to Rome had the sign of Castor and Pollux. Acts 28: 11. Castor and Pollux were sea-gods, and invoked by sailors; and even the light balls or me- teors which are sometimes seen on ships, were called Cas- tor and Pollux. An inscription in Gruter proves that sea- men implored Castor and Pollux in dangers at sea. It is to be observed, that St. Luke does not mention the name, but the sign, of the ship. By the word sign, the sacred writer meant a protecting image of the deity, to whom the vessel was in some sort consecrated; as at present in Catholic countries, most of their vessels were named after some saint, St. Xavier, St. Andero, St. Dominique, &c. It appears to be certain, that the figure which gave name to the ship was at the head, and the tutelary deity was placed on the poop.– Watson. CASUALTY; an event that is not foreseen or intended. See Conting ENcy.—Hend. Buck. - CASUIST; one that studies and settles cases of con- science. The Jesuits Escobar, Sanchez, Suarez, Busen- baum, and others, have acquired motorious celebrity by their ingenuity in the invention of such cases, and for the ambiguity and singularity of their solutions. Escobar made a collection of the opinions of all the casuists before him. M. Le Feore, preceptor of Louis XIII., called the books of the casuists “the art of quibbling with God;” which does not seem far from truth, by reason of the mul- titude of distinctions and subtleties with which they abound. Mayer has published a bibliotheca of casuists, containing an account of all the writers on cases of conscience, rang- ed under three heads; the first comprehending the Luthe- ran, the second the Calvinist, and the third the Romish casuists.-Hend. Buck. . CASUISTRY, called by Kant the dialectics of conscience, is the doctrine and science of conscience and its cases, with the rules and principles of resolving the same ; drawn partly from natural reason or equity, and partly from the authority of Scripture, the canon law, councils, fathers, &c. To casuistry belongs the decision of all difficulties arising about what a man may lawfully do or not do; what is sin or not sin; what things a man is obliged to do in order to discharge his duty, and what he may let alone without breach of it. - The schoolmen delighted in this species of intellectual labor. They transferred their zeal for the most fanciful and frivolous distinctions in what respected the doctrines of religion to its precepts; they anatomized the different virtues; nicely examined all the circumstances by which our estimate of them should be influenced ; and they thus rendered the study of morality inextricable, confounded the natural notions of right and wrong, and so accustomed themselves and others to weigh their actions, that they could easily find some excuse for what was most culpable, whilst they continued under the impression that they were not deviating from what, as moral beings, was incumbent upon them. The corruption of manners which was in- troduced into the church during the dark ages, rendered casuistry very popular: and, accordingly, many who af. fected to be the most enlightened writers of their age, and perhaps really were so, tortured their understanding or CA’s CAT [ 337 | their fancy in solving cases of conscience, and often in polluting their own imaginations and those of others, by employing them on possible crimes, upon which, however unlikely was their occurrence in life, they were eager to pronounce a decision. The happy change which the Re- formation produced upon the views of men respecting the sacred Scriptures, tended to erect that pure standard of duty which for ages had been laid in the dust. Yet for a considerable time, Protestant divines occupied themselves with the intricacies of casuistry; thus in some degree shutting out the light which they had fortunately poured upon the world. The Lutheran theologians walked very much in the track which the schoolmen had opened, al- though their decisions were much more consonant with Christianity; and it was not uncommon in some countries for ecclesiastical assemblies to devote part of their time to the resolution of questions which might have been safely left unnoticed, which now are almost universally regarded as frivolous, and about which almost the most ignorant would be ashamed to ask an opinion. Even after much of the sophistry, and much of the moral perversion con- nected with casuistry, were exploded, the form of that science was preserved, and many valuable moral princi- ples in conformity to it delivered. The venerable bishop Hall published a celebrated work, to which he gave the appellation of “Cases of Conscience practically resolv. ed;” and he introduces it with the following observatiºns addressed to the reader: “Of all divinity, that part is most useful which determines cases of conscience; and of all cases of conscience, the practical are most necessa- ry, as action is of more concernment than speculation ; and of all practical cases, those which are of most com- mon use are of so much greater necessity and benefit to be resolved, as the errors thereof are more universal, and therefore more prejudicial to the society of mankind. These I have selected out of many; and having turned over divers casuists, have pitched upon those decisions which I hold most conformable to enlightened reason and religion; sometimes I follow them, and sometimes I leave them for a better guide.” He divides his work into four parts, Cases of profit and traffic ; cases of life and liber- ty; cases of piety and religion; and cases matrimonial: under each of these solving a number of questions, or rather giving a number of moral dissertations. Casuistry, as a systematic perversion of Christian mo- rality, is now, in the Protestant world, very much un- known ; though there still is, and perhaps always will be, that softening down of the strict rules of duty, to which mankind are led either by self-deceit, or by the natural desire of reconciling, with the hope of the divine favor, considerable obliquity from that path of rectitude and vir- tue which alone is acceptable to God. But the most stri- king specimen of the length to which casuistry was carri- ed, and of the dangerous consequences which resulted from it, is furnished by the history of the maxims and sentiments of the Jesuits, that celebrated order, which combined with profound literature, and the most zealous support of popery, an ambition that perverted their under- standings, or rather induced them to employ their rational powers in the melancholy work of poisoning the sources of morality, and of casting the name and the appearance of virtue over a dissoluteness of principle and a profligacy of licentiousness, which, had they not been checked by sounder views, and by feelings and habits favorable to morality, would have spread through the world the most degrading misery. See Jesuits. Some suppose that all books of casuistry are as useless as they are tiresome. One who is really anxious to do his duty must be very weak, it is said, if he can imagine that he has much occasion for them; and with regard to one who is negligent of it, the style of those writings is not such as is likely to awaken him to more attention. The frivolous accuracy , which casuists attempt to intro- duce into subjects which do not admit of it, almost neces- sarily betray them into dangerous errors; and at the same time render their works dry and disagreeable, abounding in abstruse and metaphysical distinctions, but incapable of exciting in the heart any of those emotions which it is the principal use of books of morality to produce. . . . On the other hand, we think it may be observed, that, gencies. though these remarks may *P. to some, they cannot apply to all books of casuistry. It must be acknowledged that nice distinctions, metaphysical reasonings, and abstruse terms, cannot be of much service to the generality, be- cause there are so few who can enter into them; yet, when we consider how much light is thrown upon a sub- ject by the force of good reasoning, by viewing a case in . all its bearings, by properly considering all the objections that may be made to it, and by examining it in every point of view: if we consider, also, how little some men are accustomed to think, and yet at the same time possess that tenderness of constience which makes them fearful of doing wrong; we must conclude that such works as these, when properly executed, may certainly be of considerable advantage. - Although the morality of the gospel is distinguished by its purity and by its elevation, it is necessarily exhibited in a general form; certain leading principles are laid down; but the application of these to the innumerable cases which occur in the actual intercourse of life, is left to the understanding and conscience of individuals. Had it been otherwise, the Christian code would have swelled to an extent which would have rendered it in a great de- gree useless; it would have been difficult or impossible to recollect all its provisions; and minute as these would have been, they would still have been defective, new situations or combinations of circumstances modifying duty continually arising, which it would have been im- practicable or hurtful to anticipate. When the principles of duty are rightly unfolded, and when they are placed on a sound foundation, there is, to a fair mind, no diffi- culty in accommodating them to its own particular exi- A few cases, it is true, may occur, where it is a matter of doubt in what way men should act; but these are exceedingly rare, and the lives of vast numbers may come to an end without any of them happening to occa- sion perplexity. Every man may be, and perhaps is, sen- sible, that his errors are to be ascribed, not to his having been at a loss to know what he should have done, but to his deliberately or hastily violating what he saw to be right, or to his having allowed himself to confound, by vain and subtile distinctions, what, in the case of any one else, would have left in his mind no room for hesitation. The reader may consult Ames’s Power and Cases of Conscience; bishop Taylor's Ductor Dubitantium ; Dr. Saunderson's De Obligatione Conscientiae; Pike and Hay- ward’s Cases; and Saurin’s Christian Casuistry, in the 4th vol. of his Sermons, p. 265, English edition; and Baxter's Christian Directory.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. CATABAPTISTS; opposers of baptism, (the Greek preposition, kata, being here used in the sense of against;) either persons who oppose baptism as a rite altogether obsolete, or as applicable only to converts from another religion to Christianity. See ANTIBAPTISTs.— Williams. CATAPHRYGIAN HERESY ; the erroneous system of Montanus, and so called, because that heresiarch began to exercise his pretended prophetical gifts in the lower or more southerly part of Phrygia. See MonTANUs.-Hend. Buck. CATECHESIS; the science which teaches the proper method of instructing beginners in the principles of the Christian religion by question and answer, which is called the catechetical method. Hence catechist and catechize. The art of the catechist consists in being able to elicit and de- velope the ideas of the youthful minds of learners. This part of religious science was first cultivated in modern times, and Rosenmüller, Dinter, Schmid, Wolrath, Doltz, Gräffe, Daub, Winter, Henrich, Müller, and others, have particularly distinguished themselves by their writings upon it.—Ency. Amer. - CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS; institutions for the ele- mentary instruction of Christian teachers, of which there were many in the Eastern church, from the second to the fifth century. They were different from catechumenical schools, which were attached to almost every church, and which were intended only for the popular instruction of proselytes, and of the children of Christians; whereas the catechetical schools were intended to communicate a scien- tific knowledge of Christianity. The first and most re- nowned was established about the middle of the second 43 C A T CAT | 338 ) century, for the Egyptian church at Alexandria, on the model of the famous schools of Grecian learning in that place. (See ALEXANDRIAN School.) Teachers like Pan- taenus, Clement, and Origen, gave them splendor, and Se- cured their permanence. They combined instruction in rhetoric and oratory, in classical Grecian literature, and the eclectic philosophy, with the principal branches of theological study, exegesis, the doctrines of religion, and the traditions of the church; distinguished the popular religious belief from the gnosis, or the thorough knowledge of religion; established Christian theology as a science, and finally attacked the dreams of the Chiliasts, (believers in a millennium;) but by blending Greek speculations and Gnostic fantasies with the doctrines of the church, by an allegorical interpretation of the Bible, and the assumption of a secret sense in the Scriptures, different from the lite- ral, contributed to the corruption of Christianity. The distraction of the Alexandrian church by the Arian con- troversies proved the destruction of the catechetical schools in that place, about the middle of the fourth century. The catéchetical school at Antioch appears not to have been a permanent institution, like the Alexandrian, but only to have been formed around distinguished teachers, where there happened to be any in the place. There were some distinguished teachers in Antioch, about the year 220. We have no certain information, however, of the theological teachers in that place, such as Lucian, Diodo- rus of Tarsus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia, until the lat- ter part of the fourth century. These teachers were dis; tinguished from the Alexandrian by more sober views of Christianity, by conſining themselves to the literal inter- pretation of the Bible, by a cautious use of the types of the Old Testament, and by a bolder discussion of doc- trines. The Nestorian and Eutychian controversies, in the fifth century, drew after them the ruin of the schools at Antioch. Of a similar character were the catechetical schools instituted at Edessa, in the third century, and de- stroyed in 489, and the school afterwards established at Nisibis, by the Nestorians, in its stead; both of which were in Mesopotamia. To these catechetical schools, succeeded, at a later date, the cathedral and monastic schools, especially among the western Christians, who, as late as the sixth century, made use of the heathen Schools, and had never established catechetical Schools even at Rome.—Ency. Amer. - CATECHISING ; instructing by asking questions and correcting the answers. Catechising is an excellent means of informing the mind, engaging the attention, and affect- ing the heart, and is an important duty incumbent on all who have children under their care. Children should not be suffered to grow up without instruction, under the pre- tence that the choice of religion ought to be perfectly free, and not biassed by the influence and authority of parents, or the power of education. As they have capacities, and are more capable of knowledge by instruction than by the exercise of their own reasoning powers, they should cer. tainly be taught. This agrees both with the voice of na- ture and the dictates of revelation. Deut. 6: 7. Prov. 22: 6. Eph. 6: 4. The propriety of this being granted, it may next be observed, that, in order to facilitate their know- ledge, short summaries of religion extracted from the Bi- ble, in the way of question and answer, may be of con- siderable use. 1. Hereby, says Dr. Watts, the principles of Christianity are reduced into short sentences, and easier to be understood by children. 2. Hereby, these principles are not only thrown into a just and easy method, but every part is naturally introduced by a proper question; and the rehearsal of the answer is made far easier to a child than it would be if the child were required to repeat the whole scheme of religion. 3. This way of teaching has some- thing familiar and delightful in it, because it looks more like conversation and dialogue. 4. The very curiosity of the young mind is awakened by the question to know what the answer will be ; and the child will take pleasure in learning the answer by heart, to improve its own know- ledge. # See next article.)—Hend. Buck. CATECHISM; a form of instruction by means of questions and answers. There have been various cate- chisms published by different authors, but many of them have been but ill suited to convey instruction to juvenile minds. Catcchisms for children should be so framed as not to puzzle and conſound, but to let the beams of divine light into their minds by degrees. They should be accom- modated as far as possible to the weakness of their under- standings; for mere learning sentences by rote, without comprehending the meaning, will be of but little use. In this way they will know nothing but words; it will prove a laborious task, and not a pleasure ; confirm them in a bad habit of dealing in sounds instead of ideas; and, after all, perhaps, create in them an aversion to religion itself. Dr. Watts advises that different catechisms should be composed for different ages and capacities; the questions and answers should be short, plain and easy; scholastic terms and logical distinctions should be avoided ; the most practical points of religion should be inserted; and one or more well-chosen texts of Scripture should be add- ed to support almost every answer, and to prove the seve- ral parts of it. The doctor has admirably exemplified his own rules in the catechism he has composed for children at three or four years of age ; that for children at seven or eight; his assembly’s catechism, proper for youth at twelve or fourteen; his preservative from the sins and follies of childhood; his catechism of Scripture names; and his historical catechism. These are superior to any we know, and which we cannot but ardently recommend to parents and all those who have the care and instruction of children. - - The catechism of the church of England is drawn up by way of question and answer. Originally it consisted of no more than a repetition of the baptismal vow, the creed, and the Lord's prayer; but king James I. ordered the bishops to add to it a short and plain explanation of the sacraments, which was accordingly performed by bishop Overal, then dean of St. Paul's, and approved by the rest of the bishops. * The times appointed for catechising are Sundays and holidays. By the first book of king Edward VI. it was not required to be done above once in six weeks. But, upon Bucer's objecting to the interval of time as too long, the rubric was altered, but expressed, notwithstanding, in indefinite terms, leaving it to be done as often as occasion requires. Indeed, the fifty-ninth canon enjoins every par- son, vicar, or curate, upon every Sunday and holiday, to teach and instruct the youth and ignorant persons of his parish, in the catechism set forth in the Book of Common Prayer; and that under pain of a sharp reproof for the first omission, suspension for the second, and excommuni cation for the third. See CATECHIST and CATECHISING.— Hend. Buck. CATECHIST; one whose charge is to instruct by ques- tions, or to question the uninstructed concerning religion. The catechists of the ancient churches were usually minis- ters, and distinct from the bishops and presbyters; and had their catechumena, or auditories, apart. But they did not constitute any distinct order of the clergy, being chosen out of any order. The bishop himself sometimes per- formed the office; at other times presbyters, readers, or deacons. It was his business to expose the folly of the pagan superstition; to remove prejudices, and answer ob. jections; to discourse on behalf of the Christian doctrines; and to give instruction to those who had not sufficient knowledge to qualify them for baptism.—Hend. Buck. CATECHUMENS ; the lowest order of Christians in the ancient, but not primitive church. They were called catechumens from the Greek word katecheo, which signifies to instruct in the first rudiments of any art or science. They had some title to the common name of Christian, being a degree above pagans and heretics, though not con summated by baptism. They were admitted to the state of catechumens in the fourth and fifth centuries, by impo- sition of hands, and the sign of the cross. The children of believing parents were admitted catechumens as soon as ever they were capable of instruction; but at what age those born of heathen parents might be admitted, is not so clear. As to the time of their continuance in this state, there was no general rule fixed about it; but the practice varied according to the difference of times and places, and the readiness and proficiency of the catechumens them. selves. The council of Eliberis appointed two years' pro- bation for new converts; and Justinian, in one of his C A T C A T [ sº l Novella, prescribes the same length of time. The apostoli. cal constitutions lengthen the term to three years. Some- times it was limited to the forty days of lent. Socrates observes, that, in the conversion of the Burgundians, the French bishop, who converted them, took only seven days to catechise them, and then baptized them. But, in case of sickness or imminent death, the catechumens were im- mediately baptized with what they called clinic baptism. There were four orders or degrees of catechumens. The first were the exothoumenov, or those who were instruct- ed privately without the church, and kept at a distance from the privilege of entering into the church, for some time, to make them the more eager and desirous of it. The next degree above these were the akoujmenoi, audientes, or hearers. They were so called from being admitted to hear sermons and the Scriptures read in the church, but were not allowed to partake of the prayers. The third sort of catechumens were the gonu-klinontes, genu-flectentes, or kneelers; so called because they receive imposition of hands, kneeling upon their knees. The fourth order was the baptizomenoi, photizomenoi, the competentes and electi, which denote the immediate candidates of baptism, or such as were appointed to be baptized the next approaching, festival: before which strict examination was made into their proficiency under the several stages of catechetical exercises. After examination, they were exorcised for twenty days together, and were obliged to fasting and confession. They were to get the creed and Lord's pray- er by heart, and to repeat them before the bishop at their last examination. Some days before baptism they went veiled, or with their faces covered; and it was customary to touch their ears, saying, Ephphata, “be opened;” as also to anoint their eyes with clay; both ceremonies in imitation of our Savior's practice, and intended to shadow "out to the catechumens their condition both before and after admission into the Christian church. That part of divine service which preceded the common prayers of the communicants at the altar, that is, the psalmody, the reading of the Scriptures, the sermon, &c. was called missa catechumenorum ; because the catechu- mens had the liberty of being present only at this part of the service. - - - The ancients speak of the sacrament of the catechu- mens; and some modern writers, by mistake, suppose, that, though they were not allowed to partake of the eu- charist, they had something like it, which they call eulo- gia panis, or panis benedictus. But it appears from St. Augustine, that this sacrament was not the consecrated bread, but only a little taste of salt; intimating to them by that symbol, that they were to purge and cleanse their souls from sin, salt being the emblem of purity and incor- ruption. They called this a sacrament, after the custom of the primitive Christians, who gave that name to every thing that was mysterious, or had a spiritual signification in it.—Hend. Buck. - - - - CATENA; a Greek word signifying a chain, in biblical criticism is an exposition of a portion of the Scriptures, formed from collections from several authors. Thus We have Catena of the Greek fathers on the Qctateuch, by Procopius; on the book of Job, by Olympiodorus; and on the octateuch, the books of Samuel and Kings, by Nice. phorus. These were Greek writers themselves., Beside them, compilations of this sort were made from the early fathers by many later authors, such as Francis Zephyr, Lepomannus, Patrick, Junius, Corderius, &c. Poole's Sy- nopsis may be regarded as a catena of the modern inter: prétations of the whole Scriptures, as Wolfius is of a still more ancient class on the New Testament.—Hend. Buck. CATERPILLAR. (chesil.) The word occurs Deut. 28. 38; Psalm 68: 46; Isaiah 33: 4; 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chron. 6:38; Joel 1: 4; 2: 25. In the four last cited texts, it is distinguished from the locust, properly so called; and in Joel 1: 4, is mentioned as “eating up” what the other spe- cies had left, and therefore might be called the consumer, by way of eminence. But the ancient interpreters are far from being agreed what particular species it signifies. The Septuagint in Chronicles, and Aquila in Psalms, ren- der it brouchos: so the Vulgate in Chronicles and Isaiah, and Jerome in Psalms, bruchus, the chafer, which is a great devourer of leaves. From the Syriac version, however, Michaëlis is disposed to understand it the taupe grillon, * mole cricket,” which, in its grub state, is very destruc. tive to corn and other vegetables, by feeding on their roots. See LocusT.—Watson. - CATHARINE, (SAINT,), a virgin and martyr of Alex- andria, equally illustrious for her learning; eloquence, and piety. She suffered martyrdom in the persecution under the emperor Maximin, in the fourth century. There are two other Catharines distinguished by the same qualities; one of Sienna, who died in 1380; and the other at Bologna died in 1463, who wrote many religious works in Latin and Italian.—Betham. CATHARI, or CATHARISTs, i. e. Puritans, a term appli- ed, in different ages, to persons who distinguished them- selves by aiming (or, at least, professing to aim) at great- er purity than the mass of Christians around them. It was especially applied to the Paulicians of the seventh and following centuries, by way of reproach. They were charged with the errors of the Manichaeans; as were, generally, all who separated from the church of Rome. See PAULIcIANs. - Speaking of the Cathari of the twelfth century, the learned and excellent Mr. Milner says, “They were plain, unassuming, harmless, and industrious Christians; con- demning, by their doctrine and manners, the whole appa- ratus of the reigning idolatry and superstition; placing true religion in the faith and love of Christ, and retaining a supreme regard for the divine word.”—See Milner's Church Hist. vol. iii. p. 385.-Williams. CATHEDRAL; the chief church of a disocese; a church wherein is a bishop's see. The word comes from kathedra, “chair :” the name seems to have taken its rise from the manner of sitting in the ancient churches or assemblies of private Christians. In these the council, i. e. the elders and priests, were called presbyterium ; at their head was the bishop, who held the place of chair- man, cathedralis or cathedraticus; and the presbyters, who sat on either side, also called by the ancient fathers assessores episcoporum. The episcopal authority did not re side in the bishop alone, but in all the presbyters, whereof the bishop was president. A cathedral, therefore, origi- nally was different from what it is now ; the Christians, till the time of Constantine, having no liberty to build any temple. By their churches they only meant assemblies; and by cathedrals, nothing more than consistories.—Hend. JBuck. - CATHOLIC, denotes any thing that is universal or ge- neral. 1. The Epistles of James, Peter, Jude, and John, are called the seven Catholic Epistles, either because they were not written to any particular person, or church, but to Christians in general, or to Christians of several coun- tries; or because, whatever doubts may at first have been entertained respecting some of them, they were all ac- knowledged by the catholic or universal church, at the time this appellation was attached to them, which we find to have been common in the fourth century. 2. The rise of heresies induced the primitive Christian church to as- sume to itself the appellation of catholic, being a charac- teristic to distinguish itself from all sects, who, though they had party names, sometimes sheltered themselves un- der the name of Christians. The Romish church now dis- tinguishes itself by Catholic, in opposition to all who have separated from her communion, and whom she considers as heretics and schismatics, and herself only as the true and Christian church. In the strict sense of the word, there is no catholic church in being ; that is, no universal Christian communion.—Hend. Buck. CATHOLIC, or GENERAL EPISTLEs. They are seven in number; namely, one of James, two of Peter, three of John, and one of Jude. They are called catholic, be- cause directed to Christian converts generally, and not to any particular church. Hug, in his “Introduction to the New Testament,” takes another view of the import of this term, which was certainly used at an early period, as by Origen and others:—“When the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles constituted one peculiar division, the works of Paul also another, there still remained writings of dif. ferent authors, which might likewise form a collection of themselves, to which a name must be given. It might most aptly be called the common collection, katholikon syntag- C. A. W C. A U. [340 J ma, of the apostles, and the treatises contained in it, koi- nai and katholikai, which are commonly used by the Greeks as synonymous. For this we find a proof even in the most ancient ecclesiastical language. Clemens Alexandrinus calls the epistle which was despatched by the assembly of the apostles, (Acts 15:23,) the “catholic epistle,” as that in which all the apostles had a share. Hence our seven epistles are catholic, or epistles of all the apostles who are authors.”—Watson. - - - CATHOLICISM; that liberality of sentiment, which arises from an enlarged spirit of Christian philanthrophy, and which, passing beyond the limits of a sect, embraces in its affectionate regards and good opinion all who love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity. It is that noble dispo- sition which tends to the broadest and most comprehensive views of Christianity, and of its interests in the world; and which prompts a man to sympathize with every por- tion of the true church of Christ, whatever be its denomi- nation, or its incidental errors. It is opposed to sectarism. See LIBERALITY OF SENTIMENT. The term is sometimes used improperly to denote the be- lief of the church of Rome. - CAVES, or CAVERNs. The country of Judea, being mountainous and rocky, is in many parts full of caverns, to which allusions frequently occur in the Old Testament. At Engedi, in particular, there was a cave so large, that David, with six hundred men, hid themselves in the sides of it, and Saul entered the mouth of the cave without perceiving that any one was there, 1 Sam. 24. phus tells us of a numerous gang of banditti, who, hav- ing infested the country, and being pursued by Herod with his army, retired into certain caverns, almost inac- cessible, near Arbela in Galilee, where they were with great difficulty subdued. “Beyond Damascus,” says Stra- bo, “are two mountains, called Trachones, from which the country has the name of Trachomitis; and from hence, to- wards Arabia and Iturea, are certain rugged mountains, in which there are deep caverns; one of which will hold four thousand men.” Tavernier, in his “Travels in Per- sia,” speaks of a grotto between Aleppo and Bir, that would hold near three thousand horse. And Maundrel assures us, that “three hours distant from Sidon, about a mile from the sea, there runs along a high rocky moun- tain, in the sides of which are hewn a multitude of grot- toes, all very little differing from each other. They have entrances about two feet Square. There are of these sub- terraneous caverns two hundred in number. It may, with probability, at least, be concluded that these places were contrived for the use of the living, and not of the dead.” These extracts may be useful in explaining such passages of Scripture as the following: “Because of the Midian- ites, the children of Israel made them dens which are in the mountains, and caves, and strong holds,” Judges 6 : 2. To these they betook themselves for refuge in times of distress and hostile invasion :-‘‘When the men of Israel saw that they were in a strait, for the people were distress- ed, then the people did hide themselves in caves, and in thickets, and in rocks, and in high places, and in pits,” 1 Sam, 13 : 6. See also Jer. 41: 9. “To enter into the holes of the rocks and into the caves of the earth,” be- came with the prophets a very proper and familiar image to express a state of terror and consternation. Thus Isa. 2 : 19. “They shall go into the holes of the rocks, and into the caves of the earth, ſor fear of the Lord, and for the glory of his majesty, when he ariseth to shake terribly the earth.”— Watson. . * CAVE, (W. ;) a learned divine, and ecclesiastical historian of some eminence. He was the son of a clergy- man, and born at Pickwell, in Leicestershire, in 1637. He received his education at St. John’s college, Cambridge, and took the degree of master of arts in 1660. The vi- carage of Islington was bestowed on him in 1662; soon after which he was made chaplain to Charles the Second, on which he took the degree of doctor of divinity; and, having distinguished himself by his writings, he was pro- moted to a canonry of Windsor, with the vicarage of Isle- worth, Middlesex. He died in 1713, and was interred in Islington church, where a monument was erected to his memory. Dr. Cave was a man of extensive learning, an ingenious writer, and a popular preacher; but he was Jose- deficient in point of judgment, and was disposed to place too much reliance on the authority of the Christian fa. thers and early writers; on which account Dr. Jortin, in his “Remarks on Ecclesiastical History,” styles him “the whitewasher of the ancients.” Le Clerc also made a somewhat similar complaint of Cave, in his “Bibliothè- que Universelle,” which gave occasion to a warm contrô. versy between these learned men; but which of the two had the better in the dispute, is not to be here decided. His principal works are “Primitive Christianity; or, the Religion of the Aricient Christians, in the first Ages of the Gospel.” “Antiquitates Apostolicæ ; or, the History of the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the Apostles, &c.” folio. “Ecclesiastici; or, the Lives of the Fathers of the Fourth Century,” folio. “Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia Literaria,” two vols., folio, 1688–1698, republish- led at Geneva, and, in a posthumous, enlarged, and im- proved edition, at Oxford, in two vols. folio, 1740, 1743. —Jones's Chr. Biog. CAUCASUS, the name of a series of mountains of which Ararat is a part; and another part of which is named Taurus; or the names of Taurus and Ararat are general throughout the ridge, and denote nearly, or alto- gether, the same as Caucasus. This is not easily deter- mined, as ancient authors seem to use the names without sufficient precision to direct our opinion. We may, how- ever, consider Taurus as a mountain forming part of Cau- casus. Capt. Wilford gives the following account of its Hindoo appellation : “The true Sanscrit name of this mountain is Chasa-giri, or the mountain of the Chasas, a most ancient and powerful tribe, who inhabited this im- mense range, from the eastern limits of India to the con- fines of Persia ; and most probably as far as the Euxine and Mediterranean seas. They are often mentioned in the sacred books of the Hindoos. Their descendants still. inhabit the same regions, and are called to this day, C'ha- sas, and in some places, Chasyas and Cossais. They be- longed to the class of warriors, or Cshettris ; but now they are considered as the lowest of the four classes, and were thus degraded, according to the institutes of Menu, by their omission of the holy rites, and by seeing no Brah- IOll InS. - If we reflect, that, after leaving the ark on mount Ara- rat, a great part of mankind travelled westward, (see ARA- RAT,) we shall find, that with respect to them mount Tau- rus assumed, and preserved, an eastern bearing, of course ; and the east being that quarter of the heavens in which the sun rose, every rising sun would remind such western migrators, that in that direction resided their great ances- tor.—Hence, among other causes, their idolatrous wor- ship of the rising luminary; wherein they paid homage to their distant parent; and hence, they continued to wor- ship the rising Sun, as it reminded them of their origin, and of him whom they peculiarly venerated. For this reason we often find on medals a bull with a star (or sum) between his horns, i. e. the sun on the head of mount Tau- rus. The same principle explains the standard of the great Mogul, which is, the sun rising behind a lion;–im- plying, that in the original country where the royal race Was native, the Sun rose behind “mount Lion.” Much the same may be thought respecting the moon, which also rising in the east, reminded western nations of their east- ern connections. The idolatry of the nations east of mount Caucasus adopted these ideas but little, if at all, because the course they had taken was contrary to these principles, which are strictly geographical. That the worship of Boodha, with other Hindoo notions, has been carried eastward in subsequent ages, is no impeachment of this argument.—Calmet. , CAUSEY, a raised way, or path, 1 Chron. 26: 16, 2 Chron. 9: 4. One of these prepared ways is no doubt referred to in Isaiah 62: 10, which Mr. Taylor thus ren- ders— T - - - - Pass, pass, the gates; Level. [Even] the way for the people; , Throw up, throw up, the causey—lit, raise, raise, the raised *Day : - - - cle: from every stone: - Display a standard to the people. - - . Mr. Harmer would refer the fourth member of this sen- tence, to the heaping up stones by the way of landmarks, C. A U. [ 341 1 to direct travellers in their way. Without impugning his instances, Mr. Taylor very properly hints that where a causey had already levelled and fixed the road, that further labor of raising mounts was unnecessary. As to the nature of these causeys, (called in this place Mese- LeH,) George Herbert gives this information (p. 170.) “A word of our last night's journey, [in Hyrcania, i. e. Persia; the country to which Isaiah alludes.] The most part of * the night we rode upon a paved causey, broad enough for ten horses to go abreast; built by extraordinary labor and expense, over a part of a great desert; which is so even that it affords a large horizon: howbeit being of a boggy loose ground upon the surface, it is covered with white salt, in some places a yard deep, a miserable passage 1 for, if either the wind drive the loose salt abroad, which is like dust; or that by accident the horse or camel for- sake the causey, the bog is not strong enough to uphold them, but suffers them to sink past all recovery.” He then compares this to the Roman via militares, whose founda- tions were laid with huge piles, or stakes, pitched into a bog, and fastened together with branches or withes of wood : upon which rubbish was spread, and gravel or stones afterward laid, to make the ground more firm and solid. - - But another purpose to which the foregoing description of a causey may be applied, is, an attempt to illustrate that very obscure passage, Ps. 84 : 6, 7. Under the arti- cle ALTAR, something has been said respecting the illus- tration of the foregoing verses. To ascertain the sense of these, Mr. Taylor thus analyzes them : Happy the man whose source of exertion, strength, and ability for perseve- rance in the journey of life, and duty, is in thee [God] : he esteems it more, and it more strengthens his heart, than meeting with a raised causey in a difficult, boggy moor, rejoices and accommodates the traveller: it invigorates his mind more than travellers are invigorated who pass through the valley of Bekaa, even at the very time nwhen they find overſioning water for their refreshment, in the numerous pools with which that valley abounds.” It is very natural, he observes, that the Psalmist, envy- , ing, as it were, the inmates in the tabernacle of God, should direct his thoughts to those who were travelling to- wards that holy place, and almost envy them, also, their happy privilege. If this be admitted, the pathos of the ode will appear very forcible, and the progressive climax of ideas very happy, as directed to, (1.) the birds who may build at the altar; (2) the residents in the holy place; (3) those pious persons who were travelling towards it, though at present far from it:— How lovely are thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts ! My soul longeth, and desireth even to fainting, towards the courts of the Lord ; Whereas, the bird hath found a dwelling, and the dove a nest for herself, where she may lay her young; in thy sacrificatory, O Lord of hosts : Hºhe resident dwellers in thy house ! they are ever praising thee : Happy the man, whose power is in thee it exceeds in their hearts the smoothest causey : , , - They travel, as iſ in the valley of Bekaa; Where also the rains overflow the reservoirs. They advance from one place of refreshment to another place of refreshment, -- * - To appear before the God of gods in Sion : How travellers might be accommodated by a causey, we have seen above; and causeys being constructed in boggy, wet places, the transition of thought to the val- ley abundant in springs is easy. The value of springs in the East, may be gathered from many expressions in Scripture. - * : * It remains only to hint, that the valley of Bekaa is among the mountains of Lebanon. (See BAcA.) Was the Psalmist at this time in a dry and thirsty land where no water was 2 and further from Zion than even Bekaa itself, though in a different direction? It is usually understood that the prophet Isaiah (chap. 40. 3.) alludes to the custom of sending persons, as we might Say, laborers, pioneers, before a great prince, to clear the way for his passage. *… The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness, “Prepare ye the way of the Lond : London, November 8, 1748. (Smooth the surface of a way for the Long: the very word which we have before rendered—level (Even) the way for the people, Make straight IN THE DESERT a causey for our Gop; (the word for causey is, as before, Meseleh.) . Every valley shall be raised; Anāśvery mountain and hill shall be lowered; And the ºpinding paths shall be made straight; - And the broken—rough—places into a continued level,” The following is from Sir Thomas Roe's chaplain, (p. 468.) and affords a happy comment on the passage. "I, waiting upon my lord embassador two years, and part of a third, and travelling with him in progress with that king, [the Mogul, in the most temperate months there, 'twixt September and April, was in one of our progresses 'twixt Mandoa and Amadavar, nineteen days, making but short journeys IN A wildERNESs, where by a very great company sent before us, to make those passages and places fit to receive us, A way was cut out, AND MADE Even, broad enough for our convenient passage; and in the place where we pitched our tents a great compass of ground was rid, and made plain for them, by grubbing a number of trees and bushes; yet there we went as readily to our tents as we did when they were set up in the plains.”—Calmet. CEASE. To cease from our onn norks, is to leave off obedience to our will as our rule ; forbear resting on our own works as our righteousness before God; and depend on Jesus’ fulfilment of the law in our stead, and obey the law as a rule in the strength of his grace. Heb. 4: 10. He that hath suffered in the flesh hath ceased from sin ; he that is held in law as suffering with Christ, is freed from the guilt of sin; he that hath experienced the power of Christ's death on his conscience, is ceased from the love and voluntary service of sin : he that has suffered, cordi- ally, a violent death for Christ's sake, has entirely got rid of sin, his worst burden. 1 Pet. 4: 1. Without ceasing; fre- quently, earnestly. 2 Tim. 1:3. 1 Thess. 5:17.—Bromon. CECIL., (RICHARD, M. A.), was born in Chiswell street, His father was scarlet dyer to the East India company, and was an intelligent man. His mother was the only child of Mr. Grosvenor, a re- spectable merchant in London, and niece of the Rev. Dr. Grosvenor, the celebrated author of the “Mourner.” His father was a member of the church of England, and took his son with him regularly to church on a Sunday. His mother was a dissenter, and a woman of real piety; she, however, appears to have been not sufficiently attentive to the cultivation of the understanding of her son; though for the concerns of religion she habitually displayed a just attention. His education was private, but his intellectual powers were very superior. His father, intending him for business, placed him in two respectable mercantile houses ; but as he was attacked by disease, and was averse to trade, he devoted his time to literature and the arts. At an early age, he wrote many essays, which were inserted in the periodical publications of the day. His father was a man of extensive reading and classical edu- cation, and was surprised and delighted at the discovery which he unexpectedly made, that his son was a poet. To painting he was also peculiarly attached; and, unknown to his parents, at an early age he visited France, solely from a desire to inspect the performances of the great masters. On his return, his father consented that he should visit Rome, in order that his knowledge of that art might be improved. An unexpected circumstance, however, prevented that plan from being carried into effect, and he continued to reside with his father. His conduct was at this period very bad: to the perusal of works of infidelity and irreligion he devoted much time, and soon became a professed infidel. But his mind at length was illumined by the Spirit of God—his conscience was aroused—he be- gan to pray, and to read his Bible. He consulted his mother—attended the preaching of the gospel—and was assisted, gradually to discover his own character, his ne- cessities, his danger, and his remedy. His father, who was a bigot, now cautioned him against becoming a dis- senter, but promised to assist him, provided he became a minister of the church of England. To the advice of his father he Fº attention; and on May the 19th, 1773, was entered at Queen's college, Oxford. During his re- sidence at the university, he acquired much information and knowledge; but experienced great difficulties in open- C E C C E L [ 342 ) ly and habitually making a proſession of religion. On the 22d of September, 1776, he was ordained deacon, on the title of the Rev. Mr. Pugh, of Rauceley, in Lincoln- shire. In the Lent term following, he took the degree of bachelor of arts; and on the 23d of February, 1777, was admitted to priest's orders. With Mr. Pugh he staid but for a short time, and, at his request, went to officiate in the churches of Thornton, Bagworth, and Markfield, in Leicestershire. His ministry at those places was emi- nently useful; and through his instrumentality a general attention to the gospel was excited among the people; and at length a flourishing congregation was formed in each church. On Mr. Cecil's return to Rauceley, he re- ceived a letter, informing him that two small livings had been procured by his friends for him at Lewes, in Sus- sex. Both those livings, however, brought in only about eighty pounds per annum. In 1777, he was much aſſlict- ed by the death of his mother; as also, subsequently, in 1779, by that of his father. At Lewes he was attacked by rheumatism, owing to the dampness of the place; and with that complaint was so much troubled, that he was at length compelled to quit it, and to reside at Islington, near London. During his residence at that place, he preached at various churches and chapels; and he was singularly instrumental in the conversion of sinners, and in the edification of saints. For some years he preached a lecture at Lothbury, at six o'clock on the Sunday even- ing, which was attended by many excellent persons. At the same time he had also the whole duty to perform of St. John's chapel, Bedford row, and an evening lecture at Orange street chapel, which was then a chapel of ease. His ill health, however, compelled him reluctantly to de- cline the lecture in Lothbury. Soon after, Orange street chapel was also resigned; but he united with his friend the Rev. Henry Foster, in performing the duty of Long Acre chapel. In 1787, he accepted the office of lecturer at Christ church, Spitalfields; and zealously and affec- tionately performed his duties, not indeed for the pecuni- ary remuneration he received, since by that lecture his circumstances were unimproved; but for the glory of God and the welfare of man. In Long Acre chapel he labor- ed for some time with eminent success to immense con- gregations; but his health and duties compelled him, in 1801, to resign it. His labors at St. John’s were most arduous, but from them he did not shrink, and seldom did he allow any one to occupy his place. About the year 1800, he established an annual sermon at that chapel, to be preached on May day to young persons. He actively engaged in every institution of benevolence, and first suggested the plan, as he afterwards assisted the estab- lishment, of the Rupture society. In 1800, Mr. Cecil was requested by Samuel Thornton, Esq. to accept the livings of Cobham and Bisley; but for a long time he de- clined so to do, because he could not, during the winter season, officiate as minister therein ; but he was at length persuaded to accept them, and to perform duty there in the summer. In 1808, he was attacked by a paralytic sei. zure, and was compelled to visit Clifton. The journey did not much, however, improve his health ; and he re- tired in May, 1809, to Tunbridge wells. But all the measures resorted to for his recovery were unattended with success; and on the 15th of August, 1810, aged six- ty-two, he expired. The exertions of Mr. Cecil, as a preacher, were immense: his talents were eminent; his eloquence was impassioned, yet solemn, and sometimes argumentative. As a Christian, he was habitually spirit- ually minded : modest and unassuming, he never intrud- ed his capacities on the attention of mankind. He was contented with doing good, and getting good; and his works, though few, are valuable for their sterling sense and genuine piety. No Christian student, or Christian minister, or private Christian, should be without “Cecil’s Remains.” Few men have ever been so beloved by their friends, or respected by the world, as Mr. Cecil ; and his Letters, Essays, Sermons, and Remains, cannot but be perused with feelings of interest, by all who can estimate the value of a good man, and the excellence of sincere and unaffected piety. See Memoirs of Rev. Mr. Cecil; prefixed to his works, collected and revised by Josiah Pratt, B D.—Jones' Chris, Bing. CECILIA ; a young lady of a good family in Rolne, was married to a gentleman named Valerian. . Being a Christian herself, she soon persuaded her husband to em. brace the same faith; and his conversion was speedily followed by that of his brother Tiburtius. These things drew upon them all, the vengeance of the civil magistrate: the two brothers were beheaded; and the officer who led them to execution, becoming their convert, suffered the same fate, Cecilia being apprehended was put to death by being placed naked, in a scalding bath, where having continued a considerable time, her head was struck off with a sword, A. D. 222.—Foz. CEDAR TREE. The cedar is a large and noble cver. green tree. Its lofty height, and its far-extended branches, afford spacious shelter and shade, Ezek. 31: 3, 6, 8. The wood is very valuable; is of a reddish color, of an aro- matic smell, and reputed incorruptible. This is owing to its bitter taste, which the worms cannot endure, and to its resin, which preserves it from the injuries of the weather. The ark of the covenant, and much of the temple of Solomon, and that of Diana at Ephesus, were built of cedar. The tree is much celebrated in Scripture. It is called, “the glory of Lebanon,” Isa. 40 : 13. On that mountain it must in former times have flourished in great abundance. There are some cedars still growing there which are prodigiously large. But the travellers who have visited the place within these two or three cen- turies, and who describe trees of vast size, inform us that their number is diminished greatly; so that, as Isaiah says, “a child may number them,” Isa. 10 : 19. Maum- drell measured one of the largest size, and found it to be twelve yards and six inches in girt, and yet sound; and thirty-seven yards in the spread of its boughs. Gabriel Sionita, a very learned Syrian Maronite, who assisted in editing the Paris Polyglot, a man worthy of all credit, thus describes the cedars of mount Lebanon, which he had examined on the spot: “The cedar grows on the most elevated part of the mountain, is taller than the pine, and so thick, that five men together couldáscarcely encompass one. It shoots out its branches at ten or twelve feet from the ground: they are large and distant from each other, and are perpetually green. The wood is of a brown color, very solid and incorruptible, if pre- served from wet. The tree bears a small cone like that of the pine.”— Watson. , - CEDRON, or KIDRON; so called from ICedar, black, dark, gloomy. This was the memorable brook, into which Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah cast the asles of the accursed things used in idolatrous worship, (2 Chron. 15: 16. 30: 14. 2 Kings 23: 1–4 ;) which David crossed barefoot, and weeping, when fleeing from Absalom, (2 Sam. 15:30;) and over which the great Redeemier passed, to enter the garden of Gethsemane, the night before his sufferings and death. Here, indeed, Jesus often walked, for he loved the sacred haunts of that hallowed ground, where he knew his last agony, in the conflicts with Satan, was to take place. John 18: 1, 2. See JERUSALEM. “Here,” says Dr. Hawker, “would my soul take fre- quent wing, and, by faith, alight near the hallowed spot. And if Jesus oft-times resorted thither with his disciples, here, methinks, would my soul delight to roam and see the place, and the memorable brook Jesus drank of by the way.” Ps. 110: 7. See GETHSEMANE.-Hanker's Con- cordance. - CELESTINS; a religious order, so called from their founder Peter de Meuron, aſterwards raised to the pontiſi- cate under the name of Celestin W. - This Peter, who was born at Isernia, a little town in the kingdom of Naples, in the year 1215, of but mean parents, retired very young to a solitary mountain, in order to de- dicate himself wholly to prayer and mortification. The fame of his piety brought several, out of curiosity, to see him; some of whom, charmed with his virtues, renounced the world, to accompany him in his solitude. With these he formed a kind of community, in the year 1254; which was approved by pope Urban IV., in 1264, and erected into a distinct order, called the Hermits of St. Damien. Peter de Meuron governed this order till 1286, when his love of solitude and retirement induced him to quit the charge. In July, 1294, the great reputation of his sanctity C E L [ 343 ] & raised him, though much against his will, to the pontifi- cate. He then took the name of Celestin W., and his order that of Celestins, from him. By his bull he approved their constitutions, and confirmed all their monasteries, which were to the number of twenty. But he sat too short a time in the chair of St. Peter to do many great things for his order; for, having governed the church five months and a few days, and considering the great burthen he had taken upon him, to which he thought himself unequal, he solemnly renounced the pontificate, in a consistory held at Naples. ... . . . . --- Áſter his death, which happened in 1296, his order made great progress, not only in Italy, but in France like- wise; whither the then general Peter of Tivoli sent twelve religious, at the request of king Philip the Fair, who gave them two monasteries—one in the forest of Orleans, and the other in the forest of Compeigne, at mount Chartres. This order likewise passed into several provinces of Ger- many. They have about ninety-six convents in Italy, and twenty-one in France, under the title of priories. The Celestins of the province of France have the privilege, by a grant of the popes Martin W. and Clement VII., of mak- ing new statutes whenever they think proper, for the regu- lation of their order. By virtue of this power, they drew up new constitutions, which were received in a provincial chapter in 1667. They are divided into three parts:–the first treats of the provincial chapters, and the elections of superiors; the second contains the regular observances; and the third the visitation and correction of the monks. The Celestins rise two hours after midnight, to say ma- tins. They eat no flesh at any time, except when they are sick. They fast every Wednesday and Friday, from Eas- ter to the feast of the exaltation of the holy cross; and, from that feast to Easter, every day. As to their habit, it consists of a white gown, a capuche, and a black Scapu- lary. In the choir, and when they go out of the monastery, they wear a black cowl with the capuche : their shirts are of serge. - - Celestins, likewise, is the name given to certain hermits, who, during the short pontificate of Celestin V., obtained of the pope permission to quit the order of Friars Minors, to which they belonged, and retire into solitude, there to practise the rule of St. Francis, in its utmost strictness. The superiors, being disgusted at this separation, took all methods to reduce these hermits to the obedience of the order; to avoid which persecution, they retired into Greece, and continued some time in an island of Achaia. But pope Boniface VIII., who succeeded Celestin, being importuned by the order of Friars Minors, revoked the grant of his predecessor, and ordered the Celestin hermits to return to the obedience of their superiors. Accordingly, Thomas Sola, lord of the island where they had fixed, drove them out; and this he did in a time of famine, by which these poor religious were exposed to great misery and want in their journeys, especially as they passed through the coun- tries of the Latins, who looked upon them as schismatics. They were something better treated in the countries of the Greeks, among whom they continued for two years unmo- lested; but the patriarch of Constantinople, being returned from Venice, excommunicated them twice, because they did not submit to their superiors; nevertheless, these soli- taries did not want for protectors; and the archbishop of Patras particularly interested himself in their cause. Brother James du Mont, one of these hermits, returning from Armenia, where he had resided some time, without knowing what had passed in relation to his brethren, came into Italy, and made his submission to the general, who soon after sent him on a mission to the East. Being ar- rived at Negropont, and hearing of the persecution raised against the Celestine hermits, he endeavored to accommo- date matters, and managed the affair with so much pru- dence, that the fathers of Romania consented that all these hermits should acknowledge him as their superior, under the dependence of the general. This the general would not consent to ; which obliged brother Liberatus and his companions to come into Italy, and represent to the pope, that he and his brethren had been always faithful to the church, and that all the accusations against them were mere calumnies. - - . A chapter general, hell at Toulouse, in 1307, obtained an order from Charles II, king of Naples, to the inquisitor of that state, to act against brother Liberatus and his companions. Accordingly, the inquisitor examined them, and declared them innocent; at the same time advising them to retire to Anciano, where he granted them his pro- tection-against the pursuits of their enemies. But after- wards, being gained over by their enemies, he cited them a second time before him, and found a pretence to condemn . them as heretics and schismatics. In consequence of which sentence they were first imprisoned, and then ba- nished.—Hend. Buck. - CELIBACY; the state of unmarried persons. Celibate, or celibacy, is a word chiefly used in speaking of the sin- gle life of the popish clergy, or the obligations they are under to abstain from marriage. The church of Rome imposes a universal celibacy on all her clergy, from the pope to the lowest deacon and subdeacon. The advocates for this usage pretend that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the ancient church as a condition of ordi- nation, even from the earliest apostolic ages. But the contrary is evident from numerous examples of bishops and archbishops, who lived in a state of matrimony, with- out any prejudice to their ordination or their function. Neither our Lord nor his apostles laid the least restraint upon the connubial uhion—on the contrary, the Scriptures speak of it as honorable in all, without the least restriction as to persons. Heb. 13: 4. Matt. 19:10, 12. 1 Cor. 7: 2, 9. Paul even assigns forbidding to marry as characteris- tic of the apostasy of the latter times. 1 Tim. 4:3. The fathers, without making any distinction between clergy and laity, asserted the lawfulness of the marriage of all Christians. Marriage was not forbidden to bishops in the Eastern church till the close of the seventh century. Ce- libacy was not imposed on the Western clergy in general till the end of the eleventh century, though attempts had been made long before. Superstitious zeal for a sancti- monious appearance in the clergy seems to have promoted it at first; and crafty policy, armed with power, no doubt riveted this clog on the sacerdotal order in later periods of the church. Pope Gregory VII. appears in this business to have had a view to separate the clergy as much as pos- sible from all other interests, and to bring them into a total dependence upon his authority; to the end that all tempo- ral power might, in a high degree, be subjugated to the papal jurisdiction. Forbidding to marry, therefore, has evidently the mark of the beast upon it. SEE MARRIAGE. —Hend. Buck. CELLITES, or “Brethren and Sisters of St. Alexius;” pious Christians, who, in the early part of the fourteenth century, when the clergy were shamefully negligent in their religious duties, supplied their “lack of service” by visiting the sick and attending funerals. (See LoLLARDs.) They received the name of Cellites, from the retired man- ner in which they lived in cells, and sequestered from the world, though they did not (like the monks) spend their time in religious idleness. (See Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 357, Note ; Haweis's Ch. Hist. vol. ii. p. 302.)— Williams. CELSUS; a philosopher of the second century, and of the Epicurean school, who composed a book against Christianity, to which he gave the title of Alethes logos, which Origen, in his refutation of it, has, to a considera- ble extent, rescued from oblivion. It is invaluable, on account of the admissions of the grand facts and doctrines of the gospel, as preached by the apostles, and contained in their writings, by an enemy, who lived little more than one hundred and thirty years after the ascension of our Lord. He has nearly eighty quotations from the books of the . New Testament, which he not only appeals to as existing, but as universally received by the Christians of that age as credible and divine. He is most minute in his references to the circumstances of the life of Christ and his apostles, which shows that he was well acquainted with them, and that no one denied them. He every where ridicules the idea of our Lord's divinity, contrasting with it that of his poverty, sufferings, and death; which proves not only that the Christians of that early age avowed their belief in the doctrine, but that Celsus himself, though an unbeliever, found it in the documents to which he refers, as the source of his acquaintance with the Christian system. “Did your C E N C E N [ 344 | God, when under punishment,” he asks, “say any thing like this?” “You will have him to be God,” he insists, “who ended, an infamous life with a miserable death.” “If,” he proceeds, “he thought fit to undergo such things; and if, in obedience to the Father, he suffered death, it is apparent they could not be painful and grievous to him, he being a God, and consenting to them,” &c. See LARD- NER, and ORIGEN, con. Cels, —Hend. Buck. CEMETERY ; a place set apart for the burial of the dead. Anciently, none were buried in churches or church- yards; it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the ce- meteries were without the walls. Among the primitive Christians, these were held in great veneration. It even appears from Eusebius and Tertullian, that in the early ages they assembled for divine worship in the cemeteries. Valerian seems to have confiscated the cemeteries and other places of divine worship; but they were restored again by Gallienus. As the martyrs were buried in these places, the Christians chose them for building churches on, when Constantine established their religion; and hence some derive the rule which still obtains in the church of Rome, never to consecrate an altar without putting under it the relics of some saint.— Hend. Buck. CENCHREA ; a seaport belonging to the city of Co- rinth, in the Archipelago. Though situated on the Saronic gulf at the distance of nine miles from the city, it was ne- vertheless considered to be a part of its suburbs. When Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans, there seems to have been a Christian church planted in it, independent of that which existed in the city of Corinth, for in Rom. 16: 1, he recommends to their Christian regard at Romé, Phoebe, a deaconess of the church which is in Cenchrea. The apos- tle embarked from this port on his voyage to Jerusalem, having his hair cut off at Cenchrea in compliance with a vow that he had made. Acts 18: 18.-Jones. CENSER; a vessel in which fire and incense were carried in certain parts of the Hebrew worship. It appears from numerous instances, that the services of divine wor- ship, under the Mosaic dispensation, resembled those usu- ally addressed to monarchs and sovereigns among the Ori- entals; and there can be little doubt, that the Hebrews directed them to a person understood to be resident in the sanctuary, before which, and in which, they were per- formed. This notion of Jewish services was so strong among the heathem, that we find they reported the object of worship in the temple at Jerusalem to be an old man njith a long beard. That report might possibly originate in the description of the Ancient of days, by the prophet Da- niel. However that might be, it is generally concluded that the attendants on the temple were nearly similar to the attendants on royalty and dignity in general ; and many external acts of worship were of the same appear- ance and import. We have no custom of burning per- fumes, as a mode of doing honor; and though the church of Rome has adopted the use of the censer, and fumiga- tion, it is as a part of sacred worship, not of civil gratula- tion, On the contrary, in the East, fumigation forms a art of civil entertainment, and is never omitted when it is intended to compliment a guest. Being thus general, and indeed indispensable, in Asiatic manners, it was re- ceived anciently into divine worship; and the priests in their ordinary service, as well as the high-priest in the most solemn acts of his public administration, used in- cense—a cloud of incense, in approaching to the more im- mediate presence of God. In Lev. 16: 12, we find Aaron directed “to take a cen- ser ſull of burning coals of fire from off the altar before the Lord, and his hands full of sweet incense beaten small, and to bring it within the vail, and to put the incense upon the fire before the Lord, so that the cloud of the incense might cover the mercy-seat, which was over the ark of the testimony.” The apostle in Heb. 9:4, speaks of the golden censer as a thing which belonged to the tabernacle. It has been observed that the original word thumiaterion, which we translate “a censer,” may as well be rendered “the altar of incense,” which was all overlaid with beaten gold, and was one of the most important vessels of the ta- bernacle. The high-priest was not allowed to enter the most holy place, nor to perform any service in it, without- first taking incense with him, which he was to bring in a censer from this altar. “The manner of the service of this altar,” says Dr. Owen, “was briefly thus : The high- priest, once a year, namely, on the solemn day of expia- tion, took a golden censer from this altar: after which, going out of the sanctuary, he put fire into it, taken from the altar of burnt-offerings, without the tabernacle, in the court where the perpetual fire was preserved. Then re- turning into the holy place, he filled his hands with incense taken from this altar, the place of the residence of the spices; which incense he put upon the fire in the censer, and so entered the holy place with a cloud of the smoke thereof.” (Exposition on Heb. 9: 4.) See INCENSE. Little is known on the form and nature of the ancient Hebrew censer. What censers have been received from heathen antiquity, and those used in the Romish worship also, being suspended by chains, they give, not unfrequent- ly, erroneous ideas of this sacred utensil, as employed among the Jews. The Hebrew has two words, both ren- dered censer in our translation. The first, (mechateh, or mechatet,) describes the censers of Aaron, and of Korah and his company, Lev. 10: 1. Num. 16: 6. . . From 2 Chron. 26: 19. we learn that king Uzziah at- tempted to “burn incense in the house of the Lord, having a censer in his hand.” The word is different from the for- mer, (mekatheret,) and seems to import an implement of another shape. It deserves notice, that those who used these mekatheret, are described as holding them in their hands : but this position is not, that we recollect, ascribed to the mechatet, or censer of Aaron. This leads to the conclusion, that the mekatheret may be considered as a kind of censer, carried in the hand; not alone, as the heat aris- ing from the burning embers it contained would be disa- greeably great, but in a kind of dish, which dish, with the censer in it, was placed on the altar of incense, and there left, diffusing a smoke, morning and evening, during the trimming of the lamps, &c. Ex. 30: 7, 8. Apparently, this was regarded as an inferior kind of censer, appropri- ate to the priests, and common to them all; but whether the other kind (the mechatet) was peculiar to the high- priest, is not clear: we find it used by the sons of Aaron, (Lev. 10: 1.) but that was an irregularity, and was pu- nished as such. It is mentioned, also, as being employed by two hundred and fifty of the associates of Korah; but that was in rebellion, and proved fatal to the transgressors. A similar distinction of censers is observed in the New Testament; for the twenty-four elders (Rev. 5; 8.) had golden vials full of odors;–but (chap. 8: 2.) the angel had a golden censer. These vials were not small bottles, such as we call vials; which idea arises instantly by association in our minds; but they were of the nature of the censers and dishes, above spoken of (compared by Doddridge to a tea-cup and saucer.) This gives a very different idea to chap. 15: 8, 16: 1. &c. of the same book, where the vials having the wrath of God, are poured out; for if they con- tained fire, that is a fit emblem of wrath; and burning embers may be described as poured out from a censer, wit great propriety. Nothing can be more apparent, if we suppose, for instance, the covering of the censer to be wholly removed ; in which state the bowl of it, perhaps, may be that described by the Apocalyptic writer as a vial ; and it might conveniently contain the fire to be poured out from it. This is perfectly agreeable to its form and ser- vices as a censer, and to the nature and use of the ancient 7mekatheret. . * . C E R C E R ſ 345 J We ought also to remark, that bearing censers is an oſ. fice of servants, in attendance on their superiors;–the same office anciently, in the temple, no doubt, denoted waiting on the Deity—being occupied in his service—in attendance on him. This action, therefore, demonstrates the devotedness to false gods, of those who worshipped them, by bearing censers to honor their images: especial- ly, when it is recollected, that offering incense was con- nected with addresses and prayers.-Calmet ; Jones. CENSURE; the act of judging and blaming others for their faults. Faithfulness in reproving another differs from censoriousness: the former arises from love to truth, and respect for the person; the latter is a disposition that loves to find fault. However just censure may be where there is blame, yet a censorious spirit, or rash judging, must be avoided. It is usurping the authority aud judgment of God. It is unjust, uncharitable, mischievous, productive of unhappiness to ourselves, and often the cause of disor- der and confusion in Society. See RASII JudgING.—Hend. Buck. - - CENTURIES OF MAGDEBURG; the first compre- hensive work of the Protestants on church history, and so called because it was divided into centuries, each volume containing a hundred years, and was first written at Mag- deburg. Matthias Flaccius formed the plan of it in 1552, in order to prove the agreement of the Lutheran doctrine with that of the primitive Christians, and the difference between the latter and that of the Catholics. John Wigand, Matth. Judex, Basil Faber, Andrew Corvinus, and Thomas Holzhuter, were, after Flaccius, the chief writers and edit- ors. Some Lutheran princes and noblemen patronized it, and many learned men assisted in the work, which was drawn with great care and fidelity, from the original sources, compiled with sound judgment, and written in Latin. It was continued by the centuriatores, as the editors were called, only to the year 1300; and was published at Basle, 1559–1574, in thirteen volumes, folio. A modern edition by Baumgarten and Semler, but which reaches only to the year 500, appeared at Nuremburg, 1757–1765, in six volumes, quarto. A good abridgment was prepared by Lucas Osiander; the Tubingen edition of which (1607 —1608) comprehends the period from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. The Catholics, finding themselves attacked in this alarming way, and confuted by matters of fact, Baronius wrote his Annals, in opposition to the Centuriae.—Ency. Amer. ; Hend. Buck. CENTURION ; an officer commanding a hundred sol- diers, similar to our captain in modern times. In the Old Testament, chief of a hundred men.—Calmet. CEPHAS; a name given to Peter, which by the Greeks was rendered Petros, and by the Latins Petrus, both signi- fying a stone, or small rock. See PETER.—Calmet. CERASTES; a serpent so called, because it has horns on its forehead. It hides in the sand, is of a Sandy color, crawls slanting on its side, and seems to hiss when in mo- tion. The word occurs only in Gen. 49: 17. “Dan shall be a serpent by the way, a cerastes (in the English text adder, in the margin arron-snake, that is, the dart-snake, or jaculus) in the path.” The Hebrew º is by some inter- preted asp, by others basilisk; but Bochart prefers the ce- rastes. See ADDER.—Calmet. - CERDONIANS ; a sect in the first century, so called from Cerdon, who flourished 140 or 141, and came to Rome from Syria. His disciples espoused most of the opinions of Simón Magus and the Manichaeans. They asserted two principles, good and bad. The first they called the Father of Jesus Christ; the latter the Creator of the world. They denied the incarnation and the resurrection, and rejected the books of the Old Testament.—Hend. Buck. CERFMONIAL LAW. See LAw. , ' CEREMONY; an assemblage of several actions, forms, and circumstances, serving to render a thing magnificent and solemn. Applied to religious observances, it signifies the external rites and manner wherein the ministers of re- ligion perform their sacred functions. In 1646, M. Ponce published a history of ancient ceremonies, tracing the rise, growth, and introduction of each rite into the church, and its gradual advancement to superstition. Many of them were borrowed from Judaism, but more from paganism. Dr. Middleton has given a fine discourse on the conformity between the .. and popish ceremonies, which he ex: emplifies in the use of incense, holy water, lamps and candles before the shrines of saints, votive gifts round the shrines of the deceased, &c. In fact, the altars, images, crosses, processions, miracles, and legends, nay, even the very hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the present Romans, he shows, are all copied from their hea- then ancestors. An ample and magnificent representation in figures of the religious ceremonies and customs of all nations in the world, designed by Picart, is added, with historical explanations, and many curious dissertations. It has been a question, whether we ought to use such rites and ceremonies, which are merely of human appoint- ment. On the one side it has been observed, that the de- sire of reducing religious worship to the greatest possible simplicity, however rational it may appear in itself, and abstractedly considered, will be considerably moderated in such as bestow a moment's attention upon the imperfection and infirmities of human nature in its present state. Man- kind, generally speaking, have too little elevation of mind to be much affected with those forms and methods of wor- ship in which there is nothing striking to the outward senses. The great difficulty here lies in determining the length which it is prudent to go in the accommodation of religious ceremonies to human infirmity; and the grand point is to fix a medium in which a due regard may be shown to the senses and imagination, without violating the dictates of right reason, or tarnishing the purity of true religion. It has been said, that the Romish church has gone too far in its condescension to the infirmities of man- kind; and this is what the ablest defenders of its motley worship have alleged in its behalf. But this observation is not just; the church of Rome has not so much accom- modated itself to human neakness, as it has abused that neakness, by taking occasion from it to establish an end- less variety of ridiculous ceremonies, destructive of true religion, and only adapted to promote the riches and des- potism of the clergy, and to keep the multitude still hood- winked in their ignorance and superstition. How far a just antipathy to the church puppet-shows of the Papists has unjustly driven some Protestant churches into the op- posite extreme, is a matter that certainly deserves a seri- ous consideration. * On the other side it has been observed, that Christ alone is king in his church ; he hath instituted such ordinances and forms of worship as he hath judged fit and necessary; and to add to them seems, at least, to carry in it an impu- tation on his wisdom and authority, and hath this unan- swerable objection to it, that it opens the door to a thou- sand innovations (as the history of the church of Rome hath sufficiently shown), which are not only indifferent in themselves, but highly absurd, and extremely detrimental to religion. That the ceremonies were numerous under the Old Testament dispensation, is not argument; for, say they, 1. We respect Jewish ceremonies, because they were appointed of God; and we reject human ceremonies be- cause God hath not appointed them. 2. The Jewish cere- monies were established by the universal consent of the na- tion; human ceremonies are not so. 3. The former were fit and proper for the purposes for which they were ap- pointed; but the latter are often the contrary. 4. The institutor of the Jewish ceremonies provided for the ex- pense of it; but no provision is made by God to support human ceremonies, or what he has not appointed. See Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. nwith McLaine's Note, vol. i. p. 203. quarto edition ; Jones's Works, vol. iv. p. 267; Dr. Sten- nett's Ser. on Conformity to the World; Robinson’s Ser. on Ceremonies; Booth’s Essay on the Kingdom of Christ. —Hend. Buck. - CERINTHUS; one of the earliest heretics, by birth a Jew, who, after having studied philosophy in Egypt, went into Asia Minor, where he disseminated his erroneous doctrines. Various opinions have obtained respecting the time at which he flourished, but it is now pretty generally agreed, that it must have been in the first century. Wa- terland, Michaelis, and others, are decided in their convic- tion, that the apostle John wrote to confute his heresy; and, indeed, it seems impossible to entertain a doubt on the subject, considering the direct bearing of many passages of his writings on the principles of which it consisted; and 44 - C E S C E S [ 346 ) especially the express declaration of Irenaeus, who was well acquainted with Polycarp, that “John wished, by the publication of his Gospel, to remove the error which had been sown in men's minds by Cerinthus.” Some have asserted that he was one of the Judaizers referred to in the New Testament; but without sufficient foundation. He was a Gnostic in his notion of the creation of the world, which he conceived to have been formed by angels; and his attachment to that philosophy may explain what other- wise seems inconsistent, that he retained some of the Mosaic ceremonies, such as the observance of Sabbaths and cir- cumcision, though, like other Gnostics, he ascribed the law and the prophets to the angel who created the world. What gave most eminence to his name was the fresh change which he introduced in the motion concerning Christ, while the Gnostics had all of them been Docetae; Cerinthus maintained that Jesus had a real body, but that he was a mere man, the son of Joseph and Mary. In other points he agreed with the Gnostics, and believed that Christ was one of the AEons who descended on Jesus at his baptism. The notion of Jesus being born of human pa- rents was taught by him with precision, and not without success. He is also regarded as the first person who held the doctrine of a mundane millennium, and is said to have promised his followers the grossest pleasures, and the most sensual gratifications. It is likely that it is to this part of his views that we are to ascribe the opinion which he maintained, contrary to the generality of the Gnostics, that Christ had not yet risen, but that he would rise hereafter viz. at the period of the millennium. It is not improbable that Paul is combating this very heresy in the fifteenth chapter of first Corinthians. If he received any part of the New Testament, it is likely it was the Gospel of Matthew, and that not in its pure state, but as it existed kath.' Hebraious. According to Irenaeus, “there were some who had heard Polycarp tell that John the disciple of our Lord, being at Ephesus, and going to bathe, and seeing Cerinthus in the place, hurried out of the bath without bathing, and added, Let us flee, lest even the bath should fall to pieces, while Cerinthus, the enemy of truth, is in it.” Theodoret and Epiphanius relate the same story, which has nevertheless been questioned by Lampe and Oeder; but it is credited by Mosheim and other eminent moderns. Jerome is stated to have added that, according to Irenaeus, the bath actually fell; but no such passage is to be found in the works of Jerome.—Hend. Buck. CERINTHIANS ; the followers of Cerinthus. CAESAR, the name assumed by, or conferred upon, all the Roman emperors after Julius Caesar. In the New Testament, the reigning emperor is generally called Caesar, omitting any other name which might belong to him. Christ calls the emperor Tiberius simply Caesar, (Matt. 22:21) and Paul thus mentions Nero, & I appeal to Caesar.”—Calmet. CAESAREA, in Palestine, formerly called Strato's Tower, was situated on the eastern coast of the Mediter- ranean, and had a fine harbor. It is reckoned to be thirty-six miles south of Acre, thirty north of Jaffa, and sixty-two north-west of Jerusalem. Caesarea is often men- tioned in the New Testament. Here king Agrippa was smitten, for neglecting to give God the glory, when flat- tered by the people. Cornelius the centurion, who was baptized by Peter, resided here, Acts 10. At Caesarea, the prophet Agabus foretold to the apostle Paul, that he would be bound at Jerusalem, Acts 21: 10, 11. Paul con- tinued two years prisoner at Caesarea, till he could be conveniently conducted to Rome, because he had appealed to Nero. Whenever Caesarea is named, as a city of Pa- lestine, without the addition of Philippi, we suppose this Caesarea to be meant, - - Dr. Clarke did not visit Caesarea; but viewing it from off the coast, he says, “By day-break the next morning we were off the coast of Caesarea ; and so near with the land that we could very distinctly perceive the appearance of its numerous and extensive ruins. The remains of this city, although still considerable, have long been resorted to as a quarry, whenever building materials are required at Acre. Djezzar Pasha brought from thence the columns of rare and beautiful marble, as well as the other orna. ments of his palace, bath, ſountain, and mosque at Acre, The place at present is only inhabited by jackals and beasts of prey. As we were becalmed during the night, we heard the cries of these animals until day-break. Po- cocke mentions the curious fact of the existence of croco- diles in the river of Caesarea. Perhaps there has not been in the history of the world an example of any city, that in so short a space of time rose to such an extraordinary height of splendor as did this of Caesarea, or that exhibits a more awful contrast to its former magnificence, by the present desolate appearance of its ruins. Not a single inhabitant remains. Its theatres, once resounding with the shouts of multitudes, echo no other sound than the nightly cries of animals roaming for their prey. Of its gorgeous palaces and temples, enriched with the choicest works of art, and decorated with the most precious mar- bles, scarcely a trace can be discerned. Within the space of ten years after laying the foundation, from an obscure fortress, it became the most celebrated and flourishing city of all Syria. It was named Caesarea by Herod, in honor of Augustus, and dedicated by him to that emperor, in the twenty-eighth year of his reign. Upon this occa- sion, that the ceremony might be rendered illustrious, by a degree of profusion unknown in any former instance, Herod assembled the most skilful musicians and gladia- tors from all parts of the world. The solemnity was to be renewed every fifth year. But, as we viewed the ruins of this memorable city, every other circumstance respect- ing its history was absorbed in the consideration that we were actually beholding the very spot where the scholar of Tarsus, after two years' imprisonment, made that elo- quent appeal, in the audience of the king of Judea, which must ever be remembered with piety and delight. In the history of the acts of the holy apostles, whether we regard the internal evidence of the narrative, or the interest ex- cited by a story so wonderfully appealing to our passions and affections, there is nothing that we call to mind with fuller emotions of sublimity and satisfaction. “In the demonstration of the Spirit, and of power,’ the mighty advocate for the Christian faith had before reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come, till the Roman governor, Felix, trembled as he spoke. Not all the oratory of Tertullus, nor the clamor of his numerous adversaries, not even the countenance of the most profli. gate of tyrants, availed against the firmness and intre- pidity of the oracle of God. The judge had trembled before his prisoner; and now a second occasion offered, in which, for the admiration and triumph of the Christian world, one of its bitterest persecutors, and a Jew, appeals, in the public tribunal of a large and populous city, to all 1ts chiefs and its rulers, its governor and its king, for the truth of his conversion, founded on the highest evidence, delivered in the most fair, open, and illustrious manner.” Caesarea Palestina was inhabited by Jews, heathen, and Samaritans; hence parts of it were esteemed unclean by the Jews; some of whom would not pass over certain places; others, however, were less scrupulous. Perpetual contests were maintained between the Jews and the Syrians, or the Greeks; in which many thousand persons Were slain. The Arab interpreter thinks this city was first named Hazor, Joshua 11: 1. Rabbi Abhu says, “Caesarea was the daughter of Edom; situated among things profane; she was a goad to Israel in the days of the Grecians; but the Ashmonean family overcame her.” Herod the Great built the city to honor the name of Caesar, and adorned it with most splendid houses. Over against the mouth of the haven, made by Herod, was the temple of Caesar, on a rising ground, a Superb structure; and in it a statue of Caesar the emperor. Here was also a theatre, an amphi- theatre, a ſorum, &c. all of white stone, &c. (Joseph. de Bell. lib. i. cap. 13.) After he had finished rebuilding the town, Herod dedi- cated it to Augustus, and procured the most capable workmen to execute the medals struck on the occasion, so that these are of considerable elegance. The port was called Sebastus, that is, Augustus. The city itself was made a colony by Vespasian, and is described on its medals as, colonia PRIMA FIAvia AUGUSTA CesAREA ; Cae- sarea, the first colony of the Flavian (or Vespasian) family. * C H. A c H. A | 347 C/ESAREA PHILIPPI, was situated at the eastern source of the Jordan, about three miles nearly east from the city of Dan, with which it is often confounded. The spacious grotto, or cavern, from which the stream issues, was consecrated to the heathen god Pan ; whence the place was called Panium. Here Herod the Great erected a temple in honor of Augustus Caesar, and from this time, at least, there was a city here, called Paneas. of Trachonitis, within whose territory it was, enlarged and embellished it, and called it. Caesarea, in honor of the em- peror Tiberius Caesar. It was called Caesarea. Philippi, and sometimes Caesarea Paneas, to distinguish it from Caesarea on the sea-coast. Agrippa afterwards called it Neronias, in honor of Nero. In the time of Eusebius and Jerome, the old name, Paneas, had again become pre- dominant, and has remained to this day, in the Arabic form, Băniás. Some of the Crusaders called it Belinas. It was near this city, that our Lord drew from his disciples their express acknowledgment of him as the Messiah, [Matt. 16:13–20. Mark 8: 27–30.] His transfiguration probably took place on one of the mountains in this vicin- ity. [Mark 9: 2, 30, 33.] It was visited by Vespasian ; and Titus, after the capture of Jerusalem, here exhibited public spectacles, in which Jews were compelled to fight with each other, or with wild beasts. Alexander Severus is said to have been born here. This whole valley seems to have been dependent on Sidon, before its conquest by the Danites, [Judges 18: 7;] and coins, still extant, show that the worship of Astarte, the Ashtoreth of the Zido- nians, was practised here under the Romans. Banias is now a village of about one hundred and fiſty houses, with extensive ruins, and some inscriptions illustrating its old idolatry.—T. - - . .” CESTERTIANS ; an order of monks, founded in the ninth century, by St. Robert, abbot of Moléme, but, after some time, became so far relaxed in their discipline, that the founder himself forsook them, till ordered by the pope to return and resume his government.—Nightingale's Rel. Cer. p. 549; Williams. CHAFF; the refuse of winnowed corn. The ungodly are represented as the chaff: a simile most forcible and appropriate. Whatever defence they may afford to the saints, who are the wheat, they are in themselves worth- less and inconstant, easily driven about with false doc- trines, and will ultimately be driven away by the blast of God's wrath, Psalm 1: 4. Matt. 3: 12, &c. False doctrines are called chaff; they are unproductive, and cannot abide the trial of the word and spirit of God, Jer. 23: 28.— Calmet. - CHAIN. With chains idols were fixed in their shrines, Isa. 40: 19 ;) and criminals in their prison or servitude, er. 52: 11. Pride is a chain which keeps men under its power; and by a discovery of it in their conduct, they use it as if ornamental to them. Psalm 73: 6. Chains of gold were worn as ornaments of the neck. Gen. 41: 42. God’s law is a chain ; it restrains from sinful liberty.; is uneasy to corrupt men; and is a great ornament to the saints who obey it. Prov. 10: 9.-Brown. CHALCEDONY; (chalkedon, Rev. 21:19;) a precious. stone. Arethas, who has written an account of Bithynia, says that it was so called from Chalcedon, a city of that country, opposite to Byzantium; and it was in color like a carbuncle. Some have supposed this also to be the stone stranslated “emerald,” Exodus 28: 18.—Watson. CHALDEA, or BABYLONIA; the country lying on both sides the Euphrates, of which Babylon was the capital; and extending southwards to the Persian gulf, and north- wards into Mesopotamia, at least as far as Ur, which is called Ur of the Chaldees. This country had also the name of Shinar. See BABYLoN.— Watson. º * CHALDEANS ; in a more extended sense, the inhabi: tants of Babylonia generally; but in a more correct and restricted sense, their priests and philosophers, who chiefly resided in that part of the country next to Arabia. Deserta, and which was therefore called “the Land of the Chalde- ans,” and is said to have received its name from Chaled, the fourth son of Nahor. The Chaldeans (thus understood) were astronomers, astrologers, and soothsayers. They boast, like the Chinese of their extraordinary anti- quity and early science, pretending to carry back their Philip, tetrarch astronomical observations, according to Cicero, four hun- dred and seventy thousand years, or, according to Epi- genes, in Pliny, seven hundred and twenty thousand years; which, even supposing their years to be only months, extend much farther back than the creation of our world: but no probable method of calculation will give them a higher antiquity than two thousand years before the Christian era, which was soon after the founda- tion of the Assyrian monarchy. - These Chaldeans were not only astronomers and astro- logers, but in pursuance of the latter profession, were diviners and soothsayers, professing to predict events, to interpret dreams, and, in short, to all the science and learning of the East.—See Univ. Hist. vol. i. book i. ch, 9.-Calmet ; Williams. • . CHALDEAN PHILOSOPHY claims attention on ac- count of its very high antiquity. The most ancient peo- ple, next to the Hebrews, among the eastern nations, who appear to have been acquainted with philosophy, in its more general sense, were the Chaldeans; for though the Egyptians have pretended that the Chaldeans were an Egyptian colony, and that they derived their learning from Egypt, there is reason to believe that the kingdom of Ba- bylon, of which Chaldea was a part, flourished before the Egyptian monarchy; and that the Egyptians were rather indebted to the Chaldeans, than the Chaldeans to the Egyptians. Nevertheless, the accounts that have been transmitted to us by the Chaldeans themselves, of the antiquity of their learning, are blended with fable, and involved in considerable uncertainty. There are other circumstances, independently of the antiquity of the Chal- dean philosophy, which render our knowledge of it im- perfept and uncertain. We derive our acquaintance with it from other nations, and principally from the Greeks, whose vanity led them to despise and misrepresent the pretended learning of barbarous nations. The Chaldeans also adopted a symbolical mode of instruction, and trans- mitted their doctrines to posterity under a veil of obscu- rity, which it is not easy to remove. To all which, we may add that, about the commencement of the Christian era, a race of philosophers sprung up, who, with a view of gaining credit to their own wild and extravagant doc- trines, passed them upon the world as the ancient wisdom of the Chaldeans and Persians, in spurious books, which they ascribed to Zoroaster, or some other eastern philoso- pher. Thus, the fictions of these impostors were con- founded with the genuine dogmas of the ancient eastern nations. Notwithstanding these causes of uncertainty, which perplex the researches of modern inquirers into the distinguishing doctrines and character of the Chaldean philosophy, it appears probable that the philosophers of Chaldea were the priests of the Babylonian nation, who instructed the people in the principles of religion, inter- preted its laws, and conducted its ceremonies. Their character was similar to that of the Persian magi, and they are often confounded with them by the Greek histo- rians. Like the priests in most other nations, they em- ployed religion in subserviency to the ruling powers, and made use of imposture to serve the purposes of civil policy. Accordingly, Diodorus Siculus relates, that they pretended to predict future events by divination, to ex- plain prodigies, and interpret dreams, and to avert evils, or conſer benefits, by means of augury and incantations For many ages, they retained a principal place among diviners. In the reign of Marcus Antoninus, when the emperor and his army, who were perishing with thirst, were suddenly relieved by a shower, the prodigy was as- cribed to the power and skill of the Chaldean soothsayers. Thus accredited for their miraculous powers, they main- tained their consequence in the courts of princes. The principal instrument which they employed in support of their superstition, was astrology. The Chaldeans were probably the first people who made regular observations upon the heavenly bodies, and hence the appellation of Chaldean became afterwards synonymous with that of astronomer. Nevertheless, all their observations were applied to the sole purpose of establishing the credit of judicial astrology; and they employed their pretended skill in this art, in calculating nativities, foretelling the weather, predicting good and bad fortune, and other prac- C H A CHA [ 348 | tices usual with impostors of this class. While they taught the vulgar that all human affairs are influenced by the stars, and professed to be acquainted with the nature and laws of their influence, and consequently to possess a power of prying into futurity, they encouraged much idle Superstition, and many fraudulent practices. - professors of these mischievous arts were afterwards called Chaldeans, and the arts themselves were called Babylonian arts. Among the Romans, these impostors were so trou- blesome, that, during the time of the republic, it became necessary to issue an edict requiring the Chaldeans, or mathematicians, (by which latter appellation they were commonly known,) to depart from Rome and Italy within ten days; and, afterwards, under the emperors, these soothsayers were put under the most severe interdiction. The Chaldean philosophy, notwithstanding the obscurity that has rendered it difficult of research, has been highly extolled, not only by the orientals and Greeks, but by Jewish and Christian writers: but upon recurring to au- thorities that are unquestionable, there seems to be little or nothing in this branch of the barbaric philosophy which deserves notice. The following brief detail will include the most interesting particulars. From the testimony of Diodorus, and also from other ancient authorities, collected by Eusebius, it appears, that the Chaldeans believed in God, the Lord and Parent of all, by whose providence the world is governed. From this principle sprung their re- ligious rites, the immediate object of which was a supposed race of spiritual beings or demons, whose existence could not have been imagined, without first conceiving the idea of a supreme Being, the source of all intelligence. The belief of a supreme Deity, the fountain of all the divini- ties which were supposed to preside over the several parts of the material world, was the true origin of all religious worship, however idolatrous, not excepting even that which consisted in paying divine honors to the memory of dead men. Besides the supreme Being, the Chaldeans supposed spiritual beings to exist, of several orders; gods, demons, heroes: these they probably distributed into sub- ordinate classes, agreeably to their practice of theurgy or magic. The Chaldeans, in common with the eastern nations in general, admitted the existence of certain evil spirits, clothed in a vehicle of grosser matter; and in subduing or counteracting these, they placed a great part of the efficacy of their religious incantations. These doctrines were the mysteries of the Chaldean religion, imparted only to the initiated. Their popular religion consisted in the worship of the sun, moon, planets, and stars, as divinities, after the general practice of the East, Job 31: 27. From the religious system of the Chaldeans were derived two arts, for which they were long celebrat- ed; namely, magic and astrology. Their magic, which should not be confounded with witchcraft, or a supposed intercourse with evil spirits, consisted in the performance of certain religious ceremonies or incantations, which were supposed, by the interposition of good demons, to produce Supernatural effects. Their astrology was founded upon the chimerical principle, that the stars have an in- fluence, either beneficial or malignant, upon the affairs of men, which may be discovered, and made the certain ground of prediction, in particular cases; and the whole art consisted in applying astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose, and thus imposing upon the credulity of the vulgar.—Watson. CHALDEAN PARAPHRASE, in the rabbinical style, is called Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrases in Walton's Polyglot, viz. 1. of Onkelos ; 2. of Jonathan, son of Uzziel; 3. of Jerusalem ; but there are seventeen in all.—Hend. Buck. CHALICE ; the cup used to administer the wine in the Sacrament, and by the Roman Catholics in the mass. The use of the chalice, or communicating in both kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity, who com- municate only in one kind, the clergy alone being allowed the privilege of communicating in both kinds; in direct opposition to our Savior’s words,-4 Drink ye all of it.” —Hend. Buck. CHAM; Egypt; but, whether so called from the patri. arch Ham may be doubted, although the English transla- tion says “land of Ham.” It denotes heat, heated ; black, Hence other clusive opinion on this animal. or sun-burnt, Psalm 105: 23–27; 106: 22. The heathen writers called this country Chemia, and the native Copti at this day call it Ghemi. See EGYPT.--Calmet. CHAMBER ; an apartment of a house. Some were inner chambers, to which, one had to go through part of the house, and were more secret. 1 Kings 20:30. Some were upper chambers, or garrets, where it seems they laid their dead, and where the Jews sometimes had idolatrous altars; and where the Christians, in the apostolic age, had often their meetings for worship. Acts 9: 37. 20:8, and 1: 13. 2 ICings 23: 12. Some were for beds, others for entertain- ing guests, at the three Solemn feasts or on other occa- sions. Matt. 9:15. 2 Kings 6: 12. Mark 9: 14. God's chambers are clouds, where he lays up his treasures of rain, Snow, hail, wind; and where he mysteriously displays his wisdom and power. Psalm 104:3—13. To apply our- selves to earnest prayer and supplication, and to depend on God’s promises, perſections, and providence for special protection, is to enter into our chambers, that we may be safe, as the Hebrews were in their houses, from the de- stroying angel. Isa. 26:20. The chambers of the south are the constellations or clusters of stars belonging to the Southern part of the firmament, which are often hid from us, and whose appearance is ordinarily attended with storms. Job 9:9-Brown. - CHAMBERLAIN ; (1.) a keeper of the king's bed- chamber; or a steward. Esth. 1: 10. (2) City-treasurer. Rom. 16: 23.−Brown. CHAMOIS. Our translators have evidently erred in inserting the chamois in Deut. 14: 5. The Hebrew word is tzamor, which the LXX render “Camelopardalis;” the Vulgate and the Arabic do the same, the latter ren- dering “Ziraffe.” The ziraffe, or giraffe, however, being a native of the torrid zone, and of southern Africa, it is equally unlikely that it should be abundant in Judea, and used as an article of food, as that the chamois which in- habits the chilly regions of mountains only, and seeks their most retired heights, to shelter it from the warmth of summer, preferring those cool retreats where snow and ice prevail, should be known among the population of Israel. We must yet wait for authorities to justify a con- The class of antelopes bids fairest to contain it.—Calmet. CHANCEL ; a particular part of the fabric of a church. Eusebius, describing that of Paulinus, says, “It was di- vided from the rest by certain rails of wood, curiously and artificially wrought in the form of net-work, to make it inaccessible to the multitude.” These rails the Latins call cancelli, whence comes the English word chancel. The chancel in England is the rector's freehold, and part of his glebe, and therefore he is obliged to repair it; but where the rectory is impropriate, the impropriator must do it.—Hend. Buck. - CHANCELLOR ; a lay officer under a bishop, who is judge of his court. In the ages after Constantine, the bishop had those officers, who were called church lawyers, and were bred up in the knowledge of the civil and canon law : their business was to assist the bishop in his di- OCCSé. - We read of no chancellors in England during all the Saxon reigns, nor after the conquest, till the reign of Henry II., but that king requiring the attendance of the bishops in his councils of state, and other public affairs, it was thought necessary to substitute chancellors in their room for the despatch of those causes which were proper for their jurisdiction. - A bishop's chancellor hath his authority from the law ; and his jurisdiction is not, like that of a commissary, li. mited to a certain place, and certain causes, but extends throughout the whole diocese, and to all ecclesiastical matters ; not only for reformation of manners, in punish- ment of criminals, but in all cases concerning marriages, last wills, administrations, &c.—Hend. Buck. - CHANDLER, (DR. SAMUEL) was born at Hungerford, in 1693. At an early age his genius and wonderful abili- ties were very conspicuous to his delighted and admiring friends. His father being a dissenting minister of great piety, young Chandler was early taught those lessons of religion, which afterwards, when in operation, threw such a radiance around him, as dimmed the lustre of his other C. H. A C H A [ 349 | rare and brilliant acquirements. His excellent and pious father, desirous that he should also proclaim tidings of peace and good-will towards men, placed him at a respect- able academy at Bridgewater, where his moral and reli- gious character would be attended to. There, however, he did not long remain, but was removed to Gloucester, and placed under the judicious guidance of Mr. Samuel Jones, a dissenting minister of very considerable attain- ments and sound judgment. Under that excellent indi- vidual, Chandler greatly improved his understanding; received serious and permanent impressions, as to the concerns of his everlasting welfare; studied attentively; read with seriousness; and, in a few years became alike a Christian, and a classical, biblical, and oriental scholar. The time, however, at length arrived, when Mr. Chan- dler was compelled to leave the instructions and guidance of this excellent tutor, for the more trying duties of life. Then indeed he discovered, as he appreciated, the advan- tages of those acquirements and habits and principles, received while under his peculiar care : and in July, 1714, he entered on the important work of the Christian mi- nistry. In 1716, he was chosen minister of the Presby- terian congregation at Peckham, near London. At that place his labors were useful and valuable. It was there he entered into the connubial state, and was blessed with a numerous family; when his joys were damped, and his prospects in Some degree blighted by the South sea scheme of 1720, in which he lost the whole of the fortune received with his wife. This unforeseen circumstance, united to the demands of a young family, and to the com- parative smallness of the salary he received from his con- gregation, compelled him to engage in the trade of a book- seller; and he continued in that business for three years. In the course of the year 1717, a weekly lecture was instituted at the Old Jewry, for the winter, which was to be delivered half a year, by two of the most eminent ministers of that day. Mr. Chandler and the famous Dr. Lardner were appointed. The subjects given to discuss were the evidences of natural and revealed religion; and they were required to answer the principal objections made to Christianity. Those sermons he afterwards en- larged, and published in the form of a treatise, in 1725, under the title of “A Windication of the Christian Reli- gion, in two parts; 1st, A Discourse of the Nature and Use of Miracles; and 2nd, An Answer to a late Book, entitled ‘A Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion.’” A copy of that work he forwarded to archbishop Wake, who eulogized it, in a letter to Mr. Chandler, in terms the most flattering and sincere. For this production Mr. Chandler gained considerable and deserved reputation; and in consequence of it, he was requested to become minister of the congregation in the Old Jewry. That invitation he accepted, and there con- tinued to labor for forty-one years. Mr. Chandler was frequently requested to accept a diploma; but the honor, from modesty, he for a long time refused to accept. He, however, some time afterwards received it, being con- ferred on him with every mark of respect by the two universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. He was shortly afterwards elected F. R. S. and A. S. S. In the year 1760, he preached and published a sermon on the death of George the Second, and in it compared that monarch with king David. This was speedily attacked by some enemies to Christianity, who ventured impiously to assert, that David and Nero were more similar, and, indeed, actually compared them. Conduct so wicked, Dr. Chandler determined to expose ; and in the course of the next year, he published a “Review of the History of the Man after God's own heart;” and which was suc- ceeded by a larger work, in two volumes octavo, under the following title, “A Critical History of the Life of King David; the chief objections of Mr. Bayle, and others, against the character of this Prince, wherein the Scriptural Account of Him, and the Occurrences of his Reign, are Examined and Refuted, and the Psalms which refer to him Explained.” This work was justly regarded as far superior to all his other productions; and posterity has ratified the approbation of prior generations. The health of Dr. Chandler now rapidly declined: he had long been the subject of a very painful disorder, which he bore with the #. and fortitude of a Christian, waiting to be released from a body, which incumbered a spirit of such dignity and purity. He expired on the eighth of May, 1766, at the advanced age of seventy- three, and was interred in Bunhill Fields burying ground, His remains were attended by many eminent ministers, who, during his life, appreciated his merits, and at his death paid him those honors which his virtues and piety so justly deserved. Dr. Chandler was the first who esta. blished the fund for the relief of the widows and orphans of poor Protestant dissenting ministers. His charities were as extensive as his income would admit, and as his domestic demands rendered prudent. See Life of Chan- dler.—Jones's Chris. Biog. - CHANGE. Antichrist changes times and lan's, when he alters the constitutions and laws of Christ's church, ahá pretends to make things holy or profane as he pleases, Dan. 7:25. Night is changed into day, when men can obtain no rest or sleep therein. Job 17: 12. Changes and nar against men, denote afflictive alterations of their cir- cumstances. Job 10: 17. Psalm 55: 19. Joshua the high- priest’s change of raiment, does not merely denote the putting on a suit of fine clothes instead of his filthy ones, but the removal of sin, through the imputation of our Savior’s finished obedience and suffering, and the quali- fying of him to be a faithful high-priest. Zech. 3: 4. The living at the last day are changed, when their bodies are rendered immortal. 1 Cor. 15:51.—Brown. CHANT, is used for the vocal music of churches. In church history we meet with divers kinds of these ; as, 1. Chant Ambrosian, established by St. Ambrose; 2. Chant Gregorian, introduced by pope Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church music. This, at first, was called the Roman song; afterwards the plain song, as the choir and people sing in unison.—Hend. Buck. *- * * CHANTRY ; a little chapel, or particular altar, in a cathedral church, built and endowed for the maintenance of a priest to sing masses, in order to release the soul of the donor out of purgatory. There were many of these in England before the reformation; and any man might build a chantry without the leave of the bishop. In the thirty-seventh year of Henry VIII. the chantries were given to the king, who had power to issue commissions to seize those endowments; but that being the last year of his reign, several chantries escaped being seized by virtue of those commissions; but they were afterwards vested in his successor, Edward VI.-Hend. Buck. - CHAOS ; according to the signification of the word, the vast void, or the confused mass of elements, from which, in the opinion of certain ancient philosophers, the world was formed. In latter times, the word is used to denote the unformed mass of primeval matter described in Gen. 1: 2, which was reduced to order and beauty by the power of the Creator.—Hend. Buck. CHAPEL ; a place of divine worship so called. The word is derived from the Latin capella. In former times, when the kings of France were engaged in war, they always carried St. Martin’s hat into the field, which was kept in a tent as a precious relic; from whence the place was called capella, and the priests, who had the custody of the tent, Capellani. Afterwards the word capella became applied to private oratories. 2" There are various kinds of chapels in Britain, 1. Do- mestic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for pri- vate worship in their families. 2. Free chapels, such as are founded by kings of England. They are free from all episcopal jurisdiction, and only to be visited by the founder and his successors, which is done by the lord chancellor : yet the king may license any subject to build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent exempt it from the visitation of the ordinary. 3. Chapels in universities, belonging to particular universities. 4. Chapels of ease, built for the ease of one or more parishioners that dwell too far from the church, and are served by inferior cu- rates, provided for at the charge of the rector, or of such as have benefit by it, as the composition or custom is. 5. Parochial chapels, which differ from parish churches only in name : they are generally small, and the inhabi- tants within the district few. If there be a presentation C H A. C H A I 350 | dá ecclesiam instead of capellam, and an admission and in- stitution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church for themselves and families. 6. Chapels which adjoin to and are part of the church : such were formerly built by honorable persons as burying places. 7. The places of worship used by the Methodists and Protestant dissenters, otherwise denominated meeting-houses, are now almost universally called chapels; with respect to which it is re- quired by law, that they shall be certified in the court of quarter sessions, or to the bishop's court, when, on the payment of a small sum, the registration takes place. The doors are not permitted to be kept locked during the time of worship; and, to prevent the congregation from being disturbed, whoever molests it, or interrupts the worship, is, on conviction at the sessions, to forfeit twenty pounds by statute 1 of William and Mary.—Hend. Buck. CHAPELS, UNION ; places of worship in which the church of England service is performed in the morning, and the usual dissenting mode of worship is used in the evening. They were designed to unite persons of both parties: hence their name.—Hend. Buck. . . . CHAPITERS ; ornaments on the tops of pillars, walls, &c., somewhat resembling a human bead. Exod. 36:38. 1 Iſings 7: 16. - CHAPLAIN ;-a person who performs divine service in a chapel, or is retained in the service of some family to perform divine service. - The origin of the term is generally explained in the following manner:—Bishop Martin is said to have worn a hood (capa,) which was regarded as possessing miracu- lous powers, and was, therefore, preserved after his death in a separate house, called, from this hood, capella (chapel,) and the person stationed in the chapel to show it to superstitious spectators was termed chaplain. Char- lemagne is reported to have possessed St. Martin's hood among the relics, and to have erected a chapel, called by the name of St. Martin, at the place in Germany where Fürth afterwards arose. He also built similar chapels at Nuremberg and Altenfurth. Another less probable deri- vation of the word deduces it indeed from capella, but ex- plains it to signify the box in which the Romish mission- aries carried the requisites for celebrating the mass, who were thence denominated chaplains. According to a statute of Henry VIII. the persons vested with the power of retaining chaplains, together with the number each is allowed to qualify, are as follow : —an archbishop, eight; a duke, or bishop, six ; marquis or earl, five ; viscount, four ; baron, knight of the garter, or lord chancellor, three : a duchess, marchioness, count- ess, baroness, the treasurer or comptroller of the king's house, clerk of the closet, the king's secretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls, each of them two ; chief justice of the king's bench, and warden of the cinque ports, each one. All these chaplains may purchase a license or dispensation, and take two bene- fices, with cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by letters testimonial under hand and seal, for it is not suffi- cient that he serve as chaplain in the family. In England, there are forty-eight.chaplains to the king, who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the service to the family, and to the king in his private ora- tory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk of the closet. While in waiting, they have a table and attend- ance, but no salary. In Scotland, the king has six chap- lains with a salary of fifty pounds each ; three of them having, in addition, the deanery of the chapel royal di- vided between them, making up above one hundred pounds to each. Their only duty at present is to say prayers at the election of peers for Scotland to sit in parliament.— Hend. Buck. CHAPLET; a certain instrument of monkish piety, made use of by the Roman Catholics, Greeks, Armenians, and other eastern communions. It is a string of beads, by which they metasure, or count, the number of their prayers. The invention of it is ascribed, by the histo- rians of the crusades, to Peter the Hermit, who first taught those warriors to pray by tale. St. Dominic, found- er of the Dominicans, greatly raised the credit of this devout instrument, by giving out that the blessed Virgin had brought him one from leaven. If Peter the Hermit first taught it the Roman Catholics, it is probable he him. self borrowed it from the Turks, who to this day, make use of a chaplet, or strings of beads, in their prayers; and the Turks seem to have had it from the East Indians, who likewise make use of a kind of chaplet. It is also used by the Lamas.-Hend. Buck, - - - - CHAPTER ; from the Latin caput, head, signifies,— 1. One of the principal divisions of a book, and in re- ference to the Bible, one of the larger sections into which its books are divided. This division, as well as that con- sisting of verses, was introduced to facilitate reference, and not to indicate any natural or accurate division of the subjects treated in the books. The invention has been by some ascribed to Lanfranc, by others to Langton, both archbishops of Canterbury; but it is now pretty generally agreed that the real inventor was Hugo de St. Caro, or Cher, who lived in the thirteenth century, and wrote a commen- tary on the Scriptures, and first introduced it, when pre- paring a concordance of the Latin vulgate. . 2. A community of ecclesiastics belonging to a cathe- dral or collegiate church. The chief or head of the chap- ter is the dean : the body consists of canons or prebends. In England, as elsewhere, the deans and chapters had the right to choose the bishops; but Henry VIII. assumed this right as a prerogative of the crown. The chapter has now no longer a place in the administration of the diocese during the life of the bishop, but succeeds to the whole episcopal jurisdiction during the vacancy of the see. In Prussia, Protestant bishops have been lately elected, and still more recently an archbishop, without the vote of a chapter, by a mere order of government.—Hend. Duck. ... - CHAPTERS. The New Testament was early por- tioned out into certain divisions, which appear under va- rious names. The custom of reading it publicly in the Christian assemblies after the law and the prophets, would soon cause such divisions to be applied to it. The law and the prophets were for this end already divided into parashim and haptaroth, and the New Testament could not long remain without being treated in the same way. The distribution into church-lessons was indeed the oldest that took place in it. The Christian teachers gave the name of pericopes to the sections read as lessons by the Jews. Justin Martyr avails himself of this expression, when he quotes prophetical passages. Such is the case also in Clemens of Alexandria; but this writer also gives the name of perikopai to larger sections of the Gospels and St. Paul's Epistles. Pericopes therefore were nothing else but anagnosmata, church-lessons, or sections of the New Testament, which were read in the assemblies after Moses and the prophets. In the third century, another division also into kephalaia, or chapters, occurs. Dionysius of Alexandria speaks of them in reference to the Apocalypse, and the controversies respecting it. Some, says he, went through the whole book, from chapter to chapter, to show that it bore no sense. In the fifth century, Euthalius pro- duced again a division into chapters, which was account- ed his invention. He himself however lays claim to no- thing more than having composed the summaries of the contents of the chapters in the Acts of the Apostles and the Catholic Epistles. ... • - Such in older times was the practice in Asia also ; for Justin says, that the believers there assemble themselves for prayer and reading on Sunday only, en te tou heliou hemera. Since then, the whole New Testament was distri- buted into so few sections, these must necessarily have been great, and a pericope in Euthalius sometimes includes in it four, five, and even six chapters. Our present chapters come, as it is well known, from cardinal Hugo de St. Cher, who in the thirteenth century composed a concordance, and to this end distributed the Bible according to his own discretion into smaller por- tions. They are now moreover generally, admitted in the editions of the Hebrew and Greek texts. The verses, however, are from Robert Stephens, who first introduced them in his edition of the New Testament, A. D. 1551. His son, Henry Stevens, was the first to record this for the information of posterity, in the preface to his Greek Concordance to the New Testament; in which he says, that two facts connected with it equally demand our ad. f C H A C. H. A. ſ 351 miration : “The first is, that my father, while travelling from Paris to Lyons, finished this division of each chapter into verses, and indeed the greater part of it (inter equi- tandum) in the course of his journey. The second fact is, that, a short time prior to this journey, while he had the matter still in contemplation, almost all those to whom he mentioned it told him plainly that he was an indiscreet man, as though he had a wish to spend his time and labor on an affair which would prove utterly useless, and which would not obtain for him any commendation, but on the contrary, would expose him to much ridicule. But behold the result: in opposition to the opinion which condemned and discountenanced my father's undertaking, as soon as his invention was published, every edition of the New Testament, whether in the Greek, Latin, French, German, or in any other language, which did not adopt it, was im- mediately discarded.”—Watson. CHAPTERS, THE THREE ; an appellation given in the sixth century to the following productions —The wri- tings of Theodore of Mopsuestia. 2. The books which Theodoret of Cyrus wrote against the twelve anathemas which Cyril had published against the Nestorians. 3. The letter which Ibas of Edessa had written concerning the council of Ephesus, and the condemnation of Nestorius. These writings being supposed to favor the Nestorian doctrine, Theodore, bishop of Caesarea, who was a zealous Monophysite, prevailed on the emperor Justinian to pub- lish an edict in the year 544, in which they were ordered to be condemned. This edict was opposed by the African and Western bishops, especially by Vigilius, the Roman pontiff; the consequence of which was that the pontiff was ordered to appear at Constantinople, where he first rejected, and then retracted his rejection of the chapters. They were afterwards condemned anew by Justinian.— Hend. Buck. - - CHARGE: 1. A sermon preached by the bishop to his clergy. 2. Among Dissenters, it is a sermon preached, or an address delivered, to a minister at his ordination, gene- rally by some aged or able preacher, and containing a view of the Christian ministry in its nature, duties, trials, and encouragements.-Hend. Buck. - CHARIOTS OF WAR. The Scripture speaks of two sorts of these chariots, one for princes and generals to ride in, the other used to break the enemy's battalions, by let- ting them loose armed with iron, which made dreadful havoc among the troops. The most ancient chariots of which we have any notice are Pharaoh's, which were overwhelmed in the Red sea, Exod. 14: 7. The Canaan- ites, whom Joshua engaged at the waters of Merom, had cavalry and a multitude of chariots, Josh. 11: 4. Sisera, the general of Jabin, king of Hazor, had nine hundred chariots of iron in his army, Judges 4:3. The tribe of Judah could not get possession of all the lands of their lot, because the ancient inhabitants of the country were strong in chariots of iron. The Philistines, in the war carried on by them against Saul, had thirty thousand cha- riots, and six thousand horsemen, 1 Sam. 13: 5. David, having taken one thousand chariots of war from Hada- dezer, king of Syria, hamstrung the horses, and burned nine hundred chariots, reserving only one hundred to himself, 2 Sam. 8: 4. Solomon had a considerable num- ber of chariots, but we know of no military expedition in which they were employed, 1 Kings 10: 26. As Judea was a very mountainous country, chariots could be of no great use there, except in the plains; and the Hebrews often evaded them by fighting on the mountains. The kings of the Hebrews, when they went to war, were themselves generally mounted in chariots, from which they fought, and issued their orders; and there was always a second chariot empty, which followed each of them, that if the first was broken, he might ascend the other, 2 Chron. 34: 24. Chariots were sometimes conse- crated to the sum ; and the Scripture observes, that Josiah burned those which had been dedicated to the Sun by his predecessors, 2 Kings 23: 11. This superstitious custom was borrowed from the heathens, and principally from the Persians.—Watson. - CHARITY; one of the three grand theological graces, consisting in the love of God and our neighbor, or the habit or disposition of loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves. “Charity,” says an able wre ter, “consists not in speculative ideas of general benevo lence floating in the head, and leaving the heart, as specue lations often do, untouched and cold; neither is it confined to that indolent good-nature which makes us rest satisfied with being free from inveterate malice, or ill will to our fellow-creatures, without prompting us to be of service to any. True charity is an active principle. It is not pro- perly a single virtue, but a disposition residing in the heart as a fountain; whence all the virtues of benignity, candor, forbearance, generosity, compassion, and liberalſ. ty, flow as so many native streams. From general good- will to all, it extends its influence, particularly to those with whom we stand in nearest connexion, and who are directly within the sphere of our good offices. . From the country or community to which we belong, it descends to the smaller associations of neighborhood, relations, and friends, and spreads itself over the whole circle of social and domestic life. I mean not that it imports a promis- cuous undistinguishing affection which gives every man an equal title to our kºve. Charity, if we should endeavor to carry it so far, would be rendered an impracticable virtue, and would resolve itself into mere words, without affecting the heart. True charity attempts not to shut our eyes to the distinction between good and bad men ; nor to warm our hearts equally to those who befriend an those who injure us. It reserves our esteem for good men, and our complacency for our friends. Towards our enemies it inspires forgiveness and humanity. It breathes universal candor and liberality of sentiment. It forms gentleness of temper, and dictates affability of manners. It prompts corresponding sympathies with them who re- joice and them who weep. It teaches us to slight and despise no man. Charity is the comforter of the afflicted, the protector of the oppressed, the reconciler of differ- ences, the intercessor for offenders. It is faithfulness in the friend, public spirit in the magistrate, equity and pa- tience in the judge, moderation in the sovereign, and loy- alty in the subject. In parents, it is care and attention; in children, it is reverence and submission. In a word, it is the soul of social life. It is the sun that enlivens and cheers the abodes of men; not a meteor which occasionally glares, but a luminary, which in its orderly and regular course dispenses a benignant influence.” Charity, considered as a Christian grace, ought in our translation, in order to avoid mistake, to have been trans- lated love. It is the love of God, and the love of our neighbor flowing from the love of God, and is described with wonderful copiousness, felicity, and even grandeur, by St. Paul, (1 Cor. 13:) a portion of Scripture which, as it shows the habitual temper of a true Christian, cannot be too frequently referred to for self-examination, and ought to be constantly present to us as our rule. In the popular sense, charity is almsgiving; a duty of prac- tical Christianity which is solemnly enjoined, and to which special promises are annexed. See Barron's Works, vol. i. ser, 27, 28; Blair's Ser., vol. iv. ser. 2; Scott's Ser., ser. 14; Tillotson's Ser., ser. 158; Paley's Mor. Phil., vol. i. p. 231 ; and article Love.—Hend. Buck. ; Watson, CHARLOTTE, (PRINCEss,) daughter of George IV., and heiress apparent to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland, was born 1795, and died Nov. 6, 1817, aged 22. She was married to Leopold, prince of Saxe Cobourg; and her untimely death in connexion with that of her infant child, clothed the nation in mourning, changed the succession of the throne, and drew forth, among other able funeral discourses, one by the Rev. Robert Hall, which is a master-piece of eloquence, probably never equalled on any similar occasion. When informed of the death of her child a little before her own, she said, “I feel it as a mother naturally should”—adding, “It is the will of GoD ! praise to Him in all things!” Mr. Hall mentions as traits of her character, “that she visited the abodes of the poor, and learned to weep with those who weep; that surrounded with the fascinations of pleasure, she was not inebriated by its charms; that she resisted the strongest temptations to pride, preserved her ears open to truth, was impatient of the voice of flattery; in a word, that she sought and cherished the inspirations of piety, and malked humbly nith her God. This is fruit which sur- C H A C H A 352 wives when the flower withers—the only ornaments and treasures we can carry into eternity.”—Clissold 5 Works of Robt. Hall, vol. i. 189, - CHARM ; a kind of spell, supposed by the ignorant to have an irresistible influence, by means of the concur- rence of some infernal power, both on the minds, lives, and properties of those whom it has for its object, ſº “Certain vain ceremonies,” says Dr, Doddridge, “which are commonly called charms, and seem to have no efficacy at all for producing the effects proposed by them, are to be avoided; seeing if there be indeed any real efficacy in them, it is generally probable they owe it to some bad cause; for one can hardly imagine that God should per- mit good angels in any extraordinary manner to interpose, or should immediately exert his own miraculous power on trifling occasions, and upon the performance of such idle tricks as are generally made the condition of receiving such benefits.” See Divination.—Hend. Buck. CHARNOCK, (STEPHEN, D. D.) was born in London, in the year 1628.—His father, Mr. Richard Charnock, was an eminent solicitor, descended from an ancient and respectable family in Lancashire. He received his earliest instructions from his father; and, when very young, he entered upon a course of preparatory studies in Emma- nuel college, Cambridge, under the tuition of Dr. William Sancroft. Whilst pursuing his literary studies at the university, his mind became enlightened, and his heart regenerated; and from that time to the end of his life, the consistency of his spirit and deportment, and the excel- lence of his general character, were evident to the world. On quitting that university, in the year celebrated for the commencement of the civil war between the unfortunate Charles and his parliament, Mr. Charnock commenced his labors as a Christian minister in Southwark, and was there, in the conversion of several persons, by means of his preaching, honored with that decisive evidence of his usefulness which encouraged him to persevere in his ap- pointed course with renewed ardor and hope. South- wark, he, however, soon quitted for New college, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship from the visiters appointed by parliament; and in the year 1652, “became senior proctor of the university, and discharged the duties of his office with great reputation and applause.” When Mr. Charnock left the classic retirements of Oxford, he visited Ireland, and resided some time with Sir Henry Cromwell. During that time he preached once every Lord's day, at Dublin, with great acceptance, to large, attentive, and improved congregations. At length, ejected by the act of uniformity, Mr. Charnock returned to England, and took up his residence in London, where he preached to congregations of dissenters for the period of fifteen years. Those sermons now constitute the principal part of his works; and whilst on the doctrines they contain, being de- cidedly Calvinistic, a variety of opinions are entertained, yet it is universally admitted that they are distinguished by great originality and genius, and are well deserving of the widely-spread attention they have so long received. His reasonings are nervous, and his appeals affecting. His judgment was sound ; his taste correct; his imagina- tion lively; his piety undissembled. He was grave, with- out being dull, and perspicuous without being wearisome. His “Treatise on the Attributes of God,” is acknowledged to be incomparably the best in the English language. Lseful was his life; but his usefulness has survived him. His works remain, to convince the judgment and reform the heart. The libraries of divines are incomplete with- out his works; and every theologian, controversialist, and biblical critic consults his writings, either to refute or ad- mire them. His days were, however, comparatively few ; for, at the age of fifty-two, he expired in London, and was buried in St. Michael's church, Cornhill. As a man, he was distinguished for his learning, industry, gravity, and amiability of temper; and as a scholar, a theologian, and an author, for all that is venerable in erudition, great in learning, serious and wise in expression, and profound in knowledge. For further account of this learned and pious man, see his Works, and Life prefixed, by Edward Par- sons; also Calamy’s Non-conformists' Memorial.—Jones' Christ. Biog. - - - CHASIDIM, or “PIRTISTs,” a Jewish sect, which we homage. must not confound with the party who took the same name in the time of the Maccabees, and rendered them- selves famous by the zeal with which they contended for the national institutions. This sect dates its origin no farther back than the year 1740, when its doctrines were first broached by Israel Baalsham, in the small country town of Flussty, in Poland. In the course of about twen- ty years, his fame, as an exorcist, and master of the ca- bala, spread to such a degree, that he obtained a great number of followers in Poland, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This rabbi gave out that he alone was possessed of the true mystery of the sacred name; that his soul at certain times left the body, in order to receive revelations in the world of spirits; and that he was endowed with miracu- lous powers, by which he was able to control events, both in the physical and intellectual world. His followers were taught to look to him for the absolution of every crime they might commit; to repress every thing like reflection on the doctrines of religion; to expect the immediate appearance of the Messiah; and, in sickness, to abstain from the use of medicine, assured that their spiritual guides, of whom several made their appearance on the death of the founder, were possessed of such merits as would procure for them instant recovery. The accusa- tions of gross immorality brought against the members of this sect by the Lithuanian rabbi, Israel Loebel, have been called in question, and are supposed rather to have originated in prejudice, than to have any foundation in truth; but it is affirmed by one who has had the best op- portunities of investigating, that their morals are most ob- noxious, and that the representations that have been given of them are by no means exaggerated. . They are not only at enmity with all the other Jews, but form the bitterest and most bigoted enemies of the Christian religion. They believe that the Messiah, whom they are hourly expecting, will be a mere man, but will come with such an effulgence of glory, as to produce a complete regeneration in the heart of every Jew, and deliver them thenceforth from every evil. To their rabbins, whom they honor with the name of Zadiks, or “Righteous,” they pay almost divine The extravagance of their gestures during their public service entitles them to the appellation of the “Jew- ish Jumpers.” Working themselves up into ecstasies, they break out into fits of laughter, clap their hands, jump up and down the synagogue in the most frantic manner; and turning their faces towards heaven, they clench their fists, and, as it were, dare the Almighty to withhold from them the objects of their requests. This 'sect has so in- creased of late years, that in Russian Poland and Euro- pean Turkey, it is reported to exceed in number that of the Rabbinists in these countries.—Hend. Buck. CHASTEN ; chastise, correct. (1.) To strike or afflict one for his advantage- and correction; and to refuse, or de- spise chastisement, or correction, is to undervalue it, and be not reformed by it. Jer. 2:30, and 7:28. Heb. 12: 5. The overthrow of the Jewish nation by the Chaldeans, was the chastisement of a cruel one : it was very severe, and inflicted by cruel instruments. Jer. 30: 14. (2.) To punish in just wrath. Lev. 26: 28. Thus the chastisement of our peace was laid on Christ; that punishment by the bearing of which our reconciliation with God is effected, was laid on him as our surety. Isa. 53: 5. To chasten one's self, is to be exer- cised before God, in self-abasement, fasting, and prayer. Dan. 10: 12. The Scriptures are for correction : by their powerful influence they pierce a man to the heart, and make him amend his evil courses. 2 Tim. 3: 16.-Bronn. CHASTITY; purity from fleshly lust. In men it is termed continence. See CoNTINENCE. There is a chastity of speech, behavior, and imagination, as well as of body. Grove gives us the following rules for the conservation of chastity: 1. To keep ourselves fully employed in labors either of the body or the mind: idleness is frequently the introduction to sensuality. 2. To guard the senses, and avoid every thing which may be an incentive to lust. Does the free use of some meats and drinks make the body ungovernable 2 Does reading certain books debauch the imagination and inflame the passions? Do tempta- tions often enter by the sight? Have public plays, dan- cings, effeminate music, idle songs, loose habits, and the like, the same effect? He who resolves upon chastity ... C. H. E. C H E 353 cannot be ignorant what his duty is in all these and such like cases. 3. To implore the Divine Spirit, which is a spirit of purity; and by the utmost regard to his presence and operations to endeavor to retain him with us.-Grove's Moral Philos. p. 2, see. 6; Hend. Buck. CHAUCER, (Geoffrey,) who has been called the day- star and the father of English poetry, is believed to have been born in London, in 1328, to have been educated both at Oxford and Cambridge, and to have studied law in the Temple. He was patronized by John of Gaunt, the sister of whose mistress he married. He was appointed to va- rious lucrative offices, and more than once was sent upon missions to foreign countries. Having, however, imbibed the doctrines of Wickliffe, he was compelled to fly to Zealand, whence want of resources soon obliged him to return. Imprisonment awaited him at home, and he re- gained his liberty only by disclosures which drew down upon him the indignation of his party. At length, he re- covered the pensions of which he had been deprived, and the remainder of his life was spent in retirement, first at Woodstock, and next at Donnington castle. He died in 1400, in London, to which city he had journied upon business. Considered merely with reference to his own merits, Chaucer ranks high among poets; compared with his predecessors, his contemporaries, and many of his suc- cessors, he is absolutely unrivalled. His great work, The Canterbury Tales, was not begun till he was far advanced in years; but it displays all the freshness, vigor, and varie- ty of youth-Davenport. ..CHAUNCEY, (CHARLEs,) second president of Harvard college, was born in England, in 1589. He received his grammar education at Westminster, and took the degree of M. D. at the university of Cambridge. He emigrated to New England in 1638, and after serving for a number of years in the ministry at Scituate, was appointed, in 1654, president of Harvard college. In this office he re- mained till his death, in 1671, performing all its duties with industrious fidelity. He was eminent as a physician, and was of opinion that there ought to be no distinction between physic and divinity.—Davenport. CHAZINZARIANS ; a sect which arosè in Armenia, in the seventh century. They are so called from the Ar- menian word chazus, which signifies a cross, because they were charged with adoring the cross.—Hend. Buck. CHEBAR ; a river of Assyria, which falls into the Eu- phrates, in the upper part of Mesopotamia. Ezek. 1: 1. —Calmet. CHECKER-WORK; that in which the images of flow- ers, sprigs, leaves, and fruits are curiously wrought to- gether. 1 Kings 7: 17–Bromm. - CHECKLEY, (SAMUEL,) minister in Boston, was gra- duated at Harvard college in 1715. He was ordained the first minister of the New South church in Summer street, November 22, 1719, and died December 1, 1769, in the fifty-first year of his ministry, aged seventy-three. In his reaching he was plain and evangelical. The great sub- ject of his discourses was Jesus Christ, as a divine person, and as the end of the law for righteousness to all that be- lieve. He frequently dwelt upon the fall of man, the ne- cessity of the influences of the Spirit of God, the freeness and richness of divine grace, the necessity of regenera- tion, justification by faith, and faith as the gift of God. He was careful also to insist upon the importance of the Christian virtues. These he exhibited in his own life. Discountenancing all parade in religion, it gave him plea- sure to encourage, the humble and diffident. As he did not consider it of little importance what principles were embraced, he was tenacious of his sentiments. During his last sickness he enjoyed the supports of religion, and anticipated the blessedness of dwelling with his Savior, and with his pious friends, who had been called befºre him into eternity. Renouncing his own righteousness, he trusted only in the merits of Christ. He published a ser- mon on the death of king George I., 1727; of Rey. Wrm. waldron, 1727; of Lydia Hutchinson, 1748; at the elec- tion, 1755–Roven's Fun. Serm. ; Allen. - CHEDORLAOMER, king of the Elymaans, or Ela- mites, (i. e. either the Persians, or a people bordering on them,) was one of the four * who confederated against Collect. Hist. Soc. iii. 361; the five kings of the Pentapolis of Sodom; who had revolt- ed from his power, A. M. 2092.-Calmet. - CHEEVER, (SAMUEL,) the first minister of Marblehead, was graduated at Harvard college in 1659. In November, 1668, he first visited the town, in which he was afterwards settled, when the people were few. He continued preach- ing with them sixteen years before his ordination, August 13, 1684. He received Mr. Barnard as his colleague in 1716. He died in 1724, when he was eighty-five years of age. Mr. Cheever possessed good abilities, and was a constant and zealous preacher, a man of peace and of a catholic mind. Never was he sick. For fifty years he was not taken off from his labors one Sabbath. When he died, the lamp of life fairly burned out. He felt no pain in his expiring moments. He published the election sermon, 1712.-Coll. Hist. Soc. viii. 65, 66; x. 168; Allen. CHEMARIM. This word occurs only once in our ver- sion of the Bible : “I will cut off the remnant of Baal, and the name of the Chemarims (Chemarim) with the priests,” Zeph. 1: 4; but it frequently occurs in the He- brew, and is generally translated “priests of the idols,” or “priests clothed in black,” because chamar signifies blackness. By this word the best commentators understand the priests of false gods, and in particular the worshippers of fire, because they were, it is said, dressed in black. Le Clerc, however, declares against this last opinion. Our translators of the Bible would seem sometimes to under- stand by this word the idols or objects of worship, rather than their priests. This is also the opinion of Le Clerc. Calmet observes that camar in Arabic signifies the moon, and that Isis is the same deity. “Among the priests of Isis,” says Calmet, “were those called melanephori, that is, wearers of black; but it is uncertain whether this name was given them by reason of their dressing wholly in black, or because they wore a black shining veil in the processions of this goddess.”—Watson. CHEMOSH ; an idol of the Moabites. Numb. 21:29. The name is derived from a root which in Arabic signifies to hasten. For this reason, many believe Chemosh to be the sun, whose precipitate course might well precure it the name of swift. Some identify Chemosh with Ammon, and Macrobius shows that Ammon was the sun, whose rays were denoted by his horns. Calmet is of opinion that the god Hamanus and Apollo Chomeus, mentioned by Strabo and Ammianus Marcellinus, was Chamos, or the sun. These deities were worshipped in many parts of the east. Some, from the resemblance of the Hebrew Chamos with the Greek Comos, have thought Chamos to signify Bacchus. Jerome and most interpreters consider Chamosh and Peor as the same deity; but some think that Daal-Peor was Tammuz, or Adonis. To Chemosh, Solo- mon erected an altar upon the mount of Olives. 1 Kings 11: 7. As to the form of the idol Chemosh, the Scripture is silent: but if, according to Jerome, it were like Baal- Peor, it must have been of the beeve kind, as were, pro- bably, all the Baals, though accompanied with various in- signia. There can be little doubt that part of the religious services performed to Chemosh, as to Baal-Peor, consisted in revelling and drunkenness, obscenities and impurities of the grossest kinds. From Chemosh the Greeks seem to have derived their Komos, called by the Romans Comos, the god of feasting and revelling.— Watson. CHEREMI; (Heb.) the second sort of anathema among the Jews. The first (called middui) is merely separation, or the lesser excommunication. The second, (cherem,) or the greater excommunication, deprived the excommunicated person of most of the advantages of civil society. He could have no commerce with any one, could neither buy nor sell, except such things as are abso- lutely necessary to life, nor resort to the schools, nor en- ter into the Synagogues; and no one was permitted to eat and drink with him. The sentence of cherem was to be pro- nounced by ten persons only, or at least in the presence of ten persons. But the excommunicated person might be absolved by three judges, or even by one, provided he were a doctor of the law. The form of this excommuni- cation was loaded with a multitude of curses and impre- cations, taken from different places of the Scripture. See ANATHEMA and Excommunication.—Hend. Buck. C H E C. H. E. , [354 ) CHERETHIM. Ct.erethim, or Cherethites, are deno- minations for the Philistines: “I will stretch out mine hand upon the Philistines, and will cut off the Cherethim, and destroy the remnant of the sea-coast.” Ezek. 25: 16. Zephaniah, exclaiming against the Philistines, says, “Woe unto the inhabitants of the sea-coasts, the nation of the Cherethites.” Zeph. 2: 5. It is said, (1 Sam. 30: 14,) that the Amalekites invaded the south of the Cherethites; that is, of the Philistines. David, and some of the kings, his successors, had guards called Cherethites and Perethites. 2 Sam. 15: 18. 20:7. Calmet thinks that they were of the country of the Philistines; but several expositors of our own country are of a different opinion. “We can hardly suppose,” say the latter, “that David would em- ploy any of these uncircumcised people as his body-guard, or that the Israelitish soldiers would have patiently seen foreigners of that nation advanced to such places of honor and trust.” It may, therefore, be inferred that the guards were called Cherethites, because they went with David in- to Philistia, where they continued with him all the time he was under the protection of Achish. These were the per- sons who accompanied David from the first, and who re- mained with him in his greatest distresses; and it is no wonder, if men of such approved ſidelity should be chosen for his body-guard. Besides, it is not uncommon for sol- diers to derive their names, not from the place of their na- tivity, but of their residence,—JWatson. CHERITH ; a brook beyond Jordan, which falls into that river, below Bethsan. 1 Kings 17: 3. See T2 Lij AII.— Calmet. CHERUB; plural CueFUBIM, mighty ones. It appears, from Gen. 3: 29, that this is a name given to angels; but whether it is the mame of a distinct class of celestials, or designates the same order as the seraphim, we have no means of determining. But the term cherubim is also ap- plied to those splendid figures which Moses was command- ed to make and place at each end of the mercy-seat, or propitiatory, and which covered the ark with expanded wings in the most holy place of the Jewish tabernacle and temple. See Exodus 25: 18, 19. The original meaning of the term, and the shape or form of these, any further than that they were alata animata, “winged creatures,” is not certainly known. The opinion of Grotius that they were figures much like that of a calf; and of Bochart and Spencer that they were more like the figure of an ox than any thing besides, is as groundless as it is gross. Jose- phus says they were extraordinary creatures, of a figure unknown to mankind. The opinion of most critics, taken, it seems, from Ezek. 1: 9, 10, is, that they were figures composed of parts of various creatures; as a man, a lion, an ox, an eagle. , But certainly we have no decided proof that the figures placed in the holy of holies in the taber- nacle, were of the same form with those symbolic repre- sentations described by Ezekiel. The contrary, indéed, seems rather indicated, because they looked down upon the mercy-seat, which is an attribute not well adapted to a four-faced creature, like the emblematical cherubim seen by Ezekiel. - The cherubim of the sanctuary were two in number; one at each end of the mercy-seat; which, with the ark, was placed exactly in the middle, between the north and the south sides of the tabernacle. It was here that atone. ment was made, and that God was rendered propitious by the high-priest Sprinkling the blood upon and before the mercy-seat. Lev. 16: 14, 15. Here the glory of God ap- peared, and here he met his high-priest, and by him his people; º: 25:22; Num. 7: 89:) and from hence he gave forth his oracles; whence the whole holy place was called debir, the Oracle. These cherubim, it must be ob- served, had feet whereon they stood, (2 Chron. 3:13;) and their feet were joined, in one continued beaten work, to the ends of the mercy-seat which covered the ark : so that they were wholly over or above it. Those in the taberna- cle were of beaten gold, being but of small dimensions, (Exod. 25: 18;) but those in the temple of Solomon were made of the wood of the olive tree overlaid with gold; for they were very large, extending their wings to the whole breadth of the oracle, which was twenty cubits. 1 Kings 6. 23–28; 2 Chron. 3: 10–13. They are called “cherubim of glory,” not merely or chiefly on account of the matter or formation of them, but because thcy had the glory of God, or the glorious symbol of his presence, “the shechinah,” resting between them. As this glory abode in the inward tabernacle, and as the figures of the cherubim represented the angels who surround the mani- festation of the divine presence in the world above, that tabernacle was rendered a fit image of the court of hea- ven, in which light it is considered every where in the Epistle to the Hebrews. See chapters 4: 14; 8: 1; 9: 8, 9, 23, 24; 12:22, 23. The cherubim, it is true, have been considered by the disciples of Mr. Hutchinson as designed emblems of Jeho- vah himself, or rather of the Trinity of persons in the godhead, with man taken into the divine essence. But that God, who is a pure Spirit, without parts or passions, perfectly separate and remote from all matter, should com- mand Moses to make material and visible images or em- blematical representations of himself, is utterly improba- ble: especially considering that he had repeatedly, ex- pressly, and solemnly forbidden every thing of this kind in the second commandment of the moral law, delivered from mount Sinai, amidst thunder and lightning, “black- mess, darkness, and tempest,” pronouncing with an audible and awful voice, while “the whole mount quaked greatly, and the sound of the trumpet waxed louder and louder, Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, nor the likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth.” Hence, also, the solemn caution of Moses, Deut. 4: 15, &c. Add to this, that in most or all of the places where the cherubim are mentioned in the Scriptures, God is expressly distinguished from them. Thus, “He,” the Lord, “placed at the east of the garden cherubim, and a flaming sword.” Gen. 3: 24. “He rode on a cherub and did fly.” Psalm 18: 10. “He sitteth between the cherubim.” Psalm 99: 1. “He dwelleth between the cherubim.” Psalm 80: 1. We also read of “the glory of the God of Israel going up, from the cherub whereupon he was, to the threshold of the house.” Ezek. 9: 3. And again, “The glory of the Lord went up from the cherub, and the court was full of the bright- ness of the Lord's glory.” Ezek, 10:4. And again, “The glory of the Lord departed from off the threshold, and stood over the cherubim.” Ezek. 10: 18. In all these passages, the glory of the Lord, that is, the shechinah, the glorious sym- bol of his presence, is distinguished from the cherubim ; and not the least intimation is given in these passages, or any others, of the Scripture, that the cherubim were ima- ges or emblematical representations of him. Mr. Park- hurst's laborious effort to establish Mr. Hutchinson's opi- mion on the subject of the cherubim, in his Hebrew Lexi- con, sub voce, is so obviously fanciful and contradictory, that few will be converted to this strange opinion. It seems much more probable that, as most eminent di- vines have supposed, the cherubim represented the angels who surround the divine presence in heaven. Accordingly, they had their faces turned towards the mercy-seat, where God was supposed to dwell, whose glory the angels in hea- ven always behold, and upon which their eyes are continu- ally fixed; as they are also upon Christ, the true propitia- tory, which mystery of redemption they “desire,” St. Peter tells us, “to look into,” 1 Peter 1: 12; a circumstance evidently signified by the faces of the cherubim being turned inward, and their eyes fixed on the mercy-seat. We may here also observe that, allowing St. Peter in this passage to allude to the cherubic figures, which, from his mode of expression, can scarcely be doubted, this amounts to a strong presumption that the cherubim repre- sented, not so much one order, as “the angels” in general, all of whom are said to “desire to look into” the subjects of human redemption, and to all whose orders, “the prin- cipalities and powers in heavenly places, the manifold wisdom of God is made known by the church.” In Eze- kiel, the cherubic figures are evidently connected with the dispensations of providence; and they have there- fore appropriate forms, emblematical of the strength, wis- dom, Swiftness, and constancy, with which the holy angels minister in carrying on God's designs: but in the sanctua- ry they are connected with the administration of grace; and they are rather adoring beholders, than actors, and probably appeared under forms more simple. As to C H E C H I [355 the “Living Ones,” (204,) improperly rendered “beasts” in our translation, (Rev. 4: 7,) Some think them an hierogly- phical representation, not of the qualities of angels, but of those of real Christians; especially of those in the suffer- ing and active periods of the church. The first, a lion, signifying their undaunted courage, manifested in meet- ing with confidence the greatest sufferings; the second, a calf or ox, emblematical of unwearied patience; the third, with the face of a man, representing prudence and com- passion; the fourth, a flying eagle, signifying activity and vigor. The four qualities thus emblematically set forth in these four living creatures, namely, undaunted courage, unwearied patience under sufferings, prudence united with kindness, and vigorous activity, are found, more or less, in the true members of Christ's church in every age and nation. Probably, however, like the “living creatures” in the vision of Ezekiel, they are emblematical of the minis- trations of angels in what pertains to those providential events which more particularly concern the church. The wheels described in Ezek. 1: 15–21, in connection with the cherubim, Mr. Taylor conceives to have been representative of the throne of the Deity; the con- struction—wheel within wheel—being for the purpose of their rolling every way with perfect readiness, and without any occasion of turning the whole machine. The cherubim having the conducting of this throne, it is obvi- ous to remark how well adapted their figure was to their service;—their faces looking every way, so that there was no occasion for turning, (as a horse must,) in obedience to directions, to proceed to the right, or to the left, instead of going straight forward. As much misapprehension respecting these appearances has arisen from the idea of the wheels and the cherubim being full of eyes, (Ezek. 1:) Mr. Taylor next endeavors to correct that mistake. It is surprising, he remarks, that when the same Hebrew word (oin) had been rendered color, in verses 4, 7, 16, 22, 27, it should, in verse 18, be render- ed eyes. It means the glittering, splendid hues—the fugi- tive, reflected tints, those accidental coruscations of colors, such as we see vibrate in some precious stones, which, seen in some lights, show certain colors, but seen in other lights, show other colors. This sense of the word is con- firmed by the use of it in Numb. 11: 7; “the manna was like coriander seed, itself; but the eye of it—the reflected, glistening tint, which vibrated from it—was like to the eye— the glistening tint—of the bdellium.” It would not be far from the truth, to say, that these eyes were of the nature of those we call eyes in a peacock's feather : i. e. that they were spots peculiarly embellished with colors; or streaks like those of the golden pheasant of China-Watson ; Jones ; Calmet. CHERUBICAL HYMN ; an hymn of great note in the ancient Christian church. The original form of it, as it stands in the constitutions, was in these words: “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts; heaven and earth are full of thy glory, who art blessed forcver. Amen.” This thrice repeating the word “holy” was in imitation of the sera- phim in the vision of Isaiah. Afterwards, the church add- ed some words to it, and sung it in this form : “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy upon us.” This form is ascribed to Proclus, bishop of Constantinople, and Theodosius the younger, A. D. 446. The church used this form to declare her faith in the Holy Trinity, applying the title of “Holy God” to the Father, “Holy Mighty” to the Son, and “Holy Immortal” to the Holy Ghost. Thus it continued till the emperor Anastasius, or, as some say, Peter Gnapheus, bishop of Antioch, caused the words “ that was crucified for us,” to be added to it: which was done with a view to introduce the heresy of the Theopas- chites, who asserted that the divine nature itself suffered on the cross. To avoid this inconvenience, Calandio, bishop of Antioch, in the time of the emperor Zeno, made another addition to it, of the words “Christ our King,” reading it thus: “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immor- tal, Christ our King, that was crucified for us, have mercy on us.” These last additions occasioned great confusions and tumults in the eastern church, whilst the Constantino- politan and western churches stiffly rejected them, and some, the better to maintain the old way of applying it to the whole Trinity, instead of the words, “crucified for us. expressly said, “Holy Trinity, have mercy Oil US. y - This hymn was chiefly sung in the middle of the coni- munion service, as it is at this day in the communion ser- vice of the church of England. It is likewise called by the Greek name trisagion, i. e. “thrice holy,” from the trine repetition of the word “holy.”—Hend. Buck. CHESTNUT TREE. This tree, which is mentioned only in Gen. 30: 37, and Ezek. 31: 8, is by the Septuagint and Jerome rendered plane tree; and Drusius, Hiller, and most of the modern interpreters render it the same. The name is derived from a root which signifies nakedness ; and it is often observed of the plane tree, that the bark peals off from the trunk, leaving it naked, which peculiarity may have been the occasion of its Hebrew name. The son of Sirach says, “I grew up as a plane tree by the wa- ter.” Ecclesiasticus 24: 14.—Watson. - CHESULLOTH, or CHISLOTH-TABOR ; now Iksál, a village with extensive sepulchral excavations, two or three miles south-east from Nazareth, and about four miles S. S. W. from the summit of mount Tabor. It was near the boundary between Zebulon and Issachar.—T. CHILD. Mothers, in the earliest times, suckled their offspring themselves, and that from thirty to thirty-six months. The day when the child was weaned was made a festival. Gen. 21:8; Exod. 2: 7, 9; 1 Sam. 1: 22–24; 2 Chron. 31: 16; 2 Mac. 7:27, 28; Matt. 21: 16. Nurses were employed, in case the mother died before the child was old enough to be weaned, and when from any circum- stances she was unable to afford a sufficient supply of milk for its nourishment. In later ages, when matrons had be- come more delicate, and thought themselves too infirm to ſulfil the duties which naturally devolved upon them, nur- ses were employed to take their place, and were reckoned among the pººl members of the family. They are, accordingly, in Čonsequence of the respectable station which they sustained, frequently mentioned in Sacred his- tory. Gen. 35: 8; 2 Kings 11: 2; 2 Chron. 22: 11. The sons remained till the fifth year in the care of the women ; they then came into the father's hands, and were taught not only the arts and duties of life, but were instructed in the Mosaic law, and in all parts of their country’s religion. Deut. 6: 20–25; 7: 19; 11: 19. Those who wished to have them further instructed, provided they did not deem it preferable to employ private teachers, sent them away to some priest or Levite, who sometimes had a number of other children to instruct. It appears from 1 Sam, 1:25 –28, that there was a school near the holy tabernacle, dedicated to the instruction of youth. There had been many other schools of this kind, which had fallen into de- cay, but were restored again by the prophet Samuel ; after whose time, the members of the seminaries in question, who were denominated by way of distinction “the sons of the prophets,” acquired no little notoriety. Daughters rarely departed from the apartments appropriated to the ſemales, except when they went out with an urn to draw water. They spent their time in learning those domestic and other arts, which are befitting a woman's situation and character, till they arrived at that period in life when they were to be sold, or, by a better fortune, given away in marriage. Prov. 31: 13; 2 Sam. 13: 7. 2. In Scripture, disciples are often called children or sons. Solomon, in his Proverbs, says to his disciple, “Hear, my son.” The descendants of a man, how remote soever, are denominated his sons or children; as, “the children of Edom,” “the children of Moab,” “the chil- dren of Israel.” Such expressions as, “the children of light,” “the children of darkness,” “the children of the kingdom,” signify those who follow truth, those who re- main in error, and those who belong to the church. Per- sons arrived at almost the age of maturity are sometimes called “children.” Thus, Joseph is termed “the child,” though he was at least sixteen years old, (Gen. 37:30;) and Benjamin, even when above thirty, was so denominated. 44; 20. By the Jewish law, children were reckoned the property of their parents, who could sell them for seven * years to pay their debts. Their creditors had also the power of compelling them to resort to this measure. The § woman, whose oil Elisha increased so much as ena- bled her to pay her husband's debts, complaimed to the C H I C. H. O [356 ) prophet, that, her husband being dead, the creditor was come to take away her two sons to be bondmen. 2 Kings 4: 1. - “Children, or sons of God,” is a name by which the angels are sometimes described: “There was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord.” Job 1: 6; 2: 1. Good men, in opposition to the wicked, are also thus denominated; the children of Seth's family, in opposition to those of Cain : “The sons of God saw the daughters of men.” Gen. 6: 2. Judges, magis. trates, priests, are also termed children of God: “I have said, Ye are gods, and all of you are the children of the Most High.” Psalm 82:6. The Israelites are called “sons of God,” in opposition to the gentiles. Hosea 1: 10; John 11:52. In the New Testament, believers are commonly called “children of God” by virtue of their adoption. St. Paul, in several places, extols the advantages of being adopted sons of God. Rom. 8: 14; Gal. 3: 26. “Children, or sons of men,” is a name given to Cain's family before the deluge, and, in particular, to the giants, who were violent men, and had corrupted their ways. Afterwards, the impious Israelites were thus ealled: “O ye sons of men, how long will ye love vanity?” Psalm 4: 2. “The sons of men, whose teeth are spears and arrows.” 57: 4.— Watson. CHILD-BIRTH. In oriental countries, child-birth is not an event of much difficulty; and mothers at such a season were originally the only assistants of their daughters, as any further aid was deemed unnecessary. Exod. 1: 19. In cases of more than ordinary difficulty, those matrons who had acquired some celebrity for skill and expertness on occasions of this kind, were invited in ; and in this way there eventually rose into notice that class of women de- nominated midwives. The child was no sooner born than it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes. Ezek. 16:4. It was the custom at a very ancient period, for the father, while music in the mean while was heard to sound, to clasp the new-born child to his bosom, and by this ceremony was understood to declare it to be his own. Gen. 50:23; Job 3:12; Psalm 22: 11. This practice was imitated by those wives who adopted the children of their maids. Gen. 16: 2; 30: 3–5. The birth-day of a son, especially, was made a festival, and on each successive year was celebrated with renewed demonstrations of festivity and joy, Gen. 40: 20 ; Job 1: 4; Matt, 14: 6. The messenger, who brought the news of the birth of a son, was received with joy, and rewarded with presents. Job 3: 3; Jer. 20:15. This is the case at the present day in Persia.—Watson. CHILLINGWORTH, (WILLIAM,) a divine and contro- versial theologian, was born at Oxford, in 1622, and edu- cated at Trinity college, of which he became a fellow in 1628; was for a while a convert to the Catholic church, but returned to Protestantism ; obtained the chancellor- ship of Salisbury, the prebend of Brixworth, and the mas- tership of Wigston’s Hospital; espoused the royal cause, and acted as engineer at the siege of Gloucester; was taken prisoner at Arundel; and died, a captive, in 1644. His principal production is, The Religion of Protestants a safe Way to Salvation. His works, including his sermons, form a folio volume.—Davenport. CHILMIAD; a city of Asia. Ezek. 27: 23. CHIMHAM, 1. a son of Barzillai, the Gileadite, and one who followed David to Jerusalem, after the war with Absalom ; and who was enriched by David, in considera- tion of his father Barzillai, whose generous assistance he had experienced. 2 Sam. 19: 37, 38. 2. A place near Bethlehem. Jer. 41: 17-Calmet. CHINESE. The religion of this great and ancient na- tion was certainly patriarchal, and supposed to be derived from Joktan, the brother of Peleg. Gen. 10:26, 30. This has degenerated to paganism, which, among their literati, may be refined to a sort of philosophical atheism; but among the vulgar, is as gross idolatry as that of other heathen nations. The grand Lama, (see LAMA,) or pope of the Chinese and Tartars, who resides at Thibet, in Tar- tary, is their visible deity, and treated with more distinc- tion than the pope of Rome himself, in the zenith of his power, and is attended by twenty thousand priests, or lamas. In addition to this general system of religion, which is founded on their sacred books, said to have de- scended from the skies, there are three grand sects, and those three are again subdivided into as many as Chris. tianity itself. See Fo; LAOKIUM ; CoNFUCIUs. - CHIOS, or Coos; an island in the Archipelago, between Lesbos and Samos, on the coast of Asia Minor, now call. ed Scio, Paul passed this way as he sailed southward from Mitylene to Samos. Acts 20: 15–Calmet. CHISLEU; the third month of the Jewish civil year, and the ninth of their sacred, answering to our November. and December. Neh. 1:1. It contains thirty days.--Watson. CHITTIM ; the country, or countries, implied by this name in Scripture, are variously interpreted by historians and commentators. Chittim has been taken, by Hales and Lowth, for all the coasts and islands.of the Mediter- ranean; which appears most consonant with the general use of the word by the different inspired writers.-Watson. CHIUN, the same as the Arabic Cheván, the planet Saturn, which, as well as Mars, was worshipped by the Semitish nations as the source of evil. Remphan is the Coptic name of Saturn. Amos 5:26. Acts 8: 43.—Robin- son’s Calmet. * CHLOE ; a noted Christian woman at Corinth, perhaps a widow, as she is represented as head of her family, from some of which Paul received his information of the divisions at Corinth. 1 Cor. 1: 11.-Bronwn. CHOIR: that part of a church, or cathedral, where the singers, or choristers, chant, or sing, divine service. The word, according to Isidore, is derived & coronis circumstan. tium, because, anciently, the choristers were disposed round the altar. It is properly the chancel. ‘. In the first common-prayer book of king Edward VI. the rubric at the beginning of morning prayer ordered the priest, “being in the choir, to begin the Lord's prayer :" so that it was the custom of the minister to perform divine service at the upper end of the chancel near the altar. Against this, Bucer, by the direction of Calvin, made a great outcry, pretending “it was an anti-christian prac- tice for the priest to say prayers only in the choir, a place peculiar to the clergy, and not in the body of the church among the people, who had as much right to divine wor- ship as the clergy.” This occasioned an alteration of the rubric, when the common-prayer book was revised in the fifth year of king Edward, and it was ordered, that prayers should be said in such part of the church, “where the peo- ple might best hear.” However, at the accession of queen Elizabeth to the throne, the ancient practice was restored, with a dispensing power left in the ordinary of determining it otherwise if he saw just cause. Convenience at last prevailed, and by degrees introduced the custom of read- ing prayers in the body of the church, so that now service is no longer performed in the choir or chancel, excepting in cathedrals.-Hend. Buck. CHOOSE, ELECT. (1.) To set apart a person or thing from among others to some particular use, office, or privi- lege. Exod. 17: 9; Ps. 25: 12, (2) To renew or mani- fest a choice. Isa. 14: 1; 48: 10. (3.) To follow, imitate, delight in, and practise. Prov. 3: 31 ; 1:29. God chooses men's delusions, and brings their fears upon them, when he gives them up to their dehusions as the just punishment of their sins. Thus God gave up the Jews to their vain fancies, and brought on them the destruction by the Romans, which they, by the murder of our Savior, thought to evade. Isa. 66: 4; John 12: 50. ELECTION imports, º God’s act of choosing men to everlasting life. Rom. : 11; 11: 5, 28. (2.) The persons chosen to eternal Hiſe. Rom. 11: 7. See ELECTION. CHOSEN, ELECT ; selected among others to some hono- rable service or station. Chosen warriors are such as are picked out as the most valiant and skilful in an army, or as best adapted to some special enterprise of great pith and moment. Exod. 15: 4; Judg. 20: 16. The Hebrew nation was an elect or chosen people; God set them apart —not for their superior excellence—but for wise and gra. cious purposes of his own—to receive his word, preserve his worship, and prepare for the advent of his Son. Ps. 105:43. Isa. 14:4. Deut. 7: 7, 9: 6–29. 10: 14, 15. Neh. 9: 7. Jerusalem was chosen, as the place where God was pleased to fix the peculiar symbols of his presence, and the privileges consequent thereon; as the seat of his tem. C H. O. C 1: R. [ 357 ) ple, sacrifices, &c. 1 Kings 11: 13. Christ is the elect, or thosen of God; from eternity he was set apart in the divine Mind as the only fit person to be our Mediator and Surety. Isa. 43: 1. 1 Pet. 2: 4. Christ's people, saved by him, are elect and chosen ; in his eternal purpose God kihdly sepa- rated them from the rest of mankind—not of merit, but of mercy—not from faith foreseen, but in order to faith be. stowed—that they might through Christ, and for his sake, receive salvation; to the praise of his glorious grace, which prepares them afore unto glory, through sanctifica- tion of the Spirit and belief of the truth. 1 Pet, 1:2. 2:9. 5: 13. 2 John 1. Rev. 17: 14. Ephes. 1: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 13. For the sake of these, that none of them, in their persons or progenitors, may be cut off, are the days of vengeance on wicked nations shortened; no seducer can draw any of them fully and finally from the truth of the gospel; none can lay any valid charge against them before God; no injury done them shall pass unpunished; angels shall gather them all to Christ's right hand; and they shall in- fallibly obtain everlasting happiness. Matt. 24:22, 24, 31. Mark 13:20. John 15: 16, 19. Rom. 8: 33, and 11: 7. Luke 18; 7, 8. The apostles were chosen; fixed upon and set apart from others to bear witness to Christ, and execute all the functions pertaining to their high and sacred office. Acts 10: 41. 9:15. 1: 24. John 6: 70.—Brown. CHORAZIN, a village in the land of Gennesareth, usually mentioned in connexion with Bethsaida and Capernaum. Jerome places it two Roman miles from Capernaum ; meaning, evidently, towards the south. Pococke and others, who supposed that they heard the name among the native Arabs, were certainly deceived. The name is unknown to the people of that region, and the memory of its location has irrecoverably perished.—T. CHOREPISCOPI (tes choras episcopoi, bishops of the country.) In the ancient church, when the dioceses be- came enlarged by the conversions of pagans in the country and villages at a great distance from the city church, the bishops appointed themselves certain assistants, whom they called chorepiscopi, because by their office they were bishops of the country. There have been great disputes among the learned concerning this order, some thinking that they were mere presbyters; others that there were two sorts, some that had received episcopal ordination, and some that were presbyters only ; others think that they were all bishops. See Campbell's Lectures on Eccl. Hist. Lect. viii.-Hend. Buck. CHRISM; oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in the Romish and Greek churches in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unction.— IHend. Buck. - CHRISOME, in the office of baptism, was a white ves- ture, which the priest put upon the child, saying, “Take this white vesture for a token of innocency.”—H. Buck. CHRIST; the Lord and Savior of mankind. He is called Christ, or Messiah, because he is anointed, sent, and furnished by God to execute his mediatorial office. See Jesus CHRIST.-Hend. Buck. - CHRISTIAN ; a term used in a more lax and vague sense to denote one who professes the religion of Christ, or who does not belong to any of the other divisions of man- kind, such as Jews, Mahometans, deists, pagans, and athe- ists; or, in a more strict, scriptural, and theological sense, one who really believes the gospel, imbibes the spirit, is influenced by the grace, and obedient to the will of Christ. The former is merely political and conventional; the latter is sacred and proper. The disciples and followers of Christ were first denomi- nated Christians at Antioch, A. D. 42. They distinguished themselves, in the most remarkable manner, by their con- duct and their virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St. Peter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhortations of the apostles, who failed not carefully to instruct them as persons who were entering upon an entire new life. They attended the temple daily, doing nothing different from the other Jews, because it was yet not time to separate from them. But they made a still greater pro- gress in virtue; for they sold all that they possessed, and distributed their goods to the wants of their brethren. The primitive Christians were not only remarkable for the con- sistency of their conduct, but were also very eminently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts and graces bestowed by God upon them. The Jews were the first and the most inveterate enemies the Christians had. They put them to death as often as they had it in their power; and when they revolted against the Romans, in the time of the emperor Adrian, Barcho- chebas, who was at the head of that revolt, employed against the Christians the most rigorous punishments to compel them to blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that even in the third century, they endea- vored to get into their hands Christian women, in order to scourge and stone them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians three times a day in their synagogues; and their rabbins would not suffer them to converse with Chris- tians upon any occasion; nor were they contented to hate and detest them, but they despatched emissaries all over the world to defame the Christians, and spread all sorts of calumnies against them. They accused them, among other things, of worshipping the sun, and the head of an ass; they reproached them with idleness, and being a useless set of people. They charged them with treason, and endeavoring to erect a new monarchy against that of the Romans. They affirmed that in celebrating their mys. teries, they used to kill a child, and eat his flesh. They accused them of the most shocking incests, and of intem- erance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and be: avior of the first Christians were sufficient to refute all that was said against them, and evidently demonstrated that these accusations were mere calumny, and the effect of inveterate malice. Pliny the younger, who was gover- nor of Pontus and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a very particular account of the Christians in that province, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Trajan, of which the following is an extract: “I take the liberty, sir, to give you an account of every difficulty which arises to me: I have never been present at the exa- minations of the Christians; for which reason I know not what questions have been put to them, nor in what man- ner they have been punished. My behavior towards those who have been accused to me, has been this : I have in- terrogated them, in order to know whether they were really Christians. When they have confessed it, I have repeated the same question two or three times, threatening them with death if they did not renounce this religion. Those who have persisted in their confession, have been by my order led to punishment. I have even met with some Roman citizens guilty of this frenzy, whom, in regard to their quality, I have set apart from the rest, in order to send them to Rome. These persons declare that their whole crime, if they are guilty, consists in this : that on certain days they assemble before sunrise to sing alter- nately the praises of Christ, as of God; and to oblige them- selves, by the performance of their religious rites, not to be guilty of theft or adultery, to observe inviolably their word, and to be true to their trust. This disposition has obliged me to endeavor to inform myself still further of this matter, by putting to the torture two of their women. servants, whom they called deaeonesses; but I could learn nothing more from them than that the superstition of these people is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is astonishing.” It is easy to discover the cause of the many persecutions to which the Christians were exposed during the first three centuries. The purity of the Christian morality, directly opposite to the corruption of the pagans, was doubtless one. of the most powerful motives of the public aversion. To this may be added the many calumnies unjustly spread about concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews; and this occasioned so strong a prejudice against them, that the pagans condemned them without inquiring into their doctrine, or permitting them to defend them- selves. Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God, was contrary to one of the most ancient laws of the Roman empire, which expressly forbade the acknowledging of any god which had not been approved of by the senate, But, notwithstanding the violent opposition made to the estab- lishment of the Christian religion, it gained ground daily, and very soon made surprising progress in the Roman empire. In the third century, there were Christians in the Senate, in the camp, in the palace; in short, every where C H R C. H. R. 358 but in the temple and the theatres; they filled the towns, the country, and the islands. and conditions, and even those of the first dignities, em- braced the faith; insomuch that the pagans complained that the revenues of their temples were ruined. They were in such great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian expresses it) were they to have retired into another coun- try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful soli- tude. For persecutions of the Christians, see the article PERSECUTION, - - Christians are now divided into a variety of sects, the explanation of whose sentiments forms a great part of this volume. If it be inquired, whence arose these differences of opinion, we beg leave to refer to Mr. Fuller’s “Essay on Truth,” in the second volume of his Works, p. 681. The number of Christians now in the world, of all deno- minations, is variously calculated at from one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred and twenty-five millions. Christians may be considered as nominal and real. There are vast numbers who are called Christians, not because they possess any love for Christ, but because they happen to be born in what is called a Christian country, educated by Christian parents, and sometimes attend Christian wor- ship. There are also many whose minds are well in- formed respecting the Christian system, who prefer it to every other, and who make an open profession of it; and yet, after all, feel but little of the real power of Christianity. A real Christian is one whose understanding is enlightened . by the influences of divine grace, who is convinced of the depravity of his nature, who sees his own inability to help himself, who is taught to behold God as the chief good, the Lord Jesus as the only way to obtain felicity, and that the Holy Spirit is the grand agent in applying the blessings of the gospel to his soul. His heart is renovated, and in- clined to revere, honor, worship, trust in, and live to God. His affections are elevated above the world, and centre in God alone. He embraces him as his portion, loves him supremely, and is zealous in the defence and support of his cause. His temper is regulated, his powers roused to vigorous action, his thoughts spiritual, and his general deportment amiable and uniform. In fine, the trite Chris- tian character exceeds all others as much as the blaze of the meridian sun outshines the feeble light of the glow- worm.—Hend. Buck. CHRISTIANITY; the religion of Christians, I. CHRISTIANITY, foundation of.--Most, if not all, Chris- tians, whatever their particular tenets may be, acknow- ledge the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the sole foundation of their ſaith and practice. But as these books, or at least particular passages in them, have, from the ambiguity of language, been variously interpret- ed by different commentators, these diversities have given birth to a multiplicity of different sects. These, however, or, at least, the greatest number of them, appeal to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the ultimate standard—the only infallible rule of faith and manners. Iſ asked by what authority these books claim an absolute right to determine the consciences and understandings of men with regard to what they should believe, and what they should do, they answer, that all Scripture, whether for doctrine, correction, or reproof, was given by immedi- ate inspiration from God. If again interrogated how those books which they call Scriptures are authenticated, they reply, that the Old and New Testaments are proved to be the word of God, by evidences both internal and external. See § 2, and article RevelATION. - J.I. CIIRISTIANITY, evidences of the truth of.-The Exter- NAL Evidences of the authenticity and divine authority of the Scriptures have been divided into direct and collateral. The direct evidences are such as arise from the nature, consistency, and probability of the facts; and from the simplicity, uniformity, competency, and fidelity of the testimonies by which they are supported. The collateral evidences are either the same occurrences supported by heathen testimonies, or others which concur with and corroborate the history of Christianity. Its INTERNAL EVI- DENCEs arise either from its exact conformity with the cha- racter of God, from its aptitude to the frame and circum- stances of man, or from those supernatural convictions and assistances which are impressed on the mind by the Men and women of all ages. inimediate operation of the Divine Spirit. We shall here chiefly follow Dr. Doddridge, and endeavor to give some of the chief evidences which have been brought forward, and which every unprejudiced mind must confess are unanswerable. . - - . First. Taking the matter merely in theory, it will ap- pear highly probable that such a system as the gospel should be, indeed, a divine revelation. - 1. The case of mankind is naturally such as to need a divine revelation, 1 John 5:19. Rom. 1. Eph. 4. 2. There is from the light of nature considerable encouragement to hope that God would favor his creatures with so needful a blessing as a revelation appears. 3. We may easily con- clude, that if a revelation were given, it would be intro- duced and transmitted in such a manner as Christianity is said to have been. 4. That the main doctrines of the gos- pel are of such a mature as we might in general suppose those of a divine revelation would be—rational, practical, and Sublime.—Heb. 11: 6. Mark 12: 20. 1 Tim. 2: 5. Matt. 5: 48. Matt. 10: 29, 30. Phil. 4: 8. Rom. 2: 6, 40. Secondly. It is, in fact, certain that Christianity is, in- deed, a divine revelation: for, I. The books of the New Testament, now in our hands, were written by the first preachers and publishers of Christianity. In proof of this, observe, 1. That it is certain that Christianity is not a new religion, but that it was maintained by great multi- tudes quickly after the time in which Jesus is said to have appeared. 2. That there was certainly such a person as Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified at Jerusalem, when Pontius Pilate was governor there. 3. The first publishers of this religion wrote books which contained an account of the life and doctrine of Jesus their master, and which went by the name of those that now make up our New Testament. 4. That the books of the New Testament have been preserved, in the main, uncorrupted to the present time, in the original language in which they were written. 5. That the translation of them now in our hands may be depended upon as, in all things most material, agreeable to the original. Now, II. From allowing the New Testa- ment to be genuine, according to the above proof, it will certainly follow that Christianity is a divine revelation; for, in the first place, it is exceedingly evident that the writers of the New Testament certainly knew whether the facts were true or false. John 1: 3. John 19: 27, 35. Acts 27: 7–9. 2. That the character of these writers, so far as we can judge by their works, seems to render them worthy of regard, and leaves no room to imagine they in- tended to deceive us. The manner in which they tell their story is most happily adapted to gain our belief. There is no air of declamation and harangue; nothing that looks like artifice and design; no apologies, no encomiums, no characters, no reflections, no digressions; but the facts are recounted with great simplicity, just as they seem to have happened; and those facts are left to speak for themselves. Their integrity likewise cvidently appears in the freedom with which they mention those circumstances which might have exposed their Master and themselves to the greatest contempt amongst prejudiced and inconside- rate men, such as they knew they must generally expect to meet with. John 1: 45, 46. John 7: 52. Luke 3: 4, 7. Mark 6: 3. Matt. 8:20. John 7: 18. It is certain that there are in their writings the most genuine traccs not only of a plain and honest, but a most pious, and devout, a most benevolent and generous disposition, as every one must acknowledge who reads their writings. 3. The apostles were under no temptation to forge a story of this kind, or to publish it to the world, knowing it to be false. 4. Had they done so, humanly speaking, they must quick- ly have perished in it, and their foolish cause must have died with them, without ever gaining any credit in the world. Reflect more particularly on the nature of those grand facts, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Christ, which formed the great foundation of the Christian scheme, as first exhibited by the apostles. The resurrec- tion of a dead man, and his ascension into an abode in the upper world, were such strange things, that a thousand objections would immediately have been raised against them ; and some extraordinary proof would have been justly required as a balance to them. Consider the man- ner in which the apostles undertook to prove the truth of C H R C II R [ 359 J their testimony to these facts; and it will evidently appear, that, instead of confirming their scheme, it must have been sufficient utterly to have overthrown it, had it been itself the most probable imposture that the wit of man could ever have contrived. See Acts 3: 9: 14: 19: &c. They did not merely assert that they had seen miracles wrought by Je- sus, but that he had endowed them with a variety of mira- culous powers; and these they undertook to display, not in such idle and useless tricks as sleight of hand might per- form, but in such solid and important works as appeared worthy of divine interposition, and entirely superior to hu- man power. Nor were these things undertaken in a cor- ner, in a circle of friends or dependents; nor were they said to be wrought, as might be suspected, by any confe- derates in the fraud; but they were done often in the most public manner. Would impostors have made such pre- tensions as these? or, if they had, must they not immedi- ately have been exposed and ruined? Now, if the New Testament be genuine, then it is certain that the apostles pretend to have wrought miracles in the very presence of those to whom their writings were addressed; nay, more, they profess likewise to have conferred those miraculous gifts in some considerable degrees on others, even on the very persons to whom they write, and they appeal to their consciences as to the truth of it. And could there possibly be room for delusion here 2 5. It is likewise certain that the apostles did gain early credit, and succeeded in a most wonderful manner. This is abundantly proved by the vast number of churches established in early ages at Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Colosse, &c. &c. 6. That, ad- Initting the facts which they testified concerning Christ to be true, then it was reasonable for their contemporaries, and is reasonable for us, to receive the gospel which they have transmitted to us as a divine revelation. The great thing they asserted was, that Jesus was the Christ, and that he was proved to be so. by prophecies accomplished in him, and by miracles wrought by him, and by others in his name. If we attend to these, we shall find them to be no contemptible arguments, but must be forced to ac- knowledge, that, the premises being established, the con- clusion most easily and necessarily follows; and this con- clusion, that Jesus is the Christ, taken in all its extent, is an abstract of the gospel revelation, and therefore is some- times put for the whole of it. Acts 8:37. Acts 17: 18. (See articles MiRACLE and PROPHEcy.) 7. The truth of the gospel has also received further and very considerable confirmation from what has happened in the world since it was first published. And here we must desire every one to consider what God has been doing to confirm the gospel since its first publication, and he will find it a fur- ther evidence of its divine original. We might argue at large from its surprising propagation in the world; from the miraculous powers with which not only the apostles, but succeeding preachers of the gospel, and other converts, were endowed; from the accomplishment of prophecies recorded in the New Testament; and from the preserva- tion of the Jews as a distinct people, notwithstanding the various difficulties and persecutions through which they have passed. We must not, however, forget to mention the confirmation it receives from the methods which its enemies have taken to destroy it; and these have gene- rally been either persecution or falsehood, or cavilling at some particulars in revelation, without entering into the grand argument on which it is built, and fairly debating what is offered in its defence. The cause has gained con- siderably by the opposition made to it: the more it has been tried, the more it has been approved; and we are. bold to say, no honest man, unfettered by prejudice, can examine this system in all its parts, without being con- vinced that its origin is divine. III. CHRISTIANITY, general doctrines of.-‘‘It must be obvious,” says an ingenious author, “to every reflecting mind, that, whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion & priori, or contemplate those which have already been exhibited, certain facts, principles, or data, must be pre-established; from whence will result a particular frame of mind and course of action suitable to the character and dignity of that Being by whom the religion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and situation of those agents who are commanded to observe it, Hence Christianity may be divided into credenda, or doctrines, and agenda, of precepts. As the great foundation of his religion, there. fore, the Christian believes the existence and government of one eternal and infinite Essence, which forever retains in itself the cause of its own existence, and inherently pos” sesses all those perfections which are compatible with its nature; such are its almighty power, omniscient wisdom, infinite justice, boundless goodness, and universal pref sence. in this indivisible essence the Christian recognises three distinct subsistences, yet distinguished in such a manner as not to be incompatible either with essential unity, or simplicity of being, or with their personal distinc- tion; cach of them possesses the same nature and proper- ties to the same extent. This infinite Being was graciously pleased to create a universe replete with intelligences, who might enjoy his glory, participate his happiness, and imi- tate his perſections. But as these beings were not immu- table, but left to the freedom of their own will, a degene- racy took place, and that in a rank of intelligence superior to man. But guilt is never stationary. Impatient of it- self, and cursed with its own feelings, it proceeds from bad to worse, whilst the poignancy of its torments increases with the number of its perpetrations. Such was the situ- ation of Satan and his apostate angels. They attempted to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and were, alas, but too successful. Hence the heterogeneous and ir- reconcilable principles which operate in his nature; hence that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of rectitude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of sincerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole conduct; hence the darkness of his understanding, the depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the irregularity of his affections, and the absolute subversion of his whole internal economy. The seeds of perdition soon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror. All the hostilities of nature were confronted, and the whole sublunary creation became a theatre of disorder and mischieſ. Here the Christian once more ap- peals to fact and experience. If these things are so—if man be the vessel of guilt, and the victim of misery, he demands how this constitution of things can be accounted for 2 how can it be supposed that a being so wicked and unhappy should be the production of an infinitely good and infinitely perfect Creator He, therefore, insists that human nature must have been disarranged and contami- nated by some violent shock, and that, of consequence, without the light diffused over the face of things by Chris- tianity, all nature must remain im inscrutable and inexpli- cable mystery. To redress these evils, to re-establish the empire of rectitude and happiness, to restore the nature of man to its primitive dignity, to satisfy the remonstrances of infinite justice, to purify every original or contracted stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the power of vice, the Son of God, from whom Christianity takes its name, and to whom it owes its origin, descended from the bosom of his Father, assumed the human nature, became the re- presentative of man; endured a severe probation in that character; exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness, and at last ratified his doctrine, and fully accomplished all the ends of his mission, by a cruel, unmerited, and igno- minious death. Before he left the world, he delivered the doctrines of salvation, and the rules of human conduct, to his apostles, whom he empowered to instruct the world in all that concerned their eternal felicity, and whom he in- vested with miraculous gifts to ascertain the reality of what they taught. To them he likewise promised another comforter, even the Divine Spirit, who should remove the darkness, console the woes, and purify the stains of human nature. Having remained for a part of three days under the power of death, he rose again from the grave; appear- ed to his disciples, and ‘many others; conversed with them for some time, then re-ascended to heaven ; from whence the Christian expects him, according to his promise, to appear as the Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead, from whose awards there is no appeal, and by whose sen- tence the destiny of the righteous and the wicked shall be eternally fixed. Soon after his departure to the right hand of his Father (where in his human nature he sits supreme of all created beings, and invested with the absolute admi- mistration of heaven and earth), the spirit of grace, and consolation descended on his apostles with visible signa- C H. R C H. R. [ 360 | tures of divine power and presence. Nor were his salutary operations confined to them, but extended to all who did not by obstinate guilt repel his influences, These, indeed, were less conspicuous than at the glorious era when they were.visibly exhibited in the persons of the apostles. But though his energy be less observable, it is by no means less effectual to all the purposes of grace and mercy. The Christian is convinced that there is and shall continue to be a society upon earth, who worship God as revealed in Jesus Christ, who believe his doctrines, who observe his precepts, and who shall be saved by the merits of his death, in the use of these external means of salvation which he hath appointed. He also believes that the sa- craments of baptism and the Lord's supper, the interpre- tation and application of Scripture, the habitual exercise of public and private devotion, are obviously calculated to diffuse and promote the interests of truth and religion, by superinducing the salutary habits of faith, love, and re- pentance. He is firmly persuaded, that, at the consumma- tion of all things, when the purposes of Providence in the various revolutions of progressive nature are accomplish- ed, the whole human race shall once more issue from their graves; some to immortal felicity in the actual perception and enjoyment of their Creator's presence, and others to everlasting shame and misery.” IV. CHRISTIANITY, morality and superiority of—It has been well observed, “that the two grand principles of ac- tion, according to the Christian, are the love of God, which is the sovereign passion in every gracious mind; and the love of man, which regulates our actions according to the various relations in which we stand, whether to communi- ties or individuals. This sacred connexion ought never to be totally extinguished by any temporary injury. It Ought to subsist in some degree even amongst enemies. It re- quires that we should pardon the offences of others, as we expect pardon for our own; and that we should no further resist evil than is necessary for the preservation of personal rights and social happiness. It dictates every relative and reciprocal duty between parents and children, masters and servants, governors and subjects, friends and friends, men and men; nor does it merely enjoin the observation of equity, but likewise inspires the most sublime and exten- sive charity; a boundless and disinterested effusion of tenderness for the whole species, which feels their distress, and operates for their relief and improvement.” “Christianity,” it has also been observed, (and with the greatest propriety,) “is superior to all other religions. The disciple of Jesus not only contends, that no system of reli- gion has ever yet been exhibited so consistent with itself, so congruous to philosophy and the common sense of man- kind, as Christianity, he likewise avers that it is infi- nitely more productive of real consolation than all other religious or philosophical tenets which have ever entered into the soul, or been applied to the heart of man. For what is death to that mind which considers eternity as the career of its existence 2 What are the frowns of men to him who claims an eternal world as his inheritance? What is the loss of friends to that heart which feels, with more than natural conviction, that it shall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, and permanent inter- course, than any of which the present life is susceptible 2 What are the vicissitudes of external things to a mind which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless and immutable felicity ? What are mortifications, disap- º and insults, to a spirit which is conscious of eing the original offspring and adopted child of God; which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in proper time, effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its nature ? In a word, as this earth is but a speck in the creation, as time is not an instant in proportion to eternity, such are the hopes and prospects of the Christian in com- parison of every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is, therefore, in his judgment, the eternal wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man, that a religion so worthy of God, so suitable to the frame and circumstances of our nature, so consonant to all the dictates of reason, so friend- ly to the dignity and improvement of intelligent beings, so pregnant with genuine comfort and delight, should be re- Jected and despised by any of the human race.” W. CHRISTIANITY, external propagation of.-The first com- *- munity of the followers of Christ was formed at Jerusalem, soon after the death and resurrection of their Master. Ano- ther at Antioch, in Syria, first assumed, about the year 65, the name of Christians, which had originally been given them by their enemies as a term of reproach; and the travels and ministry of the apostles, and other missionaries, soon spread Christianity through the Roman empire. Pa- lestine, Syria, Natolia, Greece, the islands of the Mediter- ranean, Italy, and the northern coast of Africa, as early as the first century, contained numerous societies of Chris- tians. Their lives were spiritual and holy, their ecclesias- tical practices simple, and conformable to the nature of their religion and the humble circumstances in which they were placed, and they continued to acquire strength amidst all kinds of persecution. At the end of the second century, Christians were to be found in all the provinces; and at the end of the third century, almost half the inhabit- ants of the Roman empire, and of several neighboring countries, professed the faith of Christ. About this time, endeavors to preserve a unity of belief, and of church dis- cipline, occasioned numberless disputes among those of different opinions, and led to the establishment of an eccle- siastical tyranny, than which nothing is more contrary to the spirit and design of Christianity. At the beginning of the fourth century, when the Christians obtained toleration by means of Constantine the Great, and their religion be- came that of the empire, the bishops assumed to them- selves the power of authoritatively deciding on matters of faith, and making enactments relative to the government of the church. Their views were promoted by the favor of the emperors, (with slight interruptions in the reign of Julian, and some of his successors,) by the increased splendor and various ceremonials of public worship; by the decline of classical learning; the increasing supersti- tion resulting from the increase of ignorance; and by the establishment of convents and monks. In this form, ap- pealing more to the senses than to the understanding, Christianity, which had been introduced among the Goths in the fourth century, was spread among the other Teuto- nic nations in the west and north of Europe, and subjected to its power, during the seventh and eighth centuries, the rude warriors who founded new kingdoms on the ruins of the Western empire, while it was losing ground in Asia and Africa, before the encroachment of the Saracens, by whose rigorous measures hundreds of thousands of pro- fessed Christians were converted to Mahometanism ; the heretical sects which had been disowned by the orthodox church, being almost the only Christians who maintained their profession in the East. During the progress of Mahometanism, which in Europe extended only to Spain and Sicily, the popes of Rome who were advancing systematically to ecclesiastical domination in the west, gained more in the north, and soon after in the east of this quarter of the world, by the conversion of the Sclavonic and Scandinavian nations, than they had lost in other regions. For the Mahometans had chiefly over- run the territory of the Eastern church, which had been since the fifth century no longer one with the Western, and had, by degrees, become entirely separate from it. In the tenth century, that church received a large accession of adherents, by the conversion of the Russians, who have ever since continued to be its principal support. But the crusaders who were led, partly by religious enthusiasm, partly by the desire of conquest and adventure, to attempt the recovery of the holy Sepulchre, gained the new king- dom of Jerusalem, not for the Greek emperor, but for themselves and the papal hierarchy. The confusion which this finally unsuccessful undertaking introduced into the civil and domestic affairs of the western nations, gave the Romish church a favorable opportunity of increasing its possessions, and asserting its pretensions to universal mo- narchy. The intercourse of nations, however, and the return of the crusaders, combined with more liberal views propagated by individuals of a more philosophic turn of mind, and above all, the indignation excited by the scan- dalous corruptions and vices of the clergy, stood greatly in its way. These kindled an opposition among all the societies and sects against the hierarchy. The foundation and multiplication of ecclesiastical orders, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans, professedly for the care of C II R. C H R [ 361 J souls and the instruction of the people, which had been neglected by the secular priests, did not remedy the evil, because they labored, in general, more actively to promote the interests of the church and, the papacy, than to remove superstition and ignorance; and bold speculations which would not yield to their persuasions, were less likely to be extirpated by the power of the inquisition, which armed itself with fire if sword. The vast difference of religion, as then taught and practised, from the religion of Jesus Christ; the utter insufficiency of what the church taught to satisfy the mind and heart of men, in reference to their religious wants, became obvious to numbers, part- ly from their knowledge of Christianity derived from the Bible, which now began to be studied in secret, in spite of the prohibitions of the church, and partly from the bold eloquence and undaunted appeals of individuals among those who were disgusted with prevailing abuses. The ecclesiastical orders were also desirous of pursuing an in- dependent course; offended princes forgot the services of the papal power, in promoting the civilization of barbarous nations in the first centuries of the middle ages; and the popes themselves made little effort to reform or conceal the corruption of their court and of the clergy. They even af. forded the scandalous spectacle of a schism in the church, which was distracted for more than thirty years, by the quarrels between her candidates, who both asserted their right to the papal chair. Nor could any thing settle this dispute but the decrees of the council of Constance (1414– 1418), which were very unfavorable to the papal power. The doctrines of Wickliffe had already given rise to a party opposed to the popedom; and the secession of the adherents of the Bohemian reſormer extorted from the council of Basle certain compacts, which being firmly maintained, proved to the friends of reformation what might be effected by a firm and united opposition to the abuses of the Roman church. At length, Luther was raised up, who in conjunction with a noble band of witnesses for the truth, exposed the unscriptural dogmas and corrupt practice of the papal hie- rarchy, translated the Scriptures into the vernacular lan- guages of the nations of Europe; pronounced the authority of God, as expressed in the Bible, to be the ultimate stand- ard of appeal, and opened and explained the divine word in its various and important bearings on the highest inte- rests of man. A spirit of free inquiry was thus awakened, which has not ceased, to the present hour, to produce ef- fects favorable to the emancipation of the human mind, both from secular and spiritual tyranny; and in proportion as its legitimate influence has been felt, have been the advantages accruing to the interests of genuine Christian- ity. Not only has the light of the gospel dispelled to a great extent the mists of ignorance and superstition, in which the whole of Europe was enveloped; but the reli- gion of Christ, in its purer forms, has been conveyed by the colonists to America, where its benign influence is exten- sively felt, and from which, there is reason to believe, it will ere long be extended over the southern regions of that vast continent, where unexampled cruelties have for centu- ries been exercised by the votaries of Roman superstition. Notwithstanding the obstacles which have been thrown in the way of Christianity, partly by the abettors of infi- delity, the apathy and divisions of Protestantism, the un- scriptural doctrines that have been taught by many of its ministers, and the unholy effects which have resulted from the connexion of church and state, that divine system has been gradually gaining ground, and is now making rapid progress towards universal conquest. By the exertion of missionary, Bible, tract, and other societies, the truth is not only being brought prominently to light throughout Europe, but in Africa, India, and the islands of the Pacific, its power has been extensively felt; and the period seems rapidly approaching when, in fulfilment of ancient prophe- cy, the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the waters do the sea. - WI. CHRISTIANITY, success of.-Despised as Christianity has been by many, yet it has had an extensive progress through the world, and still remains to be professed by great numbers of mankind; though it is to be lamented many are unacquainted with its genuine inſluence. It was early and rapidly propagated through the whole Ro- man empire, which then contained almost the whole known world; and herein we cannot but admire both the wisdom' and the power of God. “Destitute of all human advanta ges,” says a good writer, “protected by no authority, assist. ed by no art; not recommended by the reputation of its Au- thor, not enforced by eloquence in its advocates, the word of God grew mightily, and prevailed. Twelve men, poor, artless, and illiterate, we behold triumphing over the fiercest and most determined opposition; over the tyranny of the magistrate, and the subtleties of the philosopher; over the prejudices of the Gentile, and the bigotry of the Jew. They established a religion which held forth high and venerable mysteries, such as the pride of man would induce him to suspect, because he could not perfectly com- prehend them; which preached doctrines pure and spirit- ual, such as corrupt nature was prone to oppose, because it shrunk from the severity of their discipline; which re- quired its followers to renounce almost every opinion they had embraced as sacred, and every interest they had pur- sued as important; which even exposed them to every species of danger and infamy; to persecution unmerited and unpitied ; to the gloom of a prison, and to the pangs of death. Hopeless as this prospect might appear to the view of short-sighted man, the gospel yet emerged from the obscurity in which it was likely to be overwhelmed by the complieated distresses of its friends, and the unrelent- ing cruelty of its foes. It succeeded in a peculiar degree, and in a peculiar manner; it derived that success from truth, and obtained it under circumstances where false hood must have been detected and crushed.” “Although,” says the elegant, Porteus, “Christianity has not always been so well understood, or so honestly practised, as it ought to have been ; although its spirit has been often mistaken, and its precepts misapplied, yet, un- der all these disadvantages, it has gradually produced a visible change in those points which most materially con- cern the peace and quiet of the world. Its beneficent spi- rit has spread itself through all the different relations and modifications of life, and communicated its kindly influ- ence to almost every public and private concern of man- kind. It has insensibly worked itself into the inmost frame and constitution of civil states. It has given a tinge to the complexion of their governments, to the temper and administration of their laws. It has restrained the spirit of the prince and the madness of the people. It has soft- ened the rigor of despotism, and tamed the insolence of conquest. It has, in some degree, taken away the edge of the sword, and thrown even over the horrors of war a veil of mercy. It has descended into families, has dimi- nished the pressure of private tyranny ; improved every domestic endearment; given tenderness to the parent, humanity to the master, respect to superiors, to infe- riors ease; so that mankind are, upon the whole, even in a temporal view, under infinite obligations to the mild and pacific temper of the gospel, and have reaped from it more substantial worldly benefits than from any other institution upon earth. As one proof of this (among many others), consider only the shocking carnage made in the human species by the exposure of infants, the gladia- torial shows, which sometimes cost Europe twenty or thir- ty thousand lives in a month; and the exceedingly cruel usage of slaves, allowed and practised by the ancient pa- gans. These were not the accidental and temporary ex- cesses of a sudden fury, but were legal and established, and constant methods of murdering and tormenting mankind. Had Christianity done nothing more than brought into disuse (as it confessedly has done) the two former of these inhuman customs entirely, and the latter to a very great degree, it had justly merited the title of the benevolent reli- gion ; but this is far from being all. Throughout the more enlightened parts of Christendom there prevails a gentle- ness of manners widely different from the ferocity of the most civilized nations of antiquity; and that liberality with which every species of distress is relieved, is a virtue peculiar to the Christian name.” But we may ask further, what success has it had on the mind of man, as it respects his eternal welfare 2 How many thousands have felt its power, rejoiced in its benign influence, and under its dictates been constrained to devote themselves to the glory and praise of God? Burdened 46 C. H. R. C IH R. [ 362 ) with guilt, incapable of finding relief from human re- sources, the mind has here found peace unspeakable, in beholding that sacrifice which alone could atone for trans- gression. Here the hard and impenitent heart has been softened, the impetuous passions restrained, the ferocious temper subdued, powerful prejudices conquered, ignorance dispelled, and the obstacles to real happiness removed. Here the Christian, looking round on the glories and blam- dishments of this world, has been enabled, with a noble contempt, to despise all. Here death itself, the king of terrors, has lost its sting; and the soul, with a holy mag- nanimity, has borne up in the agonies of a dying hour, and sweetly sung itself away to everlasting bliss. In respect to its future spread, we have reason to be- lieve that all mations shall feel its happy effects. The prophecies are pregnant with matter as to this belief. It seems that not only a nation or a country, but the whole habitable globe, shall become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ : and who is there that has ever known the excellency of this system ; who is there that has ever ex- perienced its happy efficacy; who is there that has ever been convinced of its divine origin, its delightful nature, and peaceful tendency, but what must join the benevolent and royal poet in saying, “Let the whole earth be filled with its glory, amen and amen 2° - See the article CHRISTIANITY, in Encyc. Brit. and New Edin. Encyc.; Paley's Evidences of Christianity, and Ho- raº Paulinae; Lardner's and Macknight's Credibility of the Gospel History; Lord Hailes on the Influence of Gibbon's Five Causes ; Fawcett's Evidences of Christianity; Dod- dridge's ditto; Fell’s, Hunter's, Wilson's, and M’Ilvaine's Lectures on ditto; Beattie's Evidences of the Christian Religion; Soame Jenyns's, Verplanck's, and Alexander's Evidences of ditto; Saurin's Sermons; White's Sermons; Bishop Porteus's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 12, 13; and his Es. say on the Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the tempo- ral Concerns of Mankind ; Gregory’s Letters; Horne's Introduction ; Chalmers on the External, and Erskine on the Internal Evidence; Gurney's Portable Evidence; Hal- dane's Testimony to the Messiah ; Fuller's Gospel its own Witness; Douglas's Truths of Religion, and Errors regard- ing Religion; Reinhard's Plan of the Founder of Chris- tianity; Amer. Enc., art. CHRISTIANITY.-Hend. Buck. CHRISTIANS OF ST. JOHN, are a sort of mongrel Christians, who profess to derive their traditions from St. John the Baptist, but who, in fact, are hostile to Christian- ity, and who admit the name (said to be given them by the Turks) for the sake only of the toleration they enjoy thereby. They are more properly called Mendaeans, which see.— Williams. CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS; a sect of Christians on the coast of Malabar, in the East Indies, to which re- gion the apostle Thomas is said to have carried the gos- pel. They belong to those Christians who, in the year 499, united to form a Syrian and Chaldean church, in Central and Eastern Asia, and are, like them, Nestorians; but it is supposed they existed much earlier, as they are believed to be the Indian Christians from whom a bishop came to the council of Nice, in 325. They have retained rather more strongly than the more western Nestorians, the fea- tures of their descent from the earliest Christian com- munities. They celebrate the agapa: ; portion maidens from the property of the church ; and provide for the poor. Their ideas respecting the Lord’s supper incline to those of the Protestants; but in celebrating it, they use bread with salt and oil. At the time of baptism, they anoint the body of the infant with oil. These two ceremonies, with that of the consecration of priests, are the only sacraments which they acknowledge. Their priests are distinguished by the tonsure, are allowed to marry, and were, till the sixteenth century, under a Nestorian patriarch at Babylon, now at Mosul, from whom they receive their bishop, and upon whom they are also dependent for the consecration of their priests. Their churches contain, except the cross, no symbols nor pictures. Their liturgy is similar to the Syri- an, and is performed in the Syrian language. When the Portuguese occupied the East Indies, the Roſnan Catholic clergy endeavored to subject the Chris- tians of St. Thomas to the government of the pope. The archbishop of Goa succeeded, in 1599, in persuading them to submit, and form a part of his diocese ; in consequence of which they were obliged to renounce the Nestorian faith, adopt a few Catholic ceremonies, and obey a Jesuit, who became their bishop. But after the Portuguese were sup- planted by the Dutch, on the coast of Malabar, this union ceased, and they returned to their ancient forms. At pre- sent, their number amounts to nearly eighty thousand. They are, under the British government, ſree from any ecclesiastical restraint, and form among themselves a kind of spiritual republic, under a bishop chosen by themselves, and in which the priests and elders administer justice, using excommunication as a means of punishment. Colo: nel Munro, the late resident at Travancore, interested himself much for this people, and erected a college at Chotim, for the education both of priests and others, and he made an endowment to support a number of teachers and students. In their political relations to the natives, they belong to the class of the Nairs, or nobility of the se- cond rank, are allowed to ride on elephants, and to carry on commerce and agriculture, instead of practising mechani- cal trades, like the lower classes. Travellers describe them as very ignorant, but at the same time of very good morals. See Monthly Mag. for 1804, p. 60; Dr. Kerr's Re- port to lord Bentinck, on the state of the Christians inhabiting the kingdom of Cochin and Travancore ; Evang. Mag. 1807, p. 473.-Hend. Buck. CHRISTIAN CONNEXION, or CHRISTIANs, sometimes erroneously pronounced Christ-ians.” This is a religious denomination of recent origin in the United States of America, and among the last that has arisen, which, from its numbers and character, has attained much consi- deration and influence. Its beginning may be dated about the year 1800; and the circumstances attending its rise and progress are somewhat peculiar. This sect recognises po individual as its leader or founder. They have no Calvin, or Luther, or Wesley to whom they refer as an authority for articles of faith and rules of practice. The denomination seems to have sprung up almost simultane- ously in different and remote parts of the country, without any preliminary interchange of sentiments or concerted plan of action. Their leading purposes, at first, appear to have been, not so much ... any peculiar and dis- tinctive doctrines, as to assert, for individuals and church- es, more liberty and independence in relation to matters of faith and practice, to shake off the authority of human creeds and the shackles of prescribed modes and forms, to make the Bible their only guide, claiming for every man the right to be his own expositor of it, to judge, for himself, what, are its doctrines and requirements, and in practice, to follow more strictly the simplicity of the apostles and primitive Christians. This, then, more than any other, appears to be the distinc- tive principle of the Christian denomination. Holding the belief to be indispensable, that the Scriptures were given by inspiration, that they are of divine authority, and that they are the only sufficient rule for the moral government and direction of man, they maintain that every man has the right to be his own interpreter of them, and that diver- sity of sentiment is not a bar to church fellowship, while the very basis of other, or most sects, and their condition of communion, seems to be an agreement to a particular interpretation of the Bible, a concurrence of sentiment in relation to its doctrines. With these views, the Christian connexion profess to deprecate what they consider an undue influence of a mere sectarian spirit, a tenacious adherence to particular dogmas, as an infringement of Christian li- berty, as adverse to the genius of the gospel and the prac- tical influence of true religion. They maintain that this spirit enters too much into the principles and regulations by which religious bodies are generally governed. In New England, where the Christian denomination seems first to have attracted attention by any public de- monstration or organization as a distinct sect, it was com- posed, principally, of individuals who separated from the Calvinistic Baptists. Soon after the formation of their first churches, several large churches of the Calvinistic Baptists declared themselves independent of the Baptist * This article was furnished by Rev. Joshua W. Himes, of Boston, a distinguished minister of the Connexion. C H. R. C H R [ 363 | association and united with them. The Free-will and Six-principle Baptists opened their doors to their minis- ters, and it was expected that they would ultimately amal- gamate; they, however, still, (1833,) continue distinct sects with very amicable relations subsisting between them. In the southern states, the first associations of this sect consisted, mostly, of seceders from the Methodists, and, in the western states, from the Presbyterians. Prompted by the leading motives which have been stated to the formation of an independent organization or sect, the in- dividuals who composed it still held many of the doctrines and cherished a prejudice in favor of some of the usages and practices of the sects from which they had respectively withdrawn. Hence we can scarcely affirm, with justice, that any doctrine was, at first, held by them in common, or as a body; their distinguishing characteristic being universal toleration. At first, they were generally Trini- tarians; subsequently they have, almost unanimously, rejected the Trinitarian doctrine as unscriptural. But though toleration is still their predominant princi- ple, and it would be wide of the truth to say that any doe- trine is universally held by the connexion, or is considered indispensable to membership, still it may be asserted, with confidence, that discussion in their periodicals and per- sonal intercourse and conference, have produced a mani- fest approximation to unanimity of sentiment, and that the following are very generally regarded as Scripture doctrines:—That there is one living and true God, the Fa- ther almighty, who is unoriginated, independent, and eter- mal, the Creator and Supporter of all worlds; and that this God is one spiritual intelligence, one infinite mind, ever the same, never varying: That this God is the moral Go- vernor of the world, the absolute source of all the blessings of nature, providence and grace, in whose infinite wisdom, goodness, mercy, benevolence and love have originated all his moral dispensations to man : That all men sin and come short of the glory of God, consequently fall under the curse of the law : That Christ is the Son of God, the pro- mised Messiah and Savior of the world, the Mediator be: tween God and man, by whom God has revealed his will to mankind; by whose sufferings, death and resurrection a way has been provided by which sinners may obtain sal; vation, may lay hold on etermal life; that he is appointed of God to raise the dead and judge the world at the last day: That the Holy Spirit is the power and energy of God, that holy influence of God by whose agency, in the use of means, the wicked are regenerated, converted and reco- wered to a virtuous and holy life, sanctified and made meet for the inheritance of the Saints in light; and that, by the same Spirit, the saints, in the use of means, are comforted, strengthened and led in the path of duty : The free for- giveness of sins, flowing from the rich mercy of God, ihrough the labors, sufferings and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ: The necessity of repentance towards God and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ: The absolute necessity of holiness of heart and rectitude of life to enjoy the favor and approbation of God: The doctrine of a future state of immortality: The doctrine of a righteous retribution, in which God will render to every man according to the deeds done in the body: The baptism of believers by immersion: And the open communion at the Lord's table of Christians of every denomination having a good standing in their respective churches. - The principles upon which their churches were at first constituted, and upon which they still stand, are the follow- ing: The Scriptures are taken to be the only rule of faith and practice, each individual being at liberty to determine, for himself, in relation to these matters, what they enjoin : No member is subject to the loss of church fellowship on account of his sincere and conscientious belief, so long as he manifestly lives a pious and devout life: No member is subject to discipline and church censure but for disor- derly and immoral conduct: The name Christian to be adopted, to the exclusion of all sectarian names, as the most appropriate designation of the body and its members: The only condition or test of admission as a member of a church is a personal profession of the Christian religion, accompanied with satisfactory evidence of sincerity, and piety, and a determination to live according to the divine rule on the gospel of Christ. Each church is considered an independent body, possessing exclusive authority to regulate and govern its own affairs. - For the purpose of promoting the general interest and prosperity of the connexion by mutual efforts and joint counsels, associations were formed, denominated Conſe- rences. Ministers and churches, represented by delegates, formed themselves, in each state, into one or more confer- ences called State Conferences, and delegates from these conferences formed the United States General Christian Conference. This general conference has been given up. The local or state conferences are still continued, possess- ing, however, no authority or control over the independence of the churches. In twenty of the United States, there are now, (1833,) thirty-two conferences, one in Upper Canada, and one in the province of New Brunswick. The number of their ministers is estimated at about 700, of churches 1000, of communicants, from 75,000 to 100,000, and from 250 to 300,000 who entertain their views and attend upon their ministry. Several periodicals have been published under the pa- tronage of the connexion; the principal of which are, the Christian Herald at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the Gospel Luminary at New York, the Christian Messenger at Georgetown, Kentucky, and the Christian Palladium at Rochester, New York. A convention of ministers and private brethren, from various parts of the country, was holden at Milan, Dutchess county, New York, in October last, by which it was pro- posed to the connexion to form an association, to be called “ the Christian Union Book Association,” to be composed of one delegate from each conference in the connexion. The object of this association is the general supervision, charge and direction of such matters as concern the con- nexion at large—such as the publication of books, periodi- cals, &c., and the disposition of such surplus funds as may accrue from the publication and sale of books, or otherwise, as they may think most conducive to the com- mon interest and prosperity of the connexion. It was also recommended by the convention, that the several periodi- cals then published under the patronage of the connexion, should be merged as soon as practicable in one to be pub lished and called the Gospel Palladium. In pursuance of this recommendation, the Gospel Luminary and its pa- tronage have already been transferred to the Gospel Palla- dium, published at Broadalbin, Montgomery county, N. Y. A charter was obtained, in 1832, from the legislature of In- diana, for a Christian college, to be located in New Albany. The education of many of the ministers of the connex- ion, who universally preach extempore, is defective. Their maxim has been, “Let him who understands the gospel teach it.” They have considered the preparation of the heart more important than the embellishment of the mind. They have, notwithstanding, many preachers who appear as scribes well instructed, who have acquitted themselves with credit as writers, and the sentiment is fast gaining ground among them, that literature and science are very useful auxiliaries in the illustration and enforcement of divine truth. CHRIST CRUCIFIED, (THE PREACHING of.) Cruci. fixion was a mode of capital punishment, inflicted only upon criminals of the lowest rank and the most aggra- vated turpitude. Hence the words, Christ crucified, signify the Messiah, that is, the anointed Savior of mankind, suf. fering a most painful and ignominious death. The phrase combines together the two ideas of the exalted nature and the deep humiliation of Christ Jesus. It denotes the two leading features of the plan of redemption, which he came upon earth to accomplish, and the development of which constitutes the glorious gospel of the blessed God. For a system is never designated otherwise than by its most pro- minent features. We are informed by the apostle Paul, (1 Cor. 1: 22–24.) that the doctrine expressed by these terms met with general opposition, both from Jews and Gentiles; yet to those who really understood and embraced it, it was not only rich in divine efficacy, but radiant with divine wisdom; and worthy therefore of unhesitating and universal promulgation, notwithstanding all the specious objections which were urged against it, and all the suffer- ings and reproaches to which it subjected hum and his as: sociates. C H. R. -* CHR [ 364 l I. WHAT Is Involved IN THIS PREACHING-Some of the most important facts alluded to in these terms, I suppose, says Dr. Wayland, to be the following. The whole race of man, in consequence of the sin of our first parents, have ing become sinners, and being thus exposed to the punish- ment denounced against sin, he, who was in the beginning with God, and who was God, by whom all things were made, became flesh, that is, took upon him our nature; he died for our sins according to the Scriptures; by his death, or expiatory sacrifice, the obstacles to our pardon, arising from the justice of God, are removed, so that God can now be just, and yet the justifier of him that believeth in Jesus. Hence pardon and eternal life can be freely offered to all mankind; for God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him should not perish, but have everlasting life.' And in confirmation of the truth of all this, the Messiah was raised from the dead, he ascended into heaven, whence he will one day come to judge both the quick and the dead. II. OBJECTIONS TO SUCH PREACHING.—To this doctrine a variety of objections have been made. They may all, however, be reduced to two classes; first, those which are derived from the nature of the doctrine itself; and second- ly, those which are drawn from the sacred Scriptures. By the first class of objections, it is intended to show that such doctrines could not be true; by the second, that they are not revealed to us from God. It is to the first of these classes of objections, that the apostle refers in the text, and it is to this class we shall here chiefly advert. 1. It is said that such a mode of existence, as is implied in the essential Deity of Christ, is inconceivable and im- possible. - 2. That if Christ be God, it is incredible that he should manifest such a degree of regard to a world so small and insignificant as this, in comparison with the universe. 3. That the union of the divine and human natures in the person of the Messiah is replete with contradictions. 4. That the substitution of the innocent for the guilty is unjust, and derogatory to the divine character... 5. That the sufferings of Christ in human nature could not, after all, make an atonement for sin. . III. Answers to THE OBJECTIONs.—To these a priori ob- jections it is replied, without descending to particulars, 1. They are unphilosophical. The questions to be set- tled are matters of fact, and must be settled, not by theory, but by evidence. The objections proceed upon an erroneous estimate of the powers of the human understanding. They suppose us capable of deciding by our own knowledge on such subjects as the mode of existence of the Deity; the nature and extent of those relations which exist between man and his ſellow-creatures, and man and his Creator; the evil and the just desert of sin; the number of modes of possible existence; the abstract nature of holiness in the Deity, and the ways in which that holiness can and cannot be exhibited before the created universe. 2. The facts on which the question rests have been proved, in our judgment, by the laws of evidence, and by the laws of interpretation. * 3. The objections are in no manner inconsistent with the supposition that the doctrines in question are true. For, in the first place, they are precisely such objections as we should expect to arise if that were the fact. And in the second place, they may be made with equal force against much which is universally allowed to be incontro- Vertible fact. - 4. We preach Christ crucified, notwithstanding these objections, also, because we perceive its fundamental prin- ciples to be in perfect harmony with the highest and most general laws of God’s moral government. - 5. Because it has always been effectual to accomplish the object which we have in view, the moral renovation of man. " 6. Lastly. We insist upon the preaching of Christ cru- cified, because it is the only moral system which has ever proved effectual to the reformation of man. “From the above considerations it will be readily per- ceived, that objections drawn from what may be considered the nature of things, are misapplied when urged against the facts which claim to be revealed in the Scriptures. The only questions to be discussed, are, first, Are the jºi true? and secondly, What do the Scriptures teach The one question is to be answered by the science of evidence, and the other by the science of interpretation. Here is the ground and the only ground for argument. To these points let the unbeliever in these doctrines direct his attacks, and these points let the believer be prepared to defend. When this shall have been done, we may hope to see this controversy brought to a definite and decisive issue. -- * . “Let us who profess to believe the doctrine of Christ crucified, preach it every where, on all occasions, and under all circumstances. This doctrine, and this only, possesses that divine energy by which men have been converted unto God. We may be considered illiberal, prejudiced, obtuse of intellect; but let us not be ashamed of the gospel of Christ, for it is the power of God unto sal- vation. We believe it to be truth ; and if it be truth, it is great and must prevail. With kindness and charity, and yet in simplicity and fidelity, let us resolve to know nothing among men but Jesus Christ and him crucified. “Nor in all this is there any sectarianism. We believe these doctrines to be true, and suppose ourselves able to show them to be so. We esteem them vitally important to the temporal and to the eternal interests of men. As intelligent beings, we have a right to promulgate them as widely as we choose, and to convince of their truth as many as we are able. It will be sectarianism whenever we underrate the talents, disparage the motives, curtail the influence, or violate in the slightest manner the rights of those who differ from us. But if we do none of this, it is no sectarianism by fair argument to give our senti- ments all the influence in our power. We cheerfully con- cede to others the right which we claim for ourselves. If our claim be allowed, we rejoice; but if not, we must be pardoned if, as we suppose in obedience to God, we still preach Christ and him crucified.” See Dr. Wayland’s admirable sermon, “Objections to the Doctrine of Christ cru- cified considered.” Also, Fuller's Works, vol. ii. pp. 350, 391; Works of Robert Hall, vol. i. 265. iii. 340–430. CHRISTMAS; the day on which the nativity of our blessed Savior is celebrated. The first traces that we find of the observation of this day, are in the second century, about the time of the em- Peror Commodus. The decretal epistles, indeed, carry it WP a little higher, and say that Telesphorus, who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered divine service to be celebrated, and an angelic hymn to be sung the might be- fore the nativity of our Savior. That it was kept before the time of Constantine, we have a melancholy proof; for Whilst the persecution raged under Dioclesian, who then kept his court at Nicomedia, that tyrant, among other acts of cruelty, finding multitudes of Christians assembled to. gether to celebrate Christ's nativity, commanded the church doors where they were met to be shut, and fire to be put. to it, which soon reduced them and the church to ashes. In the Roman church three masses are performed: one at midnight, one at daybreak, and one in the morning; and both in the Greek and Roman churches the manger, the holy family, &c. are sometimes represented at large. Some convents at Rome, chiefly the Franciscans, are fa- mous for attracting the people by such theatrical exhi- bitions. f This feast is also celebrated in the church of England, and in the Lutheran churches, but is rejected by the church of Scotland and the Dissenters; though, in Eng- land, some of the latter embrace the opportunity of having . preaching, it being a day on which little or no business is done; others object to this as apparently symbolizing with human inventions. - - - The custom of making presents on Christmas eve is de- rived from an old heathem usage, practised among the northern nations, at the feast of the birth of Sol, on the 25th of December, to which it succeeded, and retained the name of Yule or Inul ; i.e. the “Wheel,” or revolution of the sun. - - - Whether this festival was always observed on the 25th of December, is a point which has been greatly disputed. Dr. Cave is of opinion, that it was at first kept by the Eastern church in January, and confounded with the Epi- phany; till, receiving better information from the Western C. H. R. C. H. R. s [ 365 J churches, they changed it to that day. Chrysostom, in an homily on this very subject, affirms, that it was not above ten years since, in that church (that of Antioch), it began first to be observed upon that day; and he offers several reasons to prove that to be the true day of Christ's nati- vity. Clemens Alexandrinus reckons, from the birth of Christ to the death of Commodus, exactly one hundred and ninety-four years, one month, and thirteen days. These years, being taken according to the Egyptian ac- count, and reduced to the Julian style, make the birth of Christ to fall on the 25th or 26th of the month of De- cember. Yet, notwithstanding this, the same father tells us, in the same place, that there were some who, more curiously searching after the year and day of Christ's na- tivity, affixed the latter to the 25th of the month Pachon. Now, in that year in which Christ was born, the month Pachon commenced the 20th of April ; so that, according to this computation, Christ was born on the 16th of May. Hence we may see how little certainty there is in this matter, since, so soon after the event, the learned were divided in opinion concerning it. Mr. Selden, in his “Table-Talk,” speaking of this festi- val, says, “Christmas succeeds the Saturnalia; the same time, the same number of holidays; then the master waited upon the servant like the lord of misrule. “Our meats and our sports (much of them) have rela- tion to church-works. The coffin of our Christmas pies, in shape long, is in imitation of the cratch, Our choosing kings and queens, on Twelfth-night, hath reference to the three kings. So likewise our eating of fritters, whipping of tops, roasting of herrings, jack of lents, &c., they were all in imitation of church-works, emblems of martyrdom. Our tansies at Easter have reference to the bitter herb, though, at the same time, it was always the fashion for a man to have a gammon of bacon, to show himself to be no Jew.”—Hend. Buck. CHRISTO SACRUM ; the denomination of a society founded at Delft, in Holland, in 1801, by Onder de Win- gaard, an aged burgomaster of that city. The object of the society is to reconcile all denominations who admit the divinity of Jesus Christ, and redemption by the merits of his passion. This society, originally formed of four persons, is said to have increased to two or three thou- sand. A more recent account (1809) says the society is not extinct, neither is it much augmented, although it has been acknowledged by government, and mentioned in the Royal Almanac. They admit members from all Christian societies (within the limits above mentioned), but use no eſſorts to make proselytes. 4. Their place of worship at Delft is very elegant, having three desks, gradually rising, for the reader, clerk, and preacher: the latter, at least, is gratuitous. They have published several works in defence of their own principles. - See Grégoire's Hist. vol. i. p. 261. comp. vol. ii. p. 439– Williams. • . . CHRONICLES, (Books of.) This name is given to two historical books of Scripture, which the Hebrews call Dib- ri-Jamim, “Words of Days,” that is, “Diaries,” or “Jour- nals.” They are called in the Seventy, Paralipomena, which signifies, “things omitted;” as if these books were a supplement of what had been omitted, or too much abridged, in the books of Kings, and other historical books of Scripture. And, indeed, we find in them many particu- lars which are not extant elsewhere: but it must not be thought that these are the records, or books of the acts, of the kings of Judah and Israel, so often referred to. Those ancient registers were much more extensive than these are; and the books of Chronicles themselves refer to those original memoirs, and make long extracts from , them. They were compiled, and probably by Ezra, from the an- cient chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel just now mentioned, and they may be considered as a kind of Sup- plement to the preceding books of Scripture. The former part of the first book of Chronicles contains a great variety of genealogical tables, beginning with Adam ; and in par- ticular gives a circumstantial account of the twelve tribes, which must have been very valuable to the Jews after their return from captivity. The descendants of Abra- ham, Isaac, Jacob, and David, from all of whom it was º: that the Savior of the world should be born, ate ere marked with precision. These genealogies occupy the first nine chapters, and in the tenth is recorded the death of Saul. From the eleventh chapter to the end of , the book, we have a history of the reign of David, with a detailed statement of his preparation for the building of the temple, of his regulations respecting the priests and Le- vites, and his appointment of musicians for the public service of religion. The second book of Chronicles con- tains a brief sketch of the Jewish history, from the acces- sion of Solomon to the return from the Babylonian captiv- ity, being a period of four hundred and eighty years; and in both these books we find many particulars not noticed in the other historical books of Scripture. - There are many variations, as well in facts as in dates, between the books of Kings and the Chronicles, which are to be explained and reconciled, chiefly on the principle, that the latter are supplementary to the former: not forget- ting that the language was slightly varied from what it had been ; that various places had received new names, or had undergone sundry vicissitudes; that certain things were now better known to the returned Jews, under other appel- lations than what they ſormerly had been distinguished by ; and that from the materials before him, which often were not the same as those used by the abridgers of the histories of the kings, the author takes those passages which seemed to him best adapted to his purpose, and most suitable to the times in which he wrote. It must be considered too, that he often elucidates obsolete and ambi- guous words, in former books, by a different mode of spell- ing them, or by a different order of the words used: even when he does not use a distinct phraseology of narration, which he sometimes does.—Watson ; Calmet. CHRONICLE, (SAMARITAN,) of Abul-Phathach; a his- tory of events, otherwise known under the name of the “Book of Joshua,” a copy of which, now in the university of Oxford, was procured by Huntington, from the Samaritans at Naplose, and another was in the possession of the learn. ed Schnurrer. The former extends from the creation of the world to the year of our Lord 1492; the latter only to the time of Mahomet.—Hend. Buck. - CHRONOLOGY, (SACRED,) is the science of computing and adjusting periods of time, and is, necessarily, of con siderable importance in relation to Scripture history. See TIME. - The chronology adopted by the English translators, and placed in the margin of the larger Bibles, is that of the masoretic, or common Hebrew text; but of the authenti. city of this, strong doubts are entertained by several bibli- cal critics. They observe that, compared with the more extended chronology of the Septuagint, it is of modern adoption; the venerable Bede, who flourished in the eighth century, having been the first Christian writer who mani- ſested a predilection for it. It has been further observed, that prior to the reformation, the views of the celebrated monk of Durham had made but little progress among the clergy, and that when Luther roused the attention of Eu- rope to the errors of the ancient communion, the authority of the Greek version and the unanimous consent of the primitive writers were still found to regulate all the calcu- lations concerning the age of the world. That in the warmth of the controversy which ensued, the more rigid Protestants were induced to rank, among the corruptions of the Western church, the chronology of the Samaritan Pentateuch, of the Seventy, and of Josephus; they reso- lutely pronounced that the numbers of the original text were to be preferred to those of any version; and forthwith bestowed the weight of their authority upon the Jewish side of the question, and opposed that which the Christians had maintained from the days of the apostles. R The chief difference between these two schemes of chro- mology, is found in those periods which extend from the creation to the deluge, and from thence to the birth of Abra- ham. According to the Hebrew computation, the number of years comprised in the first period, amounts only to 1656, and the second to 292. But in the Septuagint, the numbers respectively are 2262, and 1072; thus extending the Interval between the creation and the birth of Christ, from 4000 to nearly 6000 years. These variations have not yet been satisfactorily accounted for, but much light C H U C H U. [ 366 | has been thrown º the subject by the laborious investi. gations of Hayes, Jackson, and Hales; and the result with many, though not with all, has been to give an increased degree of confidence in the larger computations of the Sep- tuagint. We think, however, that internal probability, as well as the Hebrew text, is against it. - We need not enlarge on the different systems of ancient and modern chronologers, concerning the years of the world. Those who would study these matters, must con- sult those authors who have expressly treated the subject. We have followed Usher in the chronology of the Old Tes- tament, with some trifling differences only; and among the appendices is a Chronological Table, with the dates inserted according to Dr. Hales. Ages of the worſ.D. The time preceding the birth of Jesus Christ, has generally been divided into six ages: (1.) from the beginning of the world to the deluge; tomprehending 1656 years—(2.) from the deluge to Abra- ham's entering the land of promise, in A. M. 2082; com- prehending 426 years—(3.) from Abraham's entrance of the promised land, to the exodus, A. M. 2513, comprehend- ing 431 years—(4.) from the exodus to the foundation of the temple by Solomon, A. M. 2992, comprehending 479 years—(5.) from the foundation of the temple to the Baby- lonish captivity, in A. M. 3416, comprehending 424 years— (6.) from the captivity to the birth of Christ, A. M. 4000, the fourth year before the vulgar era, or A. D., compre- hending 584 years.-Calmet. CHRYSOLITE ; a precious stone, probably the tenth on the high-priest's pectoral; bearing the name of Zebu- lon, Exod. 28:20; 39 : 19. It is transparent, the color of gold, with a mixture of green, which displays a fine lustre. The Hebrew (tarshish) is translated by the LXX, and by Jerome, sometimes, carbuncle ; by the rabbins, be- ryl : it was the seventh foundation of the New Jerusalem, Rev. 21: 20.— Calmet. - CHRYSOGONUS, a worthy Christian of Aquileia, who was beheaded, about the year 304, by order of Dioclesian, for having instructed a young lady of that city in the Christian faith.-Fox. CHRYSOPRASUS; the tenth of those precious stones which adorned the foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem; its color was green, inclining to gold, as its name imports, Rev. 21 : 20.—Calmet. CHRYSOSTOM, (John,) was born at Antioch, about A. D. 344. He was of a noble family, and his father, whose name was Secundus, was a general of cavalry. The name of Chrysostom, which signifies golden mouth, he acquired by his eloquence. He has also been called the Homer of orators, and compared to the sun. Suc- cessful at the bar, for which he was educated, he quitted it, to become, for six years, an ascetic. When he emerg- ed from his retirement, he became a preacher, and gained such high reputation for his piety and oratorical talents, that he was raised to be patriarch of Constantinople, A. D. 398. At length he incurred the hatred of the empress Eudoxia, and was sent into exile, in which he died, A. D. 407. There are three editions of his works in eight, ten, and thirteen ſolio volumes.—Davenport. CHUB, a word which occurs only in Ezek. 30 : 5. and probably signifies the Cubians, placed by Ptolemy in the Mareotis. Bochart takes it to be Paliurus, a city in Mar- morica, because the Syriac word denotes paliurus, a sort of thorn. —Calmet. CHUBB, (Thomas,) a controversial deist, was born, in 1679, at East Harnham, near Salisbury, was successively a glover, a tallow-chandler, and a sort of humble compan- ion or dependant in the family of Sir Joseph Jekyll. He died in 1747. His first work, which appeared in 1715, was enti- tled, The Supremacy of the Father asserted, and this was followed by several others. His posthumous pieces were published in two volumes, in 1748. However erroneous his opinions may be, Chubb was a well-meaning and modest man, with a respectable share of talent and inſor- mation.—Davenport. CHURCH, (Scottish kirk, Danish, &c. kirke, German kirche,) is generally derived from the Greek kuriakon, what belongs, or is appropriated to the Lord (Kurios); though some think it is from the German kiren, to elect, choose out, and so corresponding to the Greek ekklesia, reign of Edward VI. from ek, out of, and kalco, I call. 1. The Greek word ck. klesia, properly denotes an assembly called together upon business, whether lawful or unlawful, Acts 19:32, 39.- 2. It is understood of the collective body of Christians, or all those over the face of the earth who profess to be- lieve in Christ, and acknowledge him to be the Savior of mankind. Eph. 3: 21. 1 Tim. 3:15, Eph. 4:11, 12. —3. By the word church, also, we are to understand the whole body of God's chosen people, in every period of time. Those on earth are also called the militant, and those in heaven the triumphant church. Heb. 12; 23. Acts 20:28, Eph. 1:22. Matt. 16:28–4. By a par. ticular church we understand an assembly of Christians united together, and meeting in one place for the solemn worship of God. To this agrees the definition given by the compilers of the thirty-nine articles of the church of England :—“A congregation of faithful men, in which the true word of God is preached, and the sacraments duly administered, according to Christ's ordinances, in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.” Acts 9: 31. Gal. 1: 2, 22, 1 Cor. 14 : 34. Acts 20:17. Col. 4: 15.-5. The word is now used also to denote any particular denomination of Christians distinguished by particular doctrines, ceremonies, &c.; as the Romish church, Greek church, English church, &c.—6. The word church is also improperly used to denote the building in which the members of the establishment meet for pub- lic worship. The Christians of the first century worshipped in private houses, or in the open air, in remote places, be- cause they were not acknowledged by the state, and were often persecuted. It was not till the third century that they could venture to give more publicity to their service, and build places of worship. After the fourth century, churches became large, and, in many instances, magnifi- cent edifices. Many heathen temples were converted in- to churches; and, in the middle ages, edifices were erect- ed for the professed worship of Him who “ dwelleth not in temples made with hands,” which in loftiness and grandeur were never ºr. Excepting St. Paul's in London, the Protestants have not erected any very splen- did church; and, indeed, their principal object in the con- struction of their places of worship is, what it ever ought to be, the accommodation of the hearers. In the Roman Catholic and Greek communions, on the contrary, the ef. fect on the eye is every thing.—Hend. Buck. CHURCH, (CongregATIONAL.) See CoNGREGATIONAL. IST.S. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, is the church established by law in that kingdom. - When and by whom Christianity was first introduced into Britain, cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained. Eu sebius, indeed, positively declares that it was by the apos- tles and their disciples. (See CLAUDIA.) It is also said that numbers of persons professed the Christian faith there about the year 150; and according to Usher, there was in the year 182, a school of learning, to provide the British churches with proper teachers. Popery, however, was established in England by Austin the monk; (see AustiN,) and the errors of it we find every where preva- lent, until Wickliffe was raised up by divine providence to refute them. The church of England remained in subjection to the pope until the time of Henry VIII. Hen- ry, indeed, in early life, and during the former part of his reign, was a bigoted papist. He burnt the famous Tyndal (who made one of the first and best translations of the New Testament), and wrote in defence of the seven sacraménts against Luther, for which the pope gave him the title of “The Defender of the Faith.” But, fall- ing out with the pope about his marriage, he took the government of ecclesiastical affairs into his own hand, and, having reformed many abuses, entitled himself su- preme head of the church. (See Reform ATION.) The doctrines of the church of England, which are con- tained in the thirty-nine articles, are certainly Calvinisti- cal, though this has been denied by some modern writers, especially by Dr. Kipling, in a tract entitled “The Arti- cles of the church of England proved not to be Calvinis- tic.” These articles were founded, for the most part, upon a body of articles compiled and published in the They were first passed in the con- C II U C H U [ 367 ) vocation, and confºrmed by royal authority in 1562. They were afterwards ratified anew in the year 1571, and again by Charles I. The law requires a subscription to these articles, of all persons who are admitted into holy orders. In the course of the last century, disputes arose among the clergy respecting the propriety of subscribing to any human formulary of religious sentiments. An applica- tion for its removal was made to parliament, in 1772, by the petitioning clergy, and received the most public dis- cussion in the house of commons, but was rejected in the house of lords. - The government of the church of England is episcopal. Thé king is the supreme head. There are two archbish- ops, and twenty-four bishops. The benefices of the bish- ops were converted by William the Conqueror into tem- poral baronies; so that every prelate has a seat and a vote in the house of peers. Dr. Hoadley, however, in a sermon preached from this text—“My kingdom is not of this world,” insisted that the clergy had no pretensions to temporal jurisdiction; which gave rise to various publi- cations, termed, by way of eminence, the Bangorian Con- troversy, because Hoadley was then bishop of Bangor. Dr. Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, formed a project of peace and union between the English and Gallican churches, founded upon this condition, that each of the two communities should retain the greatest part of their respective and peculiar doctrines; but this project came to nothing. In the church of England there are deans, archdeacons, rectors, vicars, &c.; for an account of which see the respective articles. The church of England has a public form read, called a liturgy. It was composed in 1547, and has undergone several alterations, the last of which was in 1661. Since that time, several attempts have been made to amend the liturgy, articles, and some other things relating to the in- ternal government, but without effect. There are many excellencies in the liturgy; and, in the opinion of the most impartial Grotius (who was no member of this church), “it comes so near the primitive pattern, that none of the reformed churches can compare with it.” See LITURGY. - º The greatest part of the inhabitants of England are professedly members of this church; but, perhaps, very few either of her ministers or members strictly adhere to the articles in their true sense. Those who are called methodistic or evangelical preachers in the establishment, are allowed to come the nearest. See Mr. Overton's True Churchman ; Bishop Jewel's Apology for the Church of England; Archbishop Potter's Treatise on Church Government;. Tucker's ditto; Hook- er's Ecclesiastical Polity; Pearson on the Creed; Burnet on the Thirty-nine Articles; Bishop Prettyman's Elements of Theology; and Mrs. H. More's Hints on forming the Character of a Young Princess, vol. 2: ch. 37. On the subject of the first introduction of Christianity into Bri- tain, see the 1st vol. of Henry’s History of Great Britain, and of Ivimey's History of the Baptists.-Hend. Buck. CHURCH, (GALLICAN), denotes the ci-devant church of France under the government of its respective bishops and pastors. This church always enjoyed certain fran- chises and immunities, not as grants from popes, but as derived to her, from her first original, and which she took care never to relinquish. These liberties depended upon two maxims; the first, that the pope had no right to order any thing in which the temporalities and civil rights of the kingdom were concerned ; the second, that, notwith- standing the pope's supremacy was admitted in cases purely spiritual, yet in France his power was limited by the decrees of ancient councils received in that realm. The liberties or privileges of the Gallican church are founded upon these two maxims, and the most considera- ble of them are as follows:– 1. The king of France has a right to convene synods, or provincial and national councils, in which, amongst other important matters relating to the preservation of . state, cases of ecclesiastical discipline are likewise de- ated. 2. The pope's legates à latere, who are empowered to reform abuses, and to exercise the other parts of their le- gatine office, are never admitted into France unless at the desire or with the consent of the king; and whatever the legates do there, is with the approbation and allowance of the king. - - 3. The legate of Avignon cannot exercise his commis- sion in any of the king's dominions, till after he hath ob. tained his majesty's leave for that purpose. 4. The prelates of the Gallican church, being summoned by the pope, cannot depart the realm upon any pretence whatever, without the king's permission. 5. The pope has no authority to levy any tax or impo- sition upon the temporalities of the ecclesiastical préfer- ments, upon any pretence, either of loan, vacancy, an- nates, tithes, procurations, or otherwise, without the king's order, and the consent of the clergy. 6. The pope has no authority to depose the king, or grant away his dominions to any person whatever. His holiness can neither excommunicate the king, nor absolve his subjects from their allegiance. - 7. The pope likewise has no authority to excommuni- cate the king's officers, for their executing and discharg- ing their respective offices and functions. 8. The pope has no right to take cognizance, either by himself, or his delegates, of any pre-eminences, or privi. leges, belonging to the crown of France, the king being not obliged to argue his prerogatives in any court but his own, 9. Counts palatine, made by the pope, are not acknow. ledged as such in France, nor allowed to make use of their privileges and powers, any more than those created by the emperor. 10. It is not lawful for the pope to grant licenses to churchmen, the king's subjects, or to any others holding benefices in the realm of France, to bequeath the issues and profits of their respective preferments, contrary to any branch of the king's laws, or the customs of the realm ; nor to hinder the relations of the beneficed cler- gy, or monks, to succeed to their estates, when they enter into religious orders, and are professed. 11. The pope cannot grant to any person a dispensa- tion to enjoy any estate or revenues in France, without the king's consent. 12. The pope cannot grant a license to ecclesiastics to alienate church lands, situate and lying in France, with- out the king's consent, upon any pretence whatever. 13. The king may punish his ecclesiastical officers for misbehavior in their respective charges, notwithstanding the privilege of their orders. - 14. No person has any right to hold any benefice in France, unless he be either a native of the country, natu- ralized by the king, or has a royal dispensation for that purpose. 15. The pope is not superior to an ecumenical or gene- ral council. 16. The Gallican church does not receive, without dis- tinction, all the canons, and all the decretal epistles, but keeps principally to that ancient collection, called Corpus Canonicum, the same which pope Adrian sent to Charle- magne towards the end of the eighth century, and which, in the year 860, under the pontificate of Nicolas I., the French bishops declared to be the only canon law they were obliged to acknowledge, maintaining that, in this body, the liberties of the Gallican church consisted. 17. The pope has no power, for any cause whatsoever, to dispense with the law of God, the law of nature, or the decrees of the ancient canons. 18. The regulations of the apostolic chamber, or court, are not obligatory to the Gallican church, unless confirm- ed by the king's edicts. - 19. If the primates or metropolitans appeal to the pope, his holiness is obliged to try the cause, by commissioners, or delegates, in the same diocese from which the appeal was made. - 20. When a Frenchman desires the pope to give him a benefice lying in France, his holiness is obliged to or. der him an instrument, sealed under the faculty of his office; and, in case of refusal, it is lawful for the person pretending to the benefice to apply to the parliament of Paris, which court shall send instructions to the bishop of the diocese to give him institution, which institution shall be of the same validity as if he had received his title un- der the seals of the court of Roma C H U C H U [ 368 J 21. No mandates from the pope, enjoining a bishop or other collator to present any person to a benefice upon a vacancy, are admitted in France. . . . 22. It is only by sufferance that the pope has what they call a right of prevention, to collate to benefices, which the ordinary has not disposed of - - 23. It is not lawful for the pope to exempt the ordinary of any monastery, Ör any other ecclesiastical corporation, from the jurisdiction of their respective diocesans, in or- der.to make the person so exempted immediately depen- dent on the holy see. - These liberties are esteemed inviolable; and the French kings, at their coronation, solemnly swear to preserve and maintain them. The oath runs thus :—Promitto vobis et perdomo quod unicuique de vobis et ecclesiis vobis commissis ca- nonicum privilegium et debitam legem atque justitiam servabo. In the established church the Jansenists were very nu- merous. The bishoprics and prebends were entirely in the gift of the king; and no other Catholic state, except Italy, had so numerous a clergy as France. There were in this kingdom eighteen archbishops, one hundred and eleven bishops, one hundred and sixty-six thousand cler- gymen, and three thousand four hundred convents, con- taining two hundred thousand persons devoted to a mo- nastic life. • Since the repeal of the edict of Nantz, the Protestants have suffered much from persecution. A solemn law, which did much honor to Louis XVI., late king of France, gave to his non-Roman Catholic subjects, as they were called, all the civil advantages and privileges of their Ro- man Catholic brethren. The above statement was made previously to the French revolution : great alterations have taken place since that period. And it may be interesting, to those who have not the means of fuller information, to give a sketch of the causes which gave rise to those important events. - About the middle of the last century, a conspiracy was formed to overthrow Christianity, without distinction of worship, whether Protestant or Catholic. Voltaire, D'- Alembert, Frederic II, king of Prussia, and Diderot, were at the head of this conspiracy. Numerous other adepts and secondary agents were induced to join them. These pretended philosophers used every artifice that impiety could invent, by union and secret correspondence to attack, to debase, and annihilate Christianity. They not only acted in concert, sparing no political or impious art to effect the destruction of the Christian religion, but they were the instigators, and conductors of those secondary agents whom they had seduced, and pursued their plan with all the ardor and constancy which denotes the most finished conspirators. . . The French clergy amounted to one hundred and thir- ty thousand, the higher orders of whom enjoyed immense revenues; but the cures, or great body of acting clergy, seldom possessed more than twenty-eight pounds sterling a-year, and the vicars about half the sum. The clergy, as a body, independent of their titles, possessed a reve- nue arising from their property in land, amounting to five millions sterling annually; at the same time they were exempt from taxation. Before the levelling system had taken place, the clergy signified to the commons the in- structions of their constituents, to contribute to the exi- gences of the state in equal proportion with the other citizens. Not contented with this offer, the tithes and re- venues of the clergy were taken away; in lieu of which, it was proposed to grant a certain stipend to the different ministers of religion, to be payable by the nation. The possessions of the church were then considered as nation- al property by a decree of the constituent assembly. The religious orders, viz. the communities of monks and nuns, possessed immense landed estates; and, after having abolished the orders, the assembly seized the estates for the use of the nation : the gates of the cloisters were now thrown open. The next step of the assembly was to es- tablish what is called the civil constitution of the clergy. This, the Roman Catholics assert, was in direct opposition to their religion. But though opposed with energetic elo- quence, the decree passed, and was soon after followed by another, obliging the clergy to swear to maintain their • * * • . . . . * * • - 4. & civil constitution. Every artifice which cunning, and every menace which cruelty conld invent, were used to induce them to take the oath ; great numbers, however, refused. One hundred and thirty-eight bishops and arch- bishops, sixty-eight curates or vicars, were on this account driven from their sees and parishes. Three hundred of the priests were massacred in one day in one city. All the other pastors who adhered to their religion, were either sacrificed, or banished from their country, seeking through a thousand dangers a refuge among foreign na- tions. A perusal of the horrid massacres of the priests who refused to take the oaths, and the various forms of persecution employed by those who were attached to the Catholic religion, must deeply wound the feelings of hu- manity. Those readers who are desirous of further in- formation, are referred to Abbé Barruel’s “History of the Clergy.” . - Some think that there was another cause of the revolu- tion, and which may be traced as far back at least as the revocation of the edict of Nantz in the seventeenth centu- ry, when the great body of French Protestants, who were men of principle, were either murdered or banished, and the rest in a manner silenced. The effect of this sangui- nary measure (say they) must needs be the general preva- lence of infidelity. Let the religious part of any nation be banished, and a general spread of irreligion must ne- cessarily follow : such were the effects in France. Through the whole of the eighteenth century, infidelity was the fashion, and that not only among the princes and no- blesse, but even among the greater part of the bishops and clergy. And as they had united their influence in ba- nishing true religion, and cherishing the monster which succeeded it, so they were united in sustaining the calam- itous effects which that monster has produced. However unprincipled and cruel the French revolutionists were, and however much the sufferers, as fellow-creatures, are entitled to our pity; yet, considering the event as the just . retribution of God, we are constrained to say, “Thou art righteous, O Lord, who art, and wast, and shalt be, be- cause thou hast judged thus; for they have shed the blood of Saints and prophets, and thou hast given them blood to drink; for they are worthy.” - The Catholic religion is now again established, but with a toleration of the Protestants, under some restric- tion. See the Concordat, or religious establishment of the French republic, ratified Sept. 10th, 1801.—Hend. Buck. CHURCH, (GREEK), that portion of professing Chris. tians who conform in their creed, usages, and church go- vernment to the views of Christianity introduced into the former Greek empire, and matured, since the fifth centu- ry, under the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. A schism between the East and West might early have been anticipated. The foundation of a new Rome at Constantinople; the political partition of the Roman empire into the Oriental or Greek, and the Occidental or Latin; the elevation of the bishop of Con- stantinople to the place of second patriarch of Christen- dom, inferior only to the patriarch of Rome, effected in the councils of Constantinople, A. D. 381, and of Chalce- don, 451; the jealousy of the latter patriarch towards the growing power of the former,-were circumstances which, together with the ambiguity of the edict known under the name of the Henoticon, (which see), granted by the Greek emperor, Zeno, A. D. 482, produced a formal schism in what till then had formed the Catholic church. Felix II., patriarch of Rome, pronounced sentence of excommuni- cation against the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alex- andria, who had been the leading agents in the Henoti- con, in A. D. 484, and thus cut off all ecclesiastical fellow- ship which the congregations of the East attached to these patriarchs. The sentiments of the imperial court being changed, the Roman patriarch, Hormisdas, was able, in- deed, to compel a re-union of the Greek church with the Latin, in A. D. 519; but this union, never seriously in- tended, and loosely compacted, was again dissolved by the obstinacy of both parties, and the Roman sentence of excommunication against the Iconoclasts among the Greeks, in 733, and against Photius, the patriarch of Con- stantinople in 862. The augmentation of the Greek church, by the addition of newly-converted nations, excited C H U c H U [ 369 J afresh, about this time, the jealousy of the Roman ontiff; and his bearing towards the Greeks was the more haughty in consequence of his having renounced his alle- giance to the Greek emperor, and had a sure protection against him in the new Frankish Roman empire. Pho- tius, on the other hand, charged the Latins with arbitrary conduct in inserting an unscriptural addition into the creed, respecting the procession of the Holy Ghost, and in altering many of the usages of the ancient orthodox church : for example, in forbidding their priests to marry, repeating the chrism, and fasting on Saturday, as the Jewish Sabbath. But he complained, with justice, in par- ticular, of the assumptions ºp the pope, who pretended to be the sovereign of all Christendom, and treated the Greek patriarchs as his inferiors. The deposition of this patri- arch, twice effected by the pope, did not terminate the dispute between the Greeks and Latins : and when the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, added to the charges of Photius, against the Latins, an accusa- tion of heresy in 1054, on account of their use of un- leavened bread at their communion, and of the blood of animals that had died by strangulation, as well as on ac- count of the immorality of the Latin clergy in general, pope Leo IX. having in retaliation excommunicated him in the most insulting manner, a total separation ensued of the Greek church from the Latin. From this time, pride, obstinacy, and selfishness frustrated all the attempts which were made to re-unite the two churches, partly by the popes, in order to annex the East to their see, partly by the Greek emperors, in order to secure the assistance of the princes of the West against the Mahometans. Neither would yield to the other in respect to the contest- ed points, while the Catholic religion acquired a more complete and peculiar character under Gregory VII. ; and, in consequence of the scholastic theology, the Greek cburch retained its creed as arranged by John of Damas- 'crºs, in 730, and its ancient constitutions. The conquest of Gonstantinople by the French crusades and the Venetians, A. D. 1204, and the cruel oppressions which the Greeks had to endure from the Latins and the papal legates, only increased their exasperation; and although the Greek emperor Michael II. (Palaeologus, who had reconquered Constantinople in 1261) consented to recognise the pope's supremacy, and by his envoys and some of the clergy who were devoted to him, abjured the points of separation, at the assembly held at Lyons in 1274; and though a joint synod was held at Constantinople in 1277, for the purpose of strengthening the union with the Latin church, the great body of the Greek church was nevertheless opposed to this step; and pope Martin IV. having excom- municated the emperor Michael in 1281, from political motives, the councils held at Constantinople in 1283 and 1285, by the Greek bishop, restored their old doctrines, and the separation from the Latins. The last attempt to unite the two churches was made by the Greek emperor, John VII., when very hard pressed by the Turks, together with the patriarch Joseph, in the councils held, first at Ferrara in 1438, and the next year at Florence, pope Eugene IV. presiding; but the union there concluded, having the appearance of submission to the Roman see, was alto- gether rejected by the Greek clergy and the nation at large, so that in fact the Schism of the two churches con- tinued. The efforts of the Greek emperors, who had always had most interest in these attempts at union, ceased with the overthrow of their empire and the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453; and the exer- tions of the Roman Catholics to subject the Greek church effected nothing but the acknowledgment of some few Greek congregations jn Italy, Hungary, Gallicia, Poland, and Lithuania, which congregations are now known under the name of United Greeks. - In the seventh century, the territory of the Greek church embraced, besides East Illyria, Greece Proper, with the Morea and the Archipelago, Asia Minor, Syria, with Pa- lestine, Arabia, Egypt, and numerous congregations in Mesopotamia and Persia; but the conquests of Mahomet and his successors have deprived it, since 630, of almost all its provinces in Asia and Africa; and even in Europe the number of its adherents was considerably diminished by the Turks in the mºnºghuy. On the other hand, - - 47. & it was increased by the accession of several Sclavonic nations, and especially by the Russians, who, under the great prince Vladimir, in the year 988, embraced the creed of the Greek Christians. To this nation the Greek church is indebted for the symbolical book, which, with the canons of the first and second Nicene, of the first, second, and third Constantinopolitan, of the Ephesian, and Chalcedonian general councils, and of the Trullan council, held at Constantinople in 692, is the sole authority of its members in matters of doctrine. After the learned Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, had suffered martyrdom for his professed approbation of the principles of Protestantism, A. D. 1629, an exposition of the doctrines held by the Russians was drawn up in the Greek lan- guage, by Peter Mogislaus, bishop of Kiev, 1642, under the title of the “Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Church of Christ,” signed and ratified 1643, by all the patriarchs of the Greek church, to whom had been added, in 1589, the patriarch of Moscow. It was printed in Holland, in Greek and Latin, 1662, with a preface by the patriarch Nectarius of Jerusalem. In 1696, it was published by the last Russian patriarch; and in 1722, at the command of Peter the Great, by the holy synod; it having been previously declared to be in all cases valid as the standard of the Greek church, by a council held at Jerusalem in 1672, and by the ecclesiastical rule of Peter the Great, drawn up in 1721, by Theophanes Procoviez. Like the Roman Catholic, the Greek church recognises two sources of doctrine, the Bible and tradition, under which last it comprehends not only those doctrines which were orally delivered by the apostles, but also those which have been approved of by the Greek fathers, especially John of Damascus, as well as by the seven above-named general councils. The other councils, whose authority is valid in the Latin communion, this church does not recog- nise; nor does it allow the patriarchs or synods to intro- duce new doctrines. It holds its tenets to be so obligatory and necessary, that they cannot be denied without the loss of salvation. It is the only church which holds that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only : thus differing both from the Catholics and Protestants, who agree in de- riving the third person both from the Father and the Son. Like the Latin church, it has seven sacraments: baptism, chrism, the eucharist, confession, penance, ordination, marriage, and extreme unction ; it is peculiar, first, in holding that full purification from original sin requires a trine immersion, or aspersion, and in joining chrism with it as the completion of baptism; secondly, in adopting, as to the eucharist, the doctrine of transubstantiation, but ordering the bread to be leavened, the wine to be mixed with water, and both elements to be distributed to the laity, even to children, the communicant receiving the bread in a spoon filled with the consecrated wine; thirdly, all the clergy, with the exception of the monks, and of the higher clergy chosen from among them, down to the bishops in- clusively, are allowed to marry a virgin, but not a widow; nor are they allowed to marry a second time; and there- fore the widowed clergy are not permitted to retain their livings, but go into a cloister, where they are called hiero- momachi. Rarely is a widowed bishop allowed to preserve his dio- cese; and from the maxims that marriage is not suitable for the higher clergy in general, and that second marriage is at least improper for the lower, there is no departure. The Greek church does not regard the marriage of the laity as indissoluble, and frequently grants divorces; but is as strict as the Roman church with respect to the forbid- den degrees of relationship, especially of the ecclesiastical relationship of god-parents; nor does it allow the laity a fourth marriage. It differs from the Catholic church in anointing with the holy oil, not only the dying, but the sick, for the restoration of their health, the forgiveness of their sins, and the sanctification of their souls. It rejects the doctrine of purgatory, does not admit of predestination, denies works of supererogation, and disallows of indul- gences and dispensations; only a printed form is some- times given to the dead, at the request and for the comfort of the survivors. It allows no carved, sculptured, or mol- ten images of holy persons or things; but the representa- tions of Christ, of the virgin Mary, and the saints, which C H U C H U. [ 370 | are objects of religious worship, both in churches and pri- wate houses, must be merely painted, and at most inlaid with precious stones. In the invocation of the Saints, and especially of the virgin, the Greeks are as zealous as the Latins. They also hold relics, crosses, and graves to be sacred; and crossing themselves in the name of Jesus, they consider as having a wonderful and blessed influence. Besides fasting every Wednesday and Friday, they have four general fasts annually. A. The service of the Greek church consists almost entirely in outward forms. Preaching and catechizing constitute the least part of it: indeed, in the seventeenth century, preaching was strictly forbidden in Russia, under the czar Alexis, to prevent the diffusion of novel doctrines. In Turkey, it is confined almost exclusively to the higher clergy, because they alone possess some degree of know- ledge. Each congregation has its own choir of singers, instrumental music being altogether excluded from the Greek church. Besides the mass, which is regarded as the chief part of the service, the liturgy consists of passa- ges of Scripture, prayers and legends of the Saints, and in the recitation of the creed, or of sentences which the priest begins, and the people, officiating in a body, finish. The convents, for the most part, conform to the strict rule of St. Basil. The Greek abbot is termed higumenos ; the abbess, higumene. The abbot of a Greek convent, which has several others under its inspection, is termed archimandrite, and has a rank next to that of a bishop. The lower clergy in the Greek church consist of readers, singers, deacons, &c. and of priests, such as the popes and protopopes, or archpriests, who are the first clergy in the cathedrals and metropolitan churches. The members of the lower clergy can never rise higher than protopopes; since the bishops are chosen from among the monks; and from among the bishops, the archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. - In Russia, there are thirty-one dioceses; with which of them the archiepiscopal dignity shall be united, depends . on the will of the emperor. The seats of the four Russian metropolitans are, Petersburgh, with the jurisdiction of Novogorod; Kiev, with that of Galicia ; Kasan, with that of Svijaschk; and Tobolsk, with that of all Siberia. The patriarchal dignity of Moscow, which the patriarch Nikon is said to have abused, Peter the Great abolished, by pre- senting himself unexpectedly before the bishops, who were assembled, in 1702, to elect a new patriarch, and declar- ing, “I am your patriarch ;” and, in 1721, the whole ec- clesiastical government of the empire was intrusted to a college of bishops and secular clergy, called the holy synod, first at Moscow, now at Petersburgh. Under this synod now stand, besides the metropolitans, eleven archbishops, nineteen bishops, twelve thousand, five hundred parish churches, and four hundred and twenty-five convents, fifty-eight of which are connected with monastic schools for the education of the clergy, for the better effecting of which object, they are aided by a large annual pension from the state. The Greek church, under the Turkish dominion, remain- ed, as far as was possible under such circumstances, faith- ful to the original constitution. The dignities of patriarch of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, still exist. The first, however, possesses the ancient au- thority of the former archbishop of Constantinople; takes the lead as ecumenical patriarch in the holy synod at that place, composed of the four patriarchs, a number of me. tropolitans and bishops, and twelve secular Greeks; exer- cises the highest ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Greeks in the whole Turkish empire; and is recognised as head of the Greek church by the (not united) Greeks in Galicia, in the Bukowina, or Sclavonia, and in the Seven Islands. The other three patriarchs, as almost all the people in their dioceses are Mahometans, have but a small sphere of action (the patriarch of Alexandria has but two churches at Cairo), and live, for the most part, on the aid afforded them by the patriarch of Constantinople. This patriarch has a considerable income, but is obliged to pay nearly half of it as a tribute to the Sultan. The Greeks, under the Turkish government, are not allowed to build any new churches—have to pay dearly for permission to repair the old ones—-are not allewed to have steeples or bells to their churches, nor even to wear the Turkish dress—generally perform religious service by night—and are, moreover, obliged to pay tolls, from which the Turks are exempt; but the males also pay to the sultan, after their fifteenth year, a heavy poll-tax, under the name of exemption from beheading. . - - The attachment of the Greek church to the old institu- tions has stood in the way of all attempts at improvement : only in Russia, a number of sects have sprung up, which the government not only tolerates, but some of which it supplies with consecration to their clergy, through the regular bishops. As might be expected, true religion is at the very lowest ebb in all the departments of this com- munion; yet strong hopes may be entertained of a revival, from the circumstance that the free use of the holy Scrip- tures, in the vernacular language, is not interdicted, as in the church of Rome.—Hend. Buck. CHURCH, HIGH. (See High CHURCH.) CHURCH OF IRELAND, is the same as the church of England, and is governed by four archbishops, and eighteen bishops.-Hend. Buck. . . . . . . CHURCH, or KIRK of SCOTLAND. The word kirk, signifying church, was used in Scotland even be- fore the Reformation, and is still retained there, where it is chiefly confinee, to the establishment, and the Relief Synod. • The principles of the Reformation were first introduced into Scotland about the year 1527, when they excited the apprehensions of the priesthood, who attempted to arrest their progress by many acts of cruelty against their pro- fessors. - - - The sovereign and the priesthood combined to preserve the dominion of error; whilst the greater part of the no- bility, to gain the objects which they fondly contemplated, espoused the interests of the people, and joined in enlarg- ing the sphere of civil and religious liberty. Thus it happened, that the hierarchy came to be regarded in Scot- land, by all who were partial to the Protestant faith, as the ally of despotism and the engine of persecution. It was not, therefore to be expected, that when the Pro- testants gained a decided ascendency, much inclination would be shown to uphold a system of ecclesiastical polity, associated with what they most abhorred; and the celebrat- ed Andrew Melville, on his arrival in Scotland from Ge- neva, in 1574, taking advantage of these feelings, and of every political event that might facilitate his design, was enabled to effect in 1592, the introduction of that Presbyterian polity which he found established in Geneva, and which has finally been fixed in Scotland. James VI., to whom this form of church government was most obnoxious, was desirous that Episcopacy, as more consonant to monarchy, should be restored. To effect this, he made many efforts, even before his accession to the English throne; and after that event, he was ena- bled to accomplish his object. His unfortunate son, Charles I., formed the scheme of assimilating, in all re- spects, the churches of England and Scotland. With this view he determined to introduce a liturgy, which in Scot- land had never been regularly used; and he insisted upon the reception of a set of canons, abolishing the control over ecclesiastical measures which the inferior church judicatories had been permitted to exercise. The violence with which all this was resisted, is known to every reader of the history of Britain. The zeal of the multitude was inflamed to fury; the clergy were insulted, and Episcopacy was again contemplated as the engine of popery and of despotism. The discontented in Scotland made a common cause with those who were disaffected to prelacy in the southern part of the island: they bound themselves by the deed, entitled The Solemn League and Covenant, to extermi- nate prelacy as a corruption of the gospel; and they took an active part in those measures which terminated in the death of Charles and the erection of the commonwealth. Upon the restoration of Charles II., he re-established Episcopacy in Scotland, under circumstances little calcu- lated to conciliate the affections, and to secure the reve- rence of the people to that form of church polity. The Presbyterians, undismayed, adhered to their H.P. and, upon the abdication of James II, they looked for. ward with confidence to the triumph of their cause. And, C H U c H U [ 371 ) though the prince of Orange was eager to preserve in both parts of the island the same form of ecclesiastical government, the bishops conceived that they could not conscientiously transfer their allegiance to him, whereby the way was opened for that establishment of Presbytery, which some of his most zealous adherents had pressed upon him, and which was ratified by act of parliament in 1690. Thus Scotland and England having been separate kingdoms at the time of the Reformation, a difference of circumstances in the two countries led to different senti- ments on the subject of religion, and at last to different religious establishments; and when they were incorpo- rated into one kingdom by the treaty of union in 1707, both kingdoms gave their assent to a declaration, that Episcopacy shall continue in England, and that the Pres- byterian church government shall be the only government of Christ's church in that part of Great Britain called Scotland. The same establishment is also guaranteed by the fifth article of the union with Ireland. The only confession which appears to have been legally established before the revolution in 1688, is that which is published in the “History of the Reformation in Scot- land,” attributed to John Knox. It consists of twenty-five articles, and was the confession as well of the Episcopal as of the Presbyterian church. The Covenanters, indeed, during the commonwealth, adopted the Westminster con- fession. And at the revolution, this confession was re- ceived as the standard of the national faith; and the same acts of parliament which settled Presbyterian church government in Scotland, ordain, “That no person be ad- mitted or continued hereafter to be a minister or preacher within this church, unless that he subscribe the (i.e. this) confession of faith, declaring the same to be the confession of his faith.” By the act of union in 1707, the same is required of all “professors, principals, regents, masters, and others bearing office” in any of the four universities in Scotland. The Westminster confession of faith, them, and what are called the larger and shorter catechisms, which are generally bound up with it, contain the public and avowed doctrines of this church; and it is well known that these formularies are strictly and properly Calvinistical. In the church of Scotland, the public worship is ex- tremely simple, and but few ceremonies are retained. There is no liturgy or public form in use ; and the minis- ter's only guide is, “The Directory for the Public Wor- ship of God,” which prescribes rather the matter than the words of our addresses to God: nor is it thought necessary to adhere strictly to it; for, as in several other respects, what it enjoins with regard to reading the holy Scriptures in public worship is, at this day, but seldom practised. By the ecclesiastical laws, “the sacrament of the Lord’s supper should be dispensed in every parish four times in the year;” but this law is now seldom adhered to, unless in most chapels of ease. In country parishes, it is often administered not above once a year, and in towns gene- rally only twice a year. The people are prepared for that holy ordinance by a fast and public worship on some day of the preceding week, generally on Thursday, and by a sermon on the Saturday; and they meet again in the kirk on the Monday morning for public thanksgiving, and Sermoil. They have no altars or chancels in the kirks, and the communion tables are not fixed, but introduced for the occasion ; and are sometimes two or more in number, and of considerable length. At the first table, the minister, immediately upon concluding what they call the conse- cration prayer, usually proceeds to read the words of the institution, and, without adding more, to distribute the elements, which he does only to the two communicants who sit nearest him on each hand. It is usual for the elders to administer them to the rest. But before, or during the services of the succeeding tables, addresses at some length are made to the communicants by the minis- ter, or by one of the ministers, (for there are generally two, three, or more present,) standing at the head of the communion table. - In conducting public worship, this church has little in common with the church of England. She has no festivals. Days of public fasting and thanksgiving she does undeed sometimes observe, particularly those commanded by the king, together with the fast previous to the celebration of the holy communion, and the day of thanksgiving after it; but she has no lent fast,--no kneeling at public prayer, —no public worship of God without a sermon or public instruction,-no instrumental music,+no consecration of churches or of burying grounds,-no funeral service or ceremony, no sign of the cross in baptism, no regulaf use of the Lord's prayer, and no administration of the holy communion in private houses, not even to the sick or dying. - In singing, an old metrical version of the psalms is used; but besides the psalms of David, a collection of translations and paraphrases in verse, of several passages of sacred Scripture, together with some hymns, has been introduced of late years, by permission of the general assembly, and a new version of the psalms in metre is now in progress. For government and discipline, see PRESBYTERIANISM. The general assembly, in the present state of the church, consists of the following members, viz.:- 200 Ministers representing Presbyteries. 89 Elders, representing Presbyteries. 67 Elders, representing royal boroughs. 5 Ministers or Elders, representing Universities. 361 The connexion of what is called the Scots kirk at Campvere, in Holland, with the establishment in Scotland, which had been dissolved by the Batavian republic, has lately been restored; and congregations joined with this church, and represented in the general assembly, have been established in the different presidencies of India. In Scotland, and the islands of Scotland, she contains within her bounds eight hundred and ninety-three parish- es, and about one million five hundred thousand mem- bers. The number of ministers belonging to her, who enjoy benefices, and possess ecclesiastical authority, is nine hundred and forty. Of this number, seventy-seven are placed in collegiate charges, and the remaining eight hundred and sixty-three ministers are settled in single charges, each of them having the superintendence of a whole parish. In very populous parishes, chapels of ease are erected with consent of the kirk, and are supported' y voluntary subscriptions; but the ministers who officiate in them are not included in this number, as they are not members of any ecclesiastical courts. The duties of the Scotch clergy are numerous and la- borious. They are required to officiate regularly in the public worship of God; and, in general, they must go through this duty twice every Sunday (exclusive of other occasional appearances,) delivering every Sunday a lec- ture and a sermon, with prayers. It is also expected, throughout Scotland, that the prayers and discourses shall *, be of the minister’s own composition; and the prayers, in all cases, and the discourses, in most instances, are de- livered without the use of papers. They are expected to perform the alternate duties of examining their people from the Scriptures and catechisms of the church, and of visit. ing them from house to house, with prayers and exhorta- tions. The charge of the poor devolves, in a very partic- ular manner, on the clergy; and in them also is vested the superintendence of all schools within their bounds. The provision which has been made, by the law of Scotland, for the support of the established clergy, consists in a stipend, payable in victual or money, or partly in each : a small glebe of land; and a manse (parsonage-house) and office-houses. An act of parliament passed in 1810, granting ten thousand pounds per annum for augmenting the Smaller parish stipends in Scotland. By this act, the lowest sti- pends assigned to a minister of the establishment, is one hundred and fifty pounds sterling, with a small sum, gen- erally eight-pounds six shillings and eight pence, for communion elements, Stipends, where the teinds are not exhausted, are, with the exclusion of communion ele- ments, wholly paid in victual, generally oatmeal and barley, in ..f proportions; and the court frequently c H U c H U I 372 allocates, as it is termed, to a minister from sixteen to eighteen chalders. If the stipend exhaust the teind, it is sometimes paid in money; and there are cases in which the teind was originally set apart in money, and not in victual. The whole church establishment, as a burden on land, may be stated in one view, as follows—viz. a glebe, of perhaps about six or seven acres, out of nearly twenty-one thousand, and the grass, where it is allowed; a stipend of about nine pence in the pound of the land rents; and buildings and communion charges, amounting to four or five pence more in the pound of these land rents. All these, put together, constitute the burdens of the Scottish ecclesiastical establishment, in so far as proprietors of land are affected by them; and are not supposed to ex- ceed three hundred thousand pounds per annum. Patronage was abolished in Scotland, A. D. 1649; was revived at the Restoration; was partly abrogated at the Revolution; and again revived in 1712; and the ranks of dissenters there have been thronged, perhaps, from no other cause so much as the abuse of patronage ; notwith- standing, this church, according to Dr. Chalmers, has still a veto, and can set aside any presentee, not merely on the ground of his moral or literary qualifications, but “generally, on the principle that it is not for the cause of edification that his presentation should be sustained.” The internal state of the church of Scotland, it has been supposed by some, has been of late years undergoing an improvement, by the decided increase of the party usually termed Evangelical. In the appointment of minis- ters to vacant churches, both in town and country, much greater attention is now paid than formerly to the wishes of the people; and popular candidates, as they are called, are those whom the patrons of the present day most fre- quently present to livings. If this party should go on increasing in the same proportion, the reign of the mode- rates, or low-doctrine, but high-churchmen, must ere long terminate. It is however, greatly to be deplored, that along with this increase in the number of evangelical mi- nisters, a spirit of intolerance and bigotry is rapidly gain- ing ground. Individuals, for instance, carry their jealousy so far as to dissuade their parishioners from hiring dis- senting servants. Others, contrary to their former prac- tice, refuse to intimate from their pulpits sermons to be preached on public occasions for common objects, by dis- senting ministers; and there are others who stand aloof from societies in which they would be required to co-ope- rate with brethren who do not belong to the established church. To the production of this spirit and state of feeling, the controversy relating to the British and Foreign Bible society has greatly contributed. See Adam's Reli- gious World Displayed; Edin. Theolog. Mag., Nov. 1830. —Hend. Buck. - - CHURCH, (LATIN, or WesTeRN,) comprehends all the churches of Italy, Portugal, Spain, Africa, the north and all other countries whither the Romans carried their lan- guage. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands, of Ger- many, and of the north of Europe, have been separated from it almost ever since the Reformation.—Hend. Buck. CHURCH, (REFORMED,) comprehends the whole Pro- testant churches in Europe and America, whether Luthe- ran, Calvinistic, Independent, Quaker, Baptist, or any other denomination who dissent from the church of Rome. The term reformed is now, however, employed on the continent of Europe, to distinguish the Calvinists from the Lutherans.—Hend. Buck. - CHURCH OF ROME, or Roman CATHoLic CHURCH. The Roman Catholics unanimously own Peter as the founder of the church of Rome, though it is disputed by some Protestants, whether he ever was in that city. Those who deny it, ground their opinion upon the silence of Luke and Paul in this matter, who, having been both at Rome, would not have failed, say they, to have men- tioned Peter, and the Christians converted by him, if he had ever preached the gospel in that city. They endeavor to confirm this opinion by the chronological history of the Acts of the Apostles, and likewise by the first Epistle of Peter; ſºom the last of which they undertake to prove, that he executed his commission in Asia, and died at Babylon, º . To this it is answered, that the silence of Lulte is no good argument; for that evangelist, in the Acts of the Apostles, takes no notice of Paul's journey into Arabia, and of his return, first to Damascus, and then to Jerusa- lem. As to the argument from chronology, those who maintain the affirmative, set up another account of time, more agreeable, as they think, to the best ecclesiastical his- torians and chronologers, and exactly coinciding with the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles of Peter and Paul. It is, in few words, this :— - - In the thirty-fifth year of Christ, Peter and John went to Samaria, where having preached the gospel, Peter re- turned to Jerusalem; whither Paul came, three years after his conversion, to visit him, in the year of Christ, 39. The church having rest, and being unmolested by its enemies, Peter now took the opportunity to visit the seve- ral churches already planted by the disciples, in which º: he came to Antioch, the capital of the East; and ere, being its first bishop, and having given necessary orders for the government of that church, he returned into Judea, where he visited the towns of Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea, in the years 40 and 41. After the conver- sion of the centurion Cornelius, he went to Jerusalem in the year 42. At this time, Barnabas and Paul were sent to Antioch, where they preached the gospel with great success in the year 43. From thence they returned to Jerusalem, where Peter then was, bringing with them the contributions they had collected for the support of the Christians of Judea, in the year 44. In the mean time, Herod Agrippa, king of Judea, put the apostle James, brother of John, to death, just before Easter, and soon aſter, seized on Peter; who, being miraculously released by an angel, travelled through Antioch into Asia Minor, where he planted new churches in Cappadocia, Galatia, Pontus, and Bithynia; from whence he embarked for Rome, where he arrived the latter end of the year 44, which was the second of the emperor Claudius. Here, having converted many Jews and Gentiles, he planted a church, of which he himself was the first bishop, in the year 45. He continued to govern this church till his martyrdom, which fell out in the year 69, being the thir- teenth of the emperor Nero; upon which computation he was bishop of Rome twenty-five years; not that he was resident all that time in Rome, for in the year 51, he was obliged to quit the city, because of the emperor Claudius's edict, which banished all the Jews, under which name they included the Christians; nor was he returned to Rome when Paul was carried prisoner thither, in the year 59, and this may account for the silence of Paul in this matter. - - As to the Epistle of Peter, dated from Babylon to the Christians in Asia, it is answered, that by Babylon, in that place, is plainly meant the city of Rome; and Euse- bius, Jerome, and all the ancient writers, assure us that this epistle was written at Rome. . . . Lastly, that Peter was at Rome, may be proved, say they, by the concurrent testimony of all antiquity; this truth being asserted by Papias, a disciple of John the evan- gelist, by Caius, contemporary with Tertullian, by Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius, &c. among the Greeks; and by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Lac- tantius, &c. among the Latins, and is a fact that never was called in question till the sixteenth century. Rome is the centre of the popish, or Roman Catholic religion, and the pope, or bishop of the see of Rome, as successor of St. Peter, claims the supremacy over the universal Christian church. This claim is founded on the words of our Savior to St. Peter: “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my church.” The best sum- mary of the doetrines of that church, is the famous creed of pope Pius IV. which may be considered as a true and unquestionable body of popery. It consists of twenty-four articles. The twelve first are the articles of the Nicene creed, and need not be cited here. The twelve last are the additional doctrines, which the church of Rome has superadded to the original Catholic faith, they are as follows:– XIII., I most firmly admit and embrace the apostolic and ecclesiastical traditions, and all other observations and constitutions of the same church, [373 J C H U XIV. I do admit the holy Scriptures in the same sense that holy mother church doth, whose business it is to judge of the true sense and interpretation of them; and I will interpret them according to the unanimous sense of the fathers. * XV. I do profess and believe, that there are seven sa- craments of the law, truly and properly so called, insti- tuted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and necessary to the sal- vation of mankind, though not all of them to every one, viz. –Baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, orders, and marriage; and that they do confer grace; and that, of these, baptism, confirmation, and orders, may not be repeated without sacrilege. I do also receive and admit the received and approved rites of the Catholic church in her solemn administration of the above-Said sacraments. - •. . I do embrace and receive all and every thing, that hath been defined and declared by the holy council of Trent, concerning original sin and justification. XVII. I do also profess, that in the mass, there is offered unto God a true, proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead; and that in the most holy sacrament of the eucharist, there is truly, really, and substantially, the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ; and that there is a conversion made of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood, which conversion the Catholic church calls transubstantiation. XVIII. I conſess that, under one kind only, whole and entire, Christ, and a true sacrament, is taken . and received. XIX. I do firmly believe that there is a purgatory, and that the souls kept prisoners there do receive help by the suffrages of the faithful. - XX. I do likewise believe that the saints, reigning to- gether with Christ, are to be worshipped and prayed to ; and that they do offer prayers unto God for us, and that their relics are to be had in veneration. XXI. I do most firmly assert that the images of Christ, of the blessed virgin (the mother of God) and of other saints, ought to be had and retained, and due honor and veneration ought to be paid to them. XXII. I do affirm that the power of indulgences was left by Christ in the church, and that the use of them is very beneficial to Christian people. - XXIII. I do acknowledge the holy Catholic and aposto- lic Roman church, to be the mother and mistress of all churches; and I do promise and swear true obedience to the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, the prince of the apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ. XXIV. I do undoubtedly receive and profess all other things, which have been delivered, defined, and declared by the sacred canons, and ecumenical councils, and espe- cially by the holy synod of Trent; and all other things contrary thereto, and all heresies, condemned, rejected, and anathematized by the church, I do likewise condemn, reject, and anathematize. ! The worship of this church is liturgical, and, throughout the greatest part of its extent, the Latin language is used in all public and authorized religious worship, although that language has for many ages ceased to be a vulgar tongue. Her object in this practice is, we are told, “to preserve uniformity; to avoid the changes to which living languages are exposed, and thereby to prevent the novel- ties which might be thus introduced; to facilitate the commerce of different churches & religious matters; and to promote a spirit of study and learning among the min- isters;” nor does she admit that by this practice her members sustain any injury or loss. She does not, how- ever, require as a condition of communion, the adoption of the Latin language and rite. - The liturgy, or order of the mass, almost universally adopted, is that contained in the Roman missal. Masses are divided into solemn or high mass, and plain or low mass; mass sung or said; public mass, or private IIM&SS. - A solemn mass is mass offered up with all the due so- lemnities, by a bishop or priest, attended by a deacon, sub- deacon and other ministers, each officiating in his part. Such a mass is always sung; and hence a choir of singers accompanies it, with an organ, if possible, and, at times, other instrumental music. Mass, when divested of all these solemnities, and in which only the priest officiates, is a plain or low mass. The priest, however, may either sing the mass, attended by the choir, or say it. Hence the difference between mass sung and said. Mass may be attended by a crowd of people, or it may be said with few or none present, except the clerk to attend the officiating priest, When the mass is numerously attended, all or many of those present may partake of the sacrifice by communion, or none may communicate but the priest. These differ- ences make the mass public or private ; and it has been remarked, that private masses have become more common in latter ages. - The liturgy of the mass will be found in the Roman missal, which contains, besides the calendar, the general rubrics or rites of the mass, and such parts of it as are invariably the same. - g After the prayers of the liturgy or missal, those held in the greatest veneration by Roman Catholics are the prayers contained in the church office or canonical hours. This office is a form of prayer and instruction combined, con- sisting of the psalms, lessons, hymns, prayers, anthems, versicles, &c. in an established order, separated into diffe- rent portions, and to be said at different hours of the day. These canonical hours of prayer are still regularly observed by many religious orders, but less regularly by the secular clergy, even in the choir. When the office is recited in private, though the observance of regular hours may be commendable, it is thought sufficient if the whole be gone through any time in the twenty-four hours. The church office is contained in what is called the breviary; and those branches of this church who have different liturgies from the Roman, have also breviaries differing in language, rite, and arrangement. Even in the Latin church, several dioceses, and several religious bodies, have their particular breviaries. The Roman breviary is, however, the most general in use. It is di- vided much in the same manner as the missal as to its parts. The psalms are so distributed, that in the weekly office (if the festivals of saints did not interfere), the whole psalter would be gone over, though several psalms, viz. the one hundred and eighteenth (alias one hundred and nineteenth,) are said every day. On the festivals of saints, suitable psalms are adopted. The lessons are taken partly out of the Old and New Testament, and partly out of the acts of the saints and writings of the holy fathers. The Lord’s prayer, the Hail Mary, or an- gelical salutation, the apostles' creed, and the confiteor, are frequently said. This last is a prayer by which the acknowledge themselves sinners; beg pardon of God, and the intercession, in their behalf, of the angels, of the saints, and of their brethren upon earth. No prayers are more frequently in the mouth of Roman Catholics than these four; to which we may add the doxology, repeated in the office at the end of every psalm, and in other places. In every canonical hour a hymn is also said, composed by Prudentius or some other ancient father. The Roman breviary contains also a small office in honor of the blessed virgin, and likewise what is called the office of the dead. We there find besides, the peni- tential and the gradual psalms, as they are called, toge- ther with the litanies of the saints and of the virgin Mary of Loretto, so called because used in the church of our lady in Loretto, which are the only two that have the sanction of the church. In the public worship of this church, every thing is fixed and uniform. And as the missal and breviary contain the prayers and rites adopted in ordinary religious assem- blies for the purpose of sacrifice or prayer, so the pontifi- cal and ritual contains the forms and prayers with which the sacraments are administered; the blessing of God in- voked upon his creatures; the power of evil spirits over the souls and bodies of the faithful destroyed or restrain- ed; the method also of deprecating the wrath of God in times of public calamity, and of returning him thanks for signal public blessings; finally, directions how to afford the comforts of religion to the sick and dying, with the prayers to be made use of in the Christian interment of C H U CHU [ 374 ) the dead. Such of the above functions as belong to the tºº. character or office are to be found in the ponti. fical; those which belong to simple priests, or even the inferior clergy, are inserted in the ritual. On the subject of the administration of the sacraments, my limits will not permit me to descend to particulars. Of the many benedictions used in this church, some, besides those accompanying the administration of their sacraments of confirmation and holy orders, are reserved to bishops exclusively, as the consecration of holy oil, chrism, &c. Some are performed by priests in their own right, and others by delegated authority from the bishop. In addition to such benedictions, this church blesses houses, ships, springs, fields, the nuptial bed, altars, cha- lices, sacerdotal vestments, salt, water, oil, palms, &c. &c. It would be ridiculous even to recite the wonderful virtues which her members attribute to their holy water, and the many superstitious uses to which they apply it. They seldom go into or out of a church without sprinkling them- selves with it. On solemn days, the priest passes down the middle aisle, to perſorm that office, using a brush; at other times they serve themselves with it from a font placed near the church door for that purpose. Another of their ceremonies, connected with this and most others, and used on most occasions and in all places, is the sign of the cross. - Roman Catholics maintain that God has left with his church a power over unclean spirits, in consequence of which they are cast out from such persons or things as, by the permission of God, they have been able to abuse; or their power over them is at least restricted. The forms of prayer which this church makes use of for that purpose are called exorcisms, and the persons who are authorized to use them are called exorcists. This function, however, according to modern practice, is seldom discharged by any but priests. The prescribed forms for all benedictions, exorcisms, and processions, &c. will be found in the “Roman Ponti- fical and Ritual.” wº - Those now enumerated are, properly speaking, the only prayers which can be said to have the sanction of the church; yet her members are furnished with many forms for private devotion. And “when, to acquire a greater ease in the observance of the law of God, a man makes use of certain means which he is not obliged by any law to use, and which others, who are not thought to neglect their duty, do not in fact avail themselves of, he is said by Roman Catholics to perform works of supererogation.” Of their numerous forms of private devotion, the “Chap- ter (or Rosary) of the blessed Virgin,” and the “Angelus Domini,” may be noticed. The former was instituted, we are told, by those who could not read, that they might repeat the Lord's prayer, the Hail Mary, and the doxology, a certain number of times, in lieu of every canonical hour; whilst at the same time they commemorate the mysteries of the life of Christ, and honor his virgin mother. For above three centuries, a practice has prevailed in this church of commemorating, at morning, noon, and night, the incarnation of Christ, by a short form of prayer, . which, from the words with which it begins in Latin, is called the “Angelus Domini.” In conformity with the Roman Catholic practice of praying for the dead, “it is also very customary to offer up for their repose, at the first hour of the night, the peni- tential psalms, with a prayer suited to that end.” The government of the church of Rome is hierarchical. Besides those having jurisdiction, there are bishops in partibus infidelium, as they are called, or, more briefly, in partibus—i.e. persons who, that they may enjoy the dignity and honors of episcopacy, and thereby be qualified to render some particular services to the church in general, are named to sees “in infidel countries,” of which they cannot possibly take possession. - In Ireland, the succession of the hierarchy never having been interrupted, the Roman Catholic bishops there have their sees in the country as before the Reformation, and enjoy an ordinary jurisdiction ; whereas those in England and Scotland, where the succession has failed, enjoy mere- ly a delegated jurisdiction, and are called vicars-apostolic, from their being delegates, or vicars, of the pope, who occupies the apostolic see. He, of course, has the right of nominating them, although, in practice, the nomination takes place on the recommendation of the other vicars, or of the clergy who are interested. In England, there are four apostolic-vicars, and in Scotland, two. A metropolitan, or an archbishop, besides the jurisdic- tion common to him with other bishops in his own diocese, has also a jurisdiction, defined by the canon law and cus- toms, over all the bishops of his province, who are his suffragans; summons them every third year to a provin- cial synod, and the constitutions framed in it affect all the churches in the province. In like manner, primates and patriarchs have a jurisdiction over all the metropoli- tans and other bishops of the kingdoms, or nations, where they hold their dignified rank. The constitutions of the national council convoked by the primate, bind all the churches in that nation; and the constitutions of the pa- triarchal council bind all the patriarchate. But these two titles are now, in fact, merely honorary in most of those who enjoy them. - - Above all these is the pope, who has the power (in the opinion of all Roman Catholics, jure divino) of feeding, ruling, and governing the whole church; and exercises his jurisdiction over all clergy as well as laity. This power, they say, “is purely spiritual, entirely unconnected with any temporal authority.” His care and solicitude extends to all Roman Catholic churches throughout the world. He enacts rules of disci- pline for the universal church, dispenses with some of them when he sees proper, punishes those who do not obey them, passes sentence upon ecclesiastical causes referred to him (which ought to be the case with all those of great . importance,) and receives appeals from all Roman Catho- lic bishops in the world. It is he, we are told, who convokes general councils; invites to them all the Roman Catholic bishops dispersed throughout the globe; presides in them personally or by his legates; and confirms their decrees. He constitutes new bishoprics, and confirms the nomination of bishops; deprives bishops of their sees for their crimes, and those unjustly deprived of them he restores. The pope's domi- nion over his brother bishops is, indeed, carried to such a height, and so confirmed by the council of Trent, that they are become in fact little better than his vicars. They swear obedience to him in as strong terms as any subject can use towards his sovereign, and in terms but little con- sistent with their duty to their king and country. As all the Roman Catholic churches had always their senate, composed of priests and deacons, whose counsel and assistance the bishop used in the government of his diocese; so the pope had always his, composed of cardi- nals, who assisted him in the government of the universal church. Thus all “Roman Catholics obey their bishops—the bishops the metropolitans—the metropolitans the primates and patriarchs—and all of them their head, the pope; and of all these is composed one church, having one faith, under one head.” - The discipline of the church of Rome is now regulated by what is called the canon law, which has taken place of the canons of the apostles, the apostolical constitutions, and all the ancient compilations on that subject. The canon law consists, 1. Of the decrees of Gratian ; a compi- lation made u of the decrees of different popes and councils, and of several passages of the holy fathers and other reputable writers. 2. Of the decretals, in five books. 3. Of the compilation, known by the name of the sixth book of decretals. 4. Of the Clementines. 5. Of the other decretals, known under the name of extravagantes. These, containing besides the decrees of popes and the canons of several councils, constitute the body of the canon law. It is, however, only in matters of faith that she professes to admit of no diversity; her discipline is not every where perfectly uniform ; nor does she consider some variety, in matters of worship or discipline, as subversive of peace,” or as breaking the bonds of communion. The fast of lent consists of forty days, in imitation of our Savior's forty days’ fast in the wilderness; and it is kept once a year “ to do penance for sin,” and as a pre- paration for celebrating the great feast of Easter. c H U C H U 375 . The Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, in one week of each of the four seasons of the year, are annually fast days, called quatuor tempora, or ember days. Besides ab- staining at least from flesh meats, it is essential to a fast day that only one full meal, and that not before noon, be taken in the four-and-twenty, hours of the day. Every Friday in the year is kept universally as a day of absti- nence from flesh; and in the Latin church, Saturday, with a few exceptions; unless Christmas day falls upon them. Another point of discipline in this church is clerical celi. bacy. Her members profess that a vow of perpetual celi- bacy was required in the ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from the apostolic age. But Protestants insist that the contrary is evident, from numerous exam- ples of bishops and archbishops, who lived in a state of matrimony without any prejudice to their ordination or their function. - - “The use of sacred vestments, as well as of various ceremonies, has been universally adopted by the Roman Catholic church, professedly for the greater decency of her public worship.” Besides the Lord's day, Roman Catholics universally keep a vast number of holidays. There are several orders of monks in Catholic countries, in every quarter of the globe, at this day. They have Ba- silians, Benedictines, Augustinians, Dominicans, Francis- cans, canons regular, and others. All these different orders take the solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obe- dience; and all firmly hold the Roman Catholic faith, and only differ in their rules of discipline, in their dress, in the particular privileges granted by the pope to each order, in their names, which they generally take from that of their founder, and such like distinctions pertaining merely to discipline. In general, they are exempt from the jurisdic- tion of the bishop, and are immediately under that of the OO62. p }. nuns, as of the monks, there are different orders, each following their own rules, and wearing a peculiar habit. The solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi- ence, are taken by them also ; and they are commonly under the government of the bishops, but sometimes are under the jurisdiction of regular clergymen of their own order. After their profession, they are never allowed to go without the inclosure of the convent, during life, with- out the leave of the bishop, or some cogent reason—such as a nunnery taking fire, &c.—and no man is allowed to enter it without a similar permission, which may be grant- ed for a necessary cause. Roman Catholics think that the origin of nuns is to be found even in the primitive church. It is an article of the discipline of the church of Rome not to put the Old or New Testament, in the vulgar tongue, into the hands of the children or unlearned ; and that, in consequence, “no part whatever of the Bible in the vulgar tongue is taught in the Roman Catholic charity schools.” The Roman Catholic religion is very extensively dif. fused, and is more generally professed than any other sys- iem of Christianity. ' . In Europe, it is the established and only religion in Ita- ly, Spain, and Portugal: in the ci-devant Austrian and French Netherlands; in Sicily, Sardinia, and the other Mediterranean islands adjacent to Italy and Spain. France, perhaps ten to one of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. In Poland, and throughout the hereditary do- minions of the house of Austria, the case is the same with the great majority of the inhabitants, and probably with almost one half of the rest of the German population. In Hungary alone they exceed four millions; and about the same number are found within the dominions of Prussia. A considerable number of his Britannic majesty's Eu- ropean subjects profess the doctrine of the church of Rome. In Ireland, the Roman Catholics are nearly three to one of all other denominations; in England, their number is nearly two hundred and fifty thousand, and in Scotland, about fifty thousand. The Roman Catholic religion is also established in seven of the Swiss cantons. In Hol- land too, and in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, and also in Russia, many of its members may be found. Sweden and Denmark contain a few; and in the provinces of European Turkey they are more numerous than is ge- nerally supposed. In that extended country there are Ro- In sand. Large man Catholic archbishops, bishops, chapters, and monasa teries, and a numerous body of laity dwelling together by thousands. - In Asia, many of the subjects of the Grand Seignior are Roman Catholics. The Maronites of mount Libanus, with their patriarch and bishops, are all of this communion, There are besides many others throughout Syria, Mesopo. tamia, and Armenia. Some Roman Catholics are to be found in Persia. Throughout Hindostan and the other southern parts of Asia, Siam, Cochin China, Tonquin, and the vast empire of China itself, the number of Roman . Catholics is very great. And in the Philippine isles and others of the Eastern ocean, the Roman Catholic religion is very generally established. The mission to China is supplied by the college of St. Joseph, at Macao, which is now under the direction of the priests of the missionary congregation. From the report of the state of the missions in 1810, it appears that there were then in China, Tonquin, Cochin China, and Siam, fourteen bishops, seven apostolical vicars, forty-three Eu- ropean missionaries, two hundred and thirty-one native priests, and five hundred and eighty-five thousand Roman Catholic Christians. 2^ The great body of Roman Catholics, from the banks of the Crishna to cape Comorin, amounting to about seven hundred and fifty-five thousand, is intrusted to the care of two titular archbishops, two titular bishops, and three bishops in partibus, with the title of vicars apostolic. In Africa, the Roman Catholic religion prevails in many parts of its vast extent. Not to mention Madeira, the Ca- nary and Cape de Verd islands, the inhabitants of which are all Roman Catholics, a great proportion of the inhabit- ants of Loango, Congo, and Angola adhere to the doc- trines of the church of Rome. The same holds true of several kingdoms on the eastern coast of that continent; viz. Mocaranga, Mozambique, Zanguebar, and Melinda. In Guinea too, in the Mahometan states of the North, and in Egypt, not a few Christians of the church of Rome are to be found. . America.-The whole of the southern continent of Ame- rica, including the native aborigines and the descendants of the European colonists, profess to be members of the church of Rome, with the exception of most of the Dutch at Surinam, and of a few wandering tribes in the interior towards the southern promontory. The same religion is professed throughout the Spanish settlements in North America, and in the Spanish and ci-devant French West Indies, as well as by three fourths of the inhabitants of Canada, where it is the established religion. All the clergy and members of this church throughout the United States were under the superintendence of the bishop of Baltimore, till the year 1809, when that city (the capital of Maryland) was created a metropolitan see, and four new dioceses were erected, viz. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Bardstown, in the state of Ken- tucky. The bishops of all these dioceses are suffragans to the archbishop of Baltimore. And in addition to these, two other dioceses have more lately been erected, out of part of the archdiocese, viz. Virginia, and the Carolinas and Georgia. The bishop of Louisiana, now one of the United States, whose residence is St. Louis, in the new state of Missouri, is not a suffragan of the archbishop of Baltimore. The cathedral of Baltimore, which was built in 1820, is said to be the finest church in the United States, and to have cost upwards of fifty thousand pounds sterling. In most of the dioceses now specified, there is one or more colleges or seminaries, under the direction of Roman Ca- tholic clergymen. The Jesuits also have a thriving col- lege at Georgetown in Maryland, and the English Domini- cans have one in Kentucky. There are, besides, five or six seminaries for ladies in the United States: some of these, however, are merely for the education of females; but in others the members are required and expected to take the vows of poverty and continency. The Roman Catholics are rapidly increasing in North America, by emigration from Europe, and in other ways. Their num- ber, some years ago, was estimated at six hundred thou- sums of money are annually expended in the erection of chapels, and the support of priests, Mueh C H U CIR 376 of this money comes from abroad. From documents published in the New York Observer, 1834, it appears that, from July, 1829, to November, 1830, the receipts of the Austrian “Central Direction of the Leopold foundation for the support of Catholic Missions in America,” amount- ed to 49,382 florins, equal to $22,715. - According to the Roman court calendar of 1822, the number of living cardinals was then forty-four, and the number of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops, scattered over the Christian world, amounted to five hundred and fifty, exclusive of those in partibus infidelium.—Brough- ton's Dictionary; Adam's Religious World displayed; Bene- dict's History of all Religions.—Hend. Buck. . CHURCH, (FATHERs of THE). See FATHERs. CHURCH REVENUES. From the following table, which shows the annual amount of the income of the clergy in all parts of the Christian world, it will be per- ceived that the revenue of the English clergy is greater by forty-four, thousand pounds, than that of all the other clergy in the world; while the number of hearers attend- ing on their ministry, compared with the aggregate num- ber belonging to the churches in other nations, is as one to thirty-two. Amount. Hearers. French, Catholic, and Protestant Churches . 1,050,000l. ,000,000 United States . . . . . . . . . . . 776,000 9,600,000 Spain 1,000,000 11,000,000 Portugal . * is e a e º & e . 300,000 y Hungary, Catholics. 220,000 3,000,000 * Calvinists . 63,000 1,050,000 “ Lutherans 26,000 650,000 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776,000 19,391,000 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950,000 16,918,000 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . 87,000 20, Prussia. . . . . 527,000 10,563,000 German gnall States 765,000 12,765,000 Holland. . . . . 160,000 2,000,000 Netherlands. 105,000 3,000,000 Denmark 119,000 1,700,000 Sweden . . . . . . . . 238,000 3,371,000 Bussia, Greek Church . . . . 510,000 34,000,000 “ Catholic and Protestant. 480,000 8,000,000 Christians in Turkey . . . 180,000 6,000,000 “ dispersed elsewhere 520,000 21,000,000 8,852,000l. 198,728,000 England, Wales, and Ireland . . . . 8,896,000l. 6,400,000 Income of all the clergy of other nations be- - sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.852,000 Balance in favor of the English clergy 44,000l. - Encyclop. Americana. CHURCH, (STATEs of THE :) the pope's dominions in Italy. They originated with the grant of Pepin, king of the Franks, in 754, who bestowed on Stephen II., bishop of Rome, some districts which the Lombards, against whom Stephen solicited Pepin's assistance, had taken from the exarchate. Charlemagne confirmed this grant in 774, and in return received the title of Roman emperor, from Leo III., in 800. During succeeding centuries, the popes sometimes gained accessions to their temporal do- minions; at other times, encroachments were made upon them. At present, the states of the church cover a sur- face of seventeen thousand, one hundred and eighty-five square miles, with two million, four hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants, ninety towns, two hundred and twelve market places, and thirty-five thousand villages. They are situated in the centre of Italy, between Lom- bardy, Tuscany, Naples, and the Tuscan and Adriatic seas. The revenue is estimated at twelve millions, and the national debt at two hundred millions of florins. There is a standing army of nine thousand men. The navy consists of two frigates and a few small vessels. In 1816, these states, with the exception of Rome, Tivoli, and Subjaco, which are under the immediate administra- tion of the pope, were divided into seventeen delegations, which, when under the government of cardinals, were called legations.—Hend. Buck. - . CHURCH-WARDENS ; officers chosen yearly, either by the consent of the minister, or of the parishioners, or of both. Their business is to look to the church, church- ard, and to observe the behavior of the parishioners; to evy a shilling forfeiture on all such as do not go to church. on Sundays, and to keep persons orderly in church time, &c.—Hend, Buck, - - solemnity. CHURCH-YARD; a piece of ground adjoining to the church, set apart for the interment of the dead. In the church of Rome, church-yards are consecrated with great If a church-yard which has been thus conse- crated shall afterwards be polluted by any indecent action, or profaned by the burial of an infidel, an heretic, an ex- communicated or unbaptized person, it must be reconciled ; and the ceremony of the reconciliation is performed with the same solemnity as that of the consecration 1 (See CoNSECRATION.)—Hend. Buck. - - CILICIA ; a country of Asia Minor, on the sea-coast, at the north of Cyprus, south of mount Taurus, and west of the Euphrates. Its capital was Tarsus. A synagogue of this province is mentioned, (Acts 6:9), and as Paul was of this country, and of a city so considerable as Tar- sus, it may be thought that he was also of this synagogue; So that it is probable he was one of those who had been disputing with Stephen, and were overcome by the argu- ments of that proto-martyr. (See TARsus.)—Calmet. CINNAMON. ; one of the ingredients in the perfumed oil with which the tabernacle and its vessels were anoint- ed, Exod. 30:23. The cinnamomum is a shrub, the bark of which has a fine scent; several of the moderns con- found it with the cinnamon tree, and cassia aromatica; but others distinguish three species. It is now generally agreed, that the cinnamomum, spoken of so confusedly by the ancients, is our cinnamon: it is a long, thin bark of a tree, rolled up, of a dark red color, of a poignant taste, aromatic, and very agreeable. The finest description comes from Ceylon; but there might formerly have been cinnamon in Arabia, or Ethiopia, or it might be imported then into Egypt, Arabia, &c. as it is now into Europe; so that it might come originally from Ceylon.—Calmet. CINNERETH, or CHINNERETH, or CHINNE- ROTH; a city of Naphtali, Josh. 19:35. Jerome men- tions a report, that it occupied the site where Tiberias afterwards stood. 2. A tract of country on the Sea of Gali- lee, probably including the “land of Gennesareth” of the New Testament, but larger, and perhaps extending quite to the Jordan. 1 Kings 15:20. 3. The Sea of Galilee was anciently called the Sea of Chinnereth, or simply Chinnereth. Deut. 3: 17.--T. - - - CIRCUMCELLIANS, or CIRconcelliones, wanderers (circum cella) among the monks, &c.; certain Donatists, who being expelled from Africa, by the emperor Constan- time, wandered about, sometimes begging a subsistence, and at others forcing one by their arms. They are de- scribed as “rough and savage fanatics,” who raised in- Surrections, and committed all sorts of excesses, daring death and martyrdom in the most heroic manner. Tak- ing the sword, however, in defence of their religious principles, as our Lord predicted, and as has generally been the case, many of them perished by the sword, though the sect was not totally suppressed till the sixth century. Their professed religious sentiments will, be seen under the parent term Donatists, who were, however, compelled to disown and expel them from their commu- nion.—(Mosheim's E. Hist, vol. i. pp. 406, 407. Brough- ton’s Dict.)—Williams. . CIRCUMCISION ; a custom prevailing among several eastern nations, of cutting off the prepuce of the virile member. It was enjoined as a religious rite on Abraham and his posterity. The Mahometan circumcision is pro- bably an ancient Ishmaelite custom, which was receiv- ed from Abraham, the common father of the Israelites and Ishmaelites. It was not introduced into Arabia by the Koran of Mahomet, but was already in use among his nation, and was adopted, and has been introduced by his followers, as a sacred rite, and one of the essential parts of Islamism, into all countries where this religion has been received. There is also a kind of circumcision or excision performed on the female sex. In Egypt, Ma- hometan maidens are frequently circumcised; and the Abyssinians circumcise both sexes. The importance at- tached to this rite in the first age of Christianity, as a sav- ing ordinance, rendering it a suspicious, and even a dangerous practice, occasioned the apostle of the gentiles thus to address certain Galatians—“Behold, I Paul say unto you, if ye be circumcised (i.e. as the ground of jus- tification before God), Christ shall profit you nothing.” tº c Is . C IT [ 377 ) Gal. 5: 2.--(Broughton's Dict. Robinson's ditto.)—Hend. Buck; Williams. . . . . . . . . . . . . $. - Čífictinićisión ; (FEAST of The ;) a festival celebrated on the first of January, in commemoration of the circum- cision of Christ. The day was anciently kept as a fast, in opposition to the custom of the pagans, who feasted on it in honor of the god Janus.-IHend. Buck. - CIRCUMSPECT; cautious, seriously attentive to every part of the revealed will of God, and very careful not to cast stumbling-blocks in the way of others, Exod. 23: 13. Eph. 5: 15.-Calmet. & CISTERN. There were cisterns throughout Palestine, in cities and in private houses. As the cities were mostly *: built on mountains, and the rains fall in Judea at two seasons only, (spring and autumn,) people were obliged to keep water in vessels. There are cisterns of very large dimensions, at this day, in Palestine. Two hours distant from Bethlehem are the cisterns or pools of Solo- mon. They are three in number, situated in the sloping hollow of a mountain, one above another; so that the waters of the uppermost descend into the second, and those of the second descend into the third. The breadth is nearly the same in all, between eighty and ninety paces, but the length varies. The first is about one hundred and sixty paces long; the second two hundred; the third two hundred and twenty. These pools formerly supplied the town of Bethlehem and the city of Jerusalem with water. Wells and cisterms, fountains and springs, are seldom dis- tinguished accurately in Scripture. Worldly enjoyments are called “broken cisterns that can hold no water,” (Jer. 2: 13.) from their unsatisfying and unstable nature. —Calmet. - CISTERTIAN MONKS; a religious order, founded in the eleventh century, by St. Robert, a Benedictine, and abbot of Moléme. Robert, being ordered by the pope to resume the government of the abbey of Moléme, was succeeded in that of Citeaux, by Alberic ; and pope Pas- cal, by a bull of the year 1100, took that monastery under his protection. Alberic drew up the first statutes for the monks of Citeaux, or Cistertians, in which he en- joined the strict observance of the rule of St. Benedict. The habit of these religious of the monastery of Ci- teaux was at first black; but they pretend that the holy virgin, appearing to St. Alberic, gave him a white habit, from which time they changed their black habit for a white one, only retaining the black scapulary. In memory of this change they keep a festival on the 5th of August, which they call “The descent of the blessed virgin at Ci- teaux, and the miraculous changing of the habit from black to white.” - The number of those who embraced the Cistertian order increasing, it was necessary to build more monasteries. Accordingly, in 1113, Stephen, abbot of Citeaux, built that of La Ferte, in the diocese of Chalons. The next year, he founded Pontigni, in the diocese of Auxerre. Clairvaux, in the diocese of Langres, was built in 1115. The order increased further in 1118, by the founding of four other monasteries, which were Prully, La Cour-Dieu, Trois Fontaines, and Bonnevaux ; and, in the following year, 1119, Bouras, Fontenay, Cadovin, and Maran, were founded. Then Stephen formed all these monasteries into one body, and drew up the constitutions of the order, which he called “The Charter of Charity,” containing, in five chapters, all the necessary rules for the establishment and government of the order. • This order made a surprising progress. Fifty years after its institution, it had five hundred abbeys, and, one hundred years afterwards, it boasted of one thousand eight hundred abbeys, most of which had been founded before the year 1200. This great progress must be ascri- bed to the sanctity of the Cistertians, of whom cardinal de Vitry, in his Western History, says, “The whole church of Christ was full of the high reputation and opinion of their sanctity, as it were with the odor of some divine balsam, and that there was no country or province wherein this vine, loaded with blessings, had not spread forth its branches.” And, describing their observances, he says, “They neither wore skins nor shirts, nor ever ate flesh, except in sickness, and abstained from fish, eggs, milk, and cheese ; they lay only upon straw beds, in their tunics and cowls; they rose at midnight, and sang praises to God till break of day; they spent the day in labor, reading, and prayer; and, in all their exercises, they ob- served a strict and continual silence: they fasted from the ſeast of the exaltation of the holy cross till Easter; and they exercised hospitality towards the poor, with extraor- dinary charity.” . . - , The order of Cistertians became in time so powerful, that it governed almost all Europe, both in spirituals and temporals. It did also great service to the church by means of the eminent men it produced. These religious were employed by the pope to convert the Albigenses. Some authors say, there have been six popes of this order; but it will be difficult to find any more than Eugenius III. and Iłenedict XII. It boasts of about forty cardinals, a great number of archbishops, bishops, &c. &c.—Hend. Buck. CITIES OF REFUGE. (See Refuge.) CITIZEN. This word denotes not only a resident in a city, but also any person admitted to its peculiar corpo- rate privileges, by birth, favor, or purchase. Acts 22: 28. CITRON. (See APPLE.) - CITY, or CITIES. By referring to some peculiarities in the building, fortifying, &c., of eastern cities, we shall the better understand several allusions and expressions of the Old Testament. It is evident that the walls of forti- fied cities were sometimes partly &onstructed of combusti- ble materials; for the prophet, denouncing the judgments of God upon Syria and other countries, declares, “I will send a fire on the wall of Gaza, which shall devour the palaces thereof,” Amos 1: 7. The walls of Tyre and “Rabbah seem to have been of the same perishable mate- rials; for the prophet adds, “I will send a fire upon the wall of Tyrus, which shall devour the palaces thereof;” and again, “I will kindle a fire in the walls of Rabbah, and it shall devour the palaces thereof with shouting in the day of battle,” verses 10, 14. One method of securing the gates of fortified places, among the ancients, was to cover them with thick plates of iron ; a custom which is still used in the East, and seems to be of great antiquity. We learn from Pitts, that Algiers has five gates, and some of these have two, some three, other gates within them; and some of them are plated all over with thick iron. The place where the apostle was imprisoned, seems to have been secured in the same manner; for, says the inspired historian, “When they were past the first and second ward, they came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city;, which opened to them of its own accord,”. Acts 12: 10. Pococke, speaking of a bridge not far from Antioch, called the iron bridge, says, there are two towers belonging to it, the gates of which are covered with iron plates; which he supposes is the reason of the name it bears. Some of their gates are plated over with brass; such are the enormous gates of the principal mosque at Damascus, formerly the church of John the Baptist. To gates like these, the psalmist probably refers in these words: “He hath broken the gates of brass,” (Psalm 107: 16;) and the prophet, in that remarkable passage, where God promises to go before Cyrus his anointed, and “break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in Sunder the bars of iron,” Isa. 45: 2. But, conscious that all these precautions were insufficient for their security, the orien- tals employed watchmen to patrol the city during the night, to suppress any disorders in the streets, or to guard the walls against the attempts of a foreign enemy. To this custom Solomon refers in these words: “ The watchmen that went about the city found me, they smote me, they wounded me; the keepers of the wall took away my veil from me,” Song 5: 7. This custom may be traced to a very remote antiquity; so early as the departure of Israel from the land of Egypt, the morning watch is mentioned, certainly indicating the time when the watchmen were commonly relieved. In Persia, the watchmen were obliged to indemnify those who were robbed in the streets; which accounts for the vigilance and severity which they display in the discharge of their office, and illustrates the character of watchman given to Ezekiel, and the duties he was required to perform. If the wicked perished in his iniquities without warning, the prophet was to be ac- countable for his blood; but if he duly pointed out his 48 - C L. A C L A [ 378 danger, he delivered his own soul, Ezek. 33: 2. They were also charged, as with us, to announce the progress of the night to the slumbering city: “The burden of Dumah; he calls to me out of Seir, Watchman, what of the night 2 watchman, what of the night? The watch- man said, The morning cometh, and also the night,” Isa. 21: 11. This is confirmed by an observation of Chardin upon these words of Moses : “For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past, and as a watch in the night:” that as the people of the east have no clocks, the several parts of the day and of the night, which are eight in all, are announced. In the Indies, the parts of the night are made known, as well by instruments of music, in great cities, as by the rounds of the watchmen, who, with cries and small drums, give them notice that a fourth part of the night is past. Now, as these cries awaked those who had slept all that quarter part of the night, it appeared to them but as a moment.” It is evident the ancient Jews knew, by some public notice, how the night watches passed away; but, whether they simply announced the termination of the watch, or made use of trumpets, or other sonorous instruments, in making the proclamation, it may not be easy to determine; and still less what kind of chronometers the watchmen used. The probability is, that the watches were an- nounced with the sound of a trumpet; for the prophet Ezekiel makes it a part of the watchman's duty, at least in time of war, to blow the trumpet, and warn the people. The watchman, in a time of danger, seems to have taken his station in a tower, which was built over the gate of the city. - - - . The fortified cities in Canaan, as in some other coun- tries, were commonly strengthened with a citadel, to which the inhabitants fled when they found it impossible to defend the place. The whole inhabitants of Thebez, un- able to resist the repeated and furious assaults of Abime- lech, retired into one of these towers, and bid defiance to his rage : “But there was a strong tower within the city, and thither fled all the men and women, and all they of the city, and shut it to them, and gat them up to the top of the tower.” The extraordinary strength of this tower, and the various means of defence which were accumu- lated within its narrow walls, may be inferred from the violence of Abimelech's attack, and its fatal issue: “And Abimelech came unto the tower, and fought against it, and went hard unto the door of the tower, to burn it with fire. And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all to break his skull,” Judg. 9: 53. The city of Shechem had a tower of the same kind, into which the people retired, when the same usurper took it and sowed it with salt, Judg. 9:45. These strong towers which were built within a ſortified city, were com. monly placed on an eminence, to which they ascended by a flight of steps. Such was the situation of the city of David, a strong tower upon a high eminence at Jerusalem; and the manner of entrance, as described by the sacred writer: “But the gate of the fountain repaired Shallum, unto the stairs that go down from the city of David,” Neh. 3: 15.—Watson. CLAP, (NATHANIEL,) a Congregational minister of Newport, Rhode Island, was born Jan. 1668, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1690. In 1695, he be- gan to preach at Newport, where he preached nearly fifty years. In 1740, when Mr. Whitefield arrived at Newport from Charleston, he called upon Mr. Clap, and he speaks of him as the most venerable man he ever saw. “ He looked like a good old puritan, and gave me an idea of what stamp those men were, who first settled New England. His countenance was very heavenly, and he prayed most affectionately for a blessing on my coming to Rhode Island. I could not, but think, that I was sitting with one of the patriarchs.” Dean Berkley, who esteem. ed him highly for his good deeds, said, “Before I saw father Clap, I thought the bishop of Rome had the gravest aspect of any man I ever saw but really the minister of Newport has the most venerable appearance.” Mr. Clap died Oct. 30, 1745, aged 77. - Mr. Clap was eminent for sanctity, piety, and an ardent desire to promote true godliness in others. He abounded in acts of charity, being the father and guardian of the poor and necessitous, and giving away all his living. His benevolent labors also extended to the humble and numerous class of slaves, to whom he endeavored with unwearied care to impart the knowledge of the gospel. Thus evincing the reality of his religion by the purity and benevolence of his life, he was an honor to the cause of the Redeemer, in which he was engaged. He departed this life in peace, without those raptures, which some ex- press, but with perfect resignation to the will of God and with confidence in Jesus Christ, who was the sum of his doctrine and the end of his conversation. He published a sermon on the Lord’s voice crying to the people in some extraordinary dispensations, 1715.-Callender's Fun. Serm., IIist. Col. ix. 182, 183; Backus' Abridg. 157, 168; White- field's Jour. of 1749; 39–45; Eliot.—Allen. CLAP, (THoMAs,) president of Yale college, was born at Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1722. The early impressions, made upon his mind by divine grace, inclined him to the study of divinity. He was settled in the ministry at Windham, Con. August 3, 1726, the successor of Samuel Whiting. From this place he was removed in 1739, to the president- ship of Yale college, as successor of E. Williams. This office he resigned, Sept. 10, 1766; and he died at Scituate, Jan. 7, 1767, aged 63. In the higher branches of mathe- matics, in astronomy, and in the various departments of natural philosophy, he had probably no equal in America, excepting professor Winthrop of Cambridge. He appears to have been extensively and profoundly acquainted with history, theology, moral philosophy, the canon and civil law, and with most of the objects of study in his time. The labors of his office left a most contemplative mind eonly a few hours for reading; but he employed what time he could devote to study in a most advantageous method. He always pursued his researches systemati- cally, with an arrangement, which had respect to some whole. A large library before him he treated as a collec- tion of reports, books delivering the knowledge and rea- sonings of the learned world on all subjects of literature. He seldom read a volume through in course. Having previously settled in his mind the particular subjects to be examined, he had recourse directly to the book, or the parts of a book, which would give him the desired infor- mation, generally passing by what did not relate to the object of his inquiry, however attracting and interesting. He thus amassed and digested a valuable treasure of eru- dition, having investigated almost all the principal sub- jects in the whole circle of literature. As he was exemplary for piety in life, so he was re- signed and peaceful at the hour of death. When some one in his last illness observed to him, that he was dan- gerously sick, he replied, that a person was not in a dan- gerous situation who was approaching the end of his toils. Mr. Clap constructed the first orrery, or planetarium, made in America. His manuscripts were plundered in the expedition against New Haven under general Tryon. He had made collections of materials for a history of Connecticut. He published a sermon at the ordination of Ephraim Little, Colchester, Sept. 20, 1732; letter to Mr. Edwards, respecting Mr. Whitefield's design, 1745; the religious constitution of colleges, 1754; a brief history and vindication of the doctrines received and established in the churches of New England, with a specimen of the new scheme of religion, beginning to prevail, 1755; this scheme he collects from the writings of Chubb, Taylor, Foster, Hutcheson, Campbell, and Ramsay. See Holmes's Life of Stiles, 263, 393—396; Annals, ii. 151; Miller, ii. sºh Daggett's Funeral Sermon ; History of Yale College. --All!672. * CLARENDON, (Constitutions of ;) sixteen articles formed at the council held at that place, in the reign of Henry II., bearing that all differences relative to the right of patronage should be tried in the civil courts; that no churches, which are fees of the crown, can bé disposed of in perpetual donation without the king's con- Sent; that all clergymen, charged with crimes against the laws, shall appear before the lord chief justice, as well as before the ecclesiastical courts, and none of them, after conviction, be protected by the church; that no clergyman shall go out of the kingdom without his majesty's consent, C L A C L A. [ 379 | and their giving proper security of their doing nothing to the prejudice of him or his subjects; that accusations of laymen, in ecclesiastical courts, shall be proved by repu- table witnesses; that excommunicated persons shall not be compelled to reside on any particular locality; that no person holding immediately of the king, or any of his barons, should be excommunicated, &c. without first ac- quainting the king or his chief justice; that none shall appeal from the archbishop's court without his majesty's consent; that bishops and abbots must perform the services annexed to their tenures when required, be present at all trials, except when sentences of blood, or of losing life or limb, are to be pronounced; that the revenues of all va- cant bishoprics, abbeys, or priories of a royal foundation, shall be paid into the king's exchequer; that the king shall have the power of convening the electors of bishops, abbots, and priors, and the electors must do homage to him before their consecration ; that he shall punish every wrong done to the superior clergy, and they shall prose- cute such as injure him ; that no goods of forfeited persons shall be protected from his seizure, in churches or church- yards; that all pleas of debt shall be tried in civil courts, &c. These articles were designed to abridge and curb the power of the clergy, which, under the presidency, and owing to the ambition and influence of Thomas à Becket, had grown to an intolerable height.—Hend. Buck. CLARISSES; an order of nuns, so called from their founder, St. Clara. She was of the town of Assisa, in Italy, and, having renounced the world to dedicate herself to religion, gave birth to this order, in the year 1212; which comprehends, not only those nuns who follow the rule of St. Francis, according to the strict letter, and without any mitigation, but those likewise who follow the same rule, softened and mitigated by several popes. The reputation of St. Clara, being very great, soon gained her a great number of followers; for whom seve- ral monasteries began to be erected in several parts of Italy. In the year 1219, the order passed into Spain, and presently after into France. In the year 1224, St. Francis, at the request of St. Clara, prescribed rules for the gov- ernment of the Clarisses, in which he forbade them to have any possessions, and enjoined them silence from the compline to the tierce of the following day. He gave them for their habit three tunics and a mantle. The rules of the Clarisses were approved by Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. The order of St. Clara, which had made a great progress during the life of the founder, made a still greater after her death, and is at present one of the most flourishing orders of nuns in Europe. In Italy, there are monasteries of Clarisses, some of which take the name of “Nuns of the strict observance;” others that of “Solitaries of the institution of St. Peter of Alcantara.” The former had for their foundress, Frances de Jesus-Maria, of the house of Farnese, who built their first monastery at Albano, in the year 1631. These nuns observe the rule of St. Clara in its utmost rigor. The others had for their founder cardinal Barbe- rini, who built their first monastery in the town of Farsa. They were denominated from St. Peter of Alcantara, be- cause, in all things, they imitated the rigorous and peni- tent life of that saint. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexico for the king of Spain, Isabella of Portugal, wife of the emperor Charles W., sent thither some nuns of the order of St. Clara, who made several settlements there, particularly at Zuchimilci, Tetzeuci, Quausthitlani, Telmanaci, Tapeaca, Thevacana, and in several other places. Near their mo- nasteries were founded communities of Indian young women, to be instructed by the Clarisses in religion, and such works as were suitable to persons of their sex. These communities of Indian girls are so considerable, that they usually consist of no less than four or five hun- dred.—Hend. Buck. - CLARKE, (DR. SAMUEL,) a celebrated divine of the sixteenth century, was born at Norwich, on the 11th of October, 1675, his father being an alderman of that city. He received his first education in the free school in that place, under the superintendence of the Rev. Mr. Burton, but was, in a short time, removed to Caius college, Cambridge. Whilst at that university, he devoted much of his time to the study of theology, and diligently culti- wated a knowledge of the Old Testament, in the original Hebrew ; the New, in the original Greek; and the primi. tive Christian writers. Before he arrived at the age of twenty-one, he largely contributed to the Newtonian sys. tem, a study, the knowledge of which, by application and industry, he made himself master of. He translated Ro- hault's Physics, for the use of young students, which has been considered the most concise and best that has been written. In 1699, he published “Three practical Essays upon Baptism, Confirmation, and Repentance,” containing full instructions for a holy life, with earnest exhortations to young persons, drawn from the consideration of the severity of the discipline of the primitive church; and in 1701, his “Paraphrase on the Four Gospels” was put to press. In the year 1704, he delivered a lecture on “The Being and Attributes of God;” and in the following year, on the “Evidence of Natural and Revealed Religion;” in which he displayed a force of reasoning, a vein of piety, and an extent of knowledge, which proved that his mind was at once vast and comprehensive, and that he was in- deed no ordinary man. These sermons he afterwards enlarged on, improved, and published; and the work is a standard book in the English language. Dr. Hoadley, bishop of Winchester, when speaking of this work, and of his writings, said, “He has in them laid the foundation of true religion too deep and strong to be shaken, either by the superstition of some, or the infidelity of others.” In 1706, Mr. Clarke obtained the rectory of St. Bennett's, Paul’s wharf, in London, where he executed the duties of his ministerial office with zeal and devotion. During this year, he translated Sir Isaac Newton’s Treatise on Optics into Latin. He enjoyed the peculiar patronage and friendship of this great man, and it was at his request that that admirable translation was accomplished. His patron was so well pleased with the performance, that he presented him with the sum of five hundred pounds as a mark of his approbation and esteem. He also introduced him to court, and procured him the favor of queen Anne, who appointed him one of her chaplains. She also made him the presentation of the rectory of St. James's, West- minster, where he read lectures on the church catechism for many months in the year, on a Thursday evening; and which have been since published, and received, as they merited, very general approbation. In 1709, he took his degree of doctor in divinity, at Cambridge; and soon afterwards became engaged in a warm controversy on the “Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity,” which tended greatly to spread Arianism over the country. He seems to have been led into the erroneous views which he adopted and attempted to defend, by his metaphysical turn of mind, and by pursuing improperly the language of human creeds respecting the generation of the Son of God. About this time he was presented by Mr. Lech- mere, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, to the mas- tership of Wigston's hospital, in Leicester; and, in 1727, the offer was made him of the place of master of the mint; but this he refused. His death was very sudden and painful. On the morn- ing of the day he preached before the judges at Serjeant's Inn, he was seized with a pain in his side, which, in the evening, ascended to his head, and proved fatal on the following morning, May the 17th, 1729.-Hend. Buck, - CLARKE, (John,) a distinguished Baptist minister, and one of the first founders of Rhode Island, was a physi- cian in London, before he came to this country. Soon after the first settlement of Massachusetts, he was driven from that colony with a number of others; and March 7, 1638, they formed themselves into a body politic and pur- chased Aquetneck of the Indian sachems, calling it the isle of Rhodes, or Rhode Island. The settlement com- menced at Pocasset, or Portsmouth. The Indian deed is dated March 24, 1638. Mr. Clarke was soon employed. as a preacher, and in 1644, he formed a church at New- port and became its pastor. This was the second Baptist church, which was established in America. In 1649, he was an assistant and treasurer of Rhode Island colony. In 1651, he went to visit one of his C L. A c L A .*. [ 380 ) brethren at Lynn, near Boston, and he preached on Sun- day, July 20; but, before he had completed the services of the forenoon, he was seized with his friends by an officer of the government. In the afternoon, he was compelled to attend the parish meeting, at the close of which he spoke a few words. He was tried before the court of assistants, and fined twenty pounds, in case of failure in the payment of which sum he was to be whip- ped. In passing the sentence, judge Endicott observed, “You secretly insinuate things into those, who are weak, which you cannot maintain before our ministers; you may try and dispute with them.” Mr. Clarke accordingly wrote from prison, proposing a dispute upon the princi- ples which he professed. He represented his principles to be, that Jesus Christ had the sole right of prescribing any laws respecting the worship of God, which it was necessary to obey; that baptism, or dipping in water, was an ordinance to be administered only to those, who gave some evidence of repentance towards God and faith in Jesus Christ; that such visible believers only constituted the church; that each of them had a right to speak in the congregation, according as the Lord had given him ta- lents, either to make inquiries for his own instruction, or to prophesy for the edification of others, and that at all times and in all places they ought to reprove ſolly and open their lips to justify wisdom ; and that no servant of Jesus Christ had any authority to restrain any fellow servant in his worship, where injury was not offered to others. No dispute, however, occurred, and Mr. Clarke, his friends paying his fine, without his consent, was soon released from prison, and directed to leave the colony. His com- panion, Obadiah Holmes, shared a severer fate; for on declining to pay his fine of thirty pounds, which his friends offered to do ſor him, he was publicly whipped in Boston. In 1651, Mr. Clarke was sent to England with Roger Williams to promote the interests of Rhode Island, and particularly to procure a revocation of Mr. Coddington's commission as governor. Soon aſter his arrival he pub- lished a book, giving an account of the persecutions in New England. In Oct. 1652, the commission of Mr. Coddington was annulled. After the return of Mr. Wil- liams, Mr. Clarke was left behind, and continued in Eng- land as agent for the colony, till he obtained the second charter, July 8, 1663, to procure which he mortgaged his estate in Newport. The petition which Mr. Clarke pre- sented to Charles II. for this charter, was drawn up in these memorable words, “That they might be permitted to hold forth a lively experiment, that a most flourishing civil state may stand and best be maintained, and that among English subjects, with a full liberty in religious concernments; and that true piety, rightly grounded in gospel principles, will give the best and greatest security to sovereignty.” Mr. Clarke returned in 1664, and con- tinued the pastor of his church till his death. He died at Newport, April 20, 1676, aged about 66 years, resigning his soul to his merciful Redeemer, through faith in whose * he enjoyed the hope of a resurrection to eternal 1IC, His life was so pure, that he was never accused of any vice, to leave a blot on his memory. His noble sentiments respecting religious toleration did not indeed accord with the sentiments of the age in which he lived, and exposed him to trouble ; but at the present time they are almost universally embraced. His exertions to promote the civil prosperity of Rhode Island must endear his name to those, who are now enjoying the fruits of his labors. He pos. sessed the singular honor of contributing much towards establishing the first government upon the earth, which gave equal liberty, civil and religious, to all men living under it; although in Maryland, during the administra. tion of Charles Calvert, appointed governor in 1662, an act was passed, allowing all Christians to settle in the province. In his last will he left his farm in Newport to charitable purposes; the income of it to be given to the poor and to be employed for the support of learning and religion. It has produced about two hundred dollars a year, and has thus been promoting the public interests ever since his death. He left behind him a writing, which expressed his re. ligious opinions. He believed, that all things, with their causes, effects, circumstances, and manner of being, are decreed by God; that this decree is the determination from eternity of what shall come to pass in time; that it is most wise, just, necessary, and unchangeable, the cause of all good, but not of any sin; that election is the decree of God, choosing, of his free love, grace, and mercy, some men to ſaith, holiness, and eternal life; that sin is the effect of man's free will, and condemnation an effect of justice, inflicted upon man for sin and disobedience. It was not in these opinions, but in his sentiments respecting baptism, that he differed from the ministers of Massa- chusetts., - The title of the book, which he published in London in 1652, is, Ill news from New England, or a Narrative of New England’s Persecution ; wherein it is declared, that while Old England is becoming New, New England is becoming Old ; also, Four Proposals to Parliament and Four Conclusions, touching the faith and order of the gospel of Christ out of his last will and testament, 4to, pp. 76. See Backus's Church History of New England, iii. 227, 228; Backus' Abridgment, 84, 86, 109–116. Benedict, vol. i. p. 458–495.-Allen. CLARKE, (EDwARD DANIEI,) a son of the author of Letters on the Spanish Nation, was born in 1767, and educated at Jesus college, Cambridge. In 1794, he accompanied lord Berwick to Italy, and, in 1799, he set out, with Mr. Cripps, on a tour which extended over the whole of Scandinavia, and through Russia, Circassia, Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Greece, and was not terminated till 1802. By his exertions the library of Cambridge was enriched with nearly a hundred volumes of manuscripts, and the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres. He was rewarded with the degree of LL. D. by the university. He also obtained for his country the sarcophagus of Alexander, on which he pub- lished a Dissertation. His Travels form five volumes, 4to. Shortly aſter his return he was instituted to the rectory of Harlton, in Cambridgeshire. In 1806, he began, at the university, a series of mineralogical lectures, and, in 1808, a professorship of mineralogy being founded, he was appointed to the chair. The lectures which he de- livered in that capacity were highly popular, and his ex- periments with the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe were produc- tive of important scientific results. Dr. Clarke died in Pall Mall, March 9, 1821–Davenport. - CLARKE, (ABRAHAM,) a signer of the declaration of independence, was born in New Jersey, in 1726. He was a delegate to the continental congress, a member of the general convention which framed the constitution, and a representative in the second congress of the United States. He died in 1794. He was a man of exemplary piety and unsullied integrity.—Davenport. - CLARKE, (ADAM, L.L. D. F. S. A.,) the celebrated commentator, was born in Moybeg, Ireland, in 1760. His father was a conscientious English Episcopalian, and a good classical school-master; but his mother, to whom the early part of his education is attributed, was a Scotch Presbyterian, of the Maclean family, and of a warmer piety than her husband, though “far from being a Calvin- ist.” Adam was their second son. His infancy was marked by hardihood of body; tenderness of conscience; a thirst for knowledge, but a singular inaptitude in acquir, ing it. This last trait was however suddenly changed, at the age of eight years, by the reproaches of a school-ſel. C L A C L A | 381 J low ; his latent energies were roused by emulation; and he became the admiration of the school for his rapid pro- ficiency in every branch of study, with the exception of arithmetic; in which he says of himself, that he “could never make any progress.” His time was divided be. tween classical study and labor on his father's farm. He was designed for the ministry, and had a vague long- ing for it; but up to the year 1777, his religion was wholly the effect of his religious education. At that period, under the ministry of the Methodists, particularly of Mr. Thomas Barber, he was led to earnest prayer, and searching of the Scriptures, and ultimately to Christ, to the evidence of adop- tion, and communion with God in Christ. This, which he ever regarded as the most important era in his religious history, occurred when he was seventeen years of age. From this time he had rest to his soul; and could devote himself unreservedly, and with an energy hitherto un- known, to glorify God in his studies, and in all the duties of life. His own language here is worthy of preservation, and throws light upon his future history and attainments; “I saw from my own case that religion was the gate to true learning and science; and that those who went through their studies without this, had at least double work to do; and in the end not an equal produce. My mind became enlarged to take in everything useful. I was now separated from every thing that could impede my studies, obscure or debase my mind. Learning and Science I knew came from God, because he is the fountain of all knowledge; and properly speaking, these things belong to man; God created them not for himself—not for angels— but for man; and he fulfils not the design of his Creator, who does not cultivate his mind in all useful knowledge, to the utmost of his circumstances and power.” Soon after this, in 1782, Mr. Clarke was recommended to the notice of Mr. Wesley, by Mr. John Bredin, and sent to the Kingswood school. While here, when digging in the garden, he one day found a half-guinea, with which he bought a Hebrew Grammar, and this apparently trifling circumstance is said to have laid the foundation of all his critical knowledge of the sacred writings in the Old and New Testament. A few weeks after, he was ap- proved by Mr. Wesley, and sent into Wiltshire as a circuit preacher, at the age of twenty-two, though from his youth- ful appearance he was called the “little boy.” His early ministry was equally marked by great privations, popular- ity, persecution, perseverance, and success. In a letter to a friend, in 1786, written from Guernsey, he says, “Here I am determined by the grace of God to conquer or die; and have taken the following for a motto, and have placed it before me on the mantel-piece, “Stand thou as a beaten anvil to the stroke; for it is the property of a good warrior to be flayed alive, and yet conquer.” While this motto displays the unconquerable resolution which should characterize every preacher who aims at extensive usefulness, there is another which he also adopt- ed at the same time, or even earlier, from Prov. 18: 1. which is no less worthy of commendation. “Through desire, a man, having separated himself, seeketh and intermed- dleth with all wisdom.” No man, perhaps, more fully ex- emplified the maxim ; and thus the ardor of the student explains the rising popularity of the preacher. Up to 1815, it appears he pursued his private biblical studies in connexion with the usual itinerant avocations of a Me- thodist preacher, so that the foundation of his Commen- tary may be said to have been laid as early as 1785. That he might not lose the time which he was obliged to spend in riding, which was several miles a day, he accus- tomed himself to read on horseback—a practice which, he admits, was both dangerous and injurious to the eyes. In 1788, he was married to Miss Mary Cooke, daughter of Mr. John Cooke, clothier, of Trowbridge, a lady of fine disposition, deep piety, and sound judgment. . Few con- nexions of this kind were ever more opposed; few, if any, were ever more happy. They had six sons, and as many daughters, one half of whom were permitted to live to years of maturity. - . The earliest mark of public distinction conferred upon him, was his election to be a fellow of the Antiquarian Society. In 1805, he received the honorary degree of M. A., and in 1806, that of LL.D. from the university of St. Andrews. He was subsequently chosen to be a mem. ber of the Royal Irish academy. He was, besides, a member of several American literary associations. Iſe was enrolled among the members of several other learned bodies, whose journals contain some of his communica- tions. From 1805, Dr. Clarke resided in London, being closely engaged on his Commentary; but at the same time he fulfilled the duties of his station as a preacher, and took a part in the management of various associations for litera- ry, scientific, and benevolent purposes. His health failing in 1815, he removed to Millbrook in Lancashire, where by the munificence of his friends an estate was purchased for him. Here he continued his Commentary, and brought it nearly to a close. His celebrity, his finely-cultivated farm, his vast and valuable library, and rich museum, here at: tracted the visits of the neighboring nobility and gentry; until 1823, when he disposed of his estate, and removed again to London. Finding, however, that his health still required the nourishment of country air, he purchased a mansion called Haydon Hall, about seventeen miles from the metropolis, in the village of Eastcott. Here he finished his Commentary, April 17, 1826, on which he had been occupied about forty years. * In 1831, whether with or against his consent is unknown, he was set down on the stations as a Supernumerary. Still he had what he called a “roving commission,” and was to have preached in fulfilment of it at Bayswater, on the morning of the day on which he died. But this was de- nied in the inscrutable providence of Heaven; for being seized with the malignant cholera, he breathed his last at a quarter past eleven, A. M., August 26, 1832. . The con- scious approach of the last enemy disturbed not his settled confidence in his divine Savior, in whom he had long believed, and in solemn communion with whom, the last moments of life were evidently occupied. “The person of Dr. Clarke,” says one of his friends, “was tall, athletic, and erect. His florid complexion showed him to be a man of robust health and sanguine temperament. His features were rather expressive of good sound sense and good humor, than of intellectual greatness, and were illuminated by gray eyes, small, but brilliant.”. “The style of his writing is unstudied, and in his punc- tuation he had no system at all. But its redeeming quali- ties are, pregnancy, force, and vigor; a sterling and plentiful vocabulary; and the dexterous management of iteration. On practical subjects he wrote, as well as spoke, with the unction and the energy which spring out of acute sensibility and intimate experience. He was, un- doubtedly, an author of first-rate talent, in the field in which he labored, and he evinces always the possession of a capacious and acute understanding. Of his know- ledge it were superfluous to speak—it was only not un- bounded. “His preaching had the advantage of his writing, in the particular we have pointed out. It is no small proof of his greatness in the pulpit, that his sermons were equal- ly received by the rich and the poor, the learned and the illiterate. He brought his learning to bear upon his sub- ject, without any parade, and in the most instructive form; and his native fervor, joined with the clearness of his conceptions, and the vastness of his resources, never failed to elevate and inform his hearers. There was a sort of cordiality in his preaching that was its principal charm.” “His intellectual and moral worth won for him the re- spect, and honor, and reverence, which all men have con- ceded to him. He occupied a place which nothing else could have enabled him to acquire, and afterwards main- tained to his dying day. And we may affirm, that among those that can discern the things that differ—who know how to appreciate intellectual vigor, moral worth, honest independence, real learning, practical usefulness, disinter- ested generosity, and inflexible integrity—there never was a man more highly and sincerely honored while he lived, or more deeply and deservedly lamented when he died. His publications were—Dissertation on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco, 1797; A Biographical Dictionary, 1802, fol- lowed by a Supplement in 1806; The Succession of Sa- C L A C LA [ 382 J cred Literature, 1807; The Holy Scriptures, &c. &c., with a Commentary and Critical Notes, eight vols. 4to, 1810–26; Clavis Biblica, or a Compendium of Scripture Knowledge; Memoirs of the Wesley Family; three volumes of Ser: mons, besides several single discourses and detached pieces; and anonymous articles, published in various journals. - He also edited Baxter's Christian Directory, abridged, 1804; Fleury's Manners of the Ancient Israelites, 1805; Shuckford's Sacred and Profane History of the World con- nected, including bishop Clayton's Strictures on the work, 1808; Sturm’s Reflections, translated from the German, and Harmer's Observations, four volumes, octavo, the best edition of this valuable work which has appeared: being newly arranged, with large additions by the editor, In addition to the above publications, Dr. Clarke was employed several years by government, in collecting ma- terials for a new edition of Rymer’s Faedera in folio: of which he saw the first volume and a part of the second through the press. This great national work is now su- perintended by a commission under government. But it is upon the merits of his Commentary that the future reputation of Dr. Clarke will chiefly rest. Many good men have regretted that he should have inserted in it, what had no business there, Taylor's Key to the Ro- mans, where his own deprecative notes must fail to coun- teract entirely, the subtle and permicious influence of Arian and Pelagian errors. Apart from this, “as to the few pe- culiarities of opinion on account of which the work has been by some attempted to be disparaged,” says Beau- mont, “they do not affect any essential leading doctrine of religion : and we affirm, that no other commentator in this or any other country, has taught and established more clearly and pointedly, and forcefully—the fall and depra- vity of human nature—the redemption by Jesus Christ—the extent and efficacy of the atonement—the justification of the sinner by faith in that atonement—the necessity and reality of the influence of the Holy Ghost—and the entire sanctification of the whole man—than he, who, though dead, yet speaketh.”—Autobiography of Dr. Clarke; Beau- *mont's Sermon on his Death ; Memoir in the JLondon Christian Advocate. CLARKSON, (GEN. MATTHEw,) a soldier of the revo- lution, was distinguished in the war of independence for his courage, talents, and integrity. He acted as aid-de-camp to general Gates in the battle of Stillwater, in which, as he was carrying an order to the officer of the left wing by passing in front of the American line, when engaged, he received a severe wound in his neck. In his last years he was vice-president of the American Bible Society, and much of his time was devoted to the meetings of the ma- nagers. He died at New York, after an illness of five days, April 22, 1825, aged sixty-six years. Amiable, ſrank, affectionate, pure and beneficent, his character was crown- ed by an exalted piety.—Allen. CLAUDA ; a small island toward the south-east of Crete, Acts 27: 16. CLAUDE, bishop of Turin, sometimes termed the first Protestant reformer, was by birth a Spaniard. In his early years he was chaplain to Ludovicus Pius, king of France, and emperor of the West ; and even then he was in high repute for his knowledge of the Scriptures, and his first- rate talents as a preacher. The abbe Fleury, in his Eccle- siastical History, informs us, that Louis, perceiving the deplorable ignorance which then pervaded a great part of Italy, and desirous of providing the churches of Piedmont with one who might stem the torrent of image worship, promoted Claude to the see of Turin, about the year 817. “And in truth,” says Fleury, “he began to preach and in- struct with great application.” His first efforts were directed against the prevailing rites of the papacy; the worship of images; the veneration paid to relics and crosses; and the practice of pilgrimage. Against these and similar supersti- tions, Claude inveighed with such intrepidity, that, in a little time, the monks were all up in arms against him, reviling him as a heretic and blasphemer, and the good man went about in fear of his life. Supported, however, by the testimo- my of a good conscience, and a confidence in the divine ap- probation, he nobly persevered, until the valleys of Pied- mont were filled with his doctrine. He wrote commentaries *A on several parts of the Bible, particularly on the books of Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus; on the Gospel by Mat- thew; and on all the Apostolic Epistles. After his death, his writings were collected into two volumes, quarto, and placed in the abbey of Fleury, near Orleans, in France. He continued his labors at Turin at least twenty years, for he was alive in 839; but of the precise time and cir- cumstances of his death, we find no record. He evidently possessed a very enlightened mind in the knowledge of the Scriptures, and was endowed with extraordinary zeal in propagating divine truth in that dark and benighted peri- od; and his name deserves to be handed down to the re- motest posterity with honor and veneration. The reader will find many interesting extracts from his writings in Jones's History of the Christian Church, vol. i. chap. iv. sect. 1–Jones's Chris. Biog. - * * CLAUDE, (Rev. John.) This great man was born at Sauvetat, France, in 1618. His father, the Rev. Francis Claude, was successively pastor of several reformed congre- gations in Lower Guienne, and was greatly esteemed for his pious and honorable manner of discharging the duties of his office. Mr. John Claude was educated by his father, until it was deemed proper to send him to Montauban, to finish his studies. Having gone through his course of natural philosophy, he studied divinity under professors Garrisoles and Charles. The brilliancy of his imagination, his acute judgment, and sincere piety, together with his modest and affable manners, procured him the friendship of all who knew him. He was desirous of visiting other universities; but he gave up this intention, at the wish of his father, who was anxious to see him in the ministerial office. After having been examined and fully approved by the synod of Upper Languedoc, his father was appoint- ed to ordain him over the church at La Treyne; an office which he performed with great pleasure, and died soon after, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Mr. Claude remained with this church but one year; the Synod ap- pointing him to succeed Mr. Martel of St. Afrique, in Ro- vergue. The church at this place not being numerous, he devoted a very large portion of his time to study, and it was soon observed that he had not studied in vain; his preaching was greatly improved, and gave very general pleasure to his auditors. About two years after this, he preached an occasional sermon at Castres; which made so deep an impression on the hearers, that an effort was made by the church to obtain Mr. Claude as a minister; he was, however, destined for another station. At St. Af- rique, he married Mrs. Elizabeth de Malecare, a member of the church, by whom he had one son, named Isaac, born in the year 1653. He continued here eight years; during which time he was sought after by several other churches, and much honored by the synod of Upper Lan- guedoc, at which he was annually present. In the year 1654, the church of Nismes, one of the most conspicuous in France, being destitute of a minister, ap- plied to Mr. Claude, who, after consulting with his friends at St. Afrique, accepted the invitation, and was appointed pastor by the synod. The duties of this station were very heavy; preaching daily, visiting great numbers of sick people, attending consistories, together with church busi- ness, required very great application ; but he not only gave the highest satisfaction in these duties, but found time to give lectures on divinity to a great number of stu- dents; some of whom possessed great merit, and did ho- nor to Mr. Claude's instructions. As Mr. Claude's reputation increased, the envy and jealousy of the Romish clergy was excited; they narrowly watched for an opportunity to displace him; and it was not long before they found one. It will be necessary, in order to give a clear detail of Mr. Claude's life at this time, to advert to the state of things, as it regarded the Protest- ants in France. The privileges which they had obtained by the edict of Nantz, in 1598, were gradually undermined by a scheme, which originated with that deceitful enemy of the reformed churches, cardinal Richelieu : he pretended that a union of the Protestants and Catholics was practi. cable and desirable; that the difference of their opinions was not so great as was imagined ; and that their incon- sistencies might be reconciled by proper explanation. While he was circulating these pacific doctrines, in order ! C. L. A C L A [ 383 ] to delude the Protestants, he persuaded Louis the Thir- teenth to deprive them successively of all their privileges. These plans were Pº. in the following reign, and many were deceived by their apparent usefulness. Such was the State of affairs when Mr. Claude was chosen mo- derator of the synod of Lower Languedoc, in the year 1662. He now resolutely opposed the scheme of re-union, and defeated all the plans which were set on foot to for- ward it. This conduct was very displeasing to some per- sons; and in a short time he was prohibited from preach- ing in the province of Languedoc. Upon this, he went to Paris to endeavor to obtain a remission of this decree; he was, however, unsuccessful. While at Paris on this busi- ness, he heard that marshal Turenne intended to quit the reſormed religion; and that his change of sentiment was occasioned by reading a book, called “Perpetuity of the Faith,” written either by Dr. Arnauld or Dr. Nicole. At the request of some of his friends, Mr. Claude wrote a complete answer to this work, in which he defeated the sophistical arguments it contained, in a very able Imanner. This roused the feelings of the Catholics to a very great degree, and many attempts were made to find out the au- thor, but, fortunately for him, without success. Being unable to get his suspension taken off, he visited Montau- ban, where he arrived on a Saturday; and having preach- ed the next day, the church there requested him to settle with them. He complied with their invitation; and the synod having confirmed their choice, he again commenced his pastoral labors. In this church he is said to have spent the happiest years of his life; for he was much attached to the place, as well as to the people. About four years after this time, a circumstance occurred which obliged him to leave. Marshal Turenne had been apparently sa- tisfied by Mr. Claude's answer to the “Perpetuity;” but three years after, his doubts were revived by another book, written by the same author, in answer to Mr. Claude. The papists talked much of the victory obtained by this work, and so much did its fame increase, that Mr. Claude prepared to answer it. A report soon spread, that one of the reformed ministers was writing an answer; and, as there was reason to suppose that it was at Montauban, the bishop was employed to find it out. He consequently waited on Mr. Claude, informed him of the reports that were circulating, and requested a sight of the work he was preparing. Mr. Claude, who did not wish to conceal any thing, showed him a part of the manuscript, and told him that the remainder was printing at Paris. Shortly after this, an order of council came down, prohibiting the exer- cise of his ministry at Montauban ; on which he immedi- ately resigned his charge and went to Paris, as before, to get his suspension taken off; although he was convinced that success was almost impossible, since, in cases of this sort, every process was sure of being lost. At this time the Reformed church of Paris, meeting at Charenton, determined to elect Mr. Claude as one of their ministers; and having some influence at court, they ob- tained leave to do so. In this charge he was associated with Messrs. L'Angle, Daille, and Allix. Shortly after his settlement, he wrote another book in answer to father Nouet, with which the Protestants were much pleased; particularly with the preface. The station which he now occupied was the most important and con- spicuous among the Reformed churches in France. Paris was the place where all the mischief of the papists was planned; it, therefore, required constant vigilance to dis- cover and counteract it: the provincial churches also looked for advice and example from Charenton, as they were well aware that it was exposed to the first attacks. Soon after this, Mr. Claude published a fourth answer to Dr. Arnauld, who had again attacked him on the ground of the “Perpetuity.” This was followed by a piece enti- tled, “A Defence of the Reformation;” one of the most valuable works ever written on that subject. He after- wards published five sermons on “the Parable of the Wedding Feast,” which he had preached at Charenton, the year before. At this time, his son returning from his studies in order to prepare himself for the pulpit, Mr. Claude drew up for his improvement, the “Essay on the Composition of a Ser- mon.” Young Mr. Claude was examined by the synod at Sedan, in September, 1678, and the following month hia father ordained him pastor of the church of Clermont Beauvoisis. This year the celebrated conference took place between Mr. Claude and Bossuet, the bishop of Condon. It was occasioned by mademoiselle Duras's professing to be undecided in her opinions; and as she was a member of Mr. Claude's church, she expressed a wish for this con- ference. Great pains were taken to prevent it; but, after much persuasion, the request was acceded to ; and thus began a controversy which extended over the greater part of Europe, and at last terminated, as such things usually do, very unsatisfactorily. In the year 1682, when the clergy of France dispers- ed circular letters through the kingdom, professedly for the conversion of the Reformed churches, Mr. Claude printed a small work, called “Considerations on the Cir- cular Letters of the Assembly,” exposing their hypocritical design : declaring that he did not own the spiritual autho- rity of the prelates, and vindicating liberty of conscience for all parties. . This work was published anonymously; but it was well known that Mr. Claude was the author. The letters of the assembly not answering the intended purpose, the prelates procured an order for their notifica- tion to all the Protestants in the kingdom. The Reformed churches now all looked up to Charenton; and relying on the prudence and firmness of Mr. Claude, and determining to be governed by his example, Charenton was the first consistory summoned on this business, and Mr. Claude was in the chair. The intendant read the letter, and Mr. Claude made a short reply, intimating that they respected and submitted to the civil magistracy, and the prelates on account of their rank; but that neither he nor his church could acknowledge their authority as an ecclesiastical tri- bunal. This judicious answer served as a model for the other consistories. About this time, the university of Groningen made him an offer of a professorship; but flattering as the pros- pect was to him, he would not desert his church at the time when he saw the storm of persecution rapidly ap- proaching; he, therefore, declined the appointment. As the difficulties of the Protestants now thickened on every side, Mr. Claude exerted himself more assiduously than ever, to prepare the church for the blow which was about to fall upon it. The great plot of the papal clergy was now deemed ripe for execution. In May, 1685, an assembly was held at Versailles, when they presented an address to the king, congratulating him on the success of the design to extirpate heresy, and the oppressive measures which had been adopted. Not content with this, they re- commended other restrictions more tyrannical than any which had yet been forced upon the Protestants. The chancellor, father le Tellier, perceiving that he should not live much longer, and wishing to see the total ruin of the Protestant cause, obtained in the following October, the “revocation of the edict of Nantz.” This was the com- pletion of the work in which the clergy had been so active, the extirpation of Protestantism. The church at Charenton obtained an order for the continuance of public worship until the edict was published; which time they spent in religious exercises, and the settlement of their affairs. An ineffectual attempt was made to embroil the church with the civil powers, by a meeting after the publication of the edict; but Mr. Claude's prudence, however, defeat- ed the plan, and so much incensed the bishops that they ºf his banishment, before that of the other pastors : he left Paris on the 23d of December, 1685, and went to reside with his son, who was pastor of the Walloon church at the Hague. The elector of Brandenburgh invited Mr. Claude to settle in his territories, but he declined; the states at the Hague provided for him handsomely, and the rince of Orange settled a pension on him. Here he en- joyed that quiet which had been denied him in France; his house being an asylum for the dispersed Protestants. Here also he collected materials for his last work, “The Complaints of the Protestants of France,” which gives a vivid description of their calamities. On the 25th of De- cember, 1686, he preached one of his finest sermons, but it was the occasion of his death. He exerted himself so much, that it brought on a fever the same night; he daily became worse : and on the 13th of January he expired, in C L. E. C I, E [ 384 J the sixty-eighth year of his age; aſler spending forty-two years in the service of the church, and in the firm defence of the principles of the reformation—Jones's Chr. Biog. CLAUDIA ; a Roman lady converted by Paul, 2 Tim. 4; 21. Some think she was the wife of Prudens, who is named immediately before her; others conjecture that she was a British lady, sister of Linus. (See CHRISTIANITY.) CLAUDIUS, (CESAR,) the emperor of Rome, mentioned in the New Testament, succeeded Caius Caligula, A. D. 41, and reigned upwards of thirteen years. He gave to Agrippa all Judea; and to his brother Herod, the kingdom of Chalcis. He terminated the dispute between the Jews and the Alexandrians, confirming the former in the free- dom of that city, and in the free exercise of their religion and laws; but not permitting them to hold assemblies at Rome. Agrippa dying, in the fourth year of Claudius, A. D. 44, the emperor again reduced Judea into a pro- vince, and sent Cuspius Fadus as governor. About this time happened the famine, as foretold by the prophet Aga- bus, (Acts 11: 28, 29, 30.) and at the same period, Herod, king of Chalcis, obtained, from the emperor, the authority over the temple, and the money consecrated to God, with a power of deposing and establishing the high-priests. In the ninth year of Claudius, (A. D. 49,) he published an order, expelling all Jews from Rome, (Acts 18: 2.) and it is probable, that the Christians, being confounded with the Jews, were banished likewise. Suetonius plainly intimates this, when he says that Claudius expelled the Jews, by rea, son of the continual disturbances excited by them, at the instigation of Chrestus:–an ancient way of spelling the title of Christ. Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrip- pina, and was succeeded by Nero.—Calmet. CLAUDIUS, (LYSIAs ;) tribune of the Roman troops, which kept guard at the temple of Jerusalem. Observing the tumult raised on account of Paul, whom the Jews had seized, and designed to murder, he rescued him, and (Acts 21: 27. 23: 31.) carried him to fort Antonia, and afterwards sent him guarded to Caesarea.—Calmet. CLAY, is often mentioned in Scripture, nor is it neces- sary to explain the various references to what is so well known. It may be remarked, however, that clay was used for sealing doors. Norden and Pococke observe, that the inspectors of the granaries in Egypt, after closing the door, put their seal upon a handful of clay, with which they co- ver the lock. This may help to explain Job 38: 14, in which the earth is represented as assuming form and imagery from the brightness of the rising sun, as rude clay receives a figure from the impression of a seal or sig- net.—Watson. CLEAN, CLEANSE. (See PURIFICATIONs, and PURIFy; also ANIMALs. CLEAVE. To cleave to any one is to adhere firmly, with ardent love. To cleave to the Lord, is firmly to believe his word, hold intimate fellowship with him in his fulness, receive and retain his Spirit, abide faithful to his truth, follow closely his example, and obey all his commands. Acts 11:23.—Bronyn. CLEMENCY ; a mild, generous, and forgiving disposi- tion. It is often falsely ascribed to princes, by flatterers. Acts 14: 4. CLEMENT, whose name is in the Book of Life, Phil. 4; 3. Most interpreters conclude that this is the same Clement who succeeded in the government of the church at Rome. The church at Corinth having been disturbed by divi- sions, Clement wrote a letter to the Corinthians, which was so much esteemed by the ancients, that they read it pub- licly in many churches. It is still extant, and some have inclined to rank it among the canonical writings. It makes a part of the Apocryphal New Testament, and breathes a spirit of true Christian charity and simplicity. We have no authentic accounts of what occurred to Cle- ment during the persecution of Domitian; we are assured, that he lived to the third year of Trajan, A. D. 100.- Calmet. CLEMENT, (TITUs FLAVIUS,) known as Clemens Alex. andrinus, or Clement of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church, and distinguished for learning and eloquence, was born about A. D. 217; was converted to Christianity; and succeeded Pantaenus in the catechetical school of Alex. andria. The time and place of his death are unknown. The best edition of his theological works is that by Potter, in two ſolio volumes.—Davenport. CLEMENTINES, (said to be so called after a priest of the name of Clement, their first leader;) a considerable sect of religious persons in France, scattered in small bodies throughout the country, but who are most numerous in the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, distinguished by a par- tial separation from the church of Rome. They have al- ways refused to acknowledge those priests who took the oaths to the new government, (that of the revolution,) and even disown the pope on that account. They retain the mass, confession, &c., having a few priests of their own sentiments among them; but they express a strong dislike to many of the popish ceremonies, which they account a solemn mockery. They are far less superstitious, and more serious and devout, than the bulk of the Catholics. They are strenuous in their opposition to the general body of Catholics, and will not enter the churches; they par- ticularly dislike the ringing of bells on the death or fu- neral of any person. They incline to the doctrine of free grace, and seem to adopt on those points the Sentiments of St. Augustine. They reject the use of images in worship, and laugh at the pompous religious processions. Many of them use the French language instead of the Latin in their prayers. They are said to be generally moral in their conduct, and strict in their observance of the Lord's day. See the Evangelical Mag. 1819, p. 29.-Williams. CLEOPAS, according to Eusebius and Epiphanius, was brother of Joseph, both being sons of Jacob. He was the father of Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, of James the Less, of Jude, and of Joseph, or Joses. Cleopas married Mary, sister of the Virgin; so that he was uncle to Jesus Christ. He, his wiſe, and sons, were disciples of Christ; but Cleo- pas did not sufficiently understand what Jesus had so often told his disciples, that it was expedient he should die, and return to the Father. Having beheld our Savior expire on the cross, he lost all hope of seeing the kingdom of God established by him on earth; but going to Emmaus with another disciple, they were joined by our Lord, who ac- companied them, and on his breaking bread they recog- mised him, Luke 24: 13, to end.—Calmet. CLERGY, (from the Greek word kleros, heritage,) in the general sense of the word, as used by us, signifies the body of ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in contradistinction to the laity; but, strictly speaking, and according to Scrip. ture, it means the church. “When Joshua,” as one ob- serves, “divided the Holy Land by lot among the Israel- ites, it pleased God to provide for a thirteenth part of them, called Levites, by assigning them a personal estate equivalent to that provision made by real estate, which was allotted to each of the other twelve parts. In con- formity to the style of the transaction, the Levites were called God’s lot, inheritance, or clergy. This style, however, is not always used by the Old Testament writers. Some- times they call all the nation God's lot, Deut. 32: 9. Ps. 78: 71. Ps. 28:9, &c. The New Testament writers adopt this term, and apply it to the nhole Christian church, 1 Pet. 5:3. Thus it is the church distinguished from the world, and not one part of the church as distinguished from an- other part.” The word clergy, however, among us, always refers to ecclesiastics. When a Catholic priest receives the tonsure, he repeats a part of the sixteenth psalm ;- “The Lord's the portion of mine inheritance,” &c. Ac- cording to the doctrine of the Romish church, a clergyman is endowed, in his spiritual character, with supernatural powers, which distinguish him from the layman, such as the power to forgive sins, and to consecrate the bread, so as to convert it into the real body of Christ, &c. The clergy, after the apostolic age, consisted of bishops, priests, and deacons; but in the fourth century, many in- ferior orders were appointed, such as sub-deacons, acolo- thists, readers, &c. The clergy of the church of Rome are divided into regular and secular. The regular consists of those monks or religious who have taken upon them holy orders of the priesthood in their respective monas- teries. The secular clergy are those who are not of any religious order, and have the care and direction of parishes. The Protestant clergy are all secular. (For archbishops, bishops, deans, &c. &c., see those articles.) - C L O C O A [ 385 ) The English clergy have large privileges allowed them b our municipal laws, and had formerly much greater, whic were abridged at the Reformation, on account of the ill use which the popish clergy had endeavored to make of them; for the laws having exempted them from almost every personal duty, they attempted a total exemption from every secular tie. The personal exemptions, indeed, for the most part, continue. A clergyman cannot be com- pelled to serve on a jury, nor to appear at a court leet, which almost every other person is obliged to do; but if a layman be summoned on a jury, and before the trial, takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear, and be sworn. Neither can he be chosen to any temporal office, as bailiff, reeve, constable, or the like, in regard of his own continual attendance on the sacred function, though the clergy are now oſten found filling the office of justice of the peace. During his attendance on divine service, he is privileged from arrest in civil suits. In cases of felony, also, a clerk in orders shall have the benefit of clergy, without being branded in the hand, and may likewise have it more than once; in both which cases he is distinguished from a layman. - Benefit of clergy was a privilege whereby a clergyman claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to purge himself of felony, and which anciently was allowed only to those who were in orders; but, by the statute of 18 Elizabeth, every man to whom the benefit of clergy is granted, though not in orders, is put to read at the bar, after he is found guilty, and convicted of felony, and so burnt in the hand, and set free for the first time, if the ordinary or deputy standing by do say, Legit ut clericus; otherwise he shall suffer death. As the clergy have their privileges, so they have also their disabilities, on account of their spiritual avocations. Clergymen are incapable of sitting in the house of commons; and by the statute of 21 Henry VIII. c. 13, are not in general allowed to take any lands or tene- ments to farm, upon pain of ten pounds per month, and total avoidance of the lease; nor upon like pain to keep any tap-house or brew-house; nor engage in any trade, nor sell any merchandise, under forfeiture of the treble value; which prohibition is consonant with the canon law. The number of clergy in England and Wales amount, according to the best calculation, to eighteen thousand. The revenues of the clergy were formerly considerable, but since the Reformation they are comparatively small, at least those of the inferior clergy. See the Bishop of Llan- daff's Valuation of the Church and University Revenues; or, Cove on the Revenues of the Church, 1797, second edition ; Burnet's History of his onwn Times, conclusion. (See BENEFIT of CLERGY; CHURCH REVENUEs ; MINISTER.)—Hend. Buck. CLERK. 1. A word originally used to denote a learn- ed man, or man of letters; but now is the common appel- lation by which clergymen distinguish themselves in sign- ing any deed or instrument. 2. Also the person who reads the responses of the congregation in the Episcopal church, or gives out the hymns at a meeting.—Hend. Buck. CLOTHES. (See HABITs.) . CLOTILDA, queen of France, and niece of Goudebald, king of the Burgundians, was a woman of extraordinary beauty, sense, and virtue. Her fame made an impression on the heart of Clovis, king of France, to whom she was married at Soissons, A. D. 491. Clotilda was a Christian ; but Clovis and his people were pagans. On the birth of her first son, she gained the king's consent to his baptism; but the child dying, Clovis murmured loudly. The second son, being taken ill after his baptism, the king became fu- rious, saying it would die like its brother in consequence of being devoted to her God. The child however recover- ed, and the superstitious monarch began to entertain more favorable ideas of the Christian religion. In 496, being engaged in a bloody battle with the Germans, his troops gave way, when Clovis, lifting his eyes to heaven, exclaim- ed, “God of my queen Clotilda, if thou grant me the vic- tory, I here vow to receive baptism, and hereafter to wor: ship no other God.” He gained the victory, and fulfilled his vow ; and his nominal conversion was the means of establishing the Christian religion in France.—Betham. CLOUD; a collection of vapors suspended in the at- mosphere. When the Israelites had left Egypt, God gave them a pillar of cloud to direct their march. Exod, 13: 21, 22. According to Jerome, in his epistle to Fabiola, this cloud attended them from Succoth ; or, according to oth- ers, from Ramases; or, as the Hebrews say, only from Ethan, till the death of Aaron ; or, as the generality of commentators are of opinion, to the passage of Jordan. This pillar was commonly in front of the Israelites; but at Pihahiroth, when the Egyptian army approached be- hind them, it placed itself between Israel and the Egyp- tians, so that the Egyptians could not come near the Isra- elites all night. Exod. 14: 19, 20. In the morning, the cloud moving on over the sea, and following the Israelites who had passed through it, the Egyptians pressing after were drowned. From that time, this cloud attended the Israelites; it was clear and bright during night, in order to afford them light; but in the day it was thick and gloomy, to defend them from the excessive heats of the deserts. “The angel of God which went before the camp of Israel, removed and went behind them; and the pillar of the cloud went from before their face, and stood behind them.” Exod. 14: 19. Here we may observe, that the angel and the cloud made the same motion, as it would seem, in company. The cloud by its motions gave the signal to the Israelites to encamp or to decamp. Where, therefore, it staid, the people staid till it rose again; then they broke up their camp, and followed it till it stopped. It was called a pillar, by reason of its form, which was high and elevated. Some interpréters suppose that there were two clouds, one to enlighten, the other to shade, the camp. The promise is still with the church, that the Lord will create upon every dwelling-place of mount Zion, (let the reader not overlook the every,) and upon all her assemblies, a cloud and a smoke by day, and the shining of a flaming fire by night; for upon all the glory shall be a defence. Isa. 4: 5. What though this overshadowing care of the Head of the church be not visible now as of old, yet the presence of the Lord of the cloud is equally real, and his guiding and protecting love equally great, from the Suc- coth of conversion to the Jordan of death.-Watson; Harvker. CLUSTER. An ancient author tells us, that the Jews were accustomed to call such men as excelled in good qualities, Eshcoloth; that is, clusters. And hence they had a saying, that after the death of Jose Ben Joezen, a man of Tzerda, and Jose Ben Jochanan, a man of Jeru- salem, the clusters ceased. • Nothing could be more happily chosen to set forth the unrivalled fertility and richness of Canaan, than the clus- ter of its ſruits which the spies brought back from Eshcol. Num. 13: 23. It was indeed a lively earnest of the ful- ness, sweetness, and blessedness of the promised land. But a more glorious object is set forth, (in Canticles 1: 14.) under the image of “a cluster of camphire from the vine- yards of Engedi.” All divine, all human excellencies concentrate in Christ, the Lord and Savior of the church. Full of truth and full of grace, he is indeed a cluster of all that is desirable, both in the life that now is, and in that which is to come.—Harvker. COA; (1 Kings 10: 28. 2 Chron. 1: 16.) probably a city of Egypt, the capital of the province called Cypopolitana. —Calmet. COALS. Temptations to unchastity are compared to burning coals, which cannot be approached without inflam- ing and fatally injuring the soul. Prov. 6: 28. The same is true of strife and contention. Prov. 26: 21. So the judgments of God are represented under the terrible image of coals of juniper, (the most intense and enduring heat,) applied to the human body. Ps. 140: 10. , 120: 4, 18; 8. On the other hand, the divine promise of forgiveness and grace is represented by a live coal taken from the celestial altar; because, being conveyed to us through the Re- deemer's sacrifice, it inflames the soul with love, melts it into godly sorrow, and purges away the dross of sinful corruption. Isa. 6:6. The love of saints to their Lord and Savior, is as coals of fire, that have a most vehement flame ; it makes their hearts burn with desire after him, imparts a resplendent lustre to their character, and resists all the efforts of earth and hell to extinguish it. Cant. 8: 6, 7. So also good deeds and kind offices to enemies are as coals of fire heaped on their heads; they tend to melt down the obdurate spirit into grief and love, or else to prepare C U C C O C [ 386 ) them for the more speedy and just infliction of divine punishment upon their impenitence. Prov, 25; 22. Rom. 12:20,--Bromwn. - COAT. (See HABITs.) . - COBB, (EBENEzER,) remarkable for longevity, was born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, March 22, 1694. Mr. Cobb died at Kingston, December 8, 1801, aged one hundred and seven years. His days were passed in cultivating the earth. His mode of living was simple. Only twice in his life, and then it was to gratify his brethren on a jury, did he substitute an enervating cup of tea in place of the invigorating bowl of broth, or the nutritive porringer of milk. He never used glasses; but for several years could not see to read. He was of a moderate stature, stooping in attitude, having an expanded chest, and of a fair and florid countenance. He enjoyed life in his old age, and in his last year declared, that he had the same attachment to life as ever. He was a professed Christian. See Co- lumbian Centinel, Dec. 16, 1801; New York Spectator, Dec. 23.−Allen. - COBHAM, (LoRD John.) See OLDCASTLE. COCCEIANS ; a denomination which arose in the seventeenth century, so called from John Cocceius, pro- fessor of divinity in the university of Leyden. He repre- sented the whole history of the Old Testament as a mirror, which held forth an accurate view of the transactions and events that were to happen in the church under the dispen- sation of the New Testament, and unto the end of the world. He maintained that by far the greatest part of the ancient prophecies foretold Christ's ministry and media- tion, and the rise, progress and revolutions of the church, not only hid under the figure of persons and transactions, but in a literal manner, and by the very sense of the words used in these predictions; and laid it down as a fundamen- tal rule of interpretation, that the words and phrases of Scripture are to be understood in every sense of which they are susceptible, or, in other words, that they signify in effect every thing that they can possibly signify. Cocceius also taught, that the covenant made between God and the Jewish nation, by the ministry of Moses, was of the same nature as the new covenant, obtained by the mediation of Jesus Christ. In consequence of this gene- ral principle, he maintained that the ten commandments were promulgated by Moses, not as a rule of obedience, but as a representation of the covenant of grace—that when the Jews had provoked the Deity by their various transgressions, particularly by the worship of the golden calf, the severe and servile yoke of the ceremonial law was added to the decalogue, as a punishment inflicted on them by the Supreme Being in his righteous displeasure— that this yoke, which was painful in itself, became doubly so on account of its typical signification, since it admonish- ed the Israelites, from day to day, of the imperſection and uncertainty of their state, filled them with anxiety, and was a perpetual proof that they had merited the righteous dis- pleasure of God, and could not expect, before the coming of the Messiah, the entire remission of their iniquities— that indeed good men, even under the Mosaic dispensation, were, immediately after death, made partakers of ever- lasting glory ; but that they were, nevertheless, during the whole course of their lives, far removed from that firm hope and assurance of salvation which rejoices the faithful under the dispensation of the gospel—and that their anxiety flowed naturally from this consideration, that their sins, though they remained umpunished, were not pardoned, because Christ had not as yet offered himself up a sacrifice to the Father, to make an entire atonement for them.—Hend. Buck. COCK-CROWING. The cock usually crows at two different times of the night; the first time a little after midnight, and a second time about the break of day. (See Hour.) This last season is usually called cock-crowing; and this was the time intended by our Lord when he said to Peter, “Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice.” Matt. 26: 34. Mark and John refer to both sea- sons, but Matthew only to the last. Mark 13:40. John 13: 38. Compare the fulfilment of the prediction. Matt. 26: 74. Mark 14: 68–72. Luke 22: 61. john 18: 27. - These texts may be satisfactorily reconciled, by observ- ing, that ancient authors, both Greek and Latin, mention neck is flat, and covered with oblong smooth scales. two cock-crowings, the one of which was soon after mid- night, the other about three o'clock in the morning; and this latter, being most noticed by men as the signal of their approaching labors, was called by way of eminence, the cock-crowing ; and to this alone, Matthew, giving the ge- neral sense of our Savior's warning to Peter, refers; but Mark, recording his very words, mentions the two cock- crowings. - The rabbies tell us that cocks were not permitted to be kept in Jerusalem on account of the holiness of the place; and for this reason some modern Jews cavil against this declaration of the evangelists; but the cock is not among the birds prohibited in the law of Moses. If there was any restraint in the use and domestication of the ani- mal, it must have been an arbitrary practice of the Jews, and could not have been binding on foreigners, of whom many resided at Jerusalem as officers or traders. Stran- gers would not be willing to forego an innocent kind of food in compliance with a conquered people ; and the trafficking spirit of the Jews would induce them to supply aliens, if it did not expressly contradict the letter of their law. This is sufficient to account for fowl of this kind being there, even admitting a customary restraint.—Brown; |Watson, º COCKATRICE. The translators of the English Bible have variously rendered the Hebrew words taepho and tzephoni, by adder and cockatrice ; and we are by no means certain of the particular kind of serpent to which the original term is applied. In Isaiah 11: 8, “the tzepho- ni,” says Dr. Harris, “is evidently an advance in malig- nity beyond the peten which precedes it; and in ch. 14:29, it must mean a worse kind of serpent than the nachash;” but this still leaves us ignorant of its specific character. Mr. Taylor, who has taken extraordinary pains to identify it, is of opinion that it is the naja, or cobra di Capello of the Portuguese, which we find thus described by Goldsmith :— “Of all others, the cobra di capello, or hooded serpent, inflicts the most deadly and incurable wounds. Of this formidable creature there are five or six different kinds; but they are all equally dangerous, and their bite followed by speedysand certain death. It is from three to eight feet long, with two long fangs hanging out of the upper jaw. It has a broad neck, and a mark of dark brown on the forehead, which, when viewed frontwise, looks like a pair of spectacles, but behind like the head of a cat. The eyes are fierce and full of fire; the head is small, and the nose. flat, though covered with very large scales, of a yellowish ash color; the skin is white, and the large tumor on the The bite of this animal is said to be incurable, the patient dy- ing in about an hour after the wound; the whole frame C O D C O K [ 387 ) being dissolved into one putrid mass of corruption. The effects here attributed to the bite of this creature answer very well to what is intimated of the tzephoni in . Thus, in Isaiah 11: 9: ‘They [the tzephoni immediately preceding] shall not hurt nor destroy [corrupt] in all my holy mountain.” And Proverbs 23: 32. : “At the Jast it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth [spreads, diffuses its pºison; so the Seventy and Vulgate, like a cocka- trice. - We must not omit to notice the very powerful argument adduced in the last cited passage against the sin of intem- perate drinking. Like the poison of the deadly cockatrice, it paralyzes the energies both of mind and body, and speedily diffuses corruption throughout the entire frame. “Who hath woe 2 who hath sorrow? who hath contem- tions? who hath babblings? who hath wounds without cause ? who hath redness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine: they that go to seek mixed wine.” “Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging; and whosoever is de- ceived thereby is not wise,” ch. 23:29, 30. 20: 1. The unyielding cruelty of the Chaldean armies, under Nebuchadnezzar, and the appointed ministers of Jehovah's vengeance on the Jewish nation, whose iniquities had made him their enemy, is expressively alluded to in the follow- ing passage: “For, behold, I will send serpents, cocka- trices, among you, which shall not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord.” Jer. 8: 17. In Egypt, and other oriental countries, a serpent was the common symbol of a powerful monarch; it was em- broidered on their robes, and blazoned on their diadem, to signify their absolute power and invincible might; and also, that, as the wound inflicted by the basilisk is incura- ble, so the fatal effects of their displeasure were neither to be avoided nor endured. These, says Paxton, are the al- lusions involved in the address of the prophet, to the irre- concilable enemies of his nation: “Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote thee is broken ; for out of the serpent’s roots shall come forth a cockatrice, and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent.” Isa. 14:29. Uzziah, the king of Judah, had subdued the Philistines; but, taking advantage of the weak reign of Ahab, they again invaded the kingdom of Judea, and re- duced some cities in the southern part of the coun- try under their dominion. On the death of Ahab, Isaiah delivers this prophecy, threatening them with a more se- vere chastisement from the hand of Hezekiah, the grand- son of Josiah, by whose victorious arms they had been reduced to sue for peace, which he accomplished, when “he smote the Philistines, even unto Gaza, and the borders thereof.” 2 Fings 18:8. Uzziah, therefore, must be meant by the rod that smote them, and by the serpent from whom should spring the fiery flying Serpent, that is, Hezekiah, a much more terrible enemy than even Uzziah had been. But the symbol of regal power which the oriental kings preferred to all others, was the basilisk. All the other species of serpents are said to acknowledge the superiority of the basilisk, by flying from its presence, and hiding themselves in the dust. It is also supposed to live longer than any other Serpent ; the ancient heathens, therefore, pronounced it to be immortal, and placed it in the number of their deities; and because it had the dan- gerous power, in general belief, of killing with its pestife- rous breath the strongest animals, it seemed to them in- vested with the power of life and death. It became, therefore, the favorite symbol of kings, and was employed by the prophet to symbolize the great and good Hezekiah, with strict propriety.—Abbott. CODDINGTON, (WILLIAM,) one of the founders of Rhode Island, was a native of Lincolnshire, England. He came to this country as an assistant, or-one of the magistrates of Massachusetts, and arrived at Salem in the Arabella, June 12, 1630. He was several times recho- sen to that office; but in 1637, when governor Vane, to whose interest he was attached, was superseded by Mr. Winthrop, he also was left out of the magistracy. He re- moved to Rhode Island, April 26, 1638, and was the prin- cipal instrument in effecting the original settlement of that place. His name stands first on the covenant, signed by eighteen persons at Aquetneck, or Rhode Island, March 7, 1638, forming themselves into a body politic, to be governed by the laws of the Lord Jesus Christ, the King of kings. - . Mr. Coddington was chosen governor seven years suc- cessively, until the charter was obtained, and the island was incorporated with Providence plantations. In 1647, he assisted in forming the body of laws, which has been the basis of the government of Rhode Island ever since. In 1652, he retired from public business; but towards the close of his life he was prevailed on to accept the chief magistracy. He was governor in the years 1674 and 1675. He died, November 1, 1678, aged seventy-seven. He appears to have been prudent in his administration, and active in promoting the welfare of the little common- wealth, which he had assisted in founding. While he lived in Rhode Island, he embraced the sentiments of the Quakers. He was a warm advocate for liberty of conscience. See Dedication of Callender's Historical Discourse; Winthrop; Hutchinson, i. 18.-Allen. COELICOLAF ; (worshippers of the heavens;) an ob- scure sect of African heretics, in the fifth century, who seem to have mixed up some parts of Judaism and pagan- ism with Christianity, and to have used both circumcision and baptism. It is not, however, improbable that they have been slandered, as the pagans called the Jews them- selves by this name. See Turner's History, p. 180; Bell's Wanderings, p. 192.—Williams. - COELO SYRIA ; hollow or depressed Syria; Syria in the vale. 1 Mac. 13: 10. This name imports the hollow land, or region, situated between two long ridges of mountains; and those mountains have been always understood to be Libanus and Anti-libanus. As these ridges run parallel for many leagues, they contain between them a long, ex- tensive, and extremely fruitful valley.—Watson. COENOBITES; monks of the fourth century, who lived in a settled community under an abbot. See Broughton's Dictionary.—Williams. - COGAN, (THoMAs,) a physician, was born, in 1736, at Kibworth, in Leicestershire, and was educated under Dr. Aikin. In conjunction with Dr. Hawes he ſounded the Humane Society. A considerable part of his life was spent in Holland. He died in 1818. He translated the works of Camper, and published some original works; among which are, The Rhine, or A Journey from Utrecht to Frankfort; a Philosophical Treatise on the Passions; Ethical Questions; and Theological Disquisitions.—Da- venport. - COHORT; a military term used by the Romans, to de- note a company generally composed of six hundred foot soldiers: a legion consisted of ten cohorts, every cohort being composed of three maniples, and every maniple of two hundred; a legion, consequently, contained in all six thousand men. Others allow but five hundred men to a cohort, which would make five thousand in a legion. It is probable, that cohorts among the Romans, as companies among the moderns, often varied as to their number.— Calmet. COKE, (Thomas, LL.D.,) was borhat Brecon, in South Wales, on the 9th of September, 1747. His father, Mr. Bartholomew Coke, was an eminent Surgeon, residing in that place; a man of great respectability, and several times filled the office of chief magistrate of the town. Thomas was their only child; and his affectionate parents watched over his infant days with unusual solicitude. In early life he was, however, deprived, by death, of his fa- ther, and to the care of his widowed mother he was con- signed. He received the first elements of knowledge in the college school at Brecon, and was attentive and studi- ous. At the age of sixteen, he was removed from Brecon to Oxford; and, in the Lent term of his seventeenth year, was entered a gentleman commoner at Jesus college, in that university. At college he became acquainted with the vicious and profane; and was even a captive to those snares of infidelity which he had at first surveyed with detes- tation and horror. His principles being thus tainted, his conduct became infected; but he was preserved, to a great degree, from committing those abominable crimes which he observed performed by others. Mr. Coke was however unhappy; and amidst all the noise and clamor, and mirth and folly of his associates, he was frequently pensive and discontented. At this time he paid a visit to a clergyman C O K C O K. [ 388 J in Wales; and, by the preaching of the gospel at that place, by perusing the discourses and disputations of bishop Sherlock, and by reading the celebrated Treatise on Regeneration, by Dr. Witherspoon, his mind became gradually enlightened, though he did not at that time be- come a Christian. - . - On June 17th, 1775, he took his degree of doctor of civil laws, and obtained a curacy at South Petherton, in So- mersetshire, where his congregation increased; he built a gallery to the church, at his own expense. He evinced great anxiety for the improvement of his charge, and was speedily accused of being a Methodist. To the doctrines of Mr. Wesley he became attached; zealously preached them at South Petherton; received a reprimand for his zeal from the bishop of Bath and Wells; and was eventu- ally dismissed by the rector of the parish, for his pious concern to promote the welfare of his parishioners. Ba- nished from the church of South Petherton, he preached in the open air, and attracted considerable attention. In the month of July, 1777, he met with Mr. Wesley, con- versed with him, received an explanation of his plans and system, and determined to become a preacher in that soci- ety. As a preacher, in London he was very popular, and his fame rapidly spread over an extensive district. In 1780, Mr. Wesley appointed him to superintend the Lon- don circuit; and he visited the various Wesleyan societies in Ireland. In 1784, Mr. Wesley executed the celebrated deed of decla- ration as to all his chapels, and appointed Dr. Coke as one of the trustees. In 1782, Dr. Coke held the first Irish conference, and his conduct on this occasion sodelighted the Irish, that they requested he would always preside. Mr. Wesley, having visited America, instituted many Christian societies; and, having been the instrument of converting many persons, Dr. Coke privately resolved there to become a preacher; and, on the 2d of September, 1784, he was set apart, by Mr. Wesley, as a presbyter of the church of England, and a missionary to North America. On the 18th of September, 1784, the vessel weighed anchor, and Dr. Coke, with other missionaries, commenced their voy- age, with confidence in God, and desires to promote his glory. At New York, in America, he safely arrived ; im- mediately there commenced preaching; on the 6th of No- vember reached Philadelphia, and on the ensuing day preached in one of the churches. Immediately, in the spirit of a Christian missionary, he commenced his labors, and preached in the open air. By the conference assem- bled at Baltimore, Mr. Wesley's plans and system were approved, and Dr. Colve there preached his celebrated ser- mon “On the Godhead of Christ.” Deacons, elders, and a superintendent of the Methodist Episcopal church in America were appointed; and harmony, peace, and piety presided over the proceedings. When the war commenced between England and Ame- rica, the Methodists were opposed by the government of America, on the ground of Mr. Wesley’s decided attach- ment to the measures of England; but Dr. Coke and Mr. Asbury, in behalf of the American Methodists, presented to general Washington an address, declaratory of their loyalty and obedience to their rulers, and of congratulation on his elevation. The propriety of that address has been questioned; but it preserved the Methodists in America from persecution, and religion from reproach. To it, gene- ral Washington returned an affectionate and pious reply. To the cause of the gospel in the United States he now paid increased attention; collected a considerable sum to- wards the erection of a college ; directed its commence- ment, and lived to witness its rising usefulness and increas- ing success; but, finally, alas! to view its destruction by fire. The conference #: ended in 1784, Dr. Coke proceeded through the United States, on an extensive tour to all the churches. Dr. Coke next engaged in procuring an address to the assembly of Virginia, for the emancipa- tion of the negroes. In pursuing his journey through the States, he was frequently exposed to dangers. Sometimes he was benighted in dreary forests; at other times he missed his way, and was compelled to wander through trackless deserts, exposed to hurricanes and dangers, as appalling as they were numerous. - - Qn June 3d, 1785, Dr. Coke sailed for England, His te * reception from Mr. Wesley was not kind; the former was a missionary, the latter the founder of a sect. The latter expected too much submission; the former was one of the last men in the world to concede to what he regarded a spirit of harsh legislation. In 1786, he was employed in visiting the Norman isles, and was made instrumental of establishing a Methodist society in Guernsey. On re- turning from the Norman isles, Dr. Coke prepared for another voyage across the Atlantic. He determined on visiting Nova Scotia, and, with three missionaries, embark- , ed at Gravesend, on the 24th of September, 1786. The violence of the weather, however, retarded their voyage; and, after having been greatly inconvenienced by storms and hurricanes, gales and tempests, their weather-beaten bark cast anchor in the harbor of Antigua, in the West Indies, on December 25th, 1786. Dr. Coke instantly com- menced his labors as a missionary, and repeatedly preach- ed with a success proportioned to his zeal. He then visit- ed St. Vincent's and St. Christopher's, at Kingston; in the former he stationed Mr. Clarke, one of the missionaries; and, in all his tour, received the general applause and gratitude of the negroes, and of many intelligent inhabi- tants. On February 10th, 1787, he sailed from St. Eusta- tius to Charleston, in America, where he arrived, aſter a pleasant voyage of eighteen days. There he labored as a minister of the gospel for about a month. In April, he attended at the conference at Baltimore, and was rejoiced by the intelligence, that more than six thousand six hun- dred persons had been added to the Societies through the United States. - . . . Having now surveyed several islands in the West In- dies, and observed the general state of religion on the con- tinent of America, he prepared to return to Mr. Wesley; preached his farewell sermon at Philadelphia ; and arrived in Dublin bay on the 25th of June, 1787. He immedi- ately repaired to the Irish conference, represented the con: dition of the heathen, and excited a general and powerful desire to send missionaries forthwith to the West Indies. From Ireland he travelled, with Mr. Wesley, to the Eng. lish conference at Manchester. At the conclusion of the conference he left Manchester, and again visited the Nor- man islands. In those isles he preached with great Success, to large and attentive congregations. On leaving the Nor- man islands, he repaired to England, visited many of the principal towns, and employed his time in preaching and collecting funds to provide for the missionaries to the West Indies. Towards the close of the year 1788, he sailed, with three missionaries, to Barbadoes, where he was kind- ly received. He travelled to the country of the Caribbs— explored the recesses of the forest, and the seclusions of savage life—visited the plantations—settled a missionary at St. Vincent's—sailed for Dominica—revisited Antigua– repaired to St. Eustatius—preached daily—Superintended the temporal and spiritual affairs of the mission—and af. forded directions, encouragement, or reproof, as circum- stances required. On departing ſrom this island, Dr. Coke repaired to Nevis, Saba, Tortola, Santa Cruz, and Jamai- ca, where he landed on the 19th of January, 1789. - This indefatigable man, having thus passed through the islands, established missionaries in several, and prepared the way for others in nearly all, once more sailed for the continent of America, and arrived at Charleston on the 24th of February. At Georgia he at length arrived, in time for the conference, and then returned to Charleston, where another was held for South Carolina. From thence he proceeded to North Carolina, and then to Virginia. He also attended two conferences in the state of Maryland, one at Philadelphia, and another at New York. Animated by past success, he determined on introducing Christianity yet more among the native Indians; and having made the necessary arrangements, he sailed for England on the 5th of June, and arrived at Liverpool on the 11th of July, 1789. On his arrival in England, he repaired to the con- ference, to report to Mr. Wesley, and the various preachers, an account of his past proceedings, and to offer personally: to plead in behalf of the negroes in the West Indies, which offer was cheerfully accepted, and nearly sixteen months were devoted by him to this employment; during which time he travelled and preached through a considerable part of the kingdom, and was more than repaid for C O L C O L [ 389 | his exertions, by the kindness with which he was re- ceived. Considering this part of his work completed, he deter- mined once more on visiting the West Indies; and, ac- cordingly, sailed from Falmouth on the 16th of October, 1790, in company with two missionaries. On the 22d of November, he reached Barbadoes, after a delightful passage of five weeks. After preaching for some time in Bridge- town, he visited St. Vincent's, Grenada, and Antigua, where he again preached with equal success, and found, during his absence, much progress had been made in the preaching of the gospel. He next arrived at the island of St. Eustatius, but was there forbidden to preach, by the governor. He consequently determined to leave the island, and repair to Holland, to lay before the Dutch government the situation of the inhabitants of the latter place, and of Saba. He next sailed from Jamaica for Charleston, in South Carolina, where he arrived on 27th of January, 1791. From this place, after renewing his former exertions for some time, he sailed for England. On the 1st of Septem- ber, 1792, he again sailed from Gravesend for America, and arrived at St. Eustatius on the 31st of December, where he was still refused the privilege of preaching. The tempest of persecution had not ceased; and he left, in the island of St. Vincent's, the 'only missionary, a Mr. Lamb, who was then confined in prison for preaching to the negroes. From thence he repaired to Antigua, Barba- does, and Jamaica; and, after exerting himself with his usual benevolence, returned to England, where he arrived on the 6th of March, 1793, with a heart glowing with gratitude to God for his mercies. . Dr. Coke, having constantly kept in view the melan- choly situation of the inhabitants of St. Vincent's, on his arrival in England, drew out a plain statement of the case, to lay before the king in council; and to give more effect to the design, he made a personal application to some members of the executive government. Those applica- tions aroused the attention of the council, who forwarded letters to the governors of the West India islands, with inquiries as to the general conduct of the missionaries. Dr. Coke waited the result with laudable impatience; and, on the 31st of August, 1793, he had the heart-felt gratifica- tion of hearing that the edict of St. Vincent’s was disal- lowed. * - - Having thus obtained the freedom of one island, this eminent philanthropist could not be content till St. Eusta- tius received the same blessing; and he accordingly en- deavored to seek for protection against the governor. He di- rectly set sail for Holland; presented his memorial, and soli- cited the official interference of the Dutch government. Actuated by a principle of conscious rectitude, he waited personally on the stadtholder, who admitted him, and gave him a favorable reception; but no decided answer was obtained till some months afterwards, when a gentleman in the island applied to the governor, and inclined him to depart from the spirit of intolerance manifested by his predecessors; and from that time preaching was allowed, and the ardent spirit of Dr. Coke was made to rejoice at the happy change. • On the 1st of January, 1814, he sailed for India, but died on his passage by a sudden stroke of apoplexy. The ocean received his mortal remains; but his memory is embalmed in the hearts of thousands, and his happy spirit rests with his faithful Lord till the sea shall give up her dead. See Life of Dr. Coke, by Samuel Drew.—Jones's Christ. Biog. COLD. Spiritual coldness consists in an utter, or very great unconcern about Jesus Christ and divine things. Matt. 24; 12. Professors are neither cold nor hot when they retain the profession of truth in some degree, but have no active liveliness, zeal, or concern for the power of it. Christ's wishing men were either cold or hot imports, that none are more detested of him, or dishonoring to him, than hypocritical and careless professors of the Christian faith. Rev. 3:15, 16.—Bronn. COLET, (DR. John,) a learned English divine, was born in London, in 1466, and was the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet, knight, twice lord mayor, who had, besides him, twenty-one children. In 1483, he was sent to Mag- dalen college, Oxford, where he spent seven years in the assembled together. study of logic and philosophy, and took the degrees in arts. Having laid a good foundation of learning at home, he travelled abroad for further improvement, visiting France and Italy, in which countries he seems to have passed the time from 1493 to 1497. At Paris he became ac- quainted with several learned men, and among others, with the celebrated Budaeus, and aſtefwards with Erasmus. On his return, in 1497, he was ordained deacon in December, and priest in July, 1498. Before he entered into orders, he was beset with great temptations, from his natural dis. position, to lay aside study, and give himself up to gayety and dissipation, for he was constitutionally inclined that way; but he mortified his propensities and passions; and, after continuing a few months with his parents and friends in London, he retired to Oxford. Here he commenced his career with delivering public lectures on the epistles of the apostle Paul, which he did without stipend or reward; and the novelty of the under. taking drew a vast crowd of hearers, who admired him greatly. And here began his memorable friendship with Erasmus, who came to Oxford in 1497, a friendship which remained unshaken and inviolable to the day of their deaths. He continued these lectures during the period of three years, and in 1501 was admitted to proceed to divi- nity, or to the reading of the sentences, as termed in the church of Rome. In 1504, he commenced doctor in divi- nity, and in May, 1505, was instituted a prebend in St. Paul’s, London. He was at the same time made dean of that church, quite unexpectedly; and being raised to that high station, he began to reform the decayed discipline of his cathedral. He brought in a new practice of preaching himself on Sundays and high festivals, and called to his assistance other learned men, whom he appointed to read divinity lectures. These lectures raised in the nation a spirit of inquiry after the Holy Scriptures, which had then long been laid aside for the school divinity, and so might be said to prepare a way for the reformation which soon after ensued. We cannot but think that Colet was in some measure instrumental towards it, though he did not live to see it effected; for he expressed a great contempt for religious houses, exposed the abuses that prevailed in them, and the mischiefs attending the imposing celibacy on the clergy. This way of thinking, together with his free and public manner of communicating his thoughts, which were then regarded as impious and heretical, ren- dered him very obnoxious to the clergy, and exposed him to a persecution from the bishop of London. Latimer tells us in his sermons, not only was Colet brought into trouble, but he would certainly have gone to the stake, had not God turned the king's heart. This state of things made him weary of the world, and he began to think of disposing of his effects, and retiring into privacy. In pursuance of his design, his first object was to found St. Paul’s school, for the gratuitous educa- tion of one hundred and fifty-three children, with suitable masters, &c., for all of which provision was made, by funds intrusted to the Mercers’ company, under whose auspices it has continued to flourish, and by whom the present handsome edifice, at the east end of St. Paul’s ca- thedral, was rebuilt from the foundation, on the original site, and opened in the spring of 1825. Dean Colet survived this noble act of his munificence only seven years. He died, September 16, 1519, in his fifty-third year. See Biog. Brit. vol. i.-Jones's Chr. Biog. COLLECT; a short prayer. In the liturgy of the church of England, and the mass of the Romanists, it de- notes a prayer accommodated to any particular day, oc- casion, or the like. In general, all the prayers in each office are called collects, either because the priest speaks in the name of the whole assembly, whose serºtiments and desires he sums up by the word “Oremus,” “Hºus pray,” or because those prayers are offered when ºeople are The popes Gelasius and ºftegory are said to have been the first who established collects. Dr. Despence, of Paris, wrote a treatise on collects, their origin, antiquity, &c.—Hend. Buck. & COLLEGIANS, or Co.LEGIANTs; a sect formed among the Arminians and Baptists in Holland, about the begins ning of the seventeenth century: so called because of their colleges or meetings twice every week, where every . 356 ſº. C O L C O L * | 390 ) one, females excepted, has the same liberty of expounding the Scripture, praying, &c. They are said to be all either Arians or Socinians: they never communicate in the col- lege, but meet twice a year, from all parts of Holland, at Rhinsbergh, (whence they are also called Rhinsberghers,) a village two miles from Leyden, where they communicate together; admitting every one that presents himself, pro- fessing his faith in the divinity of the Holy Scriptures, and resolution to live suitably to their precepts and doctrines, without regard to his sect or opinion. They have no par- ticular ministers, but each officiates as he is disposed. They baptize by immersion.—Hend. Buck. COLLIER, (JEREMY,) an eminent non-juring divine, was born, in 1630, at Stow Qui, in Cambridgeshire. He took his degree at Caius college, Cambridge, in 1676, and ob- tained a living, which he resigned for the lectureship of Gray’s Inn. At the revolution, he not only refused the Oaths, but was active in behalf of the dethroned monarch. At last, he turned his talents to better ends, and made war on the licentiousness of the theatre. His first work on this subject was, A Short View of the Immorality and Pro- faneness of the Stage. The wits in vain opposed him, for virtue was on his side; and, after a ten years' struggle, he accomplished his object. The rest of his life was spent in various literary labors, among which were essays; a translation of Moreri ; an Ecclesiastical History of Eng- land; and Discourses on Practical Subjects. He died in 1726. Collier was a man of talents; and, however we may be inclined to censure his political principles, it would be unjust to deny him the praise of having been an honest and disinterested man.—Davenport. COLLINS, (ANTHONY,) a controversial deist, of no mean talents, was born at Heston, near Hounslow, in 1676; was educated at Eton, and King's college, Cam- bridge, and, being a man of property, spent his life in literary pursuits, and in performing the duties of a magis- trate. He died in 1729. His religious principles brought him into violent collision with Bentley, Chandler, and ma- ny others. Among his works may be mentioned, Priest- craft in Perfection; A Discourse on Free-thinking; A Phi- losophical Inquiry concerning Human Liberty; and A Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion.—Davenport. - COLLUTHIANS ; followers of Colluthus, a priest of Alexandria, in the fourth century, who is said to have taught that God was not the author of the evils and afflic- tions of this life; also that a presbyter might ordain. If We can forgive the latter error, which it seems he put in practice, we may easily account for the former, which probably originated from the strong terms he used in op- posing Necessarian errors; teaching that men's sins ori- ginated froth themselves, and not from God; and that these were the cause of all our sufferings. He was con- demned, however, at a council, held at Alexandria, in A. D. 335; and the sect vanished soon after. See Turner’s History, p. 145; Broughton's Dictionary.— Williams. * COLLYRIDIANS, were so called from certain cakes or loaves (collyrides) which, once a year, they offered to the virgin Mary, with some superstitious rites, and then divid- ed them among themselves. These superstitious people had their rise in the fourth century; first in Thrace, and afterwards they spread into Aſrica, chiefly among female devotees, who sought the protection of the Virgin. See Broughton's Dictionary; Turner's History, p. 160; Bell's Wanderings, p. 194.—Williams. COLMAN, (BENJAMIN, D. D.,) first minister of the church in Brattle street, Boston, was born in that town, October 19, 1673. . He was distinguished by early piety and zeal in literary pursuits, and in 1692 was graduated at Harvard college. Beginning to preach soon afterwards, his benevolent labors were enjoyed for half a year by the º of Medford. In July, 1695, he embarked for Lon- Orl. - A new Society having been formed in Brattle street, Boston, the principal gentlemen, who composed it, sent him an invitation to return to his native country, and to be their minister. The peculian constitution of this church, differing from that of the other churches in New England, rendered the founders desirous that he should be ordained in London. They approved of the confession of faith, & - - * composed by the Westminster assembly; but they were averse to the public relation of experiences, then practised previously to admission into the churches, and they wish- ed the Scriptures to be read on the Sabbath, and the Lord's prayer to be used. It may excite surprise at the present day, that the practice of reading the Scripture and repeat- ing the Lord’s prayer, as a part of the services of the Sab- bath, should have excited opposition; but many were of. fended, though it was not long before a number of other churches followed in the steps of Brattle street. The ground of opposition to this new church was the strong features of episcopacy, which it was imagined, were to be discerned in it. These innovations, the founders believed, would excite alarm, and to avoid difficulty, Mr. Colman was ordained by some dissenting ministers in London, August 4, 1699. He arrived at Boston, November 1, and December 24th, the new house of worship was open- ed, and Mr. Colman preached in it for the first time. He was an eminently useful and good man, and was universally respected for his learning and talents. He was distinguished as a preacher. Tall and erect in sta- ture, of a benign aspect, presenting in his whole appear- ance something amiable and venerable, and having a pe- culiar expression in his eye, he was enabled to interest his hearers. His voice was harmonious, and his action inimi- table. He was ranked among the first ministers of New England. Jesus Christ was the great subject of his preaching. He dwelt upon the Redeemer in his person, natures, offices, and benefits; in his eternal Godhead; in the covenants of redemption and of grace; and upon the duties of natural religion as performed only by strength derived from the Savior, and as acceptable only for his sake. But his labors were not confined to what particu- larly related to his profession. He was employed, in his younger as well as in his latter years, on weighty affairs by the general court. No minister has since possessed so great influence. His attention to civil concerns drew up- on him censure, and at times insult ; but he thought him- self justified in embracing every opportunity for doing good. He knew the interest of his country, and was able to promote it; and he could not admit, that the circum- stance of his being a minister ought to prevent his exer- tions. Still there were few men more zealous and unwea- ried in the labors of his sacred office. His character was singularly excellent. Having imbibed the true spirit of the gospel, he was catholic, moderate, benevolent, ever anxious to promote the gospel of Salvation. He was will- ing to sacrifice every thing, but truth, to peace. After a life conspicuous for sanctity and usefulness, he met the king of terrors without fear, August 29, 1747, at the age of seventy-three. He published a great number of ser- mons. His life was written by Mr. Turell, who married his daughter, and published in 8vo, in 1749.--Allen. COLONY. This word does not always imply that any considerable body of citizens from Rome had left their na- tive city, and had founded a new town where there had been none, as the colonies in America were founded. No doubt, a settlement of Romans might give rise to Roman colonies; and many bodies of their troops, after they were dismissed from military service, received allotments in distant towns. But anciently many cities, were favored with the character of colonies, by which they became en- titled to the privileges of Roman citizens, and were con- sidered as being in a manner Roman, in reward for ser- vices which they had rendered to the government of Rome, or to the emperors. (See PHILIPPI.)—Calmet. COLOSSE; a city of Phrygia Minor, which stood on the river Lyceus, at an equal distance between Laodicea and Hierapolis. These three cities, says Eusebius, were destroyed by an earthquake, in the tenth of Nero, or about two years after the date of St. Paul's Epistle to the Colos- sians. Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse were at no great distance from each other; which accounts for the apostle Paul, when writing to his Christian brethren in the latter of these places, mentioning them all in connexion with each other. Col. 4:13. Of these cities, however, Laodicea was the greatest, for it was the metropolis of Phrygia, though Colosse is said to have been a great and wealthy place. The inhabitants of Phrygia, says Dr. Macknight, were famous for the worship of Bacchus, and of Cybele, C O L C O M [ 391 ) the mother of the gods; whence the latter was called Phrygia mater, by way of eminence. In her worship, as well as in that of Bacchus, both sexes practised every species of debauchery in speech and action, with a frantic rage which they pretended was occasioned by the inspira- tion of the deities whom they worshipped. These were the orgies, from orge, rage, of Bacchus and Cybele, so famed in antiquity, the fascivious rites of which being perfectly adapted to the corruptions of the human heart, were performed by both sexes without shame or remorse. Hence, as the Son of God came into the world to destroy the works of the devil, it appeared, in the eye of his apos- tle, a matter of great importance to carry the light of the gospel into countries where these abominable impurities were not only practised, but even dignified with the honora- ble appellation of religious worship; especially as nothing bu: the heaven-descended light of the gospel could dispel such a pernicious infatuation. That this salutary purpose might be effectually accomplished, Paul, accompanied by Silas and Timothy, went at different times into Phrygia, and preached the gospel in many cities of that country with great success; but it is thought by many persons, that the Epistle to the Colossians contains internal marks of his never having been at Colosse when he wrote it. This opinion rests principally upon the following passage: “For I would that ye knew what great conflict I have for you, and for them at Laodicea, and for as many as have not seen my face in the flesh,” (Col. 2: 1;) but these words, if they prove any thing upon this question, prove that St. Paul had never been either at Laodicea or Colosse; but Surely it is very improbable that he should have travelled twice into Phrygia for the purpose of preaching the gospel, and not have gone either to Laodicea or Colosse, which were the two principal cities of that country; especially as in the second journey into those parts it is said, that he “went over all the country of Galatia and Phrygia, strengthening all the disciples;” and moreover, we know that it was the apostle's practice to preach at the most considerable places of every district into which he went. Dr. Lardner, after arguing this point, says, “From all these considerations, it appears to me very probable that the church at Colosse had been planted by the apostle Paul, and that the Christians there were his friends, disciples, and converts.” - - The epistle greatly resembles that to the Ephesians, both in sentiment and expression. After saluting the Co- lossian Christians in his own name, and that of Timothy, St. Paul assures them, that since he had heard of their faith in Christ Jesus, and of their love to all Christians, he had not ceased to return thanks to God for them, and to pray that they might increase in spiritual knowledge, and abound in every good work; he describes the dignity of Christ, and declares the universality of the gospel dispensa- tion, which was a mystery formerly hidden, but now made manifest; and he mentions his own appointment, through the grace of God, to be the apostle of the gentiles; he ex- presses a tender concern for the Colossians and other Christians of Phrygia, and cautions them against being seduced from the simplicity of the gospel, by the subtlety of pagan philosophers, or the superstition of judaizing Christians; he directs them to set their affections on things above, and forbids every species of licentiousness; he ex- horts to a variety of Christian virtues, to meekness, vera- city, humility; charity, and devotion; he enforces the duties of wives, husbands, children, fathers, servants, and mas- ters; he inculcates the duty of prayer, and of prudent behavior towards unbelievers; and after adding the salu- tations of several persons then at Rome, and desiring that this epistle might be read in the church of their neighbors the Laodiceans, he concludes with a salutation from him- self, written, as usual, with his own hand. (See ADJURE.)— Watson. - - - COLUMBUS, (CHRISTOPHER,) the discoverer of the new world, whose real name was Colombo, was born in the Genoese territory in 1441, but whether at Genoa, Savona, Nervi, or Cogoreo, was long a matter in dispute. That it was at Genoa, is no longer a matter of doubt. He studied a while at Pavia, but quitted the university at an early riod to follow a maritime life. Between thirty and forty years were spent by him in voyages to various parts of the world, during which geometry, astronomy, and cos: mography occupied much of his attention. At length, he settled at Lisbon, where he married the orphan daughter of Palestrello, an Italian navigator, His geographieal ins vestigations, supported by the evidence of pieces àf catved wood, trunks of trees and canes, drifted across the Atlantic, induced him to believe that, by stretching across the ocean in a westerly direction, the shores of Eastern Asia might be reached, and he resolved to obtain from some sovereign the means of making the attempt. Years of solicitation were spent in vain; his proposals were not listened to at Genoa, Lisbon, or London. At length, they were tardily accepted by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. On the 2d of August, 1492, Columbus with three small vessels sailed on his daring adventure from the port of Palos. He stopped at the Canaries, whence he departed on the 6th of September, and continued his onward course for thirty-five days, seeing nothing around him but the billows and the sky. Already daunted by the terrors of unknown seas, the variation of the compass, which was now first observ- ed, overpowered the courage of the sailors, and they were more than once on the point of breaking into open mutiny, and steering back to Spain. The long-sought land at last appeared, on the night of the 11th of October, 1492. It was Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, to which he gave the name of San Salvador: After having built a fort, and left in it thirty-eight men, he returned to Europe, and an- chored at Palos on the 15th of March, 1493. The people received him with enthusiasm, the court heaped honors upon him. Columbus made three more voyages to the western world; one in the autumn of 1493, another in 1498, and the last in 1504, and considerably enlarged the sphere of his discoveries. His latter years, however, were embittered by the worst arts of envy, and the jealousy of his sovereign. He died at Walladolid, 1506, at the age of seventy, having received little else than injuries and in- sults for the invaluable services rendered by him to his country and mankind. Columbus was a Christian, and, though a Catholic, ap- pears to have been habitually animated by his high moral and religious sentiments. His faith in God never forsook him; although in one or two instances he resorted to un- justifiable means of securing aid from the Indians. These cases, however were extreme. His last words were, “Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit.”—Daven- port; Allen ; Life, by Irving. ** COME, CoMING. God’s coming does not signify literally any change of place; for do not I fill heaven and earth, saith the Lord 2 but it signifies some new manifestation of his presence; either by a resplendent and awful symbol as to Israel of old, or by the operations of his power in mercy or judgment, in which sense he may be said to visit men from age to age. Ps. 1: 3. and 101: 2. John 14: 23. Men come to God when they worship and serve him; apply to him by prayer; enjoy his presence; and receive out of his fulness. Heb. 7:25. 11: 6. John 14: 6. To come to Christ is to apply to him for salvation as lost sinners; re- nouncing all dependence on our own righteousness, wis- dom, and strength; and seeking by faith and prayer . needed, provided, and promised blessing in Him. John 5: 40. 6:37. 1 Pet. 2:4. It may be remarked that this very application, this movement of the heart in approaching the unseen Savior, involves a belief in him as an omnipre- sent, and of course, an infinite Friend.—Brown. COMING OF CHRIST. This is either literal or meta- phorical. Literally, it is used in reference to his first ap- pearance in the flesh, (1 John 5:20, 2 John 7;) or to his future appearance at the last day to fulfil his promises, to raise the dead, and judge the world in righteousness. Acts 1: 11, 3: 21. Heb. 9; 28. 1 Thess. 4:15–18, 1 Cor. 15: 12 —59. Acts 10: 42. 24: 15. 2 Tim. 4: 1. Matt. 16:27, 25: 35—41. - Metaphorically, Christ is said to come when his gospel is introduced or preached in any place by his ministers, (John 15:22. Ephes. 2:17;) when his church or kingdom is visibly and powerfully established in the world, (Matt, 16: 28;) when he bestows upon believers the influence of his Spirit, and the peculiar tokens of his love, (John 14: 18, 23, 28. 16:16, 17;) when he executes his judgments on wicked communities who reject or corrupt his gospel, * C O M C O M [ 392 | § Thess. 2: 85) and when his providence calls us away rom the world by death, as preparatory to the judgment of the last day. Matt. 24:42. 25: 13. John 14: 3. The basis of this metaphorical usage, in regard to the coming of Christ, is the same as in relation to the coming of God, viz. that as he governs the world, every specific act of his providence and authority indicates his presence in a more striking manner to human conception; on the principle that no agent can act where he is not. COMFORTER, (Parakletos,) one of the titles by which the Holy Spirit is designated in the New Testament, John 14: 16, 26. 15:26. The name has, no doubt, a reference to his peculiar office in the economy of redemption; name- ly, that of imparting consolation to the hearts of Christ's disciples, which he effects by “taking of the things that are Christ's,” and explaining them; or, in other words, by illuminating their minds as to the meaning of the Scrip- tures, assuring them of the Savior's love, bringing to their recollection his consolatory sayings, and filling their souls with peace and joy in believing them. The word has also been rendered advocate, helper, monitor, teacher, &c. The first well describes the office of the Spirit, as striving and pleading with the unconverted world, and especially as convincing of sin; (John 16:8–11.) but the others are not so well supported by the connection of our Lord's dis- course, which favors the translation, Comforter; because, whatever gracious offices the Holy Spirit was to perform for the disciples, the great end of all was to remove that sorrow which the approach of the departure of Christ had #: and to render their joy full and complete. See eber's Bampton Lectures; Hinton on the Spirit.—Watson. COMMAND. God commands the blessing of life, or the strength of his people, when by his will he furnishes it. Ps. 133: 3. and 68: 28. Saints command God concerning his sons and daughters, and the works of his hands, when in Christ's name they earnestly plead his promise, and argue from his faithfulness, power, equity, and love, pledg- ed therein. Isa. 45: 11. - Jesus Christ is the commander given to the people: he en- lists men for his spiritual soldiers; he convenes, orders, encourages, and goes before them, in their gracious war- fare. Isa. 55; 4.—Bromwn. COMMEND. God commends his love; he makes it ap- pear glorious and unbounded, in that, while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. Rom. 5: 8. Our unrighteous- ness commends the righteousness of God; it gives occasion for him clearly to manifest his justice in punishing us, or in forgiving us through Christ's blood: and the Jews' re- jection of Christ demonstrates the faithfulness of God in the ancient predictions. Rom. 3: 5.-Bronyn. COMMENDAM ; the trust or administration of the re- venues of a vacant benefice, till it is provided with a regu- lar incumbent. The practice, resorted to chiefly for the i. of making up the smaller incomes of some of the ishops, has given occasion to great abuses; the bishops procuring several benefices, all of which they have held under this pretext, without directly violating the canon law. When a parson is made bishop, his parsonage be- comes vacant; but if the king give him power, he may still hold it in commendam.—Hend. Buck. COMMENTARY”; an exposition; book of annotations or remarks. There are some people so wise in their own conceit, and think human helps of so little worth, that they despise commentaries on the Scriptures altogether; but every student or preacher, whose business is to explain the sacred oracles, to make known the mind of God to others, to settle cases of conscience, to oppose the sophis- try of sceptics, and to confound the arguments of infidels, would do well to avail himself of the most judicious, clear, copious, critical, and sound commentaries on the Bible. Nor can I suppose that commentaries can be useless to the common people; for though a spirit of serious inquiry, with a little good sense, will go a great way in understand- ing the Bible, yet as the language is often figurative, as allusions are made to ancient customs, and some parts re- quire more investigation than many common Christians have time for, a plain exposition certainly must be useful. Expositions of the Bible, however, may be made a bad use of. He who takes the ipse dizit of a commentator, with- out ever examining whether the meaning given comport • Soe Appendix. with the text; he who gives himself no trouble to investi- gate the Scripture for himself, but takes occasion to be in- dolent because others have labored for him, surely does wrong. Nor can it be said that those preachers use them properly, who, in making their sermons, form their plans from the commentator before they have thought upon the text. The best way is to follow our own talents; first, by prayer, study, and attention, to form our scheme, and then to examine the opinions of others concerning it. "We will here present the reader with a view of some of those com- mentaries which are the most generally approved. And, 1. in my opinion, Henry takes the lead for common utili- ty. The sprightly notes, the just inferences, the original thoughts, and the warm applications to the conscience, make this work justly admired. It is true that there are some expressions which do not agree with the evangelic system; but, as the late Mr. Ryland observes, “lt is im- possible for a person of piety and taste to read him with- out wishing to be shut out from all the world, to read him through without one moment's interruption.” Mr. Henry did not live to complete this work. He went as far as the end of Acts. Romans was done by Dr. Evans; the 1 Corinthians, Samuel Brown; 2 Corinthians, Dr. Mayo; Galatians, Mr. Bayes; Ephesians, Mr. Boswell; Philip- pians, Mr. Harris; Colossians, Mr. Harris; 1 and 2 Thes- salonians, Mr. Mayo; 1 and 2 Timothy, Mr. Atkinson; Titus, Jeremiah Smith; Philemon, Mr. Mottershead ; Hebrews, Mr. Tong; James, Mr. Wright; 1 Peter, Mr. Hill; 2 Peter, Mr. Morril; 1, 2, and 3 John, Mr. Rey- nolds; Jude, Mr. Billingsley; and the Revelation, by Mr. Tong. 2. “Pooli Synopsis Criticorum,” five folio volumes. This is a valuable work, and ought to be in the possession of every student; it is much esteemed abroad, three edi- tions of it having been published on the continent. 3. Rosenmueller's Scholia on the Old and New Testa- ment contain a vast fund of biblical illustration, and should be in the library of every theological student. It is only to be regretted that the “ Scholia” of the younger Rosen- mueller, on the Old Testament, should be strongly tinc- tured with neology. - 3. Poole's Annotations, a rich and useful work. These were printed at London, in 1685, in 2 vols. fol. Poole did not complete this work himself. Mr. Jackson, of Moulsey, is the author of the annotations on the fifty-ninth and sixtieth chapters of Isaiah. Dr. Collings drew up the notes on the rest of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations, as also those on the four Evangelists, the two Epistles to the Corinthians, and that to the Galatians. Those to Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and the Revelation, Ezekiel, and the minor Prophets, were done by Mr. Hurst. Daniel, by Mr. Cooper; the Acts, by Mr. Winke ; the Epistle to the Romans, by Mr. Mayo; the Ephesians, Mr. Veale; the Philippians and Colossians, Mr. Adams; the Hebrews, Mr. Obadiah Hughes; the Epistle of St. James, the two of St. Peter, and that of Jude, by Mr. Weale; the three Epistles of St. John, by Mr. Howe. 5. Dr. Gill's, in 9 vols. 4to. is an immense work; and though it contains a great deal of repetition and extraneous matter, there is certainly a vast fund of information in it, especially on Hebraical and rabbinical subjects. 6. Brown's Self-interpreting Bible, in 2 vols, 4to, Its chief excellencies are the marginal references, which are exceedingly useful to preachers; and the close, plain, and practical improvement to each chapter. 7. Scott's Exposition is excellent, as it abounds with practical remarks, and the last edition contains choice marginal references. The improvements are also very useful for families. 8. Dr. Adam Clarke's Commentary, with critical notes and marginal references, possesses considerable merit, and will be found a valuable treasure for the biblical stu- dent. - On the Neny Testament. 1. Burkitt contains many ingenious observations, fine turns, natural plans, and pungent addresses to the con- science. There are some expressions, however, that grate upon the ear of the evangelical Christian, 2, Guyse's Paraphrase is deservedly held in high esti. C O M C O M [ 393 J mation for sound doctrine, fair explication, and just sen- timent. " - 3. Doddridge's Family Expositor. The criticisms in this work render it valuable." It must be owned that the doctor labored to come as near as possible to the true sense of the text. - 4. Bezae Annotationes, in quibus ratio interpretationis redditur; accessitetlam J. Camerarii in novum foedus com- Inentarius, fol. Cantab. 1642, contains, besides the old Latin version, Beza's own version; and in the side mar- gin is given a summary of the passage, and in the argu- mentative parts the connexion. - 5. Wolfii Curae Philologicae et Criticae in Omnes Libros Nov. Test. 5 vols. 4to. 1739. Hamb. Basil, 1741. This is in a great measure a compilation after the manner of Poole's Synopsis, but interspersed with his own critical animadversions. . . . . . . 6. Bengelii, Gnomon Nov. Test. 4to. Tubingae, 1759, and Ulmae, 1763, contains an instructive preface, a per- spicuous analysis of each book, with short notes. It is a perfect contrast to that of Wolfius. 7. Hammond's Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the books of the New Testament, fol. 8. Whitby's Paraphrase and Commentary on New Tes- tament, 2 vols. ſol. - 9. Wesley's Explanatory Notes, 4to. or 3 vols. 12mo. For different translations, see article BIBLE. Commentators on Select Parts. 1. Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Song of Solomon. - 2. Patrick's Commentaries on the Historical Parts of the Holy Scriptures, 3 vols. tº 3. Lightfoot's Works, 2 vols. fol. contain a chronicle of the times, and the order of the text of the Old Testament. The harmony, chronicle, and order of the New Testament; the harmony of the four Evangelists; a commentary on the Acts; Horae Hebraicae, &c.; on the four Evangelists, Acts, and 1 Corinthians. 4. Chrysostomi Opera, 8 vols. fol. contain expositions of various parts. - - 5. Calvini Opera Omnia, 9 vols. contain commentaries on the Pentateuch, Joshua, homilies on Samuel, sermons on Job, commentaries on Psalms, Isaiah, Evangelists, Acts, Paul's Epistles, and the other catholic Epistles; and praelectiones on Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the minor Prophets. 6. Lowth on the Prophets. 7. Pocock on some of the Minor Prophets. . 8. Locke on Paul's Epistles. - 9. Hutcheson on the Smaller Prophets. 10. Newcome on Ezekiel and Minor Prophets. 11. Macknight's Harmony of the Gospel, and literal Translation of all the apostolical Epistles, with Commen- tary and Notes. 12. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, with Notes and Dissertations. 13, Bloomfield's Critical Digest on all the books of the New Testament, except the Apocalypse. It contains a vast quantity of important critical materials. On Select Books. On Genesis : Andrew Fuller. On Ruth : Macgowan, Lawson. 4. On Job : 1. Caryll, 2 vols. fol.—2. Hutchinson, 1669, fol.-3. Goode,-4. Chapellow.—5. Heath.-6. Peter's Critical Dissertation.—7. Stock.-8. Fry.—9. Dr. J. M. Good.—10. G. Noyes. º On the Psalms : 1. Molleri Enarr. Psalm. fol. 1619.-2. Hammond's Paraphrase.—3. Amesii Lectiones in Omnes Psalmos, oct. 1636.-4. Dickson.—5. Horne's Commenta- ry.—6. Bp. Horsely.—7. Dr. Morrison:-8. Dr. J. M. Good. On Select Psalms: 1. Hildersham's 152 Lectures on Psalm 51:—2. Decoetlogon's Sermon on Psalm 51:—3. Greenham on Psalm 119:—4. Manton on Psalm 119:—5. Owen on Psalm 130:–6. Luther on the 15 Psalms of De- grees.—7. Horton on Psalms 4:42: 51; and 63:—8. Bridges on Psalm 119: - ** On Proverbs: Dr. Mayer, Taylor, Io, Trapp, Geier, Case. Ecclesiastes : Brºwn. Jermyn, Wardlaw. 5 Canticles: Bishop Foliot, Mercier, Sanchez, Bossuet, Cocceius, Dr. James, Ainsworth, Durham, Bishop Hall, Bishop Patrick, Dove, Trapp, Jackson, Dr. Collings, Dr. Gill, Dr. Percy, Harmer, Dr. Durell, Dr. J. M. Good; but perhaps the best, is Dr. Williams's new translation, with commentary, &c. where the reader will find a list of other * who have translated and written on parts of this |OOOK. - Isaiah : Vitringa, Lowth, M’Culloch. Jeremiah : Blayney. Ezekiel: Greenhill, Newcome. - Daniel: Willet's Hexapla, fol. Sir Isaac Newton on Prophecies of Daniel, Keith's Signs of the Times. Hosea : Burroughs, Bishop Horsley's translation, with explanatory notes. Of the other minor Prophets, see Commentaries on Select Parts. . Gospels: See above, and article HARMONY. Also, Hil- dersham on John 4: fol. Burgess on John 17: Manton on John 17: Acts: Mayer, Trapp. Romans: Wilson, Parr, Turner, Professor Stuart. *. Galatians: Luther, Ferguson, Perkins. Ephesians: Ferguson, Goodwin. Colossians: Byfield, Davenant, Elton. Titus : Dr. Thomas Taylor. Hebrens : Dr. Owen, M'Lean, Professor Stuart. James: Manton. 1 Peter: Leighton, and N. Byefield on the first three chapters. - 2 Peter: Adam. John ; Hardy on 1 Epistle, and Hawkins on the three Epistles of John. - Jude: Jenkins, Manton, Otes. Revelation : Mede, Daubuz, Brightman, Peganius, Wa- ple, Robertson, Vitringa, Pyle, Goodwin, Lowman, Sir Isaac Newton, Durham, Cradock, Dr. H. Moore, Bishop Newton, Dr. Bryce, Johnston, Woodhouse, Jones, Andrew Fuller, and Keith's Signs of the Times. As this article may be consulted for the purpose of ob- taining information as to the best helps for understanding the Scriptures, we may add to the above, Jacobi Elsner Observat. Sacrae, Alberti Observ. Philolog. ; Lamberti Bos, Exercitat. Philolog. ; Lamberti Bos, Observat. Mis- cell. Fortuita Sacra. These, together with Wolfius and Raphelius, before mentioned, says Dr. Doddridge, are books which I cannot but recommend to my young friends, as proper not only to ascertain the sense of a variety of words and phrases which occur in the apostolic writings, but also to form them to the most useful method of study- ing the Greek classics; those great masters of solid sense, elegant expression, just and lively painting, and mascu- line eloquence, to the neglect of which I cannot but as- cribe that enervate, dissolute, and puerile manner of writ- ing, which is growing so much on the present age, and will probably consign so many of its productions to speedy oblivion. See also books recommended under the articles BIBLE, ScripTUREs.-Hend. Buck. - COMMERCE. Merchandise, in its various branches, was carried on in the East at the earliest period of which we have any account; and it was not long before the traffic between nations, both by sea and land, was very considerable. Accordingly, frequent mention is made of public roads, fords, bridges, and beasts of burden; also of ships for the transportation of property, of weights, mea- sures, and coin, both in the oldest books of the Bible, and in the most ancient profane histories. The Phoenicians anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation. They were in the habit of purchasing goods of various kinds throughout all the east. They then carried them in ships down the Mediterranean, as far as the shores of Africa and Europe, brought back in return merchandise and silver, and disposed of these again in the more eastern countries. The first metropolis of the Phoenicians was Si- don: afterwards Tyre became the principal city. Tyre was built two hundred and forty years before the temple of Solomon, or twelve hundred and fifty-one before Christ. The Phoenicians had ports of their own in almost every country; the most distinguished of which were Carthage, and Tarshish, or Tartessus, in Spain. The ships from the \ C O M C O M [ 394 ) latter place undertook very distant voyages; hence any vessels that performed distant voyages were called “ships of Tarshish.” Something is said of the commerce of the Phoenicians in the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth chapters of Ezekiel, and the twenty-third chapter of Isaiah. The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a commerce with India. They carried some of the articles which they brought from India, through the straits of Babelmandel, into Abyssinia and Egypt; some they transported to Ba- bylon, through the Persian gulf and the Euphrates; and some by the way of the Red sea, to the port of Ezionge- ber. They thus became rich; though it is possible their wealth may have been too much magnified by the an- cients. The eminence of the Egyptians, as a commercial nation, commences with the reign of Necho. Their com- merce, nevertheless, was not great, till Alexander had de- stroyed Tyre and built Alexandria. 2. The Phoenicians sometimes received the goods of In- dia, by way of the Persian gulf, where they had colonies in the islands of Dedan, Arad, and Tyre. Sometimes they received them from the Arabians, who either brought them by land through Arabia, or up the Red sea to Ezion-geber. In the latter case, having landed them at the port men- tioned, they transported them through the country, by the way of Gaza, to Phoenicia. The Phoenicians increased the amount of their foreign goods by the addition of those which they themselves fabricated, and were thus enabled to supply all parts of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians at first received their goods from the Phoenicians, Ara- bians, Africans, and Abyssinians; in all of which coun- tries there are still the remains of large trading towns; but, in a subsequent age, they imported goods from India in their own vessels, and eventually carried on an export trade with various ports on the Mediterranean. Oriental commerce, however, was chiefly carried on by land : ac- cordingly, vessels are hardly mentioned in the Bible, ex- cept in Psalm 107:23–30. and in passages where the discourse turns upon the Phoenicians, or upon the naval affairs of Solomon and Jehoshaphat. The two principal routes from Palestine into Egypt were, the one along the shores of the Mediterranean, from Gaza to Pelusium, and the other from Gaza, by the way of mount Sinai and the Elanitic branch of the Red sea. * 3. The merchants transported their goods upon camels; animals which are patient of thirst, and are easily support. ed in the deserts. against depredations, the oriental merchants travelled in company, as is common in the East at the present day. A large travelling company of this kind is called a cara- van or carvan, a smaller one was called kafile or kafle. Job 6:18—20. Gen. 37; 25. Isa. 21:13. Jer, 9:2. Judges 5: 6. Luke 2:44. The furniture carried by the indivi. duals of a caravan consisted of a mattress, a coverlet, a carpet for sitting upon, a round piece of leather, which answered the purpose of a table, a few pots and kettles of copper, covered with tin; also a tin-plated cup, which was suspended before the breast, under the outer garment, and was used for drinking, (1 Sam. 26: 11, 12, 16.) leathern bags for holding water, tents, lights, and provisions in quality and abundance as each one could afford. Every caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert, who was acquainted with the direction of its route, and with the cisterns and fountains. These he was able to ascer. tain, sometimes from heaps of stones, sometimes by the character of the soil, and, when other helps failed him, by the stars. TNumb. 10: 29–32. Jer. 31:21. Isa. 21: 14. When all things are in readiness, the individuals who compose the caravan assemble at a distance from the city. The commander of the caravan, who is a different person from the conductor or leader, and is chosen from the wealthiest of its members, appoints the day of their de- parture. A similar arrangement was adopted among the Jews, whenever they travelled in large numbers to the city of Jerusalem. The caravans start very early, some- times before day. They endeavor to find a stopping-place or station to remain at during the night, which shall afford them a supply of water. Job 6: 15–20. They arrive at their stopping-place before the close of the day; and, while it is yet light, prepare every thing that is necessary for the recommencement of their journey. In order to For the common purpose of security prevent any one ſtom wandering away from the caravan, and getting lost during the night, lamps or torches are ele- vated upon poles and carried before it. The pillar of fire answered this purpose for the Israelites, when wandering in the wilderness. Sometimes the caravans lodge in cities; but when they do not, they pitch their tents so as to form an encampment; and during the night, keep watch alternately, for the salce of security. In the cities, there are public inns, called chan and caravanserat, in which the caravans are lodged without expense. They are large square buildings, in the centre of which is an area, or open court. Caravanserais are denominated in the Greek of the New Testament, pandocheion, katalusis, and kataluma. Luke 2: 7. 10: 34. he first mention of one in the Old Testa- ment is in Jer. 41: 17. It was situated near the city of Bethlehem. 4. Moses enacted no laws in favor of commerce, al- though there is no question that he saw the situation of Palestine to be very favorable for it. The reason of this was, that the Hebrews, who were designedly set apart to preserve the true religion, could not mingle with foreign idolatrous nations without injury. He therefore merely inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and selling, (Lev. 19:36, 37. Deut. 25: 13–16.) and left all the other interests of commerce to a future age. By the establish- ment, however, of the three great festivals, he gave occa- sion for some mercantile intercourse. At these festivals, all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at one place. The consequence was, that those who had any thing to sell, brought it; while those who wished to buy articles, came with the expectation of having an op- portunity. As Moses, though he did not encourage, did not interdict foreign commerce, Solomon, at a later period, not only carried on a traffic in horses, as already stated, but sent ships from the port of Ezion-geber, through the Red sea, to Ophir, probably the coast of Africa. 1 Kings 9:26. 2 Chron. 9: 21. This traffic, although a source of emolument, appears to have been neglected after the death of Solomon. The attempt made by Jehoshaphat to restore it, was frustrated by his ships being dashed upon the rocks and destroyed. 1 Kings 22:48, 49. 2 Chron. 20:36. Joppa, though not a very convenient one, was properly the port 'of Jerusalem; and some of the large vessels which went to Spain sailed from it. Jonah 1:3. In the age of Ezekiel, the commerce of Jerusalem was so great, that it gave an occasion of envy, even to the Tyri- ans themselves. Ezekiel 26: 2. After the captivity, a great number of Jews became merchants, and travelled, for the purpose of traffic, into all countries. About the year 150 B.C., prince Simon rendered the port at Joppa more convenient than it had hitherto been. In the time of Pompey the Great, there were so many Jews abroad on the ocean, even in the charaeter of pirates, that king Anti- gonus was accused before him of having sent them out on purpose. A new port was built by Herod at Caesarea. —Watson. COMMISSARY ; an officer of the bishop, who exer. cises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a diocese so far from the episcopal see, that the chancellor cannot call the peo- ple to the bishop's principal consistory court without great inconvenience.—Hend. Buck. COMMIT. To commit one's self, spirit, way, or salva- tion to God, is upon the faith of his promise to intrust the same to his care, that he may receive, uphold, direct, pre- Serve, and save us. Ps. 31 : 5. 10 : 14. and 37: 5. Prov. 16:3. 2 Tim. 1: 12.-Brown. COMMON; profane, ceremonially unclean, Mark 7: 2, 5. Acts 10:14, 15. Rom. 14: 14.—Calmet. COMMUNE. To commune with our heart is seriously to propose to it important questions; entertain it with the view of excellent subjects, and address it with weighty charges and directions. Ps, 4:4. (See CoMMUNION.)—Bronn. COMMUNICATING, a term made use of to denote the act of receiving the Lord's supper. Those of the reform- ed and of the Greek church communicate under both lrinds; those of the Romish only under one. The orien- tal communicants receive the species of wine by a spoon; and anciently they sucked it through a pipe, as has been observed by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian. The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every be. C. O M C 0 M [ 395 J liewer shall receive the communion, at least, at Easter; which seems to import a tacit desire that they should do it oftener, as in effect they did it much oftener in the prim- itive days. Gratian, and the master of the sentences, prescribe it as a rule for the laity to communicate three times a year—at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas; but, in the thirteenth century, the practice prevailed of never approaching the eucharist at Easter; and the council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law, lest their coldness and remissness should go farther still; and the council of Trent renewed the same injunction, and re- commended frequent communion, without enforcing it by an express decree. In the ninth century, the communion was still received by the laity in both kinds, or rather the species of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by the Romanists themselves. M. de Marca observes, that they received it at first in their hands; and believes the communion, under one kind alone, to have had its rise in the West, under pope Urban II., in 1096, at the time of the conquest of the Holy Land. It was more solemnly enjoined by the council of Constance, in 1414. The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont enjoins the communion to be received under both kinds distinctly ; adding, however, two exceptions—the one of necessity, the other of caution—the first in favor of the sick, and the second of the abstemious, or those who had an aver- sion for wine. It was formerly a kind of canonical pun- ishment for clerks guilty of any crime to be reduced to lay communion—i.e. only to receive it as the laity did— viz., under one kind. They had another punishment of the same nature, though under a different name, called foreign communion, to which the canons frequently con- demned their bishops and other clerks. This punishment was not any excommunication or deposition, but a kind of suspension from the function of the order, and a de- gradation from the rank they held in the church. It had its name because the communion was only granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk—i.e. being reduced to the lowest of his order, he took his place after all those of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did in the churches to which they did not belong. The second council of Agda orders every clerk that absents himself from the church to be reduced to foreign communion.—Hend. Buck. COMMUNION. Roinoia, in its strict and proper sense, signifies sharing something in common with another, Acts 2 : 42. 2 Cor. 13: 14.—2. In a more general sense, it denotes agreement, or participation, 2 Cor. 6: 14; Eph. 5:11–3. It signifies converse, or friendly intercourse, wherein men contrive or consult together about matters of common con- cern, Luke 6: 11 ; Ps. 4: 4.—4. Communion is also used for the Lord's supper, because we herein make a public profession of our conformity to Christ and his laws; of our spiritual participation of his body and blood; and of our agreement with other Christians in the spirit and faith of the gospel. (See LoRD’s SUPPER.) Church communion is fellowship with any particular ...”. (See CHURCH FELLowsHIP.) It is sometimes ap- flied to different churches united in doctrine and disci- pline. The three grand communions into which the Christian church is divided are those of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and the Protestant church; but originally all Christians were in communion with each other, having one communion, faith, and discipline. See CoMMUNION, (TERMS OF.)—Hend. Buck. COMMUNION SERVICE, the office (in the liturgy of the church of England) for the administration of the eu- charist, or sacrament of the Lord's supper. The compilers of the Common Prayer Book extracted this office out of several ancient liturgies—as those of St. Basil, St. Ambrose, and St. Gregory ; but Bucer having found great fault with it, it underwent several alterations. The office was originally designed to be distinct, and, con- sequently, to be used at a different time, ſtom morning prayer; a custom which, bishop Overall says, was ob- served in his time in York and Chichester; and he im- putes it to the negligence of the ministers, and careless- ness of the people, that they are ever huddled together into one office. - - . . By the last rubric after this office, part of it is appoint- el to be read on every Sunday and holiday, though there be no communicants; and the reason seems to have been, that the church may show her readiness to administer the sacrament upon those days, and that it is not her’s, but the people's fault, that it is not administered; or it might be so ordered, for the sake of reading the decalogue, or ten commandments, the collects, epistles, and gospels, and the Nicene creed; together with the offertory, or sentences of Scripture, and the prayer for Christ's church. This service, even when there is no communion, is generally read at the communion table, or altar; though in some places it is performed in the reading desk-Hend. Buck. - ** COMMUNION WITH GOD, is that delightful fellow- ship and intercourse which a believer enjoys with his heavenly Father. Rom. 5:1–11. Eph. 2: 18. Rom. 8:15. Gal. 4:6. It is founded upon union with him, and consists in a communication of divine graces from him, and a return of devout affections to him. The believer holds communion with God in his works, in his word, and in his ordinances. There can be no communion without like- ness, nor without Christ as the Mediator. Some distinguish communion with God from the sense and feeling of it— that is, that we may hold communion with him without raptures of joy; and that a saint, even under desertion, may have communion with God as really, though not so feelingly, as at any other time. This communion cannot be interrupted by any local mutations : it is far superior to all outward services and ordinances whatsoever; it concerns the whole soul, all the affections, faculties, and motions of it being under its influence; it is only imper- fect in this life, and will be unspeakably enlarged in a better world. In order to keep up communion with God, we should inform ourselves of his will, (John 5: 39;) be often in prayer, (Luke 8: 1;) embrace opportunities of re- tirement, (Ps. 4:4;) contemplate on the divine perfections, providences, and promises, (Ps. 104 : 34;) watch against a vain, trifling, and volatile spirit, (Eph. 4:30;) and be found in the use of all the means of grace, (Ps. 27:4.) The advantages of communion with God are, deadness to the world, (Phil. 3: 8;) patience under trouble, (Job 1:22;) fortitude in danger, (Ps. 27: 1;) gratitude for mercies re- ceived, (Ps. 103: 1;) direction under difficulties, (Prov. 3 : 5, 6;) peace and joy in opposition, (Ps. 16:23;) happiness in death, (Ps. 23: 4;) and an earnest desire for heaven and glory, 2 Tim. 4:7, 8. See Shan's Immanuel ; Orten and Henry on Communion ruith God; and article FELLOWSHIP. —Hend. Buck. - COMMUNION, (TERMs of.) . It is admitted by all de- nominations of Christians, with the exception of one, that the sacrament of the Lord’s supper is of perpetual obli- gation; and that it was designed by its Founder to be one of the visible expressions of our faith in his blood, and of our fraternal love to his followers. Though the com- munion of saints, properly speaking, is of larger extent, comprehending all those sentments and actions by which Christians are especially united, the joint participation of this ordinance is universally acknowledged to consti- tute one branch of that communion. So important a part indeed has it been considered, that it has usurped the name of the whole ; and when any dispute arises respect- ing the terms of communion, it is generally understood to relate to the terms of admission to the Lord’s table. Whether all Christians simply as such, are entitled to share in this privilege; or whether it being a privilege peculiar to the visible church of Christ, regular member- ship in the church be a necessary prerequisite to admis- sion; and if the latter, what constitutes regular member- ship in the visible church, are questions on , which the Christian world are at present of different opinions. The general opinion and practice in all ages has been, that something more than conversion or Christian cha- racter was necessary to this ordinance; that baptism, soundness in the faith, and a regular walk of holy obedi- ence, were scriptural and indispensable terms of commu- nion. But of late, numbers following the steps of the il- lustrious Robert Hall, have regarded the evidence of Chris- tian character as alone indispensably prerequisite to the table of the Lord. Those of the latter opinion are termed adherents of free, catholic, open, or mixed communion ; while those of different sentiments are denominated adherents C O M C 0 M • [ 306 J of strict, close, primitive, or church communion. The ap- pellation of Christian communion is claimed on both sides. The opinion of Mr. Hall that baptism is not a prere- quisite to the participation of the eucharist, runs through all his reasonings in favor of unrestricted communion, and is the real foundation on which they rest. His posi- tions are the following: 1. The baptism of John was a separate institution from that appointed by Christ after his resurrection; from which it follows that the Lord's supper was anterior to Christian baptism, and that the original communicants consisted entirely of such as had not received that ordinance. 2. That there is no such connexion, either in the nature of things, or by the di- vine institution, between baptism and the eucharist, as renders it, under all circumstances, indispensable that the former should precede the latter. 3. That admitting this to be the prescribed order, and to be sanctioned by the uniform practice of the apostles, the case of pious Pedo- baptists is a new case, calling for some peculiar treat- ment, in which we ought to regard rather the spirit than the letter of apostolic precedent. 4. That a schism in the church, the mystical body of Christ, is deprecated in the New Testament as the greatest evil. to church fellowship of all such as God has received, not- withstanding a diversity of opinion and practice in mat- ters not essential to salvation, is expressly enjoined in the New Testament. Rom. 14: 1–5. 15:1, 5–7. 6. That to withhold the Lord's supper from those with whom we unite in other acts of Christian worship, is a palpable inconsistency. And lastly, That it is as impolitic as it is illiberal; being calculated to awaken a powerful preju- dice, and place beyond the reach of conviction our Pedo- baptist brethren, and to engender among the Baptists themselves a narrow and sectarian feeling, wholly op- posed to the enlarged spirit of the present age. Complete Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. 207—230. Also vol. i. 283—504. The positions urged on the opposite side by Mr. J. G. Fuller are these : 1. That all the arguments which are used to destroy the identity of baptism as practised by John and the apostles before the death of Christ, with that practised afterwards, amount only to proof of a cir. cumstantial not an essential difference, and cannot there- fore warrant the inſerences of Mr. Hall in any one point. –2. That the commission of our Lord, (Matt. 28:19, 20.) furnishes the same evidence that baptism is an indispen- sable prerequisite to external church fellowship, as that faith is an indispensable prerequisite to baptism.—3. That the uniform examples of the apostles is an inspired ex- planation of the commission under which they acted, and a pattern intended for the instruction of the church in all succeeding ages.—4. That strict conformity to the com- mission of Christ, thus explained, is not schism, but the only possible mode of restoring and perpetuating Chris- tian union.—5. That the mutual forbearance enjoined on Christians in the New Testament related to matters Jf real indifference, not involving the surrender of any posi- tive institution of Christ; and is therefore inapplicable to the present case.—6. That to unite with Pedobaptist brethren in all such acts of worship and benevolent effort as do not imply an abandonment of the commission, is not an inconsistency, but the dictate of Christian charity. —And lastly, That to whatever imputations a strict ad- herence to the commission of Christ may subject the Bap- tist churches, it is better to suffer them than to sin; and that a deviation in deference to modern error, however conscientiously maintained, is neither charity nor Chris- tian wisdom, since “whatever is right is wise.” Chris- tians may cordially unite in the evangelization of the world, but they do not, nor can they without a change of sentiments, unite in the constitution of their churches.— Conversations on Strict and Mized Communion, by J. G. Fuller. It may not be improper to add, that since both parties really desire to restore the primitive unity among Chris- tians, but differ only as to the means best adapted to pro- mote that desirable end, all unkind imputations should be avoided on both sides. Instead of wisting time in mutu- al recrimination, let it be devoted to mutual prayer to the Father of lights. “thinketh no evil,” “vaunteth not itself,” “is not puffed 5. That a reception Christian charity, an apostle has said, up,” “rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth.” Whether we seek union or edification, this undoubtedly is the more excellent way. “A larger, communication of the Spirit of truth, (as Mr. Hall justly observes in his admi- rable Review of “Zeal without Innovation,') would insen- sibly lead Christians into a similar train-of thinking; and being more under the guidance of that infallible Teacher, they would gradually tend to the same point, and settle in the same conclusions. Without such an influence as this, the coalescing into one communion would probably be productive of much mischief; it certainly would do no sort of good, since it would be the mere result of intole- rance and pride acting upon indolence and fear. “During the present disjointed state of things, then, nothing remains but for every one to whom the care of any part of the church of Christ is intrusted, to exert himself to the utmost in the promotion of vital religion, in cementing the friendship of the good, and repressing, with a firm hand, the heats and eruptions of party spirit. He will find sufficient employment for his time and his ta- lents in inculcating the great truths of the gospel, and en- deavoring to “form Christ” in his hearers, without blow- ing the flames of contention.—Were our efforts uniformly to take this direction, there would be an identity in the impression made by religious instruction ; the distortion. of party features would gradually disappear; and Chris- tians would every where approach that ideal beauty spoken of by painters, which is combined of the finest lines and traits conspicuous in individual forms.”—Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. 267. 4. - : The principal writers in favor of free communion have been Mr. Jesse, Bunyan, Robert Robinson, Robert Hall— Austin, Worcester, Mason, Brooks, Griffin.—In favor of strict communion, Mr. Booth, Andren, Fuller, Ringhorn, Nenman, Ivimey, J. G. Fuller—Baldwin, Merrill, Merriam, Cone, Foster, Ripley, *. COMPACT; a covenant, or a regular adjustment. Ps. 122:3. The church is compacted together; every member has his own proper station and work, and yet all are so joined as to add to her general glory and welfare. Eph. 4: 16. Col. 2:19.—Bronyn. COMPARE ; to set things together, in order that the likeness or difference may clearly appear. 1 Cor. 2:13. Judg. 8: 2. It is not wise to compare ourselves with our opposers or friends ; as not they, but the law of God, is the proper standard by which we ought to judge ourselves. 2 Cor. 10 : 12.-Brown. COMPASSION. God's being full of compassion imports the infinite greatness of his tender mercy and love, and his readiness to comfort and relieve such as are afflicted. Ps. 78:38. 86 : 15. 111: 4. and 145:8.-Bronn. - COMPEL. Ministers compel sinners to come in to Christ's house, when, with the utmost earnestness and concern, they show them their sinfulness and danger; the excel- lency, love, and loveliness of Christ; the happiness of those who receive him ; their warrant, and the command of God to believe in him, and beseech them, as in Christ's stead, to be reconciled to God. Luke 14: 23. COMPLETE ; fully finished. Lev. 23:15. Saints are complete in Christ ; they are perfectly justified, and have in him complete fulness of grace to render them perfectly holy and happy, Col. 2:10. They stand com- plete in all the will of God, when they regard all his com- mandments, and obey them in an eminent degree. Col. 4 : 12.-Bronyn. - - COMPREHEND. To comprehend, with all saints, the unbounded love of Christ, is to have a clear, extensive, and heart-ravishing knowledge of its nature and effects. Eph. 3:18–Brown. - COMPREHENSION, in English church history, de- notes a scheme proposed by Sir Orlando Bridgman, in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity on behalf of the Protestant Dissenters, and admitting them into the com- munion of the church. A bill for this purpose was drawn up by judge Hale, but disallowed. The attempt was renewed by Tillotson and Stillingfleet, in 1674, and the terms were settled to the satisfaction of the non-conformists; but the bishops refused their assent. The scheme was likewise revived again immediately after the revolution. The king and queen expressed their desire of a union: * C O N C O N an however, the design failed, after two attempts, and the act of toleration was obtained. —Hend. Buck. - CONANT, (John, D. D.) a learned and eminent Eng- lish divine, was born, 1608, at Yeatonton in Devonshire. At the university he was so remarkable for his perſect mastery of the Latin and Greek languages that Dr. John Prideaux, then rector of Exeter college, used to say of him, “Conanti nihil difficile;” which in one sense implies “to him who endeavors every thing is easy,' and in another, ‘there is nothing difficult to Conant.” Upon the breaking out of the civil war in 1642, he was chosen one of the as- 3embly of divines, but never or seldom sat among them, and did not take the covenant. He afterwards became chaplain to lord Chandos, at Harefield, to avoid the snares of a more public life; but in 1647, was chosen rector of Exeter college. Dr. Conant’s declaration before the com- missioners when he took the engagement, was so drawn up as not to bind his conscience to the existing govern- ment any longer than he should regard it as the will of God. He filled his office with great reputation. In De- cember, 1654, he became divinity professor of Oxford uni- versity. In 1657, he was admitted vice-chancellor of the university, in which office he secured to the library Mr. Selden's large and valuable collection of books. After the restoration, in 1661, he was employed by Charles II. in reviewing the book of common prayer and assisting at the Savoy conferences. Refusing to sign the act of conformity for eight years, he lost his preferments; and after his consent, was re-ordained by Dr. Reynolds, bishop of Norwich, in 1670. He was afterwards rector of North- ampton and prebendary of Worcester. In 1686, he lost his sight, and in 1693, expired at the age of 85. He was a man of great piety and excellence, a devoted minister, an able casuist, and resorted to even by foreigners. His charity was unbounded. At Northampton, for twenty years together, he paid the schooling of poor children, never fewer than twenty-four, and these he placed out with needy widows, that what he gave might contribute to their assistance. His modesty was equal to his great learning ; for though he was versed in most of the oriental languages, particularly the Syriac, few people knew it, and he never sought any thing for himself. Six volumes of his sermons have been published.—Middleton. CONCEPTION, (IMMAculate;) the opinion entertained in the Roman and Greek churches, that the virgin Mary was conceived without the stain of original sin. St. Ber- nard, in the twelfth century, rejected this doctrine in oppo- sition to the canons of Lyons, and it afterwards became a subject of vehement controversy between the Scotists and the Thomists. The Dominicans espoused the opinion of Thomas, who impugned the dogma: the Franciscans that of Scotus, who defended it. Sixtus IV., himself a Franciscan, allowed of toleration on the point. In the fifth session of the council of Trent, it was resolved that the doctrine of the conception of all men in original sin was not intended to include the Virgin. The controversy was revived in the university of Paris, towards the close of the sixteenth century. During the pontificates of Paul W. and Gregory XV., such was the dissension it occasioned in Spain, that both Philip and his successor sent special em- bassies to Rome in the vain hope that this contest might be terminated by a bull. The dispute ran so high in that kingdom, that, in the military orders of St. James, of the Sword, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, the knights, on their admission, vowed to maintain the doctrine. In 1708, Clement XI. appointed a festival to be celebrated through- out the church, in honor of the immaculate conception. Since that time, it has been received in the church of Rome as an opinion, but not as an article of faith. It is firmly believed in the Greek church, in which the feast is cele- brated under the name of the Conception of St. Anne. Pe- ter of Alva et Astorga published more than forty huge volumes on this subject.—Hend. Buck. CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, (NUNs of THE order of ;) a religious order, founded by Beatrix de Sylva, sis. ter of James, first count of Poralegro in Portugal. She pretended that the virgin Mary had twice appeared to her, and inspired her with the design of founding an order in honor of her own immaculate conception. To this end, she obtained of the queen of Castile a grant of the palace of Galliana, where was a chapel dedicated to the honor of St. Faith. Beatrix, accompanied by twelve young maids of the Dominican monastery, took possession of it in the year 1484. These religious were habited in a white gown, and scapulary, and a blue mantle, and wore on their sca- pulary the image of the blessed Virgin. Pope Innocent VIII. confirmed the order in 1489, and granted them per- mission to follow the rule of the Cistertians. The foun- dress died in the year 1490, at sixty-six years of age. After the death of Beatrix, cardinal Ximenes put the nuns of the Conception under the direction of the Francis- cans, as being the most zealous defenders of the immacu- late conception: at the same time he gave them the rule of St. Clara to follow. The second convent of the order was founded, in the year 1507, at Torrigo, in the diocese of Toledo, which produced seven others; the first of which was at Madrid. This order passed into Italy, and got footing in Rome and Milan. In the reign of Lewis XIV., king of France, the Clarisses of the suburb of St. Germain, at Paris, embraced the order of the Conception. These religious, besides the grand office of the Franciscans, re- cite on Sundays and holidays a lesser office, called the office of the conception of the holy Virgin.—Hend. Buck. CONCISION; cutting off. Joel 3: 14. The Jews are called the concision, because, under pretence of zealous adherence to circumcision, they, after it was abolished by our Savior's death, cut their bodies, rent the church, and cut off themselves from the blessings of the gospel. Phil. 3: 2.—Bromwn. CONCLAVE ; the assembly or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. Conclave also signifies the place in which the cardinals of the Romish church meet for the above-mentioned purpose. The conclave is a range of small cells, ten feet square, made of wainscot: these are numbered, and drawn by lot. They stand in a line along the galleries and hall of the Vatican, with a small space between each. Every cell has the arms of the car- dinal over it. The conclave is not fixed to any one deter- minate place, for the constitutions of the church allow the cardinals to make choice of such a place for the conclave as they think most convenient : yet it is generally held in the Vatican. The following account of the formalities which precede the opening of the electoral college, and of the organiza- tion of the assembly, is given in a French paper —-As soon as a pope dies, rooms or apartments are prepared in the Vatican, equal in number to the members of the sacred college. These apartments or cells, formed of wood-work in the vast halls of the palace, are very modestly furnished. They have no separate fireplace, and the fathers must warm themselves at fires common to all. The chambers , for the cardinals and the officers of their suite are very gloomy; the windows, with the exception of the higher panes, being walled in. The clock of the capitol announces the death of the pope, and the vacancy of the see. It tolls for nine days and nights without interruption. In the mean time, the funeral ceremonies of the deceased are preparing. On the ninth day, the body of the last pope displaces, in the church of St. Peter, that of his predecessor. During the interreg- num, or the time that intervenes between the death of one, and the election of another pontiff, the executive power of the state is exercised by the cardinal great chamberlain. The legal term for the opening of the conclave is the tenth day after the death of the pope, but it rarely happens that the necessary preparations can be completed by that time; thirteen or fourteen days are generally allowed for the previous arrangements, and for the arrival of the foreign cardinals in Rome. If the assembly opens before, it is only for the sake of form. They do nothing till the arrival of such fathers from France, Spain, Austria, Poland, or other Catholic countries, as wish to attend. The prelimi- nary operations are, therefore, trifling and unimportant. When the members are assembled, and the conclave pro- ceeds seriously to its task, three cardinals are elected every day to be the delegates of the sacred college, and to trans- act the affairs of the papacy with foreign ambassadors. These representatives of the Catholic powers deliver their credential letters to the ephemeral commissioners of the sa- cred college at the grating of their temporary prison. The C O N C O N [ 398 ) time of deliberation is prolonged according to the number and power of the candidates, the difficulty of adjusting ad- verse pretensions, or the success of diplomatic intrigues. Though apparently cut off from all communication with the external world, these ghostly fathers often receive di- rections as to their choice, offers of bribes, or information of the designs of their rivals, through the grating of their cells, or the only part of the window which the law leaves open. A letter sometimes is transmitted in the stuffing of a fowl, or under the crust of a pie.—Hend. Buck. CONCORD, (FoRM of.). Form of concord; in ecclesi- astical history, a standard book among the Lutherans, composed at Torgau, in 1576, and thence called the Book of Torgau, and reviewed at Berg, by six Lutheran doctors of Germany, the principal of whom was James Andreas. This book contains, in two parts, a system of doctrine, the subscription of which was a condition of communion, and a formal and very severe condemnation of all who dif- fered from the compilers of it; particularly with respect to the majesty and omnipresence of Christ's body, and the . real manducation of his flesh and blood in the eucharist. It was first imposed upon the Saxons by Augustus, and occasioned great opposition and disturbance. The dispute about it was revived in Switzerland in 1718, when the magistrates of Berne published an order for adopting it as a rule of faith; the consequence of which was a contest that reduced its credit and authority.—Hend. Buck. CONCORDANCE ; a book containing the principal words in the Holy Scriptures, in alphabetical order, with part of the connexion, and a designation by chapter and verse of the places in which they are to be found. This class of books is of great importance to the interpreter of the word of God. While the Scriptures remained in ma- muscript, or were not divided into sections and paragraphs, indices of their words and phrases could neither be formed nor used. As soon as any regular divisions began to be made, the importance of concordances, or alphabetical in- dices, was felt, and learned men devoted their labors to form them. The following are the most important works of this description in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English: I, HEBREW CONCORDANCES. - The first Hebrew concordance was the work of rabbi Mor- decai Nathan, which he began in 1438, and finished in 1448, after ten years' hard labor by himself and some assistants. It was printed at Venice in 1523, in folio, by Dan. Bom- berg. It is entirely Hebrew, and entitled “The Light of the Way.” It was reprinted somewhat more correctly at Basil, by Frobenius, in 1581, and translated into Latin by Reuchlin, in 1556; but both the Hebrew and Latin edi- tions are full of errors. These were mostly corrected, and other deficiencies supplied, by Marius de Calasio, a Fran- ciscan friar, who published “Concordantiae Sacrorum Bib- liorum Hebraicorum, et Latinorum. Romaº, 1621, four volumes, folio.”. This large and splendid work retains the Hebrew text, and also the order and method of Na- than’s Concordance. It contains also Reuchlin’s Latin Translation of Rabbi Nathan's Explanation of the Hebrew Roots, with enlargements by Calasio; the Rabbinical, Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic words derived from, or agree- ing with the Hebrew roots in signification; a literal Wer- Sion of the Hebrew Text; the differences between the Vul- gate and Septuagint are marked in the margin; proper names of persons, places, &c. It is a very complete, but exceedingly heavy work. Calasio died in 1620. “Concordantiae Bibliorum Ebraicaº, nova et artificiosa methodo dispositae, &c. Basil. 1632, folio.” This con- cordance is the work of John Buxtorſ, the father, but was published by his son. The groundwork of it is the con- cordance of Rabbi Nathan. It is much better arranged, more correctly printed, the roots more distinctly ascertain. ed, and the meaning more accurately given. Buxtorf be- stowed much labor and attention on it. The references are made by Hebrew letters to the chapters and verses of the different books in the Hebrew Bible; and, as so much of the text is exhibited as is necessary to show the con- nexion in which any word is used, it is decidedly by far the best work of the kind extant. It only wants the parti- cles, as given by Noldius, to render it complete. It was abridged by Christian Ravius, under the title of “Fons Zionis, sive Concordantiarum Hebraicarum et Chaldaica- rum Jo, Buxtorfii Epitome. Berolini, 1677, octavo.” The concordance of Calasio was republished in London, under the direction of William Romaine, in 1747–1749, four vo- lumes, folio. It is more accurate than its prototype; but it is a very prolix work; and as only a small edition was published, it is become scarce. All the crowned heads in Europe, his holiness not excepted, were subscribers to this work. . . - . . . “The Hebrew Concordance, adapted to the English Bi- ble, disposed after the manner of Buxtorf. By John Tay- lor, London, 1754, two volumes, folio.”—This is a very useful work of the kind, especially to the English scholar. It was the fruit of many years’ labor of the industrious author, and was published under the patronage of all the English and Irish bishops. - - - “Concordantiae Particularum Ebraeo-Chaldaicarum, in quibus partium indeclinabilium, quae occurrunt in fonti- bus, et hactenus non expositae sunt in Lexicis aut Concor- dantiis, natura et sensuum varietas ostenditur, &c. Hafniae, 1675, folio; 1679, quarto.”—This concordance, the work of Christian Noldius, professor of theology at Copenhagen, where he died in 1683, supplied an important desideratum. It contains the particles, or indeclinable words, omitted in former concordances. It investigates their various signi- fications; points out the Greek particles which correspond with the Hebrew and Chaldaic ones; and explains the meaning of many passages of Scripture, which depends on the force and connective power of the indeclinable words. The best edition of Noldius is that published at Jena, in 1734, quarto, under the care of Tympius. It contains, as an appendix, a Lexicon of the Hebrew Particles, by John Hen- ry Michaelis, and Christ. Koerber. It is an exceedingly va- luable work, and has been of great service to all who have since been employed on the critical examination of the Bible. - II. GREEK ConCORDANCES TO THE SEPTUAGINT. “Conradi Kircheri Concordantiae Veteris Testamenti Graeca, Ebraeis vocibus respondentes, &c. Francof. 1607, two volumes, quarto.”—The author of this work was a Lutheran minister at Augsburg. It possesses considerable merit; but, rather inconsistently for a Greek concordance, follows the order of the Hebrew words, placing the corre- sponding Greek word after it; in consequence of which, it is more useful in consulting the Hebrew than the Greek Scriptures. - - “Abrahami Trommii. Concordantiae Graeca Versionis vulgo dictae LXX. Interpretum, cujus voces secundum ordinem elementorum sermonis Graeci digestaº recensen- tur, contra atque in Opere Kircheriano factum fuerat. Amst. 1718, two volumes, folio.”—The author of this learned and most laborious work was minister of Gronin- gen, and published the concordance in the eighty-fourth year of his age. He was born in 1633, and died in 1719. It is the most accurate and complete index to the Sep- tuagint that has been, or is ever likely to be published. It follows, as is stated in the title, the order of the Greek words; of which it first gives a Latin, translation, and then the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is used in the Seventy. Then the different places in which they occur in the Scriptures follow in the order of the seve- ral books and chapters; the whole branch of the sentence to which they belong being inserted in the same manner as in Cruden's English concordance. When the word occurs in any of the ancient Greek translators, Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, the places where it is found are referred to at the end of the quotations from the Seventy. The words of the Apocrypha are placed at the close of each enumeration. There are two indices at the end of the work, the one Hebrew and Chaldaic; by examining which, the Greek term used in the Seventy for any He- brew or Chaldee word is at once seen, with the Latin ver- sion, and the place where it is found in the concordance; so that Tromm serves tolerably well for a Hebrew con- cordance. The other index contains a lexicon to the Hexa- pla of Origen, and comprehends the Greek words in the fragments of the old Greek translators published by Mont faucon. - * . . “I wish as earnestly,” says Michaelis, “that this con- C O N C O N [ 399 | cordance were in the hands of every theologian, as that Pāsor, and other works of that nature, were banished from the schools. By the help of it, we may discover at one view not only the sense and construction of a word in dis- pute, but likewise the Hebrew expression of which it is a translation, and thus easily determine whether a phrase be a Hebraism or not. It is true the work is incomplete; the Septuagint version of Daniel is totally wanting, being at that time unknown, and several words in the remaining books are omitted; but these omissions are not so nume- rous as might be expected in so many thousand words.” III. GREEK concordANCEs To The New TESTAMENT. “Xysti Betuleii Concordantiae Graecae Novi Testamenti. Basil. 1546, folio.”—This is the first Greek concordance to the New Testament, and is exceedingly rare. The au- thor was a German Lutheran divine, who was born in 1500, and died at Augsburg in 1554. His proper name was Birck. “Concordantiae Graeco-Latinae Novi Testamentiab Hen- rico Stephano concinnatae. Genev. 1594, fol. Ac cum supplemento, 1600. 2da editio, auction, 1624.”—This work was projected, and partly executed, by Robert Stephens, and completed and published by his son Henry. It is, however, so inaccurate, that Schmidt, the compiler of the next concordance, could scarcely admit that it was the work of the Stephenses. “Erasmi Schmidii Novi Testamenti Jesu Christi Graeci, hoc est, originalis Linguae, tameion, &c. Witemb. 1638, folio.”—This is a much more correct and valuable work than that of the Stephenses. The author was a Lutheran divine, and professor of the Greek language in the univer- sity of Wittemberg, where he died in 1637. Another edi- tion of this concordance, revised and corrected, was pub- lished at Gotha, in 1717, with a preface by E. S. Cyprian. Of this edition, a very beautiful reprint, in two volumes, octavo, issued from the Glasgow university press in 1819; and an abridgment of it was published by Bagster, 1830, 32mo. edited by Mr. Greenfield. - “Lexicon Anglo-Graeco-Latinum Novi Testamenti, &c.; or an Alphabetical Concordance of all the Greek Words contained in the New Testament, both English, Greek, and Latin, &c. By Andrew Symson. London, 1658, fo- lio.”—This work partakes more of the nature of a lexicon than of a concordance. According to the author's ac- count, “By it any word may be rendered into Greek and Latin, English and Latin, and Greek and English.” Parkhurst says, “It is a performance which, whilst it ex- hibits the prodigious labor of its author, can give one no very high opinion of his genius or skill in the art of in- struction. If, indeed, the method and ingenuity of this writer had been proportionable to his industry, one might, I think, almost affirm, that he would have rendered all future Greek and English lexicons of the New Testament in a great measure superfluous; but by injudiciously making the English translation the basis of his work, and by separating the etymological part of the Greek from the explanatory, he has rendered his book in a manner useless to the young scholar, and in truth hardly manageable by any but a person of uncommon application. - “A Concordance of the Greek Testament, with the English Version to each Word, the principal Hebrew Roots corresponding to the Greek Words of the Septua- gint, with short critical Notes and an Index. By John Williams, L.L. D. Lond. 1767, quarto.”—This is a very useful and convenient work; it is much more portable than the larger concordances, and is sufficient for all com- mon purposes, as it is in general very accurate. . IV. CONCORDANCES TO THE LATIN WULGATE. The compiler of the first concordance to the Bible in any language was Hugo de St. Caro, or cardinal Hugo, a Dominican, who died about 1262. He had engaged in writing a commentary on the Scriptures, and in order to facilitate this work, projected a concordance, in which he is said to have employed nearly five hundred of his bre- thren. From this work have been derived all the concord- ances to the Scriptures in the original languages. It was improved by Conrad of Halberstadt, who flourished about 1290, and by John of Segovia in the following century. The first printed concordance to the Vulgate appeared un- der the following title:— º “Concordantiae Bibliorum et Canonum. Bononiae, Hu- gonis de Colonia, 1479, folio.” - After the revision of the Latin Vulgate by Sixtus W. a concordance to it appeared, entitled :— - “Concordantiae Sacr. Bibliorum Vulgate editionis, Hu- gone Cardinali authore, &c. Opere et studio Francisci Lucas Brugensis. Antwerpiae, 1617. Genevae, 1625. Pa- risiis, 1683.”—The greater number of the concordances to the Latin Vulgate are reprints of this edition. The best is that printed at Avignon, in 1786, in two volumes, folio. W. CONCORDANCES TO THE ENGLISH BIBLE, “The Concordance of the New Testament most neces- sary to be had in the hands of all soche as desire the com- munication of any place contained in the New Testament. Imprinted by Mr. Thomas Gybson. Cum privilegio rega- li.”—This is the first concordance to any part of the Eng- lish Scriptures. It has no date, but must have been pub- lished before 1540. It is probable from the epistle to the reader, that it was the work of John Day, assisted by Gybson the printer. “A Concordăce, that is to saie, a worke, wherein by the order of the letters of the A, B, C, ye male redely finde any worde conteigned in the whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mentioned. By John Marbeck. Lond. 1550, folio.”—This is the first English concordance to the entire Bible. The account which the author gives of his under- taking, when summoned before the bishops and condemn- ed by them, is very interesting. “When Thomas Ma- thews' Bible came first out in print, I was much desirous to have one of them; and being a poor man, not able to buy one of them, determined with myself to borrow one amongst my friends, and to write it forthe. And when I had written out the five books of Moses in fair great pa- per, and was entered into the book of Joshua, my friend, Master Turner, chanced to steal upon me unawares, and seeing me writing out the Bible, asked me what I meant thereby ? And when I had told him the cause: Tush! quoth he, thou goest about a vain and tedious labor. But this were a profitable work for thee, to set out a concord- ance in English. A concordance, said I, what is that? Then he told me it was a book to find out any word in the whole Bible by the ſetter, and that there was such a one in Latin already. Then I told him I had no learning to go about such a thing. Enough, quoth he, for that matter, for it requireth not so much learning as diligence. And seeing thou art so painful a man, and one that cannot be unoccupied, it were a good exercise for thee. He ac- cordingly borrowed a Latin concordance, and had gone through the letter L, when his papers were seized. When he was set at liberty, as his papers were not restored to to him, he had his concordance to begin again, which, when completed, he showed to a friend, who promised to assist him in having it presented to the king, in order to have it published by his authority; but Henry VIII. died before that could be brought about. His friend, however, to whom he could not say nay, requested a copy of it, which he accordingly transcribed for him. When Edward WI, was settled on the throne, he renewed his thoughts of publishing his work, and consulted Grafton, the printer, concerning it; ‘who,’ says he in his introduction, ‘seeing the volume so houge and great, saied the charges of im- printing thereof would not only be importunate, but the bokes when finished would bear so excessive a price, as few should be able to attain unto them.” Wherefore, by his advice, I yet once again anewe writt out the same in such sort, as the work now appereth.” (Tonmley's Bib, Lit. vol. iii. p. 118.) The diligence and labors of such a man deserve to be recorded. The work is necessarily imperfect, and refers to the chapters only, not to verses, Subsequently to this, a number of concordances, or indices to the Bible, were published under various titles, and pos- sessing different degrees of merit. The chief of these are the following:— “I(night's Concordance Axiomatical. Lond. 1610, fo. lio.—Clement Cotton's Concordance. Ibid. 1618, folio.— Newman's Large and Complete Concordance. Ibid. 1643, folio.—Bernard's Thesaurus Biblicus. Ibid. 1644, folio, C O N C O N [400 ) Robert Wickens's Concordance, complete and perfect, with tº dedication to Dr. Owen. Ibid. 1655, octavo.—Powell's ew and Useful Concordance. Ibid. 1671, octavo.—The Cambridge Concordance. Camb. 1689, folio.—And But- terworth’s valuable Concordance, which followed in 1767, oëtavo.”—All these are surpassed by the correct and in- valuable work of Alexander Cruden, entitled, “A com- plete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament.” 1737, quarto. The author published three editions during his own life, and several have been published since his death. The London edition of 1810 is the most correct. The work is uncommonly complete, the definitions of leading words remarkably accurate, and the references exceedingly correct. The work is in the hands of every student, and requires no recommendation from me. An edition in royal octavo, very beautifully printed, has lately issued from the London press. “A Concordance of Parallels collected from Bibles and Commentaries, which have been published in Hebrew, Latin, French, Spanish, and other Languages, with the Authorities of each. By the Rev. C. Crutwell. London, 1790, quarto.” This is a work of immense labor, and for occasional consultation may be useful; but the references are often so numerous under a single verse, that it is scarcely possible to examine them all, or to perceive the design of each. The margin of Scott's Bible is in general far preferable.—Hend. Buck. CONCORDATE ; a convention between the pope of Rome, as the head of the Catholic church, and any secular government, for the settling of ecclesiastical relations. Treaties which the pope, as a secular sovereign, concludes with other princes respecting political concerns, are not called concordates. One of the most important of the ear- lier concordates is that of Worms, called also the Calixtine concordate, made in 1122, between Calixtus II. and Henry W., in order to put an end to the long contest on the sub- ject of investiture; and which has since been considered a fundamental ordinance in respect to the relations be- tween the Catholic church and the government in Germa- ny. Most of the concordates have been extorted from the popes by the different civil powers. This was done as early as the fifteenth century; for when the council of Constance urged a reformation of the papal court, Martin W. saw himself obliged, in 1418, to conclude concordates with the Germans, and soon afterwards, also, with other nations. The popes, however, succeeded, even in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries, in concluding concordates for their own advantage. This was the case with those of Ashaffenburg. That also which was made by Leo X. and Francis I. of France (1516), was chiefly to the advantage of the pope. In later times, particularly towards the end of the eighteenth century, the papal court could no longer maintain a successful struggle with the spirit of the times, and with the secular powers, and was obliged to resign many privileges by concordates. Bonaparte, when first consul of the French republic, concluded a concordate with pope Pius VII, July 15, 1801, which went into operation in April, 1802. It re-established the Catholic church in France, and has become the basis of the present ecclesiastical con- stitution of that country. The government obtained by it the right of appointing the clergy; the public treasury gained by the diminution of the large number of metropo- litan and episcopal sees to sixty; the pope was obliged to give up the plan of restoring the spiritual orders, and the influence which he exercised by means of delegates, but retained the right of the canonical investiture of bishops, and the revenues connected with this right. The interests of the papal religion suffered by this compact, inasmuch as most of the dioceses became now too large to be pro- º administered; and the lower clergy, the very soul of the church, who were in a poor condition before, were entirely dependent on the government. Louis XVIII. concluded, at Rome, with Pius VII., (July 11, 1817,) a new concordate, by which that of 1516, so injurious to the liberties of the Gallican church, was again revived; the concordate of 1801, and the articles organiques of 1802 were abolished; the nation subjected to an enormous tax by the demand of endowments for forty-two new metropolitan and episcopal sees, with their chapters and seminaries; and free scope afforded to the intolerance of the Roman court * by the indefinite language of article tenth, which speaks of measures against the prevailing obstacles to religion and the laws of the church. This revival of old abuses, this provision for the luxury of numerous clerical dignitaries at the expense of the nation, could please only the ultra-roy- alist nobility, who saw in it the means of providing their sons with benefices. The nation received the concordate with almost universal disapprobation; voices of the great- est weight were raised against it; and the new ministers saw themselves obliged to withdraw their proposition. The pope was more fortunate in the concordate made with Naples (February 16, 1818) at Terracina, in which stipu- lations were made for the exclusive establishment of Ca. tholicism in that kingdom; for the independence of the theological seminaries on the secular power; the free dis- osal of benefices to the value of twelve thousand ducats, in Naples, in favor of Roman subjects; the reversion of ancient places to the church; unlimited liberty of appeal to the papal chair; the abolition of the royal permission, formerly necessary for the pastoral letters of the bishops; the right of censorship over books; besides many other highly important privileges. The king obtained the right to appoint bishops, to tax the clergy, to reduce the number of episcopal sees and monasteries which existed before the time of Murat. The quiet possession of the estates of the church, which had been alienated, was also secured to the proprietors. In the concordate concluded with Bavaria, July 5, 1817, two archbishoprics were established for the two million, four hundred thousand Catholics in Bayaria. Seminaries, moreover, were instituted and provided with lands; the nominations were left with the king, with the reservation of the papal right of confirmation; the li- mits of the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction were precise- ly settled, and the erection of new monasteries was pro- mised. This concordate was published in May, 1818, together with the new political constitution, by which all apprehensions for the Protestant church in Bavaria were ailayed. The other German princes have also formed a plan for a common concordate with the pope-Hend. Buck. CONCUBINAGE ; the act of living with a woman to whom the man is not legally married. It is also used for a marriage with a woman of inferior condition, (performed with less solemnity than the formal marriage,) and to whom the husband does not convey his rank. As polyga- my was sometimes practised by the patriarchs, it was a common thing to see one, two, or many wives in a family; and, besides these, several concubines. 2 Sam. 3: 3, &c. 1 Kings 11: 3. 2 Chron. 11:21. But ever since the abro- gation of polygamy by Jesus Christ, and the reduction of marriage to its primitive institution, concubinage has been forbidden and condemned among Christians.—Hend. Buck. CONCUPISCENCE. (1.) The corruption of our na- ture, or inward disposition, whence all actual sin proceeds. Rom. 7: 7. James 1: 14. (2.) Actual motions and inclina- tions of our hearts towards sinful deeds. Rom. 7: 8. §2 Unchastity, especially of desire. Col. 3: 5. 1 Thess. 4: 5– —Bromwn. *- CONDEMNATION ; a judicial declaration of guilt, ac- companied with a sentence of punishment. In this sense, Christ did not condemn the woman taken in adultery, (John 8: 1–105) that is, he did not assume the office of a judge, though he bid her go and sin no more. The word is used also in reference to rash, uncharitable, unjust opi- nions, pronounced upon others in a spirit of censorious- ness. Luke 6: 37. Also, for a practical testimony against sin, impenitence and unbelief, exhibited in a contrary course of conduct. Thus the Ninevites condemned the Jews of our Savior's time, (Matt. 12:41.) and Noah condemned the world before the flood. Heb. 11: 7. The condemnation of the devil, seems to mean a sin and punishment similar to his. 1 Tim. 3: 6. The condemnation which all the un- converted lie under, and from which all believers in Christ are made free, is primarily a legal charge of iniquities, and the sentence of the divine law adjudging them as guilty to bear the wrath of God, or the execution of his tre- mendous curse, (unless it be satisfied for them by Christ,) forever and ever. Rom. 5: 16, 18. 8: 1. Gal. 3: 10—14. compared with Matt. 25:41–46. This legal condemna- tion is however fearfully enhanced to those who reject the glorious gospel. John 3:19, 2 Thess, 1:9. God condemned C O N co N I 401 sin in the flesh of his Son; by executing the punishment due to sin upon him in our nature, submitting to suffer in our stead, he clearly demonstrated how criminal and abo- minable it is in his sight, provided a full and glorious ex- piation for its guilt, and adjudged its power in the believer's Soul to utter destruction. Rom, 8: 3. See an admirable Sermon on this text, in Wayland's Discourses. . CONDER, (John, D. D.) an English divine, was born at Wimple in Cambridgeshire, in 1714, and educated among the Dissenters of the Independent persuasion. He entered the ministry in 1738, and was settled over a con- gregation in Cambridge, where he continued about sixteen years with acceptance and usefulness. His candor, libe- rality, and gracious endowments made him esteemed be. yond the circle of his own persuasion. In 1754, he became a tutoroſ Homerton academy, designed to prepare others for the ministerial office, which duty he discharged near thirty years. In 1760, he was chosen co-pastor with Mr. Hall to the Meeting on the Pavement, Moorfields, where he continued his valuable labors in the ministry till his death in 1781, at the age of sixty-six. His life was indeed a blessing, and his memory is blessed. To recommend Christ in his per- son, offices, work, and grace to perishing sinners, was the darling theme of his ministrations; few were more deeply acquainted with the gospel, or could more skilfully divide the word of truth. In his last hours he expressed a stead- fast, unshaken confidence in the grace, faithfulness, and love of a covenant God in Christ; an assurance of the truth of that gospel which he had uniformly preached; and a lively hope of a blessed immortality through the mediation and intercession of the great Redeemer. Some months before he was laid aside, he was conversing with a friend on the great importance of evangelical doctrines, and with a peculiar degree of emphasis and affection told him, “he had attained the full assurance of faith; for af. ter searching the Scriptures with the greatest attention and care, he had not a doubt or scruple respecting the truth of any of those grand fundamental doctrines he had preached and lived upon.” At another time he said with cheerfulness, “that had he his life to spend over again, he would preach the same gospel, for it was the truth of God; and that he would neither change gospel nor state with any one.” On the morning of his death, hearing the bells ringing for Restoration day, he said, “Who knows but it may be my Restoration day?” His published works con- sist chiefly of sermons.—Middleton. CQNDESCENSION, is that species of benevolence which designedly waves the supposed advantages of birth, title, or station, in order to accommodate ourselves to the state of an inferior, and diminish that restraint which the apparent distance is calculated to produce in him. It is enjoined on the Christian, and is peculiarly ornamental to the Christian character. Rom. 12; 16. The condescension of God appears every way great, when we consider his infinite perfection, his absolute independence of his crea- tures, his purposes of mercy toward them, and his conti- nual care over them. The incarnation of Christ is, how- ever, the most wonderful example of condescension ever known, and cannot ſail to affect in a suitable manner the spirit of every Christian. Phil. 2: 5–11. See the Complete Works of Robert Hall, vol. iii. p. 340.—Hend. Buck. CONDITION; the term of a bargain to be performed. It has been debated whether faith should be called the con- dition of our salvation. If by it we mean a valuable equi- valent for the benefit received, or something to be per- formed in our own strength, or that will be meritorious, it is certainly inapplicable; but if by it be meant, that it is only a means without which we cannot be saved, in that sense it is not improper. Yet as the term is often made use of improperly by those who are mere legalists, perhaps it would be as well to decline the use of it.—Hend. Buck. CONEY, (shaphan;) Lev. 11: 5. Deut. 14: 7. Psalm 104: 8. and Prov. 30: 26. Bochart and others have supposed the shaphan of the Scriptures to be the jerboa ; but Mr. Bruce proves that the ashkoko is intended. This curious animal is found in Ethiopia, and in great numbers on mount Lebanon, &c. Instead of holes, they seem to de- light in more airy places, in the mouths of caves, or clefts in the rock. They are gregarious, and frequently several dozens of them sit upon the great stones at the mouths of caves, and warm themselves in the sun, or come out and enjoy the freshness of the summer evening. They do not stand upright upon their feet, but seem tº steal along as in fear, their belly being nearly close to the ground; ad- vancing a few steps at a time, and º They have something very mild, feeble-like, aſſà timid in their deportment; are gentle and easily tamed, though, when roughly handled at the first, they bite very severely. Many are the reasons to believe this to be the animal called shaphan in Hebrew, and erroneously by our trans- lators “the coney,” or rabbit. The latter are gregarious indeed, and so far resemble the other, as also in size; but they seek not the same place of retreat; for the rabbit burrows most generally in the sand. Nor is there any thing in the character of rabbits that denotes excellent wisdom, or that they supply the want of strength by any remarkable sagacity. The shaphan, them, is not the rab- bit; which last, unless it was brought to him by his ships from Europe, Solomon never saw. Let us now apply the characters of the ashkoko to the shaphan. “He is above all other animals so much attached to the rocks, that I never once,” says Mr. Bruce, “saw him on the ground, or from among large stones in the mouth of caves, where is his constant residence. He lives in families or flocks. He is in Judea, Palestine, and Arabia, and consequently must have been familiar to Solomon. David describes him very pertinently, and joins him to other animals perfectly known : “The hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the shaphan:” and Solomon says that “they are exceeding wise,” that they are “but a ſeeble folk, yet make their houses in the rocks.” Now this, I think, very obviously fixes the ashkoko to be the shaphan ; for his weakness seems to allude to his feet, and how inadequate these are to dig holes in the rock, where yet, however, he lodges. From their tenderness, these are very liable to be excoriated or hurt; notwith- standing which, they build houses in the rocks more inac- eessible than those of the rabbit, and in which they abide in greater safety, not by exertion of strength, for they have it not, but are truly, as Solomon says, “a feeble folk,” but by their own sagacity and judgment; and are therefore justly described as wise. Lastly, what leaves the thing without doubt is, that some of the Arabs, particularly Da- mir, say that the shaphan has no tail, that it is less than a cat, that it lives in houses or nests, which it builds of straw, in contradistinction to the rabbit and the rat, and those animals that burrow in the ground.— Watson. CONFERENCE ; the act of discoursing with another in order to treat upon some subject, or to settle some point of dispute. Conference meetings, in a religious sense, are meetings assembled for the purpose of relating experience, discoursing on some religious subject, or for transacting religious business. “Religious conference,” says a di- vine, “is one way of teaching religion. We all have lei- sure time, and it is well spent when it is employed in set conferences on religion. There the doubting man may open all his suspicions, and confirmed Christians will strengthen his belief; there the fearful may learn to be valiant for the truth; there the liberal may learn to devise liberal things; there the tongue of the stammerer may learn to speak plainly; there Paul may withstand Peter to the face, because he deserves to be blamed ; there the gospel may be communicated severally to them of reputa- tion; there, in one word, ye may all prophesy one by one, that all may learn, and all may be comforted. One hour in a week spent thus, will contribute much to our edifica- tion, provided we abstain from the disorders that have often disgraced, and sometimes destroyed, this excellent Christian practice. Time should be kept, order should be reserved, no idle questions should be asked ; freedom of inquiry should be nourished; immodest forwardness should be restrained; practical, experimental, and substantial sub- jects should be examined ; Charity, with all its gentle train, should be there, for she openeth her mouth with wisdom, and in her tongue is the law of kindness.” (See ExPERIENCE MEETINGs.)—Hend. Buck. - CONFERENCE, (HAMPton Court;) a meeting of the Puritans and their opponents, appointed by James I. to be held at that place in January, 1604. Archbisho Whitgift, eight bishops, and eight or ten other learne 51 (X O N C O N [ 402 ) dignitaries, were appointed to defend the cause of con- formity, while only Reynolds, Chatterton, and Knewstubbs, were allowed to maintain that of the Puritans. James himself was moderator, and his courtiers were the wit. nesses. Reynolds, who was the principal speaker on the side of the Non-ºbliformists, insisted that certain alterations should be made in the thirty-nine articles; that confirma- tion should be considered, plurality of benefices disallow- ed, and preaching ministers every where settled; that the reading of the Apocrypha in public worship, the baptismal interrogation of infants, the sign of the cross in baptism, the sacerdotal vestments, the symbolical ring in marriage, and the churching of women, should be abolished, because they were relics of popery. Bancroft stood forth as the champion of the other party; and the king himself, hay- ing no relish for Puritanical notions, and proud of his theological abilities, poured forth his royal dicta, and threatened the Puritans with expatriation if they did not conſorm.—Hend. Buck. CONFERENCE, (METHopist.) See METHODIsT. CONFESSION ; the open and penitential acknowledg- ment which a Christian makes of his sins. Among the Jews, it was the custom, on the annual feast of expiation, for the high-priest to make confession of sins to God, in the name of the whole people: besides this general con- fession, the Jews were enjoined, if their sins were a breach of the first table of the law, to make confession of them to God; but violations of the second table were to be ac- knowledged to their brethren. Among the modern Jews, some of them scourge themselves at the confession. Confession, according to Dr. Watts, is the third part of prayer, and includes, 1. A confession of the meanness of our original, our distance from God, our subjection to him, and constant dependence on him. 2. A confession of our sins, both original and actual, in thought, life, omission, and commission. 3. A confession of our desert of punish- ment, and our unworthiness of mercy. 4. A confession or humble representation of our wants and sorrows of . every kind. Confession also may be considered as a relative duty, or the acknowledgment of any offence we have been guilty of against a fellow-creature. The confession of sins, says Andrew Fuller, is of the nature of a solemn oath—an oath of abjuration ; and it is awful to think that we should ever use it without a desire and determination to ſorsake it. Prov. 28: 13.−H. Buck. CONFESSION, (AURICULAR,) in the Romish and Greek churches, is the disclosure of sins to the priest at the confessional, with a view to obtain absolution from them. The father confessor inquires of the person confess- ing concerning the circumstances of the sins confessed, and proportions his admonition, and the severity of the penitence which he enjoins, to the degree of the transgres- sion. The person confessing is allowed to conceal no sin of consequence which he remembers to have committed; and the father confessor is bound to perpetual secrecy. The absolution granted has, according to the doctrines of the Catholic and Greek churches, sacramental efficacy. It was pope Leo the Great, in 450, who altered the public confession or profession of repentance by such as had been guilty of Scandalous sins, into a secret one before the priest. The fourth Lateran council (can. 21) ordains, “That every one of the faithful, of both sexes, on coming to years of dis- cretion, shall, in private, faithfully confess all their sins, at least once a year, to their own pastor; and fulfil, to the best of their power, the penance enjoined them; receiving reverently, at least at Easter, the sacrament of the eucha- rist, unless, by the advice of their pastor, for some reasona- ble cause it be judged proper to abstain for a time: other- wise, they are to be excluded from the church while living, and when they die, to be deprived of Christian burial.” Confession obtains, also, in the Lutheran church, only with this difference, that while the Catholic church requires from the penitent the avowal of his particular and single crimes, the Lutheran requires only a general acknowledg- ment, leaving it, however, at the option of its members to reveal their particular sins to the confessor, and to relieve the conscience by such an avowal; for which reason, Pro- testant clergymen, as well as the Catholic priests, are bound to keep, under the seal of secrecy, whatever may be intrusted to them in the confessional. The history, both of nations and individuals, exhibits, fearful examples of the abuse of confidence thus reposed in priests. In po- litical affairs, especially, it has been made the means of effecting the basest intrigues, to the ruin of states and the disgrace of religion.—Hend. Buck. ... - CONFESSION OF FAITH ; a list of the several arti- cles of the belief of any church. There is some difference between creeds and confessions. Creeds, in their com- mencement, were simply expressions of faith in a few of the leading and undisputed doctrines of the gospel. Con- fessions were, on the contrary, the result of many a ha- zardous and laborious effort, at the dawn of reviving lite- rature, to recover these doctrines, and to separate them from the enormous mass of erroneous and corrupted tenets, which the negligence or ignorance of some, and the arti- fices of avarice and ambition in others, had conduced to accumulate for the space of a thousand years, under an implicit obedience to the arrogant pretensions of an abso- lute and infallible authority in the church of Rome. Ob- jections have been formed against all creeds or confessions of faith, on the ground that they infringe Christian liberty, supersede the Scriptures, exclude such as ought not to be excluded, and admit such as ought not to be admitted; are often too particular and long; are liable to be abused; tempt men to hypocrisy; preclude improvement; and have been employed as means of persecution. On the other hand, the advocates for them observe, that all the arts and sciences have been reduced to a system ; and why should not the truths of religion, which are of greater importance? That a compendious view of the chief and most necessary points of the Christian religion, which lie scattered up and down in the Scriptures, must be useful to inform the mind, as well also to hold forth to the world what are in general the sentiments of such a particular church or churches; they tend to discover the common. friends of the same ſaith to one another, and to unite them; that the Scriptures seem to authorize and counte- nance them; such as the moral law, the Lord's prayer, the form of doctrine mentioned by Paul, Rom. 6: 17; and again, “the form of sound words,” in 2 Tim. 1: 13, &c.; that their becoming the occasion of hypocrisy is no fault of the articles, but of those who subscribe them; that persecution has been raised more by the turbulent tempers of men, than from the nature of confessions, Some think that all articles and confessions of faith should be expressed in the bare words of Scripture; but it is re- plied, that this would destroy all exposition and interpreta- tion of Scripture; that it would have a tendency to make the ministry of the word useless; in a great measure cramp all religious conversation; and that the sentiments of one man could not be distinguished from another in some points of importance. The following are the confes- sions of the different churches:— 1. That of the Greek church, entitled “The Conſession of the True and Genuine Faith,” which was presented to Mahomet II., in 1453, but which gave place to the “Or- thodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek. Church,” composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiev, in Russia, and approved in 1643, with great solemnity, by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. It contains the standard of the principles of the Russian Greek church. 2. The church of Rome, though she has always received the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, had no fixed public and authoritative symbol till the council of Trent. A summary of the doctrines contained in the canons of that council is given in the creed published by Pius IV. (1564,) in the form of a bull. It is introduced by the Nicene creed, to which it adds twelve articles, comprising those doctrines which the church of Rome finally adopted after her contro- versies with the reformers. - 3. The Lutherans call their standard books of faith and discipline, “Libri SymboliciBcclesiae Evangelicae.” They contain the three creeds above mentioned, the Augsburg Confession, the Apology for that confession by Melanc- thon, the Articles of Smalcald, drawn up by Luther, the Catechisms of Luther, and, in many churches, the Form of Concord, or Book of Torgau. The best edition is that by Titmann, Leipzic, 1817. The Saxon (composed by C O N C O N [ 403 ] Melancthon), Würtemburg, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mans: fieldtian, and Copenhagen confessions, agree in general with the symbolical books of the Lutherans, but are of au- thority only in the countries from which they are respec- tively called. - - - * 4. The confessions of the Calvinistic churches are nu- merous. The following are the principal. (1.) The Hel- vetic confessions are three—that of Basle, 1530; the Sum- mary and Confession of the Helvetic Churches, 1536; and the Expositio Simplex, &c., 1566, ascribed to Bullinger. (2.) The Tetrapolitan Confession, 1531, which derives its name from the four cities of Strasburg, Constance, Mem- mengen, and Lindau, by the deputies of which it was signed, is attributed to Bucer. (3.) The Palatine or Hei- delberg Confession, framed by order of the elector palatine, John Casimir, 1575. (4.) The Confession of the Gallic Churches, accepted at the first synod of the Reformed, held at Paris, 1559. (5.) The Confession of the Reformed Churches in Belgium, drawn up in 1559, and approved in 1561. (6.) The Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scot- land, which was that composed by the assembly at West- minster, was received as the standard of the national faith, in 1688. (7.) The Savoy Confession, a declaration of the faith and order of the Independents, agreed upon at a meet- ing of their elders and messengers at their meeting in the Savoy, 1658. (8.) The Anglican Confession, or Thirty-nine articles of the church of England, agreed on in the convo- cation held, London, 1552. They were drawn up in Latin; but, in 1571, they were revised, and subscribed both in Latin and English. They were adopted by the Episcopal church, in North America, in 1801, with some alterations, and the rejection of the Athanasian creed. See also Corpus et Syntagma confessionum fidei, qua in di- versis regnis et nationibus ecclesiarum nomine, fuerunt authen- tice edita, which exhibits a body of numerous confessions; An Harmony of the Confessions of Faith of the Christian and Reformed Churches; Watts's Rational Foundation of a Chris- tian Church, qu. 8; Graham on Establishments, p. 265, &c.; Bishop Cleaver's Sermon on the Formation of the Articles of the Church of England; Paley's Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 321. —Hend. Buck. CONFESSIONAL; a cell in which the confessor sits to hear confessions. It is erected in a church, or chapel, and built of joinery, with a boarded back next the wall, or against a pillar or pier, divided into three niches, or small cells. The centre, which is for the reception of the priest, is closed half way up by a dwarf door, and has a seat within it. There is a small grated aperture in each of the partitions between the priest and the side cells, which are for those who come to confess, and have no doors. The numerous confessionals in St. Peter's at Rome, each with an inscription, setting forth in what language penitents may confess within, show to what an awful extent this traffic in the souls of men is carried on.—Hend. Buck. CONFESSOR; a Christian who has made a solemn and resolute profession of the faith, and has endured tor- ments in its defence. A mere saint is called a confessor, to distinguish him from the roll of dignified saints, such as apostles, martyrs, &c. In ecclesiastical history, the word confessor is sometimes used for martyr; in after- times it was confined to those who, after having been tor- mented by the tyrants, were permitted to live and die in peace; and at last it was also used for those who, after having lived a good life, died under an opinion of Sanctity. According to St. Cyprian, he who presented himself to torture, or even to martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called a confessor, but a professor; and if any out of want of courage abandoned his country, and became a vo- luntary exile for the sake of the faith, he was called ex terris. Confessor is also a priest in the Romish church, who has a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of Penance, and to give them absolution. The confessors of the kings of France, from the time of Henry IV, have been con- stantly Jesuits; before him, the Dominicans and Cordeliers shared the office between them. The colifessors of the house of Austria have also ordinarily been Dominicans and Cordeliers, but the later emperors have all taken Je. suits.--JIend. Buck. - e CONFIRMATION ; the act of establishing any thing or person. 1. Divine confirmation is a work of the Spirit Tointed him as in baptism. of God, strengthening, comforting, and establishing be- lievers in faith and obedience. 1 Pet. 5: 10. 1 Cor. 1: 8. .2. Ecclesiastical confirmation is a rite whereby a person, arrived to years of discretion, undertakes the performance of every part of the baptismal vow made for him by his . . . . . . . / ºf "I Illiſill # ," º * . . . w : Mºſſº - ===3- ". . Miſſº #if: -N -><= E ==º godfathers and godmothers. It is administered only by bishops, and consists in the imposition of hands on the head of the person confirmed. In the ancient church it was done immediately after baptism, if the bishop happened to be present at the so- lemnity. Throughout the East it still accompanies bap- tism ; but the Romanists make it a distinct independent sacrament. Seven years is the stated time for confirma- tion; however, they are sometimes after that age. The person to be confirmed has a godfather and godmother ap- In the church of England, the age of the persons to be confirmed is not fixed.— Clarke's Essay on Confirmation ; Wood on ditto ; Hone's Episcopacy, p. 167, 174; Hend. Buck. CONFLAGRATION, (GENERAL;) a term used to denote that grand period or catastrophe of our world, when the face of nature is to be changed by fire as formerly it was by water. 1. Scripture assures us in general, that this earth in 1(s present form will not be perpetual, but shall come to an end. 2. It further tells us, that this dissolution of the world shall be by a general conflagration, in which all things upon the face of the earth shall be destroyed, by which the atmosphere shall also be sensibly affected, as in such a case it necessarily must be, (2 Pet. 3: 5, 7, 10, 12,) where, from the connection of the words, the opposition between the conflagration and the deluge, as well as the most literal and apparent import of the phrases themselves, it is plain they cannot, as Dr. Hammond strangely sup- poses, refer to the desolation brought on Judea when de- stroyed by the Romans, but must refer to the dissolution of the whole earth. 3. The Scripture represents this great burning as a circumstance nearly connected with the day of judgment, (2 Pet. 3: 7, compared with 2 Thess. 1:7, 8. Heb. 10: 27, 1 Cor. 3: 12, 13;) and it is probable there may be an allusion to this in several passages of the Old Testament, such as Ps. 11; 6. Ps. 50: 3. 96: 3. Isa. 34: 4, 8, 10. Isa. 66:15. Dan. 7: 9, 10. Mal. 4: 1. Zeph. 3: 8, Deut. 32: 22, to which many parallel expressions might be added, from the canonical and apocryphal books. 4. It is not expressly declared how this burning shall be kindled, nor how it shall end ; which has given occasion to various conjectures about it, which see below. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epicureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of the conflagration; though whence they should derive it, unless from the sa- cred books, is difficult to conceive ; except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who themselves had it from the Jews. Mention of the conflagration is made in the books of the Sibyls, Sophocles, Hystaspes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr. Bur- net, after J. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamese believe that the earth will at last be parched up with heat, the mountains melted down, the earth's whole surface re- duced to a level, and then consumed with fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold that the world shall be destroyed by fire, but also that a mew earth shall be made out of the cinders of the old. C O N CON [ 404 ) Divines ordinarily account for the conflagration theo- logically, and think it will take its rise from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Philosophers contend for its being produced from natural causes, and will have it effected according to the laws of mechanics. Some think an erup- tion of the central fire sufficient for the purpose; and add, that this may be occasioned several ways, viz. either by having its intensity increased, which again may be effect- ed either by being driven into less space by the encroach- ments of the superficial cold, or by an increase of the in- flammability of the fuel whereon it is fed; or by having the resistance of the imprisoning earth weakened, which may happen either from the diminution of its matter, by the consumption of its central parts, or by weaken- ing the cohesion of the constituent parts of the mass by the excess of the defect of moisture. Others look for the cause of the conflagration in the atmosphere, and suppose that some of the meteors there engendered in unusual quantities, and exploded with unusual vehemence, from the comeurrence of various circumstances, may effect it, without seeking any farther. Lastly, others have recourse to a still more effectual and flaming machine, and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration from the near ap- proach of a comet in its return from the sun. Various opinions are also entertained as to the renova- tion of the earth after the conflagration. 1. Some sup- pose that the earth will not be entirely consumed, but that the matter of which it consists will be fixed, purified, and refined, which they say will be the natural consequence of the action of the fire upon it; though it is hard to say what such a purification can do towards fitting it for its intended purpose, for it is certain a mass of crystal or glass would very ill answer the following parts of this hypothesis. 2. They suppose that from these materials thus refined, as from a second chaos, there will by the power of God arise a new creation; and then the face of the earth, and like- wise the atmosphere, will then be so restored, as to resemble what it originally was in the paradisaical state; and con- sequently to render it a more desirable abode for human creatures than it at present is ; and they urge for this pur- pose the following texts, viz. 2 Pet. 3: 13. (compare Isa. 65: 17. 56: 22.) Matt. 19:28, 29. (compare Mark 10: 29, 30. Luke 18: 29, 30.) Ps. 102: 25, 26. Acts 3: 21. 1 Cor. 7: 31. Rom. 8:21. 3. They agree in supposing that in this new state of things there will be no sea, Rev. 21: 1. 4. They suppose that the earth, thus beautified and im- proved, will be inhabited by those who shall inherit the first resurrection, and shall here enjoy a very considerable degree of happiness, though not equal to that which is to succeed the general judgment; which judgment shall, ac- cording to them, open when those thousand years are expir- ed, mentioned in Rev. 20: 4, &c. 1 Thess. 4: 17, compare verse 15, which passage is thought by some to contain an insinuation that Paul expected to be alive at the appear- ance of Christ, which must imply an expectation of being thus raised from the dead before it; but it is answered that the expression, me that are alive, may only signify, “ those of us that are so,” speaking of all Christians as one body. 1 Cor. 15:49–52. Dr. Hartley declared it as his opinion, that the millennium will consist of one thousand prophetical years, where each day is a year, i. e. three hundred and sixty thousand; pleading that this is the lan- guage used in other parts of the Revelation. But it seems an invincible objection against this hypothesis, which places the millennium aſter the conflagration, that the saints inhabiting the earth after the first resurrection, are repre- sented as distressed by the invasion of some wicked ene- mies. Rev. 20: 7–9. Ezek. 38: 39: (See MILLENNIUM.) Divine revelation, not human philosophy, must here be our only guide. It is probable that the earth will survive its fiery trial, and become the everlasting abode of righteous- ness, as part of the holy empire of God; but, seeing the language used in Scripture, and especially in the book of Revelation, is often to be considered as figurative rather than literal, it becomes us to be cautious in our conclusions. —Burnet's Theory of the Earth ; Whitby on the Millennium ; Hartley on Man, vol. ii. p. 400; Fleming of the First Re- surrection ; Ray's Three Discourses; Whiston's Theory of the Earth ; Scott, and Fuller on the Apocalypse; Hend. Buck; and article DISSOLUTION in this work. - CONFORMITY. The saints are conformed to Christ; they are made like him in their covenant relation to God; in their privileges, graces, and holy deportment on earth; and they will tº his like him in glory when they shali see him as he is. Rom. 8:29. They are conformable, or like to him in his death; they gradually die to their cor- rupt lusts; have their old man crucified with him; its lusts and deeds mortified through the influence of his death, and they are exposed to suffering for his sake. Phil. 3: 10. They ought not to be conformed to this world; ought not to imitate or join in the vain or wicked maxims, customs, and practices thereof. Rom. 12; 2.-Brown. CONFOUND. He that believeth shall not be confound- ed; he shall not be disappointed of his expected salvation; shall not, with perplexity or surprise, be exposed to any fearful destruction: nor shall he make haste ; shall not basely catch at unlawful means of deliverance, but par tiently wait till God deliver him, 1 Pet. 2:6. Isa. 28:16, Rom.9; 33.−Bronm. - - CONFUCIANS ; the disciples of Confucius, (Cong-fu- tsi, or Kung-fut-si,) a celebrated Chinese philosopher, who lived about 500 years before the Christian era. This religion, which is proſessed by the literati and persons of rank in China and Tonquin, consists in a deep inward veneration for the God or King of heaven, and in the practice of every moral virtue. They have neither temples nor priests, nor any settled form of external worship; every one adores the Supreme Being in the way he likes best. Confucius, like Socrates, who was nearly his contempo- rary, did not dive into abstruse notions, but confined him- self to speak with the deepest regard of the great Author of all beings, whom he represents as the most pure and perfect essence and fountain of all things; to inspire men with greater fear, veneration, gratitude, and love of him ; to assert his divine providence over all his creatures; and to represent him as a being of such infinite, knowledge, that even our most secret thoughts are not hidden from him; and of such boundless goodness and justice, that he can let no virtue go unrewarded, or vice unpunished. So highly is Confucius esteemed in China, that there are more than fifteen hundred and sixty temples dedicated to him, and sixty-two thousand animals, (chiefly pigs and rabbits,) immolated annually to his memory. This is asserted by Dr. Milne, on the authority of their own wri- ters.-Chinese Gleaner, p. 255. - - Mr. Maurice asserts, that Confucius strictly forbade all images of the Deity, and the deification of dead men; and that, in his dying moments, (like Socrates in this also,) he encouraged his disciples, by predicting that “in the West the Holy One would appear.” - The Chinese, however, still honor their deceased ances- tors, burn incense before their images, bow themselves before their pictures, and invoke from them all temporal blessings.-Maurice's Ind. Antiq. vol. v. p. 468; Ency. Brit. in Confucius; Williams. - - CONFUSION OF TONGUES ; a memorable event which happened in the one hundred and first year, accord- ing to the Hebrew chronology, and the four hundred and first year by the Samaritan, after the flood, at the over- throw of Babel, Gen. 11. Until this period there had been but one common language, which formed a bond of union that prevented the separation of mankind into distinct nations. Writers have differed much as to the nature of this confusion, and the manner in which it was effected. Some think that no new languages were formed; but that this event was accomplished by creating a misunderstand- ing and variance among the builders, without any imme- diate influence on their language; and that a distinction is to be made between confounding a language and form- ing new ones. Others account for this event by the priva- tion of all language, and by supposing that mankind were under a necessity of associating together, and of impos- ing new names on things by common consent. Some, again, ascribe the confusion to such an indistinct remem- brance of the original language which they spoke before, as made them speak it very differently; but the most common opinion is, that God caused the builders actually to forget their former language, and each family to speak a new tongue; whence originated the various languages at present in the world. It is, however, but of little con- C O N C O N (405 sequence to know precisely how this was effected, as the Scriptures are silent as to the manner of it; and after all that can be said, it is but conjecture still. There are some truths, however, we may learn from this part of sacred writ. 1. It teaches us God's sovereignty and power, by which he can easily blast the greatest attempts of men to aggrandize themselves. Gen. 11:7, 8. 2. God’s justice in º those who, in idolizing their own ſame, forget im to whom praise is due, ver.4. 3. God's wisdom in overruling evil for good: for by this confusion he facili- tated the dispersion of mankind, in order to execute his own purposes, ver. 8, 9. See Henry and Gill, in loc.; Stillingfleet's Orig. Sac., l. iii. c. v. § 2–4; Shuckford's Con., vol. i. p. 124–140; Vitringa's Obs., vol. i. diss. 1. c. ix. ; Le Clerc's Diss., No. vi.; Hutchinson on the Confusion of Tongues ; Bishop Lan's Theory of Religion, p. 66; Hend. Puck. - .. CONGREGATIONALISTS;* a class of Protestants, who hold that each congregation of Christians meeting in one place, and united by a solemn covenant, is a complete church, with Christ for its only head, and deriving from him the right to choose its own officers, to observe the sacraments, to have public worship, and to discipline its own members. They also hold to the parity of ministers and of churches, and regard as of sacred and binding force, the great principle of the fellowship or communion of churches, by which all whom they regard as true churches of Jesus Christ are bound together by ties simi- lar in their nature and obligation to those which unite to each other the members of a single church. The churches are the source of all power, and councils, and other eccle- siastical bodies, have only a delegated authority, by which they act for and in the name of their constituents; and their decisions have no other force than the moral power which united wisdom and piety give them. Still there are certain public acts of church order and discipline, which, from a regard to custom, and to the great and fundamen- tal principle of the communion of churches, can be per- formed by councils only, except in cases where it is impos- sible for a church to avail itself of such assistance. Thus as to church order and discipline, Congregation- alists occupy a middle ground between Episcopalians and Presbyterians on the one hand, and Independents on the other. While the two former of these denominations maintain that judicial and other power belongs either to bishops or to synods, or other ecclesiastical bodies, the In- dependents do not give the principle of the communion of churches the high importance nor the broad extent that is claimed for it by Congregationalists; nor are there any acts of church order or discipline for the validity of which they consider a council of the churches necessary. It is a fundamental principle with Congregationalists, that as Christ has purchased Christians with his own blood, so he is the supreme head and lawgiver of the church, which is spoken of as an holy temple of which he is him. self the chief corner-stone, and as the apostle says, having in all things the pre-eminence. In the exercise of this power, he has himself, and by those whom he has com- missioned, taught that men are not to forsake the assem- bling themselves together for the worship of God, and that the sacraments, baptism and the Lord's supper, with holi- ness of heart and of life, are incumbent on his followers. Thus has Christ unfolded the distinctive peculiarities of a Christian church, as differing in important respects both from the antediluvian and the ancient Jewish church. The church of Christ then has laws, covenants, principles, and duties, both of officers and private members, given by its Supreme head, on the due observance of which its distinc- tive character and its continuance depends. Every true church must receive the doctrines of the word of God, and maintain discipline and religious in- struction. The Bible is the supreme and only binding code of laws for the government of the church, and no one church has a right to force its own interpretations of Scripture upon another, or to use other than moral means either to advance its own views of truth and duty, or in the discipline of its own members. While we are bound * This article was prepared by Mr. Charles Rockwell, of the Andover Theol. Semimary, and revised by Professor Emerson and Dr. Wisner. to follow the direction of the Scriptures in all matters of church government where plain and explicit directions are given, yet on those points where they are silent, we are to be guided by the light of human reason. The need of this guidance arises from the fact that the Scriptures have not prescribed to the church a form in all respects fixed and immutable. Hence it is that there are many denomina- tions, who regard each other as Christians, each having its own peculiar constitution and creed founded, it is claim- ed, on scriptural authority, and binding its own members. It is a fundamental principle with Congregationalists, that it is the birthright of all men, by a vote of the ma- jority of the community of which they are members, to govern themselves under God, both in politics and religion, and that they possess an equal authority with others to think and decide for themselves in these matters. Thus, with the Bible for their only code of laws, with a clergy who know no gradation of ranks, and who are chosen by, and are dependent on the people, with whom they have a com- mon interest, with Christ for their only head, and the church the only executive of his laws, while they embrace in the wide extent of their fellowship and communion all denominations, whom they believe to be true Christians; they thus foster a catholic spirit, and lay broad and deep the foundations of civil and religious liberty and toleration. Thus too they effectually guard against priestcraft and spiritual domination, and against that unholy union of church and state, which in ages past has proved the bane of civil liberty, and the most deadly curse of religion. It was from the influence of principles like these that the Puritans extorted from Hume the eulogy, that in Great Britain they had kindled and preserved the preeious spark of liberty, and that the English owe to them the whole freedom of their constitution. The prominence which was given to the Bible as being the great text-book of both civil and religious rights, led in New England to the early establishment of colleges, whose great and avowed object was to train up those who should explain and enforce the truths of the Bible, that men might thus not only become true Christians, but also intelligent and enlightened citizens. Their leaders, both civil and religious, being chosen by themselves, they re- garded only as their “servants for good,” and acknow- ledging no superior but God, they feared only him, and cherished a high and devoted love of freedom. These prin- ciples of their religious system have given birth and vigor to the republican habits and republican virtue and intelli- gence of the sons of New England.* The importance that was attached to religious know- ledge, and other motives growing out of their system of faith, led the first settlers of New England to commence their system of common schools, in which all the people might at- tain an education. This was many years before the sys- tem of free schools in Scotland had their origin, and was the first experiment of the kind on earth. In the year 1602, a dissenting church was formed in the north of England, which had for one of its pastors the Rev. John Robinson. This church was driven by perse- cution to Holland, in 1608, where Mr. Robinson soon fol- lowed them. He is regarded as the father of Congregation- alism, and the principles which he established in his church at Leyden are the same, in substance, as still prevail in New England. Some of these principles were held by the early Puritans, and were acted upon by the Independents in England as early as 1580. But as there were other and distinctive principles at which they did not arrive, they are not considered as Congregationalists. The younger members of Mr. Robinson’s church were the first settlers of New England, where they landed in 1620. One reason why Congregationalists have been confound- ed with Independents, is found partly in the following statement made by Mr. Robinson in his “Apology:”—. “Every particular society is a complete church; and as * Several years before the American revolution, there was near the house of Mr. Jefferson, in Virginia, a church, which was governed on Congregational principles, and whose monthly meetings he often at- tended. Being asked how he was pleased with their church government, he replied that it had struck him with great force, and interested him very much; that he considered it the only form of pure democracy that them existed in the world, and had concluded that it would be the best plan of government for the American colonies. C O N C O N Nº. ſ 406 1 far as regards other churches, immediately and indepen- dently under Christ alone.” He here only means to assert that no church, or body of churches, has any right to con: trol or force the opinions of another church by means of pains and penalties. He does not deny the right of using such influence as may arise from knowledge and piety, nor does he oppose the fundamental principle of the com- munion of churches, from which arise duties of one church to another as binding and as strictly defined, as those which members of the same church owe to each other. These duties cannot be performed where the principle on which they rest is not admitted. The following summary of them is abridged from the Cambridge Platform, adopt- ed in 1648, and from the acts of the synod at Boston in 1662. 1. Hearty care and prayer one for another. 2. By way of relief in case of want, either temporal or spiritual. 3. By giving an account one to another of their public ac- tions when it is orderly desired, and in upholding each other, in inflicting censure and other acts of church go- vernment. 4. Seeking and giving help to each other in case of divisions, contentions, difficult questions, errors and scandals, and also in the ordination, translation, and deposition of ministers, 5. Giving aid to another church in cases of error, scandal, &c., even though they should so far neglect their duty as not to seek such aid. 6. Ad- monishing one another when there is need and cause for it, and after due means with patience used, withdrawing from a church or peccant party therein, which obstinately persists in error or scandal. These rules are carried into effect by means of either temporary or standing councils of the churches. - The Pilgrims had been harassed by prelacy on one side, and independency on the other, and strove to avoid the evils of both. Hence the Cambridge Platform takes the ground that the church before the law was in families; that under the law it was national, and since the coming of Christ only Congregational ; and adds, “The term Inde- pendent we approve not.” Increase Mather, who knew well the usages of the churches, says, “That the churches of New England have been originally Congregational is known to every one. Their platform does expressly dis- claim the name of Independent.” Samuel Mather says, “The churches of New England are Congregational. They do not approve the name of Independent, and are abhorrent from such principles of independency as would keep them from giving an account of their matters to members of neighboring churches, regularly demanding it of them.” In speaking of those who would not act on the principle of the communion of churches, he says that “they” (the Congregationalists) “think it will not be safe or prudent for any Christian to commit his soul to the direction and conduct of such an independent church.” It were easy to multiply quotations on this point were it necessary, but enough have been adduced. - The doctrinal articles of the Congregational churches, if we except the Unitarians, have been in general those of Calvin, modified to some extent by the views of Hop- kins, Emmons, and other writers. Still they admit to their communion and fellowship all those churches which re- quire evidence of Christian character as essential to church membership. The Westminster and Savoy confessions of faith, and the thirty-nine articles of the church of Eng- land, have been repeatedly approved by synods and coun- cils in New England, as in general agreeable to the word of God; but the Bible is the only standard by which to test heresy. The churches are not bound by any one creed; but each church makes its owls, and alters it at pleasure. Other churches can admonish, and if they see fit withdraw fellowship where any of the essential doc- trimes of the gospel have been renounced. All that synods and councils have done has been to set forth the prevailing belief of the churches at the time when they were held. Congregationalists in general hold that the word church in the New Testament, is applied either to the whole Chris- tian community, or to a single congregation, and that it is used in no other sense. But some maintain that the whole body of Christians residing in a particular city or vicinity were but one church, though far too numerous to meet in a single place of worship. Hence they derive the propriety of regarding a number of contiguous churches, when consociated, as in certain respects but one body, and the removal of a cause from a particular church to a con- sociation, as a reference from a part to the whole, rather than an appeal from a lower to a higher tribunal. The common opinion however is, that a single church is the highest judicial or executive tribunal known in the Scrip- tures, and that councils of all kinds are merely human devices. Their decisions are considered merely advisory, having no force except as they are sanctioned and carried into effect by the churches. The only seeming exception to this remark is in the consociations in Connecticut, and it has been questioned whether they have any farther power than that of being the final council in any disputed case. Still the Saybrook Platform holds that any church which does not regard the decisions of a consociation shall be considered guilty of contempt, and that an act of non- communion shall be declared. But the question whether the churches will withhold communion, and thus sustain the decision of the consociation, is left to their own judgment and choice, though in ninety-nine cases in one hundred, the decisions of councils are final, and fully sustained by the churches. - . - It is held that where the whole body of believers in any province or country are mentioned in the New Testament, they are spoken of not as the church, but as the churches of that country; and that a church is often spoken of as meeting in one place not only for worship, but for the choice of officers and other business. In accordance with this, the following literal translation is given to Acts 14: 23, “They appointed elders or ministers in every church by the liſting up of hands.” - As to the churches after the time of the apostles, the learned Dr. Owen asserts and defends the following propo- sition: That in no approved writer for the space of two hundred years after Christ, is there any mention of any other organical or visibly professing church, but that only which is parochial or congregational.” It is held that the epistles of Clement and Polycarp contain statements which cannot be reconciled with any other views than those which have been given above. Mosheim says, “All the churches of those primitive times, until near the end of the second century, were independent bodies, none of them subject to the jurisdiction of any other. Each church was a little independent republic, governed by its own laws, which were enacted, or at least sanctioned by the people. For though the churches founded by the apostles were often consulted in different cases, yet they had no judicial au- thority, no control, no power of giving laws. On the con- trary, it is clear as the noon day, that all Christian churches had equal rights, and were in all respects on a footing of equality. The meeting at Jerusalem, as given in the book of Acts, was only a conference of a single church. The coun- cils of delegates of the churches to consult for the common good, were first held near the close of the second century. This custom arose in Greece, and was an imitation of the political councils which had long been known there.” Synods in New England are those larger bodies of dele- gates of the churches which assemble for making platforms or other matters of general interest. The synod of New- town, in 1637, condemned eighty-two erroneous opinions which had been disseminated in New England. Councils are smaller bodies, and act on objects of less interest. Consociations, such as exist in Connecticut, are standing councils. There is in each county one or more of these bodies, composed of the ministers and lay delegates of such churches as see fit to unite for the objects proposed. In cases of great importance, two or three adjoining con- sociations may unite and act together, or a temporary council, without regard to local limits, may be called for the occasion. A majority of the ministers, and enough of the lay delegates to make a majority of the whole coun- cil, is necessary in order to a valid decision. Most of the Congregational churches in Connecticut are consociated. So also are those in Rhode Island, and some in Vermont and in the state of New York. - . Associations are composed of ministers only, who meet for their own benefit, and to consult for the good of the churches. They examine and license candidates for the ministry, but have no power of making laws for the churches. Some maintain that on the general principle ºn Č O N that a man is to be tried by his peers, a minister is ac- countable in the first case only to the association of which he is a member, so that until he is deposed by them, or by the consociation, before which they bring him for trial, he is not amenable to the church of which he is a member. Others hold that a church has a right to try its minister in the same way that it would one of its private members. The principle laid down in the platforms is that in the discipline of ministers, there is to be a council of churches where it may be had ; but where this cannot be, the church may proceed to act. In Connecticut, a church cannot arraign a minister before a consociation, until the association have first decided whether there is sufficient cause for a trial. - - Associations have been held from the first settlement of New England, and as early as 1690 had spread throughout the country. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Con- necticut, have state or general associations, and Vermont a general convention, composed of delegates from the dis- trict associations. In Massachusetts, some of the minor associations are not connected with the general association. In the state of Maine, and in the eastern part of Massa- chusetts, conferences of churches exist. This organization was commenced in Maine soon after the separation of that state from Massachusetts in 1820. Conferences are com- posed of the pastors and one or more delegates from the churches within a convenient district, meeting at stated times, to promote a mutual acquaintance with the state of the churches represented, and consult and adopt measures for the promotion of their prosperity, having no legislative or judicial power. In Maine, the district conferences are united, by a clerical and lay representation, in a general conference, meeting annually, and corresponding in its design and methods of proceeding to the general associa- tions of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and the general convention of Vermont. - In the year 1690, certain articles of union, called “Heads of Agreement,” were adopted by the Presbyterians and Congregationalists of London and the vicinity, by which, waving points of difference in church organization, they agreed to act together on all matters of common interest. This union was effected mainly by the influence of In- crease Mather, president of Harvard college, who was then on a visit to England. Recently, however, they have separated, though perfect. harmony of feeling exists be- tween them. These heads of agreement have been sanc- tioned in New England, and contain the distinctive ſea- tures of Congregationalism. The declaration of faith and order, as presented at the meeting of the Congregational union in London, May, 1832, enjoins the duty of communion with all churches whose faith and godliness is undoubted, but denies to any church or union of churches, the right of calling to an ac- count or disciplining another church, otherwise than to separate from such as in faith or practice depart from the gospel of Christ. It does not appear that the Congrega- tionalists of Great Britain have any organized church olity and government like what exists in New England. }. they differ but slightly from the most rigid Inde- pendents, and are commonly ranked with them under the same name. (See INDEPENDENTs.) In the year 1791, a plan was adopted by the general assembly of the Presbyterian church and the general asso- ciation of Connecticut, by which Presbyterians and Con- gregationalists, in the new settlements of the western" states, were effectually amalgamated. This plan places the two classes on equal terms in union churches, securing to each a mode of discipline corresponding, to their princi- ples, and gives to the members of the standing committee of Congregational churches the same standing and powers in presbyteries and synods, as belong to the ruling elders of the Presbyterians. Four hundred of these union - churches have been planted in the western states, by the Congregationalists in Connecticut alone. - A work entitled, “The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven, and power thereof.” by the Rev. John Cotton, of Bos: ton, had been the principal directory in ecclesiastical af. fairs next to the Bible, prior to the adoption of the Cam- bridge platform, in 1648. This platform was in force throughout New England, until it was superseded in Con- £. necticut by the Saybrook platform, in 1708. They both contain the confessions of faith, and the rules of order and discipline of the churches of New England, and also sanc- tion and approve of the Westminster and Savoy confes- sions of faith. If we except Connecticut, there is through- out New England much practical neglect of some of the fundamental principles laid down in these formulas. In Massachusetts, about one hundred and fifty churches have become Unitarian, while in Connecticut there is but one minister of that faith, and but few in the other New England states. This change in Massachusetts has been mainly attributed to the operation of what is called the “half-way covenant,” and to the neglect of congregational usage, as to watching over and disciplining churches. Owing to the fact, that in early times church membership was necessary in order to become a voter, or eligible to office, there was a strong desire on the part of men not pious to enter the church. Hence an act was passed by the synod of Boston, in 1663, which recognised all baptized persons as members of the church, and their children were entitled to baptism. Still they made no profession of their faith in Christ, and did not partake of the Lord's supper. This is what is called the “half-way covenant.” (See HALF-way CovenaNT.) Thus many who were not pious were introduced into the churches, and the pure and spiritual character of these bodies being lost, many of them have never recovered ſrom the shock thus given them; though the “half-way covenant” has long since become a dead letter, and the Trinitarian churches have all returned to their old principle of admitting to their communion only such as give evidence of piety. “The Jews of old, (says Cotton Mather,) held that less than ten men of leisure could not form a congregation.” Tertullian says, “Where there are three there is a church, although they are laity,” but as seven is the least number, by which the rule of church discipline, in the eighteenth chapter of Matthew, can be reduced to practice, and for other reasons, that number has been held necessary to form a church state; but usually there is a larger number expected. Thus, in the formation of the church at New Haven, and also at other places, seven men were selected, who were called the seven pillars, and these being united by solemn covenant, they admitted others to their commu- nion afterwards. A consociation, or a council, of the neighboring churches is called when a church is to be or- ganized, who first proceed to examine into the religious character of those who propose thus to unite, and the rea- sons which exist for taking such a step. They then exa- mine the confession of faith which they purpose to adopt, and if satisfied on these points, they organize the church with appropriate public religious exercises. A solemn covenant, to which the members assent, and by which they bind themselves to perform the duties which they owe to God and to their brethren, is considered essential to the existence of a church. The authority for this is derived from both the Old and New Testament, and also from the practice of the primitive churches as recorded by Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Pliny. Officers are not considered as essential to the existence of a church, but as necessary to its completeness and pros- perity. By the early writers of New England, and by the Cambridge platform, the officers of the church were pas- tors and teachers, whose duties were distinct; ruling elders, like those of the Presbyterians; and deacons, who looked to the temporal interests of the church, and provid- ed for the poor. For all these officers they claimed the Sanction of divine authority. The duty of the pastor was “to attend to exhortation, and therein to administer a word of wisdom; and of the teacher to attend to doctrine, and therein to administer a word of knowledge.” Both might administer the sacraments, and execute the censures of the church. Many of the first churches of New England, though small and poor, supported two able ministers. The first ten towns in Connecticut enjoyed the constant labors of ten ministers, making an average of one minister to fifty families, or to two hundred and sixty or seventy souls. The offices of pastor and teacher are now united, and that of ruling elder for the most part dropped. - Efforts were made at an early period, by Eliot and oth- ers, to christianize the Indians, and in 1700, there were in Č O N co N. [ 408 } New England thirty Indian churches under the pastoral &are of the same number of Indian preachers, Licentiates are those who have received a commission to preach, but have not been ordained or set apart by the imposition of hands and other ceremonies. Evangelists are those who have been ordained, and hence have power to administer the sacraments, but are not put over any particular church. Missionaries to the heathen and those who go as pastors to remote and isolated churches, are ordained before they are sent forth. Ministers who have been previously or- dained, are installed when they are placed over a church. In this ceremony there is no imposition of hands. Churches are by law corporate bodies; and, in the call of a minister to become their pastor, they act separately from and generally prior to the society, or parish, which em- braces both the church and those who worship with them. The call of the church, however, is not valid unless the parish assents to it. The contract of settlement is made wholly between the parish and minister, and is obligatory on them only. In the dismission of a minister, the church is expected to call a council for that purpose, and by the dissolution of his connexion with the church, his connex- ion with the parish ceases also. If the church refuse to call a council, and the parish are dissatisfied, they can vote not to pay the minister, when he can bring his claims be- fore a court of justice, who may decide whether he has been guilty of such immorality, or neglect of pastoral du- ties, as to amount to a violation of the contract. The Congregationalists have founded in New England eight colleges, two theological seminaries, and a large number of high schools and academies. Besides this, they have contributed liberally to establish similar institutions in other parts of the United States. In commencing and carrying forward the various bene- volent operations of the present day, the Congregationalists , of New England have had a leading and prominent agency. The first ministers who came to New England were men of learning and piety. Most of them had been educated in the English universities, and they had been fully tried in the school of adversity. Fifteen of them had received episcopal ordination, and a number had held bene- fices in England. “Many of the clergy (says Trumbull) had good estates, and assisted their poor brethren and pa- rishioners. The clergy possessed a very great proportion of the literature of the colony. They were the principal instructers of those who received an education for public life. For many years they were consulted by the legisla- ture, in all affairs of importance, civil or religious. They were appointed committees with the governors and magis- trates, to assist them in the most delicate concerns of the commonwealth.” They were often sent on messages of importance to the government of Great Britain. As the churches were republics, the people were led to conform their civil institutions to the same model. The clergy taught their hearers to reject with abhorrence the divine right of kings, passive obedience and non-resistance, and to hold that all civil power is originally with the people. Says an able writer, “The pulpit has always been in this land an engine of immense power. The people are thinly scattered over a large extent of country, and accus- tomed to meet only on the Sabbath. This strong resource in favor of the American revolution was early seen and faithfully applied. As a body of men, the clergy were pre- eminent in their attachment to liberty. The pulpits of the land rang with the notes of freedom. The tongues of the hoary-headed servants of Jesus were eloquent upon the all-inspiring theme, while the youthful soldier of the cross girded on the whole armor of his country, and fought with weapons that were carnal.” They preached and publish- ed sermons to excite the people, and not a few of them left for a time their parishes, to be chaplains in the army. The most distinguished writers among the Congrega- tional divines of New England, are John Cotton, Increase and Cotton Mather, Thomas Hooker, the two Edwardses, father and son; the former, president of Princeton, and the latter, of Union college ; Hopkins, Trumbull, Bellamy, Smalley and Dwight. To these might be added a list of living authors who are exerting a great and important in- fluence on the theology and morals of this and other na- tions. - - . . . There are now nine hundred and forty-three Trinitarian Congregational ministers in New England. A number also of those who are born and educated there, go abroad every year, and are settled in other parts of the United States, or sent as missionaries to foreign countries. In twenty-seven years from the first settlement of New England, forty-three churches were formed; and in an equal number of succeeding years, eighty churches more rose into existence. The present number is one thousand and fifty-nine, exclusive of from one to two hundred Uni- tarian churches. The number of communicants is about one hundred and twenty thousand. Congregational churches also exist in other parts of the United States, and in connexion with missionary stations in various parts of the heathen world. - The denomination styled Congregational are Pedo-bap- tists. The Baptist churches are in their government Con- gregational, but with some modifications of the system as presented in this article, approaching Independency. See Robinson's Apology; Cotton's Ponver of the Keys ; Hooker's Survey of the Sum of Church Discipline ; Owen's In- quiry into the Nature of Churches ; Mather's Ratio Discipli- na: ; Bartlett's Model of the Primitive Congregational Way ; Trumbull's History of Connecticut, chs. xiii., xix. ; Neal's History of the Puritans; Wise's Church's Quarrel espoused ; Cambridge and Saybrook Platforms; Bogue's and Bennet's History of the Dissenters, vol. i. chap. i. ; Upham's Ratio Dis- ciplina: ; Wisner's History of the Old South Church, in Boston ; Harves' Tribute to the Memory of the Pilgrims; Bacon's Manual. CONONITES; the followers of Conon, bishop of Tar- sus, in the sixth century. He was a Trinitarian, and even a Tritheist, carrying too far the distinct personality. But his peculiar tenet was a scholastic distinction. Philoponus, his contemporary, º Alexandrian philosopher and gram- marian,) taught, that the form, as well as matter of all bodies, was subject to corruption. Conon, on the contrary, taught, that the body never lost its essential form ; that its matter alone was subject to corruption and decay, and was to be restored when this mortal shall put on immortality Such was the ingenuity of these times in multiplying sects and parties —Mosheim's E. H. vol. ii. p. 150; Williams. CONQUERORS. In all their tribulations the saints are more than conquerors through Christ; by his grace and presence they overcome them most certainly, easily and quickly; they patiently bear them, rejoice in them, and gain much advantage by them. Rom. 8: 37.—Bronn. CONSCIENCE; the moral sense, or that capacity of our mental constitution, by which we irresistibly feel the difference between right and wrong. As South observes, it implies a double or joint knowledge, namely, one of a divine law or rule, and the other of a man's own action. Conscience is the crowning faculty in man. Its peculiar office is to arbitrate and direct all our other powers and propensities, according to the will of God; and there is a certain feeling of internal violence and disorder when its dictates in this capacity are not obeyed. Its legitimate business is to prescribe that man shall be as he ought, and do as he ought. And its existence within us is an evidence for the righteousness of God, which keeps its ground amid all the disorders and aberrations to which human mature is liable. For as the existence of a regulator in a disordered Watch shows the design of its maker that its movements should harmonize with time; so conscience shows the de- sign of our Creator that all our movements, should harmo- nize with truth and righteousness. The rules of conscience. We must distinguish between a rule that of itself and immediately binds the conscience, and a rule that is occasionally of use to direct and satisfy the conscience. Now, in the first sense, the will of God is the only rule immediately binding the conscience. No one has authority over the conscience but God. All penal laws, therefore, in matters of mere conscience, or things that do not evidently affect the civil state, are certainly unlawful; yet, secondly, the commands of superiors, not only natural parents, but civil, as magistrates or masters, and every man's private engagements, are rules of con- science in things indifferent. , 3. The examples of wise and good men may become rules of conscience; but here co N. C O N * [ 409 J it must be observed, that no example or judgment is of any authority against law; where the law is doubtful, and even where there is no doubt, the side of example cannot be taken till inquiry has been first made concerning what the law directs. • * - Conscience has been considered as, 1. Natural, or that common principle which instructs men of all countries and religions in the duties to which they are all alike obliged. There seems to be something of this in the minds of all men. Even in the darkest regions of the earth, and among the rudest tribes of men, a distinction has ever been made between just and unjust, a duty and a crime. . . 2. A right conscience is that which decides aright, or according to the only rule of rectitude, the law of God. This is also called a nwell-informed conscience, which in all its ºns proceeds upon the most evident principles of truth, 3. A probable conscience is that which, in cases which admit of the brightest and ſullest light, contents itself with bare probabilities. The consciences of many are of no higher character; and though we must not say a man cannot be saved with such a conscience, yet such a con- science is not so perfect as it might be. . . 4. An ignorant conscience is that which may declare right, but, as it were, by chance, and without any just ground to build on. 5. An erroneous conscience is a conscience mistaken in its rule or standard of judgment. 6. A doubting conscience is a conscience unresolved about the nature of action ; on account of the equal or nearly equal probabilities which appear for and against each side of the question. 7. Of an evil conscience there are several kinds. Con- science, in regard to actions in general, is evil when it has lost more or less the sense it ought to have of the natural distinctions of moral good and evil: this is a polluted or de- filed conscience. Conscience is evil in itself when it gives either none or a false testimony as to past actions; when re- flecting upon wickedness it feels no pain, it is evil, and said to be seared or hardened. 1 Tim. 4:2. It is also evil when, during the commission of sin, it lies quiet. In regard to future actions, conscience is evil if it does not startle at the proposal of sin, or connives at the commission of it. For the right management of conscience, we should, 1. Endeavor to obtain acquaintance with the law of God, and with our own motives, tempers and lives, and frequent- ly compare them together. - 2. Furnish conscience with general principles of the most extensive nature and strongest influence; such as the supreme love of God; love to our neighbors as ourselves; and that the care of our souls is of the greatest impor- tance. 3. Preserve the purity and sensibility of conscience. 4. Maintain the freedom of conscience, particularly against interest, passion, temper, example, and the autho- rity of great names. 5. We should accustom ourselves to cool reflection on our past actions. See Butler's Analogy and Sermons; Stenart and Mackintosh on Moral Philosophy; Tillotson's Sermons; South’s Sermons, vol. ii. serm. 12; Abercrombie on the Moral Feelings; Chalmers's Bridgemater Treatise on the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man ; and books under CASUISTRY.-Hend. Buck. -- CONSCIOUSNESS; the perception of what passes in a man's own mind. We must not confound the terms consciousness and conscience ; for though the Latin be igno- rant of any such distinction, including both in the word conscientia, yet there is a great deal of difference between them in our language. Consciousness is confined to the actions of the mind, being nothing else but that knowledge of itself which is inseparable from every thought and voluntary motion of the soul. Conscience extends to all human actions, bodily as well as mental, Consciousness is the knowledge of the existence; conscience, of the mo- ral nature of actions. Consciousness is a province of me- taphysics; conscience, of morality.—Hend. Buck. CONSECRATION ; a devoting or setting apart any thing to the worship or service of God. The Mosaical law ordained that all the asºn. both of man and beast, - 5 . &c. should be sanctified or consecrated to God. The whole race of Abraham was in a peculiar manner consecrated to his worship; and the tribe of Levi and family of Aaron were more immediately consecrated to the service of God. Exod. 13: 2, 12, 16. Num. 3: 12. 1 Pet. 2: 9. Besides the consecrations ordained by the sovereign authority of God, there were others which depended on the will of men, and were either to continue forever or for a time only. David and Solomon devoted the Nethinims to the service of the temple forever. Ezra 8:20. 2: 58. Hannah, the mother of Samuel, offered her son to the Lord, to serve all his lifetime in the tabernacle. 1 Sam. 1: 11. Luke 1: 15. The Hebrews sometimes devoted their fields and cattle to the Lord, and the spoils taken in war. Lev. 27:28, 29. 1 Chron. 18: 11. The New Testament furnishes us with instances of consecration. Christians in general are con- secrated to the Lord, and are a holy race, a chosen people. 1 Pet. 2: 9. Ministers of the gospel are in a peculiar manner set apart for his service, and so are places of wor- ship; the forms of dedication varying according to the views of different bodies of Christians; and by some a series of ceremonies has been introduced, savoring of su. perstition, or at best of Judaism.—Watson. CONSIDER. God considers men, in general, by a per- fect knowledge and exact observation of their works. Ts. 33: 15. He considers his people, in graciously observing and regarding their persons, prayers, and troubles, in order to deliver and bless them. Ps. 5: 1. 13: 3. 9:13, and 25: 19. We consider Jesus Christ by thinking on, observing, and admiring his person, offices, relations, undertaking, incarnation, life, death, resurrection, and glory, and apply. ing him to ourselves in all these respects. Heb. 3: 1. We consider ourselves when, with serious concern, and earnest care, we mark and ponder our own frailty, sinfulness, and danger of being led astray. Gal. 6: 1. We consider one another when we charitably observe our brethren's tempers, circumstances, infirmities, and temptations, that we may accordingly excite and encourage them to their duty. Heb. 10: 24.—Bronyn. - CONSISTENTES; a kind of penitents, who were al- lowed to assist at prayers, but who could not be admitted to receive the Sacrament.—Hend. Buck. CONSISTORY ; a word commonly used for a council- house of ecclesiastical persons, or place of justice in the spiritual court; a session or assembly of prelates. Every archbishop and bishop of every diocese has a consistory court, held before his chancellor or commissary, in his cathedral church, or other convenient place of his diocese, for ecclesiastical causes. The bishop's chancellor is the judge of this court, supposed to be skilled in the civil and canon law; and in places of the diocese far remote from the bishop's consistory, the bishop appoints a commissary to judge in all causes within a certain district, and a regis- ter to enter his decrees, &c. Consistory at Rome, denotes the college of cardinals, or the pope's senate and council, before whom judiciary causes are pleaded, and all political affairs of importance, the election of bishops, archbishops, &c. are transacted. There is the ordinary consistory, which the pope assembles every week in the papal palace, and the extraordinary, or secret consistories, called together on special and important occasions. Consistory is also used among the Lutherans for a council or assembly of ministers and lawyers to regulate their affairs, discipline, They are the highest Protestant ecclesiastical bodies on the continent.—Hend. Buck. CONSOLATION. The great work of God the Holy Ghost is consolation ; and it is most blessed to the souls of the truly regenerate, in whose hearts the Lord gracious- ly carries it on by his inward . refreshments, to watch and observe how the tendencies of his grace are made towards them. “He takes of the things of Christ, and showeth to them.” And he it is that sheds abroad the love of God the Father in the heart, and directs the minds of his people into “the patient waiting” for Jesus Christ. So that all the acting of our faith upon either of the persons of the GoDHEAD are from his sweet influences; and all the manifestations the holy find sacred Persons make to the believer, it is God the Holy Ghost teacheth the soul how to receive and enjoy. And by this continual process of grace, he doth what the apostle prayed he C O N C O N [ 410 J might do ſor the church, as “the God of hope, fill the soul with all joy and peace in believing, that they might abound in hope, through the power of the Holy Ghost.” Rom. 15: 13.−Harvker. - y CONSTANCE, (Council, or ;) 1414–1418. The German emperor, the pope, twenty princes, one hundred and forty counts, more than twenty cardinals, seven patriarchs, twenty archbishops, ninety-one bishops, six hundred other clerical dignitaries, and about four thousand priests were present at this celebrated ecclesiastical assembly, which was occasioned by the divisions and contests that had arisen about the affairs of the church. From 1305–77, the popes had resided at Avignon; but in 1378, Gregory XI. removed the papal seat back to Rome; after his death, the French and Italian cardinals could not agree upon a succes- sor, and so each party chose its own candidate. This led to a schism which lasted forty years. Indeed, when the empe- ror Sigismund ascended the throne, in 1411, there were three popes, each of whom had anathematized the two others. To put an end to these disorders, and to stop the diffusion of the doctrines of Huss, Sigismund went in per- son to Italy, France, Spain, and England, and (as the em. peror Maximilian I. used to say, in jest, performing the part of the beadle of the Roman empire,) summoned a gene- ral council. The pretended heresies of Wickliffe and Huss were here condemned, and the latter, notwithstanding the assurances of safety given him by the emperor, was burnt, July 6, 1415; and his friend and companion, Jerome of Prague, met with the same fate, May 30, 1416. The three popes were formally deposed, and Martin W. was legally chosen to the chair of St. Peter; but instead of furthering the emperor's wishes for a reformation in the affairs of the church, he thwarted his plans, and nothing was done till the council of Basle, which see.—Hend. Buck. CONSTANCY, in a general sense, denotes immutabili- ty, or invariableness. When applied to the human mind, it is a steady adherence to those plans and resolutions which have been maturely formed : the effect of which is, that a man never drops a good design out of fear, and is consistent with himself in all his words and actions. Constancy is more particularly required of us, 1. In our devotions. Luke 18: 1. 1 Thess. 5: 17, 18. 2. Under our sufferings. Matt. 5: 12, 13. 1 Pet: 4: 12, 13. 3. In our profession and character. Heb. 10:23. 4. In our be- neficence. Gal. 6:9. 5. In our friendships. Prov. 27: 10. —Hend. Buck. CONSTANTINE, (surnamed the Great,) son of the emperor Constantine Chlorus and of his wife Helena, was born A. D. 274. On the death of his father, he was chosen emperor by the soldiery in 306. Galerius, however, would not allow him the title of Augustus, and gave him that of Casar only; but having taken possession of the countries which had been subject to his father, viz. Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and overcome the Franks, he turned his arms against Maxentius, vanquished his army under the walls of Rome, and was declared by the senate Augustus and Pon- tifex Maximus. It was in this campaign in Italy that he is said to have seen a ſlaming cross in the heavens, be- meath the sun, bearing this inscription : In hoc signo vinces, i. e. “By this sign thou shalt conquer;” and on the same authority it is stated that Christ himself appeared to him the following night, and ordered him to take for his stan- dard an imitation of the fiery cross which he had seen. He accordingly caused a standard to be made in this form, which was called the labarum. In 313, he published the memorable edict of toleration in favor of the Christians. By this, every one was allowed to embrace the religion most agreeable to his own mode of thinking, and all the property that had been taken from the Christians during the persecutions was restored to them. They were also made eligible to public offices. This edict has accordingly been regarded as marking the triumph of the cross, and the downſall of paganism. Having defeated Licinius, who showed a mortal hatred to the Christians, Constantine became sole head of the Eastern and Western empires, in 325; the year noted for the ecumenical council which he convened at Nice, in Bithynia, and which he attended in person, for the purpose of Settling the Arian controversy. Towards the close of his life, he favored the Arians, to which he was induced by and Cappadocia. Eusebius, of Nicomedia, in consequence of which he bn- nished many orthodox bishops. Though he professed Christianity, he was not baptized till he ſell sick in 337, in which year he died in the vicinity of Nicomedia, after a reign of thirty-one years. - Whatever may have been the true character of Con- stantine’s conversion to the Christian faith, its consequences were of vast importance both to the empire and to the church of Christ. It opened the way for the unobstructed propagation of the gospel to a wider extent than at any former period of its history. All impediments to an open profession of Christianity were removed, and it became the established religion of the empire. Numerous, how- ever, in various points of view, as were the advantages accruing to it from this change, it soon began to suffer from being brought into close contact with the fostering influence of secular power. The simplicity of the gospel was corrupted; pompous rites and ceremonies were intro- duced; worldly honors and emoluments were conferred on the teachers of Christianity; and the kingdom of Christ in a great measure converted into a kingdom of this world. —Hend. Buck. CONSTANTINE, (called also Sylvanus;) an eminent reformer and martyr of the seventh century, and the founder of the sect of Paulicians. He was born in Ma- nanalis, an obscure town in the vicinity of Samosata. His conversion is thus related: A Christian deacon, who had been a prisoner among the Mahometans, about the year 660, returning from Syria, was entertained by Con- stantine. From this stranger, Constantine received the precious gift of the New Testament in its original lan- guage, which even at this early age was so concealed from the people, that Peter Siculus, to whom we owe most of our information on the history of the Paulicians, tells us the first scruples of a Catholic, when he was advised to read the Bible, was, “It is not lawſul for us, profane per- sons, to read those sacred writings, but for the priests only.” Indeed, the gross ignorance which pervaded Europe at that time, rendered the generality of the people incapable of reading that or any other book; but even those who could read were dissuaded by their religious guides. Con- stantine, however, made the best use of his present: he studied the New Testament with unwearied assiduity, and more particularly the writings of the apostle Paul, from which he endeavored to deduce the system of doctrine and worship divinely revealed. “He investigated the creed of primitive Christianity,” says Gibbon, “and whatever might be the success, a Protestant reader will applaud the spirit of the inquiry.” . The knowledge thus attained, Constan- tine gladly communicated to others around him. A Chris- tian church was collected. Several individuals rose among them qualified ſor the work of the ministry, new churches were formed, and Christianity, in its primitive simplicity and power, was widely diffused through Armenia, Pontus, (See PAULIcIANs.) - Constantine, who had assumed or received the name of Sylvanus, was at length seized at Colonia by the arm of persecution. By a refinement of cruelty, he was placed before a line of his disciples, who were commanded, as the price of their own pardon and the proof of their re- pentance, to massacre their spiritual father. They turned aside from the impious office; the stones dropped from their filial hands, and of the whole number only one man, named Justus, could be found base enough to become his executioner. Thus, after the evangelical labors of twenty- seven years, this venerable leader of the Paulician churches ſell a martyr to the truth of the gospel.—Jones's His. Chris. Church, p. 239. - CONSTANTINOPLE, the metropolis of the extensive empire of European Turkey, is situated at the confluence of the Bosphorus, with the sea of Marmora, and stands on the site of the ancient Byzantium. Constantine, sensible of the great advantages of its position, fixed his residence here in 330, in preference to Rome. It became afterwards the capital of the Greek empire, and was in the meridian of its glory in the time of the crusades. The whole cir- cuit of the city is about twelve miles. Its external appear. ance is magnificent; palaces, mosques, seraglios, domes, turrets, and spires, tower one above another. The magic of the prospect, however, disappears on entering the city, C O N C O N [ 411 J for the streets are narrow and crooked, and the houses small, and built of wood, brick, and mud. The number of mosques here has been stated at more than three hun- dred, many of which are composed of marble and covered with lead, serving to create a greater contrast to the wretched appearance of the streets and inhabitants. The grand mosque of St. Sophia, a view of which is here pre- sented, is the most renowned of the public buildings. It 4% ºr, º " . º º º, iſ º t º º- A.. Jº| |ºlf'ſ ºf º º; º º | .º * . . .º. |liſz bººk ºs-à. was formerly a Greek church, dedicated to the Holy Wis- dom, or Sancta Sophia, and was built by the emperor Jus- tinian. The plague has frequently committed great rava- ges in Constantinople, and the germs of the malady will remain there as long as the carelessness and fanaticism of the people continue. The Turks commonly designate Constantinople by the name of Stamboul, or Istamboul, which is a Romaic appellation, signifying “the City.” CONSTELLATION ; a cluster of stars. About three thousand visible stars are classed into fifty-nine constella- tions, twelve of which are in the zodiac, or middle region of the firmament, twenty-three in the north part, and twenty-four in the south. Isa. 13: 10.-Bronn. CONSTITUTION ; in the Roman church, a decree of the pope in matters of doctrine. In France, however, this name has been applied, by way of eminence, to the famous bull Unigenitus ; which see.—Hend. Buck. CONSTITUTIONS, Apostolic. (See Apostolic.) CONSUBSTANTIALISTS. This term was applied to the orthodox, or Athanasians, who believed the Son to be of the same substance with the Father; whereas the Arians would only admit the Son to be of like substance with the Father.—Watson. CONSUBSTANTIATION ; a tenet of the Lutheran church respecting the presence of Christin the Lord's Sup- per. Luther denied that the elements were changed after consecration, and therefore taught that the bread and wine indeed remain; but that together with them, there is pre- sent the substance of the body of Christ, which is literally received by communicants. As in red-hot iron it may be said, two distinct substances, iron and fire, are united, so is the body of Christ joined with the bread. Some of his followers, who acknowledged that similes prove nothing, contented themselves with saying that the body and blood of Christ are really present in the sacrament in an inex- plicable manner. (See LoRD's SUPPER.)—Watson. CONTEMN. A vile person is rightly contemned when we shun intimacy with him, and prefer the meanest of the saints to him. Ps. 15:4. The glory of Moab was con- temned when their wealth, power, and honor were rendered despicable. Isa. 16: 14–Brown. CONTEMPLATION ; studious thought on any subject ; continued attention. “Monks and mystics consider con- templation as the highest degree of moral excellence; and with them a silent spectator is a divine man:” but it is evident we are not placed here only to think. There is something to be done as well as to contemplate. There are duties to be performed, offices to be discharged; and if we wish to be happy in ourselves, and useful to others, we must be active as well as thoughtful.—Baxter's Saint's Rest ; Natural History of Enthusiasm ; Hend. Buck, CONTENTION, is either sinful, when, with carnal affec- tions, we strive with one another, (Prov. 13:10;) or lanful, when we eagerly promote that which is good, notwith- standing great opposition. 1 Thess. 2: 2. We contend ear- nestly for the faith when, notwithstanding manifold suffer- ing and danger, we are strong in the faith of God’s truth contained in his word ; zealously profess and practise it, and excite others to do so, and exert ourselves to promote the censure of scandalous and heretical persons. Jude 3. . —Bronyn. CONTENTMENT, is a disposition of mind in which our desires are confined to what we enjoy without mur- muring at our lot, or wishing ardently for more. It stands opposed to envy, (James 3: 16;) to avarice, (Heb. 13: 5;) to pride and ambition, (Prov. 13: 10;) to anxiety of mind, (Matt. 6: 25, 34;) to murmurings and repinings. 1 Cor. 10: 10. Contentment does not imply unconcern about our welfare, or that we should not have a sense of any thing uneasy or distressing; nor does it give any countenance to idleness, or prevent diligent endeavors to improve our circumstances. It implies, however, that our desires of worldly good be moderate; that we do not indulge unne- cessary care, or use unlawful efforts to better ourselves; but that we acquiesce with, and make the best of our con- dition, whatever it be. Contentment arises not from a man's outward condition, but from his inward disposition, and is the genuine offspring of humility, attended with a fixed habitual sense of God’s particular providence, the recollection of past mercies, and a just estimate of the true nature of all earthly things. Motives to contentment arise from the consideration of the rectitude of the divine government, (Ps. 97: 1, 2;) the benignity of the divine providence, (Ps. 145;) the greatness of the divine promi- ses, (2 Pet. 1: 4;) our own unworthiness, (Ger. 32: 10;) the punishments we deserve, (Lam. 3: 39, 40;) the reward which contentment itself brings with it, (1 Tim. 6: 6;) the speedy termination of all our troubles here, and the pros- pect of eternal felicity in a future state, Rom. 5: 2. See Barrow's Works, vol. iii. ser. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; Burrows on Con. tentment ; Watson's Art of ditto ; Hale's Contentment, p. 59; Mason's Christian Morals, vol. i. Ser. 2; Dwight's Theology, ser. cxxix.--Hend. Buck. CONTINENCY, is that moral virtue by which we re. strain concupiscence. There is this distinction between chastity and continence —Chastity requires no effort, be- cause it may result from constitution; whereas continency appears to be the consequence of a victory gained over ourselves. The term is most usually applied to men, as chastity is to women. (See CHASTITY.)—Hend. Buck. CONTINGENT ; any thing that happens without a foreknown cause, commonly called accidental. An event not come to pass is said to be contingent, which either may or may not be; what is already done, is said to have been contingent, if it might or might not have been. What is contingent or casual to us, is not so with God. As effects stand related to a second cause, they are many times contingent ; but as they stand related to the first cause, they are acts of God’s counsel, and directed by his wisdom.—Hend. Buck. - CONTRADICTION. The contradiction of sinners, which Christ endured, was the entire series of objections, evasions, reproaches, taunts, blasphemies, and political opposition to his doctrines and miracles. Heb. 12: 3.−Brown. CONTRARY. Grace and corruption in the saints are contrary; their nature, quality, and exercise are destructive of one another. Gal. 5; 17. We walk contrary to God, do- ing what is abominable to his mature, and opposite to his law ; and he walks contrary to us, in fearfully punishing us for our sin. Lev. 26: 27, 28. The ceremonial law was contrary to men; it laid heavy burdens on them, presented their guilt to them, and of itself could do them no good, and was a means of excluding the Gentiles from the church of God. Col. 2: 14.—Brown. C O N C O N [ 412 ) CONTRITE. This word signifies beaten or bruised, as with hard blows, or a heavy burden; and so in Scripture language imports one whose heart is broken and wounded for sin, in opposition to the heart of stone. Is. 66: 2. Ps. 51: 17. 57: 15. - - The evidences of a broken and contrite spirit are, 1. Deep conviction of the evil of sin.—2. Humiliation un- der a sense of it. Job 43: 5, 6–3. Pungent sorrow for it. Zech. 12:10.-4. Ingenuous confession of it. 1 John 1:9.—5. Prayer for deliverance from it. Ps. 51: 10. Luke 18: 13.—6. Susceptibility of good impressions. Ezek. 11: 19.—Hend. Buck. - . CONTROWERSY, (RELIGIOUs,) is good or evil, accord- ing to the principles which it upholds, the purpose in which it originates, the object to which it is applied, and the tem- per with which it is conducted. If it spring from a mere spirit of contention; from desire of victory, not love of truth; or from stubbornness that will not be brought into captivity to the obedience of Christ, Christianity will not acknowledge it for her own. If it be employed on questions unbefitting human disputation; questions inaccessible to our finite understandings, unnecessary or unimportant in their issue, and only tending to perpetuate strife, or to unsettle the minds of men, then it is also unworthy of the Christian character. Nor is it void of offence, when, how- ever sound in its principles, however important its subject, however irrefragable its argument, it is made the vehicle of personal malignity; when it is carried on with a spirit that rends asunder the social ties, and exasperates, instead of endeavoring to soften, the irritable feelings, which, even in its mildest aspect, it is but too apt to excite. But these evil consequences, which flow from the abuse of controversy, and from causes by no means necessarily connected with religious discussion, ought not to deter us from its proper use, when truth requires its aid. Contro- versy is worse than useless if it have no better end in view than a display of mental superiority, or the self-grati- fication which, to minds of a certain cast, it appears to afford. For, as in secular disputes it is the legitimate end of warfare, to produce peace, so, in religious polemics, the attainment of unanimity ought to be the main object. War is waged, because peace cannot be obtained without. it. Religious controversy is maintained, because agree- ment in the truth is not otherwise to be effected. When this necessity is laid upon us, we do but acquit ourselves of an indispensable duty in defending the charge commit- ted to our care by the use of those weapons with which the armory of the divine word supplies us. See Van Mil- dert's Bampton Lect. : Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. p. 52, and 447.—Hend. Buck. & CONVENT. (See ABBEy; MonastERy; Monk.) CONVENTICLE ; a private assembly, or meeting for religious purposes. The word is a diminutive of convent, denoting properly a cabal, or secret assembly of a part of the monks of a convent, to make a party in the election of an abbot. The name was first given as an appellation of reproach to the religious assemblies in the time of Wickliffe, and was afterwards applied to the illegal meet- ings of the Non-conformists. In some of the preceding reigns, several statutes were made for the suppression of conventicles; but by 1st William and Mary, it is ordained that dissenters may assemble for the performance of reli- gious worship, provided their doors be not locked, barred, or bolted. The word, in strict propriety, denoting an un- lawful assembly, cannot be justly applied to the assembling of persons in places certified, or licensed according to law. —-Hend. Buck. . CONVERSATION. Conversation was held by the Orientals in the gate of the city. Accordingly, there was an open space near the gate, which was fitted up with seats for the accommodation of the people, Gen. 19:1; Psalm 69: 12. Those who were at leisure occupied a position on these seats, and either amused themselves with witnessing those who came in and went out, and with any trifling occurrences that might offer themselves to their notice, or attended to the judicial trials, which were commonly investigated at public places of this kind, amely the gate of the city, (Gen. 19: 1; 34. 20; Psalm 6: 4, 5; 69: 12; 127: 5. Ruth 4: 11; Isa. 14:31;) or held intercourse by conversation, Promenading, so fash- ionable and so agreeable in colder latitudes, was weari, some and unpleasant in the warm climates of the East and this is probably one reason why the inhabitants of those climates preferred holding intercourse with one another, while sitting near the gate of the city, or beneath the shade of the fig-tree and the vine, 1 Sam, 22: 6 ; Micah 4:4. The formula of assent in conversation was, Thou hast said, or, Thou hast rightly said. We are informed by the traveller Aryda, that this is the prevailing mode of a person's expressing his assent or affirmation to this day, in the vicinity of mount Lebanon, especially where he does not wish to assert any thing in express terms. This explains the answer of the Savior to the high-priest Caiaphas in Matt. 26:64, when he was asked whether he was the Christ, the Son of God, and replied, Thou hast said. The English word conversation has now a more re- stricted sense than formerly; and it is to be noted that in several passages of our translation of the Bible, it is used to comprehend our whole conduct. . * - - - - - s When do modern Christians converse as did holy men of old, and especially as in the primitive times of the gospel, on the glorious works, wisdom and ways of God; on the love of the Savior; the privileges of the saints; the affecting vicissitudes of Christian experience; the state, progress, decay, or revival of religion; the diffusion of the gospel; and the fulness of its promises and bless- ings? Why do they not more habitually and freely inter- change their sentiments on all that concerns the Christian's heavenly warfare, and is connected with his present and eternal destination ? The reason is, they do not cultivate heavenly mindedness as they ought: they do not walk humbly and closely with God. It is in secret meditation and prayer, those graces are to be nourished which enrich the soul, which shed a holy radiance on the character, and open the lips in instruction, edification, and comfort. A good man out of the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth good things. In the society of such, conversation is found an eminent means of grace.—Chris. Obs. ; Watson. CONVERSION ; a change which consists in the reno- vation of the heart and life, or a turning from the power of sin and Satan unto God, (Acts 26: 18,) and is produced by the influence of divine grace on the soul. Sometimes it is put for restoration, as in the case of Peter, Luke 22: 32. The instrumental cause of conversion is usually the ministry of the word; though sometimes it is produced by reading, by serious and appropriate conversation, Sancti- fied afflictions, &c. “Conversion,” says the great Char- mock, “is to be distinguished from regeneration thus:– Regeneration is a spiritual change ; conversion is a spi- ritual motion : in regeneration there is a power conferred ; conversion is the exercise of this power; in regeneration there is given us a principle to turn; conversion is our actual turning. In the covenant, God's putting his Spirit into us is distinguished from our walking in his statutes from the first step we take in the way of God, and is set down as the cause of our motion, Ezek. 36: 27. In re- newing us, God gives us a power; in converting us, he excites that power. Men are naturally dead, and have a stone upon them : regeneration is a rolling away the stone from the heart, and a raising to newness of life; and then conversion is as natural to a regenerate man as motion is to a lively body. A principle of activity will produce action. In regeneration, man is wholly passive; in con- version, he is active. The first reviving us is wholly the act of God, without any concurrence of the creature; but after we are revived, we doactively and voluntarily live in his sight. Regeneration is the motion of God in the trea- ture; conversion is the motion of the creature to God, by virtue of that first principle : from this principle all the acts of believing, repenting, mortifying, quickening, do spring. In all these a man is active ; in the other he is merely passive.” Conversion evidences itself by ardent love to God, (Psalm 73:25;) delight in his people, (John 13:35;) attendance on his ordinances, (Psalm 27: 4;} confidence in his promises, (Psalm 9:10;) abhorrence of self, and renunciation of the world, (Job 43: 5, Jam, 4: 4;) submission to his authority, and uniform obedience to his word, Matt. 7: 20. See CALLING, REGENERATION.—Hend. Buck. - - CONVERT; a person who is converted. In a monastic * Co N C O G [413 J sense, converts are lay friars, or brothers admitted for the service of the house, without orders, and not allowed to sing in the choir.—Hend. Buck. CONVICTION, in general, is the assurance of the truth of any proposition. In a religious sense, it is the first degree of repentance, and implies an affecting sense that we are guilty before God; that we can do nothing of our- selves to gain his forfeiteå favor; that we deserve and are exposed to the wrath of God; that sin is very odious and hateful, yea, the greatest of evils. There is a natural and just conviction which arises from natural conscience, fear of punishment, moral suasion, or alarming providenses, but which is not of a permanent nature. Saving conviction is a work of the Spirit, as the cause; though the conscience, the law, the gospel, or af. fliction, may be the means, John 16:8, 9. Convictions of sin differ very much in their degree and pungency, in different persons. It has been observed that those who suffer the most agonizing sensations are such as never before enjoyed the external call of the gospel, or were favored with the tuition of religious parents, but have neglected or notoriously abused the means of grace. To these, conviction is often sudden, and produces that horror and shame which are not soon overcome; whereas those who have sat under the gospel from their infancy, have not often such alarming convic- tions, because they have already some notion of these things, and have so much acquaintance with the gospel as administers to a believing heart, immediate comfort. As it is not, therefore, the constant method of the Spirit to convince in one way, it is improper for any to distress themselves because they are not, or have not been tor- “mented almost to despair : they should be rather thankful that the Spirit of God has dealt tenderly with them, and opened to them the genuine source of consolation in Christ. It is necessary, however, to observe, that, in order to repentance and conversion to God, there must be real and lasting conviction, which, though it may not be the same in degree, is the same in nature. Evangelical conviction differs from legal conviction thus: legal arises from a consideration of the divine law, God’s justice, power, or omniscience; evangelical, from God's goodness and holiness as seen in the cross of Christ, and from a disaffection to sin; legal conviction still con- ceits there is something remaining good; but evangelical is sensible there is no good at all : legal wishes freedom from pain; evangelical from sin: legal hardens the heart; evangelical softens it; legal is only temporary; evangeli- cal lasting.—Hend. Buck. CONWOCATION ; an assembly of persons for the worship of God. Lev. 23. Numb. 28. Exod. 22: 16. An assembly of the clergy for consultation upon matters ecclesiastical. As the parliament in England consists of two distinct houses, so does this convocation. The one called the upper house, where the archbishops and bishops sit seve- rally by themselves; the other, the lower house, where all the rest of the clergy are represented by their deputies. The inferior clergy are represented by their proctors, con- sisting of all the deans and archdeacons; of one proctor for every chapter, and two for the clergy, of every diocese —in all, one hundred and forty-three divines, viz. twenty- two deans, fifty-three archdeacons, twenty-four prebenda- ries, and forty-four proctors of the diocesan clergy. The lower house chooses its prolocutor, who is to take care that the members attend, to collect their debates and votes, and to carry, their resolutions to the upper house. The convocation is summoned by the king's writ, directed to the archbishop of each province, requiring him to sum- mon all bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c. The power of the convocation is limited by a statute of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons, or ecclesiastical laws, without the king's license ; mor, when permitted, can they ut them in execution but under several restrictions. They ave the examining and censuring all heretical and schis- matical books and persons, &c.; but there lies an appeal to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy in convocation, and their servants, have the same privi- leges as members of parliament. In 1665, the convoca- tion of the clergy gave up the privilege of taxing them- his self-denying exertions, in September, 1790. selves to the house of commons, in consideration of their being allowed to vote at the election of members for that house. Since that period, they have been seldom allowed to do any business; and are generally prorogued from time to time till dissolved, a new convocation being gene- rally called along with a new parliament.—Hend. Buck. CONVULSIONISTS; a term originally applied to such persons as were the subjects of convulsive fits, of which they were said to be cured by visiting the tomb of the Abbé Paris, a celebrated zealot among the Jansenists; and afterwards given to those in France whose fanaticism or imposture caused them to work themselves up into the strangest agitations and convulsions, during which they received wonderful visions and revelations, and abandoned themselves to the most extravagant antics that ever were exhibited by idiot or madman. They threw themselves into the most violent contortions of body, rolled about on the ground, imitated birds, beasts, and fishes, and at last when they had completely spent themselves, went off in a swoon. The greater number were of the female sex, who, like the dervishes, spun themselves round on one heel, and frequently presented themselves to the spectators in very indecent attitudes. Pinault, an advocate, who belonged to the Convulsionists, maintained that God had sent him a peculiar kind of fits by which to humble his pride. During these fits, he always barked like a dog. Though it is now more than a century since these dis- gusting scenes first came into notice in France, they have more or less continued till the present time. It is seldom, indeed, that they have been exhibited in Paris since the middle of the last century; but in country places, such as Forez, Pontoise, &c., they occasionally occur, when the cunning priests know how to make them tell on the credu- lity of the vulgar, and thus render them subservient to the interests of Roman superstition.—Hend. Buck. - COOK, (Joseph,) a minister of the gospel in South Carolina, was born of pious parents in the city of Bath, England, and called by divine grace at an early age under the ministry of the celebrated Whitefield. Being introduced by him to lady Huntingdon, and giving clear evidence both of a sound conversion and ministerial gifts, he was placed in her college at Trevecka in South Wales. Here he was highly esteemed, and his progress in study, as well as usefulness in preaching, was uncommonly great. In 1771, he was sent to Margate in, company with Mr. Aldrich, and afterwards to Dover, where his ministry was blessed in a signal manner. Two years after, he was one among others who offered themselves for a mission in North America, and was accepted. On ar- riving in the southern colonies, he commenced his labors as an ‘itinerant, but soon after settled at Dorchester, eighteen miles from Charleston. In 1776, he embraced the sentiments of the Baptists, and was baptized at Santee, alıd a few days afterwards ordained, and settled over the Baptist church at Euhaw. During the war he lost all his property. After its conclusion, he labored a number of years with much success, and fell a victim to IMr. Cook's mental powers were good and improved by educa- tion ; his conversation was free and engaging ; his preach- ing zealous, orthodox, and experimental. His talents were of the persuasive kind, so that at the end of his sermons he frequently left his audience in tears. He was greatly endeared to his people, from whom he was taken in the midst of his rising eminence and usefulness, at the age of forty. His end was peace. When informed, a short time before his death, that the Lord’s supper would be administered to his people the next Sabbath, he replied, “Next Sabbath, while you are feasting below, I shall be at the banquet above.”—Benedict's History of the Baptists, vol. ii. 280. - COOPER, (WILLIAM,) a minister of Boston, Mass. was a native of that city. , Being early impressed by the truths of religion, and delighting in the study of the Scriptures, he passed through the temptations of youth without a blemish upon his character. Soon after he graduated at Harvard university, the eminence of his qualifications as a minister attracted the attention of the church in Brattle street, Boston, and he was invited to be colleague pastor with Mr. Colman. At his own request, his ordination was C O O C O P [414 ) delayed for a year until May 23, 1716, when he was in: ducted into the sacred office. From this period to that of his death, his ministerial gifts, graces, and usefulness seemed constantly to increase, and the more he was known, the more he was esteemed, loved, and honored. In the year 1737, he was chosen president of Harvard college; but he declined the honorable trust. He died ministry.” December 13, 1743, aged 49. He was an eminent instrument and promoter of the great revival of religion, which occurred towards the close of his life. With a heart overflowing with joy he declared, that “since the year 1740, more people had sometimes come to him in concern about their souls in one week, than in the preceding twenty-four years of his To these applicants he was a most judicious and affectionate counsellor and guide. In the private walks of life he displayed the combined excellencies of the gentleman and Christian. He had but little warning of the approach of death; but in the lucid intervals of his disease he was enabled to declare, that he rejoiced in God his Savior. He published a number of sermons,— Colman's Funeral Sermon ; Panopiist, ii. 537–549; Col. lect. Hist. Soc. x. 157; Eliot ; Allen. COOPER, (SAMUEL, D. D.) minister in Boston, son of the preceding, was born March 28, 1725. He exhibited early marks of genius. His mind was deeply impressed by religious truth. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1743, and devoted himself to the study of divinity. At the age of twenty years he was invited by the congre- gation in Brattle street, Boston, to succeed his father as colleague with Dr. Colman. In this office, he was or- dained May 21, 1746, thirty years after the ordination of his father. He did not disappoint the hopes of his friends. His reputation increased, and he soon became one of the most popular preachers in the country. After a ministry of thirty-seven years, he died of the apoplexy, December 29, 1783, aged fifty-eight. ; Dr. Cooper was very distinguished in the sacred office. His sermons were evangelical and perspicuous, and une- qualled in America for elegance and taste. Delivering them with energy and pathos, his eloquence arrested at- tention and warmed the heart. In his prayers, which were uttered with humility and reverence, there was a grateful variety; and, as they were pertinent, scriptural, and animated with the spirit of devotion, they were admi- rably calculated to raise the souls of his fellow worship- pers to God. His presence in the chambers of the sick was peculiarly acceptable, for he knew how to address the conscience without offence, to impart instruction, to sooth, and to comfort. His attention was not confined to theology; but he made himself acquainted with other branches of science, and was one of the most finished classical scholars of his day. His friendship to literature induced him, after the destruction of the library of Har- vard college by fire, to exert himself to procure subscrip- tions to repair the loss. In 1767, he was elected a mem- ber of the corporation, in which office he continued until his death. He was an active member of the society for propagating the gospel among the aborigines of America. Most sincerely attached to the cause of civil and religious liberty, he was among the first of those patriots, who took a decided part in opposition to the arbitrary exactions of Great Britain. He was one of the foremost in laying the foundation of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was chosen its first vice-president in the year 1780. In his last illness he informed his friends, that he was perfectly resigned to the will of heaven; that his hopes and consolations sprang from a firrh belief of those truths, which he had preached to others; and that he wished not to be detained any longer from that state of perfection and felicity, which the gospel had opened to his view. - Besides his political writings, which appeared in the journals of the day, he published many discourses.— Clarke's Funeral Sermon ; American Herald, January 19, 1784; Continental Journal, January 22 ; Holmes ; Thatcher's Cent. Disc, ; Eliot ; Allen. COOS; an island in the Grecian Archipelago, at a short distance from the south-west point of Lesser Asia, 1 Mac. 15:23. Paul passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem, Acts 24: 1. It is now called Stancora or Lango. It is thought by some to be the same as the Hebrew Koa, called by the Greeks Coon, and Coos. The Coan vests, which probably were not unlike our gauzes, or transparent muslins, are alluded to by Horace and Tibullus.—Calmet. COPINISTS; a sort of Universalists, who are said to have denied the resurrection of the body.—Williams. COPIOLE ; (undertakers, grave-diggers, &c.,) an order of persons instituted in the fourth century, to see to the decent burial of the dead; and thence entitled partly to the same privileges as the clergy.—Broughton's Dicl, 5 Williams. * . - COPONIUS; the first governor of Judea, established by Augustus, after the banishment of Archelaus to Vienne, in France.—Calmet. - - COPPER, (Heb.nehesh.) Anciently, copper was employ- ed for all the purposes for which we now use iron, Arms, and tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts, were all of this metal for many ages. ... Job speaks of bows of cop- per, (Job 20: 24;) and when the Philistines had Samson in their power, they bound him with ſetters of copper. Our translators indeed say “brass;” but under that article their mistake is pointed out. In Ezra 8: 27, are mentioned “two vessels of copper, precious as gold.” The Septuagint renders it skewe chalkou ilbontos; the Vul- gate and Castellio, following the Arabic, “vasa aris ful- gentis ;” and the Syriac, “wases of Corinthian brass.” It is more probable, however, that this brass was not from Corinth, but a metal from Persia or India, which Aristotle describes in these terms: “It is said that there is in India. a brass so shining, so pure, so free from tarnish, that its color differs nothing from that of gold. It is even said that among the vessels of Darius there were some re- specting which the sense of smelling might determine whether they were gold or brass.” Boehart is of opinion that this is the chasmal of Ezekiel 1: 27, the chalkolihanon, of Rev. 1: 15, and the electrum of the ancients. Mr. Harmer quotes from the manuscript notes of Sir John Chardin a reference to a mixed metal in the East, and highly esteemed there; and suggests that this compo- sition might have been as old as the time of Ezra, and be brought from those more remote countries into Persia, where these two basins were given to be conveyed to . Jerusalem. Ezekiel (27: 13,) speaks of the merchants of Javan, Jubal, and Meshech, as bringing vessels of mehesh (copper) to the markets of Tyre. According to Bochart and Michaelis, these were people situated towards mount Caucasus, where copper mines are worked at this day. (See BRAss.)—Watson. - COPTI, or CoPTs; a name given to the natives of Egypt belonging to the Jacobite or Monophysite sect, and is a term of Arabic formation, manifestly a corruption of the Greek Aiguptos. The Jacobites, who were of pure Egyptian blood, and far more numerous than their adver- saries, the Melkites (Greeks in faith as well as in origin,) having been persecuted as heretics by the Greek emperor, were willing to submit to the arms of Amru-Ibn-el-āás, the Arabian commander, who granted to them immuni- ties which they had not previously possessed, and pro- tected their church from the encroachments of the Con- stantinopolitan see. But the Copts soon found that their privileges would be of little avail under oppressive or fanatical princes. Their wealth, numbers, and respecta- bility rapidly declined; and, though rarely intermarrying with their conquerors, and preserving their features, man- ners, and religion unaltered, they soon lost their language, which had resisted the influence of a Grecian court for so many ages. Though studied and used as a learned lan. guage till the present time, it appears to have been little or at all spoken as early as the tenth century. - In person and features, the Copts differ much from the other natives of Egypt, and are evidently a distinct race— an intermediate link in the chain which connects the ne- gro with the fairer tribes to the north and south of the tropics, strongly resembling the Abyssinians, who, though extremely dark, are much paler than the genuine negroes. Dark eyes, aquiline noses, and curled hair, are the usual characteristics of both nations; and the mum- mies which have been examined, show the resemblance of the modern Copts to their ancestors. At the highest calculation, they do not at present amount to more than C O R. C O R [415 J between four hundred thousand and five hundred thou- sand souls. They have good capacities, and generally. have the Turkish taxes, finances, &c., in their hands. The Copts have a patriarch, who resides at Cairo; but he takes his title from Alexandria. He has no arch- bishop under him, but eleven or twelve bishops. The rest of the clergy, whether secular or regular, are com- posed of the orders of St. Anthony, St. Paul, St. Macarius, who have each their monasteries. Besides the orders of priests, deacons, and subdeacons, the Copts have likewise archimandrites, or abbots, the dignity whereof they con- fer with all the prayers and ceremonies of a strict ordina- tion. By a custom of six hundred years' standing, if a priest elected bishop be not already archimandrite, that dignity must be conferred on him before episcopal ordina- tion. The second person among the clergy, after the patriarch, is the titular patriarch of Jerusalem, who also resides at Cairo. To him belongs the government of the Coptic church during the vacancy of the patriarchal see. To be elected patriarch, it is necessary the person have lived all his life in continence. To be elected bishop, the person must be in the celibate; or, if he have been married, it must not be above once. The priests and inferior mi- misters are allowed to be married before ordination; but not forced to it, as some have observed. They have a great number of deacons, and even confer the dignity frequently on their children. None but the lowest rank among the people commence ecclesiastics, whence arises that excessive ignorance found among them ; yet the re- spect of the laity towards the clergy is very extraordinary. The monastic life is in great esteem among them : to be admitted into it, there is always required the consent of the bishop. The religious Copts, it is said, make a vow of perpetual chastity; renounce the world, and live with great austerity in deserts; they are obliged to sleep in their clothes and their girdle, on a mat stretched on the ground; and to prostrate themselves every evening one hundred and fifty times with their face and breast on the ground. They are all, both men and women, of the lowest class of the people, and live on alms. The nunne- ries are properly hospitals, and few enter but widows re- duced to beggary.—Hend. Buck. * COPTIC VERSION. (See BIBLE VERSIONs.) COR, or CHOMER ; a measure equal to ten ephahs, or seventeen thousand four hundred and sixty-eight solid inches, which is forty-four solid inches more than the English quarter. Ezek. 45: 14.—Bronn. CORAL ; (ramuth, Job 28: 18; Ezekiel 17: 16.5) a hard, cretaceous, marine production, resembling in figure the stem of a plant, divided into branches. It is of different colors, black, white, and red. The latter is the sort emphatically called coral, as being the most valuable, and usually made into ornaments. This, though no gem, is ranked by the author of the book of Job (28: 18,) with the onyx and sapphire. Dr. Good observes, “It is by no means certain what the words here rendered ‘corals and pearls,” and those immediately afterwards rendered ‘ru- bies and topaz,” really signified. Reiske has given up the inquiry as either hopeless or useless ; and Schultens has generally introduced the Hebrew words themselves, and left the reader of the translation to determine as he may, Our common version is, in the main, concurrent with most of the oriental renderings : and I see no reason to deviate from it.”—Watson. . . . . CORBAN ; a gift, a present made to God, or to his temple. The Jews sometimes swore by corban, or by gifts offered to God, Matt. 23: 18. Theophrastus says, that the Tyrians forbade the use of such oaths as were peculiar to foreigners, and particularly of corban; which, Josephus informs us, was used only by the Jews. Our Savior reproaches the Jews with cruelty towards their parents, in making a corban of what should have been appropriated to their use. Matthew expresses this reply from children to their parents : “It is a gift—whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me,” i. e. I have already devoted to God that which you request of me. Is not the idea to this effect: “that succor which you request of me is already devoted to God; therefore I cannot profane it by giving it to you, although you are my parent, and such might be my duty ?”—Now, this might take place in par- ticular articles, without the child's whole property being so devoted; or it might be a pretence to put off the soli- citing parent for the time. This the Jewish doctors es- téemed binding; yet easily remitted. The form of the vow is in express terms mentioned in the Talmud; and though such a vow is against both nature and reason, yet the Pharisees, and the Talmudists, their successors, ap- prove it. To facilitate the practice of these vows, so contrary to natural duty, to charity and religion, to con- firm and increase the superstition of their people, the Jewish doctors did not require them to be pronounced in a formal manner; it was of little consequence whether the word corban were mentioned, though this was most in use, provided something was said which came near it. They permitted even debtors to defraud their creditors, by consecrating their debt to God; as if the property were their own, and not rather the right of their creditor. —Calmet. - - - - - . . CORD. To put cords about one's reins, to gird one's self with a cord, was a token of sorrow and humiliation, Job 12: 18. 1 Kings 20: 31, 32. “The cords of sin,” (Prov. 5; 22,) are the consequences of crimes and bad habits: bad habits are, as it were, indissoluble bands, from which it is almost impossible to extricate ourselves. To stretch a line or cord about a city, signifies, to ruin it, to destroy it entirely, to level it with the ground, Lam. 2: 8. The cords extended in setting up tents furnish several metaphors, Isa. 33: 20. Jer. 10: 20–Calmet. --- CORDELIER ; a Franciscan, or religious of the order of St. Francis. The denomination Cordelier is said to have been given in the war of St. Lewis against the infidels, wherein the friars minor having repulsed the barbarians, and that king having inquired their name, it was an- swered, they were people cordeliez, “tied with ropes;” alluding to the girdle of rope or cord, tied with three knots, which they wore as part of their habit.—Hend. Puck. CORDICOLES, or CoRDIA-LATRAs ; a society of Ca- tholic devotees, who professed to worship “the sacred heart of Jesus, and the heart of Mary,” his virgin mother. M. Grégoire (in his “Histoire des Sectes Religueses”) has written what he calls “an Historical Critique” on this sect, which is full of blunders. M. de Fumel, a French bishop, however, published two volumes in twelves, on “Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus,” which was followed by several other works in French and Italian on the same subject, about the middle of the last century; and the sect spread, as might be expected, into Naples, Sardinia, and Spain, notwithstanding several checks from the ecclesiastical authorities, and from the more sober and intelligent divines of the Catholic communion.—Grégoire's History, tome i. pp. 333–370; — Williams. CORIANDER ; (Exod. 16: 31; Numbers 11: 7;) a strongly aromatic plant. It bears a small round seed, of a very agreeable Smell and taste. The manna might be compared to the coriander seed in respect to its form or shape, as it was to bdellium in its color. (See MANNA.) — Watson. CORINTH ; a renowned city, the capital of Achaia, situated on the isthmus which separates the Peloponnesus from Attica. This city was one of the most populous and C O R C OR [416 J wealthy of all Greece. Being destroyed by L. Mummius, B. C. 146, for its insolence to the Roman legates, it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and restored to its ancient splen- dor. Situated about the middle of the isthmus, at the distance of about sixty stadia from the sea, on either side, it drew the commerce of both the East and West from all parts. The surrounding country being mountainous and rather barren, the inhabitants were not much addicted to agriculture, but from their local situation they pos- sessed singular advantages for commerce, which they carried on to a great extent, The natural consequences of an extensive commerce were wealth and luxury; fostered in this manner, Corinth rose in magnitude an grandeur, and its elegant and magnificent temples, pala- tes, theatres, and other public buildings adorned with statues, columns, capitals and bases, not only rendered it the pride of its inhabitants, and the admiration of stran- gers, but gave rise to that order of architecture which still bears its name. Besides the citadel, built upon a mountain which overlooked the c ty, and which was called Acro-Corinthus, the works of art which principally dis- played the opulence and taste of the Corinthians, were the grottos raised over the fountain Pyrené, sacred to the muses and constructed of white marble : the theatre and stadium, built of the same materials, and decorated in the most magnificent manner: the temple of Neptune, con- taining the chariots of that fabulous deity, and of Am- phitrite drawn by horses covered over with gold, and adorned with ivory hoofs: the avenue which led to this edifice, decorated on the one side with the statues of those that had been victorious at the Isthmian games, and on the other, with rows of tall pine trees. We here give a view 2 * ... " - jºº ſº.º. ºº • *--> *. * Wº%iº ... º. " ſº/ºsº º - * &º "Nº "...: *Sºº-º-º: - of the ruins of one of many magnificent edifices erected when the city was in its glory; a field of wheat now covers the spot where, in the times of the apostles, busy crowds were wont to assemble. Corinth was scarcely less celebrated for the learning and ingenuity of its inhabitants than for the extent of its commerce and the magnificence of its buildings. The arts and sciences were here carried to such perfection that Cicero terms it, “totius Greciae lumen,” the light of all Greece ; and Florus calls it, “Greciac decus,” the ornament of Greece. Seminaries abounded in which philosophy and rhetoric were publicly taught by learned professors, and strangers resorted to them from all quar- ters to perfect their education. Hence the remark of the Roman poet, Horace, “Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum,”—“It does not fall to the lot of every one to visit Corinth.” The lustre, however, which this famous city derived from the number and genius of its inhabit- ants, was greatly tarnished by their debauched manners. Strabo informs us that, “in the temple of Venus at Co- rinth, there were more than a thousand harlots, the slaves of the temple, who, in honor of the goddess, prostituted themselves to all comers for hire, and in consequence of these the city was crowded and became wealthy.” Lih. 8. p. 581. It is accordingly known that lasciviousness was carried to such a pitch at Corinth, that the appellation of a Corinthian, given to a woman, imported that she was a prostitute. - * * Such was the state of Corinth, when the great apostle of the Gentiles came to preach the gospel there, in the year of Christ, 52. See Acts 18. Here he continued nearly two years, encouraged by the divine presence and blessing upon his ministry, converting numbers to the faith of Christ, whom he formed into a Christian church; and to whom after his departure, he wrote his two Epistles. (See CoRINTHIANs.) About A. D. 268, the Heruli burned Corinth to ashes. In 525, it was again almost ruined by an earthquake. About 1180, Roger, king of Sicily, took and plundered it. Since 1458, it was till lately under the power of the Turks; and is so decayed, that its inhabitants amount to no more than about fifteen hundred, or two thousand ; half Mahometans, and half Christians. A late French writer, who visited this country, observes, “When the Caesars rebuilt the walls of Corinth, and the temples of the gods rose from their ruins more magnificent than ever, an obscure architect was rearing in silence an edifice which still remains standing amidst the ruins of Greece. This man, unknown to the great, despised by the multi- tude, rejected as the offscouring of the world, at first associated with himself only two companions, Crispus and Gaius, with the family of Stephanas. These were the humble architects of an indestructible temple, and the first believers at Corinth. The traveller surveys the site of this.celebrated city; he discovers not a vestige of the altars of paganism, but perceives some Christian chapels rising from among the cottages of the Greeks. The apostle might still, from his celestial abode, give the salutation of peace to his children, and address them in the words, “Paul to the church of God, which is at Co- rinth.’”—Jones ; Watson. CORINTHIANS, (EPISTLEs To.) St. Paul left Corinth, A. D. 53 or 54, and went to Jerusalem. From Ephesus he wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, in the begin- ning of A. D. 56. In this epistle he reproves some who disturbed the peace of the church, complains of some disorders in their assemblies, of law-suits among them, and of a Christian who had committed incest with his mother-in-law, the wife of his father, and had not been separated from the church. This letter produced in the Corinthians great grief, vigilance against the vices re- proved, and a very beneficial dread of God's anger. They repaired the scandal, and expressed indignant zeal against the crime committed, 2 Cor. 7: 9–11. To form an idea of the condition of the Corinthian church, we must examine the epistles of the apostle. The root of the disturbance, as we shall see from the whole, related to the obligation of Judaism. The advo- cates of it had appealed, even in Galatia, to Cephas and James, for the sake of opposing to Paul, who had ba- nished Jewish ceremonies from Christianity, authorities which were not less admitted than his own. The question itself divided all these various parties into two principal factions: the partisans of Cephas and James were for the law ; the friends of Paul adopted his opinion, as well as Apollos, who, with his adherents, was always in heart in favor of Paul, and never wished to take part in a separation from him, 1 Cor. 16:12. The leaders of the party against Paul, who declared themselves the promulgators and de- fenders of the doctrines of Cephas and James, were, as may be easily conceived, converted Jews, (2 Cor. 11:22,) who had come from different places, to all appearance from Palestine, (2 Cor. 11: 4,)—and could therefore boast of having had intercourse with the apostles at Jerusalem, and of an acquaintance with their principles. They were not even of the orthodox Jews, but those who adhered to the doctrines of the Sadducees; and though they were even now converted to Christianity, whilst they spoke zeal- ously in favor of the law, they were undermining the hopes of the pious, and exciting doubts against the resur- rection, (1 Cor. 15:35;) so that Paul, from regard to the teachers, whose disciples they professed to be, was obliged to refute them from the testimony of James and Cephas, 1 Cor. 15: 5, 7. They, proud of their own opinions, (1 Cor. 1: 17,) not without Fº: views deprecated Paul's authority, and extolled their own knowledge, —k- 1207 E DWELLINGS CHINES | | | ſ º } |×| £. | } }į | ſ（NĘ CUSTOMIS IN THE EAST.-ORIENTAL CONVERSATZIONE. 412. P Page 412. • º - . C O R C O R. [47] 1 Cor. 2:12; 2 Cor. 11; 16, 17. Violently as the contest was carried on, they still did not withdraw from the same place of assembly for instruction and mutual edification; even this, however, was the cause of too many scandalous scenes and disorders, 1 Cor. 11:17; 12: 13, 14. Each party gave to the other, as much as possible, mo- tives for ill-will and reproach, 1 Cor. 6: 1. 7: 18. 8: 1. 10: 25–28. 11: 5–10. 7: 1–25. These were the evils, both in his own party and in that of his opponents, which St. Paul had to remedy, in his first epistle. Paul, having understood the good effects of his first letter among the Corinthians, wrote a second to them, A. D. 57, from Macedonia, and probably from Philippi. He expresses his satisfaction at their conduct, justifies himself, and comforts them. He glories in his suffering, and exhorts them to liberality. Near the end of the year 57, he came again to Corinth, where he staid about three months, and whence he went to Jerusalem. Just before his second departure from Corinth, he wrote his Epistle to the Romans, probably in the beginning of A. D. 58.- Watson. CORMORANT; (Levit. 11:17; Deut. 14:17;) a large sea bird. It is about three feet four inches in length, and & --Sº º - --~~~ - - V--> £ºº:::::::sº * sº- sº sº-º# *f Fº # =::===& ºiâûâûSW four feet two inches in breadth from the tips of the ex tended wings. The bill is about five inches long, and of a dusky color; the base of the lower mandible is covered with a maked yellowish skin, which extends under the throat and forms a kind of pouch. It has a most vora- cious appetite, and lives chiefly upon fish, which it de- vours with unceasing gluttony. It darts down very ra- pidly upon its prey; and its Hebrew and Greek names are expressive of its impetuosity. The word which in our version of Isaiah, (34:11,) is rendered cormorant, is the pelican.—Watson. - CORN. The generic name for grain, in the Old Testa- ment writings, is dagen, corn, so named for its abundant increase. In Gen. 26: 12, and Matt. 13: 8, grain is spoken of as yielding a hundred-fold; and to the ancient fertility of Palestine all authorities bear testimony. Of the difference in quantity of produce in different parts, Wetstein has collected many accounts. It is evident from Ruth 2:14. 2 Sam. 17:28, 29, &c. that parched corn constituted part of the ordinary food of the º as it still does of the Arabs resident in Syria. —Calmet. CORN ARISTS; the disciples of Theodore Cornhert, an enthusiastic secretary of the States of Holland. He wrote, at the same time, against the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. He maintained that every religious com- munion needed reformation; but he added, that no person had a right to engage in accomplishing it without a mis- sion supported by miracles. He was also of opinion, that a person might be a good Christian withoat being a mem- ber of any visible church.—Hend. Buck. CORNELIUS ; centurion of a cohort, belonging to the legion surnamed Italian, Acts 10. He was a Gentile; one who feared God; of constant devotion, and much charity. . His whole family served God, and it pleased God to favor him in a miraculous manner with a know- ledge of the gospel, through Peter, from whom he received instruction. As the apostle was speaking, the Holy Spirit fell upon Cornelius and his family, and they were added to the Christian church, as the first-fruits of the Gentiles. It deserves notice, that Julian the apostate reckons only two persons of consideration, who were converted to Christianity on its first promulgation :-Sergius Paulus the proconsul, and Cornelius the centurion. From this reference, it is probable that Cornelius was a person of greater distinction than he is usually supposed to be.— Calmet. CORNELIUS, a bishop of Rome, was beheaded on the 14th of September, 252, for refusing at the orders of the emperor Gallus to sacrifice to the pagan deities. CORNELIUS, (ELIAs, D.D.,) secretary of the American Education society, graduated at Yale college in 1813; and, after studying theology, engaged in 1816, as an agent of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, in which capacity he was for one or two years very active and successful. In September and October, 1817, he visited the missions in the Cherokee nation. The Subsequent winter he spent in the employment of the Missionary society of Connecticut, at New Orleans, where he was joined by Sylvester Larned, and they labored together till the congregation was organized and Mr. Larned invited to become the minister ; after which he turned his attention to the poor and sick, and others of the destitute. In the spring, he returned to Andover; and July 21, 1819, was installed as colleague with Dr. Worcester at Salem. In September, 1826, he was appointed secretary of the Ameri- can Education society. In the service of this institution, he devised the plan of permanent scholarships, and met with unexampled success in soliciting subscriptions. He established also the Quarterly Register and Journal of the American Education society, which he conducted for some years, assisted by Mr. B. B. Edwards. In October, 1831, he was chosen secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in the place of Mr. Evarts deceased. But he had signified his acceptance of this office only a few weeks, and had just entered the new and wide field of toil for the enlargement of the king- dom of Jesus Christ, when he was removed from the world. Exhausted by a journey from Boston, he was taken sick at Hartford, Connecticut, February 7, and died in that city of a fever on the brain, February 12, 1832, aged thirty-seven. Dr. Cornelius was enterprising, bold, and eloquent; though resolute, yet considerate and prudent. Of a vigo- rous frame and determined spirit, he was capable of meeting and surmounting great difficulties. He fell in the fulness of his strength ; perhaps that the American churches might not trust in man. Besides his labors in the Quarterly Journal and the Annual Reports of the Education society, he published a discourse on the doctrine of the Trinity, reprinted as No. 185 of the Tract society. —Memoir by B. B. Ednyards ; Allen. - CORNER ; the extremity of any thing, according to the Hebrews. “Ye shall not round the corners of your head, neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard, Lev. 19: 27. “Draw near, all ye chief º: corners) of the people.” 1 Sam. 14:38. “They have seduced Egypt, even they who are the stay (corner) of the tribes thereof.” Isa. 19:13. And, (Zeph. 3: 6,) “I have cut off the nations, their corners are desolate.” The corner some- times signifies the most distinguished place, that part of an edifice which is most in sight. Zechariah, Speaking of Judah, after the return from captivity, says, “Out of him came forth the corner, out of him the nail,” 10: 4. This tribe shall afford corners, heads; it shall produce the 53 C O S - .% [418 J C O S corner-stone, the Messiah. Corner is taken likewise for the most retired part of a house, Prov. 21:9. The corner of a bed or duan (Amos 3: 12,) is the place of honor. (See BED.)—Calmet. º CóRNET; a wind instrument of horn, or shaped like a horn for sounding in war, or at religious Solemnities; but as sophar is commonly rendered tº gº I know not why it is ever rendered cornet, (Hos. 5: 85) but kerºn or karmah, is very properly rendered cornet, Dan. 3: 5. 7: 10. —Bronn. CORPUS CHRISTI, (FEAST of ;) a particular festival instituted in the Roman church, in honor of the conse- crated host, and with a view to its adoration. It owes its origin to the vision of a nun of Liege, named Juliana, in 1230, who, while looking at the full moon, saw a gap in its orb; and, by a peculiar revelation from heaven, learned that the moon represented the Christian church, and the gap the want of a certain festival,—that of the adoration of the body of Christ in the consecrated host,- which she was to begin to celebrate, and announce to the world! In 1264, while a priest at Bolsena, who did not believe in the change of the bread into the body of Christ, was going through the ceremony of benediction, drops of blood fell on his surplice ; and, when he endeavored to conceal them in the folds of his garment, formed bloody images of the host. The bloody surplice is still shown as a relic at Civita Vecchia. Urban IV. published in the same year, a bull, in which he appointed the Thursday of the week after Pentecost, for the celebration of the Corpus Christi feast throughout Christendom, and promised absolution for a period of from forty to one hundred days to the penitent who took part in it. Since then, the festi- val has been kept as one of the greatest in the Roman Catholic church. Splendid processions form an essential part of it. The children belonging to the choir, with flags, and the priests, with lighted tapers, move through the streets in front of the priest, who carries the host in a precious box, where it can be seen, under a canopy held by four laymen of rank. A crowd of the common people closes the procession. In Spain, it is customary for per- sons of distinction to send their children, dressed as an- gels, to join the procession ; the different fraternities carry their patron saints before the host; astonishment and awe are produced, as well as feelings of superstitious devotion, by the splendor and magnificence of the procession, by the brilliant appearance of the streamers, by the clouds of smoke from the incense, and the solemn sound of the music. The festival is also a general holiday, in which bull fights, games, dances, and other amuse- ments, are not wanting. In Sicily, all the liberties of a masquerade are allowed, and passages from Scripture history are theatrically exhibited in the streets. The whole people are in a state of the utmost excitement, and riot in the gratification of their carnal passions under the sanction of religious license.—Hend. Buck. CORRUPTION. (1.) The putrefaction of dead bodies. Psalm 16:10. (2.) The blemishes which rendered an animal unfit for sacrifice. Lev. 22: 25. (3.) Sinful incli- nations, habits, and practices, which are hateful in them- selves, and defile and ruin men. Rom. 8:21.2 Pet. 2: 12, 19. (4.) Everlasting ruin. Gal. 6: 8. (5.) Uncomeliness as of a dead body. Dan. 10: 8. (6.) Men in their mortal and imperfect state. 1 Cor. 15:50. The mount of Olives is called the mount of Corruption, because there Solomon built high places or temples for abominable idols to gratify his heathenish wives. 2 Kings 23: 13.—Bronn. CORRUPTICOLAE; a party of Monophysites in the sixth century, who maintained that the body of Christ was corruptible, like that of other men, before his resurrection, while Halicarnassus and others insisted that it was incor- ruptible from the moment of his conception. (See APH- THARTodocITEs.)—Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. pp. 147–8; Williams. COSMOGONY, (from the Greek kosmos, the world, and genos, generation), according to its etymology, should be defined—the origin of the world; but the term has be- come, to a great degree, associated with the numerous theories of different nations and individuals respecting º event. These hypotheses mav be divided into three C 10.SSèS :-- 1. That which represents the world as eternal in form as well as substance. Ocellus Lucanus is one of the most ancient philosophers who supposed the world to have ex isted from eternity. Aristotle appears to have embraced the same doctrine. His theory is, that not only the hea- ven and earth, but also animate and inanimate beings in general, were without beginning. His opinion rested on the belief, that the universe was necessarily the eternal effect of a cause equally eternal, such as the Divine Spirit, which, being at once power and action, could not remain idle. Yet he admitted that a spiritual substance was the cause of the universe, of its motion and its form. He says positively, in his Metaphysics, that God is an intelli- gent spirit, incorporeal, immovable, indivisible, the mover of all things. According to him, the universe is less a creation than an emanation of the Deity. Plato says the universe is an eternal image of the immutable Idea or Type, united, from eternity, with changeable matter. The followers of this philosopher both developed and distorted this idea. Ammonius, a disciple of Proclus, taught, in the sixth century, at Alexandria, the co-eternity of God and the universe. Several ancient philosophers (as also moderns) have gone further, and taught that the universe is one with Deity. Of this opinion were Xenophanes, Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno of Elea, and the Megaric Sect. 2. The theory which considers the matter of the universe eternal, but not its form, was the prevailing one among the ancients, who, starting from the principle that out of nothing nothing could be made, could not admit the crea- tion of matter, yet did not believe that the world had al- ways been in its present state. The prior state of the world, subject to a constant succession of uncertain move: ments, which chance afterwards made regular, they called chaos. The Phoenicians, Babylonians, and also the Egyp- tians, seem to have adhered to this theory. The ancient poets, who have handed down to us the old mythological traditions, represent the universe as springing from chaos without the assistance of the Deity. Hesiod feigns that Chaos was the parent of Erebus and Night, from whose union sprang the Air and the Day. He further relates how the sky and the stars were separated from the earth, &c. The system of atoms is much more famous. Leu- cippus and Democritus of Abdera were its inventors. The atoms, or indivisible particles, said they, existed from eternity, moving at hazard, and producing, by their con- stant meeting, a variety of substances. After having given rise to an immense variety of combinations, they produced the present organization of bodies. This system of cosmogony was that of Epicurus, as described by Lu- cretius. Democritus attributed to atoms form and size; Epicurus added weight. Many other systems have ex- isted, which must be classed under this division. We only mention that of the Stoics, who admitted two princi- ples, God and matter,-in the abstract, both corporeal, for they did not admit spiritual beings. The first was active, the second passive. 3. The third theory of cosmogony makes God the crea- tor of the world out of nothing. This is the doctrine of the sacred Scriptures, in which it is taught with the great- est simplicity and beauty. From its being more or less held by the Etruscans, Magi, Druids, and Brahmins, it would seem to have found its way as a tradition from the regions in which it was possessed as a divine revelation. . Anaxagoras was the first who taught it among the Greeks; and it was generally adopted by the Romans; notwith- standing the efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine of Epicurus. “The free-thinkers of our own and of former ages have denied the possibility of creation, as being a contradiction to reason; and of consequence have taken the opportunity from thence to discredit revelation. On the other hand, many defenders of the sacred writings have asserted that creation out of nothing, so far from being a contradiction to reason, is not only probable, but demonstrably certain. Nay, some have gone so far as to say, that from the very inspection of the visible system of nature, we are able to infer that it was once in a state of non-existence.” We cannot, however, here enter into the multiplicity of the arguments on both sides; it is enough for us to know . . * C OS C O U [419 ) what God has *been pleased to reveal, both concerning himself and the works of his hands. Men, and other ani- mals, that inhabit the earth and the seas; all the immense varieties of herbs and plants of which the vegetable king- dom consists; the globe of the earth; and the expanse of the ocean, these we know to have been produced by his power. Besides the terrestrial world, which we inhabit, we see many other material bodies disposed around it in the wide extent of space. The moon, which is in a par- ticular manner connected with our earth, and even de- pendent upon it; the sun and the other planets, with their satellites, which, like the earth, circulate round the sun, and appear to derive from him light and heat; those bo- dies which we call fixed stars, and consider as illuminat- ing and cherishing with heat each its peculiar system of planets: and the comets which, at certain periods, Sur- prise us with their appearance, and the nature of whose connexion with the general system of nature, or with any particular system of planets, we cannot pretend to have fully discovered; these are so many more of the Deity's works, from the contemplation of which we cannot but conceive the most awful ideas of his creative power. “Matter, however, whatever the varieties of form un- der which it is made to appear, the relative disposition of its parts, or the motions communicated to it, is but an in- ferior part of the works of creation. We believe ourselves to be animated with a much higher principle than brute matter; in viewing the manners and economy of the low- er animals, we can scarce avoid acknowledging even them to consist of something more than various modifications of matter and motion. The other planetary bodies, which seem to be in circumstances nearly analogous to those of our earth, are surely, as well as it, destined for the habita- tions of rational, intelligent beings. The existence of in- telligences of a higher order than man, though infinitely below the Deity, appears extremely probable. Of these spiritual beings, called angels, we have express intimation in Scripture (see the article ANGEL). But the limits of the creation we must not pretend to define. How far the regions of space extend, or how they are filled, we know not. How the planetary worlds, the sun, and the fixed stars are occupied, we do not pretend to have ascertained. We are even ignorant how wide, a diversity of forms, what an infinity of living animated beings may inhabit our own globe. So confined is our knowledge of creation, yet so grand, so awful, that part which our narrow understand- ings can comprehend. “Concerning the periods of time at which the Deity ex- ecuted his several works, it cannot be pretended that man- kind have had opportunities of receiving very particular information. Many have been the conjectures, and curi- ous the fancies of learned men, respecting it; but, after all, we must be indebted to the sacred writings for the best information.” Different copies, indeed, give different dates. (See CHRonoLogy.) But though these different systems of chronology are so inconsistent, and so slender- ly supported, yet the differences among them are so incon- siderable, in comparison with those which arise before us when we contemplate the chronology of the Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, and they agree so well with the general information of authentic history, and with the appearances of nature, and of society, that they may be considered as nearly fixing the true period of the creation of the earth. - Uncertain, however, as we may be as to the exact time of the creation, we may profitably apply ourselves to the contemplation of this immense fabric. Indeed, the beau: tiful and multiform works around us must strike the mind of every beholder with wonder and admiration, unless he be enveloped in ignorance, and chained down to the earth with sensuality. These works every way proclaim the wisdom, the power, and the goodness of the Creator. Creation is a book which the nicest philosopher may study with the deepest attention. Unlike the works of art, the more it is examined, the more it opens to us sources of admiration of its great Author; the more it calls for our inspection, and the more it demands our praise. Here every thing is adjusted in the exactest order; all answering the wisest ends, and acting according to the appointed laws of Deity. IIere the Christian is led into the most delight- ful field of contemplation. To him every pebble becomes a preacher, and every atom a step by which he ascends to his Creator. Placed in this beautiful temple, and looking around on all its various parts, he cannot help joining with the psalmist in saying, “O Lord, how mani- fold are thy works; in wisdom hast thou made them all!” (See ETERNITY of God.) See Ray and Blackmore on the Crea- tion ; art. CREATION, Enc. Brit. ; Derham's Astro and Phy- sico-Theology; Hervey's Meditations; La Pluche's Nature Dis- played; Sturm’s Reflections on the Works of God; Good's Book of Nature; Dwight's Theology, vol. i. ser. ii.-Hend. Buck. COTTAGE. (See TENT.) COTTON; a white woolly or downy substance found in a brown bud, produced by a shrub, the leaves of which resemble those of the sycamore tree. The bud, which grows as large as a pigeon’s egg, turns black, when ripe, and divides at top into three parts; the cotton is as white as Snow, and with the heat of the sun swells to the size of a pullet’s egg. Scripture speaks of cotton under the Hebrew name shesh, Exod. 25. 4.—Calmet. COUCH. (See BEd.) COUNCIL; an assembly of ecclesiastical persons met together for the purpose of consultation on ecclesiastical matters.-Hend. Buck. COUNCIL, (EcuMENICAL or GENERAL) is an assembly which has been supposed to represent the whole body of the Christian church. It is obvious, however, that there is room for considerable diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a general council in the ecclesiastical sense of the expression; and it is no less clear that, in the proper sense of the phrase, such a council has never been held. The Romanists reckon eighteen of them, Bullinger six, Dr. Prideaux seven, and bishop Beveridge eight, which, he says, are all the general councils which have ever been held since the time of the first Christian emperor. Adopt- ing the number contended for by the Romish writers, they must be all divided into two classes—Eastern and West- ern—the former called by the emperors, the latter by the popes. The following is the order:— EIGHT EAST frn CouncILs. 1. At Nice, in Bithynia, in the year 325, which sat about two months, and was occasioned by the Arian he- resy. Authors differ respecting the number of bishops that were assembled ; Eusebius saying there were two hundred and fifty, and Socrates that there were three hun- dred and eighteen. The emperor himself honored it with his presence, Hosius, bishop of Cordova, in Spain—a man of great piety and learning—presided. It was at this council that the term homoousios, of the same substance, was applied to the Son to express the identity of his nature with that of the Father. The profession of the faith, called the Nicene creed, was then drawn up, and subscribed by all, except a small number of Arians. 2. Constantinople (I.) in 381, convened by the emperor Theodosius, in order to oppose the heresies of Sabellius, Marcellus, Photinus, and Apollinaris, which were still more or less privately taught; and to settle still more definitely some points of the Nicene Creed against the Arians, especially by making additions declaratory of be- lief in the divinity of the Holy Spirit. At this council, a hundred and fifty prelates were present. 3. Ephesus, 431, consisting of two hundred hishops assembled to judge of the Nestorian heresy, which they condemned by a solemn sentence, confirmatory of the sentence pronounced against Nestorius, the year before, by pope Celestine I., in a synod held at Rome. 4. Chalcedon, 451, composed, according to some, of six hundred; and, according to others, of six hundred and fifty bishops. It condemned the errors of Eutychus, who affirmed that there was but one nature in Christ. 5. Constantinople (II.) in 553, convoked by Justinian, and consisting of a hundred and sixty-five bishops. Its principal transaction was the condemnation of what is called the “Three Chapters,” by which is meant the writings of Theodore of Mopsuesta, Theodoret of Cyr, and the Epistle of Ibas, to Maris the Persian. It also issued an amathema against Origen, Arius, Macedonius and others. 6. Constantinople (III.,) in 680, consisting of somewhere C O U co U [ 420 | about two hundred prelates, renewed the condemnation of the Monothelite heresy, which asserted that there was only one will in Christ—a sentence which had been pro- nounced against its abettors, in a council held at Rome, the preceding year. - 7. Nice, 787. This council, commonly called the Se- cond Nicene, assembled at Constantinople the year before, but was so disturbed by the violence of the Iconoclasts, that the members were obliged to adjourn and meet else- where. There were present three hundred and fifty bishops, besides many monks and priests, who came to the conclusion, on the subject of imagerſvorship, that it was relatively lawful; the effect of which was its confirmation and prevalence. . 8. Constantinople (IV.) in 869; the principal business of which was the deposition of Photius, who had intruded into the see of Constantinople, and the restoration of Ignatius, who had been unjustly expelled. - TEN WESTERN Councils. 1. Lateran (I.,) in the year 1123. It was convened by pope Calixtus II, who presided in person, and consisted of three hundred bishops. It decreed that investiture to ecclesiastical dignities was the exclusive right of the church; and that the practice of secular princes giving such investiture was an usurpation. The celibacy of the clergy was also decreed. 2. Lateran (II.,) in 1139, composed of nearly a thousand bishops, under the presidency of pope Innocent II. It de- cided on the due election of this pope, and condemned the tenets of Peter de Bruys, and Arnold of Brescia. 3. Lateran gº) in 1179. At this council, with pope Alexander III. at their head, three hundred and two bishops condemned what they were pleased to call the “ errors and impieties” of the Waldenses and Albigenses. 4. Lateran (IV.,) in 1215, composed of four hundred and twelve bishops, under Innocent III., had for its ob- jects the recovery of the Holy Land, reformation of abuses, and the extirpation of heresy. 5. Lyons (I.,) in 1245, consisting of a hundred and forty bishops, and convened for the purpose of promoting the crusades, restoring ecclesiastical discipline, and de- throning Frederic II. emperor of Germany. It was also decreed at this council, that cardinals should wear red hats. • * - - 6. Lyons (II.,) in 1274. There were five hundred bishops and about a thousand inferior clergy present. Its principal object was the re-union of the Greek and Latin churches. - . . 7. Vienne in Gaul, 1311, consisting of three hundred bishops, who were convoked to suppress the Knights Templars, condemn those who were accused of heresy, and assist the Christians in, Palestine. 8. Florence, 1439–42. It was composed of one hundred and forty-one bishops, the patriarch of Constantinople, and the legates of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. It effected a renunciation of schism on the part of the Greeks, and an abjuration of heresy on the part of the Armenians. 9. Lateran (V.,) in 1512, convened by pope Julius II.,. to oppose another held by nine cardinals of high rank the year before at Piza, with a view to bridle, his wild ani- mosity, turbulence, and contumacy. It declared that council Schismatic, abolished the pragmatic sanction, and strengthened the power of the Roman see. 10. Trent, convoked and opened by Paul III. in 1545; continued under Julius III., and, after numerous inter- ruptions, brought to a close in 1563, under the pontificate of Pius IV. Its object was professedly to reform eccle- siastical abuses, but really to counteract and crush the reformation. It arrived at the following conclusions, which were enacted under the pain of anathema:— [1] All the books of Scripture, canonical and apocry- phal, not excluding that of Baruch, though wanting in the old catalogues, which are contained in the Latin church version, commonly called the Vulgate, are pos- sessed of the same divine authority. [2] Tradition, whether it regards matters of faith or practice, must be received with the same veneration, ſor- asmuch. it is the unwritten word of God. - - [3] The Holy Scriptures are only to be read and inter, preted in and according to the Vulgate, which is the only authentic version. . . . . . . . & [4] No person shall presume, in reliance on his own insight and wisdom, to pervert the Holy Scriptures, to malre them favor his views of faith and morals, and con- trary to the sense which the church has received, and still receives, which alone can determine what is the true meaning and interpretation; or to explain them contrary to the universal, consent of the fathers. [5] Faith is the commencement, foundation, and root. of justification, but not altogether exclusive of good works; for persons who are justified increase in the righteousness which they acquire through Christ, by means of their observance of the commandments of God, and the rules of the church. Justification does not consist merely in the forgiveness of sins, but also in the renova- tion and sanctification of the inner man through grace. [6] In the sacrament of the Lord's supper, after the consecration of the bread and wine, the God-man, Jesus Christ, is really and substantially present under the form of bread and wine, which contains no contradiction ; for though, in accordance with his natural existence, he is always in heaven, yet sacramentaliter he is present in many other places in regard to his substance. The other Sacraments have only the virtue of sanctification when they are used; but that of the Lord’s supper possesses it previous to the use ; for the apostles had not yet received the supper from the hands of the Lord Jesus Christ, when he assured them,--that it was his body that he communi- cated to them ; and it has always been the faith of the church that immediately on the consecration, the true body and the true blood of our Lord Jesus Christ are, to- gether with his soul and his divine nature, present under the form of the bread and wine. This takes place in virtue of that natural union and concomitancy according to which the flesh and blood of our risen Lord are con- stantly united, so that under either of the forms as much is contained as under both. By the consecration of the bread and wine, a conversion of the substance of both into the substance of the body and blood of Christ is effected; which conversion the church hath very properly denomi- nated transubstantiation. It is on this account that the bread and wine are to have (latriae cultus) divine worship paid to them. - ; : - On the subject of the general councils see L’Abbé, Ba- ronius, Nat. Alexander, Berti, Fleury, Dupin, Mosheim, Jortin, and Grier. - . Whatever may be said in favor of general councils, their utility has been doubted by some of the wisest men. Dr. Jörtin says, “They have been too much extolled by papists, and by some Protestants. They were a collection of men who were frail and fallible. Some of those coun- cils were not assemblies of pious and learned divines, but cabals, the majority of which were quarrelsome, fanatical, domineering, dishonest prelates, who wanted to compel men to approve all their opinions, of which they them- selves had no clear conceptions, and to anathematize and oppress those who would not implicitly submit to their determinations.” Jortin's Works, vol. vii. charge 2. CouncILs, Provincial or Occasional, have been numerous. At Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816, a council was held for regulating the canons of cathedral churches. The council of Savonnieries, in 859, was the first which gave the title of Most Christian King to the king of France; but it did , not become the peculiar appellation of that sovereign till 1469. Of Troyes, in 887, to decide the disputes about the imperial dignity. The second council of Troyes, 1107, restrains the clergy from marrying. The council of Clermont, in 1095. The first crusade was determined in this council. The bishops had yet the precedency of cardinals. In this assembly the name of pope was for the first time given to the head of the church, exclusively of the bishops, who used to assume that title. Here, also, Hugh, archbishop of Lyons, obtained of the pope a con- firmation of the primacy of his see over that of Sens. The council of Rheims, summoned by Eugenius III. in 1148, called an assembly of Cisastrian Gaul, in which advowses, or patrons of churches, are prohibited from taking more than ancient fees, upon pain of deprivation ai co-U cov [421 } and ecclesiastical burial. Bishops, deacons, sub-deacons, monks, and nuns, are restrained from marrying. In this council the doctrine of the Trinity was decided; but upon separation the pope called a qongregation, in which the cardinals pretended they had no right to judge of doctrinal joints; that this was the privilege peculiar to the pope. The council of Sutrium, in 1046, wherein three popes who had assumed the chair were deposed. The council of Clarendon in England, against Becket, held in 1164. The council of Lombez, in the country of Albigeois, in 1200, occasioned by some disturbances on account of the Albigenses; a crusade was formed on this account, and an army sent to extirpate them. Innocent III. spirited up this barbarous war. Dominic was the apostle, the count of Toulouse the victim, and Simon, count of Montfort, the conductor or chief. The council of Paris in 1210, in which Aristotle's metaphysics were condemned to the flames, lest the refinements of that philosopher should have a bad tendency on men's minds, by applying those subjects to religion. The council of Piza, begun March the 2d, 1409, in which Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. were deposed. Another council, sometimes called gene- ral, held at Pisa, in 1505. Lewis XII. of France, assem- bled a national council at Tours (being highly disgusted with the pope,) 1510, where was present the cardinal De Gurce, deputed by the emperor; and it was then agreed to convene a general council at Pisa.—Murray's Hist. Relig. ; Hend. Buck. - COUNSEL. God's counsel is, (1.) his purpose or de- cree. Acts 4: 28. Isa. 45: 10. Psalm 33: 11. (2.) His will and doctrine, concerning the way of salvation to sinful men. Luke 7: 30. (3.) The direction of his word, the teaching of his Spirit, and the guidance of his provi- dence. Psalm 73: 24. Rev. 3: 18. To stand in God’s counsel is to be familiar with him, and know his revealed will and purpose. Jer. 23: 18, 22.-Brown. COUNSELLOR. Christ is called the Counsellor; with him his Father deliberately fixed the whole plan of our salvation; and he, possessed of infinite wisdom and knowledge, directs and admonishes his people in every case. Isa. 9: 6. God’s statutes are the saints' counsellors, which they consult, and from which they receive direction in every hard and difficult case. Psalm 119: 24.—Brown. COUNTENANCE. As by the countenance we mani- fest our love, hatred, grief, joy, pleasure, and anger; the lifting up or shining of God's countenance denotes the mani- festation of his favor and love; and the hiding, fronn, or zebuke of his countenance, denotes the manifestation of his anger in just judgments. Psalm 44; 3. and 80: 16. Christ's countenance as Lebanon, excellent as the cedars, is his whole appearance in person, office, relations, and work, which is ever delightful and glorious. Song 5:15. The Saints cause Christ to see their countenance, when, in the confident exercise of faith and hope, they come with bold- ness to his throne of grace. Song 2: 14. countenance a poor man in his cause ; thou shalt not unjustly pity and favor him on account of his poverty. Exod. 23: 3.−Bronyn. COUNTRY. Heaven is called a country, in allusion to Canaan; how extensive its limits how wholesome its air of divine influence how wide its prospect; how nu- merous its privileges and inhabitants' And it is a better country, as its inhabitants, privileges, and employments are far more excellent than any on earth. Heb. 11:14, 16. It is a far country, very distant from and unknown in our world. Matt. 21:37, and 25: 14. Luke 19:12. A state of apostasy from God, whether of men in general, or of the Gentile world, is called a far country; it is distant from that in which we ought to be, in it we are ignorant of God, exposed to danger, and have none to pity or help us. Luke 15: 13. A state or place of gross ignorance, and wickedness is called the region and shadow of death. Matt. 4: 16.-Brown. COURAGE, is that quality of the mind that enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers. Natural courage is that which arises chiefly from constitution; moral or spi- ritual is that which is produced from principle, or a sense of duty. Courage and fortitude are often used as syno- nymous, but they may be distinguished thus: fortitude is firmness of mind that supports pain; courage is active Thou shalt not ſortitude, that meets dangers, and attempts to repel them, §. FoETITUDE.) Courage, says Addison, that grows rom constitution, very often forsakes a man when he has occasion for it; and when it is only a kind of instinct in the soul, it breaks out on all occasions, without judgment or discretion ; but that courage which arises from a sense of duty, and from a fear of offending Him that made us, always acts in a uniform manner, and according to the dictates of right reason.—Hend. Buck. : COURT; an entrance into a palace or house. (See House.) The great courts belonging to the temple of Jerusalem were three ; the first called the court of the Gentiles, because the Gentiles were allowed to enter so ſar, and no farther; the second was the court of Israel, because all the Israelites, provided they were purified, had a right of admission into it; the third was that of the priests, where the altar of burnt-offerings stood, where the priests and Levites exercised their ministry. Common Israelites, who were desirous of offering sacrifices, were at liberty to bring their victims as far as the inner part of the court; but they could not pass a certain line of separation, which divided it into two ; and they with- drew as soon as they had delivered their sacrifices and offerings to the priests, or had made their confession with the ceremony of laying their hands upon the head of the victim, if it were a sin-offering. Before the temple was built, there was a court belonging to the tabernacle, but not near so large as that of the temple, and encompassed only with pillars, and veils hung with cords.-Hend. Ruck. . COURTS, (CHURCH;) among the Presbyterians, those ecclesiastical associations of ministers and elders, con- sisting of sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the general assembly, which in Scotland are considered as forming the perfection of church government and discipline. Each subordinate court takes cognizance of ecclesiastical matters within its own bounds; and from each there is an appeal to that which is above it in order, till the matter is carried before the general assembly, which is the supreme court, and the decision of which is final.—Hend. Buck. COURT, (SPIRITUAL;), a seat of ecclesiastical judg: ment for the administration of justice in ecclesiastical matters. In England there are six spiritual courts; the Archdeacon’s court; the Consistory courts; the Prerogative, and the Arches court ; the court of Peculiars, and the court of Delegates. - - . These courts proceed according to the civil and canon laws, by citation, libel or articles, answer upon oath, proofs by witnesses and presumptions, definitive sentence without a jury, and by excommunication for contempt of sentence. In times of intolerance, many acts of the most cruel enormity were committed in these courts-Hend. COVEL, (LEMUEL,) a Baptist minister of distinguished usefulness, was a native of the state of New York. His life was chiefly spent in missionary labors in New Eng- land, New York, and Canada. He commenced his mi- nistry under great disadvantages, and most of his life was obliged to labor, like Paul, working with his own hands; yet such were the astonishing powers of his mind that he became one of the most distinguished men of his denomination. His voice was clear and majestic ; his address, manly and engaging; his doctrine, Salvation by the cross; and his preaching of the most solid, perspi- cuous and interesting kind. His spirit resembled that of the excellent Pearce. He lived the religion he pro- fessed ; and wherever he was known was highly and universally esteemed. He died suddenly in Upper Ca- nada, 1806, in the meridian of life and usefulness, but in the triumphs of holy faith.-Benedict. COVENANT ; in ordinary life, a contract or agreement between two or more parties on certain terms. In theo- logy, it is used either in the scriptural, or in a systematic and popular acceptation. -- 1. In the Scriptures, when employed to designate a transaction between God and man, it uniformly denotes an arrangement, disposition, or institution, according to which the divine favor is dispensed to those with whom it is made. It is represented, not as a contract or bargain, C O V Co V [422 | in virtue of which, on the ground of something done by man, its blessings are to be communicated; but as a free and voluntary constitution on the part of Jehovah, con- sisting of a deed or grant of blessings, and the particular mode or tenure of their conveyance. Besides minor ar- rangements of this description, the Bible exhibits two primary covenants or dispensations, (Gal. 5:24–26,) which it denominates the first and second, (Heb. 8: 7,) and the old and nerv covenants, verse 13. Of these, the first or old covenant is expressly stated to be that which God made with the children of Israel, when he took them to be a peculiar people to himself, and is the same that is com- monly called the Mosaic or Sinai covenant, because given to Moses on mount Sinai. It was a covenant of peculiarity, by which the whole of the Israelites became what no other nation of this world, before or since, has been—the peculiar people of God, or a kingdom governed immediately by God, and whose visible rulers and judges were to have no legislative power, but were to act merely as vicegerents of Jehovah, and execute his laws. The great moral code, which is binding on all mankind, at all times, and under all circumstances, and the specific enactments of which are only so many expressions of that love to God and man which is essential to the well-being of creation, was laid as the basis of this constitution, and on this account it is frequently called the law : regular forms of divine worship were appointed; a regular priest- hood separated for its performance; and the requisite civil and political institutes ordained. The whole, while ad- mirably adapted to answer every purpose of existing legislation and government, had a prospective or prefigu- rative reference to a future and superior dispensation; or the second and new covenant, which was instituted by the Lord Jesus Christ, ratified by the shedding of his blood, and is the gracious charter or instrument according to which God has revealed it to be his pleasure to dispense the sovereign blessings of his mercy to sinners of all nations under heaven. Between these two dispensations there are several striking and important points of contrast. The former was national: the latter does not regard any nation more than another. The former was typical; the latter is anti-typical. The former was temporary; the latter is eternal. The former could only secure the enjoyment of Canaan; the latter secures the heavenly inheritance. The former could not bestow justification or eternal life: this the latter was specially instituted to do. . The former did not preserve from apostasy, or º: obedience certain; the latter does. See Heb. : 6—13. - But though the Christian economy may be termed the second or new covenant, in relation to the posteriority of its establishment to that of the first and old covenant, it has nevertheless a retrospective bearing and influence, not only on those who lived under the Mosaic institution, but even to the very period of the fall; and according to the plan of its constitution, formed in the divine mind from eternity, and gradually developed in promises and figures, sinners who believed the testimony of God, and confided in his mercy, were absolved from guilt, and ad- mitted to the enjoyment of the divine favor. Gal. 3: 15– 17; Rom. 3: 25, 26; Heb. 9:15. 2. Besides this view, which the Scriptures furnish of the covenants, there is another which has been taken by systematic divines, though they are not altogether agreed with respect to it. Some speak of two, and others of three covenants. The latter position, which is most ex- tensively propagated, holds forth—1. A covenant of works, which, it is maintained, was made with Adam on his creation, in virtue of which he was constituted the federal head of the human race, and which, as the law of nature, was to be binding on all his posterity. Of this Covenant, that made at Sinai is considered to have been merely a republication. 2. A covenant of redemption, or a covenant-engagement entered into by the Father and the Son from eternity, with a view to the redemption of the elect, agreeably to which the Father constituted the Son their Head and Redeemer; and the Son voluntarily undertook their redemption, and became their sponsor or surety. 3. A covenant of grace, which is a compact or agreement between God and elect sinners, in which God, on his part, declares his free good-will concerning eternal salvation, and every thing relative thereto, freely to be given to those in covenant, by and for the sake of the Mediator Christ; and man, on his part, consenting to that goodness by a sincere faith. See Witsius, Boston, and Strong, on the Covenants; and Russel's Familiar Survey of the Old and New Covenants ; Hend. Buck. COVENANT, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a con- tract or convention agreed to by the Scotch, in the year 1638, for maintaining their religion free from innovation. In 1581, the general assembly drew up a confession of faith, or national covenant, condemning episcopal govern- ment, which was signed by James I., and which he en- joined on all his subjects. It was again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. The subscription was renewed in 1638, and the subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the same state as it was in 1580, and to reject all inno- vations introduced since that time. This oath annexed to the confession of faith, received the name of the cove- nant.—Hend. Buck. - COVENANT, (SoHEMN LEAGUE AND 3) a compact esta- blished in the year 1643, which formed a bond of union between Scotland and England. It was sworn and sub- scribed by many in both nations, who hereby solemnly abjured popery and prelacy, and combined together for their mutual defence against the imposition of these evils. It was approved by the parliament and assembly at West- minster, and ratified by the general assembly of the kirk of Scotland, in 1645. King Charles I. disapproved of it when he surrendered himself to the Scotch army, in 1646; but in 1650, Charles II. declared his approbation both of this and the national covenant by a solemn oath; and in August of the same year, made a further declaration at Dunfermline to the same purpose, which was also renewed at Scoone, in 1651. The league was ratified by parlia- ment in this year, and subscription to it required by every member, without which the constitution of the parliament was declared null and void. It produced a serious distraction in the subsequent history of that country, and was voted illegal by parliament, and provision made against it.—Encyc. Brit. ; Hend. Buck: - COVENANTERS; those who subscribed to the cove- nant of 1638. The name is still usually given in Ireland to the Cameronians, (which see.)—Hend. Buck. COVENANTING, (PERson AI, 3) a solemn transaction by which many pious and devoted Christians have dedi- cated themselves to the service of God. Such bonds or covenants, written and subscribed with their own hands, have been found among their papers after their death, and it cannot be denied, that most of them are exceedingly edifying; but instances have also been known of persons abusing this custom for purposes of superstition and self- righteousness, and of some who have gone so far as to write and sign such a document with their own blood. —Hend. Buck. * . * * * COWER. God covers himself with a cloud when he withholds the favorable smiles of his providence and presence, and manifests his just wrath and indignation. Lam. 3:44. God covered the Jewish prophets, rulers, and seers, when he rendered them stupid, wretched and con- temptible. Isa. 29: 10. God covers with a robe of right- eousness, and covers sin, when, through the imputation of the Savior's obedience and suffering, he fully and irre- vocably forgives it. Isa. 61: 10. Psalm 32: 1. Rom. 4: 7. Men cover their own sin when they deny, excuse, ex- tenuate, or defend it. Prov. 28:13. Men cover the sºns of others when they forgive injuries done them, and hinder others' faults from being publicly known. Prov. 10: 12. One's covering his own head, face, or lips imports shame, grief and perplexity. Jer, 14: 3. 2 Sam. 19:4, and 15: 30. To have one's face covered by another, imports condemna- tion to death. Esth. 7: 8. Seraphim covering their face and feet with their wings, are angels and ministers unable to behold the divine glory that shines in the person and office of Christ, and blushing at their best works before him. Isa. 6: 2. To be covered with a cloud; anger, shame, confusion, horror, ashes, violence, is, through the anger of the Lord, to be reduced to a most wretched and shameful condition, and to be punished for oppression of others. Lam. 2: 1. Ezek, 7: 18. Hab. 2: 17. Obad, 10. PS. 89: 45. C O W C R A . [423 J The Jews covered mith a covering not of God's spirit: they depended on the assistance of the Egyptians, contrary to the will of God. Isa. 30: 1. The face covering and veil spread over all nations, is the gross ignorance and sen- tence of condemnation which lay on the Gentile world, Isa. 25: 7.— Bronn. COVERDALE, (MILEs,) one of the earliest English reformers, was born in Yorkshire, in 1487, was educated at Cambridge, and went abroad on becoming a Protestant. He assisted Tyndal in his version of the Bible, and in 1535, published a complete translation. In 1551, after having been almoner to queen Catharine Parr, he was promoted to the see of Exeter. In the reign of Mary, he retired to the continent, but returned on the accession of Elizabeth. He died in 1568, or, according to some ac- counts, in 1580. Bishop Coverdale was a great and good man-Davenport. COVERT. Jesus Christ is a covert to his people: by his blood, his love, his power, and providence, he covers their crimes and infirmities, protects them from the wrath of God, the dominion of sin, and the rage of devils and men. Isa. 4: 6, and 32: 2–Bronn. COVETOUSNESS; an unreasonable desire after that we have not, with a dissatisfaction with what we have. It may further be considered as consisting in, 1. An anxious carking care about the things of this world. 2. A rapacity in getting. 3. Too frequently includes sinister and illegal ways of obtaining wealth. 4. A tenacious- ness in keeping. It is a vice which marvellously prevails upon and insinuates into the heart of man, and for these reasons: it often bears a near resemblance to virtue; brings with it many plausible reasons; and raises a man to a state of reputation on account of his riches. “There cannot be,” as one observes, “a more unreasonable sin than this. It is unjust ; only to covet, is to wish to be unjust. It is cruel; the covetous must harden themselves against a thousand plaintive voices. It is ungrateful; such forget their former obligations and their present supporters. It is foolish ; it destroys reputation, breaks the rest, unfits for the performance of duty, and is a con- tempt of God himself: it is unprecedented in all our examples of virtue mentioned in the Scripture. One, indeed, spoke unadvisedly with his lips; another cursed and swore ; a third was in a passion; and a fourth com- mitted adultery; but which of the saints ever lived in a habit of covetousness 2 Lastly, it is idolatry, (Col. 3: 5,) the idolatry of the heart; where, as in a temple, the mi- serable wretch excludes God, sets up gold instead of him, and places that confidence in it which belongs to the Great Supreme alone.” Let those who live in the ha- bitual practice of it consider the judgments that have been inflicted on such characters, (Josh; 7: 21 ; Acts 5. ;) the misery with which it is attended; the curse such persons are to society; the denunciations and cautions respecting it in the holy Scripture; and how effectually it bars men from God, from happiness, and from heaven.—Scott's Essays, 72, 73; South's Sermons, vol. iv. ser. 1; Robinson's Moral Exercises, ex. iv.; Saurin’s Sermons, vol. v. Ser. 12; Bng. Trans. ; Hend. Buck. - OWPER, (WILLIAM, Esq.,) the celebrated author of the Task, was born at Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, November 26, 1731, and was the son of the rector of that lace. His constitution was highly delicate, and his eelings nervously susceptible. It is no wonder, therefore, that he endured so much from the tyranny of his seniors tat Westminster school, as to inspire him with a disgust of all such public establishments ; a disgust which he afterwards forcibly expressed in his poem of Tirocinium. He was articled for three years to an attorney; and subse: quently studied at the Temple, but seems to have acquir no great relish for legal knowledge. So extreme was his dread of being placed in any conspieupus situation, that being unexpectedly called on to attend at the bar of the house of lords, as clerk of the journals, his agitation of mind not only compelled him to resign his post, but ter. minated in insanity. That disorder was heightened by his sense of sin, without any clear ideas of the way of salva- tion. In this state of mind he repeatedly attempted suicide, but by a most merciful providence his attempts were defeated. He was placed under the care of the excellent Dr. Cotton, by whose tender assiduities his mind was soothed, and led to the knowledge of the Savior. A 'correct understanding of Romans, 3: 25, 26, accompa- nied with the spirit of faith, opened the heart of Cowper to a flood of holy peace, hope, and joy. From this time, his health began rapidly to improve. After he recovered, he took up his residence, in 1765, as an inmate with the Rev. Mr. Unwin of Huntingdon. That gentleman died in 1767, but Cowper continued to reside with his widow, at Olney in Buckinghamshire, and Weston in North- amptonshire, till her death in 1796. It was at Olney, his acquaintance commenced with the Rev. John Newton; whose friendship, as well as that of Mrs. Unwin, was the source of great comfort to him under his distressing nervous malady, which haunted his delicate spirit to the last. From 1773 to 1778, and from 1794 till his decease, which took place at Dereham in Norfolk, April 25, 1800, with little intermission he suffered again under the Scourge of insanity. . . - In the mean while, however, he gained imperishable fame by his writings. His first appearance as an author, excepting a few papers to the Connoisseur, and some hymns to the Olney collection, was in 1782, when he published the first volume of his poems. The second, containing the Task, appeared in 1784. Of his subse- quent works, the principal is, a blank verse translation of Homer, which has not become popular. It is a curious fact, that his humorous ballad of John Gilpin was written while he was a prey to the deepest melancholy. His Letters, which are models of that kind of composition, have been given to the world since his death. Cowper is a poet of varied powers; he is by turns playful and pa- thetic, tender and sarcastic ; in some instances, he rises to sublimity; and in picturesque delineation he has no rival but Thomson, and he generally surpasses him in elegance. His other characteristics are simplicity, indi- viduality, transparency of ideas, bold originality, singular purity, and experimental Christian piety. All his poems bear marks of his mature authorship, his accurate rather than extensive scholarship, and his unwearied desire to benefit mankind. His Christian life, though oppressed by disease, was pure, useful and lovely; and even while suffering under the deranged idea that he was an exception to God's general plan of grace—a deranged idea which hung like a cloud over his soul during the last years of his life—it is delightful to perceive that it had no tendency to lead him aside from the path of rectitude, or to relax in the least his efforts to maintain the life of religion in his soul. His last accents were those of most perfect and touching acquiescence in the will of God, with whom, we doubt not, his harassed spirit is now at rest. What a moment was that which dispelled forever its gloom!—Taylor's Life of Conper ; Davenport. CRABBE, (George,) one of the most popular of modern British poets, was born in 1754, at Aldborough, in Suffolk. He displayed a taste for poetry at an early age, and was finally induced to give up the study of medicine and devote himself to belles lettres. He went to London at the age of twenty-four, and gained the friendship of Edmund Burke, at whose recommendation he published, in 1781, his poem of The Library. This was quickly followed by The Village, which gained for him the high approbation of Dr. Johnson. The study of theology for a long time withdrew Mr. Crabbe almost entirely from his poetic labors. After an interruption of nearly twenty years, he published a collection of poems, C R A. C. R. E. | 424 ) which was very successful. This was followed by The Borough, in 1810; Tales, in 1815; and Tales of the Hall, in 1819. He died in 1832. His works have been ex- seedingly popular, and have gone through many editions. Everything about him is simple, and characteristic; and although he is sadly wanting in evangelical views, and in religious elevation, he has been described with much felicity as the poet of nature and the anatomist of the human soul.--Davenport. CRACKNELS; a sort of hard cakes or buns. 1 Kings 14: 3.—Brown. - CRAMER, (John ANDREw,) a German theologian and writer, was born at Josephstadt, in Saxony, in 1723; and, with the exception of three years, resided in Denmark from 1754 to 1788, in which latter year he died. He was invited to Denmark by the sovereign, and, at the time of his decease, was chancellor of the university of Kiel. He translated Bossuet's Universal History, the Homilies of St. Chrysostom, and the Psalms of David in verse; and wrote the Northern Spectator, three vols.; Sermons, twenty-two vols.; and Poems, three vols. Eminent in many ways, it is as a votary of the muses that he is most famous ; Germany ranks him among her best lyric poets.--Davenport. CRANE; a tall and long-necked fowl, which according to Isidore takes its name from its voice, which we imitate - 'º º - *** : *, * : *rº * * * * * * * * > ſ in mentioning it. The prophet Jeremiah mentions this bird as intelligent of the seasons by an instinctive and invariable observation of their appointed times, (8; 7.) The same thing is noticed by Aristophanes and Hesiod; the latter of whom says, “When thou hearest the voice of the crane, clamoring annually from the clouds on high, recollect that this is the signal for ploughing, and indicates the approach of showery winter.”—Calmet ; Abbott ; Ency. Amer. CRANMER, (Thomas,) a celebrated English reformer, was the Son of a country gentleman. He was born at Aslacton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1489, and was edu- cated at Jesus college, Cambridge, where, in 1523, he became reader of the divinity lecture. For his rise, he was indebted to an opinion which he chanced to give to Gardiner, and Fox, that the best way to settle the ques- tion relative to the king's divorce would be to refer it to the universities instead of to the pope. Henry instantly made him his chaplain, ordered him to write on the sub. ject, and subsequently employed him in negotiations at Rome, and in other parts of the continent. On Cranmer's return, the monarch raised him, in 1533, to the archbish- opric of Canterbury. Thus elevated, and invested with powerful influence, the archbishop pursued with vigor the work of religious reformation. His enemies labored as strenuously to ruin him; but he was always upheld by Henry. , Being a member of the council of regency, during the reign of Edward VI., he was enabled to push forward an ecclesiastical reform with still more decisive effect. But, unfortunately, he now displayed a spirit which has stained his otherwise amiable character, with a deep and bloody spot. Besides being guilty of minor acts of tyranny, he consigned to the flames, as heretics, two unhappy beings, one of them a woman This was Joan Bocher, the warrant for whose execution was in a manner extorted from the youthful monarch, who signed it in tears, and threw on Cranmer the moral responsibility of the barbarous deed. Having consented to the mea- sures for placing lady Jane Grey on the throne, he be- came one of the victims after the accession of Mary. Lured by the promise not only of pardon but of royal favor, he was induced to sign six papers, by which he recanted his Protestant principles, and avowed his sorrow for having entertained them. In spite, however, of the promises made to him, he was brought to the stake, March 21, 1556. He had by this time recovered his firmness, and he died with the utmost fortitude, holding in the flames, till it was consumed, the hand which had signed the recantation, and exclaiming, “This unworthy hand this unworthy hand P’ His forgiving disposition, which led him never to revenge an injury, his extensive liberality, his services to the cause of ecclesiastical reſorin, and his courage at the hour of death, notwithstanding his faults, have shed a lustre round the memory of Cranmer. —Davenport; Middleton ; Ency, Amer. ; Jones's Chris Biog. ; Life of Cranmer, by Le Bas. CRANTZ, or KRANz, (Davip,) a Moravian preacher, was born in Pomerania, in 1723, and resided for some years as a missionary in Greenland, where he was much respected for his virtues. He died, in 1777, minister of Guadenfroy, in Silesia. He is the author of a valuable history of Greenland; and of a history of the Moravians.— Davenport. CREATION. (See Cosmogony, and ADAM.) CREATURE. By the creature (or, more properly, the creation) which waits for deliverance from the bondage of corruption into the glorious liberty of the children of God, (Rom. 8: 19–23.) the apostle has by some been supposed to mean the unrenewed heathen world; by others, the new creature in Christ, or Christians in general; by others, all mankind of all generations. By others still it is sup- posed not to include mankind at all, but only the irrational tribes of creation who are now subjected to degradation and suffering in consequence of the sins of men. But from the context it appears rather to mean the whole ma- terial globe, which constitutes man’s present residence; which is now subjected to imperfection, change, and decay, but is to undergo at the last day a transmutation of quali- ties similar to that of the bodies of just men, and become forever incorruptible. 1 Cor. 15: 50–54. 2 Cor. 5: 1–8. 2 Pet. 3. Rev. 21. If any man be in Christ, he is a new creature, (2 Cor. 5: 17.), that is, if any man becomes a Christian, a new disposition is produced within him, which transforms his whole character.—Fuller's Works, vol. ii. 322. CREDITOR. God is represented as our creditor; to him we, as creatures, owe our existence, and all we have ; to him, as sinners, we owe satisfaction for our infinite of. fences; and the more he forgives us, the more we ought to love him. Luke 7:41–43.−Bronn CREED ; a form of words in which the articles of faith are comprehended. It is derived from the Latin credo (I believe), with which the apostles' creed begins. . In the Eastern church, a summary of this sort was called mathe- ma (the lesson), because it was learned by the catechu- * C R E C R I [425-] inens; graphé (the writing), or kānān (the rule). But the most common name in the Greek church was sumbolon, or symbol, jº term has also passed into the West. Hence : and conſessions are commonly called symbolical 00/.S. ... ." - The most ancient form of creeds is that which goes un- der the name of the Apostles' creed (see below); besides this, there are several other ancient forms and scattered remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive records of the church; as, 1. The form of apostolical doctrine collected by Origen.—2. A fragment of a creed pre- served by Tertullian.-3. A remnant of a creed in the works of Cyprian.-4. A creed composed by Gregory Thaumaturgus for the use of his own church.-5. The creed of Lucian, the martyr.—6. The creed of the apostoli- cal constitutions. Besides these scattered remains of the ancient creeds, there are extant some perfect forms, as those of Jerusalem, Caesarea, Antioch, &c.—Hend. Buck. CREED, (APOSTLes',) is a formula or summary of the Christian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by the apostles themselves; who, during their stay at Jerusalem, soon after our Lord's ascension, agreed upon this creed as a rule of faith. Baronius and others conjecture that they did not compose it till the second year of Claudius, a little before their dispersion; but there are many reasons which induce us to question whether the apostles composed any such creed. For, 1. Neither St. Luke, nor any other writer before the fifth century, make any mention of an assembly of the apostles for composing a creed.—2. The fathers of the first three centuries, in disputing against the heretics, endeavor to prove that the doctrine contained in this creed was the same which the apostles taught; but they never pretend that the apostles composed it.—3. If the apostles had made this creed, it would have been the same in all churches and in all ages; and all authors would have cited it after the same manner. But the case is quite otherwise. In the second and third ages of the church, there were as many creeds as authors; and the same author sets down the creed aſter a different manner in several places of his works; which is an evidence that there was not, at that time, any creed reputed to be the apostles'. In the fourth century, Rufinus compares toge- ther the three ancient creeds of the churches of Aquileia, Rome, and the East, which differ very considerably. Be- sides, these creeds differed not only in the terms and ex- pressions, but even in the articles, some of which were omitted in one or other of them ; such as those of the de- scent into hell, the communion of the saints, and the life ever- lasting. From all which it may be gathered, that though this creed may be said to be that of the apostles, in regard to the doctrines contained therein, yet it cannot be referred to them as the authors of it. Its great antiquity, however, may be inferred from hence, that the whole form, as it now stands in the English liturgy, is to be found in the works of Ambrose and Rufinus; the former of whom flourished in the third, and the latter in the fourth century. . Chris- tians did not publicly recite the creed, except at baptisms, which, unless in cases of necessity, were only at Easter and Whitsuntide. The constant repeating of it was not introduced into the church till the end of the fifth century; about which time Peter Gnaphius, bishop of Antioch, prescribed the recital of it every time divine service was performed. See King's History of the Apostles' Creed; and #;" Exposition of it in his Works, vol. ii.-Hend. uck. CREED, (ATHANASIAN ;) a formulary or confession of faith, long supposed to have been drawn up by Athana- sius, bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to justify himself against the calumnies of his Arian enemies; but it is now generally allowed not to have been his. Dr. Waterland ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Arles. This creed obtained in France about A. D. 850, and was re- ceived in Spain and Germany about one hundred and eighty years later. We have clear proofs of its being sung alternately in the English churches in the tenth cen- tury. It was in common use in some parts of Italy in 960, and was received at Rome about 1014. As to the Greek and Oriental churches, it has been questioned whether they have ever received it, though some writers are of a contrary persuasion. The Episcopal churches in the United States have rejected it. As to the matter of it, it is given as a summary of the true orthodox faith. Unhappily, however, it has proved a fruitful source of º: controversy. See Dr. Waterland's Critical History of it.— Fiend. Buck. CREED, (NICENE ;) a formulary of Christian faith; so called, because it is a paraphrase of that creed which was made at the first general council of Nice. This latter was drawn up by the second general council of Constantinople, A. D. 381, and therefore might be more properly styled the Constantinopolitan creed. The creed was carried by a majority, and was admitted into the church as a barrier against Arius and his followers. The three creeds above mentioned are used in the pub- lic offices of the church of England, and subscription to them is required of all the established clergy. Subscrip- tion to these was also required of the dissenting teachers by the toleration act; but from which they are now re- lieved by 19 George III.-Hend. Buck. ‘. CRESCENS; a companion of Paul, (2 Tim. 4: 10.) who is thought by Eusebius and others to have preached in Gaul, and to have founded the church of Vienne, in Dauphiny.—Calmet. : CRETE ; a large island, now called Candia, in the Me- diterranean, (1 Mac. 10: 67.) almost opposite to Egypt; and it may be considered as having been originally peo- pled from thence, probably by a branch of the Caphtorim. The Cretans affected the utmost antiquity as a nation, and distinguished themselves as Eteocretenses, “true Cretans.” Homer celebrates this island as famous for its hundred gates, which Virgil (AEneid. iii.) seems to refer to cities; but in the Odyssey, Homer calls it “ninety-citied.” Be- ing surrounded by the sea, its inhabitants were excellent sailors, and its vessels visited all coasts. They were also famous for archery, which they practised from their in- fancy. But the glory of Crete was Minos the legislator, the first, it is said, who reduced a wild people to regularity of life; and in order to effect this the more completely, he retired during nine years into the cavern of Jupiter. After nine years, Minos established religious rites; and these and other usages of Crete were copied by the Greeks. The Cretans were one of the three IX's against whose unfaithfulness the Grecian proverb cautioned: Kappado- cia, Kilicia, and Krete. It appears, also, that the character of this people for lying was thoroughly established in an- cient times; for in common speech, the expression “to cretanise,” signified to tell lies; which contributes to ac- count for that detestable character the apostle (Titus 1: 12.) has given of the Cretans, that they are “always liars.” This was not only the opinion of Epimenides, from whom Paul quotes this verse, but of Callimachus, who has the same words. When Epimenides adds, that “the Cretans are savage beasts,” or fierce beasts, “and gor-bellies,”— bellies which take a long time in being filled—he completes a most disgusting description. Polybius represents them as disgraced by piracy, robbery, and almost every crime, and Paul charges Titus to rebuke them sharply, and in strong terms, to prevent their adherence to Jewish fables, human ordinances, and legal observances. Crete was taken by the Romans under Metellus, hence called Creticus, after a vigorous resistance of above two years, (A. D. 66.) and, with the small kingdom of Cyrene, on the coast of Libya, formed a Roman province. In the reign of the emperor Leo, it had twelve bishops, subject to Constantinople. In the reign of Michael II, the Saracens seized it, and held it, until, after a hundred and twenty- seven years, they were expelled by the emperor Phocas. It remained under the dominion of the emperor, till Bald- win, earl of Flanders, being raised to the throne, rewarded Bonifacio, marquis of Montserrat, with it, who sold it to the Venetians, A. D. 1194. Under their government it flou- rished greatly; but was unexpectedly attacked by the Turks, A. D. 1645, in the midst of peace. The siege last- ed twenty-four years, and cost the Turks two hundred thousand men. It is now subject to the Turks, and, con- sequently, is impoverished and depopulated. In many places it is unhealthy.—Calmet. CRIME; a voluntary breach of any known law. Faults result from human weakness, being transgressions of the rules of duty. Crimes proceed from the wickedness of the 54 C. R. O C R O [*426 ) heart, being actions against the rules of nature. (See PU- NISHMENT, and SIN).-Hend. Buck. CRISP, (DR. Tobias;) a divine of the seventeenth cen- tury, born, 1600, died rector of Brinkworth, 1642. His life was distinguished by charity, piety, humility, and puri- ty. He was, however, fond of expressions which alarm, and paradoxes which astonish; and ... himself much about the divine purposes. He did not distinguish, as he ought, between God's secret will in his decrees, and his revealed will in his covenant and promises. The root of his error seems to be this:—he viewed the union be- tween Christ and the believer to be of such a kind as actu- ally to make a Savior of the sinner, and a sinner of the Savior. He speaks as if God considered the sinner as do- ing and suffering what Christ did and suffered; and Christ as having committed their sins, and as being actually guilty of them. (See ANTINOMIANs, and NEONOMIANs.)— Crisp's Sermons, edited by Dr. Gill; Bogue and Bennet's History of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400; Hend. Buck. CRISPUS, chief of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth, was converted and baptized by Paul, (Acts 18; 8.) about A. D. 52. 1 Cor. 1: 14. Some affirm that Crispus was bishop of Ægina, an island near Athens. The Greeks observe his festival, October 4.—Calmet. CRITICISM. (See BIBLICAL CRITICISM.) CROCODILE. (See LeviaTHAN.) CROISADES. (See CRUSADEs.) CROISIERS; a religious order, founded in honor of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions. These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched JFriars.--Hend. Buck, CROOKED. A crooked nation or generation are such as rebel against God, have their qualities, inclinations, and practices quite disagreeable to the even rule of his law, and unanswerable to their own profession. Phil. 2: 15. Deut. 32: 5. Crooked ways are practices and customs inconstant, uncandid, unlovely, and disagreeable to the law of God. Prov. 2: 12. God makes men's lot or path crooked when he inflicts on them changes from prosperity to adversity, or from one trouble to another, and renders their condition unsightly and disagreeable. Lam. 3: 9. Eccl. 1: 15. and 7: 12. He makes crooked places straight when he removes every impediment, and renders a work easy to his agents. Isa. 45: 2.—Bromm. . CROSIER ; a tall staff of silver or gold, curved at the upper end, which is carried before bishops, abbots, and abbesses, as an ensign expressive of their dignity, while they are exercising the functions of their office; and the figure of which is also borne in their coat of arms. When bestowing the blessing upon the people, they take the staff into their own hands. It was originally a shepherd's crook, the bishops being regarded as the pastors of their dioceses. By degrees, the humble emblem became highly adorned, and was made of costly materials. Artists, like Benvenuto Cellini and Giovanni da Bologna, were employed to make it. The investiture of the bishop is indicated by the deli- very of the crosier. Some say that the crosier was origi- nally only a simple staff, which, from the earliest times, has been given as an emblem of authority to judges, kings, &c. In conformity to this explanation, St. Isidore says that bishops bear the staff because they have the right to correct the erring, and the duty to support the weak. The excess of splendor lavished in later times upon this instru. ment, gave occasion to the following satirical lines:— In ancient times, as I have been told, - The crosier was wood, and the bishop was gold; But now I perceive, without being told, The bishop is wood, and the crosier is gold. [IIend. Buck. CROSS; an ancient instrument of capital punishment. The cross was the punishment inflicted by the Romans, on servants who had perpetrated crimes, on robbers, assas- sins, and rebels; among which last Jesus was reckoned, on the ground of his making himself King or Messiah, Luke 23: 1–5, 13–15. The words in which the sentence was given were, “Thou shalt go to the cross.” The per- son who was subjected to this punishment was then de- prived of all his clothes, excepting something around the loins. In this state of nudity he was beaten, sometimes with rods, but more generally with whips. Such was the severity of this flagellation, that numbers died under it. Jesus was crowned with thorns, and made the subject of mockery; but insults of this kind were not among the or- dinary attendants of crucifixion. They were owing, in this case, merely to the petulant spirit of the Roman sol- diers, Matt. 27:29. º: 15:17. John 19:2, 5. The cri- minal, having been beaten, was subjected to the further suffering of being obliged to carry the cross himself to the place of punishment, which was commonly a hill, near the public way, and out of the city. The place of crucifixion at Jerusalem was a hill to the north-west of the city. The cross, stauros, a post, otherwise called the unpropitious or infamous tree, consisted of a piece of wood erected perpen- dicularly, and intersected by another at right angles near the top, so as to resemble the letter T. The crime for which the person suffered was inscribed on the transverse piece near the top of the perpendicular one. There is no mention made in ancient writers of any thing on which the feet of the person crucified rested. Near the middle, however, of the perpendicular beam, there projected a piece of wood, on which he sat, and which answered as a support to the body, since the weight of the body might otherwise have torn away the hands from the nails driven through them. The cross, which was erected at the place of punishment, being there firmly fixed in the ground, rarely exceeded ten feet in height. The victim, perfectly naked, was elevated to the small projection in the middle: the hands were then bound by a rope round the transverse beam, and nailed through the alm. . p The assertion that the persons who suffered crucifixion were not in some instances fastened to the cross by nails through the hands and feet, but were merely bound to it by ropes, cannot be proved by the testimony of any an- cient writer whatever. That the feet, as well as the hands, were fastened to the cross by means of nails, is expressly asserted in the play of Plautus, entitled “Mostellaria,” compared with Tertullian against the Jews, and against Marcion. In regard to the nailing of the feet, it may be furthermore observed, that Gregory Nazianzen has assert- ed, that one mail only was driven through both of them ; but Cyprian, (de passione,) who had been a personal wit- ness to crucifixions, and is, consequently, in this case, the better authority, states, on the contrary, that two nails or spikes were driven, one through each foot. The crucified person remained suspended in this way till he died, and the corpse had become putrid. While he exhibited any signs of life, he was watched by a guard ; but they left him when it appeared that he was dead. The corpse was not buried, except by express permission, which was some- times granted by the emperor on his birth-day, but only to a very few. An exception, however, to this general prac- tice was made by the Romans in favor of the Jews, on ac- count of Deut. 21: 22, 23; and in Judea, accordingly, crucified persons were buried on the same day. When, therefore, there was not a prospect that they would die on the day of the crucifixion, the executioners hastened the extinction of life, by kindling a fire under the cross, so as to suffocate them with the smoke, or by letting loose wild beasts upon them, or by breaking their bones upon the cross with a mallet, as upon an anvil. The Jews, in the times of which we are speaking, namely, while they were under the jurisdiction of the Romans, were in the habit of giving the criminal, before the commencement of his suf. ferings, a medicated drink of wine and myrrh, Prov. 31: 6. The object of this was to produce intoxication, and thereby render the pains of the crucifixion less sensible to the sufferer. This beverage was refused by the Savior, for the obvious reason, that he chose to die with the facul- ties of his mind undisturbed and unclouded, Matt. 27: 34. Mark 15:23. It should be remarked, that this sort of drink, which was probably offered out of kindness, was different from the vinegar which was subsequently offered to the Savior by the Roman soldiers. The latter was a mixture of vinegar and water, denominated posca, and was a common drink for the soldiers in the Roman army, Luke 23: 36. John 19; 29. - * C R O C R O [ 427 J 2. Crucifixion was not only the nost ignominious, it was likewise the most cruel, mode of punishment: so very much so, that Cicero is justified in saying, in respect to crucifixion, “Ab oculis, antribusque et omni cogitatione homi- mum removendum esse.” The sufferings endured by a per- son on whom this punishment is inflicted are narrated by George Gottlieb Richter, a German physician, in a “Dis- sertation on the Savior's Crucifixion.” . The position of the body is unnatural, the arms being extended back, and almost immovable. In case of the least motion, an ex- tremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and feet, which are pierced with nails, and in the back, which is lacerated with stripes. The nails, being driven through the parts of the hands and feet which abound in nerves and tendons, create the most exquisite anguish. The ex- posure of so many wounds to the open air brings on an inflammation, which every moment increases the poig- nancy of the suffering. In those parts of the body which are distended or pressed, more blood flows through the ar- teries than can be carried back in the veins. The conse- quence is, that a greater quantity of blood finds its way from the aorta into the head and stomach, than would be carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation. The blood vessels of the head become pressed and swol- len, which of course causes pain, and a redness of the face. The circumstance of the blood being impelled in more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfa- vorable one also, because it is that part of the system which not only admits of the blood being stationary, but is peculiarly exposed to mortification. The aorta, not being at liberty to empty in the free and undisturbed way as formerly, the blood which it receives from the left ventri- cle of the heart, is unable to receive its usual quantity. The blood of the lungs, therefore, is unable to find a free circulation. This general obstruction extends its effects likewise to the right ventricle, and the consequence is, an internal excitement, and exertion, and anxiety, which are more intolerable than the anguish of death itself. All the large vessels about the heart, and all the veins and arte- ries in that part of the system, on account of the accumu- lation and pressure of blood, are the source of inexpressi- ble misery. The degree of anguish is gradual in its increase; and the person crucified is able to live under it commonly till the third, and sometimes till the seventh day. Pilate, therefore, being surprised at the speedy ter- mination of the Savior's life, inquired in respect to the truth of it of the centurion himself who commanded the soldiers, Mark 15:44. In order to bring their life to a more speedy termination, so that they might be buried on the same day, the bones of the two thieves were broken with mallets, (John 19: 31—37;) and in order to ascertain this point in respect to Jesus, namely, whether he was really dead, or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon, a soldier thrust his lance into his side; but no signs of life appeared, John 19: 31–37. - Our Savior says, that whosoever will be his disciple must take up his cross and follow him, (Matt. 16:24;) by which is meant, that his disciples must be willing to suffer for him, in any way in which God, in the course of his providence, may call them to suffer; even to endure mar- tyrdom, if called to it. The cross is also often put for the whole of Christ's sufferings, (Eph. 2: 16. Heb. 12: 2;) and the doctrine of his perfect atonement, Gal. 6: 14.— Watson. - - CROSS, (THE SIGN of.) The cross was used emblema- tically before the Christian era. Upon a multitude of me- dals and ancient monuments are to be found crosses placed in the hands of statues of Victory, and of figures of empe- rors. It was also placed upon a globe, which, ever since the days of Augustus, has been the sign of the empire of the world, and the image of Victory. The shields, the cuirasses, the helmets, the imperial cap, were all thus de- corated. The cross is now the universal Christian em- blem, being used upon the arms and banners of the soldier, the vestments of the priest, and in the armorial bearings of nobles. The forms of cathedrals, and often the patterms of their pavements, are adapted to the representation of the cross, which is also sculptured and elevated upon tembs and sepulchres. In order to understand the mean- ing of the sign of the cross among the first Christians, it must be kept in mind, that the cross was in their time an instrument of infamous punishment, like the gallows at present, and that they assumed this sign to show that they gloried in being the followers.of Christ, notwithstanding . the infamy which had been attempted to be thrown upon him by the manner of his execution. When the true spirit of Christianity began to decay, this superstition spread ra. pidly. The custom of making the sign of the cross in memory of Jesus, may be traced to the third century of our era. Constantine the Great had crosses erected in public places, in palaces and churches. It was customary, in his time, to paint a cross at the entrance of a house, to denote that it belonged to a Christian. Subsequently, the churches were, for the greater part, built in the form of this instrument. But it did not become an object of adora- tion until the empress Helena (Constantine's mother) found a cross in Palestine, which was believed to be the one on which Christ suffered, and conveyed a part of it to Constantinople. This is the origin of the festival of the finding of the cross, which the Catholic church celebrates on the 3d of May. Standards and weapons were now or- namented with it; and the emperor Heraclius thought he had recovered the palladium of his empire, when he gained possession of a piece of the true cross, in 628, which had fallen into the hands of the Persians in 616. In memory of this event, the festival of the exaltation of the cross was instituted, Heraclius having caused the cross to be erected at Jerusalem, on mount Calvary. This festival is cele- brated on the 14th of September. It is remarkable how this holy relic became multiplied. Numberless churches possessed some part of it, the miraculous power of which was said to have been proved by the most astonishing facts; and many persons actually believed that it could be infinitely divided without decreasing ! It was in vain that the Iconoclasts, who condemned the worship of images, attempted to overthrow the adoration of the cross. The crucifix was considered as a principal object of worship, in preference to the images of the saints, and in compli- ance with the teachings of John of Damascus, was adored, during the seventh century, in all the churches of the East. That the West also ascribed a mysterious power to this symbol, is evident from the use which was made of it in the trials “by the judgment of God” in the middle ages. There never has existed any sign which has been so often repeated in works of art as the cross. This may be ascribed, in part, to its form being applicable to many more purposes than those of other emblems; such, for in- stance, as the crescent. The distinguishing cypher of the Jesuits is IHS, which signifies In hac cruce salus, or Jesus, in Greek letters, and abbreviated. Crosses have been the badge of numberless orders, military and civil. To make the sign of the cross, is thought by many people, in Catho- lic countries, a defence against evil spirits, evil influences, &c. The Greeks make this sign constantly, hardly taking a glass of raky without signing the cross over it. In Rus- sia, the common people never commit any act of gross wickedness without doing the same. Catholic bishops, archbishops, abbots, and abbesses wear a small golden cross. The Catholic benediction is generally performed by making the sign of the cross over the object. In the administration of the ordinance of baptism, the practice of making the sign of the cross on the forehead of the person baptized, was adopted at an early period, though not enjoined by any command, or sanctioned by any example in Scripture. The first Christian writer who mentions it, in cónnexion with baptism, is Tertullian, who wrote after the middle of the second century. How melan- choly are the effects of human superstition —Hend. Buck. CROSS-BEARER, (porte-croix, cruciger;) in the Roman Catholic church, the chaplain of an archbishop, or a pri- mate, who bears a cross before him on Solemn occasions. The pope has the cross borne before him every where; a patriarch any where out of Rome; and primates, metro- politans, and those who have a right to the pallium, through- out their respective jurisdictions. Gregory XI. forbade all patriarchs and prelates to have it borne in the presence of cardinals. A prelate wears a single cross, a patriarch a double cross, and the pope a triple one on his arms.— Hend. Buck. - CROWN, is a term properly taken for a cap of state C R U C R U [428 J worn on the heads of sovereign princes, as a mark of Tegal dignity. In Scripture there is frequent mention made of crowns; and the use of them seems to have been very common among the Hebrews. The high-priest wore a crown, which was girt about his mitre, or the lower part of his bonnet, and was tied about his head. On the fore part was a plate of gold, with these words engraven on it: * Holiness to the Lord,” Exod. 28: 36. 29. 6. New-mar- ried persons of both sexes wore crowns upon their wedding day, (Cant. 3; 11;) and, alluding to this custom, it is said that when God entered into covenant with the Jewish na- tion, he put a beautiful crown upon their head, Ez. 16: 12. The first crowns were no more than a bandelet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we see it still repre- sented on medals, &c. Afterwards, they consisted of two bandelets; by degrees they took branches of trees of divers kinds, &c.; at length they added flowers; and Claudius Saturninus says there was not any plant of which crowns had not been made. - There was always a difference, either in matter or form, between the crowns of kings and great men, and those of private persons. The crown of a king was generally a white fillet bound about his forehead, the extremities whereof being tied behind the head, fell back on the neck. Sometimes they were made of gold tissue, adorned with jewels. That of the Jewish high-priest, which is the most ancient of which we have any description, was a fil- let of gold placed upon his forehead, and tied with a ribbon of a hyacinth color, or azure blue. The crown, mitre, and diadem, royal fillet and tiara, are frequently confounded. Crowns were bestowed on kings and princes, as the prin- cipal marks of their dignity. David took the crown of the king of the Ammonites from off his head: the crown weighed a talent of gold, and was moreover enriched with jewels, 2 Sam. 12:30. 1 Chron. 20: 2. The Amalekite, who valued himself on killing Saul, brought this prince's crown unto David, 2 Sam. 1: 10. The crown was placed upon the head of young king Josiah, when he was present- ed to the people, in order to be acknowledged by them, 2 Chron. 23: 11. Baruch says that the idols of the Babylo- nians were golden crowns, Baruch 6: 9, Queens, too, wore diadems among the Persians. King Ahasuerus ho- nored Vashti with this mark of power; and, after her di- vorce, the same favor was granted to Esther, chap. 2: 17. The elders, in Rev. 4: 10, are said to “cast their crowns before the throne.” The allusion is here to the tributary kings dependent upon the Roman emperors. Herod took off his diadem in the presence of Augustus, till ordered to replace it. Tiridates did homage to Nero by laying the ensigns of royalty at the foot of his statue. Pilate's guard platted a crown of thorns, and placed it on the head of Jesus Christ, (Matt. 27: 29,) with an inten- tion to insult him, under the character of the king of the Jews. (See THoRN.) In a figurative sense, a crown sig- nifies honor, splendor, or dignity, (Lam. 5: 16. Phil. 4: 1,) and is also used for reward, because conquerors, in the Grecian games, were crowned, 1 Cor. 9:25.-Watson. CRUCIFIX; a cross, upon which the body of Christ is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman Catholics, to excite in their minds a strong idea of our Savior’s passion.— IHend. Buck. CRUCIFIXION. (See Cross.) CRUCIGER, (CASPAR,) one of the early reformers, was born at Leipsic, in 1504, of religious parents, who took pains with his religious as well as literary education. He was naturally inclined to melancholy, loved retirement and meditation, and spoke little. Collected in himself, he was absent in company, which led his parents to suppose him dull of understanding. This fear was soon dispelled; for when put under an able master, he displayed a reach and strength of genius which surprised every one that knew him. Nothing in human science was too difficult for his comprehension, and his industry equalled the clear- ness of his judgment and penetration of his mind. At the same time he was modest, meek, and humble, patient, chaste, and pious. He studied theology at Wittenburg, where also he became profoundly skilled in the Hebrew. Being called to Magdeburg, he there taught with great success and applause till 1527, when he was recalled to Wittenburg. Here he was occupied in preaching and ex- pounding the Scriptures with such judgment and useful- ness, that he soon received the degree of doctor in divinity. Botany and medicine also he studied and practised with much pleasure. Here also he aided Luther in his trans. lation of the Bible, and became endeared to that great man by his probity and sound doctrine. He was very expertin writing, being able to write with ease and exact. ness whatever was spoken. To this extraordinary faculty we are indebted for many of Luther's precious remains. His health giving way under his incessant studies and labors, he continued to glorify God in sickness, realizing to the last the truth of the divine promises. He died in 1548, aged forty-four years.-Middleton's Evang. Biog, CRUDEN, (ALEXANDER,) compiler of the Concordance to the Holy Scriptures, was born at Aberdeen, in 1704, and educated at the Marischal college in that city. In 1732, he took up his stated residence in London, and engaged as a corrector of the press, blending with this occupation the trade of a bookseller, which he carried on in a shop under the Royal Exchange. Here his literary attainments, indefatigable industry, and strict integrity, procured him the esteem of several persons eminent for their wealth and influence, through whose interference he obtained the ap- pointment of bookseller to the queen, vacant by the death of Mr. Matthews. His Concordance first made its appear- ance in 1737, and was dedicated to her majesty queen Caroline, consort of George II, who graciously accepted a copy of the work at the hands of the author, expressed her great satisfaction therewith, and declared her intention of remembering him, but lived only sixteen days after the presentation. Her death precluded the performance of her promise, and was a sore disappointment to poor Cru- den, who became embarrassed in pecuniary difficulties, which compelled him to dispose of his stock in trade, abandon his shop, and he was eventually confined in an asylum for insané persons, at Bethnal Green. Recovering the use of his mental faculties, he returned to his former occupation of correcting the press. He was a member of the Congregational church in Great Saint Helen's, under the pastoral care of Dr. Guyse, whom he styled his “faith- ful and beloved pastor.” He lived to see a third edition of his valuable Concordance published, in 1769; after which he visited Aberdeen, his native place, where he continued about a year, and then returned to London, where he closed his days, at his lodgings in Camden street, Islington, on the 1st of November, 1770, aged seventy; being found dead in a praying posture. Among the many excellencies of his character, his liberality was none of the least; and the proceeds of the second and third editions of his Concordance (amounting to eight, hundred pounds) enabled him to gratify it to a considerable extent. “Not- withstanding his natural infirmities,” says Mr. Alexander Chalmers, “we cannot but venerate his character; he was a man whom neither infirmity nor neglect could de- base; who sought consolation where alone it could be found; whose sorrows served to instruct him in the dis- tresses of others; and who employed his prosperity to relieve those, who, in every sense, were ready to perish.” Gen. Biog. Dict, ; Hend. Buck, CRUEL. The tender mercies of the wicked are cruel; even their kindness ensnares and murders men's Souls. Prov. 12: 10. To breathe out cruelty is to utter threaten- ings, and to delight in want of tender sympathy, and in doing mischief. Ps. 27: 12.—Brown. .* CRUSADE, may be applied to any war undertaken on pretence of defending the cause of religion, but has been chiefly used for the expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of Palestine. . These expeditions commenced A. D. 1096. The founda- tion of them was a superstitious veneration for those places where our Savior performed his miracles, and accomplish- ed the work of man's redemption. Jerusalem had been taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a considerable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy sepul- chre. They had, however, still been allowed this liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who were not much inclined to molest them. . But, in 1064, this city changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Sara- cens; and being much more fierce and barbarous, the * C R U , C R U | 429 J pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their de- votions with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrim- ages much more frequent than formerly: it was imagined, that the thousand years mentioned in Rev. 20. were ſul- filled; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Pa- lestine to judge the world; and consequently that journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pil- grims who now flocked to Palestine, meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and deridéd the sacred mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christen- dom against the Mahometans; but his exorbitant en- croachments upon the civil power of princes had created him so many enemies, and rendered his schemes so suspi- cious, that he was not able to make great progress in his undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner in- strument. Peter, commonly called the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru- salem; and, being deeply affected with the dangers to which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as well as with the oppression under which the Eastern Christians now labored, formed the bold, and, in all appearance, im- practicable design, of leading into Asia, from the farthest extremities of the West, armies sufficient to subdue those potent and warlike nations that now held the Holy Land in slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Martin II., who prudently resolving not to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, summoned at Placentia a council of four thousand ecclesiastics and thirty thousand seculars. As no hall could be found large enough to con- tain such a multitude, the assembly was held in a plain. Here the pope himself, as well as Peter, harangued the peo- ple, representing the dismal situation of their brethren in the East, and the indignity offered to the Christian name in allowing the holy city to remain in the hands of the in- fidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly and vio- lently declared for the war, and solemnly devoted them- selves to perform this service, which they believed to be meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the design with ardor, Martin thought it necessary, in order to obtain perfect success, to engage the greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise. Having, therefore, exhorted Peter to visit the chieſ cities and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another council at Clermont, in Auvergne. The fame of this great and pious design being now universally diffused, procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes; and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by imme- diate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, “It is the will of God P’ These words were deemed so much the effect of a divine impulse, that they were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all future exploits of these ad- venturers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardor, and a cross was affixed to their right shoul- der by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time, Europe was sunk in the most profound ignorance and superstition. The ecclesiastics had gained the great- est ascendant over the human mind; and the people, who committed the most horrid crimes and disorders, knew of no other expiation than the observances imposed on them by their spiritual pastors, But amidst the abject supersti- tion which now prevailed, the military spirit had also uni- versally diffused itself; and, though not supported by art or discipline, was become the general passion of the na- tions governed by the feudal law. All the great lords pos: sessed the right of peace and war. They were engaged in continual hostilities with one another: the open coun- try was become a scene of outrage and disorder: the cities, still mean and poor, were neither guarded by walls nor protected by privileges. Every man was obliged to de- pend for safety on his own force, or his private alliances; and valor was the only excellence which was held in es- teem, or gave one man the pre-eminence above another. When all the particular superstitions, therefore, were here united in one great object, the ardor for private hostilities took the same direction; “and all Europe,” as the princess Anna Comnena expresses it, “torn from its foundations, seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia.” All ranks of men now deeming the crusades the only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way with their swords to the holy city. Nobles, artisans, peasants, even priests, enrolled their names; and to decline this service, was branded with the reproach of impiety or cowardice. The nobles were moved, by the romantic spirit of the age, to hope for opulent establishments in the East, the chief seat of arts and commerce at that time. In pursuit of these chimerical projects, they sold at low prices their an- cient castles and inheritances, which had now lost all va- lue in their eyes. The infirm and aged contributed to the expedition by presents and money, and many of them attended it in person; being determined, if possible, to breathe their last in sight of that city where their Savior died for them. Even women, concealing their sex under the disguise of armor, attended the camp; and often for- got their duty still more by prostituting themselves to the army. The greatest criminals were forward in a service which they considered as an expiation for all crimes; and the most enormous disorders were, during the course of these expeditions, committed by men inured to wickedness, encouraged by example, and impelled by necessity. The adventurers were at last so numerous, that their sagacious leaders became apprehensive lest the greatness of the armament would be the cause of its own disappointment. For this reason they permitted an undisciplined multitude, computed at three hundred thousand men; to go before them under the command of Peter the Hermit, and Gautier or Walter, surnamed the Moneyless, from his being a soldier of fortune. These took the road towards Constantinople, through Hungary and Bulgaria; and trusting that Hea- ven, by supernatural assistance, would supply all their necessities, they made no provision for subsistence in their march. They soon found themselves obliged to obtain by plunder what they vainly expected from miracles; and the enraged inhabitants of the countries through which they passed attacked the disorderly multitude, and slaugh- tered them without resistance. The more disciplined ar- mies followed after; and, passing the straits of Constanti- nople, were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amounted in the whole to seven hundred thousand men. The princes engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count of Ver- mandois, brother to Philip I, king of France; Robert, duke of Normandy; Robert, earl of Flanders; Raymond, earl of Toulouse and St. Giles; the celebrated Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace; Stephen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, count of St. Paul ; with many other lords. The general rendezvous was at Constantinople. In this expedition, Godfrey besieged and took the city of Nice. Jerusalem was taken by the confederated army, and Godfrey chosen king. The Christians gained the famous battle of Asca- lon against the sultan of Egypt, which put an end to the first crusade, but not to the spirit of crusading. The rage continued for near two centuries. The second crusade, in 1144, was headed by the emperor Conrade III., and Louis VII, king of France. The emperor's army was either destroyed by the enemy, or perished through the treachery of Manuel, the Greek emperor; and the second army, through the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, was forced to break up the siege of Damascus. The third cru- sade, in 1188, immediately followed the taking of Jerusa. lem by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedition were, the emperor Frederic Barbarossa; Frederic, duke of Suabia, his second son ; Leopold, duke of Austria; Berthold, duke of Moravia; Herman, marquis of Baden; the counts of Nassau, Thuringia, Missen, and Holland; and above sixty other princes of the empire; with the bishops of Besancon, Cambray, Munster, Osna- burg, Missen, Passau, Wisburg, and several others. In this expedition, the emperor Frederic defeated the sultan of Iconium : his son Frederic, joined by Guy Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, in vain endeavored to take Acre or Ptolemais. During these transactions, Philip Augustus, king of France, and Richard I. king of England, joined C R U C U B [ 430 the crusade; by which means the Christian army consisted of three hundred thousand fighting men; but great disputes happening between the kings of France and England, the former quitted the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a eace with Saladim. The fourth crusade was undertaken in 1195, by the emperor Henry VI., after Saladin's death. In this expedition, the Christians gained several battles against the infidels, took a great many towns, and were in the way of success, when the death of the emperor obliged them to quit the Holy Land and return into Germany. The fifth crusade was published by pope Innocent III, in 1198. Those engaged in it made fruitless efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land; for, though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after Simon of Montfort, Renard of Dam- pierre, and others, yet the plague destroying many of them, and the rest either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels of the Christian princes, there was nothing done; so that the Sultan of Aleppo easily defeated their troops, in 1204. The sixth crusade began in 1228; in which the Christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced to surrender it again. In 1229, the emperor Frederic made peace with the Sultan for ten years. About 1240, Richard earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III, king of England, arrived in Palestine, at the head of the English crusade; but finding it most advantageous to conclude a peace, he re-embarked, and steered towards Italy. In 1244, the Karasmians, being driven out of Turkey by the Tartars, broke into Palestine, and gave the Christians a general defeat near Gaza. The seventh crusade was headed, in 1249, by St. Lewis, who took the town of Damietta; but a sickness happening in the Christian army, the king endea- vored a retreat; in which, being pursued by the infidels, most of his army were miserably butchered, and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. A truce was agreed upon for ten years, and the king and lords set at liberty. The eighth crusade, in 1279, was headed by the same prince, who made himself master of the port and castle of Carthage, in Africa; but dying a short time after, he left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and joining Philip the Bold, son and successor of Lewis, the king of Tunis, after several engagements with the Christians, in which he was always worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon conditions advantageous to the Christians; after which, both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince Edward, of England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he landed a small body of three hundred English and French, and hindered Bendochar from laying siege to Ptolemais : but being obliged to return to take possession of the crown of England, this crusade ended without contributing any thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291, the town of Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by the Sultan of Egypt, and the Christians quite driven out of Syria. There has been no crusade since that period, though several popes have attempted to stir up the Chris. tians to such an undertaking; particularly Nicholas IV., in 1292, and Clement W., in 1311. Though these crusades were effects of the most ab- surd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good of Europe. Multitudes, indeed, were destroyed. M. Vol. taire computes the people who perished in the different expeditions, at upwards of two millions. Many there were, however, who returned; and these having conversed so long with people who lived in a much more magnificent way than themselves, began to entertain some taste for a reſined and polished way of life. Thus the barbarism in which Europe had been so long immersed, began to wear off soon after. The princes, also, who remained at home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the people. By the absence of such numbers of restless and martial adventurers, peace was established in their dominions. They also took the opportunity of annexing to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by pur- chase, or the extinction of the heirs; and thus the mis- chiefs which must always attend feudal governments were considerably lessened. With regard to the bad success of the crusaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing could happen to them. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their schemes; they were jealous, and not without reason; of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they con- sidered their true interests, they would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into alliances with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however, and were often of very great disservice to the western ad- venturers, which at last occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst enemies the crusaders had were their own internal feuds and dissensions. They neither could agree while marching together in armies with a view to con- quest, nor could they unite their conquests under one go- vernment after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors; and thus became an easy prey to the common enemy The horrid cruelties they committed, too, must have in- spired the Turks with the most invincible hatred against them, and made them resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed with the most bigoted enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the numerous garri- son were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were mas- sacred without-mercy and without distinction. No age or sex was spared, not even sucking children. According to Voltaire, some Christians, who had been suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most private caves, where women had concealed themselves with their children, and not one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm by which these conquerors were animated, is their behavior after this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy sepulchre, and, while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Savior of mankind. Nay, so far did their religious enthusiasm overcome their ſu- ry, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be exceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows. In 1204, the frenzy of crusading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what they see their parents engaged in. Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks and School-masters; and thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents, on the super- stitious interpretation of these words:—Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise.” Their base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. See Hume's History of England, vol. i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii. p. 280: Encyclopedia Britan- nica ; and Mosheim's JEcclesiastical History.—IIend. Buck. CRUSE ; a small vessel for holding water, and other liquids, 1 Sam. 26: 11. Our translators have rendered by the word cruse, no less than three words, which are offered by the Hebrew; and which, no doubt, describe different utensils; though, perhaps, all may be taken as vessels for the purpose of containing liquid, 1 Sam. 26: 11, 1 Rings 14: 3. 2 Chron. 2: 20.—Calmet. - CRY. This word is used in several schses. “The blood of Abel crieth from the ground,” where it was spilt, Gen. 4: 10. “The cry of Sodom ascended up to heaven,” 18:20. The cries of the Israelitcs, oppressed by the Egyp. tians, rose up to the throne of God, Exod. 3: 9. “He looked for judgment, but behold oppression; for righteous- ness, but behold a cry,” Isa. 5: 7. “If my land cry against me, or the furrows likewise thereof complain,” says. Job, 31:38. The force of these expressions is such, that any explanation would only weaken them.—Calmet. CRYPTO-CALVINISTS; a name given, some time after the reformation, to the favorers of Calvinism in Sax. ony, Denmark, Sweden, &c., on account of their secret at- tachment to the Genevan doctrine and discipline.—Hend. Buck. - . . * CRYSTAL. The Hebrew keroch is rendered by our translators, crystal, (Ezek. 1: 22.) frost, (Gen. 31:40, &c.) and ice, Job 6: 16, &c. . The word primarily denotes ice, and it is given to a perfectly transparent and byaline gen; from its resemblance to this substance.—Calmet. CUBIT; a measure used among the ancients. The Hebrews call it amek, the mother of other measures; in Greek, C U D C U M [431 1 pechus. A cubit originally was the distance from the el- w {. to the extremity of the middle finger: this is the fourth part of a well-proportioned man's stature. The common cubit is eighteen inches. The Hebrew cubit, ac- cording to bishop Cumberland and M. Pelletier, is twenty- one inches; but others fix it at eighteen inches. The talmudists observe, that the Hebrew cubit was larger by one quarter than the Roman. Lewis Capellus and others have asserted that there were two sorts of cubits among the Hebrews, one sacred, the other common; the sacred containing three feet, the common containing a foot and a half. Moses assigns to the Levites a thousand sacred cubits of land round about their cities, (Num. 35:4;) and in the next verse he gives them two thousand common ones. The opinion, however, is very probable, that the cubit varied in different districts and cities, and at differ- ent times, &c.—Watson. CUCKOW ; an unclean bird, Lev. 11: 16. We are not certain of the bird intended by Moses under this name: the strength of the versions is in favor of the sea-men, or gull. Geddes renders, “the horn-owl,” but we incline to the opinion of Shaw, who understands it of the rhaad, or saf-saf, a granivorous and gregarious bird, which wants the hinder toe ; though we confess we see no reason for the exclusion of this bird by Moses.—Calmet. CUCUMBER, (Num. 11: 5;) the fruit of a plant very common in our gardens. Tournefort mentions six kinds, of which the white and green are most esteemed. They are very plentiful in the East, especially in Egypt, and much superior to ours. Maillet, in describing the vegeta- bles which the modern Egyptians have for food, tells us, that melons, cucumbers, and onions are the most common; and Celsius and Alpinus describe the Egyptian cucumbers as more agreeable to the taste and of more easy digestion than the European,—Watson. CUDWORTH, (RALPH, D. D.) now best known as the author of “The true Intellectual System of the Universe,” was born in 1617, at Aller, in Somersetshire, of which place his father was rector. He was admitted as a pen- sioner of Emanuel college, Cambridge, at the age of thir. teen; and so great was his diligence as an academical student, that in 1639 he took the degree of master of arts, and was elected fellow of his college. He became so emi- nent as a tutor, that the number of his pupils exceeded all precedent. In 1644, he took the degree of bachelor of divinity, and was chosen master of Clare-hall, and in the following year made Regius professor of Hebrew. In 1678, he was installed prebendary of Gloucester. In the same year, he published his grand work, entitled “The true Intel- lectual System of the Universe,” &c. in folio. This work, which is an immense store-house of ancient literature, was intended by the author to be a confutation of atheism. It is a work of great power and erudition, although the at- tachment of the author to the Platonism of the Alexandri- an School has led him to advance some opinions which border on incomprehensibility and mysticism. Besides the articles already mentioned, Dr. Cudworth published a sermon against the doctrine of “Reprobation,” and also left behind him several unpublished manuscripts, of which one only, “A Treatise concerning eternal and immutable Morality,” has been printed. His other unpublished ma- nuscripts, now in the British museum, are, “A Treatise on moral Good and Evil;” “A Treatise on Liberty and Ne- cessity;” “A Commentary on the Seventy Weeks of Da- niel;” “A Treatise on the Creation of the World;’ “A Treatise on the Learning of the Hebrews;” and “An Ex- gº of the Notion of Hobbes concerning God and Yirits.” "tºoth died at Cambridge, June 26, 1688, and was interred in the chapel of Christ's college. He was a man of very extensive erudition, excellently skilled in the learned languages and antiquity, a good mathematician, a subtle philosopher, and a profound metaphysician. Yet, with all his great attainments, he is said to have been scarcely less distinguished for his piety and modesty. According to Dr. Burnet, he considered Christianity as a revelation from God, whose object is to elevate the heart and affections, and sweeten human nature; and that “he prosecuted this with a strength of genius, and a vast com- pass of learning; that he was a man of great conduct and rudence; upon which his enemies did very falsely acctise #. of craft and dissimulation,”, Ilord Shaftesbury styles him “an excellent and learned divine, of the highest au. thority at home and abroad.”—Birch's Gen. Biog. ; Jones's Chris. Biog. CULDEES; the members of a very ahçient religious fraternity, whose principal seat was the island of Iona, or Icolumkil, one of the western islands of Scotland, but whose laborious missionary exertions were extended over considerable portions of Scotland, England, Wales, and Ireland, and in whose constitution we discover a simplici- ty of views and habits which necessarily lead us to asso- ciate them with the men of more primitive times. Th owe their establishment to Columba, a native of Irelan who, after proceeding to Scotland, and succeeding in the conversion of the northern Picts to Christianity, landed at Hii, or Iona, in the year 563, and received the island from the king of that people for the purpose of founding a mo- nastery. Here he erected a seminary, in which he taught his disciples the Holy Scriptures, to the study of which he was himself devotedly attached; and when they were duly prepared, he sent them forth, with the holy book in their hand, to evangelize the dark and benighted regions which extended in every direction. They held no fellowship with the church of Rome, and for many centuries maintained their ground against the attempted encroachments of that see. They rejected auricular confession, penance, and absolution; knew nothing, of the chrism in baptism, or the rite of confirmation; and opposed the doctrine of the real presence, the worship of saints and angels, and the celi- bacy of the clergy, and works of supererogation. In the twelfth century, their influence began to be overpowered by the force of popish superstition; but they resisted to the very last every effort that was made to incorporate their secluded establishment with the dominant hierarchy. Their form of government was essentially Presbyterian. To the members of their synod, or assembly, was given the name of seniores, or elders, to whom, in their collective capacity, belonged the right of appointing and ordaining those who engaged in the ministerial or missionary office. To these, when settled in any particular place, was given the designation of bishop—a dignity which does not ap- pear to have been in any respect different from that of presbyter or pastor. These bishops, to how great soever a distance they resided from Iona, were subject to the dis- cipline of the college, with which they kept up a regular correspondence. It is not known in what precise year the Culdees be- came extinct, but there is reason to believe that, in the west of Scotland, they continued to exhibit a testimony on behalf of primitive truth in opposition to the corruptions of Rome, till very near the period when the light of the reformation was introduced into those northern parts of our island.—Hend. Buck; Watson. CUMBER. Barren sinners in the church cumber God's ground ; they offend God; they grieve ministers and saints; fill up room to no purpose, and hinder the spiritual growth of others. Luke 13: 7–Brown. . CUMMIN, (Isa. 28: 25, 27. Matt. 23: 23.) This is an umbelliferous plant, in appearance resembling ſennel, but smaller. Its seeds have a bitterish warm taste, accompa- nied with an aromatic flavor, not of the most agreeable kind. An essential oil is obtained from them by distilla- tion. The Jews sowed it in their fields, and, when ripe, threshed out the seeds with a rod, Isa, 28:25, 27. The Maltese sow it, and collect the seeds in the same man- ner.—Watson. CUMMINGS, (ABRAHAM,) a missionary, graduated at Brown university, in 1776, and died at Phipsburgh, Maine, August 31, 1827, aged seventy-two. He had never any pastoral charge, but was strictly an itinerant preacher or missionary. He was known and respected in almost all the towns along the coast from Rhode Island to Passama- quoddy, especially in the islands which had no settled minister. In his little boat he often traversed, alone, the waters along the whole coast of Maine, and preached the gospel of Jesus Christ in the islands. For these toils in the cause of benevolence the world will not honor him, as it honors the blood-stained hero; but such toils will not be unrewarded. He published a few treatises.—Allen C U R C U R [ 432 ) CUP. This word is taken in a two-ſold sense; proper, and figurative. In a proper sense, it signifies a vessel, such as people drink out of at meals. Gen. 40: 13. It was anciently the custom, at great entertainments, for the go- vernor of the feast to appoint to each of his guests the kind and proportion of the wine which they were to drink, and what he had thus appointed them it was deemed a breach of good manners either to refuse or not to drink up ; hence a man's cup, both in sacred and profane authors, came to signify the portion, whether of good or evil, which happens to him in this world. Thus, to drink “the cup of trembling,” or of “the fury of the Lord,” is to be afflicted with sore and terrible judgments, Isa. 51: 17. Jer, 25: 15– 29, Ps. 75: 8. What Christ means by the expression, we cannot be at a loss to understand, since in two remarkable passages, Luke 22:42, and John 18: 11, he has been his own interpreter. Lethale poculum bibere, “to drink the deadly oup,” or cup of death, was a common phrase among the Jews; and from them, we have reason to believe, our Lord borrowed it. - - CUP OF BLEssing, (1 Cor. 10: 16,) is that which was blessed in entertainments of ceremony, or solemn ser- vices; or, rather, a cup over which God was blessed for having furnished its contents; that is, for giving to men the fruit of the vine. Our Savior, in the last supper, bless- ed God over the cup, and gave it to each of his apostles to drink, Luke 22: 20. - CUP OF SALVATION, (Ps. 116:13;) a phrase of nearly the same import as the former, a cup of thanksgiving, of blessing the Lord for his saving mercies. We see, in 2 Macc. 6: 27, that the Jews of Egypt, in their festivals for deliverance, offered cups of salvation. The Jews have at this day cups of thanksgiving, which are blessed, in their marriage ceremonies, and in entertainments made at the circumcision of their children. Some commentators think that “the cup of salvation” was a libation of wine poured on the victim sacrificed on thanksgiving occasions, ac- cording to the law of Moses, Ex. 29:40.-Watson. CURATE ; the lowest degree in the church of England; he who represents the incumbent of a church, parson, or vicar, and officiates in his stead: he is to be licensed and admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary having episcopal jurisdiction; and when a curate hath the approbation of the bishop, he usually appoints the sa- lary too. A curate, having no fixed estate in his curacy, not being instituted and inducted, may be removed at pleasure by the bishop, or incumbent. But there are per- petual curates as well as temporary, who are appointed where tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endow- ed: these are not removable, and the impropriators are obliged to find them; some whereof have certain portions of the tithes settled on them. Curates must subscribe the declaration according to the act of uniformity, or are liable to imprisonment.—Hend. Buck. CURIA, (PARAL) is a collective appellation of all the authorities in Rome, which exercise the rights and privi- leges enjoyed by the pope, as first bishop, superintendent, and pastor of the Roman Catholic church. The right to grant or confirm ecclesiastical appointments is exercised by the Dataria, or papal chancery, which has its name from the common subscription, Datum apud Sanctum Pe- trum. This body receives petitions, draws up answers, and collects the revenues of the pope, for the pallia, spo. lia, benefices, annates, &c. It is a lucrative branch of the papal government, and part of the receipts goes to the apostolic chamber. In former times, the cardinal grand penitentiary, as president of the penitenzieria, had a very great influence. He still issues all dispensations and ab- Solutions in respect to vows, penances, fasts, &c.; in re- gard to which the pope has reserved to himself the dis- pensing power: also with respect to marriages within the degrees prohibited to Catholics. Besides these authorities, whose powers extend over all Catholic Christendom, there are in Rome several others occupied only with the govern- ment of the Roman state; as the sagra consulta, or chief criminal court, in which the cardinal secretary of state presides; the signatura di giustizia, a court for civil cases, consisting of twelve prelates, over which the cardinal pro- beditore, or papal minister of justice, presides, and with which the signatura di grazia concurs; the apostolic cham- are of three different kinds. ber, in which twelve prelates are employed under the car. dinale camerlingo, administering the property of the church and the papal domains, and receiving the revenue which belongs to the pope as temporal and spiritual sovereign of the Roman state, and also that which he derives from other countries which stand immediately under him, and are his fiefs. Besides these, there is a number of govern- ors, prefects, procuratori, &c. in the different branches of the administration. The drawing up of bulls, answers, and decrees, which are issued by the pope himself, or by these authorities, is done by the papal chancery, consisting of a vice-chancellor and twelve abbreviatori, assisted by se- veral hundred secretaries: the breves only are excepted, and are drawn up by a particular cardinal. All these of. fices are filled by clergymen; and many of them are so lucrative, that considerable sums are paid for them, some- what in the same manner as commissions are purchased in the English army. At the death of Sixtus W. there existed four thousand venal offices of this kind; but this number has since been diminished, and many abuses hav been abolished. - The highest council of the pope, corresponding in some measure to the privy council of a monarch, is the college of the cardinals, convened whenever the pope thinks fit. The sessions of this senate, which presides over all the other authorities in Rome, are called consistories. They The secret consistory is held generally twice a month, after the pope has given private audience to every cardinal. In these sessions, bishops are elected, pallia granted, ecclesiastical and political affairs of importance transacted, and resolutions adopted on the reports of the congregations delegated by the consistory. Beatifications and canonizations also originate in this body. Different from the secret are the semi-secret consis- tories, the deliberations of which relate principally to poli- tical affairs, and the results of them are communicated to the ambassadors of foreign powers. The public consistories are seldom held, and are principally ceremonial assem- blies: in these the pope receives ambassadors, and makes known important resolutions, canonizations, establish- ments of orders, &c. According to rule, all cardinals re- siding in Rome should take part in the consistories; but, in point of fact, no one appears without being specially summoned by the pope; who, if able to do so, always presides in person, and the cardinal secretary of state (who is minister of the interior and for foreign affairs) is always present, as are likewise the cardinals presidents of the authorities. - At present, there are twenty-two congregations of cardi- nals at Rome : 1. The holy Roman and general inquisi- tion, or holy office (santo officio.) 2. Visita apostolica. 3. Consistoriale. 4. Vescovi regolari. 5. De concilio (Tridenti- mo.) 6. Residenza di vescovi. 7. Immunita ecclesiastica. 8. Propaganda. 9. Indici (of prohibited books.) 10, Sagri riti. 11. Ceremoniale. 12. Disciplina regolare (orders of monks.) 13. Indulgenze e sagre reliquie. 14. Esame dei vescovi. 15. Correzioni dei libri dellà chiesa Orientale. 16. Fabbrica di S. Pietro. 17. Consulta. 18. Buongoverno. 19. Loretto. 20. Hydraulic myorks and the Pontine marshes. 21. Economica. 22. Extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs. Few, however, of these congregations are fully supplied with officers.—Hend. Buck. CURIOSITY; a propensity or disposition of the soul which inclines it to inquire after new objects, and to de- light in viewing them. Curiosity is proper, when it springs from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments, to enlarge our minds, and to regulate our conduct; but improper when it wishes to know more of God, of the de- crees, the origin of evil, the state of men, or the nature of things, than it is designed for us to know. The evil of this is evident. It reproaches God’s goodness; it is a vio- lation of Scripture, (Deut. 22:29;) it robs us of our time; it often makes us unhappy; lessens our usefulness, and produces mischief. To cure this disposition, let us consi- der the divine command, (Phil. 4: 6,) that every thing es- sential is revealed; that God cannot err; that we shall be satisfied in a future state, John 13: 7. Curiosity concern- ing the affairs of others is exceedingly reprehensible. “It interrupts,” says an elegant writer, “the order, and breaks the peace of society, Persons of this disposition are dan. C US C UT [433 j gerous troublers of the world. Crossing the lines in which others move, they create confusion, and awaken resent- ment. Hence, many a friendship has been broken; the j of many a family has been overthrown; and much hitter and lasting discord has been propagated through so- ciety, . Such a disposition is entirely the reverse of that amiable spirit of charity our Lord inculcates. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it shines: a censorious disposition casts every character into the dark- est shade it will bear. It is to be further observed, that all impertinent curiosity about the affairs of others tends greatly to obstruct personal reformation. They who are so officiously occupied about their neighbors, have little lei- sure, and less inclination, to observe their own defects, or to mind their own duty. From their inquisitive researches, they find, or imagine they find, in the behavior of others, an apology for their own ſailings; and the favorite result of their inquiries generally is, to rest satisfied with them- selves. We should consider, also, that every excursion of vain curiosity about others is a subtraction from that time and thought which are due to ourselves, and to God. In the great circle of human affairs, there is room for every one to be busy and well employed in his own province, without encroaching upon that of others. It is the province of superiors to direct—of inſeriors to obey; of the learned to be instructive—of the ignorant to be docile; of the old to be communicative—of the young to be advisable and diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among us in life, as husband and wife, master and servants, pa- rents and children, relations and friends, rulers and sub- jects, innumerable duties stand ready to be perſormed; innumerable calls to activity present themselves on every hand, sufficient to fill up with advantage and honor the whole time of man.” See Blair's Sermons, vol. iv. ser. 8; Clarke's Sermons, ser, on Deut. 29:29; Seed's Posthumous Sermons, ser, 7; Sprague's Poem.—Hend. Buck. CURSE. In Scripture language, it signifies the just and lawful sentence of God’s law, condemning sinners to suffer the full punishment of their sin, or the punishment inflicted on account of transgression. Gal. 3: 10. God denounced his curse against the serpent which had seduced. Eve, (Gen. 3: 14.) and against Cain, who had imbued his hands in his brother Abel's blood, 4: 11. He also promised to bless those who should bless Abraham, and to curse those who should curse him. The divine maledictions are not merely imprecations, nor are they impotent wishes: but they carry their effects with them, and are attended with all the miseries they denounce or foretell. (See ANATHEMA.) - º Holy men sometimes prophetically cursed particular persons; (Gen, 9:25. 49: 7. Deut. 27: 15. Josh. 6: 26.) and history informs us, that these imprecations had their fulfilment ; as had those of our Savior against the barren fig tree, Mark 11:21. But such curses are not consequences of passion, impatience, or revenge;—they are predictions, and therefore not such as God condemns. Our Lord pronounces blessed those disciples who are (falsely) loaded with curs- es; and requires his followers to bless those who curse them; to render blessing for cursing, &c. Matt. 5: 11.— Watson ; Calmet. CUSH; the eldest son of Ham, and father of Nimrod, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabtecha; and the grandfather of Sheba and Dedan. The posterity of Cush, spread over great part of Asia and Africa, were called Cushim, or Cushites; and by the Greeks and Romans, and in our Bible, Ethiopians. CUSH, CUTHA, CUTHEA, CUSHAN, ETHIOPIA, Land of Cush, the country or countries peopled by the descendants of Cush; whose first plantations were on the gulf of Per- sia, in that part which still bears the name of Chuzestan, and from whence they spread over India and great part of Arabia; particularly its western part, on the coast of the Red sea; invaded Egypt, under the name of Hyc- Sos, or shepherd-kings; and thence passed, as well proba- bly as by the straits of Babelmandel, into Central Africa, and first peopled the countries to the south of Egypt, Nu- bia, Abyssinia, and parts further to the south and west. The indiscriminate use of the term Ethiopia in our Bible, for all the countries peopled by the posterity of Cush, and the almost exclusive application of the same term by the Greek and Roman writers to the before-mentioned coun. tries of Africa, have involved some portions of both sa, cred and profane history in almost inextricable confusion. The first country which bore this name, and which was doubtless the original settlement, was that which is de- scribed by Moses as encompassed by the river Gihon, or Gyndes; which encircles a great part of the province of Chuzestan in Persia. . In process of time, the increasing family spread over the vast territory of India and Ara- bia ; the whole of which tract, from the Ganges to the borders of Egypt, then became the land of Cush, or Asi- atic Ethiopia, the Cusha Diveepa nithin, of Hindoo geo- graphy. Until dispossessed of this country, or a great part of it, by the posterity of Abraham, the Ishmaelites and Midianites, they, by a further dispersion, passed over into Africa; which, in its turn, became the land of Cush, or Ethiopia, the Cusha Dneepa without, of the Hindoos : the only country so understood after the commencement of the Christian era. Even from this last refuge, they were compelled, by the influx of fresh settlers from Ara- bia, Egypt, and Canaan, to extend their migrations still further westward, into the heart of the African continent; where only, in the woolly-headed negro, the genuine Cush- ite is to be found. Herodotus relates that Xerxes had, in the army prepar- ed for his Grecian expedition, both Oriental and Aſrican Ethiopians : and adds, that they resembled each other in every outward circumstance except their hair; that of the Asiatic Ethiopians being long and straight, while the hair of those of Africa was curled. In the time of our Savior, (and indeed from that time forward,) by Ethiopia, was meant, in a general sense, the countries south of Egypt, then but imperfectly known : of one of which, that Candace was queen whose eunuch was baptized by Philip. (See ETHIoPIA.)—Watson. CUSTOM, a very comprehensive term, denoting the manners, ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which having turned into habit, and passed into use, obtain the force of laws. Custom and habit are often confounded. By custom, we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or the body. (See HABIT.) “Viewing man,” says lord Kaimes, “as a sensitive being, and perceiving the influence of novelty upon him, would one suspect that custom has an equal influence 2 And yet our nature is equally susceptible of both ; not only in different objects, but frequently in the same. When an object is new, it is enchanting; familiarity ren- ders it indifferent; and custom, after a longer familiarity, makes it again desirable. Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is wonderful, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed. Custom hath such influence upon many of our feelings, by warping and varying them, that we must attend to its operations if we would be acquainted with human nature. A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably confined, becomes, however, so agreeable by custom, that a sailor, in his walk on shore, confines himself commonly within the same bounds. I knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country life : in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount, with a level summit, resem- bling, most accurately, a quarter-deck, not only in shape, but in size; and here was his choice walk.” Such, we find, is often the power of custom.—Hend. Buck. CUTHITES, a people who dwelt beyond the Euphra tes, and were from thence transplanted into Samaris; in place of the Israelites, who had before inhabited it. 2 #. 1 : 17. They came from the land of Cush, or Cutha, on the Araxes, their first settlement being in the cities of the Medes, subdued by Shalmaneser, and his predeces- ors. (See Cush.) Josephus informs us, that they did not build a common temple on mount Gerizim, till the reign of Alexander the Great. (See SAMARITANs.)—Calmet. CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH. There has been much conjecture as to the reason for which the priests of Baal “cut themselves, after their manner, with knives, and with lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them,” 1 Kings 18:28. This seems, by the history, to have been after Elijah had mocked them, or while he was mocking them, and had worked up their fervor, and passions, to the ut- 55 : C Y P C Y R I 434 most height. Mr. Harmer has touched lightly on this circumstance, but has not set it in so clear a view as it seems to be capable of, nor has he given very cogent in- stances. It may be taken as an instance of earnest en- treaty, of conjuration, by the most powerful marks of af. fection: q. d. “ Dost thou not see, O Baal , with what pas- sion we adore thee ?—how we give thee most decisive to- kens of our affection ? We shrink at no pain, we decline ... no disfigurement, to demonstrate our love for thee ; and yet thou answerest not : By every token of our regard, answer us. By the freely-flowing blood we shed for thee, answer us!” &c. They certainly demonstrated their at- tachment to Baal ; but Baal did not testify his reciprocal attachment to them, in proof of his divinity; which was the point in dispute between them and Elijah. This cus. tom of cutting themselves, is taken in other places of Scripture, as a mark of affection; so, Jer, 48:37. “Eve- ry head shall be bald, every beard clipt, and upon all hands cuttings; and upon the loins sackcloth :” as tokens of excessive grief, for the absence of those thus regarded. So, chap. 16: ver. 6, 41 : 5. 47 : 5. The law says, (Lev. 19:28, and Deut. 14:1.) “Ye are the children of the Lord your God; ye shall not cut yourselves, nor make any baldness between your eyes, for the dead,” i.e. re- strain such excessive tokens of grief: sorrow not as those without hope—if for a dead friend; but if for a dead idol, as Calmet always takes it—then it prohibits the idol- atrous custom, of which it also manifests the antiquity. The custom still continues among the Turks and Hin- doos, as appears from the travels of Aaron Hill and de la Motraye, of cutting their flesh in token of ardent affec- tion.—Calmet. CUTTY-STOOL, the stool or seat of repentance, in the Scotch kirks, placed near the roof, and painted black, on which offenders against chastity sit during service, pro- fessing repentance, and receiving the minister's rebukes. It is somewhat remarkable that a breach of the seventh commandment should be the only sin which subjects the offender to this lash of ecclesiastical discipline ; drunk- enness, lying, sabbath-breaking &c. being suffered to pass with impunity.—Hend. Buta. CYAXARES. (See DARIUs.) - CYNICS, (kunikoi, dogs,) a philosophical sect, founded by Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who chose for his school “the Cynosargum,” or temple of the white dog, whence many have supposed the sect derived their name, though, in later times, it is more likely they were called dogs from their snarling disposition. The fundamental principle of Antisthenes was, that “virtue alone is a suf. ficient foundation for a happy life.” From this principle, he despised all speculative and scientific studies, and af. fected poverty of appearance and coarseness of manners. This his master Socrates remarked, and one day observ- ing him in a thread-bare cloak, of which he took pains rather to display than to conceal the rags, said to him, “Why so ostentatious? through your vanity I see your rags.” Diogenes, however, the disciple of Antisthenes, exceeded his master both in coarseness of manners and a snarling disposition, which subsequent ages have consid- ered as the characteristic of a Cynic.—(Enfield's Philos. vol. i. p. 190, &c.)—Williams. * CYMBAL, a musical instrument, consisting of two broad plates of brass, of a convex form, which, being struck together, produced a shrill piercing sound. They were used in the temple, and upon occasions of public re- joicings, (1 Chron. 16:19.) as they are by the Armeni- ans, at the present day. In 1 Cor. 13: 1. the apostle deduces a comparison from sounding brass and tinkling cymbals: if we may suppose that in the phrase “sound- ing brass” the apostle alluded to an instrument composed of merely two pieces of brass, shaken one against the other, and thereby producing a kind of rattling jingle, void of meaning, intensity, or harmony, perhaps we should be pretty near the true idea of the passage. Boys among ourselves have such a kind of snappers ; and the crotalis- tria of the ancients were no better.—Calmet. - CYPRESS, (Isaiah 44: 14;) a large evergreen tree. The wood is fragrant, very compact, and heavy. It scarcely ever rots, decays, or is worm-eaten ; for which reason the ancients used to make the statues of their gods with it. * The unperishable chests which contain the Egyptian mummies were of cypress. The gates of St. Peter's church at Rome, which had lasted from the time of Con- stantine to that of pope Eugene IV., that is to say, ele- ven hundred years, were of cypress, and had in that time suffered no decay... But Celsius thinks that Isaiah speaks of the ilex, a kind of oak ; and bishop Lowth, that the pine is intended. The cypress, however, was more fre- quently used, and more fit for the purpose which the prophet mentions, than either of these trees.—Watson. CYPRIAN, bishop of Carthage, was born A. D. 200, of a respectable family, and was for some years teacher of rhetoric, in that city. His reputation in that office was great; but his habits were loose and expensive. At the age of 46, he was converted to Christianity; upon which he gave his property to the poor, and reduced his living to abstemiousness. The church in Carthage soon chose him a presbyter, and in 248, bishop. In this sta- tion he acquired an exalted character, and became the idol of both clergy and people. During the persecution under Decius he fled, but still exhorted his people to con- stancy in the faith. In 257, he was banished to Churu- bis, and the next year was beheaded. His only crime was preaching the gospel in his garden near Carthage. Cyprian is an eloquent writer, though with somewhat of the hardness of his master Tertullian. ... An explanation of the Lord's prayer and eighty-one of his epistles are extant.—Fox ; Milner ; Ency. Amer. • CYPRIAN, (called by way of distinction the magi- cian) a martyr of the fourth century, was a native of An- tioch. He received a liberal education, which he improv- ed by travel in Greece, Egypt, India, and Chaldea. In Babylon, he addicted himself to the study of astrology and magic, and employed all his arts, against female purity and against Christianity. Being employed by a friend to overcome the virtue of a young lady of Antioch, named Justina, of great beauty and accomplishments, but a decided Christian, his arts proved wholly ineffectual, and he was thereby led to investigate the truth of Chris- tianity. It resulted in his conversion. His repentance was sincere and pungent ; and it required all the efforts of Christian tenderness and enlightened zeal to save him from despair on account of his sins. His conduct now became reformed; he burnt his books of astrology, re- ceived baptism, and became animated with a powerful spirit of grace. His conversion led to that of his friend and employer. Cyprian himself suffered martyrdom un- der Dioclesian, being first torn with pincers, and then be- headed.—Foz. . CYPRUS; a large island in the Mediterranean, situated between Cilicia and Syria. Its inhabitants were plunged in all manner of luxury and debauchery. Their princi- pal deity was Venus. The apostles Paul and Barnabas landed in the isle of Cyprus, A. D. 44, Acts 13:4, While they continued at Salamis, they preached Jesus Christ in the Jewish synagogues; from thence they visited all the cities of the island, preaching the gospel. At º they found Bar-Jesus, a false prophet, with Sergius Paul- us, the governor : Paul struck Bar-Jesus with blindness; and the proconsul embraced Christianity. Some time after, Barnabas went again into this island with John, surnamed Mark, Acts 15:39. Barnabas is considered as the principal apostle and first bishop of Cyprus; where it is said he was martyred, being stoned to death by the Jews of Salamis.— Watson. CYRENE, was a city of Libya in Africa, which, as it was the principal city of that province, gave to it the name of Cyrenaica. This city was once so powerful as to contend with Carthage for pre-eminence. In profane wri- ters, it is mentioned as the birth-place of Eratosthenes the mathematician, and Callimachus the poet; and in ho- ly writ, of Simon, whom the Jews compelled to bear our Savior's cross, Matt. 27:32; Isuke 23; 26. At Cyrene, resided many Jews, a great part of whom embraced the Christian religion; but others opposed it with much ob. stimacy. Among the most inveterate enemies of Chris. tianity, Luke reckons those of this province, who had a synagogue at Jerusalem, and excited the people against St. Stephen, Acts 11:20.-Watson. CYRENAICS, a sect of philosophers, founded by Aris- C Y.R. C Y R. [ 435 ) tippus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates, whose sentiments seem to have corresponded with those of Epicurus, that pleasure is the supreme good, interpreted in the grossest sense; for Cícero speaks of the ; of Aristippus, as fruitful in debaucheries.—(Enfield's Philos. vol. i. p. 190, &c.)—Williams. ... CYRENIUS; governor of Syria, Luke 2 : 1, 2. Great difficulties have been raised on the history of the taxing or rather enrolment (apographia) under Cyrenius, for the different solutions of w. {.. we must refer to the commen- tatorS. - - The narrative of St. Luke may be combined in the following order, which is probably not far from its true import : “In those days, Caesar Augustus,” who was dis- jleased with the conduct of Herod, and wished him to eel his dependence on the Roman empire, “issued a de- cree that the whole land” of Judea “should be enrolled,” as well persons as possessions, that the true state of the inhabitants, their families, and their property, might be known and recorded. Accordingly, “all were enrolled,” but the taxation did not immediately follow this enrol- ment, because Augustus was reconciled to Herod; and this accounts for the silence of Josephus on an assess- ment not carried into effect. “And this was the first as- sessment (or enrolment) of Cyrenius, governor of Syria. And all went to be enrolled, each to his own city;” and, as the emperor's order was urgent, and Cyrenius was known to be active in the despatch of business, even Mary, though far advanced “in her pregnancy, went with Joseph, and while they waited” for their turn to be en- rolled, “Mary was delivered of Jesus.” It is not, how- ever, improbable, that Mary had some small landed es- tate, for which her appearance was necessary. Jesus, therefore, was enrolled with Mary and Joseph, as Julian the Apostate expressly says. - An officer being sent from Rome to enrol and assess the subjects of a king, implied that such king was dependent on the Roman emperor, and demonstrates that the sceptre was departed from Judah. This occurrence, added to the alarm of Herod on the inquiry of the Magi respecting the birth-place of the Messiah, might sufficiently exaspe. rate Herod, not merely to slay the infants of Bethlehem, out to every act of cruelty. Hence, after such an occur. rence, all Jerusalem might well be alarmed with Herod, (Matt. 2: 33) and the priests, &c., study caution in their answers to him. “This occurrence would quicken the at- tention of all who expected temporal redemption in Isra- i. as it would extremely mortify every Jewish national eeling. - - The overruling providence of God appointed that, at the time of Christ's birth, there should be a public, au- thentic, and general production of titles, pedigrees, &c., which should prove that Jesus was descended from the house and direct family line of David; and that this should be proved judicially on such a scrutinizing occa- sion. This occurrence brought about the birth of the Messiah, at the very place appointed by prophecy long before, though the usual residence of Joseph and Mary was at Nazareth.-Watson. - CYRIL; bishop of Gortyma, a martyr of the third cen- tury. At the age of 84, being seized by order of Lucius, the governor of the city, and exhorted to save his vene- rable person from destruction by sacrificing to the gods, the good man replied that he could not do it, that he had long taught others to save their souls, and that he must now think only of the salvation of his own. Upon this the governor pronounced his sentence in the following re- markable words: “I order and appoint that Cyril, who has lost his senses, and is a declared enemy of our god, shall be burnt alive.” The venerable Christian heard this sentence without emotion, walked cheerfully to the place of execution, and there patiently suffered for Christ his Lord.—Foz. . • - CYRIL; one of the Christian fathers, was born at Jeru- Salem, A. D. 315, ordained presbyter in 345, and after the death of Maximus in 350, became patriarch of Jeru- salem. Being a zealous Trinitarian, he engaged in a Warm controversy with Acacius the Arian, bishop of Cae- Sarea, . His adversary accused him of having sold some valuable church ornaments, which he had indeed done, but for the laudable purpose of supporting the needy during a famine. Not satisfied with this, Acacius assem- bled a council at Caesarea in 357, which deposed. Cyril; but the council of Seleucia, two years after, deposed Acaci. us, and restored Cyril. . The . next year, Acacius by his artifices succeeded in again depriving him of his dig- nity; but it was restored to him by the emperor Constan- tius. Valens, the Arian emperor, on ascending the throne, deposed Cyril the third time; and it was not until after the death of Valens that Cyril was allowed to return to Jerusalem. He was confirmed in his see by the council of Constantinople, in 381, and filled it till his death in 386. Of his writings there remain twenty-three cateche- ses, written in a style of clearness and simplicity, which are esteemed the oldest and best outline of Christian doc- trine. (Paris, 1720, folio.)—There was another Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, in 412, a most turbulent and ty. rannical prelate, and a disgrace to the Christian name.— A third Cyril, a native of Thessalonica, was a successful missionary to the Huns, Bulgarians, Moravians, and Bo- hemians in the ninth century.—Mosheim; Ency. Amer. CYRUS; son of Cambyses the Persian, and of Man- dane, daughter of Astyages, king of the Medes. At the age of thirty, Cyrus was made general of the Persian troops, and sent, at the head of thirty thousand men, to assist his uncle, Cyaxares, whom the Babylonians were preparing to attack. Cyaxares and Cyrus gave them battle and dispersed them. After this, Cyrus carried the war into the countries beyond the river Halys; subdued Cappadocia; marched against Croesus, king of Lydia, defeated him, and took Sardis, his capital. Having re- duced almost all Asia, Cyrus repassed the Euphrates, and turned his arms against the Assyrians: having defeated them, he laid siege to Babylon, which he took on a festival day, after having diverted the course of the river which ran through it. On his return to Persia, he married his cousin, the daughter and heiress of Cyaxares; after which he engaged in several wars, and subdued all the nations between Syria and the Red sea. He died at the age of seventy, after a reign of thirty years. Authors differ much concerning the manner of his death. 2. We learn few particulars respecting Cyrus from Scripture; but they are more certain than those derived from other sources. He was monarch, as he speaks, “ of all the earth,” (Ezra 1: 1, 2. 2 Chron. 36:22, 23,) when he permitted the Jews to return into their own country, A. M. 3466, B. C. 538. He had always a particular re- gard for Daniel, and continued him in his great employ- InentS. . 3. The prophets foretold the exploits of Cyrus. Isaiah, (44; 28,) particularly declares his name, above a century before he was born. Josephus says, that the Jews of Babylon showed this passage to Cyrus; and that, in the edict which he granted for their return, he acknowledged that he received the empire of the world from the God of Israel. The peculiar designation by name, which Cyrus received, must be regarded as one of the most remarkable circumstances in the prophetic writings. He was the heir of a monarch who ruled over one of the poorest and most inconsiderable kingdoms of Asia, but whose hardy inhabitants were at that time the bravest of the brave; and the providential circumstances in which he was placed precluded him from all knowledge of this oracular decla- ration in his favor. He did not become acquainted with the sacred books in which it was contained, nor with the singular people in whose possession it was found, till he had accomplished all the purposes for which he had been raised up, except that of saying to Jerusalem, as the “anointed” vicegerent of heaven, “Thou shalt be inha- bited;” and to the cities of Judah, “Ye shall be built, and I will raise up their ruins.” The national pride of the Jews during the days of their unhallowed prosperity, would hinder them from divulging among other nations such prophecies as this, which contained the most severe yet deserved reflections upon their wicked practices and ungrateful conduct; and it was only when they were captives in Babylon that they submitted to the humiliating expedient of exhibiting, to the mighty monarch whose bondmen they had become, the prophetic record of then own apostasy and punishment, and of his still higher C y R CY R [436 ) destination, as the rebuilder of Jerusalem. No tempta- tion therefore could be laid before the conqueror in early life to excite his latent ambition to accomplish this very full and explicit prophecy; and the facts of his life, as recorded by historians of very opposite sentiments and feelings, all concur in developing a series of consecutive events, in which he acted no insignificant part; which, though astonishing in their results, differ greatly from those rapid strides perceptible in the hurried career of other mighty men of war in the East; and which, from the unbroken connexion in which they are presented to us, appear like the common occurrences of life naturally following each other, and mutually dependent. Yet this consideration does not preclude the presence of a mighty Spirit working within him ; which, according to Isaiah, said to him, “I will gird thee, though thou hast not known me.” Concerning the genius, or guardian angel, of Socrates, many learned controversies have arisen; but though a few of the disputants have endeavored to ex- plain it away, the majority of them have left the Greek philosopher in possession of a greater portion of inspira- tion than, with marvellous inconsistency, some of them are willing to accord to the Jewish prophets. In this view, it is highly interesting to recollect that the elegant histo- rian who first informed his refined countrymen of this moral prodigy, is he who subsequently introduced them to an acquaintance with the noble and heroic Cyrus. The didactic discourses and the comparatively elevated mo- rality which Xenophon embodied in his “Memoirs of Socrates,” are generally admitted to have been purposely illustrated in his subsequent admirable production, the Cyropadia, or “Education of Cyrus;” the basis of which is true history adorned and refined by philosophy, and exhibiting for universal imitation the life and actions of a prince who was cradled in the ancient Persian school of the Pischdadians, the parent of the Socratic. Isaiah de- scribes, in fine poetic imagery, the Almighty going before Cyrus to remove every obstruction out of his way:- “I will go before thee, and level mountains, I will burst asunder the folding-doors of brass, And split in twain the bars of iron. Even I will give thee the dark treasures, And the hidden wealth of secret places: That thou mayst know, that H THE LoRD, Who call thee by thy name, am THE God of Isr AEL.” Other particulars relating to him, and the accomplishment of prophecy in his conquest of that large city, will be found under the article BABYLON. It is the God of Israel who, in these sublime prophecies, confounds the omens and prognostics of the Babylonian soothsayers or diviners, after they had predicted the stability of that empire; and who announces the restoration of Israel, and the rebuilding of the city and temple of Jerusalem, through Cyrus his “shepherd” and his “anointed” messenger. Chosen thus by God to execute his high behests, he subdued and reigned over many nations,—the Cilicians, Syrians, Paph- lagonians, Cappadocians, Phrygians, Lydians, Carians, Phoenicians, Arabians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Bactrians, &c. - “I am He who frustrateth the tokens of the imposters, And maketh the diviners mad; &c. Who saith to the abyss, [Babylon, J 'Be desolate, and I will dry up thy rivers:* Who saith to Cyrus, ‘He is my shepherd, And shall perform all my pleasure. Thus saith the Lord to his amointed, To Cyrus, whom I hold by the right hand, To subdue before him nations, And ungird the loins of kings, To open before him [palace] folding-doors; Even [river] gates shall not be shut: For Jacob my servant’s sake, and Israel my chosen, I have surnamed thee;” &c. 4. Herodotus has painted the portrait of Cyrus in dark colors, and has been followed in many particulars by Ctesias, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plato, Strabo, Justin, and others; in opposition to the contrary accounts of Æschylus, Xenophon, Josephus, the Persian historians, and apparently, the holy Scriptures, The motive for this conduct of Herodotus is probably to be found in his aversion to Cyrus, for having been the enslaver of his country. Xenophon informs us, that the seven last years of his full sovereignty, this prince spent in peace and tranquillity at home, revered and beloved by all classes of his subjects. In his dying moments he was surrounded by his family, friends and children, and delivered to them the noblest exhortations to the ractice of piety, virtue, and concord. This testimony is in substance confirmed by the Persian historians, who relate, that after a long and bloody war, IXhosru, or Cyrus, subdued the empire of Turan, and made the city of Balk, in Chorasan, a royal residence, to keep in order his new subjects; that he repaid every family in Persia Proper the amount of their war-taxes, out of the immense spoils which he had acquired by his conquests; that he endeavored to promote peace and harmony between the Turanians and Iranians; that he regulated the pay of his soldiery, reformed civil and religious abuses throughout the provinces, and, at length, after a long and glorious reign, resigned the crown to his son Lohorasp, and retired to solitude, confessing that he had lived long enough for his own glory, and that it was then time for him to devote the remainder of his days to God. Saadi, in his Gulistan, copies the wise inscription which Cyrus ordered to be inscribed on his crown —“What avails a long life spent in the enjoyment of worldly grandeur, since others, mor- tal like ourselves, will one day trample under foot our pride! This crown, handed down to me from my pre- decessors, must soon pass in succession upon the head of many others.” . 5. Pliny notices the tomb of Cyrus at Passagardae, in Persia. Arrian and Strabo describe it; and they agree with Curtius, that Alexander the Great offered funeral honors to his shade there; that he opened the tomb, and found, not the treasures he expected, but a rotten shield, two Scythian bows, and a Persian cimeter. And Plu- tarch records the following inscription upon it, in his life of Alexander:—“O man, whoever thou art, and whenever thou comest, (for come, I know, thou wilt,) I am Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire. Envy me not the little earth that covers my body.” Alexander was much af. fected at this inscription, which set before him, in so striking a light, the uncertainty and vicissitude of worldly things. And he placed the crown of gold which he wore, upon the tomb in which the body lay, wondering that a prince so renowned, and possessed of such immense trea- sures, had not been buried more sumptuously than if he had been a private person. Cyrus, indeed, in his last in- structions to his children, desired that “his body, when he died, might not be deposited in gold or silver, nor in any other sumptuous monument, but committed, as soon as possible, to the ground.” - - - The observation which Dr. Hales here makes, is worthy of record:—“This is a most signal and extraordinary epi- taph. It seems to have been designed as a useful memento mori, for Alexander the Great, in the full pride of conquest, “whose coming” it predicts with a prophetic spirit, “For come I know thou wilt.” But how could Cyrus know of his coming 2—Very easily. Daniel the Archimagus, his venerable friend, who warned the haughty Nebuchadnez- zar, that “head of gold,” or founder of the Babylonian empire, that it should be subverted by “the breast and arms of silver,” (Dan, 2:37, 39,) or “the Mede and the Persian,” Darius and Cyrus, as he more plainly told the impious Belshazzar, (Dan. 5: 28,) we may rest assured, communicated to Cyrus also, the founder of the Persian empire, the symbolical vision of the goat, with the notable horn in his forehead, Alexander of Macedon, coming swift- ly from the west, to overturn the Persian empire, (Dan. 8: 5, 8,) under the last king Codomanus, the fourth from Darius Nothus, as afterwards more distinctly explained, Dan. 11: 1, 4. Cyrus, therefore, decidedly addresses the short-lived conqueror, O man, whoever thou art, &c.-- Watson, • 1 A L D A M | 437 | . DAGON ; (from dag, a fish) god of the Philistines. It 15 the opinion of some that Dagon was represented like a woman, with the lower parts of a fish, like a triton or , siren. Scripture shows clearly that the statue of Dagon was human, at least, the upper part of it, 1 Sam. 5: 4, 5. A temple of Dagon at Gaza was pulled down by Samson, Judg.16; 23, &c. In another at Ashdod, the Philistines deposited the ark of God, 1 Sam. 5: 11–3. A city in Judah was called Beth-Dagon; that is, the house, or temple, of Dagon, (Joshua 15:41;) and another on the frontiers of Asher, Joshua 19:27. Watson. DALEITES ; the followers of David Dale, a very in. dustrious manufacturer, a most benevolent Christian, and the humble pastor of an Independent congregation at Glasgow. . At first, he formed a connexion with the Glassités, in many of whose opinions he concurred, but was disgusted by their narrow and worldly spirit; he therefore separated from them, chiefly on the ground of Preferring practical to speculative religion, and Christian charity to severity of church discipline. As he grew rich by industry, he devoted all his property to doing good, and ranks high among the philanthropists of his age. He was founder of the celebrated institution of New Lanark, now under Mr. Robert Owen, his son-in-law. . The Daleites now form the second class of Independents in Scotland, the Glassites being the first; and since the death of Mr. Dale, they have formed a connexion with the Inghamites, which see.—Scotch Theol. Dict. ; Jones's Dict. of Rel. Opin. ; Williams. DALMANUTHA. St. Mark says that Jesus Christ embarked with his disciples on the lake of Tiberias, and game to Dalmanutha, (Mark 8: 10,) but St. Matthew calls it Magdala, Matt. 15: 39. It seems that Dalmanutha *#. to Magdala, on the western side of the lake. ~ Watson. - - , DALMATIA ; a part of Illyricum, or old Illyria, lying along the gulf of Venice. Titus preached here, 2 Tim. 4: 10.-Watson. - - - - . DAMASCENUS, (John ;) a Greek writer of great genius and eloquence in the eighth century, who composed a complete body of the Christian doctrine in a scientifical method, under the title of Four Books concerning the Orthodox Faith. The two kinds of theology, which the Latins termed scholastic and didactic, were united in this laborious performance, in which the author not only explains the doctrines he delivers by subtle and pro- found reasoning, but also confirms his explications by the authority of the ancient doctors. This work was received among the Greeks with the highest applause, and was so excessively admired, that at length it came to be acknow- ledged among that people, as the only rule of divine truth. . Many, however, complain of this applauded writer, as having consulted more in his theological system, the conjectures of human reason and the opinions of the ancients, than the genuine dictates of the sacred oracles, and of having, in consequence of this method, deviated from the true source and the essential principles of theo. logy. To the work of Damascenus now mentioned, we may add his Sacred Parallels, in which he has collected with uncommon care and industry, the opinions of the ancient doctors concerning various points of the Christian religion. We may, therefore, look upon this writer, as the Thomas and Lombard of the Greeks.--Mosheim. DAMASCUS ; a celebrated city of Asia, and anciently the capital of Syria, is forty-five leagues north of Jerusa- lem, and may be accounted one of the most venerable º in the world for its antiquity. It is supposed to ave been founded by Ux, the son of Aram ; and is, at least, known to have subsisted in the time of Abra- ham, Gen. 15: 2. It was the residence of the Syrian kings, during the space of three centuries, and experi- enced a number of vicissitudes in every period of its his- tory. Its sovereign, Hadad, whom Josephus calls the first of its kings, was conquered by David, king of Israel. In the reign of Ahaz, it was taken by Tiglath Pileser, who slew its last king, Rezin, and added its provinces to the Assyrian empire. It was taken and plundered, also, by Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, the generals of Alex- ander the Great, Judas Maccabaeus, and at length by the Romans in the war conducted by Pompey against Ti- granes, in the year before Christ 65. During the time of the emperors, it was one of their principal arsenals in Asia, and is celebrated by the emperor Julian as, even in his day, “the eye of the whole East.” About the year 634, it was taken by the Saracen princes, who made it the place of their residence, till Bagdad was prepared for their reception; and, after suffering a variety of revolu- tions, it was taken and destroyed by Tamerlane, A. D. 1400. It was repaired by the Mamelukes, when they gained possession of Syria, but was wrested from them by the Turks, in 1506; and since that period has formed the capital of one of their pachalics. The modern city is delightfully situated about fifty miles from the sea, in a fertile and extensive plain, wa- tered by the river which the Greeks called Chrysorrhoras, or “Golden River,” but which is known by the name of Barrady, and of which the ancient Abana and Pharpar are supposed to have been branches. The city is nearly two miles in length from its north-east to its north-west extremity; but of very inconsiderable breadth, especially near the middle of its extent, where its width is much contracted. It is surrounded by a circular wall, which is strong, though not lofty; but its suburbs are extensive and irregular. Its streets are narrow ; and one of them, called Straight, mentioned in Acts, (9: 11,) still runs through the city about half a mile in length. . The houses, and especially those which front the streets, are very in- differently built, chiefly of mud formed into the shape of bricks, and dried in the sun; but those towards the gar- dens, and in the squares, present a more handsome ap: D A N D AN | 438 ) earance. In these mud walls, however, the gates and oors are often adorned with marble portals, carved and inlaid with great beauty and variety; and the inside of the habitation, which is generally a large square court, is ornamented with fragrant trees and marble fountains, and surrounded with splendid apartments, furnished and painted in the highest style of luxury. The market-places are well constructed, and adorned with a rich colonnade of variegated marble. The principal public buildings are, the castle, which is about three hundred and forty paces in length; the hospital, a charitable establishment for the reception of strangers, composing a large quadrangle, i. with a colonnade, and roofed in small domes covered with lead; and the mosque, the entrance of which is sup- ported by four large columns of red granite; the apart- ments in it are numerous and magnificent, and the top is covered with a cupola ornamented with two minarets. Damascus is surrounded by a fruitful and delightful country, forming a plain nearly eighty miles in circum- ference ; and the lands most adjacent to the city, are formed into gardens of great extent, which are stored with fruit trees of every description. “No place in the world,” says Mr. Maundrell, “can promise to the behold- er at a distance a greater voluptuousness;” and he mentions a tradition of the Turks, that their prophet, when approaching Damascus, took his station upon a certain precipice, in order to view the city; and after consi- dering its ravishing beauty and delightful aspect, was unwilling to tempt his frailty by going farther, but in- stantly took his departure with this remark, that there was but one paradise designed for man, and that, for his part, he was resolved not to take his in this world. The air or water of Damascus, or both, are supposed to have a powerful effect in curing the leprosy, or at least, in arrest- ing its progress, while the patient remains in the place. The Rev. James Conner visited Damascus in 1820, as an agent of the Church Missionary Society. He had a letter from the archbishop of Cyprus to Seraphim, patri- arch of Antioch, the head of the Christian church in the East, who resides at Damascus. This good man received Mr. Conner in the most friendly manner; and expressed himself delighted with the system and operations of the Bible Society. He undertook to encourage and promote, to the utmost of his power, the sale and distribution of the Scriptures throughout the patriarchate ; and, as a proof of his earnestness in the cause, he ordered the next day, a number of letters to be prepared, and sent to his arch- bishops and bishops, urging them to promote the objects of the Bible Society in their respective stations.— Watson. DAMIANISTS; disciples of Damian, bishop of Alex- andria, in the sixth century. Their opinions were similar to those of the Angelites, as already mentioned, and chief. ly differed from the orthodox, in explaining the doctrine of the Trinity in a way peculiar to themselves. They admitted each of the Sacred Three to be God, as par- taking of the Godhead—“a common divinity;” but per- haps denied the Athanasian doctrines of eternal genera- tion, and the procession of the Holy Spirit.—(Mosheim's E. H. vol. ii. p. 150.)—Williams. DAMM, (CHRISTIAN ToBIAs,) a Protestant theologian, and an excellent Hellenist, was born at Leipsic in 1699, and died in 1778. He edited and translated various classical authors, and produced a New Greek Etymologi- cal Lexicon.—Davenport. - DAMNATION ; condemnation. This word is used to denote the final loss of the soul; but it is not always to be understood in this sense in the sacred Scripture. Thus it is said in Rom. 13 : 2, “They that resist shall receive to themselves damnation,” i.e. condemnation, “from the rulers, who are not a terror to good works, but to the evil.” Again, in 1 Cor. 11 : 29, “He that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh damnation to himself;” i.e. condemnation; exposes himself to severe temporal judgments from God, and to the judgment and censure of the wise and good. Again, Rom. 14: 23, “He that doubt- eth is damned if he eat;” i. e. is condemned both by his own conscience and the word of God, because he is far from being satisfied that he is right in so doing.—Hend. Buck. DAN ; the fifth son of Jacob, Gen. 30 : 1–6. Dan had but one son, whose name was Hushim, (Gen. 46:23;) yet he had a numerous posterity; for, on leaving E § this tribe consisted of sixty-two thousand seven hundred men able to bear arms, Num. 1:38. Of Jacob's blessing Dan, see Gen. 49 : 16, 17. They took Laish, Judges 18: 1; Joshua 19:47. They called the city Dan, after their progenitor. The city of Dan was situated at the northern extremity of the land of Israel: hence the phrase, “from Dan to Beersheba,” denoting the whole length of the land of promise. Here Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, set up one of his golden calves, (1 Kings 12:29;) and the other at Bethel.— Watson. DANA, (JAMEs, D. D.) minister of New Haven, was a native of Massachusetts, and graduated at Harvard college in 1753. Some years afterwards he was a resident at Cambridge. He was ordained as the successor of Sa- muel Whittelsey at Wallingford, Connecticut, October 12, 1758. After remaining at Wallingford thirty years, Dr. Dana was installed the pastor of the first church at New Haven, April 29, 1789, as the successor of Chauncy Whittelsey. In the autumn of 1805, he was dismissed, after which he occasionally preached in the pulpits of his brethren in the vicinity. He died at New Haven, Au- gust 18, 1812, aged seventy-seven.—Dr. Dana published, anonymously, an Examination of Edwards' Inquiry on the Freedom of the Will, octavo, Boston, 1770; and, with his name, the Examination continued, New Haven, 1773; in all more than three hundred pages, in which he contended that men themselves are the only efficient cau- ses of their own volitions; nor do they always determine according to the greatest apparent good; the affections do not follow the judgment; men sin against light, with the wiser choice, the greater good full in their view. Through the impetuosity of their passions, they determine against the greatest apparent good. This is the case with every sinner, who resolves to delay repentance to a future time. Self-determination is the characteristic of every moral agent. The absence of liberty he deemed incon- sistent with moral agency; and by liberty he meant, not merely liberty in regard to the external action, but liberty of volition ; an exemption from all circumstances and causes having a controlling influence over the will,—a self-determining power of man, as a real agent, in re. spect to his own volitions. On the whole, he regarded the scheme of Edwards as acquitting the creature of blame, and impeaching the truth and justice of the Crea- tor.—He published also many sermons.—Allen. DANA, (Joseph, D. D.) minister of Ipswich, Massa- chusetts, was born at Pomfret, Connecticut, 1742, and graduated at Yale college in 1760. Having early devoted himself to God, he studied theology, and was ordained as the minister of the south society in Ipswich, November 7, 1765. In 1825, on the sixtieth anniversary of his or- dination, at the age of eighty-three, he preached a dis- course, in which he stated, that all, who were heads of families at the time of his settlement, were deceased, ex- cepting five ; that he had followed about nine hundred of his parishioners to the grave; and had received into the church the small number of one hundred and twenty-one, being the average of two in a year. Of these, fifty were received in a revival from 1798, to 1801. He died No- vember 16, 1827, aged eighty-five. Dr. Dana was a firm believer in the great doctrines of Calvinism ; a faithful preacher; eminently a man of prayer; and deeply interested in all the events, which relate to the kingdom of Jesus Christ. He was a diligent student and laborious pastor. An unaffected humility marked his character, and his end was peace. He published several discourses.—Crompell's Funeral Sermon ; Allen. DANCERS; a sect which sprung up about 1373, in Flanders, and places about. It was their custom all of a sudden to fall a dancing, and holding each other's hands, to continue thereat, till being suffocated with the extraor- dinary violence, they fell down breathless together. Dur- ing these intervals of vehement agitation, they pretended to be favored with wonderful visions. Like the Whip- pers, they roved from place to place, begging their vic- tuals, holding their secret assemblies, and treating the priesthood and worship of the church with the utmost contempt. Thus we find, as Dr. Haweis observes, that the French Convulsionists and the Welch Jumpers have * D A N p AN ( 439 1 had predecessors of the same stamp. There is nothing new under the sun. Hanwéis and Mosheim's Church. Hist. Cent. 14.—Hend. Buck. - - DANCING. In the oriental dances, in which the wo- men engage by themselves, the lady of highest rank in the company takes the lead, and is followed by her com- panions, who imitate her steps, and iſ she sings, make up the chorus. The tunes are, extremely gay and lively, yet with something in them wonderfully soft. The steps are varied according to the pleasure of her who leads the dance, but always in exact time. This statement may enable us to form a correct idea of the dance, which the women of Israel performed under the direction of Miri- am, on the banks of the Red sea. The prophetess, we are told, “took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her, with timbrels and dances.” She led the dance, while they imitated her steps, which were not conducted according to a set, well-known form, as in this country, but extemporaneously. The conjecture of Mr. Harmer is extremely probable, that David did not dance alone before the Lord, when he brought up the ark, but, as being the highest in rank, and more skilful than any of the people, he led the religious dance of the men. . A time to dance. Eccles. 3:4. On this passage an in- genious writer inquires, “1. What is the right time 2–2. Is the text a command, permission, or declaration?—3. What kind of dancing does the text intend? To avoid mistake, I have consulted every passage in the Bible. The most important are Ex. 15:20. Judg. 11:24. 21:21. 1 Sam. 18 : 6. 2 Sam. 6:14–20. (Ps. 149 : 3. 30 : 11. Ex. 22:19. Jer. 31:4. Matt. 11 : 17. 14:6. Luke , 15:25. Job 21:7–11. From all which it appears, 1. That dancing was a religious act; both in true, and also in idol worship. . & 2. That it was practised exclusively on joyful occa- sions, such as national festivals or great victories. 3. That it was performed on such great occasions only by one of the sexes. . " . 4. That it was performed usually in the day time—in the open air—in highways, fields and groves. 5. That men who perverted dancing from a sacred use to purposes of amusement, were deemed infamous. 6. That no instances of dancing are found upon record in the Bible, in which the two sexes united in the exer- cise, either as an act of worship or amusement. Lastly. That there are no instances upon record in the Bible of social dancing for amusement, except that of the “vain fellows” void of shame, alluded to by Michal; of the irreligious families described by Job, which produced increased impiety and ended in destruction ; and of He- rodias, which terminated in the rash vow of Herod, and the murder of John the Baptist.— Watson; Chris. Obs. DANFORTH, (SAMUEL,) minister of Roxbury, Massa- chusetts, was born in England, 1626, and came to this country with his father in 1634. After he was graduated at Harvard, college in 1643, he was a tutor and fellow. When Mr. Welde returned to England, he was invited to become the colleague of Mr. Eliot of Roxbury, and he was accordingly ordained, September 24, 1650. He died, November 19, 1674, aged forty-eight years. His sermons were elaborate, judicious and methodical; he wrote them twice over in a fair, large hand, and in each discourse usually quoted forty or fifty passages of Scripture. Not- withstanding this care and labor, he was so affectionate and pathetic, that he rarely finished the delivery of a sermon without weeping. In the forenoon he usually ex- pounded the Old Testament, and in the afternoon dis- coursed on the body of divinity. Such was his peace in his last moments, that Mr. Eliot used to say, “My bro- ther Danforth made the most glorious end that I eversaw.” He published a number of almanacs, and an astronomi- cal description of the comet which appeared in 1664, with a brief theological application. He contends, that a cometis a heavenly body, moving according to defined laws, and that its appearance is portentous. Mather's Magnalia, iv. 153–157. Allen. - - - - , DANFORTH, (SAMUEL) minister of Taunton, Massa- chusetts, the son of the preceding, was born December 18, 1666. He was graduated at Harvard college ºn 1683. He died November 14, 1727. He was one of he most learned and eminent ministers of his day. In the be. ginning of the year 1705, by means of his benevolent la- bors, a deep impression was made upon the minds of his people, and a most pleasing reformation occurred. The youth, who formerly assembled for amusement and fally, now met for the exalted purpose of improving in Chris- tian knowledge and virtue, and of becoming fitted for the joys of the heavenly and eternal world, in the presence of Jesus, the Savior. Several letters of Mr. Danforth, giv- ing an account of this reformation, are preserved in Mr. Prince's Christian History. He published a .*. Oº Thomas Leonard, 1713, and the election sermon, 1714. He left behind him a manuscript Indian dictionary, a part of which is now in the library of the Massachusetts Historical Society. It seems to have been formed from Eliot's Indian Bible, as there is a reference under every word to a passage of Scripture.—Hist. Col. iii. 173; ix. 176; Christian Hist. i. 108.—Allen. DANIEL, was a descendant of the kings of Judah, and is said to have been born at Upper Bethoron, in the terri- tory of Ephraim. He was carried away captive to Baby- lon when he was about eighteen or twenty years of age, in the year 606, before the Christian era. He was placed in the court of Nebuchadnezzar, and was afterwards raised to situations of great rank and power, both in the empire of Babylon and of Persia. He lived to the end of the captivity, but being then nearly ninety years old, it is most probable that he did not return to Judea. It is gene- rally believed that he died at Susa, soon after his last vision, which is dated in the third year of the reign of Cyrus. Daniel seems to have been the only prophet who enjoyed a great share of worldly prosperity; but amidst the corruptions of a licentious court, he preserved his vir- tue and integrity inviolate, and no danger or temptation could divert him from the worship of the true God. The book of Daniel is a mixture of history and prophecy: in the first six chapters is recorded a variety of events which occurred in the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, and Darius; and, in particular, the seeond chapter con- tains Nebuchadnezzar's prophetic dream concerning the four great successive monarchies, and the everlasting kingdom of the Messiah, which dream God enabled Da- niel to interpret. In the last six chapters we have a series of prophecies, revealed at different times, extending from the days of Daniel to the general resurrection. The As- syrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman empires, are all particularly described under appropriate charac- ters; and it is expressly declared that the last of them was to be divided into ten lesser kingdoms; the time at which Christ was to appear is precisely fixed; the rise and fall of Antichrist and the duration of his power, are exactly determined; and the future restoration of the Jews, the victory of Christ over all his enemies, and the universal prevalence of true religion, are distinctly fore- told, as being to precede the consummation of that stu- pendous plan of God, which “was laid before the founda- tion of the world,” and reaches to its dissolution. Part of this book is written in the Chaldaic language, namely, from the fourth verse of the second chapter to the end of the seventh chapter; these chapters relate chiefly to the affairs of Babylon, and it is probable that some passages were taken from the public registers. This book abounds with the most exalted sentiments of piety and devout gra- titude; its style is clear, simple, and concise ; and many of its prophecies are delivered in terms so plain and cir- cumstantial, that some unbelievers have asserted, in op- position to the strongest evidence, that they were written after the events which they describe had taken place. With respect to the genuineness and authenticity of the book of Daniel, there is abundance both of external and internal evidence; indeed all that can well be had or de- sired in a case of this nature: not only the testimony of the whole Jewish church and nation, who have constantly received this book as canonical, but of Josephus particu- larly, who recommends him as the greatest of the pro- phets; of the Jewish targums and talmuds, which fre- quently cite and appeal to his authority; of St. Paul and St. John, who have copied many of his prophecies; and of our Savior himself, who cites his words, and styles him, “Daniel the prophet.” Nor is the internal less pow- --- D A R [ 440 | erful and convincing than the external evidence; for the language, the style, the manner of writing, and all other internal marks and characters, are perfectly agreeable to that age; and finally he appears plainly and undeniably to have been a prophet by the exact accomplishment of his prophecies—Watson, DARIUS, was the name of several princes in history, some of whom are mentioned in Scripture. 1, DARtus the Mede, spoken of in Daniel 5; 31.9; 1, 11 : 1, &c., was the son of Astyages, king of the Medes, and brother to Mandane, the mother of Cyrus, and to Amyit, the mother of Evil-merodach, and grandmother of Belshazzar. Darius the Mede, therefore, was uncle by the mother's side to Evil-merodach and Cyrus. The Septua- gint, in Daniel 7: gives him the name of Artaxerxes; the thirteenth, or apocryphal chapter of Daniel, calls him. As- tyages; and Xenophon designates him by the name of Cyaxares. He succeeded Belshazzar, king of Babylon, his nephew's son, or his sister's grandson, in the year of the world 3448, according to Calmet, or in 3468, accord- ing to Usher. Daniel does not inform us of any previ- ous war between them ; but the prophets Isaiah and Je- remiah supply this deficiency. Isaiah 13:14:45 :46:47: Jer, 50: 51. - 2. DARIUs, the son of Hystaspes, has been supposed by some, on the authority of archbishop Usher and Calmet, to be the Ahasuerus of Scripture, and the husband of Es- ther. But Dr. Prideaux thinks, that Ahasuerus was Ar- taxerxes Longimanus. (See AHASUERUs.) Darius recovered Babylon after a siege of twenty months. ' This city, which had been formerly the capital of the East, revolted from Persia, taking advantage of the revolutions that happened, first at the death of Cambyses, and afterwards on the massacre of the magi. The Baby- lonians employed four years in preparations, and when they thought that their city was furnished with provisions for a long time, they raised the standard of rebellion. Darius levied an army in great haste, and besieged Baby- lon. The Babylonians shut themselves up within their walls, whose height and thickness secured them from as- sault; and as they had nothing to fear but famine, they assembled all their women and children, and strangled them, each reserving only his most beloved wife, and one servant. Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah, 47: 7–9. Some believe that the Jews were either expelled by the Babylonians, as being too much in the interest of Darius; or that, in obedience to the frequent admonitions of the prophets, they quitted that city when they saw the people determined to rebel, Isaiah 48:20; Jer. 50:8; 51: 6–9; Zech. 11 : 6,7. Darius lay twenty months be- fore Babylon, without making any considerable progress; but, at length, Zopyrus, one of his generals, obtained pos- session of the city by stratagem. Darius ordered the hundred gates of brass to be taken away, according to the prediction of Jeremiah, 51:58, “Thus saith the Lord, The broad walls of Babylon shall be utterly broken, and her high gates shall be burnt with fire, and the people shall labor in vain.” This is related in Herodotus. 3. DARIUS Codom ANUs was of the royal family of Persia, but very remote from the crown. He was in a low condi- tion, when Bagoas, the eunuch, who had procured the de- struction of two kings, Ochus and Arses, placed him on the throne. His true name was Codomanus, and he did not take that of Darius till he was king. He was descended from Darius Nothus, whose son, Ostanes, was father to Arsames, that begat Codomanus. He was at first only a courier to the emperor Ochus. But one day when he was at this prince's army, one of their enemies challenged the bravest of the Persians. Codomanus offered himself for the combat, and overcame the challenger, and was made governor of Armenia. From this situation, Bagoas plac-T ed him on the throne of Persia. Alexander the Great in- vaded the Persian empire, and defeated Darius in three successive battles. After the third battle, Darius fled to: wards Media, in hopes of raising another army. Here Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Narbazanes, a grandee of Persia, seized him, loaded him with chains, forced him into a covered chariot, and fled, carrying him with them towards Bactria. After a precipitate march of many days, Alexander overtook the traitors, who seeing them- sº selves pressed, endeavored to compel Darius to get upol. horsebäck, and save himself with them; but he refusing, they stabbed him in several places, and left him expiring in his chariot. He was dead when Alexander arrived, who could not forbear weeping at so sad a spectacle. Al- exander covered Darius with his own cloak, and sent him to Sysigambis his wife, that she might bury him in the tombs of the kings of Persia. Thus were verified the symbolic prophecies of Daniel, 8:—Watson. DARKNESS; the absence of light. The most terrible darkness was that brought on Egypt as a plague; it was so thick as to be, as it were, palpable; so horrible, that no one durst stir out of his place; and so lasting, that it en- dured three days and three nights, Exod. 10:21, 22; Wisdom 17:2, 3. The darkness at our Savior's death began at the sixth hour, or noon, and ended at the third hour, or three o’clock in the afternoon. Thus it lasted al- most the whole time he was on the cross ; compare Matt. 27:45, with John 19:14, and Mark 15:25. Origen, Maldonatus, Erasmus, Watablus, and others, were of opin- ion that this darkness covered Judea only; which is some- times called the whole earth; that is, the whole country. Chrysostom, Euthymius, Theophylact, and others, thought it extended over a hemisphere. Origen says it was caus- ed by a thick mist, which precluded the sight of the sun. That it was preternatural is certain, for, the moon being at full, a natural eclipse of the sun was impossible. Darkness is sometimes used metaphorically for death. “The land of darkness” is the grave, Job 10:22; Psalm 107: 10. It is also used to denote misfortunes and ca- lamities: “A day of darkness” is a day of affliction, Esther 11:8. “Let that day be darkness; let darkness stain it,”—let it be reckoned among the unfortunate days, Job 3: 4, 5. The expressions, “I will cover the heavens with darkness;” “The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood,” &c., signify very great political calamities, involving the overthrow of kings, princes, and nobles, represented by the luminaries of heaven. This magnificent imagery is employed in allusion to the scenes of the last day. Ps. 102; 25–7. Isaiah 51 : 6. Matt. 24:35. 2 Pet. 3: 1–10. In a moral sense, darkness de- notes unbelief, ignorance and vice; hence “the children of light,” in opposition to “the children of darkness,” are the righteous distinguished from the wicked. 1 Thess. 5 : 1–8.— Watson. - DATARY ; an officer in the pope's court. He is al- ways a prelate, and sometimes a cardinal, deputed by his holiness to receive such P. as are presented to him, touching the provision of benefices. By his post the da- tary is empowered to grant, without acquainting his holi- ness therewith, all benefices that do not produce upwards of twenty-four ducats annually; but for such as amount to more, he is obliged to get the provisions signed by the pope, who admits him to audience every day. If there be several candidates for the same benefice, he has the liberty of bestowing it on which of them he thinks proper, provided he has the requisite qualifications. The datary has a yearly salary of two thousand crowns, exclusive of the perquisites, which he receives from those who apply to him for any benefice. This officer has a substitute, named the sub-datary, who is likewise a prelate, and has a yearly pension of a thousand crowns; but he is not al- lowed to confer any benefice, without acquainting the da- tary therewith. When a person has obtained the pope's consent for a benefice, the datary subscribes his petition with an annuit sanctissimus, i.e. “the most holy father consents to it.” The pope's consent is subscribed in these words: Fiat ut petitur, i. e. “be it according to the peti- tion.” After the petition has passed the proper offices, and is registered, it is carried to the datary, who dates it, and writes these words: Datum Roma, apud, &c. “given at Rome in the pontifical palace,” &c. Afterwards the pope's bull, granting the benefice, is despatched by the datary, and passes through the hands of more than a thousand persons, belonging to fifteen different offices, who have all their stated fees. The reader may from hence judge how expensive it is to procure the pope's bull for a benefice, and what large sums go into the office of the datary, especially when the provisions, issued from thence, are for bishoprics, and other rich benefices.—Hend. Buck. [441 ) D A W DATE ; the fruit of the palm tree. (See PALM.) - pitivus, a noble Roman senator, and a martyr of the fourth century, was arrested at Albitina in Africa in 304, under the bloody persecution of Dioclesian. He was tried at Carthage, and condemned. as a Christian. To- gether with Saturninus his pastor, and several other Chris- tians, he was scourged, his flesh torn with hooks, burned with hot irons, &c. but all these tortures failing to pro- duce any change in their steadfast attachment to Christ, they were remanded to prison, and there starved to death. But they won the crown of life.—Foz. DAUBENY, (CHARLEs,) born in 1744, was educated at New college, Oxford; obtained a prebend in Salisbury cathedral, in 1784; was appointed archdeacon of Sarum in 1804; and died in 1827. Besides numerous sermons and charges, he is the author of A Guide to the Church, two vols.; Windiciae Ecclesiae Anglicanae; Remarks on the Unitarian Method of interpreting the Scriptures; and of other works: and he contributed many theological ar- ticles to the Anti-Jacobin Review. At North Bradley, of which he was vicar, he built alms-houses for twelve poor persons, an asylum for four aged and blind individ- uals, and a school-room; and the church at Rode was erected partly at his expense-Davenport. DAUGHTER. This word, like other names of rela- tion employed in Scripture, being a noun expressing simi- litude, no less than kindred, is used in reference to many subjects, which are not properly the offspring of that person, or that thing, of which they are said to be daugh- ters. The following are senses in which the word daughter is used in Scripture : - (1.) Female offspring, by natural birth, Gen. 6: 1; 24: 23, and other places.—(2.) Granddaughter; so the servant of Abraham calls Rebekah “my master's brother's daugh- ter,” (Gen. 24:48.) whereas she was daughter of Bethu- el, son of Nahor, as appears from verse 24; consequently granddaughter of Nahor, brother of Abraham, the mas- ter of the speaker.—(3.) Remote descendants, of the same family or tribe, but separated by many ages; “daughter of Heth,” of his posterity; daughters of Canaan, of Moab, of Ammon; and Luke (1 : 5.) says, Elisabeth was of the “daughters of Aaron,” of his descendants, though many generations had intervened.—(4.) Daughter by na- tion. Dinah went out to see the young women of She- chem, called the “daughters of the land,” Gen. 34:1. See also Num. 25: 1. Deut. 23: 173–(5.) Daughter, by reference to the human species; young women, of what- ever nation. Gen. 30 : 13. See Prov, 31 : 29. Cant. 2 : 2–(6.) Daughter, by personification, of a people, or city, whence daughter of Jerusalem, or of Zion; of Baby- lon; (Isa. 47: 1, 5.) of Edom; (Lam. 4:21.) of Egypt, Jer. 46: 11, 14.—(7.) Daughter by law; (Ruth 3: 1.) and this is common in all nations, to call a son's wife daugh- ter; but Boaz calls Ruth “daughter” by courtesy, as ex- pressing kindness, affability, affection, from a senior to a junior in age, from a superior to an inferior by station, 3:10, 11–(8.) Daughter by adoption, as Esther was to Mordecai, (Esther 2: 7.) and as God promises his people by his grace, 2 Cor. 6: 18.—(9.) Daughter, in reference to disposition and conduct: as we have “sons of Belial,” so we have “daughter of Belial,” a woman of an unre- strainable conduct, uncontrollable; 1 Sam. 1: 16. (See also BELIAL, and Sons.)—Calmet. DAVENANT, (John, D. D.) bishop of Salisbury, was born, in London, 1570, and educated at Cambridge where he took his degrees regularly. While there, Dr. Whitaker said, “that he would in time prove the honor of the uni- versity,” a remark afterwards well fulfilled. . A fellow- ship was offered him in 1594; but he did not accept it till after his father's death in 1597. Being thus settled in college, he soon rose to distinction, so that in 1609, he was elected Margaret professor of divinity. In 1614, he was chosen master of his college, and in 1618, was appointed by James I. one of the four divines whom he sent to the synod of Dort. During their stay in Holland, from No- vember 3, to April 29, they were allowed ten pounds a day by the States, besides two hundred pounds, at their departure, and a gold medal to each, representing the sit- ting of the synod. Dr. Davenant returned to England in May, 1619, after having visited the most important places - 56 à in the Netherlands. On the death of Dr. Townson, his brother-in-law, he was advanced to the see of Salisbury. But in Lent, 1630–1, he incurred the displeasure of Charles I. and of the court, by a-sermon on predestination, “all curious search into which,” the king in his declaration refixed to the thirty-nine articles in 1628, had strictly en- joined “to be laid aside.” The bishop mildly vindicated his conduct before the privy counsel, and was dismissed, although he never recovered the favor of the court. He died of consumption in 1641. His death is said to have been hastened by his foresight of the troubles coming on the kingdom. Bishop Davenant was humble and hospi- table, laborious and liberal. He was a man of great learning, and an eminent divine. He published a Latin Exposition of Colossians; Theological Prelections and Determinations; and a reply to S. Hoard on Reprobation. —Middleton. - - DAVENPORT, (John,) first minister of New Haven, and one of the founders of the colony of that name, was born in the city of Coventry in England in 1597, and edu- cated at Oxford. Retiring to London, he became an emi- nent preacher among the Puritans, and at length minister of St. Stephen’s church in Coleman street. As Mr. Da- venport soon became a conscientious non-conformist, the persecutions, to which he was exposed, obliged him to re- sign his pastoral charge in Coleman street, and to retire into Holland at the close of the year 1633. A letter from Mr. Cotton, giving a favorable account of the colony of Massachusetts, induced Mr. Davenport to come to Boston, where he arrived, June 26, 1637, in company with Mr. Eaton and Mr. Hopkins. He was received with great.re- spect, and in August was a prudent and useful member of the synod, which was occasioned by the errors of the day. He sailed with his company, March 30, 1638, for Quinni- piack, or New Haven, to found a new colony. He preach- ed under an oak, April 18th, the first sabbath after their arrival, and he was minister there near thirty years. In the government which was established, it was ordained, that none but members of the church should enjoy the privileges of freemen. This was a fatal error. He was, however, anxious to promote the purity of the church, and he therefore wrote against the result of the synod of 1662, which recommended a more general baptism of children, than had before that time been practised. He was scru- pulously careful in admitting persons to church commu- nion, it being a fixed principle with him, that no person should be received into the church, who did not exhibit satisfactory evidence, that he was truly penitent and be- lieving. He did not think it possible to render the church perfectly pure, as men could not search into the heart; but he was persuaded, that there should be a discrimination. After the death of Mr. Wilson, pastor of the first church in Boston, in 1667, Mr. Davenport was invited to succeed him. He was ordained their pastor, December 9, 1668, and James Allen at the same time teacher. But his la- bors in this place were of short continuance, for he died of an apoplexy, March 15, 1670, aged seventy-two. He was a distinguished scholar, an admirable preacher, and a man of exemplary piety and virtue. Such was his reputation, that he was invited with Mr. Cotton and Mr. Hooker to take a seat among the Westminster divines. Knowing the efficacy of prayer, he recommended with earnestness ejaculatory addresses to heaven. His intrepidity saved Whalley and Goffe, the judges of king Charles, who fled to New Haven in 1661. He concealed them in his own house, and, when the pursuers were coming to New Ha- ven, preached publicly from Isaiah 16:3, 4, believing it to be a duty to afford them protection. His portrait is in the museum of Yale college. Mr. Davenport’s publications were numerous. He also left behind him an exposition on the Canticles in a hundred sheets of small hand writing; but it was never published.— Wood's Ath. Oxon. ii. 460– 462, 650; Mather's Mag. iii. 51—57; Trumbull's Conn. i. 89, 490–492; Hutchinson, i. 84, 226; Winthrop ; Holmes; Stiles' Hist. Judges, 32, 69.-Allen. DAVENPORT, (JAMEs,) minister of Southold, Long island, was graduated at Yale college in 1732. He had been esteemed for some years a sound, pious, and faithful minister at Southold, when in the religious excitement of 1740 and 1741, he was borne away by a strange enthusi- D A W D A W ... [442 ) asm. He preached in New Haven and other towns, and encouraged the outcries and agitations, by which religion. was disgraced. His voice he raised to the highest pitch, and gave it a tune, which was characteristic of the sepa- rate preachers. In his zeal he examined ministers as to the reality of their religion, and warned the people against unconverted ministers. In 1742, the assembly of Com- necticut, deeming him under the influence of enthusiastic impulses, directed the governor and council to transport him out of the colony to the place whence he came. Without doubt, he was enthusiastic ; but the assembly was equally bewildered, being arbitrary, and tyrannical. At last, through the influence of Mr. Wheelock and Mr. Wil- liams, he was convinced of his error and published an ample confession and retractation in 1744. He died about the year 1755.—Trumbull, ii. 167, 189.—Allen. DAVID, the celebrated king of Israel, was the youngest son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, and was born 1085 . before Christ. Even an abstract of his history would e too long for this work. It may easily be collected from the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. A few illus- trative remarks only will be made in this place. 1. When David is called “the man after God’s own heart,” a phrase which profane persons have often per- verted, his general character, and not every particular of it, is to be understood as approved by God; and especially his faithful and undeviating adherence to the true religion, from which he never deviated into any act of idolatry. 2. He was chosen to accomplish, to their full extént, the promises made to Abraham to give to his seed the whole country from the river of Egypt to the great river Euphra- tes. He had succeeded to a kingdom distracted with civil dissension, environed on every side by powerful and victorious enemies, without a capital, almost without an army, without any bond of union between the tribes. left a compact and united State, stretching from the fron- tier of Egypt to the foot of Lebanon, from the Euphrates to the sea. He had crushed the power of the Philistines, subdued or curbed all the adjacent kingdoms: he had formed a lasting and important alliance with the great city of Tyre. He had organized an immense disposable force ; for every month 24,000 men, furnished in rotation by the tribes, appeared in arms, and were trained as the standing militia of the country. At the head of his army were officers of consummate experience, and, what was more highly esteemed in the warfare of the time, extraor- dinary personal activity, strength, and valor. The He- brew mation owed the long peace of Solomon, the son's reign, to the bravery and wisdom of the father. 3. As a king and conqueror, he was a type of Christ, and the country “from the river to the ends of the earth,” was also the prophetic type of Christ's dominion over the whole earth. On a free election, he was anointed king over the house of Judah; and after about a seven years' contest, he was unanimously chosen king by all the tribes of Israel, “according to the word of the Lord by Samuel.” As king of Israel, he administered justice and judgment to all his people, was a prince of courage and great mili- tary prudence and conduct; had frequent wars with the neighboring nations, to which he was generally forced by their invading his dominions, and plundering his subjects. Against them he never lost a battle ; he never besieged a city without taking it; nor used any severities against those he conquered, beyond what the law of arms allowed, his own safety required, or the cruelties of his enemies rendered just, by way of retaliation ; enriching his peo. ple by the spoils he took, and providing large stores of every thing necessary for the magnificent temple he in- tended to erect, in honor of the God of Israel. 4. His inspired psalms not only place him among the most eminent prophets, but have rendered him the leader of the devotions of good men, in all ages. The hymns of David excel no less in sublimity and tenderness of expres- sion, than in loſtiness and purity of religious sentiment. In comparison with them, the sacred poetry of all other nations sinks into mediocrity. They have embodied so exquisitely the universal language of religious emotion, that they have entered, with unquestioned propriety, into the ritual of the higher and more perfect religion of Christ. The songs which cheered the solitude of the desert caves He . of Engedi, or resounded from the voice of the Hebrew peo ple as they wound along the glens or the hill-sides of Ju- dea, have been repeated for ages in almost every part of the habitable world, in the remotest islands of the ocean, among the forests of America or the sands of Africa. How many human hearts have these inspired songs softened, purified, exalted . Of how many wretched be- ings have they been the secret consolation: On how many communities have they drawn down the blessings of Di- vine Providence, by bringing the affections into unison with their deep devotional fervor, and leading to a con- stant and explicit recognition of the government, rights, and mercies of God!—Watson. - - . DAVIDISTS, the adherents of David George, a native of Delft, who, in 1525, began to preach a new doctrine, publishing himself to be the true Messiah; and that he was sent of God to fill heaven, which was quite empty for want of people to deserve it. He is likewise said to have denied the existence of angels good and evil, and to have disbelieved the doctrine of a future judgment. He rejected marriage, with the Adamites; held with Manes, that the Soul was not defiled by sin; and laughed at the self-denial so much recommended by Jesus Christ. Such were his principal errors. He made his escape from Delft, and re- tired first into Friesland, and then to Basil, where he changed his name, assuming that of John Bruck, and died in 1556. He left some disciples behind him, to whom he promised that he would rise again at the end of three years. Nor was he altogether a false prophet herein; for the magistrates of that city being informed, at the three years’ end, of what he had taught, ordered him to be dug up and burnt, together with his writings, by the common hangman.—Hend. Buck. - DAVIDSON, (LUCRETIA MARIA,) a remarkable instance of precocious genius and piety, was born at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain, September 27, 1808, being the second daughter of Dr. Oliver Davidson and Margaret his wife. Her parents being in straitened circumstances, much of her time was devoted to the cares of home; yet she read much, and wrote poetry at a very early age. She had a burning thirst for knowledge. In October, 1824, a gentle- man, on a visit to Plattsburg, saw some of her verses, and was made acquainted with her character and circumstan- ces. He determined to give her the best education. On knowing his purpose, her joy was almost greater than she could bear. She was placed in Mrs. Willard's school at Troy; but her incessant application was perilous to her health. After returning home and recovering from illness, she was sent to Miss Gilbert's school at Albany. But soon she was again very ill. On her return, the hectic flush of her cheek indicated her approaching fate. The last name she pronounced, was that of her patron. She died August 27, 1825, aged nearly seventeen. Her per- son was singularly beautiful. She had a high, open fore- head, a soft, black eye, perfect symmetry of features, a fair complexion, and luxuriant dark hair. The prevailing ex- pression of her face was melancholy. - In her fifteenth year she wrote the ſollowing verses “TO A STAR. “How calmly, brightly, dost thou shine, Like the pure lamp in Virtue's shrine ! Sure, the fair world, which thou mayst boast, Was never ransomed, never lost. - There, beings, pure as heaven's own air, Their hopes, their joys together share; While hovering angels touch the string, And seraphs spread the sheltering wing; There, cloudless days and brilliant mights, Illumed by heaven’s refulgent lights, There, seasons, years, unnoticed roll, And unregretted by the soul. Thou little, sparkling Star of even— Thou gem upon an azure heaven How swiftly will I soar to thee, When this imprisoned soul is free ſ” Her poetical writings, besides many which were burnt, amount to two hundred seventy-eight pieces, among which were five poems of several cantos each. She also wrote some romances, and a tragedy. A biographical sketch, with a collection of her poems, was published by Mr. Samu. el F. B. Morse, in 1829, with the title of “Amir Khan, and other Poems: the remains of L. M. Davidson.” Th our D A V D A V 1443 . own language, except in the cases of Chatterton, Kirke White, and John Urquhart, we can call to mind no in- stance of so early, so ardent, and so fatal a pursuit of in- tellectual advancement. By the early death of a person of such growing power and unequalled promise, we may well be taught the vanity of earthly hopes, and be led to estimate more highly and to seek more earnestly a lasting dwelling place in the world of unclouded light, and per- fect holiness, and purest joy. She awaited the event with a reliance on the divine promises, hoping for salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ.—Allen. DAVIES, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) president of Princeton col- lege in New Jersey, born November 3, 1724. He was an only son. His mother, an eminent Christian, had earnestly besought him of heaven, and believing him to be given in answer to prayer, she named him Samuel. This excel- lent woman took upon herself the task of teaching her son to read, as there was no school in the neighborhood; and her efforts were rewarded by the uncommon proficiency of her pupil. At the age of ten he was sent to a school at some distance from home, and continued in it two years. His mind was at this period very little impressed by re- ligious truth, though he was not inattentive to secret prayer, especially in the evening; but it was not long be- fore that God, to whom he had been dedicated, and who designed him for eminent service in the gospel of his Son, was pleased to enlighten and renew him. Having tasted the joys and made a profession of religion at the age of fifteen, he became equally desirous of imparting to his fellow sinners the knowledge of the truth. With this ob- ject before him, he engaged with new ardor in literary and theological pursuits, under Samuel Blair. Every obstacle was surmounted; and after the previous trials, which he passed with distinguished approbation, he was licensed to preach the gospel at the age of twenty-two. He was also ordained February 19, 1747, that he might be qualified to perform pastoral duties. He now applied himself to unfold and enforce those pre- cious truths, whose power he had experienced on his own heart. His fervent zeal and undissembled piety, his popu- lar talents and engaging methods of address, Soon excited general admiration. He went to Hanover in April, 1747, and soon obtained of the general court a license to officiate in four meeting-houses. After preaching assiduously for some time, and not without effect, he returned from Vir- ginia, though earnestly invited to continue his labors. A call for him to settle at Hanover was immediately sent to the presbytery; but he was about this time seized by com- plaints, which appeared consumptive, and which brought him to the borders of the grave. In this enfeebled state, he determined to spend the remainder of his life in unre- mitting endeavors to advance the interests of religion. Being among a people, who were destitute of a minister, his indisposition did not repress his exertions. He still preached in the day, while by night his hectic was so severe, as sometimes to render him delirious. In the spring of 1748, a messenger from Hanover visited him, and he thought it his duty to accept the invitation of the people in that place. He hoped, that he might live to organize the congregation. His health, however, gradu- ally improved. In October, 1748, three more meeting- houses were licensed, and among his seven assemblies, which were in different counties, Hanover, Henrico, Caro- line, Louisa, and Goochland, some of them forty miles distant from each other, he divided his labors. His home was in Hanover, about twelve miles from Richmond. His preaching encountered all the obstacles, which could arise from blindness, prejudice, and bigotry, from profaneness and immorality. He and those, who attended upon his preaching, were denominated new lights by the more zea- lous Episcopalians. But by his patience and perseverance, his magnanimity and piety, in conjunction with his evan- gelical and powerful ministry, he triumphed over opposi- tion. Contempt and aversion were gradually turned into reverence. Many were attracted by curiosity to hear a man of such distinguished talents, and he proclaimed to them the most solemn and impressive truths with an energy, which they could not resist. It pleased God to accompany these exertions with the efficacy of his Spirit. In about three years, Mr. Davies beheld three hundred com- municants in his congregation, whom he considered as real Christians. He had also in this period baptized about forty adult negroes, who made such a profession of saving faith, as he judged credible. In 1753, the synod of New York, by request of the trustees of New Jersey col lege, chose him to accompany Gilbert Tennent to Great Britains to solicit benefactions for the college. This ser. vice he cheerfully undertook, and he executed it with singular spirit and success. . He arrived in London, De- cember 25. The liberal benefactions, obtained from the patrons of religion and learning, placed the college in a respectable condition. After his return to America, he entered anew in 1754, or early in 1755, on his beloved task of preaching the gospel in Hanover. Here he continued till 1759, when he was chosen president of the college, as successor of Mr. Edwards. He hesitated in his accep- tance of the appointment, for his people were endeared to him, and he loved to be occupied in the various duties of the ministerial office. But repeated applications and the unanimous opinion of the synod of New York and Phila. delphia at length determined him. He was dismissed, May 13, and entered upon his new office, July 6, 1759 Here the vigor and versatility of his genius were strikingly displayed. The ample opportunities and demands, which he found for the exercise of his talents, gave a new spring to his diligence; and while his active labors were multi- plied and arduous, his studies were intense. At the close of January, 1761, he was bled for a bad cold, and the next day transcribed for the press his sermon on the death of George II. The day following he preached twice in the chapel. His arm became inflamed, and a violent fever. succeeded, to which he fell a victim in ten days. He died, February 4, 1761, aged 36. His venerable mother, Martha Davies, survived him. When he was laid in the coffin, she gazed at him a few minutes and said, “There is the son of my prayers and my hopes—my only son— my only earthly support. But there is the will of God, and I am satisfied.” The Father of spirits had endued Mr. Davies with the richest intellectual gifts; with a vigorous understanding, a glowing imagination, a fertile invention, united with a correct judgment, and a retentive memory. He was bold and enterprising, and destined to excel in whatever he undertook. Yet was he divested of the pride of talents and of Science, and, being moulded into the temper of the gospel, he consecrated all his powers to the promotion of religion. “O, my dear brother,” says he in a letter to his friend Dr. Gibbons, “could we spend our lives in painful, disinterested, indefatigable service for God and the world, how serene and bright would it render the swift approach- ing eve of life I am laboring to do a little to save my country, and, which is of much more consequence, to save souls from death, from that tremendous kind of death, which a soul can die. I have but little success of late; but, blessed be God, it surpasses my expectation, and much more my desert.” His religion was purely evan- gelical. It brought him to the foot of the cross to receive salvation as a free gift. It rendered him humble and dis- satisfied with himself amidst his highest attainments. As a parent, he felt all the solicitude, which nature and grace could inspire. “There is nothing,” he writes, “that can wound a parent’s heart so deeply, as the thought, that he should bring up children to dishonor his God here, and be miserable hereafter. I beg your prayers for mine, and you may expect a return in the same kind.—We have now three sons and two daughters. My dear little creatures, sob and drop a tear now and then under my instructions; but I am not so happy as to see them under deep and lasting impressions of religion; and this is the greatest grief they afford me.” As president of the college, he possessed an admirable mode of government and in- struction. He watched over his pupils with the tender solicitude of a father, and secured equally their reverence and love. He seized every opportunity to inculcate on them the worth of their souls, and the pressing necessity of securing immediately the blessings of salvation. Dr. Davies was a model of the most striking oratory. As his personal appearance was august and venerable, yet benevolent and mild, he could address his auditory either with the most commanding authority, or with the D. A. W. D E.A. ... [444 J most melting tenderness. When he spoke, he seemed to •have the glories and terrors of the unseen world in his eye. He seldom preached without producing some visible emotions in great numbers present, and without making an impression on one or more, which was never effaced. His printed sermons, which exhibit his sentiments, abound with striking thoughts, with the beauties and elegances of expression, and with the richest imagery. They have been collected in three vols.octavo. See his Life, Preface to his Sermons, and Memoir of Davies by Dr. Rice.—Allen. DAVY, (SIR HUMPHREy,) the most eminent of che- mists, was born at Penzance, in Cornwall, December 17, * 1778. In his fifteenth year, he became a pupil of Mr. Barlase of Penzance, to prepare for graduating as a physi- cian at Edinburgh. By the time that he was eighteen, he acquired the rudiments of botany, anatomy, and physi- ology, the minor branches of mathematics, metaphysics, natural philosophy and chemistry: but it was to chemistry that his powers were principally directed. He now be- came acquainted with Mr. Davies Gilbert and Mr. Gre- gory Watt, and was by them introduced to Dr. Beddoes, who prevailed on him to suspend his design of going to Edinburgh, and to accept the superintendence of the Pneumatic Institution at Bristol. It was while he was at Hristol that he made his experiments on nitrous oxide, which he published under the title of Researches Chemical and Philosophical. The ſame which he thus acquired led to his being elected, in 1800, professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. As a lecturer, his popularity was un- bounded. In 1802, he was chosen to fill the professorship to the Board of Agriculture; and the lectures which he delivered in this capacity were subsequently embodied in his Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. Having at his command all the “appliances and means” furnished by the powerful apparatus of the Royal Institution, Davy be- gam and pursued that course of scientific investigation which has immortalized his name. The discovery of the metallic bases of the all-alies and earths, the creation of the science of electro-chemistry, the invention of the safety lamp, and of the mode of preserving the copper sheathing of ships, form only a part of his labors. In 1818, he was created a baronet, and in 1820, was elected president of the Royal Society. The presidency he resigned in 1827, in consequence of the declining state of his health obliging him to travel. Unfortunately his constitution was too far broken to be restored by a milder climate, and he died at Geneva, May 30, 1829. Besides the works already mentioned, Davy is the author of numerous papers in the Philosophical Transactions; and of Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing; and Consolations in Travel. They were his last productions. The estimation in which religion was held by this dis- tinguished philosopher may be seen in the following extract from Salmonia. “I envy,” says Sir Humphrey, “no quality of the mind or intellect in others, not ge- nius, power, wit, or fancy, but if I could choose what would be most delightful, and I believe most useful to me, I should prefer a firm religious belief to every other bless- ing; for it makes life a discipline of goodness—creates new hopes when all earthly hopes vanish, and throws over the decay, the destruction of existence the most gorgeous of all lights; awakens life even in death, and from corrup- tion and decay calls up beauty and divinity; makes an instrument of torture and of shame the ladder of ascent to paradise; and, far above all combinations of earthly hopes, calls up the most delightful visions of palms and the pronouncing of the absolution. amaranths, the gardens of the blessed; the security of everlasting joys, where the sensualist and the sceptic view only gloom, decay, and annihilation.” His last work, Con- solations in Travel, still more fully develops this religious tendency of his mind. Memoir of Sir H. Davy.—Davenport. DAY. The day is distinguished into natural, astronomi- cal, civil, and artificial; and there is another distinction which may be termed prophetic; the prophets being the only persons who call years days; of which there is an example in the explanation given of Daniel's seventy weeks. The natural day, is one revolution of the sun. The astronomical day, is one revolution of the equator, added to that portion of it through which the sun has pass- ed in one natural day. The civil day is that, the begin- ning and end of which are determined by the custom of any nation. The Hebrews began their day in the even- ing; (Lev. 23: 32,) the Babylonians from sun-rising. The artificial day is the time of the sun's continuance above the horizon, which is unequal according to different sea- sons, on account of the obliquity of the sphere. The Sa cred writers generally divide the day and night into twelve unequal hours. The sixth hour is always noon throughout the year; and the twelfth hour is the last hour of the day. But in summer, the twelfth hour, as all the others were, was longer than in winter. (See Hours.) - To-DAY, does not only signify the particular day on which we are speaking, but any definite time; as we say, the people of the present day, or of that day, or time.—Calmet. DEACON; (from the Greek, diakonos,) a servant, a mi- nister. 1. In the New Testament the word is used for any one that ministers in the service of God: bishops or presbyters are also styled deacons; but more particularly and gene- rally it is understood of the secondary order of ministering servants in the church. 1 Cor. 3: 5. Col. 1:23, 25. Phil. 1 : 1. 1 Tim. 3. - - The primitive deacons took care of the secular affairs of the church, received and disbursed monies, kept the church’s accounts, and provided every thing necessary for its temporal good. Thus, while the bishop attended to the souls, the deacons attended to the bodies of the people; the pastor to the spiritual, and the deacons the temporal interests of the church. Acts 6. 2. In ecclesiastical polity, the lowest of the different orders of the clergy. In the Roman Catholic church he served at the altar, in the celebration of what are called the holy mysteries. He is also allowed to baptize and preach, with the permission of the bishop. Formerly dea- cons were allowed to marry, but this was prohibited to them very early ; and at present the pope dispenses with this prohibition only for very important reasons. In such cases they re-enter the condition of laymen. There are eighteen cardinal-deacons in Rome, who have the charge of the temporal interests and the revenues of the church. A person, to be consecrated deacon, must be twenty-three years of age. In the English church, deacons are also ecclesiastics, who can perform all the offices of a priest, except the consecration of the sacramental elements, and In German Protestant churches, the assistant ministers are generally called dea- cons. If there be two assistants, the first of them is called arch-deacon. In the Presbyterian churches, the deacon's office is generally merged in that of ruling elder; but in some it is distinct, and simply embraces the distribution of alms. Among Congregationalists, the deacons, besides attending to the temporal concerns of the church, assist the minister with their advice, take the lead at prayer- meetings when he is absent, and preach occasionally to smaller congregations in the contiguous villages.—Buck. DEACONESS; a female deacon. It is generally allow- ed, that in the primitive church there were deaconesses, i. e. pious women, whose particular business it was to assist in the entertainment and care of the itinerant preach- ers, visit the sick and imprisoned, instruct female catechu, mens, and assist at their baptism; then more particularly necessary, from the peculiar customs of those countries, the persecuted state of the church, and the speedier spread- ing of the gospel. Such a one, it is reasonable to think, Phebe was, (Rom. 16:1,) who is expressly called diakonos, a deaconess or stated servant, as Doddridge renders it. *3 D E A They were usually widows, and, to prevent scandal, gene- rally in years, 1 Tim. 5: 9. See also Spanheim. Hist. Christ. Secul. 1. p. 554. The apostolic constitutions, as they are called, mention the ordination of a deaconess, and the ſorm of prayer used on that occasion, lib. 8, ch. 19, 20. Pliny also, in his celebrated epistle to Trajan (96,) is thought to refer to them; when speaking of two fe- male Christians whom he put to the torture, he says, quae ministra, dicebantur, i. e. “who were called deaconesses.” But as the primitive Christians seem to have been led to this practice from the peculiarity of their circumstances, and the Scripture is entirely silent as to any appointment to this supposed office, or any rules about it, it is very justly laid aside, at least as an office.—Hend. Buck. DEAD. (See EMBALMING ; BURIAL; MoURNING...) Let the dead bury their dead; let men dead in sin bury those natu- ally dead; or let the dead lie unburied, rather than the preaching of the gospel be hindered. Dead faith is that persuasion of divine truth, which flows not from spiritual life, and is not productive of good works. James 2:17– 20. Dead morks are those that flow not from a principle of true holiness, but from corrupt nature, which is in a state of moral death. Heb. 9 : 14. To be dead to the lah, as a covenant, is to be delivered ſrom the obligations of it, and from a reigning inclination to be under it; (Rom. 7: 4.) and it is dead to us, when it, through Christ, can ex- ercise no condemning power over our conscience. Gal. 2:19. Sin is dead relatively, when it lies undiscovered and unregarded in the soul, (Rom. 7:8;) it is dead really, when it is mortified and slain by the word, spirit, and blood of Christ. Rom. 6:6. To die to sin, or be dead to it, is to be freed from the dominion of it, and the curse due to it, by the blood of Christ, and by his grace drawn from the love and service of it. Rom. 6: 7. The saints are dead both to the law and to sin. Col. 3:3.—Bronn. . DEAD SEA. This was anciently called the Sea of the Plain, (Deut. 3:17; 4: 49,) from its situation in the great hollow or plain of the Jordan; the Salt Sea, (Deut. 3:17; Joshua 15: 5,) from the extreme saltness of its waters; and the East Sea, (Ezek, 47: 18; Joel 2:20,) from its situation relative to Judea, and in contradistinction to the West Sea, or Mediterranean. It is likewise called by Josephus, and by the Greek and Latin writers generally, Lacus Asphal- tites, from the bitumen found in it; and the Dead Sea, its more frequent modern appellation, from a tradition, com- monly though erroneously received, that no living creature could exist in its saline and sulphureous waters. It is at present known in Syria by the names of Almotanah and Bahar Loth; and occupies what may be considered as the southern extremity of the vale of Jordan; forming, in that direction, the western boundary to the Holy Land. The Dead sea is about seventy miles in length, and twenty in breadth at its broadest part; having, like the Caspian, no visible communication with the ocean. Its depth seems to be altogether unknown ; nor does it appear that a boat has ever navigated its surface. Towards its southern extremi- ty, however, in a contracted part of the lake, is a ford, about six miles over, made use of by the Arabs : in the middle of which they report the water to be warm ; indi- cating the presence of warm springs beneath. In general, towards the shore, it is shallow ; and rises and falls with the seasons, and the quantity of water carried into it by seven streams, which fall into this their common recepta- cle, the chief of which is the Jordan. The water now covering these ruins occupies what was formerly the vale of Siddim; a rich and fruitful valley, in which stood the five cities, called the cities of the plain, namely, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Bela or Zoar : the four first of which were destroyed, while the latter, being “a little city,” was preserved at the interces- sion of Lot; to which he fled for refuge from the impend- ing catastrophe, and where he remained in safety during its accomplishment. .* With regard to the agents employed in this catastrophe, there might seem reason to suppose that volcanic phe- nomena had some share in producing it; but Chateaubri- and’s remark is deserving of attention. “I cannot,” he Says, “coincide in opinion with those who suppose the Dead sea to be the crater of a volcano. I have seen Vesu- vius Solfatara, Monte Nuovo in the lake of Fusino, the [ 445 J * D. E. A. peak of the Azores, the Mamalif opposite to Carthage, the extinguished volcanoes of Auvergne ; and remarked in all of them the same characters; that is to say, moun- tains excavated in the form of a tunnel, lava, and ashes, which exhibited incontestable proofs of the agency of fire.” After noticing the very different shape and position of the Dead sea, he adds: “bitumen, warrn springs, and phos. phoric stones are ſound, it is true, in the mountains of Arabia; but then, the presence of hot springs, sulphur, and asphaltos is not sufficient to attest the anterior existence of a volcano.” The learned Frenchman inclines to adopt the idea of professors Michaëlis and Büsching, that Sodom and Gomorrah were built upon a mine of bitumen; that lightning kindled the combustible mass, and that the cities sank in the subterraneous conflagration. M. Malte Brun ingeniously suggests, that the cities might themselves have been built of bituminous stones, and thus have been set in flames by the fire of heaven. Captains Irby and Man- gles collected on the southern coast, lumps of nitre and fine sulphur, from the size of a nutmeg up to that of a small hen's egg, which, it was evident from their situation, had been brought down by the rain : “their great deposit must be soughtfor,” they say, “in the cliff.” These cliffs then were probably swept by the lightnings, and their flaming masses poured in a deluge of fire upon the plain.—Watson. DEAL ; to act, to behave. Jesus deals prudently in the work of our redemption, always employing the most pro- per means to gain the most noble end. Isa. 52:13. 2. To distribute by parts, (Isa. 58: 7. Rom. 12:3;) and a DEAL signifies a part. Exod. 29:40. Num. 15:4–9. God deals bountifully and in mercy, when he graciously bestows his favors on men worthless and miserable. Ps. 116:17. 119 : 17, 124; and 142 : 7. He deals bitterly and in fury, when he sorely afflicts and punishes men. Ruth 1:21. Ezek. 8 : 18. 16:59. 22: 24.—Brown. DEAR ; precious, eminently beloved. Jer. 31: 20. Col. 1 : 13. Dearly beloved; loved in the most tender manner, and highest degree. Rom. 12:19. The Jewish nation were the dearly beloved of God’s soul. He had taken great delight to do them good, and brought them into covenant with him, as his peculiar people. Jer. 12:7.—Bronm. DEATH, is generally defined to be the separation of the soul from the body. It is styled in scripture language, a departure out of this world to another, (2 Tim. 4:7;) a dis- solving of the earthly house of this tabernacle, (2Cor. 5: 1;) a going the way of all the earth, (Jos. 23: 14;) a returning to the dust, (Ecc. 13: 7;) a sleep, John 11:11. Death may be considered as the effect of sin, (Rom. 5:12;) yet, as our existence is from God, no man has a right to take away his own life, or the life of another, Gen.9: 6. Satan is said to have the power of death, (Heb. 2: 14;) not that he can at his pleasure inflict death on mankind, but as he was the instrument of first bringing death into the world, (John 8: 44;) and as he may be the executioner of God’s wrath on impenitent sinners, when God permits him. Death is but once, (Heb. 9:27;) certain, (Job 14: 1,2;) powerful and ter. rific, called the king of terrors, (Job 18: 14} uncertain as to the time, (Prov. 28: 1;) universal, (Gen. 5:) necessary, that God's justice may be displayed, and his mercy manifested; desirable to the righteous, Luke 2: 28–30. The fear of death is a source of uneasiness to the generality, and to a guilty conscience it may indeed be terrible; but to a good man it should be obviated by the consideration that death is the termination of every trouble ; that it puts him be- yond the reach of sin and temptation; that God has promis- ed to be with the righteous, even to the end, (Heb. 13:5;) that Jesus Christ has taken away the sting, (1 Cor. 15:54;) and that it introduces him to a state of endless felicity, 2 Cor. 5: 8. Preparation for death. This does not consist in bare mo, rality; in an external reformation from gross sins; in a - tention to a round of duties in our own strength ; in alts of charity; in a zealous profession; in possessing emirent gifts :-but, in reconciliation to God; repentance of sin; faith in Christ; obedience to his word; and all as the effect of regeneration by the Spirit, 3 John 3: 6. 1 Cor. 11:3. Tit., 5. Bates's four last Things; Hopkins, Drelin- court, Sherlock, and Fellows, on Death ; Bp. Porteus's Poem on Death ; Saurin's Sermons on the Fear of Death ; Watts's World to Come; Dwight's Theology, ser, clxiii. D E B D E C [ 446 l Spiritual death is that awful state of ignorance, insensi- bility, and disobedience, which mankind are in by nature, and which excludes them from the favor and enjoyment of God. Luke 1:79. (See DePRAVITY ; SIN.) - BROTHERs of DEATH, a denomination usually given to the religious of the order of St. Paul, the first hermit. They are called Brothers of D6ath, on account of the figure of a tleath's head which they were always to have with them, in order to keep perpetually before them the thoughts of death. The order was probably suppressed by pope Ur- ban VIII—Hend, Buck, DEBATE ; to dispute. A man ought to debate his cause with his neighbor; he ought privately and meekly to rea- son the point of difference between them. Prov. 25: 9. God debates in measure with his people, when he reproves and corrects them, as they are able to bear it. Isa. 27: 8. DEBATE, signifies contention, especially in words. Rom. 1: 29.-Bronyn. DEBIR, the name of a city, probably signifying, “THE oRACLE,” or rather that separated part of a temple, called the adytum ; the most retired or secret part, from which the oracle was understood to issue. In Joshua 10:39, this city is called Debira, which name appears to be that of Debir with an emphasis, TIE ORACLE ; and as it should seem that is called also Kirjath-sepher, “the city of the book,” or learning; and Kirjath-sena, the “city of purity,” from the Chaldee and Arabic roots to cleanse, Mr. Taylor thinks we may safely conclude that it was a priestly uni- versity of the ancient heathen inhabitants; to which the ideas of holiness, learning, and oracular information were attached; together with that of retirement. This ancient city was near Hebron, in the south of Judah, and its first Inhabitants were giants of the race of Anak. Joshua took it, and slew its king, Josh, 10:39, 12:13. It fell by lot to Caleb ; and Othniel first entering the place, Caleb gave him his daughter Achsah, 15: 16. It subsequently be- longed to the Levites, 21: 15. 1 Chron. 6: 58. There were two other cities of this name; one belonging to Gad, beyond Jordan, (Josh. 13: 26.) the other to Benja- min, though originally to Judah, Josh. 15: 7.—Calmet. DEBORAH, a prophetess, wife of Lapidoth, judged the Israelites, and dwelt under a palm-tree between Ramah and Bethel, Judges 4: 4, 5. She sent for Barak, directed him to attack Sisera, and, in the name of God, promised him victory; but Barak refusing to go, unless she went with him, she told him, that the honor of this expedition would be given to a woman, and not to him. Aſter the victory, Deborah and Barak sung a fine thanksgiving song, the composition probably of Deborah alone, which is pre- served, Judges 5.—Watson. DEBTS. In nothing, perhaps, do the Israelitish laws deviate so far from our own, as in regard to matters of debt. Imprisonment was unknown amongst the Hebrews, who were equally free from those long and expensive modes of procedure with which we are acquainted, for the recovery of debts. Their laws in this respect were sim. ple, but efficient. Where pledges were lodged with a cre- ditor for the payment of a debt, which was not discharged, the creditor was allowed to appropriate the pledge to his own benefit, without any interposition of a magistrate, and to keep it as rightfully as if it had been bought with the sumn which had been lent for it. But, besides the pledge, every Israelite had various pieces of property, on which execution for debt might readily be made; as, (1.) His he- reditary land, the produce of which might be attached till the year of jubilee. (2.) His houses, which, with the sole exception of those of the Levites, might be sold in perpetu- ity, Lev. 25:29, 30. (3.) His cattle, household furniture, and ornaments, appear also liable to be taken in execu- tion. See Job 24; 3. Prov. 22:27. From Deut. 15:1–11, we see that no debt could be exacted from a poor man in the seventh year; because, the land lying fallow, he had no income whence to pay it. (4.) The person of the debtor, who might be sold, along with his wife and children, if he had any. See Leviticus 25: 39. Job 24; 9. 2 Kings 4:1; Isaiah 50: 1. Nehem. 5. We have no intimation, in the writings of Moses, that suretiship was practised among the Hebrews in cases of debt. In the Proverbs oſ Solo- mon, however, there are many admonitions respecting it. Where this warranty was given, the surety was treated with the same severity as if he had been the actual debtor; and if he could not pay, his very bed might be taken from under him, Prov. 22:27. There is a reference to the cus- tom observed in contracting this obligation in Prov. 17:18, “A man void of understanding striketh hands,” &c.; and also in Prov. 22:26, “Be not thou one of them that strike hands,” &c. It is to be observed that the hand was given, not to the creditor, but to the debtor, in the creditor's pre- sence. By this act the surety intimated that he became in a legal sense one with the debtor, and rendered himself liable to pay the debt. We have above noticed the practice of lending on pledge; but as this was liable to considerable abuse, the following judicial regulations were adopted: (1.) The cre- ditor was not allowed to enter the house of the debtor to fetch the pledge, but was obliged to stand without the door, and wait till it was brought to him, Deut. 24: 10, 11. This law was wisely designed to restrain avaricious and unprincipled persons from taking advantage of their poor brethren in choosing their own pledges. (2.) The upper garment, which served by night for a blanket, (Exod. 22: 25, 26. Deut. 24:12, 13,) and mills and mill-stones, if taken in pledge, were to be restored to the owner before sunset. The reason of this law was, that these articles were indis- pensable to the comfortable subsistence of the poor; and, for the same reason, it is likely that it extended to all ne- cessary utensils. Such a restoration was no loss to the creditor; for he had it in his power at last, by the aid of summary justice, to lay hold of the whole property of the debtor; and, if he had none, of his person ; and in the event of non-payment, as before stated, to take him for a bond slave.—Watson. DECALOGUE ; the ten commandments given by God to Moses. The ten commandments were engraved by God on two tables of stone. The Jews, by way of eminence, called these commandments the ten words, from whence they had afterwards the name of decalogue ; but they joined the first and second into one, and divided the last into two. They understand that against stealing to relate to the stealing of men, or kidnapping; alleging that the stealing one another's goods or property is forbidden in the last commandment. The church of Rome has struck the second commandment quite out of the decalogue, and to make their number complete, has split the tenth into two. The reason is obvious.-Hend. Buck. DECAPOLIS; (from the Greek deka, ten, and polis, a city,) a country in Palestine, which contained ten principal cities, on both sides of Jordan, Matt. 4:25. Mark 5: 20. 7:31. According to Pliny, they were, 1. Scythopolis; 2. Philadelphia; 3. Raphanae; 4. Gadara; 5. Hippos; 6. Dios; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa ; 9. Canatha ; 10. Damascus. Josephus inserts Otopos, instead of Canatha. Though within the limits of Israel, the Decapolis was probably in- habited by ſoreigners; and hence it retained a foreign appellation. This may also contribute to account for the numerous herds of swine kept in the district, (Matt. 8. 30.) a practice which was forbidden by the Mosaic law.—Calmet. DECEIT, consists in passing any thing upon a person for what it is not, as when falsehood is made to pass for truth. (See Hypocrisy.)—Hend. Buck. DECEITFUL. Our hearts and their lusts are doccitful above all things; they in unnumbered ways beguile multi- tudes out of their present and eternal happiness for mere trifles, and render them persuaded of the innocence or goodness of things the most abominable and wicked; fill them with views of God, of Christ, of time, and eternity, of themselves, the most contrary to truth. Jer, 17: 9. Heb. 3: 13. Eph. 4; 22. Men handle the word of God deceitful. ly, when they wrest it to please the corrupt humors of themselves or others; when they mingle it with their own ..inventions, and use it to promote or protract passion, pride, covetousness, &c. 2 Cor. 4: 2. and 2: 17. The Lord deceives false prophets, when he gives them up to the delusions of their own hearts, and frustrates their expectations and predictions. Ezek. 14: 7. Jord, thou hast deceived me, and I was deceived : thou hast, contrary to my inclinations, persuaded me to undertake this office of pro- phesying, and hast disappointed me of the success and . comfort I expected in it. Jer. 20; 7. Heretics deceive and * D E C 1} E C [ 447 1 are deceived; they are persuaded of the goodness or inno- cence of error and wickedness, and endeavor to persuade others of it. 2 Tim. 3: 13.−1}ronyn. DECEPTION, (SELF.) See SELF-Deception. DECLAMATION; a speech made in public in the tone and manner of an oration, uniting the expression of action to the propriety of pronunciation, in order to give the sen- timent its full impression on the mind. It is used also in a derogatory sense; as when it is said, such a speech was mere declamation, it implies that it was deficient in point of reasoning, or had more sound than sense.—Hend. Buck. DECLAMATION OF THE PULPIT. The dignity and Sanctity of the place, and the importance of the sub- ject, require the preacher to exert the utmost powers of his voice, to produce a pronunciation that is perfectly distinct and harmonious, and that he observe a deportment and action which is expressive and graceful. The preacher should not roar like a common crier, and rend the air with a voice like thunder; for such kind of declamation is not only without meaning and without persuasion, but highly incongruous with the meek and gentle spirit of the gospel. He should likewise take particular care to avoid a mono- tony; his voice should rise from the beginning, as it were, by degrees, and its greatest strength should be exerted in The application. Each inflection of the voice should be adapted to the phrase and to the meaning of the words; and each remarkable expression should have its peculiar inflexion. The dogmatic requires a plain, uniform tone of voice only, and the menaces of God's word demand a greater force than its promises and rewards; but the lat- ter should not be pronounced in the soft tone of a flute, nor the former with the loud sound of a trumpet. The voice should still retain its natural tone in all its various inflex- ions. Happy is that preacher who has a voice that is at once strong, flexible, and harmonious. An air of compla- cency and benevolence, as well as devotion, should be constantly visible in the countenance of the preacher; but every appearance of affectation must be carefully avoided; for nothing is so disgustful to an audience as even the semblance of dissimulation. Eyes constantly rolling, turned towards heaven, and streaming with tears, rather denote a hypocrite than a man possessed of the real spirit of religion, and who feels the true import of what he preaches. An air of affected devotion infallibly destroys the efficacy of all that the preacher can say, however just and important it may be. On the other hand, he must avoid every appearance of mirth or raillery, or of that cold, unfeeling manner, which is so apt to freeze the heart of his hearers. The body should in general be erect, and in a natural and easy attitude. The perpetual movement or contortion of the body has a ridiculous effect in the pulpit, and makes the figure of a preacher and a harlequin too similar; on the other hand, he ought not to remain ‘constantly upright and motionless, like a speaking statue. The motions of the hands give a strong expression to a discourse; but they should be decent, grave, noble, and expressive. The preacher who is incessantly in action, who is perpetually clasping his hands, or who menaces with a clenched fist, or counts his arguments on his fingers, will only excite mirth among his auditory. In a word, declamation is an art that the sacred orator should study with assiduity. The design of a sermon is to convince, to affect, and to persuade. The voice, the countenance, and the action, which are to produce the triple effect, are there- fore objects to which the preacher should particularly ap- ply himself. (See ELoquENCE ; SERMON.)—Hend. Buck. DE COURCY, (RICHARD, B. A.) was a native of Ire- land, and was educated at Trinity college, Dublin; but his acquaintance with several eminent clergymen brought him to England. In 1770, he accepted a curacy in Shrewsbury, the rectorship of which belonged to the Rev. Mr. Stillingfleet. In January, 1774, he was present- ed, by the lord chancellor, to the vicarage of St. Alkmond's, which occasioned a considerable stir in the parish; the theo- logical sentiments and style of preaching of Mr. De Courcy being of a puritanical, or, as some would term it, an evan- gelical cast; and this circumstance gave rise to a satirical poem, entitled “St. Alkmond's Ghost,” by one of his parishioners, He had not been long inducted to his vicar- ge before he attacked the Anti-pedobaptists, on their dis- criminating tenet, and thereby involved himself in a cofi, troversy which ramified and expanded on every side, and furnished a sufficient employment for his pen for several years. At length a little satirical poem, in Hudibrastic verse, entitled “The Salopian Zealot; or, the Good Vicar in a bad Mood,” written by Mr. Benjamin Francis, of Horsley, in Gloucestershire, though totally free from scure rility, yet, seasoned as it was with no ordinary portion of caustic, administered a powerful quietus to the vicar, and put an end to the controversy. His other productions, from the press, were, “Jehu's Looking-glass; or, True and False Zeal;" “Nathan's Message to David,” a sermon) “Two Fast Sermons, on the Profanation of the Sabbath,” 1778; “Seduction,” a poem, 1782; “The Seducer con- victed on his own Evidence,” 1783; “Christ Crucified, the distinguishing Topic of the Gospel,” two volumes, foolscap octavo, 1791 (afterwards reprinted in one volume, Octavo); and, soon after his decease, there appeared, in one volume, octavo, “Sermons by the late Rev. Richard De Courcy; to which are prefixed, An Essay on the Na- ture, &c. of Pure and Undefiled Religion, and a Preface,” &c. As a preacher, he greatly excelled, and was deser- vedly popular. His language was highly polished; his elocution peculiarly graceful; his manner dignified; and his addresses furnish some of the most finished specimens of pulpit eloquence that are any where to be found. He died at the age of sixty, and was interred, November 9, 1803, at Shawbury, having been thirty years minister of the gospel in Shrewsbury.—Jones's Chr. Biog. DECREES OF GOD ; a phrase rather unfortunately used in theological writings, to express the comprehensive and glorious designs of divine wisdom in the creation and government of the universe. They are defined to be his settled purposes, whereby he fore-ordains to perform, per- mit, or suffer, whatsoever comes to pass. Dan. 4: 24. Acts 15: 18. Eph. 1: 11. This doctrine has been the subject of one of the most perplexing controversies that has occurred among mankind, owing chiefly to misapprehension of its real nature and consequences. It is not, as some seem to think, a novel doctrine. The opinion, that whatever occurs in the world at large, or in the lot of private individuals, is the result of a previous and unalterable arrangement by that Supreme Power which presides over nature, has al- ways been held, not only by many of the vulgar, but by the vast majority of cultivated and philosophic minds. Traces of it in a crude form are found in the philosophy of all nations, who have attained any just notions of the Dei- ty. It is, in fact, but a fuller development of the admitted doctrine of divine providence. The ancient stoics, Zeno and Chrysippus, whom the Jewish Essenes seem to have followed, asserted the existence of a Deity, who, acting wisely, but, as they supposed, necessarily, contrived the general system of the world; from which, by a series of causes, whatever is now done in it unavoidably results. Mahomet introduced into his Koran the doctrine of an abso- lute predestination of the course of human affairs. He represented life and death, prosperity and adversity, and every event that befalls a man in this world, as the una- voidable result of a previous determination of the one God who rules over all. Augustine, and the whole of the ear- liest reformers, but especially Calvin, favored this doctrine in a better digested form; embracing, not excluding, hu- man responsibility and the use of means. In this form it was generally asserted, and publicly owned, in most of the confessions of faith of the reformed churches, and particu- larly in the church of England; and to this we may add, that it was maintained by a great number of divines in the last two centuries. - As to the nature of these decrees, it must be observed that they are real designs; not indeed the result of delibe- ration, or the Almighty's debating matters within himself, reasoning in his own mind about the expediency or inex. pediency of things, as creatures do; nor are they merely contingent and fluctuating ideas of things future, but set- tled determinations founded on his comprehensive views, and sovereign pleasure. Is. 40: 14. They are to be consi- dered as eternal : this is evident; for if God be eternal, consequently his purposes must be of equal duration with himself; to suppose otherwise, would be to suppose that there was a time when he was undetermined and mutable; D E C D. E. F. [ 448 whereas no new determinations or after-thoughts can arise in his mind. Job 23: 13, 14.—2. They are free, without any compulsion, and not excited by any motive out of himself. Rom, 9:15.-3. They are infinitely wise, display- ing his glory, and promoting the general good. Rom. 11: 33-4. They are immutable, for this is the result of his be- ing infinitely perfect; for if there were the least change in God’s understanding, it would be an instance of imperfec- tion. Mal. 3: 6-5. They are extensive or universal, re- lating to all creatures and things in heaven, earth, and hell, Eph. 1: 11. Prov. 16: 4.—6. They are secret, or at least only so far knomyn as God is pleased to discover them. It is therefore presumption for any to attempt to enter into or judge of his secret purpose, or to decide upon what he has not revealed. Deut. 29:29. Nor is San unknown or supposed decree of God at any time to be the rule of our conduct. His revealed will alone must be considered as the rule by which we are to judge of the event of things, ths well as of our conduct at large. Rom. 11:34.—7, Last- ly, they are effectual ; for whether they relate to things simply suffered, or things executed by himself, as he is infinitely wise to plan, so he is infinitely powerful to per- form ; his counsel shall stand, and he will do all his plea- sure. Is. 46; 10. A living divine has laid down the following principles on this profound subject of human thought. 1. God had a design in the production of the universe. For where there is no design in action, there is no wisdom in the agent; which, to demy to God, were no better than blasphemy or atheism. . 2. That all things which he has produced, with all their qualities, circumstances and connexions, are individual parts of one great whole, one magnificent system. 3. That he had from the first a full view of all the par- ticulars comprehended in this immense system, and ar- ranged them in infinite wisdom to bring out of their com- bined and complicated action the best result. 4. That the plan of infinite wisdom comprehends moral and responsible agents, and makes ample provision for their free agency with all its eternal consequences. 5. That the divine plan, of course, comprehends to a certain extent the sufferance of sin, or the transgression of the divine laws by free moral agents, not as unavoida- ble, but incidental. - 6. That if God, consistently with his glorious perfec- tions, can comprehend in his plan the sufferance of sin, as we know to be the fact, he can also determine to limit, control, and punish it; and to overrule the final result of every sinful action, in a way worthy of his character as the Maker and Ruler of all. 7. That the sufferance of sin, under such a control of infinite wisdom, does not and cannot imply, either that God is its author, or that sin is the object of his approba- tion, or that it is the necessary means of the greatest good, or that those who commit it are not worthy of punishment such as God has threatened in his word. 8. That if we fully understand the subject, we can as easily trace the harmony between free moral agency and the immutability of the divine decrees, as between any other moral cause and its legitimate effect; and all at- tempts to prove them at variance are equally condemned by the Scriptures, by sound philosophy, and by human COPSC10u SneSS. - This doctrine should teach us–1. Admiration. “He is the rock, his work is perfect, for all his ways are judg- ment; a God of truth, and without iniquity; just and right is he.” Deut. 32: 4.—2. Reverence. “Who would not fear thee, O King of nations? for to thee doth it appertain.” Jer. 10: 7–3. Humility. “O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out !” Rom. 11: 33.−4. Submission. “For he doeth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth; and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest thou?” Dan. 4: 35–7. Desire for hea ven. “What I do, thou knowest not now; but thou shalt know hereafter.” John 13: 7. (See NecessiTy; PREDEs- TINATION.)—Divight's Theology; Hend. Buck. DECREES OF COUNCILS, are the laws made by them to regulate the doctrine and policy of the church. Thus the acts of the Christian council at Jerusalem are called. Acts 16: 4.—Hend. Buck. • . DECRETAL ; , a letter of a pope, determining some point of question in the ecclesiastical law. The decretals compose the second part of the canon law. The first genu- ine one, acknowledged by all the learned as such, is a let- ter of pope Siricius, written in the year 385, to Himerus, bishop of Tarragona, in Spain, concerning some disorders which had crept into the churches of Spain. The oldest collection of decretals was made by Isidore, of Seville, (who died 636,) and is yet extant in manuscript. Gratian published a collection of decretals, containing all the ordi- nances made by the popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX. in 1227, following the example of Theodosius and Justini- an, formed a constitution of his own, collecting into one body all the decisions and all the causes which served to advance the papal power; which collection of decretals was called the Pentateuch, because it contained five books,—Hend, Buck. - t DEDAN, or DADAN ; the son of Raamah, mentioned Gen. 10: 7. Josephus, adverting to this text, instead of Dedan, reads Judah; and says, that this Judah was the father of certain Jews inhabiting the western part of Ethi- opia. It is not fully agreed among the learned, whether Dedan and Dedanim, names often mentioned by the pro- phets, (see Isa. 21: 13. Jer, 25: 23, and 49: 8. Ez. 25: 13. 27: 15, 20, and 38: 13.) are the same with Dedanim, a person spoken of, Gen. 10: 4, among the descendants of Japheth; or whether he is the same with Dedan, mention- ed, ver. 7, among the descendants of Ham; or whether he is not rather a descendant of Dedan, the son of Jokshan, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25: 3. Eze- kiel speaks of the Dedanites as trading with the Tyrians in ivory, ebony, and fine cloths for chariots; and as he classes them with the people of Sheba, Eden, Ashur, and Chilmad, it is concluded that they must have dwelt in Mesopotamia, or Syria, and it is said there exists at this day a city which goes by the name of Dedan, situated in Arabia Felix, on the west of the Persian gulf—Jones. DEDICATION ; a religious ceremony, whereby any person or thing is solemnly consecrated, or set apart to the service of God and the purposes of religion. - The use of dedications is very ancient, both among the worshippers of the true God, and among the heathens. In the Scriptures, we meet with dedications of the tabernacle, altars, &c. Under Christianity, dedication is only applied to a church, and is properly the consecration thereof to the worship of God. (See ConsecKATION.)—Hend. Buck. DEEP. (See AByss.) DEER. (See HART, and HIND.) DEERING, (Edward, B. D.) an English divine of the sixteenth century, was a fellow of Christ's college, Cam- bridge, and a very famous preacher. The volume of his published works is full of divine learning and consolation. Though he sought not preferment, he was appointed a preacher at St. Paul's in London; and he filled that ap- pointment with a series of faithful labors in the work of the gospel. But in his last sickness he humbly lamented his inefficiency. “The good Lord pardon my great ne- gligence, that while I had time, I used not the precious gift more for the advancement of his glory, as I might have done. Yet I bless God that I have not abused the gift on ambition and vain studies.” “Blessed are they, who, while they have tongues, use them to God's glory.” “If I were the most excellent of all creatures in the world, equal in righteousness to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, yet would I confess myself to be a sinner, and that I expected salva- tion only in the righteousness of Jesus Christ; for we all stand in need of the grace of God. As for my death, I bless God, I find and feel so much comfort and joy in my soul, that if I were put to my choice whether to live or die, I would a thousand times rather choose death than liſe, if it may stand with the holy will of God.” This excellent man died in 1576.-Middleton. -- DEFENCE. (See SELF-DEFENCE.) DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, (Fidei Defensor;) a peculiar title belonging to the king of England; as Catho- licus to the king of Spain; Christianissimus, to the king of France; and Apostolicus to the king of Hungary, &c. These titles were given by the popes of Rome, That of §§：№Ē.±• № № №tº ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ºw£§§ №:№sae§=și2--→→– §§=№Ę № TIELE BEAG) e EA JE IRL@THI@ ANĐ īFEIE MI@UTFI (ÕIE ĪRIĘ JORDANI • I). E I D E L [449 J Fidei Defensor was conferred by Leo X. on king Henry VIII, for writing against Martin Luther; and the bull for it bears date quinto idus, October, 1521. It was afterwards confirmed by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry's sup- pressing the houses of religion, at the time of the reſorma- tion, not only deprived him of his title, but deposed him of his crown also; though, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign, his title, &c. was confirmed by parliament, and has conti- nued to be used by all his successors. Chamberlayne says, the title belonged to the kings of England before that time, and for proof hereoſ appeals to several charters granted to the university of Oxford: so that pope Leo's bull was only a renovation of an ancient right.—Hend. Buck. DEFILEMENT. Under the law, many were those blemishes of person and conduct, which were considered as defilements: some were voluntary, others involuntary; some were inevitable, and the effect of nature itself; others arose from personal transgression. Under the gospel, de- filements are those of the heart, of the mind, the temper, and conduct. The ceremonial uncleannesses of the law are superseded as religious rites; though many of them claim attention as usages of health, decency, and civility.—Watson. DEGENERATE; grown worse than it was originally. The Jews were turned into the degenerate plant of a strange vine, when, leaving the example of their pious ancestors, they gradually became almost as wicked as heathens. Jer. 2: 21. If mankind universally were not degenerate, they would not need regeneration.— Bronn. DEGRADATION, (Ecclesiastical) is the deprivation of a priest of his dignity. We have an instance of it in the eighth century, at Constantinople, in the person of the patriarch Constantine, who was made to go out of the church backwards, stripped of his pallium, and anathema- tized. In England, Cranmer was degraded by order of the bloody queen Mary. They dressed him in episcopal robes, made only of canvass; put the mitre on his head, and the pastoral staff in his hand, and in this attire showed him to the people, and then stripped him piece by piece.—H. Buck. DEGREES, (PsALMs of) the name or title prefixed in our translation to fifteen of the psalms; that is, from the hundred and twentieth, to the hundred and thirty-fourth inclusive. Various are the explanations that have been given of this title, by the learned. Junius and Tremellius translate the Hebrew word, “a song of excellencies,” or an excellent song, in reference to the subject; as eminent persons are called “men of high degree.”. 1 Chron. 17: 17. Some call them “Psalms of elevation;” because, say they, they were sung with an exalted voice. But the most probable opinion is, and indeed it corresponds with the literal translation of the Hebrew, namely, that instead of “Psalms of degrees,” the words should be translated “Odes of ascensions,” that is, odes which were sung when the Israelites came up to worship in Jerusalem at the annual festivals, or, perhaps, from their state of cap- tivity at Babylon. Their return home on this latter occa- sion is certainly called “the ascension, or coming up from Babylon.” Ezra 7: 9. And the old Syriac trans- lator, who explains the subject of the Psalms by apposite titles, refers to this circumstance almost all the psalms that bear this inscription ; some of them perhaps on in- sufficient grounds, but many of them certainly have a manifest relation to it. Theodoret indiscriminately ex- plains them all as relating to the Babylonish captivity, and thus illustrates the title : “Odes of the ascensions:” Theodotion calls them “ Songs of the ascension;” and , Symmachus, “Odes or songs on the returns.” - (See Lonth's Hebrew Poetry, Lect. 25, note 15.)—Jones. DEHAWITES; the people of Ava; perhaps inhabitants of that part of Assyria which was watered by the river Diaba. See Ezra 4:9. 2 Kings 17:24–Calmet. DEISTS. This term appears to have had an honorable origin, being of the same import as Theists, designating those who believe in the existence of a Supreme intelli- gent cause, in opposition to the Epicureans, and other atheistical philosophers. The name, in modern times, is said to have been first assumed about the middle of the sixteenth century, by some persons on the continent, in order to avoid the imputation of atheism. Peter Wiret, a divine of that century, mentions it as a new name as: sumed by those who rejected Christianity, Lord Edward Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in the seventeenth century has been regarded as the first deistical writer who reduced deism to a system; affirming the sufficiency of réason and natural religion, and rejecting divine revelation as unnecessary and superfluous. His system, however, em- braced these five articles: — 1. The being of God. 2. That he is to be worshipped. 3. That piety and moral virtue are the chief parts of worship. 4. That God will pardon our faults on repentance. And, 5. That there is a future state of rewards and punishment. Some have divided all deists into two classes—those who admit a future state, and those who deny it. But Dr. S. Clarke, taking the term in the most extensive sense, ar- ranges them under four classes:—1. Those who admit a Supreme Being, but deny that he concerns himself with the conduct or affairs of men; maintaining, with Lucre- tius, that God “Ne'er smiles at good, nor frowns at wicked, deeds.” 2. Those who admit not only the being but the providence of God, with respect to the natural world; but who allow no difference between moral good and evil, nor that God takes any notice of our moral conduct. 3. Such as be- lieve in the natural attributes of God, and his all-govern- ing providence; yet deny the immortality of the soul, or any future state. 4. Such as admit the existence of God, his providence, and the obligations of natural religion; but so far only as these things are discoverable by the light of nature, without any divine revelation. Some of the deists have attempted to overthrow the Christian dis- pensation, by opposing to it what they call the absolute perſection of natural religion. Others, as Blount, Collins, and Morgan, have endeavored to gain the same purpose, by attacking particular parts of the Christian scheme, by explaining away the literal sense and meaning of certain passages, or by placing one portion of the sacred canon in opposition to the other. A third class, wherein we meet with the names of Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke, advancing farther in their progress, expunge from their creed the doctrine of future existence, deny or controvert all the moral perfections of the Deity, and wholly reject the Scriptures. The deists of the present day are distinguished by their zealous efforts to diffuse the principles of infidelity among the common people. Hume, Bolingbroke, and Gibbon, addressed themselves solely to the more polished classes of the community; but of late, the writings of Paine, Palmer, Carlile, Owen, Jennings, Kneeland, and others, have diffused infidelity among the lower orders of society, and clothed it in the dress of vulgar ridicule, the more effectually to destroy in the common people all reverence for sacred things. Among the disciples of this school, deism has led to the most disgusting atheism. Thus “evil men and seducers wax worse and worse.” “But,” as one observes, “the friends of Christianity have no reason to regret the free and unreserved discus- sion which their religion has undergone. Objections have been stated and urged in their full force, and as fully answered; arguments and raillery have been repelled; and the controversy between Christians and deists has called forth a great number of excellent writers, who have illustrated both the doctrines and evidences of Chris- tianity in a manner that will ever reflect honor on their names, and be of lasting service to the cause of genuine religion, and the best interests of mankind.” (See arti- cles CHRISTIANITY; INFIDELITY; INSPIRATION ; and SCRIP- TURE, in this work.) Leland's Vien of Deistical Writers; Sermons at Boyle's Lecture ; Halyburton's Natural Religion insufficient ; Leslie's Short Method with the Deists; Bishop Watson's Apology for the Bible; Fuller's Gospel of Christ its on n Witness; Bishop Porteus's Charge to the Clergy, for 1794; and his Summary of the Evidences of Christianity; Faber's Difficulties of Infidelity.—Watson; Hend. Buck. DEITY OF CHRIST. (See Jesus CHRIST.) DELANY, (PATRICK,) an Irish clergyman of some emi- nence, was born in the year 1686. At Trinity college he was distinguished for his industry, good conduct, and learning; obtained the usual degrees, and became a seni- or fellow of that college. To his duties as a minister of the gospel he paid the greatest attention, and devoted the 57 D E L DE 1, [450 J energies of his mind to the improvement of the pupils committed to his care. In 1727, lord Carteret raised him to the chancellorship of Christ church. In 1732, he dis- tinguished himself by the publication of the first volume of a work, entitled “Revelation examined with candor.” In 1734, he published the second volume, which was as rapidly and generally perused as any theological work of the day. The work passed through several editions, and is still held in deserved estimation. In 1738, he was en- gaged in writing an ingenious pamphlet—“Reflections on Polygamy, and the encouragement given to that Prac- tice in the Scriptures of the Old Testament.”. In 1739, he was engaged in composing “An historical Account of the Life and Reign of David;” the first volume of which was published in 1740, and the second and third in 1742. In that work he refuted the observations of Bayle; vindi- cated, in some measure, the character of David, and de- monstrated that, whilst to his crimes all men were alive, to his virtues they were not sufficiently attentive. In 1763, he presented the world with the third volume of “Revelation examined with candor;” and which certain- ly equalled the former volumes. The publication of seve- ral volumes of valuable discourses closed the literary la- bors of this eminent man; and in May, 1768, he expired at Bath, aged eighty-three. To the last moments of his life, his faculties were sound, his energies comparatively unimpaired, and his usefulness considerable :-he served mankind in his day and generation;–he was charitable, generous, devout, and amiable. His sentiments on many doctrines of Christianity were certainly peculiar; but then his mind was original, well informed, and capacious. He unquestionably must rank among the number of those for whom posterity should be grateful that he ever lived. —See Life and Works of Delany.—Jones' Chris. Biog. DELILAH; a woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek, belonging to Dan, near the land of the Philistines. Sam- son abandoned himself to her, and, as some think, mar- ried her, Judg. 16:4. The princes of the Philistines by bribes prevailed on her to betray Samson : he eluded her first demands; but at length she succeeded, and reduced his strength to weakness, by cutting off his hair. (See SAMson.)—Calmer. DELOS ; one of the Cyclades, a number of islands in the Ægean sea. It was much celebrated, and held in the highest veneration, for its famous temple and oracle of Apollo, 1 Mac. 15:23–Calmet. DELUGE ; the flood which overflowed and destroyed the earth. This flood makes one of the most considera- ble epochs in chronology. Its history is given by Moses, Genesis, ch. 6, and 7. Its time is fixed by the best chro- mologers to the year from the creation 1656, answering to the year before Christ 2293. From this flood, the state of the world is divided into diluvian and antediluvian. Men who have not paid that regard to sacred history it deserves, have cavilled at the account given of a uni- versal deluge. Their objections principally turn upon three points:—1. The want of any direct history of that event by the profane writers of antiquity.—2. The appa- rent impossibility of accounting for the quantity of water necessary to overflow the whole earth to such a depth as it is said to have been.—And, 3. There appearing no me- cessity for a universal deluge, as the same end might have been accomplished by a partial one. To the above arguments we oppose the plain declara- tions of Scripture. resolved to destroy every thing that had breath under heaven, or had life on the earth, by a flood of waters: such was the threatening, such was the execution. The waters, Moses assures us, covered the whole earth, buried all the mountains; every thing perished therein that had life, excepting Noah and those with him in the ark. Can a universal deluge be more clearly expressed ? If the deluge had only been partial, there had been no necessity to spend a hundred years in the building of an ark, and shutting up all sorts of animals therein, in order to re- stock the world: they had been easily and readily brought from those parts of the world not overflowed, into those that were ; at least, all the birds never would have been destroyed, as Moses says they were, so long as they had wings to bear them to those parts where thé flood did not and overflowed the whole surface. God declared to Noah that he was reach. If the waters had only overflowed the neighbor hood of the Euphrates and the Tigris, they could not be fifteen cubits above the highest mountains; there was no rising that height, but they must spread themselves, by the laws of gravity, over the rest of the earth; unless, per- haps, they had been retained there by a miracle; in that case, Moses, no doubt, would have related the miracle, as he did that of the waters of the Red sea, &c. It may also be observed, that in the regions far remote from the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, England, the United States, &c. there are fre- quently found in places many scores of leagues from the sea, and even in the tops of high mountains, whole trees sunk deep under ground, as also teeth and bones of ani- mals, fishes entire, sea shells, ears of corn, &c. petrified; which the best maturalists are agreed could never have come there but by the deluge. That the Greeks and west- ern nations had some knowledge of the flood, has never been denied ; and the Africans, Chinese, and Americans have traditions of the deluge. The ingenious Mr. Bryant, in his Mythology, has pretty clearly proved, that the de- luge, so far from being unknown to the heathen world at large, is in reality conspicuous throughout every one of their acts of religious worship. In India, also, Sir Wil- liam Jones has discovered, that in the oldest mythological books of that country, there is such an account of the deluge as corresponds sufficiently with that of Moses. (See ARK of Noah.) -- Various have been the conjectures of learned men as to the natural causes of the deluge. Some have supposed that a quantity of water was created on purpose, and at a proper time annihilated by Divine power. Dr. Burnet supposes the primitive earth to have been no more than a crust investing the water contained in the ocean; and in the central abyss which he and others suppose to exist in the bowels of the earth at the time of the flood, this out- ward crust broke in a thousand pieces, and sunk down among the water, which thus spouted up in vast cataracts Others, supposing a sufficient fund of water in the sea or abyss, think that the shifting of the earth's centre of gravity drew after it. the water out of the channel, and overwhelmed the several parts of the earth successively. Others ascribe it to the shock of a comet; and Mr. King supposes it to arise from subterraneous fires bursting forth with great violence under the sea. But are not most, if not all these hypothe- ses quite arbitrary, and without foundation, from the words of Moses? It is, perhaps, in vain to attempt accounting for this event by natural causes, it being altogether mi- raculous and supernatural, as a punishment to men for the corruption then in the world. Let us be satisfied with the sources which Moses gives us, namely, the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven opened; that is, the waters rushed out from the hidden abyss of the bowels of the earth, and the clouds poured down their rain incessantly. Let it suffice us to know, that all the elements are under God's power; that he can do with them as he pleases, and frequently in ways we are ignorant of, in order to accomplish his own purposes. The objections once made to the fact of a general de- luge have, indeed, been greatly weakened by the progress of philosophical knowledge; and may be regarded as nearly given up, like the former notion of the high anti- quity of the race of men, founded on the Chinese and Egyptian chronologies and pretended histories. Philoso- phy has even at last found out that there is sufficient water in the ocean, if called forth, to overflow the highest mountains to the height given by Moses,—a conclusion which it once stoutly denied. . Keill formerly computed that twenty-eight oceans would be necessary for that pur- pose; but we are now informed “that a farther progress in mathematical and physical knowledge has shown the different seas and oceans to contain, at least, forty-eight times more water than they were then supposed to do; and that the mere raising of the temperature of the whole body of the ocean to a degree no greater than marine ani. mals live im, in the shallow seas between the tropics, would so expand it as more than to produce the height above the mountains stated in the Mosaic account.” As to the deluge of Noah, ther fore, infidelity has almost en- D E MI D E M [ 451 J tirely lost the aid of philosophy in framing objections to the Scriptures. The principal writers on this subject have been Wood. ward, Cockburn, Bryant, Burnet, Whiston, Stillingfleet, King, Catcott, Tytler, and Gisborne in his Natural Theology. (See also Silliman's Journal of Science.)—Hend. Buck; Watson. DELUSIONS ; errors and influences of Satan, calcu- lated to deceive men. God chooses men's delusions, and sends them strong delusions, when in his righteous judgment and infinite wisdom, he permits Satan, their own lusts, and false teachers effectually to seduce them ; and gives them up to the very errors and abominations which they relish. Isa. 66: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 11.-Bronyn. DEMAS; a Thessalonian mentioned by Paul, (2 Tim. 4: 10.) who was at first a most zealous disciple of the apostle, and very serviceable to him at Rome during his imprisonment, but afterwards (about A. D. 65,) forsook him to follow a more secular life.—Calmet. DEMETRIUS, a goldsmith of Ephesus, who made nich- es, or little chapels, or portable models of the famous tem- ple, for Diana of Ephesus, which he sold to foreigners, Acts 19: 24.—Calmet. DEMETRIUS, mentioned by John as an eminent Christian, (3 John 12.) is by some believed to be the De- metrius of the former article, who had renounced hea- thenism to embrace Christianity. But this wants proof. —Calmet. • * , DEMONS; (Greek, daimon and daimonion) a name given in the New Testament to fallen angels, or, morally evil and impure spirits, and in some instances, (such as Acts 17: 18. 1 Cor, 10:20, 21. 1 Tim. 4: 1. Rev. 9:20, to heathen gods, human spirits whom the heathen deified and worshipped, and the canonized saints of corrupt churches, Y:ai. to the heathen philosophers, demons held a middle rank between the celestial gods and men upon earth, and carried on all intercourse between them; conveying the addresses of men to the gods, and the di. vine benefits to men. They also believed that some of them were employed in executing the vengeance of the gods on the impious. Agreeably to this view, they divi- ded their demons into two kinds: agathodaimón, eudaimón, a good demon, or tutelary genius, whom they assigned to every one at his birth, to watch over his character, for- tunes, &c.; and kakodaimon, a malignant demon, who thwarts, vexes, and injures any one.—Hend. Buck. DEMONIAC; one possessed or affected by a demon or demons. The subject of demoniacal possession, since the time of Jos. Mede, has given rise to much discussion. One class of writers have supposed that the demoniacs were merely madmen'; others, that the bodies of human beings were actually possessed, controlled, governed, and inhabited by wicked and impure spirits. Among the sup: §. of the former opinion are Heinsius, Mede, Sykes; ead, Farmer, Lardner, and, almost without exception, modern Socinian and Rationalist writers. On the other side of the question may be placed, the uniform interpre- tation of the passages in the New Testament in which the subject is spoken of, in their literal sense by the am- cient church, the best commentators, and those generally bearing the name of orthodox in every age and among all sects coming under this denomination. The following is a brief summary of the respective argu- ments on both sides, beginning with those which have been advanced against actual possession. 1. The word demon properly signifies the soul of a dead person, which, it cannot be supposed, is referred to where speeches and actions are imputed to the imaginary demoniac. In re- ply to this, it has been deemed sufficient-to maintain that the word does not uniformly denote the spirits of the de- parted.—2. Among the heathens, lunacy and epilepsy were ascribed to the operation of certain_demons, who were therefore called larvati and cerriti. To this, it has been answered, that it is not impossible but that the hea- thens were right; but that, at all events, their opinion, whether right or wrong, is no proof that the Jews were in error; for the demoniacs of Scripture are represented as differing from insane and epileptic persons. Compare Matt, 4:24, where the daimonizomenous are opposed to the Seleniazomenous, the paralutikous, and the poikamis nosois, koi Rasanois sunechomenous. And in chap. 10: 1. the power to cast out demons is expressly distinguished from the power of healing all manner of sickness, and all manner of dis- ease. See also Luke 4:33–36: compare especially ver. 41, with ver. 40, where the contrast is most striking.—3. It is argued that the Jews had the same idea of these dis- eases, and the instance of Saul’s madness, and Matt. 17: 14, 15. John 7: 20. 8:48, 52. 10: 20, are adduced to to prove the assertion. These passages certainly prove thät lunatics, epileptics, and demoniacs are sometimes synonymous terms; but this admission will only go to show that they were occasionally identified; while the ar- gument deduced from the contrast between lunatics and demoniacs in the passages quoted above, will not be de- stroyed.—4. Christ is said to have adopted the common language of the people, which it was not necessary to change. He was not sent to correct the mistakes which existed in the popular philosophy of the day in which he lived. This argument takes for granted the very point to be proved. But is such an accommodation as it supposes, for a moment to be reconciled with the character of such a teacher as Jesus? If the demons were simply natural diseases, was it not of the highest importance for him to have undeceived his contemporaries on these points, and to have corrected the false and pernicious philosophy of the age 3 Were we to follow out this principle of accom- modation, we might explain away most of our Lord’s doctrines, and regard them as mere Jewish notions, which indeed has been done by the Socinians and by the Ra- tionalists of Germany.—5. No reason can be given why there should be demoniacal possessions in our Lord's time, and not at present, when we have no grounds to suppose that any instances of this nature any where oc- cur. In reply to this objection, it may be observed, that these possessions were then permitted in order to give to the devil's hostility to man an ocular demonstration; to place in a clear light the power and benevolence of the Lord Jesus in defeating the baneful purposes of this an- cient enemy of the human race, and to confute the error so prevalent among the Sadducees, who affirmed that there was neither angel nor spirit. In addition to the arguments just produced in refuta- tion of the anti-demonianists, the following positions may be laid down in support of real possession :- 1. The doctrine of demoniacal possessions is consistent with the whole tenor of Scripture. Evil is there repre- sented as having been introduced by a being of this de- scription, who in some wonderful manner influenced the immaterial principle in man. The continuance of evil in the world is frequently imputed to the continued agency of the same being. His delight is in every possible way to harass and injure mankind, both as to mind and out- ward estate. (See Job passim.) 2. The doctrine is consistent with the dictates of rea- son. If one man may cause evil to another, a thing which is done in thousands of instances every day, is it not possible that evils of a different kind might be pro- duced by means of other beings, while the moral govern- ment of God remained unimpeached? 3. The supposition that the demoniacs spoken of in Scripture were lunatics, is fraught with numerous and in- superable difficulties. The facts recorded of them demon- strate that they were not merely such. Insane persons either reason rightly on wrong grounds, or wrongly on right grounds, or blend right and wrong together. But these demoniacs reasoned rightly on right grounds. They uttered propositions undeniably true, and such as were always perfectly adapted to the occasions. They excelled, in the accuracy of their knowledge, the disciples them- selves; at least we never find any of these applying to our Lord the epithet of “the Holy One of God.” They were alike consistent in their knowledge and their lan guage. Their bodies were agitated and convulsed. The powers of their minds were controlled in such manner, that their actions were unreasonable: yet they addressed our Lord in a consistent and rational, though in an ap- palling and mysterious, manner. Our Lord answered them, not by appealing to the individuals whose actions had been so irrational, but to something distinct from them, which he requires and commands to leave them : that is, to 'evil spirits, whose mode of continuing evil in D E N D E. P [ 452 ) such instances had been so fearfully displayed. These evil spirits answer him by an intimate knowledge of his person and character, which was hidden from the wise and prudent of the nation. Before him, as their future judge, they believed and trembled, saying, “Art thou come to torment us before the time?” It is an admirable observation of Jortin on the point, that where any circumstances are added concerning the demoniacs, they are generally such as show that there was something preternatural in the case; for these afflict- ed persons unanimously joined in doing homage to Christ and his apostles: they all knew him, and unite in con- fessing his divinity. If, on the contrary, they had been lunatics, some would have worshipped, and some would have reviled him, according to the various ways in which the disease had affected their minds. 4. The other facts recorded of the demoniacs are such as renders it impossible, on any fair principles of inter- pretation, to conclude that they were merely insane. The principal of these is that most extraordinary event of the possession of the herd of swine, by the same demons which had formerly shown their malignity in the human form. This extraordinary event cannot be accounted for except upon the commonly received literal interpretation of the evangelic narrative in which it is recorded. No- thing can be more absurd and trifling than the attempts that have been made to explain it on other grounds. Whatever difficulties may seem to attach to the com- mon, simple, and ancient interpretation of the different cases of possession, it must be regarded as most probably correct, for this very satisfactory reason, that the difficul- ties of the new interpretation are always greater. On one side we have the wonderful doctrine, that it pleased the Almighty to permit invisible and evil beings to pos- sess themselves, in some incomprehensible manner, of the bodies and souls of men. On the other, we have Christ the revealer of truth, establishing falsehood, Sanc- tioning error, or encouraging deception. We have the evangelists inconsistent with themselves, and a narrative, which is acknowledged to be inspired, and to be intended for the unlearned—unintelligible and false. Between such difficulties, I prefer the former; and if I cannot compre- hend hon, such things could be, I submit to the infinite wisdom and power of the Supreme, and surrender my reason to the guidance of divine revelation. The dif- ference between Christianity and philosophy, or the mode of speculating which assumes that title, may be said to consist in this: In matters of philosophy, the vulgar may be in error; and the speculatists may be right; but in Christianity, the popular opinion is generally right. The philosopher who would fashion the statements of Scrip- ture according to his own notions of truth and falsehood, is sure to conclude with error.—See also the admirable treatise of Canonicus on the Existence and Agency of Evil Spirits.--Hend. Buck. - DENARIUS ; a Roman coin, worth four sesterces, generally valued at twelve and a half cents of our currency. In the New Testament, it is taken for a piece of money, in general; or a shekel, which was the common coin among the Hebrews, before they were subjected to the Ro- mans, Matt. 22: 19. Mark 12:15. Luke 20: 24.—Calmet. DENISA ; a Christian female of Lampsacus in Asia Minor, who suffered martyrdom in the third century. Nicomachus, a professed Christian, having been put on the rack, after suffering extremely, renounced his pro- fession, and almost immediately expired in great agony. Denisa, who was then about sixteen years of age, was present, and on witnessing this affecting spectacle, ex- claimed, “O unhappy wretch why would you buy a moment's ease, at the expense of a miserable eternity ?” Optimus, the pagan proconsul, hearing this, inquired if she was a Christian. She replied in the affirmative, and though commanded to sacrifice to idols, absolutely refused. She was given up as a punishment by the proconsul, to two libertines, who, through a kind providence, being unable to effect their diabolical purposes, and imploring her forgiveness, Optimus ordered her to be beheaded.—Foz. DENOMINATIONS, (THE THREE ;) the designation given to an association of dissenting ministers residing in and about London, belonging to the Presbyterian, In, dependent, and Baptist denominations, and usually de- scribed as “The General Body of Protestant Dissenting Ministers of London and Westminster.” This body was organized in 1727. At that period, the members of the body were so far united in religious sentiment, that they could join together in acts of Chris- tian worship; but the existence and spread of Socinian- ism in the Presbyterian and General Baptist boards has, for a long time, compelled them to confine their proceed- ings to matters connected with the political rights and cir- cumstances of Dissenters, and other topics of national inte- rest, in reference to which they wish to express their opinion. The general body probably includes one hundred and fifty members, about one half of which are of the Inde- pendent or Congregational board. The Socinians form a very small minority of the whole body. (See DEPUTIES.) —Hend. Buck. - DEN.Y. God cannot deny himself; he cannot possibly act or speak unlike his own nature, or unlike the gracious characters he has assumed, the promises he has made, or the threatenings he has denounced, 2 Tim. 2: 13. Men deny God, or Christ, or his name, when in their profession or practice, they disown his being the true God, Savior, portion, ruler, and last end of their souls. Job 31: 28, Acts 3: 13, 14. They deny the faith when they embrace error, indulge themselves in a slothful and wicked prac- tice, and so manifest their unbelief of, and opposition to, the truths of Scripture. Rev. 2. 13. 1 Tim. 5: 8. Men deny themselves when they refuse to depend on their own righteousness as the ground of their happiness; or to be led by their own wisdom, or ruled by their own will and affections; or to attempt performance of good works in their own strength; but receive Jesus Christ as the free gift of God for their all and in all, and undervalue their own ease, profit, or pleasure, for the sake of Christ. Matt. 16:24. (See SELF-DENIAL.)—Bronn. DEPART. God departs from men when he ceases to bestow his favors, hides the Smiles of his countenance, and pours out his wrath on them, (Hos. 9:12,), or when he ceases to afflict. Job 7: 19. Men depart from God when they follow sinful lust instead of holiness, and seek created enjoyment for their portion, instead of his fulness, (Jer, 32: 40.) and especially when they break their vows to him, and cease from serving him, as ever they did. Hos. 1: 2. Men depart from evil, or from hell, when they cease the love and practice of sin, and so from walking in the way to hell. Prov. 15: 24, and 16: 6.-Brown. DEPRAVITY; corruption, a change from perfection to imperfection. (See FALL; SIN.)—Hend. Buck. DEPRAVITY, (HUMAN.) This is a painful, but inter- esting and momentous subject. Perhaps there is no one truth in the Scriptures more strictly fundamental. The whole scheme of Christianity presupposes and recognises its existence, and all its provisions of grace and truth are adapted to its relief. It may be considered therefore as the basis of the evangelical system; insomuch that the practical conviction of its truth is the first step towards the reception of the mercy of the gospel. The Son of man came to save that nyhich was lost. “I never knew a person,” says Andrew Fuller, “verge towards the Armi- nian, the Arian, the Socinian, or the Antinomian Schemes, without first entertaining diminutive notions of human depravity or blameworthiness.” Human depravity essentially consists in a state of mind, the opposite of that which is required by the divine law. The sum of the divine law being love, the essence of depravity consists in the want of love to God and our neighbor; or, in other words, the preference of some other object or objects, to the exclusion of those required in the divine law. Where this preference prevails, the creature usurps the place of the Creator, and all the moral powers of the soul are disorganized, perverted, and corrupted. Yet this, however awful, is the natural condi- tion of the whole human race. For all have sinned and come short of the glory of God. Rom. 3: 23. By one man sin entered into the nworld, and death by sin, and so death has passed upon all men, for that all have sinned. Rom. 5: 12. THE ScripTURE HATH concLUDED ALL UNDER SIN ; THAT THE PROMISE By FAITH IN Jesus CHRIST MIGHT BE GIVEN To THEM THAT BELIEVE. Gal. 3: 10, 22. So decisive indeed, I} E P D. E. P. | 453 J is the language of divine revelation on this point, that St. John does not hesitate to affirm, If ne say that we have not sinned, ne make him a liar, and his nord is not in us. 1 John 1: 10. That the depravity of man is universal, may be further confirmed and brought home to every man's conscience, by the following considerations. In all nations it has been recognised by their forms of religion, coerced as ſar as possible by laws, recorded by biography and history, investigated by philosophy, acted in the drama, depicted by poets, and acknowledged and reproved by moralists. Few dare deny that they are partakers of it, and those few are evidently blinded by its power, since the best of men have always been the most ready to confess it. No man, Christ excepted, was ever yet produced as an ex- ample of moral perfection. Every man who examines himself by his own acknowledged rule of duty, finds he is continually coming short of it, and yet niho can under- stand his errors 2 No man is willing to disclose every action of his life to his dearest friend. No one in solemn prayer to God, dare profess his freedom from sin, or could be informed that God would judge him according to his deserts without alarm. Every one feels that, by nature, sin is more easy to him than duty, that virtue requires effort, while vice steals on him unawares; whereas a dis- position perfectly conformed to the law of God, would render sin abominable and duty a delight. In fine, that human depravity is universal, is clear from the universal prevalence of death—the universal necessity of regenera- tion—the impossibility of justification by the works of the law—the death of Christ for all—and the universal requi- sition of repentance and faith in the Redeemer. Although the depravity of man be in the strictest sense moral depravity, or the sinfulness of creatures who are in- telligent, free, and voluntary, who sin against conscience, and are therefore justly accountable, it is yet frequently denominated natural, because it is found to be the univer- sal characteristic of men by nature, that is to say, the state in which they are born. Ephes. 2: 1–3. John 3: 6. Rom. 8: 5–9. For the same reason it is sometimes called constitutional ; not that it forms any essential part of the original constitution of the species as it came from the hands of the Creator, but because in consequence of the sin of the first man, a predisposition to evil seems to inhere in all his descendants, and to develop itself in a series of voluntary transgressions, either internal or external, from the commencement of their moral agency. Hence also it has been called hereditary, native, innate, inbred depravity, or original sin. Rom. 5: 12–19. (See SIN, and FALL of MAN.) In regard to the degree of human depravity; though its forms and stages in social life are various, yet that essen- tial element of all depravity ruhich is common to the species, divines of the evangelical class have united in repre- senting as total—meaning by that term, that unrenewed men, universally, are entirely destitute of the genuine principle of holy obedience—that is, of the love of God and man required in the divine law. This was mani- festly the doctrine generally embraced at the Reformation, and which has been maintained by the advocates of sovereign grace in every age. It has been objected to this language, however, that the phrase, total depravity, conveys the idea of all men being as bad as they can be. As this is a sentiment which no one maintains, it were well perhaps if some happier terms could be found to express the great truth intended by total depravity. “ALL I MEAN BY THE TERMs,” says Andrew Fuller, “Is This ;- THAT THE HUMAN HEART IS BY NATURE ToTALLY DESTITUTE OF THE LovE OF GoD, or Love To MAN As THE CREATURE of Gop, AND consequently Is DESTITUTE of ALL TRUE virTUE. A creature may be totally destitute of good, and therefore totally depraved, (such, it will be allowed, is Satan,) and yet be capable of adding imiquity to iniquit, without end.” To elucidate this point, and remove the possibility of mistake, Dr. Dwight remarks, 1. That the human cha- racter is not depraved to the full extent of its powers. 2. That there are certain characteristics of human nature which, considered by themselves, are innocent. 3. That some of the natural human characteristics are amiable ; as natural affection, the simplicity and sweetness of childhood, the modesty of youth, compassion, generosity, social integrity; to which may be added, friendship, patriotism, and the sense of honor. 4. That these and all other qualities of the mind are, however, MEANS EITHER of viPTUE, oh sin, According. To THE NATURE OF THAT contROLLING Disposi- TION OR ENERGY WHICH CONSTITUTES THE MORAL CHARACTEH. 5. That there is not in the mind by nature, or in an un- regenerated State, any real moral excellence, or evangeli- cal virtue.—Lastly, That the heart of man, after all the abatements are made, which can be made, is set to do evil in a most affecting and dreadful manner: as is evident from the Scriptures, from every man’s examina- tion of the state of his own heart and life, and from the whole course of human conduct, both private and public, especially in the family, in the place of business, in the haunts of amusement, in insurrections, oppressions, wars, and religious impostures in every age of the world. Unhappily nothing is more common than misrepre- sentations of the doctrine of total depravity by those who undertake to oppose it. Almost every objection advanced by them, may be resolved into a misconception of terms, a wrong standard of judgment, or the prejudices naturally arising from supposed difficulties, self-ignorance, mistaken tenderness, pride of character, or fear of consequences, From these causes, men refuse to give proper attention to the decisive evidence of its truth, supplied by every page of Scripture, and every legitimate induction of facts. Few, indeed, are aware of the amount of evidence which God has given in his word, for the conviction of men that such is their ruined state by nature. 1. All those passages of Scripture which expressly teach it, as true not of one age only, but of all. Gen. 6: 5, 12. 8: 21. Psalm 14: 2, 3. Eccles. 9: 3. Jer. 17: 9. Rom. 3: 9–19. Ephes. 2: 3. 2. All those passages which declare the utter impossibility of carnal men doing any thing to please God. Heb. 11; 6. Rom. 8: 5–9. 3. All those which speak of goodness and virtue as comprehended in love, that is, the love of God and our neighbor. Matt. 22: 17. Rom. 13: 8–10. John 5: 42. 1 John 4: 10. 4. All those which teach the necessity of regeneration in order to love God and our neighbor, as well as to eternal life. 1 John 2: 29. 3: 14. 2 Cor. 5: 17. 1 John 4: 7. 2: 9. John 3: 3–8. 1: 13. Rom. 5: 5. Gal. 5: 22. 5. All those passages which promise the blessings of salvation to repentance, faith in Christ, love to God, or a course of well-doing ; that is, to the existence of holiness or true virtue, and not to a certain degree of it. 2 Cor. 2: 10. Heb. 5: 9. Acts 16: 31. Rom. 8:28. James 2: 5. John 5: 29. Rom. 2: 7. 6. All those which teach that men must love God supremely, or be his enemies; that all are either with Christ, or against him. Matt. 6: 24. 10: 37. 1 John 2: 15. James 4: 4. Rom. 5: 10. Lastly, All those which represent mankind without the gospel, and the cordial reception of it, as in a perishing condition. John 3: 16. Rom...10: 1–16. 2 Thess. 1: 8. 2 Cor. 2: 15. Hence it appears, 1, That the fundamental principle of both moral and political science, so far as it relates to man, is his depravity. 2. That the peculiar provisions of the gospel, in the gracious offices of Christ and of the Holy Spirit, are indispensable to the recovery of mankind to happiness and virtue. 3. That the doctrine of gratui- tous personal election may be clearly demonstrated, and proved to be not only true, but reasonable and glorious. 4. That the popular distinction between true religion and true morality, is false and deceptive. And lastly, That men are either required to be spiritually holy, or are allowed to live in sin, since there can be no medium. On the proper manner of treating this important sub- ject, Dr. Chalmers remarks: “While we assert with zeal every doctrine of Christianity, let us not forget that there is a zeal without discrimination; and that, to bring such a spirit to the defence of our faith, or of any one of its peculiarities, is not to vindicate the cause, but to discredit it. Now, there is a way of maintaining the utter de- pravity of our nature, and of doing it in such a style of sweeping and of vehement asseveration, as to render it not merely obnoxious to the taste, but obnoxious to the understanding. On this subject, there is often a round- ness, and a temerity of announcement, which any intelli- gent man, looking at the phenomena of human character D E P D E R | 454 | with his own eyes, cannot go along with ; and thus it is, that there are injudicious defenders of orthodoxy, who have mustered against it not merely a positive dislike, but a positive strength of observation and argument. Let the nature of man be a ruin, as it certainly is, it is obvious to the most common discernment, that it does not offer one unvaried and unalleviated mass of deformity. There are certain phases, and certain exhibitions of this nature, which are more lovely than others—certain traits of character, not due to the operation of Christianity at all, and yet calling forth our admiration and our tender- mess—certain varieties of moral complexion, far more fair and more engaging than certain other varieties; and to prove that the gospel may have had no share in the formation of them, they, in fact, stood out to the notice and respect of the world, before the gospel was ever heard of. The classic page of antiquity sparkles with repeated exemplifications of what is bright and beautiful in the character of man; nor do all its descriptions of external nature waken up such an enthusiasm of plea- sure, as when it bears testimony to some graceful or elevated doing out of the history of the species. And whether it be the kindliness of maternal affection, or the unweariedness of filial piety, or the constancy of tried and unalterable friendship, or the earnestness of devoted patriotism, or the rigor of unbending fidelity, or any other of the recorded virtues which shed a glory over the re- membrance of Greece and of Rome—we fully concede it to the admiring scholar, that they one and all of them, were sometimes-exemplified in those days of heathenism; and that, out of the materials of a period, crowded as it was with moral abominations, there may also be gathered things which are pure, and lovely, and true, and just, and honest, and of good report. ' ' -- - * * What do we mean, then, it may be asked, by the universal depravity of man? How shall we reconcile the admission now made, with the unqualified and authorita- tive language of the Bible, when it tells us of the totality and the magnitude of human corruption ? Wherein lies that desperate wickedness, which is every where ascribed to all the men of all the families that be on the face of the earth And how can such a tribute of acknowledgment be awarded to the sages and patriots of antiquity, who yet, as the partakers of our fallen nature, must be out; casts from the favor of God, and have the character of evil stamped upon the imaginations of the thoughts of their hearts continually 2 • ? . In reply to these questions, let us speak to your own experimental recollections on a subject, in which you are aided, both by the consciousness of what passes within you, and by your observation of the characters of others. Might not a sense of honor elevate that heart which is totally unfurnished with a sense of God? Might not an impulse of compassionate feeling be sent into that bosom, which is never once visited by a movement of duteous loyalty towards the Lawgiver in heaven? Might not occasions of intercourse with the beings around us, deve- lop whatever there is in our nature of generosity, rand º and integrity, and patriotism; , and yet the unseen Being, who placed us in this theatre, be, neither loved, nor obeyed, nor listened to ? Amid, the maniſold varieties of human character, and the number of constitu- tional principles which enter into its composition, might there not be an individual in whom the constitutional virtues so blaze forth and have the ascendency, as to give a general effect of graceſulness to the whole of this moral exhibition; and yet, may not that individual be as un- mindful of his God, as if the principles of his consti- tution had been mixed up in such a different proportion, as to make him an odious and a revolting spectacle 2 In a word, might not sensibility shed forth its tears, friend- ship perform its services, and liberality impart of its treasure, and patriotism earn the gratitude of its country, and honor maintain itself entire and untainted, and all the softenings of what is amiable, and all the glories of what is chivalrous and manly, gather into one bright effulgence of moral accomplishment on the person of him who never, for a single day of his life, subordinates one habit, or one affection to the will of the Almighty; who is just as careless and as unconcerned about God, as if the native tendencies of h s constitution had compounded him into a monster of deformity; and who just as effectually. realizes this attribute of rebellion against his Maker, as the most loathsome and profligate of his species, that he walks in the counsel of his own heart, and after the sight of his own eyes 2"—Chalmers' Works, p. 121–285; Contro- versy of Drs. Woods and Ware; Fuller's Works, vol. i. 623 —647; Wilberforce's Practical View ; Works of Hannah More, vol. i. 260; Pike's Persuasives; Dwight's Theology, ser. xxviii—xxxiv.; Douglas on the Truths of Religion, Tyng's Lectures on the Law and the Gospel. DEPRAVITY, (ToTAL.) (See Depravity, HUMAN.) DEPRECATORY ; a term applied to the manner of performing some ceremonies in the form of prayer. The form of absolution in the Greek church is deprecative, thus expressed—“May God absolve you ;” whereas in the Latin church it is declarative—“I absolve you.”— FHend. Buck. • . . . . . º DEPUTIES, (Dissenting;), a committee of gentlemen annually chosen by the several congregations of Pro- testant Dissenters of London and its vicinity, for the purpose of protecting their civil rights. It originated at a general meeting held on the 9th of November, 1732. Every congregation of Protestant Dissenters, Presbyterian, Independents, and Baptists, in and within twelve miles of London, appoints two deputies. Since 1737, the elec- tion has regularly taken place, and the committee have unremittingly watched over bills brought into parliament in any way affecting Dissenters, kept alive an interest in behalf of the repeal of the test and corporation acts, supported every measure which promised to be beneficial in extending and consolidating religious liberty, and successfully exerted themselves in protecting individual ministers and congregations against those molestations to which they have been exposed on the part of bigoted and persecuting churchmen. (See DENOMINATIONS, THE THREE.) —Hend. Buck. & DERBE; a city of Lycaonia, to which Paul and Bar- nabas fled when expelled from Iconium, Acts 14: 6. A. D. 41.—Calmet.’ ” ‘’” “ . . . - DERHAM, (WILLIAM, D. D.,) distinguished alike as a philosopher, Christian, and divine, was born November 26th, 1657, at Stoughton, near Worcester. His parents were respectable, virtuous, and intelligent; and from them he received lessons of wisdom, piety, and prudence. At the age of eighteen, Derham was admitted into Trinity college, Cambridge, and soon distinguished himself by the qualifications of his mind and his heart. Derham was early distinguished for his love of nature. As a natural philosopher he was celebrated. Fond of retire- ment and meditation, he accepted, in 1689, the rectory of Upminster, in Essex, that he might, yet more diligently study the principles, and laws; and secrets of nature; and develop to his own mind, and to the minds of others, the truth of the holy Scriptures and of the Christian reli- gion. As a natural philosopher, his fame rapidly spread; and his constant contributions to “The Philosophical Transactions” materially promoted its extension. His Letters and Essays on the Barometer, on Meteorology, on the Death Watch, on the Pendulum, on Sound, on the Migration of Birds, on Eclipses, on the Aurora Borealis, on Wasps, and various other topics, demonstrate, the vastness of his mind, and the variety of his knowledge ; and the constant vein of seriousness and piety, which distinguishes all his performances, proves his Christianity to have been more than doctrinal and speculative——to have been that of the heart. But his publications were not merely scientific, or indirectly serious—they were various. In 1712, he preached sixteen sermons, at Boyle's lectures, on the being and attributes of God, which, under the title of “Physico-Theology, &c.,” he afterwards published. In that work, the profound and the simple are wisely blended; and whilst the facts which it contains interest, and the knowledge it communicates inform, the piety of its conclusions and reflections drawn from such facts, improves the hamrt. In 1714, he pub- lished a similar work, entitled “Astro-Theology; or, a Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, from a Survey of the Heavens.” This was also ingenious and learned ; and, according to his uniform principles, he D E R D E S [455 © made all such ingenuity and knowledge subservient to the cause of religion and virtue. In 1726, he revised the “Miscellanea Curiosa,” and in 1730, he favored the world by the publication of his last work, entitled “Christo-Theology; or, a Demonstration of the Divine Authority of the Christian Religion.” This publication also deserves great praise. To the cause of truth, science, and the advancement of the glory of God, Dr. Derham devoted a protracted and useful life. He continued long to illumine the horizon of this world by his piety, know- ledge, and goodness; and when, at length, at Upminster, on April the 5th, 1735, he expired, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, his glory was not extinguished, but only removed to that heaven, where it should continue to shine with increased splendor, and with perfect beauty.— See Memoirs of Derham.—Jones's Chr. Biog. . DERWISH ; derived from two Turkish words, der, “a door,” and vish, “extended,” because the wandering poor often laid themselves down before the doors of the wealthy—is applied to him who voluntarily embraces poverty, and adheres to it as a religious profession. Like fakir, in the Arabic, it signifies originally one who has neither fire nor fixed place of abode. The first founders of the order had considerable difficulty in effecting the innovation into Mahometanism : they were restrained by the popular prohibition,-no monkery in Islamism : Hence they took care to leave out vows of chastity, and of living in community; nor did they exact a too severe obligation to fast and pray. Like all enthusiasts, they doubtless wished to discover some way of worshipping that should more efficaciously obtain the favor of heaven. But in false religion there are always as many knaves as enthusiasts: perhaps, indeed, the two characters are oſtener combined in the same person than we suspect. Hence the first dervishes aimed at astonishing the multi- tude as much as propitiating the divine favor, by their violent exercises in dancing—by their austerities and ma- cerations. In the latter respect, they have left Chris- tian monks far behind. Yet, with all their foolery, and, we may safely add, their roguery, the doctrines which they taught were remarkable for their morality, and, above all, for inculcating a constant intercourse with God. The Turkish dervishes pretend that their origin may be traced to Ali, and even to Abubekr—the first of the four immediate successors of Mahomet. But Ali, the fourth of those caliphs, was no dervish. He instituted no order: he was merely the first Mussulman who renounced riches, which he distributed to the poor. His example was imi. tated by others after him ; so that, insensibly, a class of persons arose, who, like the Sisters of Mercy, de- voted themselves to the service of the indigent and the helpless, and reduced themselves to voluntary poverty. But things soon changed. The legacies left by the faith- ful for the use of the poor were intrusted to the distribu- tion of these zealous men, and thus the order became insensibly possessed of great riches. Besides, men so pious must necessarily have interest in heaven: hence their prayers must be purchased—a fruitful source of income. But human avarice is insatiable; and our der- vishes, like their brethren of a purer faith, hit on another expedient: they manufactured and sold amulets, as the latter did relics, to which their knavery assigned miracu- lous virtues. Thus they acquired great consideration, and their order daily augmented by votaries, not from the owest only, but from the highest ranks in society. When one order was established, nothing could be easier than to establish others; for knavery is always fertile in invention. Of these, no fewer than thirty-two successively appeared, each endeavoring to outdo the other in address of discipline and extravagance of man- ner. Of course, all this was intended to have its effect on spectators; and that effect it assuredly produced. No man will act the mountebank for nothing: superstition has its jack-puddings as well as Bartholomew fair; and the object of both is in many cases the same. The der- vishes grew rich and respected. They can say what they like with perfect impunity, even to the highest. They follow the army to the field, and, with the koran in hand, animate the warriors of the faith (so are Mussulmen sol- diers called) against all infidels and misbelievers. The dervishes who live in community, and who constis tute by far the greater number, have their superior or sheikh, and are subject to a noviciate and religious prac- tices, independent of the prayers which every Mussulman is bound to repeat. As celibacy is not strictly enjoined, though, the observance of it is encouraged, many are married. These do not, however, live in community : they have all their separate establishments; but all are expected to pass the night preceding any public exhibition, in the religious retirement to which they belong. Besides these, there are the travelling dervishes, who are conti- nually rambling from one part of the Mahometan world to the other, some to preach, some on pilgrimage, many to beg and plunder. Of the numerous order of dervishes formerly subsisting in Turkey, three only are deserving notice—the Mevlevy, the Bedevy, and the Rufai ; and even of these the Mev- levy are the only ones who are held in any degree of repute, at least among the higher classes.—Hend. Buck. DESATIR ; a lately-discovered collection of sixteen sacred books, consisting of the fifteen old Persian pro- phets, together with a book of Zoroaster. This, at least, is what the book itself pretends to be. The collection is written in a language not spoken at present any where, and equally different from the Zend, the Pehlvi, and the modern Persian. - - Erskine, the translator, and De Sacy regard it as spurious. Joseph von Hammer, however, another very eminent orientalist, is said to consider it to be genuine At all events, it is interesting to learn, from this work, with greater accuracy, an old religious system of the East, in which are to be found, with Pandemonism and the metempsychosis, the elements of the worship of the stars, of astrology, the theurgy, the doctrine of amulets, as well as the elements of the Hindoo religion, particularly the system of castes. Yet no trace of any connexion with the Zendavesta and the magic of the Parsees has been found in the Desatir.—Hend. Buck. - DESCARTES, (RENE, or RENATUs;) a philosopher and original thinker, eminent in various ways, was a native of Touraine, born at La Haye, in 1596; was de- scended from an ancient family, and was educated at the Jesuits' college at La Flèche. His progress was rapid, particularly in mathematics. From 1616 to 1621, he served, as a volunteer, under the prince of Orange, the duke of Bavaria, and count Bucquoi, in Holland, Bavaria, and Hungary. After having travelled widely, he sold his estate, and settled in Holland, in 1629, to pursue his studies undisturbed. For twenty years, he assiduously continued his labors in metaphysics, chemistry, anatomy, astronomy, and geometry, and during that period he pro- duced the works which have immortalized his name. Descartes founds his belief of the existence of a think- ing being on the consciousness of thought : “I think, therefore, I exist.” He developed his system with much ingenuity in opposition to the empiric philosophy of the English, and the Aristotelian scholastics. The thinking being or the soul, he says, evidently differs from the body whose existence consists in space or extension, by its simplicity and immateriality, (whence also its immortal- ity) and by the freedom that pertains to it. But every perception of the soul is not clear and distinct; it is in a great degree involved in doubt, and is so far an imperfect finite being. This imperfection of its own leads it to the idea of an absolutely perfect being. (This mode of estab- lishing the existence of God from outology, is hence called the “Cartesian proof”) Descartes placed at the head of his system the idea of an absolutely perfect being, which he considers as an innate idea, and deduces from it all further knowledge of truth. At length, some of his metaphysical opinions having excited a persecution against him, he accepted an invita- tion from Christina of Sweden, to reside at her court. He, however, died at Stockholm, February 11, 1650, shortly after his arrival in that capital. His works, among which are the Principles of Philosophy, Meta- physical Meditations, a Treatise on the Passions, a Trea- tise on Man, and a Discourse on the Method of seeking Truth in the Sciences, occupy nine volumes in quarto. While he lived, it was chiefly as a metaphysician that Y). E S D E S [456 Descartes was celebrated, but his metaphysics, though strongly manifesting his genius, are now almost forgotten; his system of vortices, too, which once had partisans, is completely discarded; and it is to his geometrical and algebraical discoveries, which he himself undervalued, that he is indebted for the most solid part of his fame.— Davenport; Ency. Amer, - DESCENT of CHRIST INTo HELL. .(See HELL.) DESERT. The Hebrews, by midbar, “a desert,” mean an uncultivated place, particularly, if mountainous. Some deserts were entirely dry and barren; others were beautiful, and had good pastures; Scripture speaks of the beauty of the desert, Psalmºn. 12, 13. Scripture names several deserts in the Holy Land; and there was scarcely a town without one belonging to it, i.e. unculti- vated places, for woods and pastures, like our commons; common lands. (See WILDERNess.)—Calmet. DESERTS. Men are judged according to their deserts, and have their deserts rendered to them, when they receive the just punishment of their deeds. Psalm 28; 4.— Brown. - . DESERTION ; a term made use of to denote an un- happy state of mind, occasioned by the sensible influences of the divine favor being withdrawn. Some of the best men in all ages have suffered a temporary suspension of divine enjoyments, Job 29: 2. Ps. 51. Isa. 49: 14. Lam. 3: 1. Isa. 1: 10. The causes of this must not be attri- buted to the Almighty, since he is always the same, but must arise from ourselves. Neglect of duty, improper views of Providence, self-confidence, a worldly spirit, lukewarmness of mind, inattention to the means of grace, or open transgression, may be considered as leading to this state. The contrary opinion, which has been called the “Sovereignty of Desertions,” is liable to many ob- jections, and has been awfully employed to lull the con- science to sleep, and render it content to remain in a state of spiritual darkness, instead of its being excited to self-examination, repentance, and application to the only source of pardon, purification, and peace. As all things, however, are under the divine control, so even desertion, or, as it is sometimes expressed, “the hidings of God's face,” may be useful to excite humility, exercise faith and patience, detach us from the world, prompt to more vigorous action, bring us to look more to God as the fountain of happiness, confirm us to his word, and in- crease our desires for that state of blessedness which is to come.—Hervey's Ther. and Asp., dial. xix.; Watts's Medit. on Job 23: 3; Lambert's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 16; Flavel's Works, vol. i. p. 167, folio; Goodwin's Child of Light, roalking in Darkness.-Hend. Buck. ESIRE. In intellectual philosophy, the original spring and fountain of all the affections. It may be directed to a great variety of objects, and is liable to a multitude of modifications. It is often used, in popular language, as equivalent to affection. In theology or morals, desire is either regarded as natural, (Deut. 21:11,) or inordinate, (Deut. 7:25. 5: 21;) or malignant, (Micah 7:3;) or holy, Ps. 73:25. The desires of the flesh are sinful lusts and inclinations, (Gen. 6: 5.) general, those of the animal nature in distinction from those of the in- tellectual. Ephes. 2: 3. - DESIRE OF ALL NATIONS ; a title of the Messiah. Hag. 2: 7. He is altogether lovely, necessary, and valua- ble; all that spiritually know him, love him and long for his presence and blessing; and in him at last shall the nations of the earth be blessed for the space of a thousand years, (Rev. 20:) as well as in the heavenly world. DESPAIR ; the loss of hope; that distressing state of mind, in which a person loses his confidence in the divine mercy. Some of the best antidotes against despair, says one, may be taken from the consideration, 1. Of the nature of God, his goodness, mercy, &c. 2. The testimony of God : he hath said, he desireth not the death of the sinner. 3. From the works of God : he hath given his Son to die. 4. From his promises, Heb. 13: 5. 5. From his com- mands: he hath commanded us to confide in his mercy. 6. From his expostulations, &c.—Baxter on Religious Melancholy; Claude's Essays, p. 338, Robinson's edition; Gisborne's Sermon on Religious Despondency; Buck. DESTRUCTIONISTS; those who believe that the final punishment threatened in the gospel to the wicked and impenitent, consists not in an eternal preservation in misery and torment, but in a total extinction of being, and that the sentence of annihilation shall be executed with more or less torment, preceding or attending the final period, in proportion to the greater or less guilt of the criminal. . The name assumed by this denomination, like those of many others, takes for granted the question in dispute, viz., that the Scripture word destruction means annihila- tion : in strict propriety of speech, they should be called Annihilationists. The doctrine is largely maintained in the sermons of Mr. Samuel Bourn, of Birmingham; it was held also by Mr. J. N. Scott, Mr. John Taylor, of Norwich, Mr. Marsom, and many others. s: In defence of the system, Mr. Bourn argues as follows: There are many passages of Scripture in which the ulti- mate punishment to which wicked men shall be adjudged is defined, in the most precise and intelligible terms, to be an everlasting destruction from the power of God, which is equally able to destroy as to preserve. So when our Savior is fortifying the minds of his disciples against the power of men, and the punishment of his justice, he expresseth himself thus:—“Fear not them that kill the body, and after that have no more that they can do ; fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell.” Here he plainly proposes the destruction of the soul (not its endless pain and misery) as the ultimate object of the divine displeasure, and the greatest object of our fear. And when he says, “These shall go away into everlasting punishment, but the righteous into life etermal,” it appears evident that by that eternal punishment which is set in opposition to eternal life, is not meant any kind of life, however miserable, but the same which the apostle ex- presses by everlasting destruction from the presence and power of the Lord. The very term, death, is most fre- quently made use of to signify the end of wicked men in another world, or the final effect of divine justice in their punishment. The wages of sin (saith the apostle) is death; but eternal life is the gift of God, through Christ Jesus our Lord. See also Rom. 8: 6. To imagine that by the term death is meant an eternal life, though in a condition of extreme misery, seems, according to him, to be confounding all propriety and meaning of words. Death, when applied to the end of wicked men in a future state, he says, properly denotes a total extinction of life and being. It may contribute, he adds, to fix this meaning, if we observe that the state to which temporal death reduces men is usually termed by our Savior and his apostles sleep ; because from this death the soul shall be raised to life again : but from the other, which is fully and proprly death, and of which the former is but an image of shadow, there is no recovery; it is an eternal death, an ºverlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and the glory of his power. He next proceeds to the figures by which the eternal punishment of wicked me n is described, and finds them perfectly agreeing to esta hlish the same doctrine. One figure of comparison, often used, is that of combustible materials thrown into a fire, which will consequently be entirely consumed, if the fire be not quenched. Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels. The meaning is, a total, irrevocable destruction; for, as the tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and sast into the fire, and is destroyed; as the useless chaff, when separated from the good grain, is set on fire, and, if the fire be not quenched, is con- sumed: so, he thinks, it plainly appears, that the image of unquenchable or everlasting fire is not intended to signify the degree or duration of torment, but the absolute certainty of destruction, beyond all possibility of recovery. So the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are said to have suffered the vengeance of an eternal fire; that is, they were so effectually consumed, or destroyed, that they could never be rebuilt ; the phrase, eternal fire, signifying the irrevocable destruction of those cities, not the degree or duration of the misery of the inhabitants who perished. The images of the worm that dieth not, and the fire that is not quenched, used in Mark 9:43, are set in oppo ID E S D E U [457 J sition to entering into life, and intended to denote a period pf life and existence. Our Savior expressly assigns different degrees of future misery, in proportion to men's respective degrees of guilt, Luke 12:47, 48. But if all wicked men shall suffer tor- ments without end, how can any of them be said to suffer but a few stripes 2 All degrees and distinctions of punish- ment seem swallowed up in the notion of never-ending or infinite misery. - Finally, death and eternal destruction, or annihilation, is properly styled in the New Testament, an everlasting punishment, as it is irrevocable and unalterable forever; and it is most strictly and literally styled an everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power. Dr. Edwards, in his answer to Dr. Chauncey, on the Salvation of all men, says that this scheme was provi- sionally retained by Dr. Chauncey; i. e. in case the scheme of universal salvation should fail him : and there- fore Dr. Edwards, in his examination of that work, appro- priates a chapter to the consideration of it. Among other reasonings against it are the following:— 1. The different degrees of punishment which the wicked will suffer according to their works, proves that it does not consist in annihilation, which admits of no degrees. 2. If it be said that the punishment of the wicked, though it will end in annihilation, yet shall be preceded by torment, and that this will be of different degrees, according to the degrees of sin; it may be replied, this is making it to be compounded partly of torment, and partly of annihilation. The latter also appears to be but a small part of future punishment, for that alone will be inflicted on the least sinner, and on account of the least sin; and that all punishment which will be inflicted on any person above that which is due to the least sin, is to consist in torment. Nay, if we can form any idea in the present state of what would be dreadful or desirable in another, instead of its being any punishment to be annihilated after a long series of torment, it must be a deliverance, to which the sinner would look forward with anxious de- sire. And is it credible that this was the termination of torment that our Lord held up to his disciples as an object of dread? Can this be the destruction of body and soul in hell? Is it credible that everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power, should constitute only a part, and a small part, of future punishment; and such too as, after a series of torment, must, next to being made happy, be the most acceptable thing that could befall them? Can this be the object threatened by such language, as recompensing tribulation, and taking vengeance in flaming fire ? 2 Thess. 1. Is it possible that God should threaten them with putting an end to their miseries 2 Moreover, this destruction is not described as the conclusion of a succession of torments, but as taking place immediately after the last judgment. When Christ shall come to be glorified in his saints, then shall the wicked be destroyed. 3. Everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power, cannot mean anni- hilation; for that would be no exertion of divine power, but merely the suspension of it; for let the upholding power of God be withheld for one moment, and the whole creation would sink into nothing. 4. The punishment of wicked men will be the same as that of wicked angels, Matt. 25: 41. Depart, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels. But the punishment of wicked angels consists not in anni- hilation, but torment. Such is their present punishment in a degree, and such, in a greater degree, will be their punishment hereafter. They are “cast down to hell;” they “believe and tremble;” they are reserved in chains under darkness, to the judgment of the great day; they cried, saying, “What have we to do with thee? Art thou come to, torment us before our time 2'' Could the devils but persuade themselves they should be annihi- lated, they would believe and be at ease rather than tremble. y 5. The Scriptures explain their own meaning in the use of such terms as death, ºlution &c. The second death is expressly said to consist in being cast into the lake of fire and brimstone, and as having a part in that lake, (Rev. 20:14, 21:8.) which does not describe annihilation, nor can it be made to consist with it. The phrase, cut him asunder, (Matt. 24:51,) is as strong as those of death or destruction; yet that is made to consist of having their portion with hypocrites, where shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. 6. The happiness of the righteous does not consist in eternal being, but eternal well-being; and as the punish- ment of the wicked stands every where opposed to it, it must consist, not in the loss of being, but of well-being, and in suffering the contrary. The great Dr. Watts may be considered in some mea- sure, a Destructionist ; since it was his opinion that the children of ungodly parents who die in infancy are anni- hilated. (See ANNIHILATION ; HELL.)—Bourn's Sermons; Dr. Ednyards on the Salvation of all Men strictly examined ; Adams's Vien, of Religions ; Hend. Buck. DETRACTION ; in the native importance of the word, signifies the withdrawing or taking off from a thing; and as it is applied to the reputation, it denotes the impairing or lessening a man in point of fame, rendering him less va- lued and esteemed by others. Dr. Barrow observes (Works, vol. i. ser. 19,) that it differs from slander, which involves an imputation of falsehood; from reviling, which includes bitter and foul language; and from censuring, which is of a more general purport, extending indifferently to all kinds of persons, qualities and actions; but detraction especially respects worthy persons, good qualities, and laudable actions, the reputation of which it aimeth to destroy. It is a fault opposed to candor. Nothing can be more incongruous with the spirit of the gospel, the example of Christ, the command of God, and the love of mankind, than a spirit of detraction; and yet there are many who never seem happy but when they are employed in this work: they feed and live upon the sup- posed infirmities of others; they allow excellence to none; they depreciate every thing that is praiseworthy; and, possessed of no good themselves, they think all others are like them. “O ! my soul, come thou not into their Secret; unto their assembly, mine honor, be not thou united.”—Hend. Buck. DEURHOFF, ILLIAM,) a native of Amsterdam, born in 1650, and by trade a box-maker, was the founder of a sect, which is not yet quite extinct, under the title of Deurhoffians. He represented the divine nature under the idea of a power or energy diffused through the whole universe, and acting upon every part of the vast machine. His works are, The Theology of Deurhoff, two volumes quarto, and a first volume of The Metaphysics of Deur- hoff. The latter was published in 1717, in which year he died.—Davenport. - DEUTERO-CANONICAL ; in the school theology, an appellation given to certain books of holy Scripture, which were added to the canon after the rest, either by reason they were not written till after the compilation of the canon, or by reason of some dispute as to their canonicity. The word is Greek, being compounded of deuteros, second, and kanonikos, canonical. The Jews, it is certain, acknowledged several books in their canon, which were put there later than the rest. They say that, under Esdras, or Ezra, a great assembly of their doctors, which they call, by way of eminence, the “great synagogue,” made the collection of the sacred books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Testament; and they agree that they put books therein which had not been so before the Babylonish captivity; such as those of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c.; and those of Ezra and Nehemiah. And the Romish church has since added others to the canon, that were not, and could not be, in the canon of the Jews, by reason some of them were not composed till after—such as the book of Ecclesiasticus, with several of the apocryphal books, as the Maccabees, Wisdom, &c. (See CANoN.)—Hend. Buck. DEUTERONOMY ; from deuteros, second, and nomos, law; the last book of the Pentateuch or five books of Moses. As its name imports, it contains a repetition of the civil and moral law, which was a second time de- livered by Moses, with some additions and explanations D E V D I A [ 458 ) as well to impress it more forcibly upon the Israelites, in general, as in, particular for the benefit of those who, being born in the wilderness, were not present at the first promulgation of the law. It contains also a recapitulation of the several events which had befallen the Israelites since their departure from Egypt, with severe reproaches for their past misconduct, and earnest exhortations to future obedience. The Messiah is explicitly foretold in this book; and there are many remarkable predictions interspersed in it, particularly in the twenty-eighth, thirti- eth, thirty-second, and thirty-third chapters relative to the future condition of the Jews. The book of Deutero- nomy finishes with an account of the death of Moses, which is supposed to have been added by his successor, Joshua.—Watson. . . . - - DEVIL; the leader of the fallen angels, and the arch-foe of God and man. Matt. 25:41. The name, like the French dia- ble, German teuffel, Latin diobolus, is only a modified form of the Greek word diabolos, which, from diaballein, to ca- lumniate, properly signifies calumniator, detractor, false accuser, &c. In the Syriac language, he is called achel- kartzo, “the devourer of calumny,” which most emphati- cally expresses the delight which he takes in every attempt that is made to blast the character of good and holy men. It deserves to be particularly noticed, that though the term “devils,” in the plural, occurs frequently in the English version, in application to fallen spirits, the origi- nal word is not, in such instances, diaboloi, but daimônies, or daimonia. When used in the plural, diabolos never re- fers to fallen angels, but to human beings. See 1 Tim. 3: 11. 2 Tim. 3: 43. Titus 2: 3. There is, therefore, according to the strict propriety of Scripture language, only one devil, who is otherwise characterized by the epi- thets—the god and prince of this world; the prince of darkness; the prince of the power of the air; the accu- ser; Belial; the tempter; an adversary, deceiver, liar, &c. His power, though infinitely short of omnipotence, is represented as great and extensive ; and his influence, exerted either immediately by himself, or through the agency of the innumerable multitude of wicked spirits who are enlisted in his service, is set forth as fearful in the extreme. Yet truly appalling as are the power and influence of this malignant demon, it is nevertheless a fact, substantiated no less by the testimony of Scripture than by the experience of mankind, that they may suc- cessfully be resisted by the weakest moral agent who shall avail himself of the means placed at his disposal for this end by his benevolent and merciful Creator. Nothing, therefore, can possibly be more absurd than for sinners to attempt to exculpate themselves by throwing the blame of their wicked actions on the devil. Tempt them he may, and his methods of seduction are various and well adapted to compass his ends; but force them to the com- mission of one sin he cannot. “Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.” “Whom resist steadfast in the faith.” James 4: 7. 1 Peter 5: 9. The position at- tempted to be maintained by the Socinians, that by Sa- tan we are merely to understand “a symbolical person,” “the principle of evil personified,” “a fictitious person- age,” “an evil disposition,” &c. cannot be reconciled with any rational or consistent principles of Scripture in- terpretation, and deserves to be classed with the hypothe- sis, that our Savior himself had no real existence, but, as described by the evangelists, is only a personification of virtue or moral excellence. (See SATAN)—Hend. Buck. DEVOTEE, in the primary sense of the word, means a person wholly given up to acts of piety and devotion; but it is usually understood, in a bad sense, to denote a bi- got or superstitious person—one addicted to excessive and self-imposed religious exercises.—Hend. Buck. TEVOTION, a fervent exercise of the private or public offices of religion, or a temper and disposition of the mind rightly affected with such exercises. It is also taken for certain religious practices which a person makes it a rule to discharge regularly. Wherever the vital and unadulterated spirit of Chris- tian devotion prevails, its immediate objects will be to adore the perfections of God; to entertain with reverence and complacency the various intimations of his pleasure, es- pecially those contained in holy Writ; to acknowledge our absolute dependence on and infinite obligations to him; to confess and lament the disorders of our nature, an the transgressions of our lives ; to implore his grace and mercy through Jesus Christ; to intercede for our brethren of mankind; to pray for the propagation and establish- ment of truth, righteousness, and peace on earth; in fine, to long for a more entire conformity to the will of God, and to breathe after the everlasting enjoyment of his friendship. - - The effects of such a spirit habitually cherished, and feel- ingly expressed before him, must surely be important and happy. Among these may be reckoned a profound hu- mility in the sight of God, a high veneration for his pre- sence and attributes, an ardent zeal for his worship and honor, a constant imitation of our Savior's divine exam- ple, a diffusive charity for men of all denominations, a generous and unwearied self-denial, a total resignation to Providence, an increasing esteem for the gospel, with clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which it has brought to light.—Mrs. Barbauld ; Paley; Hend. Buck. DE WITT, (Susan,) the wife of Simeon De Witt of Albany, and the second daughter of Rev. Dr. Linn, died at Philadelphia, while on a visit, May 5, 1824. She was a woman of strong intellectual powers and of elevated piety. She published a poem, which has been much read and admired,—The Pleasures of Religion.—Allen. DE WITT, (John, D. D.,) professor of biblical history in the theological seminary of the Dutch Reformed church at New Brunswick, New Jersey, a native of Catskill New York, was ordained as colleague with Daniel Collins of Lanesborough, Massachusetts, July 8, 1812, and was dismissed December 8, 1813, and afterwards settled as . the minister of the second Reformed Dutch church in Al- bany. He was afterwards professor in the theological seminary, and also one of the professors of Rutgers' col- lege, in New Brunswick, where he died, October 12, 1831, aged about forty-two.—Hist. Berkshire, 389; Allen. DEW. Dews in Palestine are plentiful, like a small shower of rain every morning. Gideon filled a basin with the dew which fell on a fleece of wool, Judges 6: 38. Isaac, blessing Jacob, wished him the dew of hea- ven, which fattens the fields, Gen. 27:28. In those warm countries, where it seldom rains, the night dews supply the want of showers. Isaiah speaks of rain as if it were a dew, Isaiah 18; 4. Some of the most beautiful and illustrative of the images of the Hebrew poets are taken from the dews of their country. The reviving in- fluence of the gospel, the copiousness of its blessings, and the multitude of its converts, are thus set forth-Watson. DEXTER, (SAMUEL,) a benefactor of Harvard college, was a merchant in Boston. In the political struggles just before the revolution, he was repeatedly elected to the council, and negatived for his patriotic zeal by the royal governor. In his last years he was deeply engaged in investigating the doctrines of theology. He died at Men- don, June 10, 1810, aged eighty-four. For the encourage- ment of biblical criticism he bequeathed a handsome lega- cy to Harvard college. He also bequeathed forty dollars to a minister, whom he wished to preach a funeral ser- mon, (without making any mention of him in the dis- course,) from the thrilling words, (2 Cor. 4: 18.) THE THINGs, which ARE SEEN, ARE TEMPORAL ; BUT THE THINGS which ARE NOT SEEN, ARE ETERNAL.—Allen. DIACONOFTCHINS, a class of Russian dissenters form the Greek church; so called from Alexander Deacon, of the church of Weska, from which he separated in 1706, on a dispute relative to some ecclesiastical ceremonies. (See RAscoLNIRs.) Pinkerton's Greek Church, p. 302.-- TWilliams. - DIADEM. (See CRowN.) – . DIAL, is not mentioned in Scripture before the reign of Ahaz. Interpreters differ concerning the form of the dial of Ahaz, 2 Kings 20. The generality of expositors think that it was a staircase so disposed, that the sun showed the hours upon it by the shadow. Others suppose that it was a pillar erected in the middle of a very level and smooth pavement, on which the hours were engraven. Ac- cording to these authors, the lines marked in this pave. ment are what the Scripture calls degrees. Grotius de- scribes it as follows: “It was a concave hemisphere, and * * D I A D I A [459 J in the midst was a globe, the shadow of which fell on the different lines engraven in the concavity of the hemi- A - - M - sphere; these lines were twenty-eight in number.” . This description answers pretty nearly to that kind of dial, which the Greeks called scapha, a boat or hemisphere, the invention §: rather introduction) of which, Vitruvius as- scribes to Berosus the Chaldean. It would seem, indeed, that the most ancient sun-dial known is in the form of a half-circle, hollowed into the stone, and the stone cut down to an angle. This kind of dial was invented in Ba- bylon, and was very probably the same as that of Ahaz.- Watson. - - - DIAMOND, (jahlem.) Ex. 28:18. 29; 11. Ez. 28: 13. This has from remote antiquity been considered as the most valuable, or, more properly, the most costly substance in nature. The reason of the high estimation in which it was held by the ancients, was its rarity, extreme hard- ness and brilliancy. It filled the sixth place in the high- priest's breast-plate, and on it was engraven the name of Naphtali. Thé word translated diamond in Jer. 17: 1, is shemir. (See ADAMANT,)—Watson. - DIANA ; a celebrated goddess of the heathens, to whom a magnificent temple was dedicated at Ephesus, a medal of which is preserved. She was of the number of the twelve superior deities, and was called by the several names of Hebe, Trivia, and Hecate. In the heavens she was the moon; upon earth she was called Diana; but the inſernal Diana was distinguished by the name of He- cate, or Trivia; in which character she was invoked in enchantments, and represented as a fury, holding instru- ments of terror in her hands, and grasping cords, swords, serpents, or burning torches. The appellation of trivia or triformis, appears to have been derived from the custom of representing her sometimes with three bodies, or three heads. - - - Diana was known under several other names, most of which appear to have originated from the different places where she was worshipped; but she is easily distinguished in the figures which represent her, either by the crescent upon her head, or by her bow and arrows, or by her hunt- ing dress, or by the dogs that accompany her. Among the Greeks, she was considered as the goddess of chastity, and hence virgins were given her for companions; yet she is represented, in the ancient fables, as by no means averse from gallantry; and is said to have bestowed her favors on Endymion, Pan, and Priapus. The Greeks ap- pear to have derived their mythological system, in a great measure, from the Egyptians; and Diana, the sister of Apollo, is generally held to be the same with Isis, the sis- ter of Osiris, - -- - Diana had many oracles in ancient times, and many temples were dedicated to her worship. Of these latter, the most celebrated was that at Ephesus, which, on ac- count of its size; structure, and embellishments, was es- teemed one of the seven wonders of the world. Some account of the construction of this famous temple has been transmitted to us by two ancient authors, Vitruvius and Pliny. The former tells us, that it had eight columns in the fore-front, and as many in the back-front; that it had a double range of columns round it; and that it was of the Ionic order. Pliny states, (lib. xxxvi. cap. 14.) that two hundred and twenty years elapsed during its construction; that it was four hundred, and twenty-five feet in length, and two hundred and twenty in breadth; that it was adorned with one hundred columns, each sixty feet high, &c. Of these columns, twenty-seven were very curiously carved, and the rest polished. The architect employed in executing this edifice was Ctesiphon, or Ctesifonte; and the bas reliefs of one of the columns were done by Scopas, the most celebrated sculptor of antiquity. The altar was adorned with the masterly performances of the famous Praxiteles. The “great Diana of the Ephesians” was, according to Pliny, a small statue of ebony, made by one Canitia, though believed by the vulgar to have been sent down from heaven by Jupiter. The temple was several times destroyed and rebuilt, until it was finally burnt by the Goths, in the year 260. - Diana is said to have been worshipped in Palestine, in the days of Isaiah and Jeremiah, under the name of Meni, that is to say, the goddess of months, or the moon. But the city of Ephesus was, beyond all other places, devoted to the worship of Diana, and a considerable traffic was there carried on, in making little models of the temple with the image of the goddess inshrined in them, which the silversmiths sold to foreigners. Hence the clamor of the inhabitants, “Great is Diana of the Ephesians.” Acts 19: 24, &c. (See EPHEsus.)—Jones. - DIARY ; a private register in which are recorded the views and experience of individuals, and their observations on passing events. The practice of keeping such a record it would be obvi- ously wrong to inculcate strenuously on all Christians. Thousands have not the education or capacity which it requires. Many to whom it might not be otherwise im- practicable, are so situated in providence that they cannot command the necessary leisure. In some instances, it has been performed in an unguarded manner, or inju- dicious uses have been made of the document by surviving relatives or friends.-On the other hand, the idea that the record will sooner or later meet the eyes of men, and re- commend the writer to their esteem and admiration as a person of eminent piety, is apt, at least, to mingle itself with purer views, and even unconsciously to exercise a considerable influence on the statements, and the expres- sions employed. The published journals, however, of some exemplary Christians have been so judiciously written, and have proved so highly useful for the direction and encourage- ment of others in the service of God, that it is a cause of lively gratitude that ever they existed, and that they were ever given to the world. Who will say that it is wrong in any Christian, possessing the requisite ability and leisure, provided he observe the dictates of modesty and prudence, and strive, in dependence on divine grace, to be actuated only by pious and honorable motives, to record from time to time a few notices of what is most material in his own experience? The review of such memoranda, after months and years have passed away, may call to his recollection facts in his history important to himself, which, without such help, he would have utterly forgotten; and may serve not only to awaken fresh sentiments of humility and grati- tude, but to incite to renewed ardor and circumspection in the path of righteousness. , - - . To ministers of the gospel, whose official character obliges them to bestow much attention on the spiritual in- terests of others, the keeping of a diary has been recom- mended as an excellent means of preventing them from overlooking or neglecting their own.—Hend. Buck. DIAZIUS, (John,) a learned and pious sufferer in the cause of God and of truth, was born and educated in Spain, D I E J 1 E. 4b0 J in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He was sent to Paris to complete his studies; but it pleased God, by means of the books of Luther and of some other Protestant divines, so to enlighten his mind in the knowledge of the Scriptures, that he began to see and abhor the heresies and abominations of the church of Rome. With a view to his further improvement, he visited Geneva, where he became intimately acquainted with Calvin, and much en- deared to him. He afterwards went to Strasburgh, where Bucer was so pleased with his character and talents, that he obtained leave of the senate to have Diazius joined with him in the disputation at Ratisbon. At Ratisbon he found Peter Malvinda, a Spaniard, the pope's agent in Germany, who being uneasy at seeing one of his countrymen a Pro- testant, used every means to persuade him to return to the Romish church—large proffers, threats of severe punish- ments, and intermingled entreaties. Diazius remaining firm, Malvinda informed his brother Alphonsus Diazius, one of the pope's lawyers at Rome, who instantly hastened to Ratisbon, and thence to Newberg, (where his brother had gone to superintend the printing of Bucer's book,) de- termined to reclaim or destroy him. His efforts to turn him from the Protestant faith were ineffectual; in conse- quence of which he hired a ruffian to murder him, which bloody deed was accomplished in 1546. Alphonsus was applauded for it by the papists; but, stung by his own conscience, he not long after, at Trent, put an end to his own life.—Middleton. DIBON ; a city of Moab, so called from its softly-flowing waters; and thought to be the Dimon of Isa. 15: 9. This city was given to the tribe of Gad by Moses, and after- wards yielded to Reuben, Numb. 32: 3, 33, 34. Josh. 13: 9. It seems to have been again occupied by the Moabites at a later period, Isa. 15: 2. Jer. 48: 18, 22. Eusebius says, it was a large town on the northern bank of the river Arnon, Numb. 33:45, Burckhardt speaks of a place called Diban, about three miles north of the Arnon. (See GAD.) —II. The same perhaps as Debir, or Kirjath-sepher, Neh. 11:25. The Seventy call that place Dibon, which in He- brew is Deber, Josh. 13: 26.-Calmet. DICKINSON, (JonATHAN,) the first president of New Jersey college, was born in Hatfield, Massachusetts, April 22, 1688. He was graduated at Yale college, in 1706, and within one or two years afterwards he was settled the mi- nister of the first Presbyterian church in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. Of this church he was for near forty years the joy and glory. As a friend of literature, he was also emi- nently useful. The charter of the college of New Jersey, which had never yet been carried into operation, was en- larged by governor Belcher, October 22, 1746, and Mr. Dick- inson was appointed president. The institution commenced at Elizabethtown; but it did not long enjoy the advantages of his superintendence, for it pleased God to call him away from life, October 7, 1747, aged fifty-nine. His writings possess merit. They are designed to unfold the wonderful method of redemption, and to excite men to that cheerful consecration of all their talents to their Maker, to that careful avoidance of sin and practice of godliness, which will exalt them to glory. The most important are his Dis- courses on the Reasonableness of Christianity, and on the Five Points, in answer to Whitby. An octavo volume of his works was published at Edinburgh, in 1793. See Pierson's Sermon on his Death ; Preface to his Sermons, Edinburgh edi- 'tion ; Miller, ii. 345; Dauglass, ii. 284; Brainerd’s Liſe, 129, 161; Chandler's Life of Johnson, 69; Green, 297.-Allen. DIDRACHMA; a Greek word, signifying a piece of money, in value two drachmas ; about fourteen pence English, or twenty-five cents. The Jews were by law obliged, every person, to pay two drachmas, that is, half a shekel, to the temple. To pay this, our Lord sent Peter to catch a fish, which probably had just swallowed such a coin. Matt. 17: 24–27.—Calmet. DIDYMUS, (a twin.) This is the signification of the Hebrew or Syriac word Thomas. (See Thomas.)—Calmet. DIET, is a name given to an assembly of the States of Germany. The following is a short notice of the principal diet, which were held in reference to the affairs of the re- formation. They are inserted in the order of time in which they were held. 1. THE DIET OF WorMs, in 1521, where Alexander, the pope's nuncio, having charged Luther with heresy, the duke of Saxony said, that Luther ought to be heard; which the emperor granted, and sent a pass to him, provided he would not preach in his journey. Luther being at Worms, protested that he would not recant, except they should show his errors by the word of God alone, and not by that of men. Therefore the emperor ordered him to go out of Worms, and a month after, by an edict published 26th of May, before all the princes of Germany, outlawed him. 2. DIET of NUREMBERG, in 1523, where Francis Chere- gat, pope Adrian WIth's nuncio, demanded the execution of Leo Xth's bull, and of Charles Wth's edict published at Worms against Luther. But it was answered that it was necessary to call a council in Germany, to satisfy the na- tion about its grievances, which were reduced to a hundred articles; some whereof aimed at the destruction of the pope's authority, and the discipline of the Roman church. They added, that in the interim, the Lutherans should be commanded not to write against the Roman Catholics, &c. All these things were brought into the form of an edict published in the emperor's name. 3. DIET of NUREMBERG, in 1524. Cardinal Campege, pope Clement VIIth's legate, entered incognito into the town, for fear of exasperating the people. There the Lu- therans having the advantage, it was decreed, that, with the emperor's consent, the pope should call a council in Germany; but in the interim, an assembly should be held at Spire, to determine what was to be believed and prac- tised; and that, to obey the emperor, the princes ought to order the observation of the edict of Worms as strictly as they could. Charles W. being angry at this, commanded the edict of Worms to be observed very strictly, and prohi- bited the assembly at Spire. 4. DIET of SPIRE, in 1526. Charles V. being in Spain, named his brother, the archduke Ferdinand, to preside over that assembly, where the duke of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse demanded at first a free exercise of the Lutheran religion, so that the Lutherans preached there publicly against the pope; and the Lutheran princes' servants had these five capital letters, V. D. M. I. AE., embroidered on their sleeves, signifying Verbum Domini manet in AEternum, to show publicly that they would follow nothing else but the pure word of God. The archduke not daring to oppose those courses, proposed two things: the first, concerning the ancient religion which was to be ob- tained in observing the edict of Worms; and the second, concerning the help demanded by Lewis, king of Hunga- ry, against the Turks. About the first, the Lutherans prevailing, it was decreed, that the emperor should be de- sired to call a general or national council in Germany within a year, and that, in the interim, every one was to have liberty of conscience. And whilst they were delibe- rating in vain about the Second, the valiant king Lewis was defeated and killed at the battle of Mohats. 5. DIET of SPIRE, in 1529. There it was decreed, “that in all places where the edict of Worms against the Luther- ans was received, it should be lawful for nobody to change his opinions; but in the countries where the new religion was received, it should be lawful to continue in it till the next council, if the ancient religion could not be re-estab- lished there without sedition ; nevertheless the mass was not to be abolished there, and no Roman Catholic was to be allowed to turn Lutheran ; that the Sacramentarians should be banished out of the empire, and the Anabaptists put to death; and that preachers should nowhere preach against the doctrine of the church.” This decree destroy. ing that of the first diet, six Lutheran princes, viz. the elector of Saxony, the marquess of Brandenburg, the two dukes of Lunenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, and the prince of Anhalt, with the deputies of fourteen imperial towns, protested in writing two days after in the assembly against that decree, which they would not obey, it being contrary to the gospel; and appealed to the general or national council, to the emperor, and to any other unsus- pected judge. From that solemn protestation, came that famous name of Protestants, which the Lutherans took presently, and the Calvinists and other reformed Christians afterwards. They also protested that they would contri- bute nothing towards the war against the Turks till the exercise of their religion was free in all Germany. This * D I G D 1 o 461 ) rotestation being presented to the emperor, he said that e would settle the affairs of Germany as soon as he had regulated those of Italy. The next year after, he called the famous diet of Augsburgh spoken of before. 6. DIET of Augsburgh, in the year 1530. It was called by the emperor Charles V. to re-unite the princes about some matters of religion, and to join them altogether against the Turks. The emperor appeared there with the greatest magnificence that was ever seen in Germany; because so many electors and princes never met together before. There the elector of Saxony, followed by many princes, presented the confession of faith, called the Con- ſession of Augsburgh. The conference about matters of faith and discipline being concluded, the emperor ended the diet by a decree, that nothing should be altered in the doctrine and ceremonies of the Roman church, till a coun- cil should order it otherwise. - - 7. DIET of RATISBon, in 1541, for re-uniting the Protest- ants with the Roman Catholics. The pope's legate having altered the twenty-two articles drawn by some learned doctors, the emperor proposed to choose some learned di- vines that might agree peaceably upon the articles; and being desired by the diet to choose them himself, he named three Roman Catholics, viz. Julius Phlugius, John Gro perus, and John Eckius; and three Protestants, viz. Philip Melancthon, Martin Bucer, and John Pistorius; but after an examination and disputation of a whole month, these di- vines never could agree about more than five or six articles, wherein the diet found some difficulties still. Therefore the emperor, to end those controversies, ordered by an edict, that the decisions of the doctors should be referred to a general council, or to the national council of all Germany, or to the next diet eighteen months after; and that, in the meanwhile, the Protestants should keep the articles agreed upon, ſorbidding them to solicit any body to change the ancient religion, &c. But to please the Protestants, he gave them leave by patent to keep their religion, notwith- standing the edict. - 8. DIET of RATISBON, in 1546, where none of the Pro- testant confederate princes appeared; nevertheless, it was decreed by the plurality of votes, that the council of Trent was to be followed, which the Protestant deputies opposed; and thus caused a war against them. - - 9. DIET of AUGSBURGH, in 1547, about matters of reli- gion; the electors being divided concerning the decisions of the council of Trent, the emperor demanded that the management of this affair should be left to him, and it was resolved that every one should conform to the coun- cil’s decisions. 10. DIET of AUGSBURGH, in 1548, where the commis- sioners named to examine some memoirs about a confes- sion of faith, not agreeing together, the emperor named three divines, who drew the design of that famous Interim, so well known in Germany and elsewhere. 11. DIET of AUGSBURGH, in 1550, where the emperor complained that the Interim was not observed, and de- manded that all should submit to the council which they were going to renew at Trent; but duke Maurice's deputies protested that their master did submit to the council on this condition, that the divines of the confession of Augsburgh, not only should be heard there, but should vote also like the Roman Catholic bishops, and that the pope should not preside. But by the plurality of votes, the submission to the council was resolved upon. 12. DIET of RATISBon, in 1557. The assembly de- manded a conference between some famous doctors of both parties; which conference, held at Worms in Sep- tember, between twelve Roman Catholic divines and twelve Lutheran, was soon dissolved by the Lutherans dividing among themselves.—Hend. Buck. DIET, is also used, in the Scotch church, to denote the ublic service which any minister has to perform; . Thus, if he has to preach three times on any given Sabbath, it is said he has three diets.—Hend. Buck... DIGGERS; a name of reproach applied to some good people, probably Waldenses, who, being persecuted, were obliged to find or dig caverns, in which to hold their reli- gious meetings. They were charged with despising the cler- gy and church of Rome.--Broughton's Dictionary. e The term Diggers was also, in Cromwell's time, applied to a religio-political #. from which the Spencean sys. tem is supposed to have been borrowed. (See Spence ANs.)—Williams. ‘. . - - - DIGIT, (etzbah ;) a measure containing sixty-seven eighty-ninths or about three fourths of an inch. There are four digits in a palm, and six palms in a cubit.—Calmet, DIKLAH; seventh son of Joktan, (Gen. 10; 27.) whose descendants are placed either in Arabia Felix, which abounds in palm trees, called Dikla in Chaldee and Syri. ac; or in Assyria, where is the town of Degla, and the river Tigris, or Dikkel.--Calmet, DILIGENCE, CHRISTIAN, is constancy in the perform- ance of all those duties enjoined us in God's sacred word. It includes activity and vigor—watchfulness against intrud- ing objects—firmness and resolution—patience and perse- verance. The shortness of our time; the importance of our work; the pleasure which arises from discharging duty; the uncertainty of the time of our dissolution ; the consciousness we do not labor in vain; together with the example of Christ and all good men, should excite us fo the most unwearied diligence in the cause of God, of truth, and our own souls.-Hend. Buck. DIMISSORY LETTER ; a letter given by a bishop to a candidate for holy orders, having a title in his dio- cese, directed to some other bishop, and giving leave for . the bearer to be ordained by him.—Hend. Buck. - DINAH; daughter of Jacob and Leah, (Gen. 30: 21.) born after Zebulon, and about A. M. 2250. When Jacob returned into Canaan, Dinah, then about the age of fifteen or sixteen, attended a festival of the Shechemites, to see the women of the country, (Gen. 34: 1, 2.) when Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, prince of the city, ravished or seduced her, and afterwards desired his father to procure her for his wife. Dinah’s brothers, being informed of what had passed, were much exasperated: and having made insidious proposals to Shechem, to his father Hamor, and to the inhabitants of their city, slew and plundered them, and carried off Dinah. Jacob, when informed of the occur- rence, cursed their anger and cruelty, 49: 5–7.-Calmet. DINAITES; a people who opposed the rebuilding of the temple, Ezra 4: 9.-Calmet. DIOCESE, (Greek diokesis, administration;) an ecclesi- astical division, which originated in the arrangement made by Constantine, in the fourth century, when Chris- tianity was made the religion of the state. This took place in accordance with the new division of the empire into one hundred and twenty provinces, governed by twelve vicars or sub-prefects. Among the Romanists, it signifies the territory over which the jurisdiction of an archbishop or bishop extends. With the Protestants in Germany, it signifies all the parishes that are under the inspection of one superintendent. In England, the province of Canter- bury contains twenty-one dioceses, and the province of . York three; each diocese is divided into archdeaconries, each archdeaconry into rural deaneries, and each deanery into parishes. In the United States, a diocese is a territory under the jurisdiction of a single bishop of the Protestant Episcopal or Romish church, whether comprehending one or more states of the union.—Hend. Buck. DIONYSIA ; a Christian female, who suffered martyr- dom at Carthage during the Arian Wandal persecution in the sixth century. She was a lady of fortune, and a w . dow. Being apprehended as an orthodox Christian, she was stripped, and scourged in a cruel manner. To her son, who, a mere lad, was placed on the rack before her, she is said to have addressed the following words: “Re- member, O my child, that we were baptized in the name of the ever sacred Trinity; let us not lose the benefit thereof, lest it should hereafter be said, Cast them into outer darkness, where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth : for that pain which never endeth is indeed to be dreaded, and that life which endureth to eternity, to be desired.” The sufferings of both mother and child were shortly closed by death.-Fox. DIONYSIUS, the Areopagite, is said in his youth to have been bred at Athens, and to have been instructed in all the arts and sciences for which that seat of the muses was renowned; and at the age of five and twenty, to have travelled into Egypt, there to perfect himself in the study of astronomy. When Christ died, he is said to have been at Heliopolis, and observing the preternatural darkness 1) I S D H S [ 462 ) wnich accompanied his crucifixion, he remarked that ei. ther God himself was suffering, or that he sympathized with some one that was suffering. (See DARENEss.) Re- turning to Athens, he became one of the senators of the Areopagus, disputed with the apostle Paul, and by him. was converted to the Christian faith. Acts 17. According to ecclesiastical history, he became a presbyter of the church in Athens, where he labored much in the defence and propagation of the gospel, and after suffering greatly on account of his profession, he crowned his labors with a glorious martyrdom, being burnt to death in that city, in the year of Christ 95.—Jones. DIOSPOLIS, (the city of Jupiter,) or THEBEs. Nahum is thought to have intended it under the name of No-Am- mon. (See AMMON-No.)—Calmet. - - DIOTREPHES; a professed Christian, near Ephesus, who did not receive and kindly aid those missionaries to the heathem whom the apostle had sent to him; nor would he suffer others to do so. He is a perfect representative of the anti-missionary spirit in modern times. See 3 John 5–10.—Calmet. - DIRECTORY; a kind of regulation for the performance of religious worship, drawn up by the assembly of divines in England, at the instance of the parliament, in 1644. It ... was designed to supply the place of the liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer, the use of which they had abolished. It consisted of some general heads, which were to be managed and filled up at discretion; for it prescribed no form of prayer, or circumstances of external worship, nor obliged the people to any responses, excepting Amen. The sub- Stance of it is as follows:—It forbids all salutations and civil ceremony in the churches;–the readin g the Scriptures in the congregation is declared to be a part of the pastoral office;—all the canonical books of the Öld and New Testa- ment (but not the Apocrypha) are to be publicly read in the vulgar tongue: how large a portion is to be read at once, is left to the minister, who has likewise the liberty of expounding, when he judges it necessary. It prescribes heads for the prayer before sermon; it delivers rules for preaching the word; the introduction to the text must be short and clear, drawn from the words or context, or some parallel place of Scripture. In dividing the text, the minister is to regard the order of the matter more than that of the words: he is not to burden the memory of his audience with too many divisions, nor perplex their under- standing with logical phrases and terms of art; he is not to start unnecessary objections; and he is to be very sparing in citations from ecclesiastical or other human writers, ancient or modern, &c. The directory recom- mends the use of the Lord's prayer as the most perfect nodel of devotion; it forbids private or lay persons to ad- minister baptism, and enjoins it to be performed in the face of the congregation. It orders the communion table at the Lord's supper to be so placed, that the communi- cants may sit about it. It also orders that the sabbath be kept with the greatest strictness, both publicly and private- ly; that marriage be solemnized by a lawful minister of the word, who is to give counsel to, and pray for the par- ties; that the sick be visited by the minister under whose charge they are; the dead to be buried without any prayers or religious ceremonies; that days of fasting are to be ob- served when the judgments of God are abroad, or when some important blessings are desired; that days of thanks- giving for mercies received be also observed; and, also, that singing of psalms together in the congregation is the duty of Christians. In an appendix to this directory it is or- dered, that all festivals, vulgarly called holydays, are to be abolished; that no day is to be kept but the Lord's day; and that as no place is capable of any holiness under the pretence of consecration, so neither is it subject to pol- lution by any superstition formerly used; and therefore it is held requisite, that the places of public worship now used should still be continued and employed. Should the reader be desirous of perusing this directory at large, he may find it at the end of Neal's History of the Puritans.— JHend. Buck. - - -- DISCERN. To discern time and judgment is to know the season proper for such works, and the works proper for such occasions. Eccl., 8: 5. To discern the Lord's body, is by spiritual knowledge to take up the bread and wine in the Lord's supper, as representing the person and right. eousness of God in our nature, 1 Cor. 11:29. Christ is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart; he fully knows and can judge of their motions, manner, and .. the Scripture is a discerner of them: when powerfully ap- plied, it makes men truly to understand them, Heb. 4: 13. Discerning of spirits was either a miraculous power of dis- cerning men's state or secret conduct; or a spiritual ability to discern true apostles and ministers from false ones. 1 Cor. 12: 10,-Brown. - DISCIPLE, (from the Latin word discere, to learn,) is one who professes to receive instruction from another. Hence the followers of a teacher, philosopher, or head of a sect, are usually called his disciples: and in this accepta- tion the term is used in the New Testament, where it oc- curs as the common designation of those who, by the preaching of the gospel, were converted to the Christian faith, and consequently professed themselves to be the fol- lowers of Christ, , Hence we read of “the disciples of Mo- ses,” (John 9: 28,) “the disciples of John the Baptist,” (Matt. 11: 2) and “the disciples of Christ.” Luke 14:26, 27, 33. - - In the days of our Lord’s public ministry, it is said that great multitudes followed him, actuated, no doubt, by va- rious motives; but, aware that many of them had not hitherto counted the cost, he turned and said unto them, “If any man come unto me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple ; and whosoever doth not bear his cross and come after me can- not be my disciple; and whosoever he be of you that for- saketh not all that he hath, he cannot be my disciple.” Luke 14; 25–27, 33. See also Matt. 7: 21—23. These things sufficiently show the danger that professors are in, of deceiving themselves in this important article; and they suggest the necessity of carefully examining the grounds on which men build the truth of their disciple- ship. It is hoped, that the vital interest which eyery pro- fessor has in that inquiry, will be admitted as an apology for submitting to the reader's consideration the following general reflections on this subject: - 1. A teachable disposition is essential to the character of a true disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ. Matt. 18: 1–5. John 6: 45. Prov. 4: 18. 2 Pet, 3: 18. 1 Cor. 8: 2. Phil, 3: 8–14. r 2. A genuine disciple of Christ can admit no human teacher to be the lord of his conscience. Matt. 23: 8–10. Luke 4:44, John 4: 1: James 1: 18. 1 Pet. 1:22, 23. 1 Thess. 2: 13. Mark 14: 24. Luke 8: 18. James 1: 21. Pet. 2: 1–3. John 17: 17, 2 Cor. 3: 18. - - 3. A disposition to obey all the will of God, so far as he has the means of doing it, is essential to the character of a real disciple of Christ. Luke 6: 46. Acts 9:6. Matt. 5: 19. 7:26, 27. James 1: 22–26. John 15: 14. 6: 60. Luke 9: 23. Phil. 2: 14, 15. Luke 17: 10. - - 4. A steady, consistent, and uniform perseverance in the ways of Christ, is another characteristic of discipleship. Hos. 6: 4. Eph. 4: 14. Matt. 16:24–27. Mark 8: 34–38. Luke 9: 23–26. 10:38. Matt. 6: 33. 1 Cor. 15: 58. Rev. 3: 21. (See Love.)—Jones. - DISCIPLES OF CHRIST,” (sometimes called CAMP. BELLITEs, or REFORMERs.) As is usual in similar cases, the brethren who unite under the name of Disciples of Christ, or Christians, are nicknamed after those who have been prominent in gathering them together: they choose, how- ever, to be recognised by the above simple and unassum- ing name. - - The rise of this society, if we only look back to the drawing of the lines of demarkation between it and other professors, is of recent origin. About the commencement of the present century, the Bible alone, without any human addition in the form of creeds or confessions of faith, began to be plead and preached by many distinguished ministers of different denominations, both in Europe and America. With various success, and with many of the opinions of the various sects imperceptibly carried with them from the denominations to which they once belonged, did the advo. >k This article was furnished by Mr. Campbell for the Easy clopedia. * D Is D # 8 [ 463 ) cates of the Bible cause plead for the union of Christians of every name on the broad basis of the apostles' teaching. But it was not until the year 1823, that a restoration of the original gospel and order of things began to be plead in a periodical, edited by Alexander Campbell, of Bethany, Virginia, entitled “the Christián Baptist.” - - He and his father, Thomas. Campbell, renounced the Presbyterian system, and were immersed in the year 1812. They, and the congregations which they had formed, united with the Redstone Baptist association; protesting against all human creeds as bonds of union, and professing sub- jection to the Bible alone. This union took place in the year 1813. But in pressing upon the attention of that society and the public the all-sufficiency of the sacred Scriptures for everything necessary to the perfection of Christian character, whether in the private or social re- lations of life, in the church or in the world, they began to be opposed by, a strong creed-party in that association. After some ten years’ debating and contending for the Bi- ble alone and the apostles' doctrine, Alexander Campbell and the church to which he belonged, united with the Ma- honing association, in the Western Reserve of Ohio, that association being more favorable to his views of reform. __In his debates on the subject and action of baptism with Mr. Walker, a seceding minister, in the year 1820, and with Mr. M'Calla, a Presbyterian minister, of Kentucky, in the year 1823, his views of reformation began to be developed, and were very generally received by the Bap- tist society, as far as these works were read. But in his “Christian Baptist,” which began July 4, 1823, his views of the need of reformation were more fully exposed; and as these gained ground by the pleading of various ministers of the Baptist denomination, a party in opposition began to exert itself, and to oppose the spread of what they were pleased to call heterodoxy. But not till after great numbers began to act upon these principles, was there any attempt towards separation. After the Mahoning as- sociation appointed Mr. Walter Scott an evangelist, in the year 1827, and when great numbers began to be immersed into Christ under his labors, and new churches began to be erected by him and other laborers in the field, did the Baptist associations begin to declare non-fellowship with the brethren of the reformation. Thus by constraint, not of choice, they were obliged to form societies out of those communities that split upon the ground of adherence to the apostles' doctrine. Within the last seven years, they have increased with the most unprecedented rapidity; and during the present year, § not much less than ten thousand have joined the standard of reformation. They probably at this time, in the United States alone, amount to at least one hundred thousand. The distin- guishing characteristics of their views and practices are the following: They regard all the sects and parties of the Christian world as having, in greater or less degrees, departed from the simplicity of faith and manners of the first Christians, and as forming what the apostle Paul calls “the aposta- sy.” This defection they attribute to the great varieties of speculation and metaphysical dogmatism of the count- less creeds, formularies, liturgies, and books of discipline adopted and inculcated as bonds of union and platforms of communion in all the parties which have sprung from the Lutheran reformation. The effects of these synodical covenants, conventional articles of belief, and rules of ec- clesiastical polity, has been the introduction of a new no- menclature, a human vocabulary of religious words, phrases and technicalities, which has displaced the style of the liv- ing oracles, and affixed to the sacred diction ideas wholly unknown to the apostles of Christ. To remedy and obviate these aberrations, they propose to ascertain from the holy Scriptures, according to the commonly-received and well-established rules of interpre- tation, the ideas attached to the leading terms and sen- tences found in the holy Scriptures, and then to use the words of the Holy Spirit in the apostolic acceptation of them. . - - By thus expressing the ideas communicated by the Holy Spirit in the terms and phrases learned from the apostles, and by avoiding the artificial and technical language of scholastic theology, they propose to restore a pure speech to the household of faith; and by accustoming the family of God to use the language and dialect of the heavenly Father, they expect to promote the sanctification of one another through the truth, and to terminate these discords and debates which have always originated from the words which man’s wisdom teaches, and from a reverential re- gard and esteem for the style of the great masters of pole- mic divinity; believing that speaking the same things in the same style, is the only 2ertain way to thinking the same things. - * . . They make a very marked difference between faith and opinion; between the testimony of God and the reasonings of men; the words of the Spirit and human inferences. Faith in the testimony of God and obedience to the com- mandments of Jesus are their bond of union; and not an agreement in any abstract views or opinions upon what is written or spoken by divine authority. Hence all the spe- culations, questions, debates of words, and abstract reason- ings found in human creeds, have no place in their reli- gious fellowship. Regarding Calvinism and Arminianism, Trinitarianism and Unitarianism, and all the opposing the- ories of religious sectaries, as extremes begotten by each other, they cautiously avoid them, as equi-distant from the simplicity and practical tendency of the promises and pre- cepts, of the doctrine and facts, of the exhortations and precedents of the Christian institution. - They look for unity of spirit and the bonds of peace in the practical acknowledgment of one faith, one Lord, one immersion, one hope, one body, one Spirit, one God and Father of all; not in unity of opinions, nor in unity of forms, ceremonies, or modes of worship. - The holy Seriptures of both Testaments they regard as containing revelations from God, and as all necessary to make the man of God perfect, and accomplished for every good word and work; the New Testament, or the living oracles of Jesus Christ, they understand as containing the Christian religion; the testimonies of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, they view as illustrating and proving the great proposition on which our religion rests, viz. that Je- sus of Nazareth is the Messiah, the only-begotten and nell- beloved Son of God, and the only Savior of the world; the Acts of the Apostles as a divinely-authorized narrative of the beginning and progress of the reign or kingdoma of Jesus Christ, recording the full development of the gospel by the Holy Spirit sent down from heaven, and the procedure of the apostles in setting up the church of Christ on earth; the Epistles as carrying out and applying the doctrine of the apostles to the practice of individuals and congrega- tions, and as developing the tendencies of the gospel in the behavior of its professors; and all as forming a com- plete standard of Christian faith and morals, adapted to the interval between the ascension of Christ and his return with the kingdom which he has received from God; the Apocalypse, or Revelation of Jesus Christ to John in Pat- mos, as a figurative and prospective view of all the for- tunes of Christianity, from its date to the return of the Savior. - Every one who sincerely believes the testimony which God gave of Jesus of Nazareth, saying, “This is my Son, the beloved, in whom I delight,” or, in other words, believes what the evangelists and apostles have testified concerning him, from his conception to his coronation in heaven as Lord of all, and who is willing to obey him in every thing, they regard as a proper subject of immersion, and no one else. They consider immersion into the name of the Fa- ther, Son, and Holy Spirit, after a public, sincere, and in- telligent confession of the faith in Jesus, as necessary to admission to the privileges of the kingdom of the Messiah, and as a solemn pledge on the part of heaven, of the actual ...” of all past sins and of adoption into the family of God. The Holy Spirit is promised only to those who believe and obey the Savior. No one is taught to expect the re- ception of that heavenly Monitor and Comforter as a resi. dent in his heart till he obeys the gospel. Thus while they proclaim faith and repentance, or faith and a change of heart, as preparatory to immersion, remis- 'sion, and the Holy Spirit, they say to all penitents, or all those who believe and repent of their sins, as Peter said to the first audience addressed after the Holy Spirit was be: D f S D IS [ 464 | stowed after the glorification of Jesus, “Be immersed, every one of you, in the name of the Lord Jesus, for the remission of sins, and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.” They teach sinners that God commands all men every where to reform or to turn to God, that the Holy Spirit strives with them so to do by the apostles and pro- phets, that God beseeches them to be reconciled through Jesus Christ, and that it is the duty of all men to believe the gospel and to turn to God. The immersed believers are congregated into societies according to their propinquity to each other, and taught to smeet every first day of the week in honor and commemo- ration of the resurrection of Jesus, and to break the loaf which commemorates the death of the Son of God, to read and hear the living oracles, to teach and admonish one another, to unite in all prayer and praise, to contribute to the necessities of saints, and to perfect holiness in the fear of the Lord. Every congregation chooses its own overseers and dea- cons, who preside over and administer the affairs of the congregations; and every church, either from itself or in co-operation with others, sends out, as opportunity offers, one or more evangelists, or proclaimers of the word, to preach the word and to immerse those who believe, to gather congregations, and to extend the knowledge of sal- vation where it is necessary, as far as their means extend. But every church regards these evangelists as its servants, and therefore they have no control over any congregation, each congregation being subject to its own choice of presi- dents or elders whom they have appointed. Perseverance in all the work of faith, labor of love, and patience of hope is inculcated by all the disciples as essential to admission into the heavenly kingdom. - Such are the prominent outlines of the faith and prac- tices of those who wish to be known as the Disciples of Christ: but no society among them would agree to make the preceding items either a confession of faith or a stand- ard of practice; but, for the information of those who wish an acquaintance with them, are willing to give at any time a reason for their faith, hope and practice. The views of reformation in faith and practice of “the Disciples of Christ” may be seen at great length, by those desiring a more particular acquaintance, in the Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger, edited by Alexander Campbell, of Bethany, Brooke county, Virginia; also in the Evangelist, published by Walter Scott, Carthage, Ohio; and the Christian Messenger, published by Barton W. Stone and J. T. Johnson, Georgetown, Kentucky. The Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger, being the first publica- tion ef these sentiments, contains a history of this reforma- tion, as well as a full development of all things from the beginning. DISCIPLINARIANS ; those in Baxter's time, who ad- vocated the cause of pure communion. “Those that plead- ed for discipline were called by the new name of Disci- plinarians; as if it had been a kind of heresy to desire discipline in the church.”—Hend. Buck. DISCIPLINE, (CHURCH;) the application in a Christian church, of those principles and rules, derived from divine authority, which regard the purity, order, peace, and useful efficiency of its members. Discipline is to a church what order and regularity are to a family; or the maintaining of government and the administration of law to a nation. With respect to its object, it must carefully be observed, that it is not to pander to human domination, or to sub- serve the political interests of any party; to coerce the judgment and conscience of men; or to avenge any public or private injury; but it is designed to effect the obser- vance of those means by which the holiness, comfort, and usefulness of Christians may be preserved and improved; to exhibit the influence of the Christian religion in pro- ducing all that is excellent, amiable, and beneficial; to secure the fulfilment of all the relative obligations of church union; to attract into such union persons whose minds and characters are governed by evangelical truth and undissembled piety; and to remove from the visible ranks of the faithful such as prove themselves to be un- worthy of a place among the followers of Christ. Matt. 18: 15–18. 1 Cor. 5. 2 Thess. 3: 6. and Tit. 3: 10, 11, and other passages in the New Testament, clearly recognise, or positively and authoritatively enforce, the exercise of discipline in the church of Christ; and it becomes all who bow to his spiritual rule, to hear what the Spirit saith on this point to the churches. See Lib. of Eccles. Knowl.; Haldane's Social Worship ; James's Church Member's Guide; James's Advice to Church Members; Fuller's Works, vol. ii. 462, &c.—Hend. Buck. - - DISCIPLINE, (Book of,) in the history of the church of Scotland, is a common order drawn up by the assembly of ministers in 1650, for the reformation and uniformity to be observed in the discipline and policy of the church. In this book, the government of the church by prelates is set aside; kirk sessions are established; the superstitious ob- servation of fast days and saints' days is condemned, and other regulations for the government of the church are determined. This book was approved by the privy coun- cil, and is called the first book of discipline.—Hend. Buck. DISCONTENT; uneasiness at our present state. Man never appears in a worse light than when he gives way to this disposition. It is at once the strongest proof of his pride, ignorance, unbelief, and rebellion against God. Let such remember, that discontent is a reflection on God’s government; that it cannot alter the state of things, or make them better; that it is the source of the greatest misery; that it is an absolute violation of God's law, (Heb. 13: 5;) and that God has often punished it with the most signal judgments, Num. 11. Ps. 107. (See CoNTENTMENT.)—Buck. DISCRETION; prudent behavior, arising from a know. ledge of and acting agreeable to the difference of things. “There are,” says Addison, (No. 225. Spectator,) “many more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is none so useful as discretion: it is this, indeed, which gives a value to all the rest; which sets them at work in their proper times and places, and turns them to the advantage of the person who is possessed of them. Without it, learn- ing is pedantry, and wit impertinence; virtue itself looks like weakness; the best parts only qualify a man to be more sprightly in errors, and active to his own prejudice. “Discretion is a very different thing from cunning : cunning is only an accomplishment of little, mean, unge- nerous minds. Discretion points out the noblest ends to us, and pursues the most proper and laudable methods of attaining them; cunning has only private, selfish aims, and sticks at nothing which may make them succeed. Dis- cretion has large and extended views, and, like a well- formed eye, commands a whole horizon; cunning is a kind of short-sightedness that discovers the minutest objects which are near at hand, but not able to discern things at a distance. Discretion, the more it is discovered, gives a greater authority to the person who possesses it; cunning, when it is once detected, loses its force, and makes a man incapable of bringing about even those events which he might have done, had he passed only for a plain man. Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide to us in all the duties of life; cunning is a kind of instinct, that only looks out after our immediate interest and welfare. Discretion is only found in men of strong sense and good understandings; cunning is often to be met with in brutes themselves, and in persons who are but the fewest removes from them. In short, cunning is only the mimic of discre- tion, and may pass upon wealt men, in the same manner as vivacity is often mistaken for wit, and gravity for wis- dom.” (See PRUDENCE.)—Buck. DISDAIN ; contempt, 'as unworthy of one's choice. It is distinguished from haughtiness thus : Haughtiness is founded on the high opinion we have of ourselves; disdain on the low opinion we have of others.-Buck. DISEASES. Many kinds of disease are mentioned in Scripture. Diseases and death are consequences of sin; and the Hebrews, not much accustomed to recur to phy. sical causes, often imputed them to evil spirits. (See Luke 13: 16.) If their infirmities appeared unusual, and espe- cially if the cause were unknown to them, they concluded it to be a stroke from the avenging hand of God; and to him the wisest and most religious had recourse for cure. King Asa is blamed for placing his confidence in physi- cians, 2 Chron. 16: 12. Job's friends ascribed all his dis- tempers to God's justice. Paul delivers the incestuous Corinthian to Satan “for the destruction of the flesh:” - DIs D IS [ 465 ) that the evil spirit might afflict him with diseases, 1 Cor. 5: 5. §: The same apostle attributes the death and diseases of many Corinthians to their communicating unwörthily, chap. 11:30. He also elsewhere ascribes the infirmities with which he was afflicted to an evil angel: “a thorn in the flesh—an angel of Satan,” 2 Cor. 12; 7. An angel of death slew the first-born of the Egyptians; a destroying angel wasted Sennacherib's army; an avenging angel smote the people of Israel with a pestilence, after David's sin. , Saul fell into a fit of deep melancholy, hypo- chondriacal depression, and it is said “an evil spirit came upon him.” Abimelech, king of Gerar, for taking Sarah, the wife of Abraham, was threatened with death, (Gen. 20: 3, 4.) and the Philistines were smitten with an ignominious disease, for not treating the ark with adequate respect, 1 Sam. 5; 6, 7. These diseases, and others that we read of, were evident interpositions of Providence, by whatever agency they were produced. (See DEMONIAcs.)—Calmet. DISINTERESTED LOVE. (See SELF-Love.) DISPENSATION ; a particular form of the divine ad- ministration of the church, and of the world in relation to the church. In this view of the matter, there have been several dispensations or forms of the revealed administra- tion of heaven, all adapted to the purpose of God for the time, and all tending to the same great end. The present dispensation supposes that there may have been one or more past dispensations, and that there may be a dispensa- tion yet to come. It may be in itself complete, or it may bear some relation both to a former and a future economy. It may be the conclusion or completion of that which has passed away, and the preparation for something that is to come. We cannot, therefore, arrive at correct views of its nature, without forming some correct estimate of what preceded it, and having some general notion of what is to follow it. That changes of dispensation, in the sense in which the expression has been explained, have already occurred, and that one more is yet to follow, cannot for a moment be doubted by any one who is even superficially acquainted with the Scriptures. Such changes, however, by no means imply any fickleness or actual change on the part of God. It is not, indeed, so much change, as progress, we are called to mark. The gradual development of the successive parts of a great plan, so far from evincing alteration of purpose on the part of the contriver, is often a proof of the contra- ry; affords evidence of the penetrating wisdom and fore- thought which foresees future contingencies, and effectu- ally provides against defeating the original design. The light of the early dawn, by whose medium we imperfectly see surrounding objects, and often mistake their nature, is of the same character, and proceeds from the same source, with that meridian brightness which converts ob- jects of terror or disgust into a scene of surpassing and ravishing splendor. So it is with the dispensations of God. The morning star, which threw a faint and twinkling ray on the once fair, but then gloomy scenes of paradise, was the harbinger of a brighter and steadier light of a distant period. The light which then dawned, though occasionally dimmed, and sometimes seemingly overpowered by the dark atmosphere through which it had to penetrate, was never afterwards entirely withdrawn. On the contrary, it gradually, though slowly, increased, diffusing through many ages a pale but celestial radiance, till at last it burst forth upon an astonished world, in the peerless splendor of the sun of righteousness. (See ADAM ; NoAH; and ABRA- HAMI. . #. the present dispensation stands in a peculiar rela- tion to the covenant made with Israel at Sinai, which it has entirely superseded, and with which it is often con- trasted in Scripture. “So important,” says Dr. Henderson, “is a right understanding of the Mosaic covenant to a correct knowledge and due appreciation of the blessings of the present covenant, that I believe I hazard no mistaken observation when I say, that nine tenths of the mistakes which have beclouded and injured Christianity, have aris- en from the introduction into it of Jewish principles, prac- tices, and errors. This was the early bane of the primi- tive churches, the evil against which the apostle had to struggle and to protest; which was the fruitful parent of the numerous sects and heresies into which Christianity became early divided, and which accounts for a large pro- portion of the difference of opinion that still prevails among Christians. I am altogether in error if this is not the root of many of the mistaken views of the future state of the kingdom of Christ which are entertained by those who consider that they have obtained more than common in- sight into the secret things of God, and who are as familiar with the visions of the Apocalypse as with the first princi- ples of the gospel. “What, then, was the dispensation of Moses? It was a peculiar form of administering the affairs of the church of God while it was in a state of pupilage and servitude, and by which both the church and the world were prepared for the establishment of a better and more enduring econo- my. In it, God appeared chiefly in the character of a law- giver, and the system of his administration was a species of tutorage and discipline adapted to the condition of weak, carnal, and worldly people. Under that form of God's government, men became members of his kingdom by birth and parentage, entitled to its privileges by external con- formity to its prescribed ritual,—and enjoyed, under a theo- cracy, peculiar immunities, while they were subject to special and severe penalties. “The law made nothing perfect, being intended only as the introduction of a better hope. Its sacrifices, and the priesthood which was founded on them, were only sha- dows, and not even the images of the good things which were to come. The tabernacle and vessels of the minis- try—the temple and all its glory—the land of Canaan, and the Jerusalem that was on earth—were but figures to the time then being of the great transactions of the world to come, of which we speak. Unfitted by its very nature and enactments to be a universal and permanent dispensation, the seeds of dissolution were implanted in its constitution, and preparation was made for its abrogation long before it took place. Adapted to the locality of Palestine, and never designed to extend far beyond it, the spirit of propagation. and enterprise was neither recommended by its author, nor congenial with its institutions. Limited to place, tempora- ry in duration, and preparatory in its whole design, it gra- dually decayed and waxed old, and was ready to vanish away, even without a positive act of dissolution—when he, whose voice shook Sinai to its foundation, once more shook, not the earth only, but also heaven; removing, by one sweeping blow, the things that were shaken, and estab- lishing in their place the kingdom which cannot be moved. “This is the kingdom which we have received—the dis- pensation to which we belong—which the apostle enjoins us to hold fast, that thus we may have grace to serve God acceptably, with reverence and godly fear. In contrast, therefore, with the old dispensation, its character may be summed up in three words,-SPIRITUAL, UNIVERSAL, PERPE- TUAL. It is spiritual in its nature, universal in its adapta- tion and design, and destined for no temporary or subordi- nate purpose, but to last while the world itself shall endure; till the suffering kingdom on earth be exchanged for God's unsuffering kingdom in heaven.”—Hend. Buck. DISPENSATIONS OF PROVIDENCE, are any parti- cular or unusual modes of visible treatment to which, un- der the divine government, mankind are subjected. They are either merciful, or in judgment; though what fre- quently appear to belong to the latter class are cnly bless. ings in disguise.—Hend. Buck. DISPERSION OF MANICIND. This was occasioned by the confusion of tongues at the overthrow of Babel, Gen. 11:9. As to the manner of the dispersion of the posterity of Noah from the plain of Shinar, it was un- doubtedly conducted with the utmost regularity and order. The sacred historian informs us, that they were divided in their lands; every one, according to his tongue, according to his family, and according to his nation, Gen. 10: 5, 20, 31. The ends of this dispersion were to populate the earth, to prevent idolatry, and to display the divine wisdom and power. (See BABEL ; CoNFUsion of TongUEs ; and DIVI- sIon of THE EARTH.)—Hend. Buck. - DISPOSITION ; the settled order of the mind, or the general tendency of its affections. DISPUTATION. (See ContRoversy.) DISSENTERS; those who separate from, or refuse to have any fellowship with the established church. I) I S D1 v [466 ) Their origin, in England, may be traced as far back as the times of Wickliffe; but it was the year 1662 which formed the famous era of non-conformity, and laid the foundation of that more prominent and marked separation which was afterwards effected, and has continued ever since. At that period, and for some time after, the Presby- terians were the most numerous and influential section of the dissenting body in England; but for a century past, their interest has been gradually declining, owing to the introduction among them of Arian and Socinian leaven; and, at the present day, with the exception of some fifty or sixty orthodox congregations in the north of England, they are all Socinian. Their number amounts to little more than two hundred; and most of them consist only of a few individuals. During that century, and especially during what has passed of the present, the Congregational churches have greatly multiplied, so that, according to a statistic summary made in 1829, their number amounted to twelve hundred and eighty-nine. The number of Bap. tist congregations, at the same time, amounted to eight hundred and eighty-eight. Add to which numerous other congregations of dissenters, though not connected with the bodies just mentioned, and it may safely be estimated, that the total number of orthodox dissenting congregations in England amounts nearly to twenty-five hundred; contain- ing an aggregate of between eight and nine hundred thou- Sand hearers. The Wesleyan and Calvinistic Methodists, though they do not allow themselves to be called dissenters, are also in a state of separation from the church of England, and have nearly three thousand places of worship, and little short of a million hearers. Dissenters object to the church of England on the follow- ing, among other grounds. 1. That the church, as by law established and governed, is the mere creature of the state, as much as the army, the navy, the courts of justice, or the boards of customs and excise. 2. That she professes and asserts that the church hath power to decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in matters of faith. 3. That she has a multiplicity of offices and dignities which are utterly at variance with the simplicity of the apostolic and primitive times. 4. That the repetitions in her liturgy are numberless and vain; that, in many respects, it abounds in antiquated references and allusions, and, in others, is miserably deficient. 5. That the Apocrypha is read as a part of the public service. 6. That the creeds which she acknowledges and repeats, contain unwarrantable meta- physical representations and speculations relative to the doctrine of the trinity. 7. That every one who is baptized is considered to be thereby regenerated and really received into the family of God. 8. That this rite, together with confirmation, the visitation of the sick, and the burial ser- vice, have a most manifest tendency to deceive and ruin the souls of men. Lastly, and more urgently than any other, that no distinction is made between the holy and the profane ; the ordinances of religion being adminis- tered, without discrimination, to all who present them- selves to receive them. The church and the world are thus completely amalgamated ; and, as far as the system can be carried out, the nation is the church, and the church the nation. The dissenters in Scotland are chiefly Presbyterians, who object to the established Presbyterian church on the ground of the exercise of patronage, and other encroachments on the rights and consciences of the people. They are a nu- merous and influential body. A considerable Congrega- tional interest has also sprung up within the last thirty years, which at present numbers eighty-four churches, and has been the means of effecting much good in different parts of the country. The Baptists also are a growing body of dissenters.-Hend. Buck. DISSIDENTS; a term sometimes applied to dissenters from the church of England, but more commonly and par. ticularly used of those in Poland, who, since the year 1736, are allowed the free exercise of their respective . modes of worship, including Lutherans, Calvinists, Greeks, and Armenians, but excluding Anabaptists, Socinians, and Quakers. Although the rights of the Dissidents were af. terwards repeatedly confirmed, they were gradually re- pealed, particularly in 1717 and 1718, in the reign of Au- gustus II, when they were deprived of the right of voting in the diet. Late events in Poland have again placed them precisely on a level with the Catholics.-Hend. Buck. DISSIMULATION, the act of dissembling. It has been distinguished from simulation thus: Simulation is making a thing appear which does not exist; dissimulation is keep- ing that which exists from appearing. Moralists have observed, that all dissimulation is not hypocrisy. A vi- cious man, who endeavors to throw a veil over his bad conduct, that he may escape the notice of men, is not in the strictest sense of the word a hypocrite, since a man is no more obliged to proclaim his secret vices than any other of his secrets. The hypocrite is one who dissembles for a bad end, and hides the Snare that he may be more sure of his prey; and, not content with a negative virtue, or not appearing the ill man he is, makes a show of posi- tive virtue, and appears the man he is not. (See Hy- PocRISY.)—Buck. - - DISSOLUTION ; death, or the separation of the body and soul. The “dissolution of the world” is an awful event which we have reason to believe, both from the Old Testament and the New, will certainly take place. 1. It is not an incredible thing, since nothing of a material na- ture is formed for perpetual duration. 2. It will doubt- less be under the direction-of the Supreme Being, as its creation was. 3. The soul of man will remain unhurt amidst this general dissolution. 4. It will be an intro- duction to a greater and nobler system in the government of God. 2 Pet. 3: 13. 5. The consideration of it ought to have a great influence on us while in the present state, 2 Pet. 3:11, 12. (SEE CoNFLAGRATION.)—Hend. Buck. DIVAN. (See BEDs.) DIVERSION. (See RECREATION.) - DIVINATION, is a conjecture or surmise formed con- cerning some future event from something which is sup- posed to be a presage of it; but between which there is no real connexion, only what the imagination of the di- viner is pleased to assign in order to deceive. Divination of all kinds being the offspring of credulity, nursed by imposture, and strengthened by superstition, was necessarily an occult science, retained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, the soothsayers, the augurs, the visionaries, the priests of the oracles, the false prophets, and other like professors, till the coming of Jesus Christ, when the light of the gospel dissipated much of this darkness. The vogue for these pretended sciences and arts is nearly past, at least in the enlightened parts of the world. There are nine different kinds of divination mentioned in Scripture, and condemned as involving an idolatrous departure from the true God. These are, 1. Those whom Moses calls Meonen, from Anan, a cloud. Deut. 18: 10.-2. Those whom the prophet calls, in the same place, Menacheseh, which the Vulgate and generality of interpreters render Augur.—3. Those who in the same W. are called Mecascheph, which the Septuagint, and ulgate translate, “a man given to ill practices.”—4. Those whom in the same chapter, (v. 11,) he calls Hnober. —5. Those who consult the spirits, called Python.—6. Witches, or magicians, called Judeoni.-7. Necromancers, who consult the dead.—8. Such as consult staves, (Hosea 4:12;) called by some Rhabdomancy—9. Hepatoscopy, or the consideration of the liver. Different kinds of divination have passed for sciences. We have had, 1. Aeromancy, divining by the air.—2. As- trology, by the heavens.—3. Augury, by the flight and singing of birds, &c.—4. Chiromancy, by inspecting the hand.—5. Geomancy, by observing of cracks or clefts in the earth.-6. Haruspicy, by inspecting the bowels of ani- mals.-7. Horoscopy, a branch of astrology, marking the position of the heavens when a man is born.-8. Hydro- mancy, by water.—9. Pyromancy, a divination made by fire. Thus we see what arts have been practised to deceive, and how designing men have made use of all the four ele- ments to impose upon weak minds. The entire superi- ority of the Bible to all these forms of superstitions, is one among the many evidences of divine inspiration, which unbelievers will do well to consider.—Hend. Buck. DIVINE; something relating to God. The word is also used figuratively for any thing that is excellent, extraordi- nary, and that seems to go beyond the power of nature * D I W D I W [467 ) and the capacity of man. It also applied to a minister or clergyman.-Hend. Buck, DIVINITY; the science of theology. (See Theology, and ANALysis oF THEOLOGY.)—Hend. Buck. - - DIVISION OF THE EARTH. The prophecy of Noah, says Dr. Hales, was uttered long after the deluge. It evidently alludes to a divine decree for the orderly di- vision of the earth among the three primitive families of his sons, because it notices the “tents of Shem” and the “enlargement of Japheth,” Genesis 9:20–27. This de- cree was probably promulgated about the same time by the venerable patriarch. The prevailing tradition of such a decree for this three-fold division of the earth, is inti- mated both in the Old and New Testament. Moses refers to it, as handed down to the Israelites, “from the days of old, and the years of many generations; as they might learn from their fathers and their elders,” and further, as conveying a special grant of the land of Palestine, to be the lot of the twelve tribes of Israel:— - “When the Most High divided to the nations their settlements, When he separated the sons of Adam, He assigned the boundaries of the people [of Israel] According to the number of the sons of Israel: For the portion of the Lord is his people, Jacob is the lot of his inheritance.” Deut. 32: 7–9. And this furnishes an additional proof of the justice of the expulsion of the Canaanites, as usurpers, by the Israelites, the rightful possessors of the land of Palestine, under Mo- ses, Joshua, and their successors, when the original grant was renewed to Abraham, Gen. 15:13–21. And the knowledge of this divine decree may satisfactorily account for the panic terror with which the devoted nations of Ca- naan were struck at the miraculous passage of the Red sea by the Israelites and approach to their confines, so finely described by Moses:— - “The nations shall hear [this] and tremble, Sorrow shall seize the inhabitants of Palestine; Then shall the dukes of Edom be amazed, Dismay shall possess the princes of Moab, The inhabitants of Canaan shall melt away : Fear and terror shall fall upon them, By the greatness of thine arm they shall be petrified, Till thy people pass over [Jordan] O Lord, Till the people pass over, whom thou hast redeemed.” Exodus 15: 14—16. St. Paul, also, addressing the Athenians, refers to the same decree, as a well-known tradition in the heathen world: “God made of one blood every nation of men to dwell upon the whole face of the earth; having appointed the predetermined seasons and boundaries of their dwell- ings,” Acts 17:26. Here he represents mankind as all of “one blood,” race, or stock, “the sons of Adam” and of Noah in succession ; and the seasons and the bounda- ries of their respective settlements, as previously regulated by the divine appointment. And this was conformable to their own geographical allegory; that Chronus, the god of time, or Saturn divided the universe among his three sons, allotting the heaven to Jupiter, the sea to Neptune, and hell to Pluto. But Chronus represented Noah, who divided the world among his three sons, allotting the upper regions of the north to japheth, the maritime or middle re- gions to Shem, and the lower regions of the south to Ham. According to the Armenian tradition recorded by Abul- faragi, Noah distributed the habitable earth from north to south between his sons, and gave to Ham the region of the blacks, to Shem the region Öf the tawny, fuscorum, and to Japheth the region of the ruddy, rubrorum : and he dates the actual division of the earth in the hundred and fortieth year of Peleg, B. C. 2614, or five hundred and forty-one years after the deluge, and one hundred and ninety-one years after the death of Noah, in the following order:- “To the sons of Shem was allotted the middle of the earth, namely, Palestine, Syria, Assyria, Samaria, Singar [or Shinar, Babel, [or Babylonia,] Persia, and Hegiaz; [Ara- bia;] to the sons of Ham, Teimen, [or Idumea, Jer. 49: 7,) Africa, Nigritia, Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Scindia, and India; [or India west and east of the river Indus] to the sons of Japheth, also, Garbia, [the north, Spain, France, the countries of the Greeks, Sclavonians, Bulgarians, Turks, and Armenians.” In this curious and valuable geographical chart, Arme- nia, the cradle of the human race, was allotted to Japheth, by right of primogeniture; and Samaria and Babel to the Sons of Shem; the usurpation of these regions, therefore, by Nimrod, and of Palestine by Canaan, was in violation of the divine decree. Though the migration of the primi- tive families began at this time, B. C. 2614, or about five hundred and forty-one years after the deluge, it was a length of time before they all reached their respective des- tinations. The “seasons,” as well as the “boundaries” of their respective settlements, were equally the appointment of God; the nearer countries to the original settlement being planted first, and the remoter in succession. These primitive settlements seem to have been scattered and de- tached from each other, according to local convenience. Even so late as the tenth generation after the flood, in Abraham's days, there were considerable tracts of land in Palestine unappropriated, on which he and his nephew, Lot, freely pastured their cattle without hindrance or mo- lestation. That country was not fully peopled till the fourth generation after, at the exode of the Israelites from Egypt. And Herodotus represents Scythia as an unin- habited desert, until Targitorus planted the first Colony there, about a thousand years, at most, before Darius Hy- staspes invaded Scythia, or about B. C. 1508. The orderly settlements of the three primitive families are recorded in that most venerable and valuable geographical chart, the tenth ehapter of Genesis, in which it is curious to observe how long the names of the first settlers have been pre- served among their descendants, even down to the present day :— - 1. Japheth, the eldest son of Noah, (Gen. 10: 21,) and his family, are first noticed, Gen. 10: 2–5. The name of the patriarch himself was preserved among his Grecian descendants, in the proverb, older than Japetus, denoting the remotest antiquity. The radical part of the word Japet, evidently expresses Japheth. (1.) Gomer, his eldest son, was the father of the Gomerians. These, spreading from the regions north of Armenia and Bactriana, (Ezek. 38: 6,) extended themselves westward over nearly the whole con- tinent of Europe; still retaining their paternal denomina- tion, with some slight variation, as Cimmerians, in Asia ; Cimbri and Umbri, in Gaul and Italy; and Cymri, Cam bri, and Cumbri, in Wales and Cumberland at the present day. They are also identified by ancient authors with the Galatae of Asia Minor, the Gaels, Gauls, and Celtae, of Eu- rope, who likewise spread from the Euxine sea to the west- ern ocean; and from the Baltic to Italy southwards, and first planted the British isles. Josephus remarks, that the Galatae were called Gomariani, from their ancestor Go- mar. See the numerous authorities adduced in sup- port of the identity of the Gomerians and Celts by that learned and ingenious antiquary, Faber, in his “Origin of Pagan Idolatry.” Of Gomer's sons, Ashkenaz appears to have settled on the coasts of the Euxine sea, which from him seems to have received its primary denomina- tion of Azenos, nearly resembling Ashkenaz; but forget- ting its etymology in process of time, the Greeks consider- ed it as a compound term in their own language, A-zenos, signifying inhospitable ; and thence metamorphosed it into Eu-zenos, “very hospitable.” His precise settlement is represented in Scripture as contiguous to Armenia, west- ward; for the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and Ashkenaz, are noticed together, Jer. 51:27. Riphat, the second son of Gomer, seems to have given name to the Riphean mountains of the north of Asia; and Togarmah, the third son, may be traced in the Trocmi of Strabo, the Trogmi of Cicero, and Trogmades of the council of Chalcedon, in- habiting the confines of Pontus and Cappadocia. (2) Ma- gog, Tubal, and Mesech, sons of Japhet, are noticed to- gether by Ezekiel, as settled in the north, Ezek. 38: 2, 14, 15. And as the ancestors of the numerous Sclavonic and Tartar tribes, the first may be traced in the Mongogians, Monguls, and Moguls; the second, in the Tobolski, of Si- beria; and the third, Mesech, or Mosoc, in the Moschici, Moscow, and Muscovites. (3.) Madai was the father of the Medes, who are repeatedly so denominated in Scripture, 2 Kings 17:6; Isaiah 13:17; Jer. 51: 11; Dan. 5: 28, &c. (4.) From Javan was descended the Javanians, or Iaones, of the Greeks, and the Yavanas of the Hindus. Greece itself is called Javan by Daniel, (11:2;) and the people Iaones, by Homer in his “Iliad.” . These aborigi- nal Iaones, of Greece, are not to be confounded, as is usually D IV D I W [ 468 J the case, with the later Jaones, who invaded and subdued the Javanian territories, and were of a different stock. The accurate Pausanias states, that the name of Jönes, was comparatively modern, while that of Iaones is acknow-. ledged to have been the primitive title of the barbarians, who were subdued by the Iones. Strabo remarks that At- tica was formerly called both Ionia and Ias, or Ian ;...while Herodotus asserts, that the Athenians were not willing to be called Iones; and he derives the name from Ion, the son of Zuth, descended from Deucalion or Noah. And this Ion is said by Eusebius to have been the ringleader in the building of the tower of Babel, and the first introducer of idol worship, and Sabianism, or adoration of the Sun, moon, and stars. This would identify Ion with Nimrod. And the Ionians appear to have been composed of the later colonists, the Palli, Pelasgi, or roving tribes from Asia, Phoenicia and Egypt, who, according to Herodotus, first corrupted the simplicity of the primitive religion of Greece, and who, by the Hindus, were called Yonigas, or worship- pers of the yoni or dove. This critical distinction be. tween the Iaones and the Iones, the Yavanas, and the Yonigas, we owe to the sagacity of Faber. Of Javan's sons, Elishah and Dodon, may be recognised in Elis and Dodona, the oldest settlements of Greece; ſittim, in the Citium of Macedonia, and Chittim, or maritime coasts of Greece and Italy, (Num. 24; 24;) and Tarshish, in the Tar- sus of Cilicia, and Tartessus of Spain. 2. Ham and his family are next noticed, Gen. 10:6—20. The name of the patriarch is recorded in the title frequently given to Egypt, “The land of Ham,” Psalm 105:23, &c. (1.) Of his sons, the first and most celebrated appears to have been Cush, who gave name to the land of Cush, both in Asia and Africa; the former still called Chusistan by the Arabian geographers, Susiana by the Greeks, and Cusha Dwipa. Within, by the Hindus; the other, called Cusha Dwipa. Without, And the enterprising Cushim or Cuthim, of Scripture, in Asia and Europe, assumed the title of Getae, Guiths, and Goths; and of Scuths, Scuits, and Scots; and of Sacas, Sacasemas, and Saxons. original family settlement of Abraham was “Ur of the Chasdim,” or Chaldees, (Gen. 11:28,) who are repeatedly mentioned in Scripture, Isaiah 13:9; Daniel 9:1, &c. Ac- cording to Faber's ingenious remark, it may more properly be pronounced Chus-dim, signifying god-like Cushites. It is highly improbable that they were so named from Chesed, Abraham's nephew, (Gen. 22: 22,) who was a mere boy, if born at all, when Abraham left Ur, and was an obscure individual, never noticed afterwards. Of Cush's sons, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Sabtacha, and Raa- mah ; and the sons of Raamah, Sheba, and Dedan, seem to have settled in Idumea and Arabia, from the similar names of places there ; and of his descendants, Nimrod, the mighty hunter, first ſounded the kingdom of Babylon, and afterwards of Assyria, invading the settlements of the Shemites, contrary to the divine decree. His posterity were probably distinguished by the title of Chusdim, Isai- ah 23: 13. (2.) The second son of Ham was Misr, or Mizraim. He settled in Egypt, whence the Egyptians were universally styled in Scripture, Mizraim, or Mizra- ites in the plural form. But the country is denominated in the east, to this day, “the land of Misr ;” which, there- fore seems to have been the name of the patriarch himself. The children of Misr, like their father, are denominated in Scripture by the plural number. Of these, the Ludim, and Lehabim were probably the Copto-Libyans, (Ezek. 30: 5;) the Naphtuhim occupied the sea-coast, which, by the Lgyptians was called Nephthus: whence, probably, origi- nated the name of the maritime god Neptune. The Path- rusim occupied a part of Lower Egypt, called from them Pathros, Isaiah 11:11. The Caphtorim and the Casluhim, whose descendants were the Philistim of Palestine, occu- pied the district which lies between the delta of the Nile and the southern extremity of Palestine, Deut. 2:23; Amos 9: 7... (3) Phut is merely noticed, without any mention of his family. But the tribes of Phut and Lud are mentioned together, with Cush, or Ethiopia, (Jer. 46: 9; Ezekiel 30: 5;) and Jerome notices a district in Libya, called Regio Phutensis, or the land of Phut. (4.) Canaan has been noticed already; and the original extent of the land of Canaan is carefully marked by Moses. Its west. The ern border, along the Mediterranean sea, extended from Sidon, southwards, to Gaza; its southern border from thence, eastwards, to Sodom and Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboim, the cities of the plain, afterwards covered by the Dead sea, or Asphaltite lake ; its eastern border extend- ing from thence, northwards, té Laish, Dan, or the springs of the Jordan; and its northern border, from thence to Si- don, westward. Of Canaan's sons, Sidon, the eldest, occu- pied the north-west corner, and built the town of that name, so early celebrated for her luxury and commerce in Scripture, (Judges 18: 7; 1 Kings 5:6;) and by Homer, who calls the Sidoniarts poludaidalot, skilled in many arts. And Tyre, so flourishing afterwards, though boasting of her own antiquity, §. 23: 7,) is styled “a daughter of Sidon,” or a colony from thence, Isaiah 5:12. Heth, his second son, and the Hittites, his descendants, appear to have settled in the south, near Hebron, (Gen. 23:3—7;) and next to them, at Jerusalem, the Jebusites, or descend- ants of Jebus, both remaining in their original settlements till David's days; 2 Sam. 11:3; 5:6–9. Beyond the Jebusites, were settled the Emorites, or Amorites, (Num. 13:29,) who extended themselves beyond Jordan, and were the most powerſul of the Canaanite tribes, (Gen. 15: 16; Num. 21:21,) until they were destroyed by Moses and Joshua, with the rest of the devoted nations of Canaan’s family. - 3. Shem and his family are noticed last, Gen. 10: 21— 30. His posterity were confined to middle Asia. (1.) His son Elam appears to have been settled in Elymais, or southern Persia, contiguous to the maritime tract of Chu- sistan, Dan. 8:2. (2.) His son Ashur planted the land thence called Assyria, which soon became a province of the Cushite, or Cuthie empire, founded by Nimrod. (3.) Arphaxad, through his grandson, Eber, branched out into the two houses of Peleg and Joktan. Peleg probably re- mained in Chaldea, or southern Babylonia, at the time of the dispersion ; for there we find his grandson, Terah, and his family, settled at “Ur of the Chaldees,” Gen. 11: 31. Of the numerous children of Joktan, it is said by Moses, that “their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the east.” Faber is inclined to be- lieve that they were the ancestors of the great body of the Hindus, who still retain a lively tradition of the patriarch Shem, Shama, or Sharma; and that the land of Ophir, abounding in gold, so called from one of the sons of Jok- tan, lay beyond the Indus, eastward... (4.) Lud was pro- bably the father of the Ludim, or Lydians, of Asia Minor; for this people had a tradition that they were descended from Lud or Lydus, according to Josephus. . (5.) The children of Aram planted the fertile country north of Baby- lonia, called Aram Naharaim, “Aram between the two rivers,” the Euphrates and the Tigris, thence called by the Greeks, Mesopotamis, (Gen. 24; 10,) and Padan Aram, the level country of Aram, Gen. 25: 20. This country of Aram is frequently rendered Syria in Scripture, (Judges 10:6; Hosea 12:12. &c.;) which is not to be confounded with Palestine Syria, into which they afterwards spread themselves, still retaining their original name of Arimoi, or Arameans, noticed by Homer in his “Iliad.” 4. Upon this distribution of Noah's posterity we shall only observe, that the Deity presided over all their coun- sels and deliberations, and that he guided and settled all mankind according to the dictates of his all-comprehending wisdom and benevolence. To this purpose, the ancients themselves, according to Pindar, retained some idea that the dispersion of men was not the effect of chance, but that they had been settled in different countries by the ap- pointment of Providence, Gen. 11:8,9; Deut. 22:8. This dispersion, and that confusion of languages, with which it originated, was intended, by the counsel of an all-wise Providence, to counteract and defeat the scheme which had been projected by the descendants of Noah, for maintain- ing their union, implied in their proposing to make them- selves a name. By this scheme, which seems to have been a project of state policy, for keeping all men together under the present chiefs and their successors, a great part of the earth must, for a long time, have been uninhabited . and overrun with wild beasts. The bad effects which this project would have had upon the minds, the morals, and religion of mankind, was, probably, the chief reason wav * D O C D O D [ 469 ) Göd interposed to frustrate it as soon as it was formed. º: direct tendency to tyranny, oppression, and slavery. Wh governments by a small body of men, the ends of govern- ment, and the security of liberty and property, would be much better attended to, and more firmly established; which, in fact, was really the case; if we may judge of the rest by the constitution of one of the most eminent, the kingdom of Egypt, Gen. 47: 15–27. The Egyptians were masters of their persons and property, till they sold them to Pharaoh for bread; and then their servitude amounted to no more than the fifth part of the produce of the country, as an annual tax payable to the king. By this event, considered as a wise dispensation Cf Providence, bounds were set to the contagion of wicked- ness; evil example was confined, and could not extend its influence beypnd the limits of one country: nor could wicked projects be carried on, with universal concurrence, by many small colonies, separated by the natural bounda- ries of mountains, rivers, barren deserts, and seas, and hin- dered from associating together by a variety of languages, unintelligible to each other. Moreover, in this dispersed state, they could, whenever God pleased, be made reciprocal checks upon each other, by invasions and wars, which would weaken the power, and humble the pride, of corrupt and vicious communities. This dispensation was, therefore, properly calculated to prevent a second universal degenera- cy; God dealing in it with men as rational agents, and adapt- ing his scheme to their state and circumstances.—Watson. DIVISIONS, (EcclesiasticAL.) See Schism. DIWORCE is the dissolution of marriage, or separation of man and wife. , Divorce a mensa et thoro, i.e. from bed and board,—in this case the wife has a suitable mainte- nance allowed her out of her husband’s effects. Divorce a vinculo matrimonii, i. e. from the bonds of matrimony, is strictly and properly divorce. . This happens either in con- sequence of criminality, as in the case of adultery, or through some essential impediment; as consanguinity, or affinity within the degrees forbidden, pre-contract, impo- tency, &c., of which impediments the canon law allows no less than fourteen. In these cases, the woman receives again only what she brought. Sentences which release the parties a vinculo matrimonii, on account of impuberty, frigidity, consanguinity within the prohibited degrees, prior marriage, or want of the requisite consent of parents or guardians, are not properly dissolutions of the marriage contract, but judicial declarations that there never was any marriage; suchimpediment subsisting at the time as render- ed the celebration of the marriage rite a mere nullity. And the rite itself contains an exception of these impediments. The law of Moses, says Dr. Paley, for reasons of local expediency, permitted the Jewish husband to put away his wife; but whether for every cause, or for what cause, appears to have been controverted amongst the interpre- ters of those times. Christ, the precepts of whose religion were calculated for more general use and observation, re- vokes his permission as given to the Jews for their hard- ness of heart, and promulges a law which was thencefor- ward to confine divorces to the single cause of adultery in the wife. Matt, 19:9. Inferior causes may justify the separation of husband and wife, although they will not authorize such a dissolution of the marriage contract as would leave either at liberty to marry again; for it is that liberty in which the danger and mischief of divorces princi- pally consist. The law of England, in conformity to our Savior's injunction, confines the dissolution of the marriage contract to the single case of adultery in the wiſe; and a divorce even in that case can only be brought about by an act of parliament, founded upon a previous sentence in the spiritual court, and a verdict against the adulterer at common law; which proceedings, taken together, compose as complete an investigation of the complaint as a cause car receive. The laws of several of the United States are more lax on this subject. See Divight's Theology, (Ser. cxxi.;) Paley's Mor, and Pol. Philosophy, p. 273; Dod- dridge's Lectures, lect. 73–Hend. Buck. . . - DOCETAE; the advocates of an early heresy, which taught that Christ acted and suffered, not in reality, but in appearance. They were so denominated from dokein, to appear. (See Gnostics.)—Watson. . Whereas in forming several independent tion, both as a disputant and a preacher. DOCTORS, or TEACHERs, of the law; a class of men in great repute among the Jews. Luke 2:46. They had studied the law of Moses in its various branches, and the numerous interpretations which had been grafted upon it in later times; and, on various occasions, they gave their opinion on cases referred to them for advice. Nicodemus, himself a doctor (didaskalos, teacher) of the law, comes to consult Jesus, whom he compliments in the same terms as he was accustomed to receive from his scholars: “Rabbi, we know that thou art didaskalos, a competent teacher from God.” Doctors of the law were chiefly of the sect of the Pharisees; but they are sometimes distinguished from that sect, Luke 5: 17.—Watson. DOCTRINE ; whatsoever is taught, the principles or positions of any master or sect. As the doctrines of the Bible are the first principles and the foundation of religion, they should be carefully examined and well understood, The Scriptures present us with a copious fund of evangeli- cal truth, which, though it has not the form of a regular system, yet its parts are such, that, when united, make the most complete body of doctrine that we can possibly have. Every Christian, but divines especially, should make this their study, because all the various doctrines should be insisted on in public, and explained to the peo- ple. It is not, however, as some suppose, to fill up every part of a minister's sermon, but considered as the basis upon which the practical part is to be built. Some of the divines of the seventeenth century overcharged their dis- courses with doctrine, especially Dr. Owen and Dr. Good- win. It was common in that day to make thirty or forty remarks before the immediate consideration of the text, each of which was just introduced, and which, if enlarged on, would have afforded matter enough for a whole ser- mon. A wise preacher will join doctrine, experience, and practice together. Doctrines, though abused by some, yet, properly consi- dered, lie at the very foundation of religious experience, and will influence the heart and life. Thus the idea of God's sovereignty excites submission; his power and jus- tice promote ſear; his holiness, humility and purity; his goodness, a ground of hope ; his love excites joy; the ob- scurity of his providence requires patience; his faithful- ness, confidence, &c. (See Fuller's Works, vol. I. 626) —Hend. Buck. DOD, (John.) This reverend man was born in Cheshire, England, 1551. He was the youngest of seventeen children, and much beloved by his parents. He was educated at Cambridge, where he was afterwards a fellow, and resided for sixteen years. While there, being accused, in conse- quence of a mistake of the steward, of being a defrauder for a considerable sum, the distress occasioned by the cir- cumstance led him to such serious reflections, as issued through divine mercy in a sound and scriptural conversion. His accuser, aſterwards discovering, and confessing his fault, entreated his forgiveness, when Mr. Dod assured him, that he now considered him not as an enemy, but as (under God) his good friend; and, indeed, a faithful friend he proved ever after. So wonderful oft-times are the methods of God's grace! At the college he acquired great reputa- The former, however, was praise he did not covet; while in the latter office the Lord greatly blessed him. His first settlement was at Hanwell, in Oxfordshire, in 1581, where he re- mained twenty years, and was the means of the conver- sion, as well as edification of multitudes. He was, how- ever, suspended from his ministry there by Dr. Bridges, bishop of Oxford, and went to Cannons, Ashby, in North- amptonshire. After laboring quietly in this place for some years, he was again silenced on a complaint to king James, by bishop Neale. His private labors were, however, little less useful than his public had been. After the death of king James, he gained liberty to resume his public labors, which he did with unremitted faithfulness and success, till his death, which took place at Fausley, in 1645, at the advanced age of ninety-six years. Mr. Dod was an excel- lent scholar, especially in Hebrew. . His spirit was eminently catholic and kind. He loved and honored those who feared God, though in point of subscription and ceremonies, they were not of his judg- ment. As he sowed, so he reaped; he was full of love TJ O D D O D [ 470 ) himself, and greatly beloved of others. He was a sort of passive non-conformist; and though he lived through the reigns of three successive princes, such was his love of peace and holiness, that archbishop Usher said of him, “Whatsoever some affirm of Mr. Dod’s strictness, and scrupling some ceremonies, I desire when I die, that my Soul may rest where his doth.” Indeed, he was held in such universal esteem, that it was a discredit to any one to speak evil of him. His sayings are well known, and well deserve remem- brance. They are the fruit of an eminently sagacious and spiritual mind, deeply read in the school of Christ. In his last hours, he longed and thirsted to be with his Lord. “I am not afraid to look death in the face. I can say, Death, where is thy sting 2 death cannot hurt me.” His last words were, “I desire to be dissolved, and to be with Christ.”—Middleton, vol. iii. 171, DODANIM; the youngest son of Javan, Gen. 10: 2. Several Hebrew manuscripts read Rhodanim, and believe that he peopled the island of Rhodes. (See DeDAN.)— Calmet. DODD, (DR. WILLIAM,) a native of Lincolnshire, was born at Bourne, in 1729, and was educated at Clare hall, Cambridge. While at college, he produced his version of Callimachus. Having taken orders, he settled in London, became a popular preacher, and obtained valua- ble church preferment. But Dodd was vain, extravagant, and not nice in his expedients to accomplish his purposes. He endeavored to procure by bribery the living of St. George's, Hanover square, and for this criminal attempt he was struck off the list of king's chaplains. Pressed by his necessities, he next ventured on a more dangerous step, which proved fatal. He forged a bond on his former pupil, the earl of Chesterfield, and for this crime he suf. fered death in 1777, notwithstanding the strenuous efforts which were made to save him. Among his numerous works may be mentioned, Sermons, 4 vols.; Thoughts in Prison; Sermons to Young Men, 3 vols.; a Com- mentary on the Bible, 3 vols. folio; Reflections on Death; and The Sisters, a novel.—Davenport. DODDRIDGE, (PHILIP, D.D.;) the celebrated author of She “Rise and Progress,” and of “The Family Expositor,” was born in London, June 26, 1702. Dr. Doddridge was the twentieth and youngest child; all the rest, except one daughter, having died in infancy. It is not a little sin- gular, that when Doddridge was born, he was laid aside as a dead child; but a person in the room observing some motion in him, took that care of him upon which the flame of life depended. His parents were eminently pious, and his earliest years were by them consecrated to the acquisition of religious knowledge. The history of the Old and New Testament his mother taught him before he could read, by means of some Dutch tiles in the chim- ney corner of the room in which they resided. In 1715, he was deprived, by death, of his father, and not long afterwards, of his excellent mother. In the same year, he was sent to the school of Mr. Nathaniel Wood, of St. Albans, where he commenced his acquaintance with the learned and excellent Mr. Samuel Clark, who not only became to him a wise counsellor, and an affectionate minister, but a disinterested, generous, and liberal friend and benefactor.—February 1, 1718, he was admitted a member of the church, under the pastoral care of Mr. Clark. In that year, he quitted the school at St. Albans, and retired to the house of his sister, there to determiné which he conscientiously dissented. on his future plans. From the duchess of Bedford he received an offer to be educated in either of the universi- ties, as a clergyman of the church of England; but whilst the proposal inspired him with gratitude, he respectfully declined it, because he could not conform to a church from He applied to Dr. Calamy for advice as to the profession he should follow, who dissuaded him from becoming a minister; and, in consequence, he for some time reluctantly determined to follow the profession of the law, till at length a liberal offer of assistance and advice, which he received from Mr. Clark, altered those determinations, and he resolved immediately to prosecute his studies preparatory to be- coming a dissenting minister. In October, 1719, Mr. Clark placed him in the academy of the learned and pious Dr. Jennings, who resided at Kibworth, in Leicestershire. There, though young, cheerful, and devoted to the attain- ment of knowledge, he did not, however, forget the more important concerns of his own personal religion. He formed some admirable rules for the regulation of his conduct and the improvement of his time ; which he did not merely form, but cheerfully and inviolably performed. In 1723, his tutor, Mr. Jennings, died, having not long removed from Kibworth to Hinckley. Soon after his death, Dr. Doddridge preached his first sermon at Hinck- ley, from the words, “If any man love not the Lord Jesus, let him be anathema, maranatha ;” and two persons as- cribed their conversion to the blessing of God on that sermon. Having received an invitation from the congre- gation at Kibworth, he accepted their offer, and was there settled in June, 1723. In that retired and obscure village, there were no external objects to divert his attention from the pursuit of his studies; and his favorite authors, Baxter, Howe, and Tillotson, he read with frequency and attention. To his pastoral duties he was not, however, inattentive ; but in religious conversation, and visits of mercy, he spent a suitable portion of his valuable time. His preaching was plain and practical; and whilst his mind was richly stored with knowledge, and his imagina- tion was lively, he made all his talents subservient to the moral and religious improvement of the people committed to his care. During the whole year, he accustomed him- self to rise every morning at five o’clock; and thus, as he would sometimes say, he had ten years more than he otherwise would have had. In 1725, he removed to Har- borough, though he continued to be minister of the con- gregation at Kibworth. With Dr. Some, the dissenting minister at Harborough, he became acquainted ; and from his prudence and piety derived many benefits. In 1728, he received invitations to settle at Nottingham ; but fearful that they would interfere with his spiritual welfare, he declined, and continued at Harborough ; and in 1729, he was chosen assistant to Mr. Some. In the same year, Dr. Doddridge, in conjunction with Dr. Watts, Rev. Mr. Saunders, Rev. Mr. Some, and others, established an academy for preparing young men for the work of the ..ministry among dissenters; and to that institution he was appointed tutor. No man was better qualified than Dr. Doddridge for that situation, and the institution soon acquired a just and wide-spread celebrity. The students he instructed in every department of science and learn- ing; and connected with all their studies, their religious improvement. Towards the close of the year, he received an invitation to settle at Northampton; and, urged by Mr. Some and Mr. Clark to accept the call, he quitted Harborough, and immediately entered on his more ardu- ous and important duties. Soon aſter his settlement, he became seriously ill; but on his recovery, in March, 1730, he was set apart to the pastoral office. In this year, he published a tract, entitled “Free Thoughts on the most probable means of reviving the Dissenting Interest, occa- sioned by the late Inquiry into the Causes of its Decay, addressed to the Author of that Inquiry.” He performed the various duties of a dissenting pastor, with exemplary diligence and affection. His sermons were well studied, and delivered with zeal and affection. He watched over his flock, like one who had to give an account. He prayed with and for them. He visited the sick; attended to the wants of the poor; admonished those who erred; cautioned those who wavered ; confirmed those who were * T) O. G. D O M [471 || undecided; and, in every respect, attended to the doc- trines, discipline, and practice of his church and congre- gation. In 1732, he published some admirable “Sermons on the Education of Children.” In 1735, he yet further manifested his affectionate concern for the rising genera- tion, by his publication of “Sermons to Young People;” and in 1743, by his “Principles of the Christian Religion,” in verse. In 1736, he published “Ten Sermons on the Power and Grace of Christ, and the Evidences of the Gospel:”, the three last of which, on the “Evidences of Christianity,” have been since repeatedly printed sepa- rately, and have received great and well-merited praise. In 1741, he published some “Practical Discourses on Regeneration,” which were well received, and hy many have been greatly admired. In 1745, he published, in conjunction with Dr. Watts, “The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul.” It has been translated into Dutch, German, Danish, and French. But the work for which Dr. Doddridge has been so long and deservedly celebrated, is “The Family Expositor,” containing a version and para- phrase of the New Testament, with critical notes, and the practical improvement of each section. Of the doctrinal opinions contained in such Expositor, the learned and pious have, of course, entertained various sentiments, according to their various tenets; but critics and scholars, and Christians of every sect and party, have eulogized it with a candor which did honor to themselves, and con- ferred yet greater renown on the name of Dr. Doddridge. In addition to the foregoing works, he published “The Memoirs of Colonel Gardiner; “A short account of the Life of Mr. Thomas Staffe;” and prepared “A proper and new Translation of the Minor Prophets, with a Com- mentary on them ;” and “A Dissertation on the Jewish |Proselytes,” which, with other pieces, have been published since his decease. In 1748, he revised the “Expository,” and other works of archbishop Leighton; and translated his Latin Prelections, consisting of two volumes printed at Edinburgh. Dr. Doddridge sustained all the relationships of life with honor to himself, and advantage to his family and the world; so that, as he approached nearer to the eternal world, his path, indeed, resembled that of the just, which is as the Shining light, that shineth more and more unto the perſect day. He died at Lisbon, whither he had gone for his health, October 26th, 1751. For further account of this eminent scholar and Christian, see Dr. Doddridge's IWorks; his Life myritten by Job Orton ; and also by Dr. *#w; Relig, Biog. DODWELL, (HENRy;), a critic and theologian, born at Dublin, in 1641, and educated at Trinity college, was chosen Camden professor of history at Oxford, in 1688; but, being a non-juror, he lost his office at the Revolution. He died in 1711. Dodwell was a learned and a virtuous man, but addicted to paradoxes, and such a perfect ascetic that, during three days in the week, he refrained almost wholly from food. Of his many works, the most curious is, an epistolary discourse, in which he labors to prove, from the Scriptures, “that the soul is a principle naturally mortal, but immortalized actually by the pleasure of God.”—Davenport. . DOG ; a well-known domestic animal, which was held in great contempt among the Jews. It was worshipped by the Egyptians. (See ANUBIs.) The state of dogs among the Jews was probably much the same as it is now in the East; where, having no owners, they run about the streets in troops, and are fed by cha- rity, or by caprice; or they live on such offal as they can pick up. That they were numerous and voracious in Jezreel j is evident from the history of Jezebel. (See that article.) w - To compare a person to a dog, living or dead, was a most degrading expression; so David uses it, (1 Sam. 24: 14.) “After whom is the king of Israel come out? after a dead dog?” So Mephibosheth, (2 Sam. 9; 8.) “What is thy servant, that thou shouldest look upon such a dead dog as I am?” The name of dog sometimes ex- presses one who has lost all modesty; one who prostitutes himself to abominable actions; for so several understand the injunction (Deut. 23: 18.) of not offering “the hire of a whore;” or “the price of a dog.” Our Lord, in Revelation, (22: 15.) excludes “dogs, sofcerers, whofe. mongers, murderers, and idolaters,” from the new Jeru- salem. Paul says, “Beware of dogs”. (Phil. 3: 2.)—of impudent, sordid, greedy professors; and Solomon, (Prov, 26; 11.) and Peter, (2 Epist. 2: 21.) compare sinners, who continually relapse into sins, to dogs returning to their vomit.—Calmet. DQGMA; (Greek dogma, from doked, to seem, think, be of opinion,) an opinion, tenet, principle, or article of belief; what is propounded for belief, or established as a fixed and indubitable doctrine.—Hend. Buck. DOGMAS, (History of ;) a branch of theological science, particularly attended to in Germany, the ob- ject of which is to exhibit historically the origin and changes of the various Christian systems, showing what opinions were received by the various sects in different ages of the church, the sources of the different creeds, the arguments by which they were attacked and supported, what degrees of importance were attached to them in different ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which the dogmas were com- bined into systems. The sources of this branch of history are the public creeds, the acts of councils, and other ecclesiastical assemblies, letters and decrees of the heads of churches, liturgies and books of rituals, the works of the fathers, and of later ecclesiastical writers, as well as the statements of contemporary historians. It is easily seen how important and interesting a study this is, teach- ing, as it does, modesty and forbearance in the support of particular opinions, by showing the vast variety of those which have afforded subjects of bitter controversy at particular periods, and have then passed away into oblivion; and how much learning, industry, and critical acuteness are often required, in order to a thorough in- vestigation of contested points of doctrine. The distinc- tion between this branch of history and ecclesiastical history is obvious. It is the same as exists between poli- tical history and the history of politics. Lectures on this subject are delivered in all the German universities.— Hend. Buck. DOGMATICS; a systematic arrangement of the dog- mas or articles of the Christian faith, with respect to which a distinction is made between biblical dogmatics, the study of which goes to examine closely the doctrinal passages of the holy Scriptures, and to derive the system of doctrines exclusively from the Bible—and ecclesiastical dogmatics, which consist in the systematic exhibition of doctrines considered to be biblical by particular churches. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent sys- tem of Christian dogmas was made by Origen in the third century: he was succeeded by Augustine in the fourth, by Isidore of Seville in the sixth, and by John of Damas- cus in the eighth. In the middle ages, ingenious exami- nations of the doctrines were made by the schoolmen; but agitating, as they did, subtle questions of little or no practical importance, they loaded the science with useless refinements. Among the Protestants, Melancthon was the first who wrote a compendium of Christian doctrine, which is still justly esteemed.—Hend. Buck. DOMINICANS ; an order of preaching friars (some- times called Jacobins,) founded by Dominic de Gusman, a Spaniard, early in the twelfth century. . They adopted first the rule of St. Augustine, but afterwards that of St. Benedict, with great alterations. Preaching was professed to be a great object with them, and from thence they were called preaching friars. They were also called Black friars, from their habit; and are rendered infamous in history, by pretended apparitions and miracles, in opposi- tion to the Franciscans. As the tool of their impositions, they employed a weak brother named Jetzer, whom they afterwards attempted to poison ; but he discovered the whole plot, and brought great disgrace upon the order. The mother of this saint, (for he has been canonized,) when pregnant with him, dreamed that she bore a dog with a flambeau, or firebrand in his mouth, which re- ceived a remarkable accomplishment; for he has the honor of founding that diabolical institution, the Inquisi- tion, by which thousands, perhaps millions, of innocent persons have been destroyed. (See INQUISITION.)— Broughton's Dict, ; Butler's Confess. p. 132,; Williams. DO N D OR ſ 472 J DOMINICUS ; a learned soldier in Italy, and a martyr of the twelfth century, who having read several Walden- sian writings, became a zealous Protestant against the corruptions of Rome, and retiring into Placentia, preached the gospel in its purity to a very considerable congrega- tion. One day, when just beginning his sermon, he was arrested by the papal magistrate. He readily submitted to his custody, remarking, “I wonder the devil has let me alone so long !” When brought to examination, this question was put to him : Will you renounce your doc- trines : To which he replied, “My doctrines I maintain no doctrines of my own; what I preach are the doctrines of Christ, and for those I will forfeit my blood, and even think myself happy to suffer for the sake sof my Re- deemer.” Every effort was made to induce him to re- cant, but in vain, and he was accordingly sentenced to death, and hung in the market place.—Foz. DOMIINION OF GOD. (See Government of 6 od.) TONATISTS; a body of Christians in Africa, so deno- minated from their leader, Donatus. They had their origin in the year 311, when, in the room of Mensurius, who died in that year, on his return to Rome, Cecilian was elected bishop of Carthage, and consecrated, without the concurrence of the Numidian bishops, by those of Africa alone, whom the people refused to acknowledge, and to whom they opposed Majorinus, who accordingly was ordained by Donatus, bishop of Casae Nigrap. They were condemned, in a council held at Rome, two years after their separation; and afterwards in another at Arles, the year following ; and again at Milan, before Constan- tine the Great, in 316, who deprived them of their churches, and sent their venerable bishops into ‘banish- ment, and punished some of them with death. Their cause was espoused by another Donatus, called the Great, the principal bishop of that sect, who, with numbers of his followers, was exiled by order of Constans. Many of them were punished with great severity. (See CIR- oUMcELLIONEs.) However, after the accession of Julian to the throne in 362, they were permitted to return, and restored to their former liberty. Gratian published seve- ral edicts against them, and, in 377, deprived them of their churches, and prohibited all their assemblies. But, notwithstanding the severities they suffered, it appears that they had a very considerable number of churches towards the close of this century; but at this time they began to decline on account of a schism among them- selves, occasioned by the election of two bishops, in the room of Parmenian, the successor of Donatus. One party elected Primian, and were called Primianists; and another Maximian, and were called Maximianists. Their decline was also precipitated by the zealous opposition of St. Augustine, and by the violent measures which were pursued against them by order of the emperor Honorius, at the Solicitation of two councils held at Carthage—the orie in 404, and the other in 411. Many of them were fined, their bishops were banished, and some put to death. This sect revived and multiplied under the protection of the Vandals, who invaded Africa, in 427, and took pos- session of this province; but it sunk again under new severities, when their empire was overturned, in 534. Nevertheless, they remained in a separate body till the close of this century, when Gregory, the Roman pontiff, rised various methods for suppressing them : his zeal succeeded, and there are few traces to be found of the Donatists after this period. They were distinguished by other appellations, as, Circumcelliones, Montenses, or Moun- taineers, Campetes, Rupites, &c. They held three councils —that of Cita in Numidia, and two at Carthage. The Donatists, it is said, held that baptism conferred out of the church, that is, out of their sect, was null; and accordingy they rebaptized those who joined their party from other churches; they also re-ordained their minis- ters. Donatus seems likewise to have embraced the doctrine of the Arians; though St. Augustine affirms that the Donatists in this point kept clear of the errors of their leader. Jones's History of the Church.-Hend. Buck. DONATIVE, in the ecclesiastical sense of the word, is a benefice given by the patron to a priest, without presentation to the ordinary, and without institution and induction,-Hend, Buck. - new employment for his wit and eloquence. humility, diligence, and success. DONNE, (John, D. D.) a celebrated English poet and divine, was born in London, of Catholic parents, in 1573. At Oxford, where he was sent at eleven years of age, it was observed of him, as of the famous Picus Mirandula, that “he was rather born wise than made so by study.” At Cambridge and Lincoln's Inn he prosecuted his studies still further; in the course of which, after careful investi- gation, he was led to embrace the Protestant faith. He was made secretary to lord chancellor Elsmore; but lost his situation by a clandestine marriage, and was even thrown into prison; from which, however, he was soon liberated, and reconciled to his father-in-law, Sir George More. After this, he resided many years in Surry, with his kinsman, Sir Francis Wolley, and subsequently in London, with his friend Sir Robert Drury, until 1610, when, after long solicitation, he was induced to enter into holy orders. . • . . , “Now all his studies,” says his biographer, “were concen- tered in divinity; now he had a new calling, new thoughts, Now all his earthly affections were changed into divine love, and all the faculties of his soul were engaged in the conver- sion of others. To this he applied himself with all dili- gence; and such a change was wrought in him, that he rejoiced more to be a door-keeper in the house of God, than to enjoy any temporal employment; preaching the word so, as showed he was possessed with those joys that he labored to instill into others; a preacher in earnest, weep- ing sometimes for his auditory, sometimes with them; always preaching to himself; like an angel from a cloud, but in none; exciting the affections of others, and feeling the most lively motions of his own.” He was appointed by James I. one of his chaplains; and was also chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn, and dean of St. Paul's. After twenty years of devoted labors in the pulpit, he died March 31, 1631, greatly lamented. In his last hours, he was favored with such views of heaven, that he said, “I were miserable if I might not die " His learning was vast, and he left numerous writings behind him.—Middleton, vol. li. 492. DOOLITTLE, (THOMAs,) was born at Kidderminster England, in 1630. He was converted in early youth, un- der those discourses of Mr. Baxter which were aſterwards published as the Saints' Everlasting Rest. He entered upon the study of the law, but being required by the attor- ney with whom he lived to copy some writings on the Lord's day, he left the business with disgust, and deter- mined to give himself to the work of the gospel ministry. At the university of Cambridge, which he now entered, he grew in grace as he advanced in learning. After taking his degree of master of arts, he went to London, where he was soon noticed as a warm and affectionate preacher. He was soon settled over the parish of St. Alphage by London-Wall, and applied himself to his work with great Even in old age, he was wont to remember with thankfulness the divine power that attended his early ministrations. Nine years he la- bored here; but on Bartholomew day, 1662, with about two thousand of his brethren, he was silenced for non-con- formity. Having a growing family to support, he opened a boarding school near London, which was soon crowded. In the time of the great plague, he retired to Woodford Bridge, where, though many resorted to his house for the worship of God, he had not one sick of his numerous fa- mily, consisting at that time of more than thirty. Here he wrote an address, entitled “A Spiritual Antidote in dying Times.” After the plague ceased, he returned to London, and, roused by the voice of providence in the great fire, he could no longer be silent, but at the peril of liberty and life, devoted himself again to preaching the gospel. He had many seals to his ministry, which was prolonged to the seventy-seventh year of his age. He died full of peace and joy, May 24, 1707. He published twenty pieces on practical subjects.-Middleton, vol. iv. 149. DOORS. § GATEs.) DOROTHEUS, high chamberlain to the household of the Roman emperor Dioclesian, A. D. 303, was a Chris- tian, and labored assiduously to win others to the same holy faith. In these efforts he was aided by Gorgonius, another Christian, who belonged to the palace. W. Both * D OR D O U [473 ) stood high in the emperor's favor; but they soon had an opportunity of evincing by their behavior that worldly ho- nors and pleasures are nothing in competition with the joys of immortality. Being informed against, and refus. ing to renounce their Christian profession, they were first tortured and then strangled, willingly suffering martyrdom for Christ.—Foz. . DORCAS. (See TABITHA.) . - DORT, SYNod of.” This famous synod was convoked by the authority of the States General of Holland, and con- sisted not only of deputies from the Belgic churches; but an earnest application was made to all the reformed churches of Europe to commission pious and learned the- ologians, lovers of peace, to attend, and assist in restoring order and harmony to the agitated churches of Holland. The occasion of these dissensions and disturbances was the prevalence of the new opinions vented by James Armi- nius and his followers. Various efforts, for ten years and more, had been made to reconcile the contending parties and restore peace to the disturbed churches; but all these efforts proved ineffectual. At length, under the auspices of Maurice, prince of Orange, letters of convocation were issued, and a com- mittee appointed, selected from both parties, to settle all the preliminaries of time, place, &c. Accordingly, in November, 1618, the synod met at the ancient city of DoRDRechT or DoRT, and sat until the end of April, 1619. Prefixed to the published “Acts” of this synod, there is an exact and authentic history of Arminianism from its origin, and of all the conferences held between the parties, and of the steps taken to bring about the meeting of the synod. This history is far more authentic than the par- tial accounts of individuals, for it was not only approved by the Belgic church, but also by the States General. The character and conduct of this venerable body have been variously represented by writers, according to their partialities in favor of the one side or the other in the con- troversy. The Arminians complained loudly of having been treated with injustice. They demanded, that before the synod, Remonstrants and Contra-remonstrants should be placed on the same ground; but the synod determined, almost unanimously, that the Arminians should appear before them to explain and defend their peculiar opinions, in which they had deviated from the standards of the Belgic church, and from the doctrines of the reformed churches. But all their efforts to induce the Remonstrants to take this ground were unavailing; and accordingly they left the synod in a body, and went home, and never returned. The synod then resolved to proceed to the examination of the FIVE ARTICLEs, which had been published by the Armi- nians, in a paper entitled a REMöNSTRANCE, from which they took their name. These articles were taken up in order, and the foreign divines requested first to deliver their judgment, which they did, in writing. (The foreign churches represented in this synod were those of England, Scotland, Geneva, Switzerland, Embden, Bremen, the Palatinate, and Hesse. The reformed churches of France deputed two eminent theologians to the synod, but they were prevented from attending by an order from the French government.) These papers read before the synod furnish a rich body of sound theology, and are all pre- served in the journal or minutes of the body, the whole of which have been published. After the foreign divines had expressed their opinion, the deputies of the Belgic churches, in order, delivered their judgment on the Five ARTICLES. The proceedings of the synod, if we may judge from their minutes, and from the testimony of such men as bishop Hall and bishop Davenant, were characterized by order, dignity, and a zeal for evangelical truth. Although the Belgic churches had acknowledged standards of doc- trine, yet they were not made the rule of judgment on the points brought before this synod; but every member, ris: ing from his seat, took a solemn oath that he would determine all points on which he gave a judgment by no other authority than the word of GoD, contained in the holy Scriptures. - * This article was prepared for the Encyclopedia by Rev. Dr. Alex. ander, of Princeton Theo, Sem, The harmony of the sentiments of these eminent theo- logians, from different countries, on the great vital doc- trines of Christianity, is truly wonderful, and must be highly satisfactory to the friends of evangelical truth. Not that there was a perfect unanimity in the mode of explain- ing every point; for in regard to the extent of the atone- ment there was a difference in their views; for while a majority argued in favor of particular redemption, the Eng- lish divines and a few others maintained that Christ died for all men. But they all agreed in condemning the Ar- minian doctrine on this point, as well as on all others. And the general CoNFession was so drawn up that all could subscribe it, which they did, as far as appears, without exception. This became in consequence the pub- lic Confession of the Belgic churches, as it ever has been of the Dutch Reformed Church in the United States of America. The doctrine taught in this document is moderate, sound Calvinism. The intercourse between the members of the synod was of the most fraternal and delightful kind. Bishop Hall somewhere says, that the society which he there enjoyed was more like a heaven upon earth than any thing which he ever witnessed.—See The Acts of the Synod of Dort, and Dr. Thomas Scott's History of the Synod of Dort, Phila. 1818. - DOSITHEANS; an ancient sect among the Samaritans. in the first century of the Christian era, so called from Dositheus, who endeavored to persuade the Samaritans that he was the Messiah foretold by Moses.—Hend. Buck. DOTHAN ; a town at the distance of twelve miles north- ward of Samaria. Gen. 37: 17.—Jones. DOUBLE, has several shades of signification in Scrip- ture. “A double garment” may mean a lined habit, such as the high-priest's pectoral : or a complete habit, or suit of clothes, a cloak and a tunic, &c. Double heart, double tongue, double mind, are opposed to a simple, honest, sin- cere heart, tongue, mind, &c. Double, the counterpart to a quantity, which is proposed as the exemplar. Gen. 43: J For the right understanding of Is. 40: 2, “She hath re- ceived of the Lord's hand double for all her sins,” Mr. Taylor says, read, the counterpart—that which is adequate, all things considered, as a dispensation of punishment. But if this be the sense, how could it be said, “ her ini- quity is pardoned f' since punishment and pardon, in the very nature of things, seem opposed to each other. Others ob- serve, therefore, that the expression alludes to a common custom in the East of doubling down a leaf in an account book, whenever an account was settled. In this sense, “the double” is equivalent to the discharge. If this be correct, we may read the passage, “her warfare is accomplished, her iniquity is pardoned; for she hath received of the Lord's hand a discharge for all her sins,” that is, a com- plete settlement has taken place. The same seems to be the meaning of this word in other places, (Is. 61: 7.) un- less indeed it alludes to a double portion, that is, blessings twice as great as were enjoyed before.—Calmet; Ev. Mag. DOUBTS and FEARs, are terms frequently used to de- note the uncertainty of mind we are in respecting our interest in the divine favor. The causes of our doubts may be such as these : per- sonal declension ; not knowing the exact time, place, or means of our conversion; improper views of the character and decrees of God; the fluctuation of religious experi- ence as to the enjoyment of God in prayer, hearing, &c.; the depth of our affliction; relapses into sin; the fall o professors; and the hidings of God's face. “It is a sin,” says one, “for a believer to live so as not to have his evidences clear; but it is no sin for him to be so earnest and impartial as to doubt, when in fact his evi- dences are not clear.” Let the humble Christian, however, beware of an ex- treme. Prayer, conversation with experienced Christians, reading the promises, and consideration of the divine good- ness, will have a tendency to remove unnecessary doubts. —Buck on Christian Experience ; Fuller's Works. DOUGLAS, (John,) an eminent divine and critic, was born in 1721, at Pittenweem, in Fife, and educated at Baliol college, Oxford. Having for some years held the minor dig- mities of canon and dean of Windsor, he was made bishop D O W D O W ſ 474 | of Callisle in 1787, and, in 1792, was transferred to Salis- bury. He died May 18, 1807. Dr. Douglas was intimate with Dr. Johnson, and all the most celebrated of his con- temporaries. - himself by castigating Lander for his attack on Milton; exposing Alexander Bower; and entering the lists against Hume, by publishing The Criterion, or a Discourse on Mi- racles, a work of great value. He also edited Cook's Second Voyage.—Davenport. - DOVE. This beautiful genus of birds is very numerous in the East. In the wild state, they generally build their nests in the holes or clefts of rocks, or in excavated trees; but they are easily taught submission and familiarity with mankind; and, when domesticated, build in structures erected for their accommodation, called “dove-cotes.” They are classed by Moses among the clean birds; and it appears from the sacred as well as other writers, that doves were always held in the highest estimation among the eastern nations. Rosenmueller, in a note upon Bochart, derives the name from the Arabic, where it signifies mild- ness, gentleness, &c. The dove is mentioned in Scripture as the symbol of simplicity, innocence, gentleness, affection, and fidelity, Hos. 7: 11. Matt. 10: 16. The following extract from Morier's Persian Travels il- lustrates a passage in Isaiah :—“In the environs of the city, to the westward, near the Zainderood, are many pi- geon-houses, erected at a distance from habitations, for the sole purpose of collecting pigeons' dung for manure. They are large round towers, rather broader at the bottom than the top, and crowned by comical spiracles, through which the pigeons descend. Their interior resembles a honey- comb, pierced with a thousand holes, each of which forms a snug retreat for a nest. More care appears to have been bestowed upon their outside than upon that of the gene- rality of the dwelling-houses; for they are painted and ornamented. The extraordinary flights of pigeons which I have seen alight upon one of these buildings afford, per- haps, a good illustration for the passage in Isa. 60: 8, ‘Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows?” Their great numbers, and the compact- ness of their mass, literally look like a cloud at a distance, and obscure the sun in their passage.” . . The first mention of the dove in the Scripture is Gen. 8: 8, 10–12, where Noah sent one from the ark to ascer- tain iſ the waters of the deluge had assuaged. She was sent forth thrice. The first time she speedily returned; having, in all probability, gone but a little way from the ark, as she must naturally be terrified at the appearance of the waters. After seven days, being sent out a second time, she returned with an olive leaf plucked off, whereby it became evident that the flood was considerably abated, and had sunk below the tops of the trees; and thus re- lieved the fears and cheered the heart of Noah and his family. And hence the olive branch has ever been among the forerunners of peace, and chief of those emblems by which a happy state of renovation and restoration to prosperity has been signified to mankind. At the end of other seven days, the dove, being sent out a third time, returned no more ; from which Noah conjectured that the earth was so far drained as to afford sustenance for the birds and fowls; and he therefore removed the covering of the ark, which probably gave liberty to many of the fowls to fly off; and these circumstances afforded him the greater facility for making arrangements for disembarking the other animals. Doves might be offered in sacrifice, when those who were poor could not bring a more costly offering.— Watson. DOVES’ DUNG. It is said, (2 Kings 6:25.) that dur- ing the siege of Samaria, “the fourth part of a cab [little more than half a pint] of doves' dung was sold for five pieces of silver;” about two and a half dollars. It is well known that doves' dung is not a nourishment for man, even in the most extreme famine; and hence Josephus and Theo- doret were of opinion, that it was bought instead of salt, to serve as a kind of manure for the purpose of raising esculent plants of quick vegetation. The general opinion since Bochart is, that it was a kind of chich-pea, or tare, which has very much the appearance of doves' dung, whence it might be named; Mr. Taylor remarks, that in the Arab writers the words kali, and ugnen, signify equally As a literary character, he distinguished the dung of pigeons, and chich peas. , Great quantities of the latter are sold in Cairo, to the pilgrims going to Mecca : and at Damascus, Belon says, “there are many shops where nothing else is done but preparing chich-peas. These, parched in a copper pan, and dried, are of great service to those who take long journeys.” This may ac- count for the stock of them stored up in the city of Sama- ria; and the cab would be a fit measure for this kind of pulse, which was the fare of the poorer class of people.— Calmet. - DOW, (LoRenzo;) a well-known itinerant preacher. He was one of the most remarkable men of this age for his zeal and labors in the cause of religion. He was a native of Coventry, Connecticut; and in early life became deeply impressed by the truths of religion, and felt urged, by motives irresistible, to devote his life to the preaching of the gospel in various parts of the world. His eccentric dress, and style of preaching, attracted great attention; while his shrewdness, and quick discernment of character, gave him no inconsiderable influence over the multitudes that attended on his ministry. He travelled extensively in England and Ireland, and repeatedly visited almost every portion of the United States. He had been a public preacher for more than thirty years, and it is probable that more persons have heard the gospel from his lips, than from those of any other individual since the days of White- field. He wrote several books, particularly a history of his own life, so singularly eventful, and full of vicissitudes: His purity of purpose, and integrity and benevolence of character, can hardly be questioned. He was a Methodist in principle, and though not in connexion with that Society, was held in esteem by many of that body. He died in Georgetown, district of Columbia, February 2, 1834. A wanderer through life, it is believed he was a sincere Christian pilgrim, seeking a heavenly country, and that he now rests in the city of God.—Rel. Narrator. DOWNE, (John, B. D.) This excellent man was born in 1560, in Devonshire, England, of religious parénts, and was educated at the university of Cambridge. Bishops IHall and Jewell were his early contemporaries, and the latter of these excellent men was chosen by Mr. Downe as a sort of model for his own life. Among mere men he could scarce have chosen a better. He was first presented to the vicarage of Winsford in Somerset; but after became rector of Instow, worth about one hundred pounds a year; where he was contented to spend his days in modest ob- scurity and useful labors, and where he was divinely blessed in turning many to righteousness. He was a man of vigorous intellect. His skill in the languages, particu- larly Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian, was almost unrivalled in the western part of the kingdom, as was also his knowledge of the sciences. His moral, civil, and religious wisdom was in due proportion; for the grace of God was upon him. He was so diligent in cate- chizing, preaching, and expounding the Scriptures, that in the course of his ministry he went through the whole body of the Bible, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Revelation. His ardor often carried him beyond his strength ; for his maxim was that of bishop Jewell, “that a general should die in the field, and a preacher in the pulpit.” Of his preaching it has been quaintly, said, “deep it was, and yet clear; rational, and yet divine; perspicuous, yet punctual; artificial, yet profitable; calm, yet piercing; ponderous, yet familiar; so that the ablest of his hearers might always learn something, and yet the simplest understand all.” All along, in health and sick- ness, he was a professed pilgrim and sojourner on earth; and in his last moments, among other things, observed, “that though he saw death approaching, he feared it not; for it was but a drone, and the sting thereof taken out.” He died in 1631.-Middleton, vol. iii. 36. DOWRY. Nothing distinguishes more the nature of marriage among us and in Europe, from the same connex. ion when formed in the East, than the different methods of proceeding between the father-in-law and the intended bridegroom. Among us, the father usually gives a por- tion to his daughter, which becomes the property of her husband; and which often makes a considerable part of his wealth; but in the East, the bridegroom offers to the father of his bride a sum of money, or value to his satisfac. * D R A. D R A [ 475 ) tion, before he can expect to receive his daughter in mar- riage. Of this procedure we have instances from the ear- liest times. When Jacob had nothing which he could immediately give for a wiſe, he purchased her by his ser- vices to her father Laban, Gen. 29:18. So we find She- chem offers to pay any value, as a dowry for Dinah, Gen. 34:12. In this passage is mentioned a distinction still observed in the East: (1) “A dowry” to the family, as a token of honor, to engage their favorable interest in the desired alliance, (2) “A gift” to the bride herself, e. g. of jewels and other decorations, a compliment of honor, as ºn's servant gave to Rebecca. (See MARRIAGE.)— almet. - DOXOLOGY, (from doza, praise, and logos, word;) a hymn used in the service of the ancient Christians. It was only a single sentence, without a response, running in these words, “Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, world without end, Amen.” Part of the latter clause, “As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,” was inserted some time after the first composition. The fourth council of Toledo, A. D. 633, added the word honor to it, and read it, “Glory and honor be to the Father,” &c., because the prophet David says, “Bring glory and honor to the Lord.” It is not easy to say, at what time the latter clause was inserted. Some ascribe it to the council at Nice, and pretend it was added in opposition to the Arians. But the first express mention made of it is in the second council of Waison, A. D. 529, above two centuries later. There was likewise another hymn, of great note in the ancient church, called the Great Doxology, or Angelical Hymn, beginning with those words which the angels sung at our Savior's birth, “Glory be to God on high,” &c. . This was chiefly used in the communion service. It was also used daily in private devotions. In the Mozarabic liturgy, it is appointed to be sung before the lessons on Christmas day. Chrysostom often mentions it, and ob- serves, that the Ascetics, or Christians who had retired from the world, met together dailyato sing this hymn. Who first composed it, adding the remaining part to the words sung by the angels, is uncertain. Some suppose it to be as ancient as the time of Lucian, about the beginning of the second century. Others take it for the “Gloria Pa- tri;” which is a dispute as difficult to be determined, as it is to find out the first author and original of this hymn. Both these doxologies have a place in the liturgy of the church of England, and of the Protestant Episcopal church of the United States; the former being repeated after every psalm, the latter used in the communion service.—Hend. Buck. - DRABICIANS; the followers of Nic. Drabicius, a pre- tended prophet in Hungary, about A. D. 1630, who failed in his attempt to found a permanent sect; it is said, through the timidity of his coadjutor, Comenius; and it is doubtful whether he should be considered rather as an en- thusiast, or an impostor; and it is not certain whether he was burned, or saved his life by a flight to Turkey. See Morison's Theol. Dict.—Williams. DRACHMA. The value of a common drachma was seven pence English, or twelve and a half cents. A di- drachma, or double drachma, made very near half a she- kel; and four drachmas made nearly a shekel, i.e. nearly half a dollar.—Watson. - DRAGON. This word, which frequently occurs in the English Bible, generally answers to the Hebrew tan, tanin, and taminim, though these words are sometimes rendered serpents, sea-monsters, and whales. The Rev. J. Hurdis, in a “Dissertation upon the true meaning of the word taminim,” contends, that in its various forms it uniformly signifies the crocodile ; an opinion which can be supported by no authentic facts, and by no legitimate mode of reasoning. Mr. Taylor, who argues at great length for restraining the word to amphibious animals, is of opinion that it includes the class of lizards, from the nater-ment to the crocodile, and also the seal, the manati, the morse, &c. His argu- ments are certainly ingenious and deserving of attention; but they have failed to convince us of the legitimacy of his deductions. The subject is involved in much obscuri- ty, from the apparent latitude with which the word is employed by the sacred writers. In Ex. 7: 9, et seq. Deut. 32: 33. and Jer. 51: 34, it seems to denote a large serpent. or the dragon, properly so called; in Gen. 1: 21. Job 7. 12. and Ez. 29: 3. a crocodile, or any large sea animal ; and in Lam. 4:3. and Job 30: 29, some kind of wild beast, proba bly the jackal or wolf, as the Arabic teenan denotes. It is to the dragon, properly so called, that we shall now direct our attention. Three kinds of dragons were formerly distinguished in India. 1. Those of the hills and mountains. 2. Those of the valleys and caves. 3. Those of the fens and marsh- es. The first is the largest, and covered with scales, as resplendent as burnished gold. They have a kind of beard hanging from their lower jaw, their aspect is frightful, their cry loud and shrill, their crest bright yellow, and they have a protuberance on their heads the color of a burning coal. 2. Those of the flat country are of a silver color, and frequent rivers, to which the former never come. 3. Those of the marshes are black, slow, and have no crest. Their bite is not venomous, though the creatures be dreadful. The following description of the boa is chiefly abstracted and translated from De La Cepede, by Mr. Taylor, who considers it as the proper dragon. The BoA is among serpents, what the lion or the ele phant is among quadrupeds; he usually reaches twenty §§§ §| ; g £ºsºjºs §§ § Šºšćº sºil; w 2.23 º *W* % º . .." ; º s ºr . ºn . . Sº . . is aſ “. . . § { * . , = tº . § : ; g s Fº |||s - feet in length, and to this species we must refer those de- scribed by travellers as lengthened to forty or fifty feet, as related by Owen. Kircher mentions a serpent forty palms in length; and such a serpent is referred to by Job Lu- dolph, as extant in Ethiopia. Jerome, in his life of Hila. rion, denominates such a serpent, draco, or dragon; say: ing, that they were called boas, because they could swallow (boves) beeves, and waste whole provinces. Bosman says, entire men have been frequently found in the gullets of serpents on the gold coast. But the longest serpent I have read of, is that mentioned by Livy, and by Pliny, which opposed the Roman army under Regulus, at the river Ba- grada in Africa. It devoured several of the soldiers; and so hard were its scales, that they resisted darts and spears: at length it was, as it were, besieged, and the military en- gines were employed against it, as against a fortified city. It was a hundred and twenty feet in length. The boa is not venomous. This serpent, being a very devouring creature, greedy of prey, leaps from among the hedges and woods, and standing upright on its tail, wrestles both with men and wild beasts: sometimes it leaps from the trees upon the traveller, whom it fastens on, and beats the breath out of his body with its tail. From this account of the boa, Mr. Taylor thinks it pro- bable that John had it in his mind when he describes Satan in his persecuting power under the symbol of a great red dragon. The dragon of antiquity was a serpent of prodi- gious size, and its most conspicuous color was red; and the apocalyptic dragon strikes vehemently with his tail; in all which particulars it perfectly agrees with the boa. Rev. 12: 4, 15–17.-Calmet. - - DRAGON-WELL, THE, (Neh. 2: 13.) lay east of Jeru- salem.-Calmet. DRAGOONING; one of the methods used by papists D R E D R U | 476 ) after the revocation of the edict of Nantz, under Louis XIV., for converting refractory heretics, and bringing them within the pale of their church. If the reader's feelings will suffer him to peruse the account of these bar- barities, he will find it under the article PERSECUTION in this work.-Buck. & DREAD; a high degree of fear. (See FEAR) DREAM; the excited state of the imagination in Sleep, whether from natural or supernatural causes. The East- ern people, and in particular the Jews, greatly regarded dreams, and applied for their interpretation to those who undertook to explain them. We see the antiquity of this custom in the history of Pharaoh's butler and baker, (Gen. 40.) and Pharaoh himselſ, and Nebuchadnezzar, are also instances. God expressly forbade his people from observ- ing dreams, and from consulting explainers of them. He condemned to death all who pretended to have prophetic dreams, and to ſoretell events, even though what they fore- told came to pass, iſ they had any tendency to promote idolatry, Deut. 13: 1–3. But they were not forbidden, when they thought they had a significative dream, to ad- dress the prophets of the Lord, or the high-priest in his ephod, to have it explained. Saul, before the battle of Gilboa, consulted a woman who had a familiar spirit, “because the Lord would not answer him by dreams, nor by prophets,” 1 Sam, 28: 6, 7. The Lord frequently discovered his will in dreams, and enabled persons to explain them. The Midianites gave credit to dreams, as appears from that which a Midianite related to his companion, and from whose interpretation Gideon took a happy omen, Judg. 7: 13, 15. The prophet Jeremiah (23:25, 28, 29.) exclaims against impostors who pretended to have had dreams, and abused the credulity of the people. The prophet Joel (2:28.) promises from God, that in the reign of the Messiah, the effusion of the Holy Spirit should be so copious, that the old men should have prophetic dreams, and the young men should receive V1SLOI).S. The word signifies, likewise, those vain images, beheld in imagination while asleep, which have no relation to pro- phecy, Job 20:8. Is. 29: 7. See also Eccl. 5: 3, 7. And it ought not to be overlooked, that we now have in the holy Scriptures a complete revelation of divine truth; so that to be expecting new revelations by dreams or visions, is to be carried away with the spirit of error and delusion, 1 John 4: 1–6. The wisest use Christians now can make of dreams is to be admonished by them to attend to the word of God, Jer. 23:28. Dreams should be carefully distinguished from visions: the former occurred during sleep, and therefore were liable to much ambiguity and uncertainty; the latter when the person, being awake, retained possession of his natural powers and faculties.—Calmet. DREAMER, is used as a word of reproach ; of Joseph by his brethren, (Gen. 37: 19.) and of Shemaiah, Jer. 29: 24. See chapter 27: 9. and Jude 8. See also Is, 56; 10.— Calmet. DRELINCOURT, (CHARLEs,) was born in the month of July, 1595, at Sedan, a town of France. His father was a man of piety, and great respectability, and wisely deter- mined on giving his son a liberal education. At Saumur, under the instruction of professor Duncan, he attained an accurate knowledge of theology, moral philosophy, and polite literature. In early life, his religious impressions were deep; and as they became permanent, he determined on devoting his future liſe to the service of God, as a Christian minister. At the age of twenty-three, he was accordingly admitted minister of the French Protestant Calvinistic church, and officiated near Langres. In 1620, he was called by the church of Paris. In 1625, he was married to the daughter of a rich merchant, residing at Paris, by whom he had sixteen children. About that time he published an excellent book “On the Preparation for the Lord’s Supper;” and shortly afterwards, his “Short View of Controversies,” and “Consolations against the Fear of Death.” His justly celebrated “Charitable Visits,” In five volumes, are of a later date. The work is inimita- ble : into six different languages it has been translated. Many a pious heart has been cheered by its perusal ; many a divine assisted in the discharge of his ministerial functions, by its directions; and many a tear of gratitude and delight has fallen on its pages. If he had never writ- ten any other book, Drelincourt would not have lived in vain. His sermons which were published, like those which were merely preached, were pious and affecting His religion was vital, experimental, and therefore it was operative. It produced an evident and delightful serenity; an amiability of disposition; a kindness of deportment; a warm desire for usefulness, and for the salvation of his species. But his writings were not exclusively practical. When what he regarded to be the cause of truth was con- cerned, he was bold as a lion, though gentle as a lamb. He wrote many books against the church of Rome; but he was not a persecutor of that church. He was a friend to universal toleration, and only sought to extend the cause of truth, by the influence of knowledge, the preach- ing of the gospel, and the publication of books calculated to develop the absurdities of its superstitious rites, and of its unscriptural doctrines. His character was generally and justly esteemed ; monarchs and princes loved and admired him, cultivated his society, and assisted in distri- buting his writings; posterity has ratified such approba- tion, and the name of Drelincourt is loved by every Chris- tian, and by all who value sincerity, candor, generosity, and piety. Happily for the world, his life was long pro- tracted, and that till the age of seventy-four : possessing, to the last, all the faculties of his mind, and the feelings of his heart, he continued to benefit the present and all succeeding generations, by his example, his writings, and his charities. He expired on the 3d of November, 1699, regretted by the good, respected by the worldly, and reve- renced by all men; and left behind him a “good name,” which is “better than riches.” See Memoirs of Drelin- court.—Jones's Chris. Biog. * DRESS. (See HABITs.) DROMEDARY. (See CAMEL.) DRUIDS; the priests or ministers of religion among the ancient Gauls, Britons, and Germans, who resembled, in many respects, the ºrahmins of India. They were chosen out of the best families ; and the honors of their birth, joined with those of their function, procured them the highest veneration among the people. They were versed in astrology, geometry, natural philosophy, politics, and geography; they were the interpreters of religion, and the judges of all affairs indifferently. Whoever refused obedi- ence to them, was declared impious and accursed. We know but little as to their peculiar doctrines, only that they believed the immortality of the soul, and, as is generally also supposed, the transmigration of it to other bodies; though a late author makes it appear highly probable they did not believe this last, at least not in the sense of the Pythagoreans. The chief settlement of the druids in Bri- tain was in the isle of Anglesey, the ancient Mona, which they might choose for this purpose, as it is well stored with precious groves of their favorite oak. They were divided into several classes or branches, such as the priests, the poets, the augurs, the civil judges, and instructers of youth. Strabo, however, does not comprehend all these different orders under the denomination of druids. He only distinguishes three kinds : bardi, poets; the vates, priests and naturalists; and the druids, who, besides the study of nature, applied themselves likewise to morality. Their garments were remarkably long, and when em- ployed in religious ceremonies, they likewise wore a white surplice. They generally carried a wand in their hands, and wore a kind of ornament, enchased with gold, about their necks, called the druid’s egg. They had one chief, or arch-druid, in every nation, who acted as high-priest, or pontifex maximus. He had absolute authority over the rest, and commanded, decreed, and punished at pleasure. They worshipped the supreme Being under the name of Esus or Hesus, and the symbol of the oak; and had no other temple than a wood or a grove, where all their religious rites were performed. Nor was any person permitted to enter that sacred recess unless he carried with him a chain, in token of his absolute dependence on the Deity. Indeed their whole religion originally consisted in acknowledging that the supreme Being, who made his abode in these sacred groves, governed the universe; and that every creature ought to obey his laws, and pay him divine homage, Mr. * D R U D R U ſ 477 J Bryant, however, maintains that they were 1dolaters, and that the sun was the grand object of their worship. They considered the oak as the emblem, or rather the pecu- liar residence of the Almighty; and accordingly chaplets of it were worn, both by the druids and people, in their re- ligious ceremonies; the altars were strewed with its leaves, and encircled with its branches. The fruit of it, especially the misletoe, was thought to contain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar"gift of heaven. It was, therefore, sought for on the sixth day of the moon with the greatest earnest- ness and anxiety; and when found, was hailed with such rapture of joy, as almost exceeds imagination to conceive. As soon as the druids were informed of the fortunate dis- covery, they prepared every thing ready for the sacrifice under the oak, (see Ezek. 6: 13.) to which they fastened two white bulls by the horns; then the arch-druid, attended by a prodigious number of people, ascended the tree, dress- ed in white; and, with a consecrated golden knife, or §. hook, cropped the misletoe, which he received in is robe, amidst the rapturous exclamations of the people. Having secured this sacred plant, he descended the tree, the bulls were sacrificed, and the Deity invoked to bless his own gift, and render it efficacious in those distempers in which it should be administered. According to Caesar, they in some cases offered human victims, and that upon the conviction that human blood was required to atone for human guilt.—Hend. Buck ; Williams. DRUNKENNESS; a well-known and debasing indis. position, produced by excessive drinking. The first in- stance of intoxication on record is that of Noah, (Gen. 9: 21.) who was probably ignorant of the effects of the ex- pressed juice of the grape. The sin of drunkenness is most expressly condemned in the Scriptures, Rom. 13: 13. 1 Cor. 6: 9, 10. Eph. 5: 18, 1 Thess. 5:7, 8. Men are sometimes represented as drunk with sorrow, with afflic- tions, and with the wine of God's wrath, Isa. 63: 6. Jer. 51: 57. Ezek. 23: 33. Persons under the influence of su- perstition, idolatry, and delusion, are said to be drunk, because they make no use of their natural reason, Isa. 28: 7. Rev. 17:2. Drunkenness sometimes denotes abundance, Satiety, Deut. 32: 42. Isa. 49: 26. To “add drunkenness to thirst,” (Deut. 29:19.) is to add one sin to another. (See INTEMPERANCE.)—Calmet. DRUSES; a remarkable people and sect, inhabiting different parts of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, and certain other regions of Syria and Palestine, but whose principal seat is Kesroan, a district on mount Lebanon, towards the Mediterranean sea. The Druses are divided into two classes: 1. The Dja- hals, ignorant or uninitiated, who compose the greater part, and even the emir himself, who is not permitted to inter- fere in any way in matters of religion. They appear to have no definite religion whatever, but conform to that which hap- pens to predominate, in order to conceal the fact that they belong to any particular sect. They make no distinction of meats, drink wine, marry wives from among those who are not Druses, and wear a variegated dress. 2. The Akkals, “intelligent, initiated,” form a sacred or aristocratic order, who perform the ceremonies of their religion in their ora- torios, but under circumstances of such profound secrecy, that their character or nature has never been discovered. Should any of the uninitiated happen to witness any part of their religious service, he is instantly put to death. They are excessively rigid as it regards their religion; live temperately, on food peculiar to themselves; eat not with strangers; marry wives of their own order; and ne- ver take an oath, but confirm their declarations by the words, “I have said it.” From them the spiritual or ec- clesiastical head, the imam of the Druses, is chosen, whom both the initiated and uninitiated regard with profound veneration. According to Malte Brun, the number of the Druses amounts to one hundred and twenty thousand; but Mr. Connor, late a missionary in those parts, rates them at seventy thousand; of whom ten thousand compose the Akkals or sacred order. With respect to their religious belief, they profess them- Selves to be Mutterwahedin, or Unitarians, who believe in Hakem, to whom they give the characters, “The creator of heaven and earth ; the only adorable God in heaven, and the only Lord on earth; the one, the solitary, who is without ...; and children'; who begets not and is not be. gotten ; who acts, according to his sovereign pleasure; who says to all things, Be, and they are; the beginning and the end of all things; the powerful, the excellent, the victorious. I am, he says, the foundation of the new religion, the Lord, the way, the written book, the inhabit- ed house; I am he who knows all things of himself; the Lord of the resurrection and the new life; I am he who animates the creatures, the water of life, the author of prosperity; I give laws and annul them; I cause men to die, and declare martyrdom to be nothing; I am a con- suming, fire that consumes the proud,”’ &c. They ac- knowledge seven lawgivers : . Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mahomet, and Said. The first being that follows in rank to Hakem, is Hamsah, who appeared in the time of Adam, by the name of Shatnil; in that of Noah by that of Fitagurus; in Abraham's time by that of David; under Moses he was called Shoaib ; in the time of Jesus his name was Lazarus; in that of Ma- homet, Soliman; and in that of Said, Zalech. These seven lawgivers were inhabited by the same soul, which went from body to body, according to the rules of the metempsychosis. Though Hamsah might have prevented Jesus from carrying his plan into execution, he permitted him to establish his religion, partly in order that it might be the means of overthrowing the Jewish polity, and partly that there might be another predominant religion, under which he and his Unitarians might live concealed. He attempted to teach Christ; but on his rejecting the proffered tuition, he stirred up the Jews against him, and they killed him. Christ was the false, Hamsah the true Messiah. It is of Hamsah the four evangelists write, so that the Christians are completely deceived, and can only be delivered from error and all evil by becoming. Unita- Tla.IłS. Of Mahomet they entertain a worse opinion; main- taining that he was an evil demon, a son of whoredom, and accursed. The Mahometans are the flood which has deluged the world. The Druses do not practice cir- cumcision. According to their catechism, Hakem first became visi- ble in the year of the Hegira 400, but did not reveal his divinity; in the year 408, his divine nature was mani- fested, and continued visible for eight years; in the ninth he disappeared, and will not again be revealed till the day of judgment, the time of which is unknown, but its sign is when the Christians have subdued the Mahometans. Judgment will be held on the four classes of men: Chris- tians, Jews, Apostates, and Unitarians. To the Jews are reckoned the Mahometans, and the Apostates are those who desert the faith of Hakem. At the judgment, the Unitarians shall be rewarded with empire and dominion, treasures of gold and silver, and shall be promoted to be emirs, pashas, and sultans. The torments of the Apos- tates shall be dreadfully severe ; those of the Jews and Christians more lenient. They believe in ten incarna- tions of Hakem; and seven revelations of Hamsah. The Druses receive the four gospels, only apply what is said of Christ to Hamsah ; and they profess to receive the Koran, but only as a cloak to screen them from the Mahomelans. Owing, most probably, to their living among the Maronites, several appear of late to have em. braced the outward form of Christianity. The present emir, Beshir Shehab, and a portion of his family, have embraced the doctrines of the Maronites.—Hend. Buck. DRUSILLA, the third daughter of that Herod Agrippa, who put to death the apostle James, and imprisoned Pe ter, and who was himself judicially smitten in the midst of his oration at Caesarea. She was renowned for her beauty, but was far from being remarkable for either her piety or chastity. She was first promised in marriage to Epiphanes, the Son of Antiochus, king of Comagena, upon an assurance from this prince that he would be cir- cumcised ; but he refusing to perform the condition, the marriage was broke off, and she was afterwards married to Azizus, king of the Emissenians. In a little time, however, she left Azizus, to marry Claudius Felix, gover. nor of Judea, by whom she had a son, whose name was Agrippa. Before Drusilla, and her husband Felix, the DU D D UN | 478 ) apostle Paul appeared and defended his Christian, pro- fession. Acts 24; 24.—Jones. - r * DUALIST; a name given to those who held the two original and opposite principles of good and evil, from which all things have sprung.—Hend. Buck. DUCHOBORTZI, or “WRESTLERs with THE SPIRIT ;” a sect of Russian dissenters, inhabiting the right bank of the river Moloshnaia, near the sea of Azof. Their num- ber, in the year 1818, amounted to 1153 souls. They have been called the Russian Quakers; and much as the more enlightened members of the society of Friends would find to object to among them, it cannot be denied that in many points they resemble them. Their name in- dicates the strong bearing which their system has on mys- tical exercises, in which they place the whole of religion, to the exclusion of all external rites and ceremonies. All their knowledge, they pretend, is traditionary. They rofess to have the Bible in their hearts; the light within is sufficient, they need nothing more. Every thing with them is mystical, They speak of Christ, and his death ; but they explain both his person and sufferings mystically, and build their hopes entirely on themselves. They make no distinction of days or meats; and marriage, so far from being a sacrament with them, as in the Greek church, is scarcely viewed as a civil institution.—Hend. Buck. DUDITH, (ANDREw,) one of the most learned and eminent men of the sixteenth century. He was born at Buda, in Hungary, in 1533, and, after having studied in the most famous universities, and visited almost all the countries of Europe, was raised to the bishopric of Tinia by the emperor Ferdinand, and made privy counsellor to that prince. He had, by the force of his genius, and the study of the ancient orators, acquired such a masterly and irresistible eloquence, that in all public deliberations, he carried every thing before him. In the council of Trent, to which he was sent in the name of the emperor, and of the Hungarian clergy, he spoke with such energy against several abuses of the church of Rome, and par- ticularly against the celibacy of the clergy, that the pope, being informed thereof by his legates, solicited the empe- ror to recall him. Ferdinand complied, but, having heard Dudith’s report of what passed in the council, he approved his conduct, and rewarded him with the bishopric of Cho- nat. Dudith afterwards married a maid of honor of the queen of Hungary, and resigned his bishopric; the em- peror, however, still continued his friend and protector. The papal excommunication was levelled at his head; but he treated it with contempt. Tired of the fopperies and superstitions of the church of Rome, he retired to Cracow, when he publicly embraced the Protestant religion, aſter having been for a considerable time its secret friend. It is said that he showed some inclination toward the Socin- ian system ; some of his friends deny this ; others con- fess it, but maintain that he afterwards changed his sen- timents in that respect. He was well acquainted with several branches of philosophy, and mathematics, with hysic, history, theology, and civil law. He was in early ife such an enthusiastic admirer of Cicero, that he copied over three times, with his own hand, all the works of that immortal author. He had something majestic in his figure, and in the air of his countenance. His life was re- gular and virtuous; his manners were elegant and easy; and his benevolence warm and extensive. In the latter years of his life, he became a member and an occasional teacher of the Baptist church, in Smila, a town in Poland, which belonged to him. He died at Breslaw in Silesia, in 1589, aged fifty-six. The greatest man among the Baptists at the Reforma- tion, says Robinson, was the celebrated, the amiable, the incomparable Dudith ; a man to be held in everlasting remembrance, much for his rank, more for his abilities and virtues, most of all for his love of liberty. In this, he was altogether in advance of his age. Persecution he abhorred. In a letter to Beza, he observes, “You try to justify the banishment of Ochin, and the execution of oth- ers, and you seem to wish Poland would follow your exam- ple. God forbid! When you talk of your Augsburg conſes- sion, and your Helvetic creed, and your unanimity, and your fundamental truths, I keep thinking of the sixth command- ment, Thou shalt not kill.”—Mosheim; Benedict's His. Bap. DUICE. This word, being a title of honor in use among Europeans, and signifying a higher order of nobility, is apt to mislead the reader, who in Gen. 36: 15–43, finds a long list of dukes of Edom ; but the word duke, from the Latin dua, merely signifies a leader or chief, and the word chief ought rather to have been preferred in our translation. See 1 Chron, 1 : 51.-Calmet. DULCIMIER, (Dan. 3: 5, 10.) an instrument of music, as is usually, thought; but the original word, sumponya, which is Greek, renders it doubtful whether it really mean a musical instrument, or a musical strain, chorus, or ac- companiment of many voices, or instruments, in concert and harmony. The rabbins however describe it as a sort of bagpipe; although the real dulcimer is a triangu- lar instrument, of fifty wires, struck by an iron key. It is difficult to account for the introduction of a Greek word into the Chaldee language, unless we suppose that some musicians from Greece, or from western Asia, had been taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar, in his victories over the cities on the coast of the Mediterranean, and that these introduced certain of their own terms of art among the king's band of music; as we now use much of the language of Italy in our musical entertainments.-Calmet. DULCINISTS; the followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Novara in Lombardy, about the beginning of the four- teenth century. He taught that the law of the Father, which had continued till Moses, was a law of grace and wisdom ; but that the law of the Holy Ghost, which be. gan with himself, in 1307, was a law entirely of love, which would last to the end of the world,—Hend. Buck. DUMAH; a city of Judah, Josh. 15: 52. It is also a shortened form of speaking and writing Idumea. Gen. 25: 14, Isa. 21:11. (See IDUMEA.)—Calmet. DUMB. (1:) One unable to speak by reason of natu- ral infirmity, Exod. 4: 11. (2.) One unable to speak by reason of want of knowledge what to say, or how to say it; what proper mode of address to use, or what reasons to allege on his own behalf, Prov. 31: 8. (3.) One un- willing to speak, Psal. 39:9. We have a remarkable in- stance of this reverential dumbness, or submissive si- lence, in the case of Aaron, (Lev. 10: 3.) aſter Nadab and Abihu, his sons, were consumed by fire. “Aaron held his peace!” did not exclaim against the justice of God, but saw the propriety of the divine procedure, and humbly acquiesced in it.—Calmet. DU MOULIN, (Peter, D. D.) This very celebrated French Protestant minister was born at Wixen in 1568. He imbibed the rudiments of literature at Sedan ; but at twenty, was sent to finish his education in England, where he became a member of Christ college, Cambridge. Four years after, he went to Holland, where, being favored by the French ambassador, he obtained ſtom the queen mother the professorship of philosophy at Leyden. This he held six years, and among his scholars was the famous Grotius. He published his “Logic” in 1596. He taught Greek also in the divinity schools, and in his Novitas Pa- pismi, he exposes cardinal Perron's ignorance of that lan- guage. In 1599, he went to Paris to be minister of Cha- renton, and chaplain to Catharine of Bourbon, the king's sister, whom he confirmed in the Protestant faith, in spite of all the efforts of the pope, the king, and his divines. He was however greatly respected by Henry IV. and after the death of that monarch, publicly charged the Jesuits with the plot of his assassination by Ravillac. In 1615, he visited England, at the request of James I. by whom he was received with great aſſection, and who conferred several honors on him. His incessant controversies with the Jesuits often exposed his liſe, so that he was obliged at length to have a guard always around him. They had previously tried bribes, but in vain. In 1620, he accepted the professorship of divinity and ministry of the church at Sedan, both which he held till his death, in 1658, at the advanced age of ninety. His death, though ſull of the deepest christian humility, was most triumphant. Every now and then, when he seemed to slumber, he would whisper out short sentences from an overſlowing heart; as, “The IWord was made flesh Death is swallowed up in victory ! I desire to depart and be with Christ O see him O how beautiful he is ſ”—Middleton, vol. iii. 369. -DUNG. The directions given to the prophet Ezekiel, D UN 1) U 3 [ 479 | (chap. 4, 12–16) have been much misunderstood, and have also given occasion for many impertinent remarks. Niebuhr, Tourneſort, and Le Bruyn, however, who are describing much the same country, deserve our marked attention, as likely to illustrate the history of the prophet Ezekiel. Le Bruyn assures us that in Persia, human dung is used, to heat ovens for the purpose of baking food, (consequently Mr. Harmer mistakes, when he says, “no nation made use of that horrid kind of fuel,”) and against this Ezekiel remonstrates and petitions, till he procures leave to use a fuel, which, though bad enough, is not quite so bad. Does not the prophet's solicitation for his personal relief from that defilement, imply his hope of the same alleviation, in respect to those whom he typifi- ed, i. e. the Jewish people 7–Calmet. DUNIKERS ; a denomination of Seventh-day Baptists, which took its rise in the year 1724. It was founded by Conrad Beissel, a German, who received a regular educa- tion at Halle, and took orders as a minister; but being persecuted for his opinions on some points in theology, he left Europe, and retired to an agreeable solitude within fiſty miles of Philadelphia, for the more free exercise of religious contemplation. Curiosity attracted followers, and his simple and engaging manners made them prose- lytes. They soon settled a little colony, called Euphrate, in allusion to the Hebrews, who used to sing psalms on the borders of the river Euphrates. This denomination seem to have obtained their name from their baptizing their new converts by plunging. They are also called Tumblers, from the manner in which they performed baptism, which is by putting the person, while kneeling, head first under water, so as to resemble the motion of the body in the action of tumbling. They use the trine immersion, with laying on the hands and prayer, even when the person baptized is in the water. Their habit seems to be peculiar to themselves, consist- mg of a long tunic, or coat, reaching down to their heels, with a sash or girdle round the waist, and a cap, or hood, hanging from the shoulders, like the dress of the Domi- nican friars. The men do not shave the head or beard. The men and women have separate habitations and dis- tinct governments. For these purposes they have erected two large wooden buildings, one of which is occupied by the brethren, the other by the sisters of the society; and in each of them there is a banqueting-room, and an apart- ment for public worship; for the brethren and sisters do not meet together, even at their devotions. They used to live chiefly upon roots and other vegetables, the rules of their society not allowing them flesh, except on particular occasions, when they hold what they call a love feast; at which time the brethren and sisters dine together in a large apartment, and eat mutton, but no other meat. In each of their little cells, they have a bench fixed, to serve the purpose of a bed, and a small block of wood for a pillow. They allow of marriage, and aid their poorer brethren who enter the matrimonial state ; but they ne- vertheless consider celibacy as a virtue. The principal tenets of the Dunlcers appear to be these : that future happiness is only to be attained by penance and outward mortification in this life; and that as Jesus Christ, by his meritorious sufferings, became the Redeemer of mankind in general, so each individual of the human race, by a life of abstinence and restraint, may work out his own salvation. Nay, they go so far as to admit of works of supererogation, and declare that a man may do much more than he is in justice or equity obliged to do, and that his superabundant works may therefore be applied to the salvation of others. This denomination deny the eternity of future punishments, and believe that the dead have the gospel preached to them by our Savior, and that the souls of the just are employed to preach the gospel to those who have had no revelation in this life. They sup- pose the Jewish sabbath, Sabbatical year and year of ju- bilee, are typical of certain periods, after the general judgment, in which the soºls of those who are not then admitted into happiness are purified from their corrup- tion. If any within those smaller periods are so far hum- hled as to acknowledge the perfections of God, and to own Christ as their only Savior, they are received to fe- licity; while those who continue obstinate are reserved in torments until the grand period typified by the jubilee arrives, in which all shall be made happy in the endless fruition of the Deity. They also deny the imputation of Adam's sin to his posterity. They disclaim violence even in cases of self-defence, and suffer themselves to be de- frauded or wronged rather than go to law. * Their church government and discipline are the same with the Baptists in general, except that every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation; and their best speaker is usually ordained to be the minister. They have deacons and deaconesses from among their ancient widows and exhorters, who are all licensed to use their gifts statedly. The members of the society are now much dispersed, and the members in the adjacent country differ in no respect from their neighbors in dress or man- ners; though they maintain the faith of their fathers, and are remarked for their exemplary lives and deportment. —Hend. Buck. * DUNS, (John,) usually known as Duns Scotus, an whose acuteness in disputation gained him the appella- tion of the Subtle Doctor, was born at Dunstance, in Northumberland, late in the thirteenth century; studied at Merton college, Oxford; and became head of the schools at the university at Paris. He died, at Cologne, about the year 1309. His works, proofs of perverted talent, form twelve folio volumes. He differed from Aquinas on the efficacy of divine grace, and his followers were called Scotists. To him is also attributed the doctrine of the holy virgin’s immaculate conception.—Davenport. DUPIN, (Louis ELLIes,) an ecclesiastical historian, was born, in Normandy, in 1637; studied at Harcourt college and the Sorbonne; and became professor of di- vinity in the Royal college. The professorship, however, he lost, in consequence of his religious moderation ; and his papers were seized, because he had corresponded with Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, relative to a project for uniting the English and Gallican churches. He was also persecuted by Bossuet and De Harlay, for the candor which he displayed in his great work, The Universal Library of Ecclesiastical Authors, in fifty-eight vols. Besides that work, Dupin wrote many others, and con- tributed to the Journal des Savans. He died in 1719.- Davenport. DURA; a great plain near Babylon, where Nebuchad- nezzar erected a colossal image of gold to be worshipped, Dan. 3: 1. (See BABYLoN.)—Calmet. DURAND, (David,) a Protestant minister, was born, in 1681, at Pargoire, in Lower Languedoc. As chaplain of a regiment of refugees, he was present at the battle of Almanza, Being taken prisoner by the peasants, after the rout of the allies, he narrowly escaped death ; and he was, subsequently, in equal danger from the Inquisition. He escaped, however, and became a minister in Holland, whence he was invited to be preacher to the Savoy, in London. He died in 1763. Among his works are, Ser- mons; a Life of Wanini; a. History of the Sixteenth Cen- tury; and a Continuation of Rapin.—Davenport. DURSIANS, or DERUz1ANs; a fierce people, formerly inhabiting the wilds of mount Libanus, and in the ele- venth century engaged in the holy war. There is evi- dence that they understood some of the principles, and perhaps made a general profession, of Christianity; but their peculiar tenets were kept so secret, that they cannot now be ascertained with certainty. It is probable, how- ever, from many circumstances, that they were the de- scendants of the early Druses. This may be inferred from their name, residence, corresponding character, and hatred to the Turks, which was very likely to engage them in such an expedition, though the fact cannot be historically traced. Dr. Mosheim suspects them to be Manichaeans; but it seems more likely, they picked up their loose and imperfect notions of Christianity from some of the fanatics engaged in the crusades.—Mo- sheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iv. p. 270–Williams. DUST, or ashes, cast on the head was a sign of mourn- ing, (Josh. 7: 6.) sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction, Lam. 3: 29. Isaiah 47: 1. The dust, also denotes the grave, Gen. 3:19. Job 7: 21. Psalm 22:15. It is put for a great multitude, Gen. 13: 16. Numbers 23: 10. It signifies a low or mean condition, 1 Sam. 2: 8, Nahum ~º. © D W E D W I [ 480 ) 3: 18. To shake or wipe off the dust of a place from one's feet, marks the renouncing of all intercourse with it in future. God threatens the Jews with rain of dust, &c., Deut. 28:24. An extract from Sir T. Roe's em. bassy may cast light on this: “Sometimes, in India, the wind blows very high in hot and dry seasons, raising up into the air a very great height, thick clouds of dust and sand. These dry showers most grievously annoy all those among whom they fall; enough to Smite them all with present blindness; filling their eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouths too, if not well guarded; searching every place, as well within as without, so that there is not a little key-hole of any trunk or cabinet, if it be not cover- ed, but receives this dust; add to this, that the fields, brooks, and gardens suffer extremely from these terrible showers.” 2. In almost every part of Asia, those who demand justice against a criminal throw dust upon him, signifying that he deserves to lose his life, and be cast into the grave; and that this is the true interpretation of the ac- tion, is evident from an imprecation in common use among the Turks and Persians, “Be covered with earth!” “Earth be upon thy head.” We have two remarkable instances of casting dust recorded in Scripture: the first is that of Shimei, who gave vent to his secret hostility to David, when he fled before his rebellious son, by throwing stones at him, and casting dust, 2 Sam. 16: 13. It was an ancient custom, in those warm and arid countries, to lay the dust before a person of distinction, and particularly before kings and princes, by sprinkling the ground with water. To throw dust into the air while a person was passing, was therefore an act of great disrespect; to do so before a sovereign prince, an indecent outrage. But it is clear that Shimei meant more than disrespect and outrage to an afflicted king, whose subject he was ; he in- tended to signify by that action, that David was unfit to live, and that the time was at last arrived to offer him a sacrifice to the ambition and vengeance of the house of Saul. This view of his conduct is confirmed by the he- havior of the Jews to the apostle Paul, when they seized him in the temple, and had nearly succeeded in putting him to death; they cried out, “Away with such a fellow from the earth, for it is not fit that he should live; and as they cried out and cast off their clothes, and threw dust into the air, the chief captain commanded him to be brought into the castle,” Acts 22: 23. A great similarity appears between the conduct of the Jews on this occasion, and the behavior of the peasants in Persia, when they go to court to complain of the governors, whose oppressions they can no longer endure. They carry their complaints against their governors by companies, consisting of seve- ral hundreds, and sometimes of a thousand; they repair to that gate of the palace nearest to which their prince is most likely to be, where they set themselves to make the most horrid cries, tearing their garments, and throwing dust into the air, and demanding justice. The king, upon hearing these cries, sends to know the occasion of them : the people deliver their complaints in writing, upon which he informs them that he will commit the cognizance of the affair to such an one as he names ; and in consequenc of this, justice is usually obtained.—Watson. * DUTY; any action, or course of actions, which flow from the relations we stand in to God or man; that which a man is bound to perform by any natural or legal obli- gation. The various moral, relative, and spiritual duties are considered in their places in this work.-Hend. Buck. DUVEIL, (CHARLes MARIA, D. D.) a divine of great reputation in the seventeenth century, was by birth a Jew, but became a convert to Christianity. In his quest of divine truth, after passing through the church of Rome, and the church of England, he embraced the views of the Baptists, and settled as pastor of the Baptist congregation in Grace church street, London. He was much supported, notwithstanding the change in his sentiments, by many of the dignified clergy, among whom were Drs. Stilling- fleet, Sharp, Tillotson, Patrick, and Lloyd. Dr. Duveil pub- lished a literal exposition of the gospels of Mark and Luke ; also of the Acts of the Apostles, and of the minor prophets.--Benedict's His. Bap. - DWELL. God dwells in light, in respect of his delight in, and independent possession of his own glorious ex- cellences, and in respect of his glorious residence amid rays of inexpressible glory in heaven. 1 Tim. 6: 16. 1 John 1: 7. He divells in heaven, in respect of his con- tinued and delightful residence of his presence there. Ps, 123: 1. He divells in the tabernacle, temple, and city of Jerusalem; there the symbols of his presence were con- tinued. Ps. 132: 14. and 68: 16. He divells in his church, and in, and with his pº in the continued bestowal of his ordinances, and of his gracious, supporting, and com- forting influences. Ps. 9:11: 1 John 4: 12. Isa. 57: 15. The fulness of the Godhead dwells bodily in Christ; the divine nature personally, perpetually, and truly resides in his human nature, by the closest union with it. Col. 2: 9. Christ dwelt among men in his state of humiliation on earth. John 1: 14. He divells in our heart by faith, he is united to us as our head and husband; his right- eousness is imputed to us, and applied to our conscience ; his spirit and grace are fixed in our heart; he loves an delights in us, and furnishes our whole soul with his ful- mess. Eph. 3: 17. The Holy Spirit dwells in us by per- sonal residence, and gracious influence. Rom. 8: and 9. 2 Tim. 1: 14. 1 Cor. 3: 16. The word of God dwells in us richly, when it is carefully studied, firmly believed, closely applied, and diligently practised. Col. 3: 16. Ps. 119: 11. The saints divell in God, and in Christ ; they are united to, and mourished, supported and comforted by him, and have sweet intimacy and ſellowship with him. 1 John 3: 24, and 4: 16. They dwell in love, when they live in the faith of God’s redeeming love to them, and in the exercise of love to him and his people. , 1 John 4: 15. Wickedness, vengeance, or judgment divells in or on a person or land, when it long continues there. Job 11: 14, and 18: 15. Isa. 32: 16.—Bronm. - DWIGHT, (TIMOTHY, S. T. D., LL.D.) president of Yale college, Connecticut, one of the few men who by uncommon powers of mind, by exalted piety, by pecu- liar incidents of life, by having exerted a commanding influence on the interests of the public, and acquired an unusual share in their affections, have given their names as a peculiar treasure to the Christian church, to their country, and to posterity. ' He was born in Northampton, Massachusetts, May 14, 1752. His father was a respectable and opulent mer- chant, a man of sincere and unaffected piety, of excellent understanding, and unblemished character. His mother was the third daughter of the celebrated Jonathan Ed- wards, pastor of the church at Northampton, afterwards president of Nassau hall. She was a woman of vigo- rous and discriminating intellect, and for extent and va- riety of knowledge has rarely been exceeded by any of her sex in this country. “It was a maxim with her, the soundness of which her own observation through life fully confirmed, that children generally lose several years in consequence of being considered by their friends as too young to be taught.” She began, therefore, the instruc- tion of her son almost as soon as he could speak, and such was his eagerness and capacity for improvement, that he learned the alphabet at a single lesson ; and at the age of four, could read the Bible with ease and cor- rectness. “With his father's example before him, en- forced and recommended by the precepts of his mother, he was sedulously instructed in the doctrines of religion, as well as the whole circle of moral duties. She taught him from the very dawn of his reason to fear God and to keep his commandments, to be conscientiously just, kind, affectionate, charitable and forgiving, to preserve, on all occasions and under all circumstances, the most sacred regard to truth, and to relieve the necessities, and supply the wants of the poor and unfortunate. She also aimed at a very early period to enlighten his conscience, to make him afraid of sin, and to teach him to hope for pardon only through the righteousness of Christ. The impres- sions thus made upon his mind in inſancy were never erased.” His biographer adds, “Her school room was the nursery. Here he had his regular hours for study as in a school; and twice every day she heard him re- peat his lessons. He was them for limited periods per- mitted to read such books as he chose.” He often, at these times, rºad cºver the historical parts of the Bible, E A G E. A. G. I 481 J and gave an account of them to his mother. The minu- test incidents in them were thus deeply and distinctly fixed in his memory; and to this circumstance we are probably indebted for his epic poem, “The Conquest of Canaan,” if not for his fine “Dissertation on the History, Eloquence and Poetry of the Bible,” which at the age of twenty procured him so much honor. From the age of six to twelve, he made such rapid and extraordinary advances in every kind of knowledge, that he would have been ready for admission into Yale college at eight; and when he actually did enter at thirteen, he was already master of history, geography, and the classics. The last two years of his college life, he devoted four- teen hours each day to close study. His acquisitions were very great; but his sight was irreparably injured by this excessive application. He was graduated in 1769, among the first of his class. For two years afterwards he taught a grammar school at New Haven with great reputation. His time here was regularly divided, and occupied ; six hours each day in school; eight in close and secure study; ten in exercise and sleep. After far outstripping his rivals in the career of litera- ture, he was called to become a tutor in Yale college at the age of nineteen. This office he filled with advantage to the institution and credit to himself. Being licensed as a preacher, he was chosen a chaplain in the American army, in 1777. Soon after this appointment, his father, however, died; and he was compelled to resign his situa- tion, and to take charge of his mother and a large family. Thus he passed five years of his life, during which he twice consented to serve the town as their representative in the state legislature. In May, 1795, he was elected presi. dent of Yale college. This was a situation eminentl adapted to him, and one in which he was enabled to º vance the interests of learning and religion. When Dr. Dwight entered upon his arduous duties, the students were infected with infidelity; but in consequence of the efforts of his wisdom, prudence, zeal, and learning, alike firm and well principled, he succeeded to a great degree, in expelling opinions so inimical to the best interests of society. Afflicted by a disorder in his eyes, he was com- pelled, in after-years, to employ an amanuensis to pen from his lips his sermons. As a preacher, he was dis- tinguished by the originality and copiousness of his ideas; the simplicity, fulness, and force of his language; and the dignity, propriety, and seriousness of his manner. As a professor of theology, he was equally eminent; and his “Theology explained and defended,” in five volumes, octavo, should be possessed by every student in divinity. He also wrote “Travels in New England and New York,” four volumes, octavo ; two Sermons on “The Dangers of the Infidel Philosophy,” and various other discourses. Dr. Dwight continued to discharge the duties of his station, both as a minister, and president of the college, and professor of theology, to the age of sixty-five; when, after a long and painful illness, he expired, on January the 11th, 1817. His last words were, in refe- rence to the 8th of Romans and the 17th of John, which had been read to him at his request, “O what triumphant truths I’” Two volumes of his sermons were published after his death. All his works are in high esteem, both in this country and in Europe.—Memoir ; Jones's Chris. Biog. E. EAGLE ; (nesher,) Exod. 19:4. Lev. 11: 13. The name is derived from a verb which signifies to lacerate, or tear in pieces. The eagle has always been considered as the king of birds, on account of its great strength, rapidity and elevation of flight, natural ferocity, and the terror it inspires into its fellows of the air. Its voracity is so great that a large extent of territory is requisite for the Supply of proper sustenance; and Providence has therefore con- stituted it a solitary animal : two pair of eagles are never found in the same neighborhood, though the genus is dispersed through every quarter of the world. Its sight is quick, strong, and piercing, to a proverb. . In Job 39: 27, the natural history of the eagle is finely drawn up :-- Is it at thy voice that the eagle soars? And ther’ſore maketh his nest on high 3 The rock is the place of his habitation. He abides on the crag, the place of strength. Thenre he pounces upon º prey, His eyes discern aſar off. Even his young ones drink down blood; And wherever is slaughter, there is he. .* Alluding to the popular opinion that the eagle assists its ſeeble young in their flight, by bearing them up on its own pinions, Moses represents Jehovah as saying, “Ye have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles' wings, and brought you unto myself,” Exod. 19: 4. Scheuchzer has quoted from an ancient poet, the following beautiful paraphrase on this pas- Sage :- Ac velut alituum princeps, fulvusque tomantis Armiger, implumes, et adhuc sime ribore natos Sollicita refovet cura, pinguisque ferinae Indulget pastus : moz ut cum viribus aloe Vesticipes crecere, vocat se blandior aura, Erpansa invitat pluma, dorsogue morantes Earcipit, attolitgue humeris, plausuque secundo Fertur in area, timens oneri, et tamen impete presso Remigium tentaris alarum, incurvaque pinnis Vela !egens, humiles tramat sub nubibus oras. Hinc sensim supra alta petit, jam jamgue sub astra Erigitur, cursusque leves citus urget in auras, Omnia pervolitans late loca, et agnine foetus Fertque refertgue swos vario, moremgwe volandi Addocet : illi autem, longa assuetudine docti, Paulatim incipiumt pennis se credere cºlo Impaoidi : tantum a teneris valet addere curam. 2. When Balaam delivered his predictions respecting the fate that awaited the nations which he then particu- larized, he said of the Kenites, “Strong is thy dwelling, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock,” (Num. 24; 21.) alluding to that princely bird, the eagle, which not only delights in soaring to the loftiest heights, but chooses the highest rocks, and most elevated mountains, as desirable situations for erecting its nest, Hab. 2: 9. Obad. 4. What Job says concerning the eagle, which is to be un- derstood in a literal sense, “Where the slain are, there is he,” our Savior turns into a fine parable: “Whereso- ever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together,” (Matt. 24; 28.) that is, Wherever the guilty are, and however intermingled with the good, divine jus- tice, with eagle eye, will not fail to detect them, and exe- cute vengeance upon them, Luke 17:37. 3. The swiftness of the flight of the eagle is alluded to *. E A. R. E AR [ 482 l in several passages of Scripture; as, “The Lord shall bring a nation against thee from afar, from the end of the earth, as swift as the eagle flieth,” Deut. 28:49. In the affecting lamentation of David over Saul and Jonatham, their impetuous and rapid career is described in forcible terms: Tº They were swifter than eagles; they were stronger than lions,” 2. Sam. 1; 23. Jeremiah, when he beheld in vision the march of Nebuchadnezzar, cried, “Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind. His horses are swifter than eagles. Woe unto us, for we are spoiled,” Jer. 4: 13. To the wide-expanded wings of the eagle, and the rapidity of its flight, the same prophet beautifully alludes in a subsequent chapter, where he describes the subversion of Moab by the same ruthless conqueror : “Behold, he shall fly as an eagle, and spread his wings over Moab,” Jer. 48: 40. In the same manner he describes the sudden desolations of Ammon in the next chapter; but, when he turns his eye to the ruins of his own country, he exclaims, in still more emergetic language, “Our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens,” Lam. 4: 19. Under the same comparison the patriarch Job describes the rapid flight of time : “My days are passed away, as the eagle that hasteth to the prey,” Job 9:26. The sur- prising rapidity with which the blessings of common providence sometimes vanish from the grasp of the pos- sessor is thus described by Solomon : “Riches certainly make themselves wings: they fly away as an eagle towards heaven.” Prov. 23: 5. The flight of this bird is as sub- lime as it is rapid and impetuous. None of the feathered race soar so high. In his daring excursions he is said to leave the clouds of heaven, and regions of thunder, and lightning and tempest, far beneath him, and to approach the very ºmits of ether. There is - an allusion to this lofty soaring in the prophecy of Obadiah, concerning the pride of Moab : “Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle, and though thou set thy nest among the stars, thence will I bring thee down, saith the Lord,” Obad. 4. The pro- phet Jeremiah pronounces the doom of Edom in similar terms : “O thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, that holdest the height of the hill; though thou shouldest make thy nest high as the eagle, I will bring thee down from thence, saith the Lord,” Jer. 49: 16. The eagle lives and retains its vigor to a great age ; and, after moulting, renews its vigor so surprisingly, as to be said, hyperbolically, to become young again, Psalm 103: 5, and Isa. 40: 31. It is remarkable that Cyrus, compared, in Isaiah 46: 11, to an eagle, (so the word translated “rave- nous bird” should be rendered,) had an eagle for his en- sign, according to Xenophon, who uses, without knowing it, the identical word of the prophet, with only a Greek termination to it: so exact is the correspondence betwixt the prophet and the historian, the prediction and the event. Xenophon and other ancient historians inform us that the golden eagle with extended wings was the ensign of the Persian monarchs long before it was adopted by the Romans; and it is very probable that the Persians bor- rowed the symbol from the ancient Assyrians, in whose banners it waved, till imperial Babylon bowed her head to the yoke of Cyrus. Hos. 8: 1. Jer, 48: 40. 49: 22. [sa. 8:8.- Watson. EAR ; the organ of hearing. The Scripture uses the term figurately. Uncircumcised ears are ears inattentive to the word of God. To signify God’s regard to the prayers of his people, the psalmist says, “His ears, are open to their cry,” Psalm 34: 15. Among the Jews the slave, who renounced the privilege of being made free from servitude in the sabbatical year, submitted to have his ear bored through with an awl; which was done in the presence of some judge, or magistrate, that it might appear a voluntary act. The ceremony took place at his master’s door, and was the mark of servitude and bond- age. The psalmist says, in the person of the Messiah, “Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire; mine ears hast thou opened.” Heb. “Thou hast digged my ears.” This either means, Thou hast opened them, removed impediments, and made them attentive; or, Thou hast pierced them, as those of such servants were pierced, who chose to remain with their masters; and therefore imports the absolute and voluntary submission of Messiah to the will of the Father. “Make the ears of this people heavy,” (Isa. 6: 10.) that is, render their minds inatten- tive and disobedient; the prophets being said often to do that of which they were the innocent occasion.—Watson. EARING ; an agricultural term. There is a passage, (Gen. 45: 6.) which, if it has been occasionally misunder- §º | rº º | º † stood by a reader, may be pardoned:—“There remain five years, in which shall be neither EARING nor harvest.” It seems, that earing is an old English word for ploughing ; the original word charish, is that usually rendered “ploughing,” and why it should not be so translated here we cannot tell, as earing suggests the idea of gathering ears of corn after they are arrived at maturity; whereas Joseph means to say, “there shall be neither ploughing nor harvest during five years.” The reader will perceive that this variation of import implies a totally different course of natural phenomena in Egypt; for the Nile must have risen so little as to have rendered ploughing hopeless; or, its waters must have been so abundant, as to have overflowed the country entirely, and to have annihilated the use of the plough : moreover, if no ploughing, no sowing; that is, harvest was not expected; consequently it was not prepared for, in respect of corn. No doubt but the Nile was deficient, it did not rise; the peasants, there- fore, did not plough ; and to this agrees the account of an ancient author, that for nine years together, the Nile did not rise to half a harvest. See also 1 Sam. 8: 12. Exod. 34; 21. Isa. 30: 24.—Calmet. EARNEST; somewhat given in hand to give assu- rance, the what more is promised shall be given in due time. It differs from a pledge, as it is not taken back when full payment is made. The Holy Ghost and his influences are the earnest of our inheritance; are of the same nature, though not degree of application, with our eternal happiness; and they give us assurance that in due time it shall be bestowed upon us. 2 Cor. 1:22, and 5: 5. Eph. 1: 14.—Bronn ; Ency. Amer. EAR-RINGS, and Nose-Jewels, were the favorite orna- ments among the Eastern females. Both are frequently mentioned in Scripture. Sir John Chardin says, “It is the custom in almost all the East, for the women to wear rings in their noses, in the left nostril, which is bored low down in the middle. These rings are of gold, and have commonly two pearls and one ruby between them, placed in the ring; I never saw a girl, or young woman in Arabia, or in all Persia, who did not wear a ring after this manner in her nostril.” His testimony is confirmed by that of Egmont and Dr. Russel. Two words are used in the Scriptures to denote these ornamental rings, nezem and agil. Mr. Harmer seems to think they properly sig- nified ear-rings; but this is a mistake; the sacred writers use them promiscuously for the rings both of the nose and of the ears. That writer, however, is probably right in supposing that mezem is the name of a much smaller ring than agil. Chardin observed two sorts of rings in the East; one so small and close to the ear, that there is no vacuity between them; the other so large, as to admit the fore-finger between it and the ear; these last adorned with a ruby and a pearl on each side, strung on the ring. Some of these ear-rings had figures upon them, and * X E A S E.A.T [ 483 ) trange characters, which he believed were talismans or charms; but which were probably the names and symbols of their false gods. We know from the testimony of Pliny, that rings with the images of their gods were worn by the Romans. The Indians say, they are preservatives against enchantment; upon which Chardin hazards a very probable conjecture, that the ear-rings of Jacob's family were perhaps of this kind, which might be the reason of his demanding them, that he might, bury them under the oak before they went up to Bethel.— Watson. EARTH. The restriction of the term “earth” to Judea is more common in Scripture than is usually sup- posed; and this acceptation of it has great effect on several passages, in which it ought to be so understood. Earth in a moral sense is opposed to heaven, and to what is spiritual. “He that is of the earth is earthy, and speaketh of the earth; he that cometh from above is above all,” John 3:31. “If ye then be risen with Christ, set your affèctions on things above, not on things on the earth,” Col. 3: 1, 2.—Watson. EARTHLY ; having the affections fixed on the affairs of this life : it is opposed to heavenly-mindedness. Jam. 3:15.—Calmet. - EARTHQUAKE. The Scriptures speak of several earthquakes. One happened in the twenty-seventh year of Uzziah, king of Judah, in the year of the world 3221. This is mentioned in Amos 1: 1, and in Zechariah 14: 5. Josephus says that its violence divided a mountain, which lay west of Jerusalem, and drove one part of it four furlongs. A very memorable earthquake is that which happened at our Savior’s death, Matt. 27: 51. Many have thought that this was perceived throughout the world. Others are of opinion that it was felt only in Judea, or even in the temple at Jerusalem. St. Cyril of Jerusalem says, that the rocks upon mount Calvary were shown in his time, which had been rent asunder by this earthquake. Maundrell and Sandys testify the same, and say that they examined the breaches in the rock, and were convinced that they were the effects of an earth- quake. It must have been terrible, since the centurion and those with him were so affected by it, as to acknow- ledge the innocence of our Savior, Luke 23:47. Phlegon, Adrian's freedman, relates that, together with the eclipse, which happened at noon-day, in the fourth year of the two hundred and second Olympiad, or A. D. 33, a very great earthquake was also felt, principally in Bithynia. The effects of God's power, wrath, and vengeance are compared to earthquakes, Psalm 18; 7. 46: 2. 114: 4. An earthquake signifies also, in prophetic language, the dissolution of governments and the overthrow of states.— Watson. . EAST; one of the four cardinal points of the world; namely, that particular point of the horizon in which the sun is seen to rise. The Hebrews express the east, west, north, and south, by words which signify before, behind, left, and right, according to the situation of a man who has his face turned towards the east. By the east, they fre- quently describe, not only Arabia Deserta, and the lands of Moab and Ammon, which lay to the east of Palestine, but also Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, though they are situated rather to the north than to the east of Judea. Balaam, Cyrus, and the wise men who visited Bethlehem at the time Christ was born, are said to come from the east, Num. 23: 7. Isa. 46: 11. Matt. 2: 1– Watson. *... " EASTBURN, (Joseph ;) a preacher to seamen in Phi- ladelphia, who died January 30, 1828, aged seventy-nine. Many thousands attended his funeral. At the grave, Dr. Green delivered an address. When he began to preach to seamen, about 1820, “we procured,” he said, “a sail loſt, and on the sabbath hung out a flag. As the sailors cat.ne by, they hailed us, “Ship ahoy!” We answered them. They asked us, “Where we were bound f" We told them to the port of New Jerusalem—and that they would do well to go in the fleet. “Well,” said they, “we will come in and hear your terms.” This was the begin- ning of the mariners' church. Mr. Eastman was emi- . pious, and devoted to the salvation of seamen.— llen. - EASTER ; an ecclesiastical festival commemolative of the resurrection of Christ. It originated in the circum- stance that Christ was typified by the paschal lamb, ordained by Moses to be slain at the feast of the passover; the feast being considered as a continuation, in its fulfil- ment, of the Jewish festival. The English name Easter, and-the German Ostern, are derived from the name of the Teutonic goddess Ostera (Anglo-Saxon Eostre,) whose festival was celebrated by the ancient Saxons with pecu- liar Solemnities, in the month of April, and for which, as in many other instances, the first Romish missionaries substituted the paschal feast. . As early as the second century, there were keen disputes respecting the day on which this feast should be kept : the Eastern church persisting in observing it on the same day with the Jews; while the Western celebrated it on Sunday, as the day of Christ's resurrection. The dispute was finally settled at the council of Nice, in 325, which ordained that it should be kept always on a Sunday; only as it was a movable feast, no small difficulty long con- tinued to be felt as to its adjustment. See Bibl. Repos. EATING. The ancient Hebrews did not eat indiffe- rently with all persons: they would have esteemed them. selves polluted and dishonored by eating with people of another religion, or of an odious profession. In Joseph’s day they neither ate with the Egyptians, nor the Egyptians with them, (Gen. 43: 32,) nor, in our Savior's time, with the Samaritans, John 4:9. The Jews were scandalized at Christ's eating with publicans and sinners, Matt. 9: 11. As there were several sorts of meats, the use of which was prohibited, they could not conveniently eat with those who partook of them, fearing to receive pollution by touching such food, or if by accident any particles of it should fall on them. The ancient Hebrews, at their meals, had each his separate table. Joseph, entertaining his brethren in Egypt, seated them separately, each at his particular table; and he himself set down separately from the Egyptians who ate with him ; but he sent to his brethren portions out of the provisions which were before him, Gen. 43: 31, &c. The ancient manners which we see in Homer, we see likewise in Scripture, with regard to eating, drinking, and entertainments: we find great plenty, but little delicacy ; and great respect and honor paid to the guests by serving them plentifully. Joseph sent his brother Benjamin a portion five times larger than those of his other brethren. The women did not appear at table in entertainments with the men: this would have been an indecency, as it is at this day throughout the East. The present Jews, before they sit down to table, care- fully wash their hands: they speak of this ceremony as essential and obligatory. After meals they wash them again. When they sit down to table, the master of the house, or the chief person in the company, taking bread, breaks it, but does not wholly separate it; then, putting his hand on it, he recites this blessing: “Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, the King of the world, who producest the bread of the earth.” Those present answer, “Amen.” Having distributed the bread among the guests, he takes the vessel of wine in his right hand, saying, “Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the world, who hast produced the fruit of the vine.” They then repeat the twenty-third Psalm. Buxtorf, and Leo of Modena, who have given particular accounts of the Jewish ceremonies, differ in some circumstances: the reason is, Buxtorf wrote principally the ceremonies of the German Jews, and Leo, those of the Italian Jews. They take care that, after meals, there shall be a piece of bread remaining on the table; the master of the house orders a glass to be washed, fills it with wine, and, elevating it, says, “Let us bless him of whose benefits we have been partaking:” the rest answer, “Blessed be He who has heaped his favors on us, and by his goodness has now fed us.” Then he recites a pretty long prayer, wherein he thanks God for his many benefits vouchsafed to Israel; beseeches him to pity. Jerusalem and his temple, to restore the throne of for Jan. 1834.—Hend. Buck. David, to send Elias and the Messiah, to deliver them out of their long captivity, &c. All present answer, “Amen;” and then recite Psalm 34: 9, 10. Then, giving the glass E B I E C B i 484 | with the little wine in it to be drunk round, he drinks what is left, and the table is cleared. (See BANQUETs.) Partaking of the benefits of Christ's sacrifice by faith, is also called eating, because this is the support of our spiri- tual life, John 6:53, 56. Hosea reproaches the priests of his time with eating the sins, or rather sin-offerings of the people, (Hosea 4: 8.) that is, feasting on their sacri- fices, rather than reforming their manners. John the Baptist is said to have come “neither eating nor drink- ing,” (Matt. 11: 18.) that is, as other men did; for he lived in the wilderness, on locusts, wild honey, and water, Matt. 3: 4. Luke 1: 15. This is expressed, in Luke 7: 33, by his neither eating “bread,” nor drinking “wine.” On the other hand, the Son of man is said, in Matt. 11:19, to have come “eating and drinking;” that is, as others did; and that too with all sorts of persons, Pharisees, publicans, and sinners-Watson. EBADIANS ; certain Arabian Christians, who settled in Hirah, a town of Irack, and in its neighborhood, where they built huts, and formed villages, in order to enjoy the free exercise of their religion. The name implies, “Ser- vants of God.—Broughton’s Dict. ; Williams. EBAL ; a celebrated mountain in the tribe of Ephraim, near Shechem, over against mount Gerizim. These two mountains are within two hundred paces of each other, and separated by a deep valley, in which stood the town of Shechem. The two mountains are much alike in magnitude and form, being of a semi-circular figure, about half a league in length, and, on the sides nearest Shechem, nearly perpendicular. One of them is barren ; the other, covered with a beautiful verdure. Moses com- manded the Israelites, as soon as they should have passed the river Jordan, to go directly to Shechem, and divide the whole multitude into two bodies, each composed of six tribes ; one company to be placed on Ebal, and the other on Gerizim. The six tribes that were on Gerizim were to pronounce blessings on those who should faithfully observe the law of the Lord, and the six others on mount Ebal were to pronounce curses against those who should violate it, Deut. 11:29, &c. 27: and 28. Josh. 8:30, 31.- —Watson. . EBED-MELECH ; a eunuch or servant of king Zede- lriah, who, being informed that Jeremiah was imprisoned in a place full of mire, informed the king of it, and was the means of his restoration to safety, though not to liberty. For this humanity he was promised divine pro- tection, and after the city was taken by Nebuzaradan he was preserved, Jer. 38; 7.—Calmet. EBENEZER; the name of that field wherein the Israelites were defeated by the Philistines, when the ark of the Lord was taken, (1 Sam. 4: 1.) also a memorial | º § fºllè §§ 2 ſº ſº º º º & : *, *, | \º § § s u!!", \! º º". , º: § : ºš Jº §§ $º: § § jº º: §3; . §§ºš#2; * §§§ºß §§§3: º'. º #sº º º º º |ſ - *- : º º º ** S £2..* º-º: ºw º sº *- -** > … f. • w *- s - --> -- ~~~ - T->~~~~~~~~~~ stone set up by Samuel to commemorate a victory over the Philistines. The word signifies, the stone of help ; and it was erected by the prophet, saying, “Hitherto the Lord hath helped us.”— Watson. EBER. (See HEBER.) EBIONITES; a sect of the first two or three centuries; but it is not certain whether they received their name from a leader of the name of Ebion, (whom Dr. Lardner con- siders as a disciple of Cerinthus,) or from the meaning of the Hebrew word ebion, which implies poverty; and if the latter, whether they assumed the name, as affecting to be poor, like the Founder of Christianity; or whether it was conferred on them by way of reproach, as being of the lower orders. The use of the term, also, according to Dr. Horsley, was various and indefinite. Sometimes it was the peculiar name of those sects, that denied both the divinity of our Lord, and his miraculous conception. Then its meaning was extended, to take in another party; who admitted the miraculous conception of Jesus, but still denied his divinity, and questioned his previous exist- ence. At last, it seems, the Nazarites, whose error was rather a superstitious severity in their practice, than any deficiency in their faith, were included by Origen in the infamy of the appellation. Dr. Priestley, claiming the Ebionites as Jewish Unitarians, considers the ancient Nazarenes, that is, the first Jewish converts, as the true Ebionites; these, he thinks, were called Nazarenes, from their attachment to Jesus of Nazareth ; and Ebionites, from their poor and mean condition, just as some of the Reformers were called Beghards or beggars. The doctor cites the authorities of Origen and Epiphanius, to prove that both these denominations related to the same people, differing only like the Socinians, in receiving or rejecting the fact of the miraculous conception ; and neither, as he assures us, were reckoned heretics by any writers of the two first centuries. To this Dr. Horsley replies, that both Jews and heathens called the first Christians Nazarenes, in allusion to the mean and obscure birth-place of their master, Jesus of Nazareth, (Matt. 2:23. Acts 10: 38.) but insists, and answers every pretended proof to the contrary, that the term Nazarenes was never applied to any distinct sect of Christians before the final destruction of Jerusalem by Adrian. Dr. Semler, a German writer, gives the following opinion : “Those who more rigidly maintained the Mosaic observances, and who were nu- merous in Palestine, are usually called Ebionites and Nasaraeans. Some believe that they ought not to be reckoned heretics; others think that they were united in doctrine, differing only in name; others place them in the second century. It is of little consequence whether we distinguish or not the Nazarenes, or Nasaraeans, from the Ebionites. It is certain that both these classes were te- nacious of the Mosaic ceremonies, and more inclined to the Jews than to the Gentiles, though they admitted the Messiahship of Jesus, in a very low and judaizing man- ner. The Ebionites held in execration the doctrine of the apostle Paul.” Dr. J. Pye Smith, who quotes this passage from Dr. Semler, adds, “Such, it is apprehended, on grounds of reasonable probability, was the origin of Uni- tarianism ; the child of Judaism misunderstood, and of Christianity imperfectly received.”—Watson ; Hend. Buck ; TWilliams. EBODA ; a town in Arabia. Petraea. Probably Oboda, or Oboth, Num. 21:10. 33:43, 44.—Calmet. EBONY; an Indian wood, black, hard, heavy, and easily taking a beautiful polish. It was anciently re- garded as a valuable article of merchandise. Ezek. 27: 15. BCBATANA; a city of Media, which, according to Herodotus, was built by Dejoces, king of the Medes. It was situated on a gentle declivity, distant twelve stadia from mount Orontes, and was in compass one hundred and fifty stadia, and, next to Nineveh and Babylon, was one of the strongest and most beautiful cities of the East. After the union of Media with Persia, it was the summer residence of the Persian kings. Here is shown the tomb of Mordecai and Esther; as well as that of Avicenna, the celebrated Arabian physician. The sepulchre of the former stands near the centre of Hamadan : the tombs are covered by a dome, on which is the following inscription in Hebrew : “This day, 15th of the month Adar, in the year 4474 from the creation of the world, was finished the building of this temple over the graves of Mordecai and Esther, by the hands of the good-hearted brothers, Elias and Samuel, the sons of the deceased Ismael of Rashan.” This inscription, the date of which proves the dome to have been built eleven hundred years, was sent by Sir Gore Ousley to Sir John Malcolm, who has given it in his History of Persia; who also says that the tombs, which are of a black-colored wood, are evidently of very E C C E C C sº great antiquity, but in good preservation, as the wood has not perished, and, the inscriptions are still very legible. Sir §. K. Porter has given a more particular description of this tomb. The inscription upon it is as follows: “Mordecai, beloved and honored by a king, was great and good. His garments were as those of a sovereign. Ahasuerus covered him with this rich dress, and also placed a golden chain around his neck. The city of Susa rejoiced at his honors, and his high fortune became the glory of the Jews.” The inscription which encompasses the sarcophagus of Mordecai, is to this effect: “It is said by j. Preserve me, O God! I am now in thy pre- sence. I have cried at the gate of heaven, that thou art my God; and what goodness I have received from thee, O Lord ' Those whose bodies are now beneath in this earth, when animated by thy mercy, were great; and whatever happiness was bestowed upon them in this world, came from thee, O God! Their grief and suffer- ings were many, at the first ; but they became happy, because they always called upon thy holy name in their miseries. Thou liſtedst me up, and I became powerful. Thine enemies sought to destroy me, in the early times of my life; but the shadow of thy hand was upon me, and covered me, as a tent from their wicked purposes — MoRDECAI.” The following is the corresponding inscrip- tion on the sarcophagus of Esther: “I praise thee, O God, that thou hast created me ! I know that my sins merit punishment, yet I hope for mercy at thy hands; for when- ever I call upon thee, thou art with me; thy holy presence secures me from all evil. My heart is at ease, and my fear of thee increases. My life became, through thy goodness, at the last, full of peace. O God, do not shut my soul out from thy divine presence | Those whom thou lovest, never feel the torments of hell. Lead me, O mer- ciful Father, to the life of life; that I may be filled with the heavenly fruits of paradise!—ESTHER.” The Jews at Hamadan have no tradition of the cause of Esther and Mordecai having been interred at that place; but, however that might be, there are sufficient reasons for believing the validity of their interment in this spot. The strongest evidence we can have of the truth of any historical fact is, its commemoration by an annual festival. It is well known, that several important events in Jewish history are thus celebrated; and amongst the rest, the feast of Purim is kept on the 13th and 14th of the month Adar, to commemorate the deliverance obtained by the Jews, at the intercession of Esther, from the general massacre ordered by Ahasuerus, and the slaughter they were permitted to make of their enemies. Now on this same festival, in the same day and month, Jewish pil- grims resort from all quarters to the sepulchre of Mordecai and Esther; and have done so for centuries,—a strong presumptive proof that the tradition of their burial in this place rests on some authentic foundation. Ecbatana was encompassed with seven walls, of une- qual heights; the largest, according to Herodotus, (lib. i. cap. 98.) was equal in extent with those of Athens; that is, one hundred and seventy-eight furlongs, or nearly eight leagues, Thucyd. lib. i. It still subsists, under the name of Hamadan, in latitude, thirty-four degrees and fifty-three minutes north ; longitude, forty degrees east. Its inhabitants are stated by Mr. Kinnier to be about forty thousand, including about six hundred Jewish fami- lies.—Watson ; Calmet. ECCLESIASTES; a canonical book of the Old Testa- ment. This word is feminine in the Hebrew ; but the Greeks and Latins, not regarding the gender, render it JEcclesiastes, an orator, one who speaks in public. Solomon describes himself in the first verse, “The words of Kohe- leth, (Eng. Vers. the Preacher,') the son of David, king of Jerusalem.” He mentions his works, his riches, his buildings, and his proverbs, or parables, and that he was the wisest and happiest of all kings in Jerusalem; which description plainly characterizes Solomon. This book is generally thought to be the production of Solomon's re- pentance, toward the latter end of his life. It proposes the sentiments of the Sadducees and Epicureans in their full force; proves excellently by a philosophical induction from the experience of human life, the vanity of all earthly things, apart from the possession of the divine * favor, and the prospects of immortality; the little benefit of men's restless and busy cares; and the unsatisfying nature of all their knowledge; but concludes, “Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments, for this is the whole of man.” In this, all his obligations terminate; this is his only means to happiness, present and future. In reading this book, care should be taken not to deduce opinions from detached sentiments, but from the general scope and com- bined force of the whole.—Calmet. ECCLESIASTICAL ; an appellation given to whatever belongs to the church : thus we say, ecclesiastical polity, jurisdiction, history, &c.—Hend. Buck, g ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY ; a narration of the transactions, revolutions, and events that relate to the church. As to the utility of church history, Dr. Jortin, who was an acute writer on this subject, shall here speak for us: he observes, 1. That it will show us the amazing progress of Christianity through the Roman empire, through the East and West, although the powers of the world cruelly opposed it. 2. Connected with Jewish and Pagan history, it will show us the total de- struction of Jerusalem, the overthrow of the Jewish church and state; and the continuance of that unhappy nation for seventeen hundred years, though dispersed over the face of the earth, and oppressed at different times by Pagans, Christians, and Mahometans. , 3. It shows us that the increase of Christianity produced, in the countries where it was received, the overthrow and extinction of paganism, which, after a feeble resistance, perished about the sixth century. 4. It shows us how Christianity hath been continued and delivered down from the apostolical to the present age. 5. It shows us the various opinions which prevailed at different times amongst the fathers and other Christians, and how they departed, more or less, from the simplicity of the gospel. 6. It will enable us to form a true judgment of the merit of the fathers, and of the use which is to be made of them. 7. It will show us the evil of imposing unreasonable terms of com- munion, and requiring Christians to profess doctrines not propounded in scriptural words, but inferred as conse- quences from passages of Scripture, which one may call systems of consequential divinity. 8. It will show us the originsand progress of popery; and, lastly, it will show us, 9. The origin and progress of the Reformation. Dcclesiastical history is a very important branch of study, but one which is attended with many difficulties. The widely-spread and diversified circumstances of the Christian church, even from the earliest period, render it difficult to arrive at satisfactory views of many events in which it was concerned. Those events were seldom re- corded at the time, or by the persons who lived on the spot. The early writers who undertook to give the history of the church, were not well skilled in the laws of historic truth and evidence, nor always well fitted to apply those laws. Opinions and statements scattered over the pages of the fathers and their successors, are often vague, dis- cordant, and unsatisfactory, presenting almost endless perplexity, or matter of debate. While these and other causes contribute to render ecclesiastical history very difficult, they who have devoted themselves to it in modern times, look at the subjects of their investigation through mediums which tend to color or distort most of the facts passing under their review. Their associations and habits of thinking lead them unconsciously to attach modern ideas to ancient terms and usages. The word church, ſor instance, almost invariably suggests the idea of a body allied to the state, and holding the orthodox creed. The heretics of church history are generally regarded as men of erroneous principles and immoral lives. Councils are bodies representative, and clothed with something approaching to infallible authority. Bishops are not re- garded as pastors of particular congregations, but ecclesi- astical rulers of provinces. All these things tend greatly to bewilder and perplex an inquirer into the true state of the profession of Christianity during a long succession of ages; and from their distracting influence, even the strongest minds can scarcely be protected. Impartiality is commonly professed, and, in most instances, honestly intended, but very rarely exercised. E C C E C L [ 486 | See Dr. Jortin's Charge on the Use and Importance of £cclesiastical History, in his Works, vol. vii, ch. 2. for ecclesiastical historians, see Eusebius' Eccl. Hist. with Walesius' notes; Baronii Annales Eccl. ; Spondani An- males Sacri ; Parei Universalis Hist, Eccl., ; Lampe, Dupin, Spanheim, and Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, ; Fuller's and Warner's Eccl. Hist, of England ; Jortin's Remarks on Eccl. Hist. 5 Millar's Propagation of Christianity; . Gillies'. Historical Collections; Dr. Erskine's Sketches, and Robinson's Re- searches. The most recent are, Dr. Campbell's, Gregory's, Milner's, and Dr. Harveis’s ; Schroek's, Jones's, and Nean- der's, all of which have their excellencies. See also Ma- ther's Magnalia; Neale's History of the Puritans; Bogue and Bennett's History of the Dissenters ; Ivimey, and Bene- dict's History of the Baptists. . For the history of the church under the Old Testament, the reader may consult Millar's History of the Church ; Prideaux and Shuckford's Connections; Dr. Watts's Scrip- ture History; Fleury's History of the Israelites ; and espe- cially Jahn's History of the Hebrew Commonwealth.—Hend. JBuck. - ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY; the rules by which churches are governed, as to their spiritual concerns. It appears that all Protestants immediately after the Reformation, with the exception of the Baptists, whilst they abjured the papal supremacy, were united in holding that the mode of administering the church might be varied, some of them being attached to episcopacy, others to presbytery; but all founding this attachment upon the judgment which they had formed as to the tendency or utility of either of these modes of government. An idea. Soon was avowed by some of the reformers, that the whole regulation of the church pertained to the magis- trate; this branch of power being vested in him no less than that of administering the civil government; and to this opinion the name of Erastianism, from Erastus, who first defended it, was given. Cranmer, in an official reply which he made to certain questions that had been submitted for his consideration, declared, “that the civil ministers under the king's majesty be those that shall lease his highness for the time to put in authority under him ; as, for example, the lord chancellor, lord great master, &c.; the ministers of God’s word under his majesty be the bishops, parsons, vicars, and such other priests as be appointed by his highness to that ministra- tion; as, for example, the bishop of Canterbury, &c. All the said officers and ministers, as well of the one sort as the other, be appointed, assigned, and elected in every place by the laws and orders of kings and princes.” By the great majority of Protestants, however, the tenets of Erastus were condemned; for they maintained that the Lord Jesus had conveyed to his church a spiritual power quite distinct from the temporal; and that it belonged to the ministers of religion to exercise it, for promoting the spiritual welfare of the Christian community. But, whilst they disputed as to this point, they agreed in admitting there was no model prescribed in the New Testament for a Christian church, as there had been in the Mosaical economy for the Jewish church ; and that it was a branch of the liberty of the disciples of Christ, or one of their privileges, to choose the polity which seemed to them best adapted for extending the power and influence of re- ligion. From this fundamental mistake, it is needless to say what confusion and errors have arisen in Christendom. On this very foundation, grew up the whole mass of papal superstitions, and almost all the divisions among Protest- ants. Never will these divisions be healed, nor those superstitions purged away, until the great principle is universally and fully recognised that there is a divine model of church government prescribed in the New Tes- tament, and that apostolic practice under the law of Christ is designed as a universal pattern. Did ever any man think of a different hypothesis till he found apostolic practice against him? Why else do we observe the first day Sabbath? If the apostolic churches are not a model to us, the descriptions of them, and the directions given to them, are useless to us. Why are we called upon to be followers of the apostles without exception or limita- tion ? And why are the later New Testament churches school. referred to the earlier as patterns? 1 Cor. 7: 17, 14:33, 1 Cor. 11: 16. 16:1. Titus 1: 5.— Watson ; Carson. ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. (See States of THE CHURCH ; also, CURIA PAPAL.) ECCLESIASTICUS; an apocryphal book, so called in Latin, either to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes, or to show that it contains, as well as that, precepts and exhor- tations to wisdom and virtue. The Greeks call it “The Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach.” It contains max- ims and instructions, useful in all states and conditions of life. Some of the ancients ascribed this work to Solo- mon; but the author is much more modern than Solomon, and speaks of several persons who lived after that prince. The translator of it into Greek came into Egypt in the thirty-eighth year of Ptolemy VII. surnamed Euergetes, the second of that name; as he says in his preface. The author of the Latin translation from the Greek is un- known. Jerome says, the church received Ecclesiasticus for edification, but not to authorize any point of doctrine. —Calmet. - ECDIPPA; (otherwise AcHz.IB ; which see.) ECKING, (SAMUEL,) author of a small but excellent volume of essays on theological subjects, was born at Shrewsbury, December the 5th, 1757. He received the rudiments of his education in his native place, at a school kept by a Mr. Boore, who, at the age of fifteen, engaged him in the capacity of usher; a station which he held for two years, until the master's death put an end to the He then became usher in a respectable academy, in the same town, kept by Mr. Gentleman, a dissenting mi- nister, with whom he continued till the beginning of 1778, when he opened a school on his own account, and met with considerable encouragement. His parents were of the established church, and there he himself attended on the ministry of the Rev. Richard De Courcy, from whom he imbibed his first relish for the good word of God, and of whom he was an ardent admirer. During the contro- versy on baptism, however, being led to an investigation of the subject, he embraced the views of the Baptists. He was immersed, on a personal profession of his faith in Christ, and became a member of the Baptist church in Shrewsbury. In 1781, he was invested with the suffrages of his brethren, to preach the gospel of God. He settled in Chester the following year, and there con- tinued until the period of his death, which took place on the 5th of February, 1785, at the early age of twenty- seven, occasioned by typhus ſever. In the preceding year, he published “Three Essays, on Grace, Faith, and Expe- rience; wherein several Gospel Truths are stated and illustrated, and their opposite errors pointed out.” A se- cond edition appeared in 1791, with some additions, amongst which was “A short Account of the Author; Considerations on the Faith of Devils; The Confession of Faith delivered at his Ordination ; and a few Observations on the Sentiments of Sandeman and Cudworth.” A third edition was printed at Liverpool, about ten years after, including “Four Sermons,” transcribed, by a friend, from his short-hand notes; and a fourth edition, compris- ing the whole, was printed at Berwick-upon-Tweed, in 1827. He was a young man of very promising talents; and, had his life been spared, certainly bid fair to become one of the brightest ornaments of the denomination to which he belonged—Memoir prefixed to his Essays; Jones's Chris. Biog. - ECLECTICS; a sort of ancient philosophers, who professed to select whatever was good and true from all the other philosophical sects. The Eclectic philosophy was in a flourishing state at Alexandria when our Savior was upon earth. Its ſounders formed the design of se- lecting from the doctrines of all former philosophers such opinions as seemed to approach nearest the truth, and of combining them into one system. They held Plato in the highest esteem; but did not scruple to join with his doc- trines whatever they thought conformable to reason in the tenets of other philosophers. Potamon, a Platonist, appears to have been the projector of this plan. The Eclectic system was brought to perfection by Am- monius Saccas, who blended Christianity with his philo- sophy, and founded the sect of the Ammonians, or New Platonists, in the second century. The moral doctrine of * ect 12 1) E [487 the Alexandrian school was as follows:—The mind of man, originally a portion of the divine Being, having fallen into a state of darkness and defilement, by its union with the body, is to be gradually emancipated from the chains of matter, and rise by contemplation to the know- ledge and vision of God. The end of philosophy, there- fore, is the liberation of the soul from its corporeal impri- sonment. For this purpose, the Eclectic philosophy re- commends abstinence, with other voluntary mortifica- tions and religious exercises. In the infancy of the Alexandrian school, not a few of the professors of Chris- tianity were led by the pretensions of the Eclectic sect, to imagine that a coalition might, with great advantage, be formed between its system and that of Christianity. This union appeared the more desirable, when several philoso- phers of this sect became converts to the Christian faith. The consequence was, that pagan ideas and opinions were by degrees mixed with the pure and simple doctrines of the gospel. (See PLATONISM.)—Watson; Bib. Rep. 1834. ECLIPSE. The word (ekleipsis) eclipse, signifies failure, namely, of light. An eclipse of the sun is caused by the intervention of the moon, at new, or in conjunction with the sun, intercepting his light from the earth, either totally or partially. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the earth, intercepting the sun’s light from the moon, when full, or in opposition to the sun, either totally or partially. A total eclipse of the moon may oc- casion a privation of her light for an hour and a half, during her total immersion in the shadow; whereas, a total eclipse of the sun can never last in any particular place above four minutes, when the moon is nearest to the earth, and her shadow thickest. Hence it appears, that the darkness which “overspread the whole land of Judea,” at the time of our Lord's crucifixion, was preter- natural, “from the sixth until the ninth hour,” or from noon till three in the afternoon, in its duration, and also , in its time, about full moon, when the moon could not possibly eclipse the sun. It was accompanied by an earthquake, which altogether struck the spectators, and among them the centurion and Roman guard, with great fear, and a conviction that Jesus was the Son of God, Matt, 27: 51—54. - Eclipses, says Dr. Hales, are justly reckoned among the surest and most unerring characters of chronology; for they can be calculated with great exactness backwards as well as forwards; and there is such a variety of distinct cir- cumstances of the time when, and the place where, they were seen; of the duration, or beginning, middle, or end of every eclipse, and of the quantity, or number of digits eclipsed; that there is no danger of confounding any two eclipses together, when the circumstances attending each are noticed with any tolerable degree of precision. Thus, to an eclipse of the moon incidentally noticed by the great Jewish chronologer, Josephus, shortly before the death of Herod the Great, we owe the determination of the true year of our Savior's nativity. During Herod’s last illness, and not many days before his death, there happened an eclipse of the moon on the very night that he burned alive Matthias, and the ringleaders of a sedition, in which the golden eagle, which he had consecrated and set up over the gate of the temple, was pulled down and broken to pieces by these zealots. This eclipse happened, by calcu- lation, March 13, U. C. 750, B. C. 4. But it is certain from Scripture, that Christ was born during Herod's reign ; and from the visit of the magi to Jerusalem “from the East,” from the Parthian empire, to inquire for the true “born King of the Jews,” whose star they had seen “at its rising,” and also from the age of the infants mas- sacred at Bethlehem, “from two years old and under,” (Matt. 2: 1–16.) it is no less certain, that Jesus could not have been born later than B. C. 5, which is the year assigned to the nativity by Chrysostom, Petavius, and Prideaux.-Watson. - ECSTASY, (or Extasy ;) a transport of the mind, which suspends the functions of the senses by the in- ‘. contemplation of some extraordinary object.—Hend. 7&Cº. - - ECTHESIS; a confession of faith, the form of an edict, published in the year 639, by the emperor Heraclius, with a view to facify the troubles occasioned by the Eutychian heresy in the Eastern church. However, the same prince revoked it, on being informed that pope Severinus had condemned it, as favoring the Monothelites; declaring, at the same time, that Sergius, patriarch of Constanti- nople, was the author of it. (See EUTychIANs.)—Hend, Buck. ED, (nitness ;) the name given to the altar erected by the two tribes and a half, who were settled beyond Jordan, Josh. 20:34. It was probably a copy or repetition of that which was used among the Hebrews, their bre- thren, and it was built to witness to posterity the interest of these tribes in the altar common to the descendants of the patriarch Israel.—Calmet. EDAR, (ToweR of ;) (Gen. 25: 21. Micah 4, 8) a place of fine pasturage, a mile from Bethlehem.—Malcom, EDEN ; a province in the East, on the banks of the river Euphrates, where Paradise was situated. Gen. 2: 8. (See the article PARADISE.) There is hardly any part of the world in which it has not been sought : in Asia, in Africa, in Europe, in America, in Tartary; on the banks of the Ganges, in the Indies, in China, in the island of Ceylon, in Armenia; under the equator; in Mesopotamia, in Syria, in Persia, in Babylonia, in Arabia, in Palestine, in Ethiopia, among the mountains of the Moon; near the mountains of Liba- nus, Antilibanus, and Damascus. Huet places it on the river produced by the junction of the Tigris and Euphra- tes, now called the river of the Arabs; below this con- junction and the division of the same river, before it falls into the Persian sea. He selects the eastern shore of this river, which being considered according to the disposition of its channel, and not according to the course of its stream, was divided into four heads, or four different openings, that is, two upwards, the Tigris and Euphrates, and two below, the Pison and Gihon. The Pison, accord- ing to him, is the western channel, and the Gihon is the eastern channel of the Tigris, which discharges itself into the Persian gulf. It is said that Bochart was much of the same opinion. Phaleg. lib. i. cap. 4. De Anim. Sacr. Part ii. lib. v. cap. 6. Other skilful men with more pro- bability, have placed Eden in Armenia, between the sources of the rivers, (1.) Tigris, (2) Euphrates, (3.) Araxis, (4.) Phasis, taken to be the four rivers described by Moses. Euphrates is expressly mentioned; Hiddekel is the Tigris; the Phasis is Pison; the Gihon is the Araxes. . It may be inferred from a number of circumstances, that Paradise was placed on a mountain, or at least in a country diversified with hills, because only such country could supply the springs necessary to form four heads of rivers; and because all heads of rivers rise in hills, from whence their waters descend to the sea. Such a country has been found in Armenia, with such an ele- vation, or assemblage of elevations, also, as appeared to be requisite for the purpose. On these principles, the Phasis was the Phison of Moses, and the similarity of sound in the name seemed to confirm the opinion; it was a natural consequence, that the Arazes should be the Gihon ; since its waters are extremely rapid, and the Greek name Arazes, like the Hebrew Gihon, denotes the dart, or snift. The word Eden which, in its primary acceptation, signifies pleasure or delight, is often used by the wri- ters of the Old Testament to denote places which are either more remarkably fruitful in their soil, or pleasant in their situation. (See 2 Kings, 19: 12, 13. Isa. 37: 12. Amos 1: 5.) It is a remarkable circumstance that divine revelation opens and shuts with corresponding subjects; it opens with a view of the earthly Eden, and shuts with a description of its glorious antitype the hea- venly Paradise of God. , Eden was remarkable for a river which issued from it; in like manner, John sees in the heavenly Eden, a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, issuing from the throne of God and the Lamb. Rev. 22: 1. In each, we also find a tree of life, and various other analogies, from which it appears evidently the design of the Spirit of God to teach us, that the second Adam, the Lord from heaven, will restore all his people to a more perfect state of bliss, than their first parent forfeited.”—Bibliotheca Sacra, article EDEN ; Jones; Calmet, E D 1 E DO [ 488 l fl. EDEN. The prophet Amos º 1: 5.) speaks of the “House of Eden,” or “Beth-Eden,” which is thought to have been a house of pleasure in the mountains of ebanon, near to the river Adonis, and about midway between Tripoli and Baalbek.--Calmet, - EDIFICATION. This word signifies a building up ; hence we call a building, an edifice. Applied to spiritual things, it signifies the advancing, improving, adorning, and comforting the mind. A Christian may be said to be edified, when he is encouraged and animated to fresh progress in the ways and works of the Lord. The means to promote our own edification are, prayer, self-examina- tion, reading the Scriptures, hearing the gospel, medita- tion, attendance on all appointed ordinances. To edify others, there should be love, spiritual conversation, for- bearance, faithfulness, benevolent exertions, and uniform- ity of conduct. Edify, and Edification, are terms that often occur in the apostolic writings, and of such high import, that they merit a much more ample illustration than has hitherto been bestowed upon them in works of this nature. To perceive the full force and propriety of the terms as used by the apostles, it is quite necessary to keep in mind the similitudes by which they generally describe a Chris- tian church; for, an attentive reader of the New Testa- ment may readily observe that it is mostly with a direct reference to that particular object that these expressive terms occur. Thus for instance, we sometimes find them speaking of a church under the figure of a building, Eph. 2: 21. 1 Cor. 3: 9. At others, a house, Heb. 3: 6. 1 Tim. 3: 15. And frequently a temple, 1 Cor. 3:16, 17. A habitation for God, Eph. 2: 22. Of this building, Jesus Christ is the foundation or chief corner-stone, laid by the doctrine of the apostles and prophets, he is that living Stone, elect, and precious, on which Zion is founded,—and believers in him united together in a church capacity, are consequently spoken of, as “lively stones, built up into a spiritual house,” (1 Pet. 2: 5.) thus constituting what Paul calls “the household of God,” º 2: 19.) or “ the household of faith,” Gal. 6: 10. Now it is obvi- Susly in reference to this view of things that the terms under consideration are made use of by the apostles; and when we attempt to explain them in any way detached from the consideration of a Christian church, their mean- ing almost vanishes into insignificance. I make this re- mark chiefly on account of the great mistakes which appear to prevail among professed Christians on a sub- ject in which their present peace and immortal interests are deeply involved. Most of our practical treatises of religion are taken up in furnishing directions to believers, considered as so many disconnected individuals, to press after their own individual edification. But all this seems in a great measure aside from the doctrine of Christ and his apostles. The consolations of the Holy Spirit are not promised to disjointed individuals, each taking care sepa- rately to frame his heart, in the best manner he can, into an obedience to the will of God; but to brethren walking together in unity; to disciples joined in one body as fellow members one of another, so as by one spirit to mourn and rejoice togther. Christ has promised great consolation to his disciples thus united, walking in love, and patiently bearing the hatred of the world. Many professors, and even teachers of religion, not greatly liking such union and its obvious consequences, yet finding much said in the New Testament of the attainments and comforts of the first Christians, have studied to devise means of enjoying these comforts separately. Instead of the objects that chiefly drew the attention of the first believers, they have endeavored to fix the attention of Christians on a multi- tude of rules respecting the particular conduct of each in his devout exercises, his attendance on ordinances and the frame of his heart therein. But this is a scheme of religion of mere human device. Nothing can be plainer from the whole tenor of the Acts of the Apostles, and their epistles to the churches, than that it is the will of Christ his disciples should unite together, holding fellow- ship in the institutions of the gospel; and also that, as he in his infinite wisdom and grace has made abundant pro- vision for their comfort, establishment and edification, so these blessings can only be effectually enjoyed in propor. tion as they obey his willin this respect. Eph. 4: 8–16 See Owen on Hebrews.-Hend. Buck, Jones. EDOM.; a province of Arabia, which derives its name from Edom, or Esau, who there settled in the mountains of Seir, in the land of the Horites, south-east of the Dead sea. His descendants afterwards extended themselves throughout Arabia Petraea, and south of Palestine, between the Dead sea and the Mediterranean. During the Baby- lonish captivity, and when Judea was almost deserted, they seized the south of Judah, and advanced to Hebron. Hence that tract of Judea, which they inhabited, retained the name of Idumea in the time of our Savior, Mark 3: 8. Under Moses and Joshua, and even under the kings of Judah, the Idumeans were confined to the east and south of the Dead sea, in the land of Seir ; but afterwards they extended their territories more to the south of Judah. The capital of East Edom was Bozrah; and that of South Edom, Petra or Jectael. 2. The prophecies respecting Edom are numerous and striking; and the present state of the country, as described by modern travellers, has given so remarkable an attes- tation to the accuracy of their fulfilment, that a few ex- tracts from Mr. Keith's work, in which this is pointed out, may be fitly introduced. That the Idumeans were a populous and powerful nation long posterior to the delivery of the prophecies; that they possessed a tolerably good government, even in the esti- mation of Wolney; that Idumea contained many cities; that these cities are now absolutely deserted; and that their ruins swarm with enormous scorpions; that it was a commercial nation, and possessed highly frequented marts; that it forms a shorter route than the ordinary one to India; and yet that it had not been visited by any traveller; are facts all recorded, and proved by Volney himself—in his “Travels”—able but unconscious com- mentator | 3. A greater contrast cannot be imagined than the ancient and present state of Idumea. It was a kingdom previous to Israel, having been governed first by dukes or princes, afterwards by eight successive kings, and again by dukes, before there reigned any king over the children of Israel, Gen. 36: 31, &c. Its fertility and early cultiva tion are implied not only in the blessings of Esau, whose dwelling was to be the fatness of the earth, and of the dew of heaven from above ; but also in the condition pro- posed by Moses to the Edomites, when he solicited a passage for the Israelites through their borders, that “ they would not pass through the fields nor through the vineyards;” and also in the great wealth, especially in the multitudes of flocks and herds, recorded as possessed by an individual inhabitant of that country, at a period, in all probability even more remote, Gen. 27:39. Num. 20: 17. Job 42: 12. The Idumeans were, without doubt, both an opulent and a powerful people. They often con- tended with the Israelites, and entered into a league with their other enemies against them. In the reign of David, they were indeed subdued and greatly oppressed, and many of them even dispersed throughout the neighboring countries, particularly Phoenicia and Egypt. But during the decline of the kingdom of Judah, and for many years previous to its extinction, they encroached upon the terri- tories of the Jews, and extended their dominion over the south-western part of Judea. 4. There is a prediction which, being peculiarly re- markable as applicable to Idumea, and bearing reference to a circumstance explanatory of the difficulty of access to any knowledge respecting it, is entitled, in the first in- stance, to notice : “None shall pass through it forever and ever. - I will cut off from mount Seir him that passeth out, and him that returneth,” Isa. 34; 10. Ezek. 35: 7. The ancient greatness of Idumea must, in no small de- gree, have resulted from its commerce. Bordering with Arabia on the east, and Egypt on the south-west, and forming from north to south the most direct and most commodious channel of communication between Jerusa- lem and her dependencies on the Red Sea, as well as be- tween Syria and India, through the continuous valleys of El Ghor, and El Araba, which terminated on the one extremity at the borders of Judea, and on the other at Elath and Ezion Geber on the Elanitic gulf of the Red - - &- 3.3 ... . . * . *...*...* ... . - * : * , . . . --> -- . &. ... ... . . . - ºs. ... . .6 sea, Idumea may be said to have formed the emporium of the commerce of the East: A fºoman road passed directly through Idumea, from Jerusalem to Akaba, and another from Akaba to Moab; and when these roads were made, at a time long posterior to the date of the predictions, the conception could not have been formed, or held credible by man, that the period would ever arrive when none would pass through it. Above seven hundred years after the date of the prophecy, Strabo relates that many Romans and other foreign- ers were found at Petra by his friend Athenodorus, the philosopher, who visited it. The prediction is yet more surprising when viewed in conjunction with another, which implies that travellers would “pass by’” Idumea : “Every one that goeth by shall be astonished.” And the Hadj routes (routes of the pilgrims) from Damascus and from Cairo to Mecca, the one on the east and the other towards the south of Idumea, along the whole of its ex- tent, go by it, or touch partially on its borders, without passing through it. The truth of the prophecy, though hemmed in thus by apparent impossibilities and contra- dictions, and with extreme probability of its fallacy in every view that could have been visible to man, may yet be tried. : 5. Let the reader now turn to Isaiah 34: 5, 10–17. Jeremiah 49: 13–18. and Malachi 1: 3, 4. and he will find other predictions no less circumstantially fulfilled. “Edom shall be a desolation. From generation to gene- ration it shall lie waste,” &c. Judea, Ammon, and Moab exhibit so abundantly the remains and the means of an exuberant fertility, that the wonder arises in the reflecting mind, how the barbarity of man could have so effectually counteracted for so many generations the prodigality of nature. But such is Edom’s desolation, that the first sentiment of astonishment on the contemplation of it is, how a wide-extended region, now diversified by the strongest features of desert wildness, could ever have been adorned with cities, or tenanted for ages by a powerful and opulent people. Its present aspect would belie its ancient history, were not that history corroborated by “the many vestiges of former cultivation,” by the remains of walls and paved roads, and by the ruins of cities still existing in this ruined country. The total cessation of its commerce; the artificial irrigation of its valleys wholly neglected; the destruction of all the cities, and the con- tinued spoliation of the country by the Arabs, while aught remained that they could destroy; the permanent expo- sure, for ages, of the soil unsheltered by its ancient groves, and unprotected by any covering from the scorching rays of the sun; the unobstructed encroachments of the desert, and of the drifted sands from the borders of the Red sea; the consequent absorption of the water of the springs and streamlets during summer, are causes which have all combined their baneful operation in rendering Edom “ most desolate, the desolation of desolations.” From the borders of Edom, Captains Irby and Mangles also beheld a boundless extent of desert view, which they had hardly ever seen equalled for singularity and gran- deur. And the following extract, descriptive of what Burckhardt actually witnessed in the different parts of Edom, cannot be more graphically abbreviated than in the words of the prophet. Of its eastern boundary, and of the adjoining part of Arabia Petraea, strictly so called, Burckhardt writes: “It might, with truth, be called Petraea, not only on account of its rocky mountains, but also of the elevated plain already described, which is so much covered with stones, especially flints, that it may with great propriety be called a stony desert, although suscep- tible of culture; in many places it is overgrown with wild herbs, and must once have been thickly inhabited; for the traces of many towns and villages. are met with on both sides of the Hadj road, between Maan and Akaba, as well as between Maan and the plains of the Hauran, in which direction are also many springs. At present all this country is a desert, and Maan (Temah) is the Önly inhabited place in it: ‘I will stretch out my hand against thee, O mount Seir, and will make thee most desolate. I will stretch out my hand upon Edom, and will make it desolate from Teman.’” In the interior of Idumea, where the ruins of some of its ancient cities are still visi- f 489 E Dw ble, and in the extensive, valley which reaches from the Red to the Dead sea, the appearance of which must now be totally and sadly changed from what it was, “the whole plain,” says Burckhardt, “presented to the view an expanse of shifting sands, whose surface was broken by innumerable undulations and low hills. The sand ap- pears to have been brought from the shores of the Red sea, by the southern winds; and the Arabs told me that the valleys continue to present the same appearance be- yond the latitude of Wady Mousa. In some parts of the valley the sand is very deep, and there is not the slightest appearance of a road, or of any work of human art. A few trees grow among the sand hills, but the depth of sand precludes all vegetation or herbage.” “If grape- gatherers come to thee, would not they leave some glean- ing grapes? If thieves by night, they will destroy till they have enough ; but I have made Esau bare. Edom shall be a desolate wilderness.” “On ascending the western plain,” continues Mr. Burckhardt, “on a higher level than that of Arabia, we had before us an immense expanse of dreary country, entirely covered with black flints, with here and there some hilly chain rising from the plain.” “I will stretch out upon Idumea the line of co, fusion, and the stones of emptiness.” Such is the present desolate aspect of one of the most fertile countries of ancient times' So visibly even now does the withering curse of an offended God rest upon it ! And its fate, like that of the children of Israel, remains a monument of the divine inspiration of the Scriptures, at which infidelity may well turn pale.—Watson. EDOMITES. (See Esau; and Edom.) EDREI; a town of Manasseh, east of Jordan, (Josh. 13:31.) called likewise Edraea and Adraea, and perhaps Edera in Ptolemy, when speaking of the towns in the Batanaea. Eusebius places it about twenty-five miles north from Bostri.—Calmet. EDWARDS, (John, D. D.;) a divine of the church of England, who flourished at the latter end of the seven- teenth, and beginning of the eighteenth century. He was born at Hertford, February the 26th, 1637. At Cam- bridge, his superior talents brought on him a train of academical honors; he was elected fellow of the college, admitted to the degree of master of arts, ordained deacon, and appointed, by bishop Saunderson, to preach a sermon at the approaching ordination of priests. We are told that “in his preaching he affected not any flaunting eloquence, but studied to be plain, intelligible, and practi. cal, and to edify all his hearers; yet, so as that his dis- courses were interspersed with choice and uncommon remarks.” He exercised his ministerial functions for several years, at Trinity church, Cambridge, where he was attended by many of the gown, and persons of consi- derable standing in the university; from thence he re- moved to Bury St. Edmunds; and then to Colchester. After three years, he quitted Colchester, and returned to Cambridge; partly, on account of its affording him access to the university library, and partly for other reasons. • In 1699, he was created doctor of divinity, and from this time, he became a volumir.)us writer, owing, in some measure, to his being afflicted with the gout and other disorders, which determined him to preach the gospel by his pen. He prosecuted his studies and labors till near the period of his decease, which took place on the 16th of April, 1716, in the seventy-ninth year of his age. It may be questioned whether, since the days of Calvin himself, there has existed a more decided Calvinist than Dr. Edwards. He has been termed the Paul, the Augustine, the Bradwardine, the Calvin of his age. Such was his abhorrence of Arminianism, that he contended, with the old Puritans, that there is a close connexion between it and popery. His writings are very numerous, and they discover extensive learning, deep thought, cogent reason- ing, and extraordinary zeal for the doctrines of divine grace. It is said, that all unbiassed and impartial men voted him, by universal consent, to be one of the most valuable writers of his time. The principal of his works are, “Veritas Redux ; or, Evangelical Truths Restored,” octavo, 1707; “Inquiry into Four remarkable Texts;” “Discourse concerning the Authority, Style, and Per- fection of the Books of the old and New Testament,” E Dw E D W . [ 490 two volumes, octavo; “A Survey of the several Dispen- sations of Religion,”’ &c., two volumes, octavo ; several distinct treatises against the Socinians; “An Answer to Dr. Whitby's Five Points;”, “Animadversions on Dr. Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity;” “Theologia Reformata; or, the Substance and Body of the Christian Religion,” London, 1713, two volumes, folio, of which a third volume was published ten years after the author's decease; with many other pieces too tedious to enume- rate.—Biog. Brit. ; Jones's Chr. Biog. EDWARDS, (JonATHAN,), president of New Jersey college, a most acute metaphysician, and distinguished divine, was born at Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703. He was graduated at Yale college in 1720, before he was seventeen years of age. His uncommon genius discov- ered itself early, and while yet a boy he read Locke on the Human Understanding with a keen relish. Though he took much pleasure in examining the kingdom of nature, yet moral and theological researches yielded him the highest satisfaction. He lived in college near two years after taking his first degree, preparing himself for the office of a minister of the gospel. In #. he went to New York, at the request of a small society of English Presbyterians, and preached a number of months. In 1724, he was appointed a tutor in Yale college, and he continued in that office, till he was invited in 1726, to preach at Northampton, Mass. Here he was ordained as colleague with his grandfather, Mr. Stoddard, February 15, 1727. In 1735, his benevolent labors were attended with very uncommon success; a general impression was made upon the minds of his people by the truths which he proclaimed, and the church was much enlarged. He continued in this place more than twenty-three years. He had been instrumental in cheering many hearts with the joys of religion, and not a few had regarded him with all that affectionate attachment, which is excited by the love of excellence and the sense of obligations, which can never be repaid. But a spirit of detraction had gone forth, in consequence of his strict views of Christian disci- pline and purity, and a few leading men of outrageous zeal pushed forward men of less determined hostility, and he was dismissed by an ecclesiastical council, June 22, 1750. In this scene of trouble and abuse, when the mistakes and the bigotry of the multitude had stopped their ears, and their, passions were without control, Mr. Edwards exhibited the truly Christian spirit. His calmness, and meekness, and humility, and yet firmness and resolution, were the subjects of admiration to his friends. More anxious for his people, than for himself, he preached a most solemn and affecting farewell discourse. He after- wards occasionally supplied the pulpit at times, when no preacher had been procured; but this proof of his superi- ority to resentment or pride, and this readiness to do good to those who had injured him, met with no return, except a vote of the inhabitants, prohibiting him from ever again reaching for them. Still he was not left without excel- ent friends in Northampton, and his correspondents in Scotland, having been informed of his dismission, contri- buted a considerable sum for the maintenance of his family. In August, 1751, he succeeded Mr. Sergeant as mission- ary to the Housatonic Indians, at Stockbridge, in Berk- shire county. Here he continued six years, preaching to the Indians and the white people; and, as he found much leisure, he prosecuted his theological and metaphysical studies, and produced works, which rendered his name famous throughout Europe. Thus was his calamitous removal from Northampton the occasion, under ºne wise providence of God, of his imparting to the world the most important instructions, whose influence has been extend- ing to the present time, and whose good effects may still be felt for ages. . In January, 1758, he reluctantly ac- cepted the office of president of the college in New Jersey, as successor of his son-in-law, Mr. Burr ; but he had not entered fully upon the duties of this station, before the prevalence of the small pox induced him to be inoculated, and this disease was the cause of his death, March 22, 1758, aged fifty-four. A short time before he died, as Some of his friends, who surrounded his bed to see him breathe his last, were lamenting the loss which the col- lege would sustain; he said, to their astonishment, “Trust in God, and ye need not fear.” These were his last words. He afterwards expired with as much composure, as if he had only fallen asleep. He left three sons and seven daughters. His wife, Sarah, daughter of Rev. J. Pierpont, New Haven, whom he married in 1727, in her eighteenth year, died also in 1758. She became pious at the age of five. - - President Edwards was equally distinguished by his Christian virtues, and by the extraordinary vigor and penetration of his mind. Though his constitution was delicate, he commonly spent thirteen hours every day in his study. He usually rose between four and five in the morning, and was abstemious, living completely by rule. All his researches were pursued with his pen in his hand, and the number of his miscellaneous writings, which he had left behind him, was above fourteen hundred. They were all numbered and paged, and an index was formed for the whole. He was peculiarly happy in his domestic connexions. Mrs. Edwards, by taking the entire care of his temporal concerns, gave him an opportunity of conse- crating all his powers, without interruption, to the labors and studies of the sacred office. As a preacher, he was not oratorical in his manner, and his voice was rather feeble, though he spoke with distinct- ness; but his discourses were rich in thought ; and, being deeply impressed himself with the truths, which he uttered, his preaching canne home to the hearts of his hearers. f Mr. Edwards was uncommonly zealous and persevering in his search after truth. He spared no pains in procuring the necessary aids, and he read all the books which he could procure, that promised to afford him assistance in his inquiries. He confined himself to no particular sect or denomination, but studied the writings of men whose sentiments were the most opposite to his own. But the Bible claimed his peculiar attention. From that book he derived his religious principles, and not from any human system. The doctrines, which he supported, were Calvin- istic, and when these doctrines were in any degree relin- quished, or were not embraced in their whole length and breadth, he did not see, where a man could set his foot down, with consistency and safety, short of deism or atheism itselſ. Yet with all his strict adherence to what he believed to be the truths of heaven, his heart was kind and tender. When Mr. Whitefield preached for him on the Sabbath, the acute divine, whose mighty intellect has seldom been equalled, wept as a child during the whole Sel’Oſlon . His Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will, is considered as one of the greatest efforts of the human mind. Those, who embrace the Calvinistic sentiments, have been accus- tomed to say, that he has forever settled the controversy with the Arminians by demonstrating the absurdity of their principles. On the other hand, there are those, attached to the general theological doctrines embraced by Edwards, who think that the unavoidable consequences of his metaphysical argument are so contradictory to the common judgment of mankind, as to authorize any one “boldly to cut asunder the knot, which he is unable to unloose.” However, if the argument of Edwards be a fallacy, “there must be some way to unravel the puzzle.” Remarks were made on the Essay on the Freedom of the Will by James Dana and Samuel West; the latter was answered by Dr. Edwards. His other works, which are most celebrated, are his book on Original Sin in answer to Taylor, his Treatise on the Affections, his dissertation on the Nature of true Virtue, and that on the End for which God created the World. A splendid edition of his works was published in England, and an edition in eight volumes, intended to be a complete collection of his writ- ings, edited by Dr. Austin, was published in 1809. Another edition, with an ample account of his life, edited by his descendant, Sereno Edwards Dwight, was pub- lished in ten vols. 8vo, in 1830.-Hopkins' Life of Ed- wards ; Life prefixed to his Works; Middleton's Biog. Evang. iv. 294—317; Jones's Chris. Biog. ; Allen. - EDWARDS, (JonATHAN, D. D.,) president of Union college at Schenectady, in the state of New York, son of & E. G. Y | 491 J the preceding, was born at Northampton, June 6, 1745. In childhood, an inflammation in his eyes prevented him from learning to read till an uncommonly late period. He was graduated at the college in New Jersey, in 1765. Two years before, at a time, when the students of the college were generally impressed by the truths of reli- gion, he was blessed with the hope of his reconciliation to God through Christ. This was during the presidentship and under the impressive preaching of Dr. Finley. He afterwards pursued the study of divinity under the in. struction of Dr. Bellamy, and in October, 1766, was licensed to preach the gospel by the association of minis- ters in the county of Litchfield, Conn. In 1767, he was appointed tutor of Princeton college, and in this office he remained two years. He was ordained pastor of the church at Whitehaven, in the town of New Haven, January 5, 1769, and continued there till May, 1795, when he was dismissed by an ecclesiastical council, at his own request, and at the request of his soci- ety. In January, 1796, he was installed pastor of the church at Colebrook, in Litchfield county. In this retired situation, where he was enabled to pursue his theological studies with little interruption, he hoped to spend the remainder of his days. But in June, 1799, he was elected president of the college, which had been re- cently established at Schenectady, as successor of Mr. Smith. In July, he commenced the duties of the office. From this time, his attention and talents were devoted to the concerns of the seminary, of which he was intrusted with the charge. He died August 1, 1801, aged fifty-six, unexpectedly, but with Christian resignation. . There were several remarkable coincidences in the lives of Dr. Edwards and his father. Both were tutors in the seminaries, in which they were educated; were dis- missed on account of their religious opinions; were settled again in retired situations; were elected to the president- ship of a college; and, in a short time after they were inaugurated, died at near the same age. They were also remarkably similar in person and character. Dr. Edwards was a man of uncommon powers of mind. He has seldom been surpassed in acuteness and penetra- tion. His answer to Dr. Chauncey, his dissertation on the liberty of the will in reply to Dr. West, and his sermons on the atonement of Christ, to say nothing of his other publications, are considered as works of great and pecu- liar merit. He also edited, from the manuscripts of his father, the History of the Work of Redemption, two volumes of sermons, and two volumes of Observations on important theological subjects.-Connect. Evang. Mag., ii. 377–383; Miller, ii. 453; 2 Hist. Col. x. 81–160; Holmes, ii. 321.-Allen. EFFECTUAL ; that which actually answers the end intended. A door for preaching the gospel is effectual, when the opportunity of doing it issues in the conviction and conversion of many, 1 Cor. 16:9. God works effec- tually in ministers when he enables them zealously to preach the gospel, and crowns their labors with success, Gal. 2:8. He works effectually in his chosen people, when he converts them to himself, and causes them to bring forth fruits of holiness to his glory, Eph. 3: 7. 4: 16. 1 Thess. 2: 13. Christ and his cross and promise are said to be of none effect, that is, of no saving use to men, when they do not believe his promise, embrace his person, religion, right- eousness, and yield themselves to Him as their Lord and Master, Gal. 5: 1. 1 Cor. 1: 17. Rom. 4: 14.—Brown. EFFRONTES; a sort of heretics, in 1534, who scraped their forehead with a knife till it bled, and then poured oil into the wound. This ceremony served them instead of baptism. They are likewise said to have denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit.—Hend. Buck. EGEDE, (HANs;) a Danish divine, born in 1686, died in 1758, was the founder of the religious missions to Greenland, in which country he resided from 1721 to 1736, displaying a piety, zeal, and benevolence which gained the confidence of the natives. He wrote a de- scription of Greenland.—His son, Paul, who succeeded him, and emulated his virtues, was born in 1708, and died in 1789. He wrote an account of Greenland; com- posed a dictionary and grammar of the language : and translated into that language a part of the Bible and some other works.--Davenport. z * * EGG, (bizim, Deut. 22: 6. Job 39: 14. Isa. 10: 14. 59: 5.) Son, Luke 11: 12. Eggs are considered as a very great delicacy in the East, and are served up with fish and honey at their entertainments. As a desirable article of food, the egg is mentioned, (Luke 11: 12:) “If a son ask for an egg, will his father offer him a scorpion ?” It has been remarked that the body of the scorpion is very like an egg, as its head can scarcely be distinguished, especially if it be of the white kind, which is the first species mentioned by JElian, Avicenna, and others. Bochart has produced testimonies to prove that the scor- pions in Judea were about the bigness of an egg. So the similitude is preserved between the thing asked, and the thing given.— Watson. EGINHARD; a celebrated historian, a native of Ger- many, was a pupil of Alcuin, who recommended him to the notice of Charlemagne. The monarch made him his secretary, and afterwards superintendent of his buildings. He died in 839, abbot of Seligenstadt. The stories rela- tive to his marrying a daughter of Charlemagne, appear to be fables. Eginhard is the author of a Life of Charle- magine; Annals of France, from 741 to 829; and sixty- two 12pistles.—Davenport. EGLAIM ; the same as GALLIM, a city beyond Jordan, to the east of the Dead sea, in the land of Moab, Isa. 15: 8. 1 Sam. 25: 44.—Jones. - EGLON ; a king of the Moabites, who oppressed the Israel:es for eighteen years, Judg. 3: 12–14. Calmet has confounded this servitude of the Hebrews with that under Cushan-Rishathaim, making it to subsist only eight years, viz. from 2591 to 2599; whereas the servi- tude under Eglon lasted eighteen years, and commenced in the year of the world 2661, which was sixty-two years after they had been delivered by Othniel from their sub- jection to Cushan-Rishathaim.—Jones. EGYPT ; a much renowned kingdom of antiquity, situated in the north of Africa. It is said to have derived its name from Ham, the son of Noah, whence it is fre- quently in the book of Psalms styled the land of Ham. But the name by which it is generally denoted in Scrip- ture is the land of Mizraim, who was a son of Ham ; from whence the Arabians and other oriental nations still call it Mesr; but the etymology of the word Egypt is variously accounted for. * Ancient Egypt is by some divided into two parts, the Upper and the Lower Egypt; by others into three ; the Upper Egypt, or Thebais, so called from its capital city Thebes; the Middle Egypt, or Heptanomis, so called from the seven districts it contained; and the Lower Egypt, which included what the Greeks called the Delta and all the country lying upon the coasts of the Mediter. ranean and Red seas. Thebais, which in Scripture is called Pathros, is the most southerly part of Egypt. Middle Egypt comprehended all the country on each side of the Nile from Thebais to the point of the Delta, where that river divides itself into those branches by which it enters the sea. This part of Egypt was in an- cient times full of large cities, among which was Mem- phis, the capital, situated on the western side of the Nile, as Grand Cairo, which seems to have succeeded Mem- phis, is built on the eastern. The Lower Egypt, extending from the preceding quar- ter, to the Mediterranean sea, contained not only that part which is encompassed by the arms of the Nile, and from its triangular figure named Delta, but also Mareotis and Alexandria, with some territories towards Arabia to the east. Between these two large branches of the Nile called the Delta, there were several celebrated cities, Naucratis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium, Alexandria, Nicopolis, &c. It was in the country of Tanis that the Israelites are thought to have dwelt. (See the article Goshen.) 2. The fertility of Egypt, and the excellence of its pro- ductions and fruits, are greatly celebrated by arcient writers, and by Moses himself, Gen. 13:10. It alſounds with grain of all kinds, but particularly rice; insomuch that it was formerly the granary of Rome it is now the E G Y E G Y | 492 ) country which supplies Constantinople. Its fertility de- pends upon the periodical inundations of the Nile, which, as it is one of the most remarkable circumstances attend- ing this country, will be spoken of under the article NILE. 3. Among all the nations of antiquity, there is none more worthy of attention than Egypt. If not the birth- place, it was the early protector of the sciences, and che- rished every species of knowledge, which was known or cultivated in remote times. It was the principal source from whence the Greeks derived their information ; and after all its windings and enlargements, we may still trace the stream of our knowledge to the banks of the Nile. Every ancient nation lays claim to a higher origin than legitimate history can sanction; and the Egyptians not only boast of being the most ancient people in the world, but they evidently extend their claims to a fabulous period. This proud nation, fondly conceited of its own antiquity, as Rollin expresses it, thought it glorious to lose itself in an abyss of infinite ages, as though it would carry back its pretensions to eternity. But though such extravagant claims are quite inadmissible, it cannot be denied that Egypt was the cradle of the Hebrew nation. (See GENESIs.) The invention of alphabetical letters, and the art of writing, is generally attributed by the ancients to the Egyptians. - Egypt was the mother of the sciences as well as the arts. There were four colleges in Egypt, where science was studied and taught : Thebes, which Pythagoras visited ; Memphis, where Thales and Democritus con- sulted the Egyptian priests; Heliopolis, where Plato studied; and Sais, where Solon was instructed in the principles of legislation and government. The first important discoveries in astronomy were made by the Egyptians. As they were the first people of anti- quity who lived by cultivating the ground, they were under a necessity of studying the motions of the stars. Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades marked out the several seasons among the early Greeks; and the rising of Sirius with the sun, announced to the Egyptians the overflowing of the Nile, and the customary time of sowing their grain, which was immediately after its retreat. To sum up their character: Without having attained to elegance in the arts, or perfection in the sciences, the Egyptians struck out the models on which other nations improved; and philosophy owes them that respect which an empire pays to its founders. 4. What history records of their buildings, would sur- pass credibility, were it not attested by their monuments, which remain to this day. Egypt is a scene of antiqui- ties; walking among ruins, the traveller forgets the present, to contemplate the past, and, amid the traces of a degenerate race, marks the remains of a mighty nation. Their buildings are still sublime. The pyramids of Egypt have always ranked among the wonders of the world. Three of them still remain, at the distance of some leagues from Grand Cairo, where Memphis formerly stood. The largest of the three, called the Great Pyramid, forms a square, each side of whose base is six hundred and sixty feet. The circumference is two thousand six hundred and forty feet. The basis covers eleven acres of ground. The perpendicular height is about four hundred and fifty feet; if measured obliquely, seven hundred feet. The judgment of the living upon the dead would be striking in every nation, but was calculated to make a particular impression in Egypt, from the prejudices of the people. The Egyptians believed that the soul hovered about the body till putrefaction took place : hence they looked upon the rites of sepulture every where so sacred, as connected with their future felicity: and they hoped, by the secret of embalming which they discovered, to survive for ages in the tomb. Thus the sovereigns of Egypt were accountable to the tribunal of the people; and the very idea of such a solemn trial was a strong additional motive to make them discharge the duty of sovereigns. The monarch who erected a pyramid as his future habitation, would be naturally induced to re- spect, the rights of his subjects, that they might as- sign him a place in the pyramid which he had erected to perpetuate his future fame. The Jews had a practice somewhat like this. Wicked kings were not buried in the sepulchre of their fathers. This custom prevailed to the time of the ASmonean princes. 5. Among nations who are not blessed by divine reve: lation, the luminaries of heaven are the first objects of worship. Diodorus Siculus, mentioning the Egyptians, informs us, “that the first men, looking up to the world above them, and struck with admiration at the nature of the universe, supposed the sun and moon to be the prin- cipal and eternal gods.” This, which may be called the natural superstition of mankind, we can trace in the an- nals of the West, as well as of the East; among the inha- bitants of the new world, as well as of the old. The Sun and moon, under the names of Isis and Osiris, were the chief objects of adoration among the Egyptians. A superstitious reverence for certain animals, as propi- tious or disastrous to the human race, was prevalent, though not peculiar to the Egyptians. The cow has been venerated in India from the most remote antiquity. The serpent has been the object of religious respect to one half of the nations of the known world. The Romans had sacred animals, which they kept in their temples, and distinguished with peculiar honors. We need not there- fore be surprised, that a nation, so superstitious as the Egyptians, should honor with peculiar marks of respect, the ichneumon, the ibis, the dog, the falcon, the wolf, and the crocodile. These they entertained at great expense, and with much magnificence. Lands were set apart for their maintenance; persons of the highest rank were employed in feeding and attending them ; rich carpets were spread in their apartments; and the pomp at their funerals corresponded to the profusion and luxury which attended them when alive. What chiefly tended to favor the progress of animal worship in Egypt, was the lan- guage of hieroglyphics. In the hieroglyphic inscriptions on their temples and public edifices, animals, and even vegetables, were the symbols of the gods whom they worshipped. In the midst of innumerable Superstitions, the theology of Egypt contained the two great principles of religion, the existence of a Supreme Being, and the immortality of the soul. The first is proved by the in- scription on the temple of Minerva : “I am that which is, which was, and shall be ; no mortal hath lifted up my veil ; the offspring of my power is the sun;” the second, by the care with which dead bodies were embalmed, and the prayer recited at the hour of death, by an Egyptian, expressing his desire to be received to the presence of the deities. 6. The splendid temples of Egypt were not built, in all probability, till after the time of Solomon ; for the recent progress made in the deciphering of hieroglyphics has disappointed the antiquaries as to the antiquity of these stupendous fabrics. It is well observed by Dr. Shuckford, that temples made no great figure in Homer's time. If they had, he would not have lost such an opportunity of exerting his genius on so grand a subject as Virgil has done in his description of the temple built by Dido at Carthage. The first heathen temples were probably no- thing more than mean buildings, which served merely as a shelter from the weather ; of which kind was, probably, the house of the Philistine god Dagon. But when the fame of Solomon's temple had reached other countries, it excited them to imitate its splendor; and nation vied with nation in the structures erected to their several deities. All were, however, outdone, at least in massiveness and durability, by the Egyptians; the architectural design of whose temples, as well as that of the Grecian edifices, was borrowed from the stems and branches of the grove temples. 7. It appears to be an unſounded notion, that the pyra- mids were built by the Israelites: they were, probably, Mr. Faber thinks, the work of the “Shepherds,” or Cushite invaders, who, at an early period, held possession of Egypt for two hundred and sixty years, and reduced the Egyptians to bondage, so that “a shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians” in Joseph’s time. The Israelites labored in making bricks, not in forming stones such as the pyramids are constructed with; and a passage in Mr. Jowett’s “Researches,” before referred to, will throw light upon this part of their history. Mr. Jowett 15 G. Y E. L. A | 493 | saw at one place the people making bricks, with straw cut into small pieces, and mingled with the clay, to bind it. Hence it is, that when villages built of these bricks fall into rubbish, which is often the case, the roads are full of small particles of straws, extremely offensive to the eyes in a high wind. They were, in fact, engaged exactly as the Israelites used to be, making bricks with straw ; and for a similar purpose,_to build extensive granaries for the bashaw; “treasure-cities for Pharaoh.” The same intelligent missionary also observes: “The mollems transact business between the bashaws and the peasants. He punishes them if the peasants prove that they oppress; and yet he requires from them that the work of those who are under them shall be fulfilled. They strikingly illus- trate the case of the officers placed by the Egyptian task- masters over the children of Israel; and, like theirs, the mollems often find their case is evil, Exod. 5.” 8. It is not necessary to go over those parts of the Egyptian history which occur in the Old Testament. A part of the prophecies respecting this haughty and idolatrous kingdom, uttered by Jeremiah and Ezekiel, when it was in the height of its splendor and prosperity, were fulfilled in the terrible invasions of Nebuchadnezzar, Cambyses, and the Persian monarchs. It comes, how- ever, again into an interesting connexion with the Jewish history under Alexander the Great, who invaded it as a Persian dependence. (See ALEXANDER and ALEXANDRIA.) Egypt, indeed, was about to see better days ; and, during the reigns of the Ptolemies, enjoyed again, for nearly three hundred years, something of its former re- nown for learning and power. It formed, during this period, and before the rapid extension of the Roman em- pire towards the termination of these years, one of the only two ancient kingdoms which had survived the Assy- rian, Babylonian, Persian, and Macedonian empires: the other was the Syrian, where the Seleucidae, another family of one of the successors of Alexander, reigned; who, having subdued Macedonia and Thrace, annexed them to the kingdom of Syria, and there remained, out of the four kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was divided, these two only ; distinguished, in the prophetic writings of Daniel, by the titles of the kings or kingdoms of the north and the south. 9. The prophecies respecting Egypt in the Old Testa- ment have had a wonderful fulfilment. fulfilment of every prophecy affords as clear a demonstra- , tion as can possibly be given, that each and all of them are the dictates of inspiration. Egypt was the theme of many prophecies, which were fulfilled in ancient times; and it bears to the present day, as it has borne throughout many ages, every mark with which prophecy had stamped its destiny : “They shall be a base kingdom. the basest of kingdoms. Neither shall it exalt itself any more among the nations: for I will diminish them, that they shall no more rule over the nations. I the Lord have spoken it. And there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt,” Ezek. 30: 5, 7, 12, 13. The sceptre of Egypt shall depart away,” Zech. 10: 11. - Volney and Gibbon are our witnesses of the facts: “Such is the state of Egypt. Deprived, twenty-three centuries ago, of her natural proprietors, she has seen her fertile fields successively a prey to the Persians, the Macedoni- ans, the Romans, the Greeks, the Arabs, the Georgians, and, at length, the race of Tartars distinguished by the name of Ottoman Turks. The Mamelukes, purchased as slaves, and introduced as soldiers, soon usurped the power and elected a leader. If their first establishment was a singular event, their continuance is not less extraordi- nary. They are replaced by slaves brought from their original country. The system of oppression is methodi- cal. Every thing the traveller sees or hears reminds him he is in the country of slavery and tyranny.” “A more unjust and absurd constitution cannot be devised than that which condemns the natives of a country to perpetual servitude, under the arbitrary dominion of strangers and slaves. Yet such has been the state of Egypt about five hundred years. The most illustrious sultans of the Baharite and Borgite dynasties were themselves promoted from the Tartar and Circassian bands; and the four-and- twenty beys or military chiefs have ever been suc- And the literal It shall be ceeded, not by their sons, but by their servants.” These are the words of Wolney and of Gibbon, scoffers at the Bible, but eye-witnesses of the facts foretold in it two thousand four hundred years beſore : - 10. Egypt has, indeed, lately somewhat risen, under its present º: but despotic pasha, to a degree of impor- tance and commerce. But this pasha is still a stranger, and the dominion is foreign. Nor is yet there any thing like a general advancement of the people to order, intelli. gence and happiness. Yet this fact, instead of militating against the truth of prophecy, may, possibly at no distant period, serve to illustrate other predictions. “The Lord shall smite Egypt: he shall Smite and heal it; and they shall return to the Lord, and he shall be entreated of them, aud shall heal them. In that day shall Israel be the third with Egypt and with Assyria, even a blessing in the midst of the land,” &c. Isa. 19: 22–25.-Rutherford's Ancient History ; Nenton on the Prophecies ; Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy; Calmet; Jones; Watson. - EGYPT, (Brook, or River of .) This is frequently mentioned as the southern limit of the land of Promise, Gen. 15: 18. 2 Chron. 7: 8. Num. 24: 5. Josh. 15: 4. Calmet is of opinion, that this was the Nile; but most modern interpreters take the river of Egypt, to be the brook Besor, between Gaza and Rhinocorura. (See Josh. 15:47.)—Calmet. EHUD; son of Gera: a judge of Israel, who slew Eglon, king of Moab, Judg. 3:15.-Calmet. EICETAP ; a denomination in the year 680, who af. firmed that, in order to make prayer acceptable to God, it should be performed dancing.—Hend. Buck. EICHORN, (John GoDFREY ;) one of the most distin- guished German scholars in Oriental literature, biblical criticism, and literary and general history. He was born at Dorrenzimmen, in 1752; in 1772, he was appointed professor at Jena ; and, in 1788, he was made professor . at Gottingen, where he remained till his death, in 1831. At Gottingen, he devoted himself chiefly to biblical studies. The results of his inquiries were published in his Universal Library of Biblical Literature ; his Repertory of Biblical and Oriental Literature ; and his Introduction to the Old and Nerv Testaments—works which contain much important and valuable information, and sound criticism, but also much of the grossest and most offensive specimens of German neology. His writings have had a great influ- ence on the views of continental divines.—Hend. Buck. EJACULATION ; a short prayer, in which the mind is directed to God, on any emergency. (See PRAYER.)— Fiend. Buck. - - EKRON ; a city of the Philistines, and the seat of go- vernment. It was situated near the shore of the Medi- terranean, between Azotus and Jamnia. It fell to the tribe of Judah by lot, when Joshua divided the land, but was afterwards given to the tribe of Dan, Josh. 15: 45. and 19:43. The city was strongly fortified, and it does not appear from history that the Jews were ever sole, peace- able possessors of it. The idol Baalzebub was principally worshipped by the inhabitants of Ekron, and a famous temple was there dedicated to him, 2 Kings 1:2, &c.—Jones. ELAM ; the eldest son of Shem, who settled in a coun- try to which he gave his name, Gen. 10: 22. It is fre- quently mentioned in Scripture, as lying to the south-east of Shinar. Susiana, in later times, seems to have been a part of this country, (Dan. 8: 2.) and before the capti- vity, the Jews seem always to have intended Persia by the name of Elam. Stephanus takes it to be a part of Assyria; but Pliny and Josephus, more properly, of Persia, whose inhabitants, this latter tells us, sprung from the Elamites.—Watson. ELATH ; a sea-port town on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. It originally belonged to the Edomites, being situated in the country of Idumea; but when David made a conquest of the latter, and began to establish a com- mercial intercourse with distant nations, Elath became a place of considerable note. In the reign of Solomon, it was of still more consequence on account of the ships which he there built and fitted out for the purpose of importing gold from Ophir, 2 Chron. 8: 17. It remained in the possession of the Israelites a hundred and fifty years, when, in the reign of Jehoram, the Edomites re. E I, D E L E | 494 | covered it, 2 Kings 8:20. It was however retaken by Uzziah, king of Judah, in the beginning of his reign, who ſortified it anew, peopled it with his own subjects, and restored the trade to Ophir, which it continued to enjoy until the wicked reign of Ahaz, when Rezin, king of Da- mascus, took it by surprise, and having banished the Jews that were settled there, supplanted them with Syri- ans, and made preparations for carrying on the trade, by which the kings of Judah had been so enriched. The very next year, however, Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, invaded Damascus, conquered Rezin, took possession of Elath, and reserved the right of trade there to himself; so that the Jews from that time never recovered it, which proved very detrimental to their national interests.- Stackhouse's History of the Bible, vol. iii. 8vo. b. vi., ch. 1.— Jone". EL-BETH-EL, (to the God of Bethel ;) the name given by Jacob to an altar which he built, (Gen. 35: 7.) and which stood, probably, in the very spot where he had formerly seen the prophetic dream of the ladder, chap. 28: 22.-Calmet. ELCESAITES, ELCesAIT Ae, ELXIANs, or SAMPSEANs; the followers of Elxai, or Elcesia, a sectary of the second century, but whether Jew or Christian, is by no means certain. They were nearly of the same opinion as the Ebionites and Ossens.—Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. i.p. 216; Lardner's Heretics, p. 424, &c.—Williams. ELDAD and MEDAD, were appointed by Moses among the seventy elders of Israel, who were to assist in the government; though not present in the general as- sembly, they were filled with the Spirit of God, equally with those who were there, and began to prophesy in the camp. Joshua would have had Moses forbid them, but he replied, “Enviest thou for my sake? Would to God that all the Lord’s people were prophets, and that the Lord would put his Spirit upon them ſ” Num. 11; 24– 29.--Calmet. - ELDER, (presbuteros ;) an overseer, ruler, leader. The reverence paid to the aged in the earliest times was doubtless the origin of this title, it being used as a name of office both among Jews and Christians. Dr. Mack- night thinks that in the apostolic age it was applied to “all who exercised any sacred office in the Christian church,” Acts 20:17–28. Elders, or seniors, in ancient Jewish polity, were per- sons the most considerable for age, experience, and wis- dom. Of this sort were the seventy men whom Moses associated with himself in the government: such likewise afterwards were those who held the first rank in the syna- gogue as presidents.—Elders, in church history, were originally those who held the first place in the assemblies of the primitive Christians. The word presbyter is often used in the New Testament in this signification, and as interchangeable with episcopos; hence the first meetings of Christian ministers were called presbyteria, or assem- blies of elders. Elders, in the Presbyterian discipline, are officers who, in conjunction with the ministers and deacons, compose the kirk sessions, who formerly used to take cognizance not only of all grosser immoralities, such as swearing, drunkenness, lewdness, fighting, scolding, disobedience to parents, absence from public worship, &c. but also what are termed the levities and amusements of life—as danc- ing, raring, card-playing, and the like. They were au- thorized, on some occasions, to carry their jurisdiction into the bosoms of families and individuals; to disarm private resentments, and arbitrate in cases of domestic variance. Their principal business now is to take care of the poor's funds. They are chosen from among the people, and are received publicly with some degree of ceremony. In Scotland, there is an indefinite number of elders in each parish, generally about twelve. (See PR2sByTERIANs.) - It has long been a matter of dispute, whether there are any such officers as lay-elders mentioned in Scripture. On the one side it is observed, that these officers are no where mentioned as being alone or single, but always as being many in every congregation. They are also men- tioned separately from the brethren. Their office, more than once, is described as being distinct from that of preaching, not only in Rom, 12:, where he that ruleth is expressly, distinguished from him that exhorteth or teacheth, but also in that-passage, 1 Tim. 5: 17. On the other side it is said that, from the above-mentioned pas- sages, nothing can be collected with certainty to establish this opinion; neither can, it be inferred from any other passage, that churches should be furnished with such officers, though perhaps prudence, in some circumstances, may make them expedient. “I incline to think,” says Dr. Guise, on the passage, (1 Tim. 5: 17,) “that the apostle intends only preaching elders, when he directs double honor to be paid to the elders that rule well, espe- cially those who labor in the word and doctrine; and that the distinction lies not in the order of officers, but in the degree of their diligence, faithfulness, and eminence in laboriously fulfilling their ministerial work; and so the emphasis is to be laid on the word labor in the word and doctrine which has an especially annexed to it.”— JHend. Buck. - ELEALEH ; a town of Reuben, (Num. 32:37.) placed by Eusebius a mile from Heshbon.—Calmet. ELEATICS; a philosophic sect, founded by Xeno- phanes, at Elia, in Magna Graecia. He was originally a Pythagorean, but added some errors of his own to those of his master. A few fragments only of his writings are in existence; but it appears that he taught the eternity both of God and of the universe, and was a Pantheist. —Enfield's Philosophy, vol. i. p. 413, &c.—Williams. ELEAZER ; the third son of Aaron, and his successor in the dignity of high-priest, Exod. 6: 23. He entered into the land of Canaan with Joshua, and is supposed to have lived there upwards of twenty years. The high- priesthood continued in his family till the time of Eli He was buried in a hill that helonged to the son of Phi. neas, Josh. 24. II. E LEAZER ; the son of Aminadab, to whose care the ark was committed when it was sent back by the Philistines, 1 Sam. 7. He is thought to have been a priest, or at least a Levite, though he is not mentioned in the catalogue of the sons of Levi.-Watson. ELECT, besides its scriptural and theological use, had also an ecclesiastical meaning, and was sometimes applied to the highest class of catechumens elected to baptism ; at other times to the baptized, admitted to the full privileges of their profession, and sometimes called the perfect. The Manichaeans were divided into two great classes, the Audientes and Elect.—Lardner's Cred., part II. vol. 6. pp. 87, 299, &c.—Williams. ELECTA, (elect lady, Eng. Trans.) was, as is generally believed, a lady of quality who lived near Ephesus, to whom John addressed his second Epistle, cautioning her and her children against heretics, who denied the divinity of Christ, and his incarnation. Some think Electa, which signifies chosen, is not a proper name, but an honorable epithet, and that the Epistle was directed to a church. The same apostle salutes Electa, and her children in his third Epistle; but the accounts of this Electa are as perplexed as those of the former.—Calmet. ELECTION ; the act of choice. This word has diffe- rent applications in the Scriptures. 1. It signifies God's taking a whole nation, community, or body of men, into external covenant with himself, by giving them the ad. vantage of revelation as the rule of their belief and prac. tice, when other nations are without it, Deut. 7: 6. 2. A temporary designation of some person or persons to the filling up of some particular station in the visible church, or office in civil life, John 6: 70. 1 Sam. 10: 24. 3. The gracious act of the Divine Spirit, whereby God actually and visibly separates his people from the world by effec. tual calling, John 15: 19. (See CALLING ) 4. That eter- nal, gratuitous, sovereign, and immutable purpose of God, whereby he selected from among all mankind, and of every nation under heaven, all those whom he effectually calls to be sanctified and everlastingly saved by Christ, Eph. 1: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 13. (See DECREE ; and PREDEST1. NATION.) . With respect to this subject, it is to be observed,— 1. That it is no part of the doctrine of election, that God created a part of mankind merely to damn them. This is often said by those who wish to bring the doctrine into con- E L E E L E [495 J tempt; but it is not true. It is indeed revealed that he wall punish multitudes of the human race “with everlast- ing destruction from his presence;” but he did not bring them into being merely for the sake of punishing them. GoD Is Love. There is not one malevolent emotion rank- ling in his bosom. It is one of the foulest stains that was ever cast upon his spotless character, to admit the thought that he brought creatures into being merely for the pur- pose of making them forever miserable. In itself, he desires the salvation of every living man. We have his oath, “that he has no pleasure in the death of him that dieth.” If he destroys the wicked, it is because their perdition is inseparable from the preservation of his own glory, and the highest good of his kingdom, and not be- cause it is in itself well pleasing to his benevolent mind, or the ultimate object of their creation. - * . 2. It is no part of the doctrine of election, that Christ died 22clusively for the elect. Such a representation is an un- justifiable perversion of the doctrine, and exposes it to unnecessary objections. Though there would have been no atonement but for God's design to save the elect, and though there could have been no designs of mercy toward the elect without an atonement; yet the doctrine of atone- ment and election are two distinct things. Much idle breath and illiberal crimination might have been spared, by giving them that place in the Christian system which they hold in the word of God. 3. It is no part of the doctrine of election, that the elect nill be saved, let them do what they will. The immutable law of the divine kingdom has made personal holiness essential to eternal life. It is not less certain that “no man will See the Lord without holiness,”—than that no man will see the Lord unless he be of the “election of grace.” The elect cannot be saved unless they possess supreme love to God, sincere contrition for all their sins, and faith unfeigned in the Lord Jesus Christ. The elect can no more enter heaven without being prepared for it than others. If a man continues stupid and secure, if he never reads the Scriptures,--if he never attends upon the word and ordinances,—if he is never anxious for the sal- vation of his soul, -if he never repents and believes the gospel,-if he never becomes a follower of the meek and lowly Jesus; he may rest assured there is nothing in the doctrine of election that will save him. “Except ye re- pent, ye shall all likewise perish.” 4. It is no part of election, that the non-elect will not be saved if they do as nell as they can. If sinners “repent and believe the gospel,” there is nothing in the doctrine of election that will destroy them. If they become recon- ciled to God, he will regard them with favor. If they “come to Christ,” they shall “in no wise be cast out.” Not one will be lost unless he persist in impenitence, reject the offers of mercy, and die in his sins. 5. It is no part of the doctrine of election, that the non-elect cannot comply with the terms of the gospel. We are well aware that the Scriptures represent it to be impossible for men to do what they are unwilling to do. Hence says our Savior, “No man can come to me, except the Fa- ther which hath sent me draw him.” His idea doubtless is, that men cannot come to him because they are unwill- ing to come ; for he had just said, in the course of the same address, “and ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life.” He supposes that mere unwillingness renders it impossible for them to come. This mode of speaking not only runs through the Bible, but is agreeable to the plainest dictates of reason and common sense. While, therefore, it is proper to say, that men cannot do what they are univilling to do, it is also proper to say, that they can do nhat they are milling to do. They are as capable of doing right, if so disposed, as of doing wrong. The doctrine of election leaves them in full possession of all their powers as moral agents, and all possible liberty to choose or refuse the offers of mercy. But if none of these things belong to the doctrine of election, what is it? For the sake of a clear understand- ing of the subject, several things must be particularly observed. x * 1. ALL MANKIND ARE By NATURE IN A STATE of SIN AND condemnation. The “imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth.” “We have before proved both Jews and Gentiles, that they are all under sin.” . 2. NotwithstanDING THE NAtive corruption of THE HUMAN HEART, AND THE LOST conDITION OF ALL MANKIND BY NATURE, God Has PRovided A FULL AND compleTE ATONE- MENT for ALL THEIR sins. “God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him might not perish, but have everlasting life.” The atonement of Christ is sufficient for all, adapted to all, offered to all, and irrespective of the divine purpose as to its effectual application, made as much for one man as another. 3. Notwithstan DING THE UNLIMITED PROVISION OF THE GoSPEL, ALL, when LEFT To THEMSELVEs, witH one con- SENT, REJecT THE over TUREs of MERCY, AND will. Not come UNTo CHRIST THAT THEY MIGHT HAVE LIFE. Even when the Spirit strives, they “do always resist the Holy Ghost.” No sense of guilt and danger, no consciousness of obligation and duty, no pressure of motives, will con- strain a living man to lay down the arms of rebellion, and be reconciled to God. If the Spirit of God does not put forth the power and glory of his grace to wrest the wea- pons of revolt from his hands, and put a new spirit within him, and make the sinner willing in the day of his power, all are lost, and Christ is dead in vain. 4. This SAD Result GoD HAs DETERMINED TO PREVENT. He does not mean that all mankind shall finally perish. He does not intend that they shall rob him of the glory of his grace, nor his Son of the reward of his death. Some he saves. These he rescues from themselves and from perdition. This is a simple matter of fact. When in the gall of bitterness and bonds of imiquity, he sends his Spirit to convince them of their lost condition—to show them their need of mercy—to make them feel his word to be quick and powerful—to create them anew in Christ Jesus, and to make them meet for the inheritance of the saints in light. “He works in them both to will and to do.” He begins, carries on, and completes the work, and re- ceives them at last to “the glory which is to be revealed.” 5. GoD DOES THIS FROM DESIGN. He does nothing with- out. Much less any thing so great and glorious as this of renewing and saving souls. This design is an eter- mal design; this determination eternal, and irrevocable as his own unchangeable nature. - 6. IN DoING THIs, IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMARK, THAT GoD Is Govern ED BY A wise REGARD To His own Good PLEASURE. He does not have mercy on myhom he will have mercy, because they are better than others. Then it would leave ground for boasting. Then it would not be grace. Now it is grace. For when the design of saving them was formed, they were not in being, and “had done neither good nor evil.” During the whole of their unre. generate state, they were opposing God and contemning the Son of his love. The moment before their regenera- tion, they were his enemies. It could not, therefore, have been from regard to any thing in them, that they were taken and others left, but from a regard to the mere good pleasure and wisdom of God. It was a sovereign pur. pose. It was that all the glory might redound to God's great and holy name. . 7. Nor Is IT LEss IMPORTANT To subjoin, THAT THIS soverEIGN AND ETERNAL PURPOSE was ForMED IN view of " THE ATONEMENT of CHRIST. In its practical influence, it regarded men as already fallen by their iniquity, and beyond the possibility of deliverance, except by atonement. When God determined to save a part of mankind, he had it in prospect to provide such an expiation for the sins of the world, as to justify him in the unlimited offer of pardon, and in the full and complete justification of all who accept it. He owed it to himself, in forming the purpose to Save, to devise a consistent method of salvation. It would have been a violation of the rights of moral go- vernment, to have received rebels into favor “without the shedding of blood.” Hence the elect are said to be “chosen in Christ.” In other places they are said to be “Christ's seed.” In others, they are represented as “given to him” by his Father. When, in the covenant of peace, he engaged to lay down his life for the sins of the world, a stipulated number was “given him” as his E L E E L E [ 496 | reward. In view of mankind, as already plunged in guilt and ruin, and of Christ as making an adequate atonement, God “chose them to salvation, through sanctification of the Spirit and belief of the truth.” This is what we suppose the Scriptures mean by the doctrine of election. The apostle represents himself and the Christians at Ephesus to be “chosen”—“chosen in Christ”—“chosen in him before the foundation of the world;” and that not upon condition they would be holy, nor because of any foreseen holiness, but “that they should be holy and without blame before him in love, having predestimated them unto the adoption of children by Jesus Christ unto himself, according to the good plea- sure of his will.” The truth of this doctrine may be evinced, among other arguments, - g 1. From the Divine IMMUTABILITY. “Do not err, my beloved brethren. Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of .1ghts, with whom there is no variableness, or the shadow of turning.” He himself claims this exalted character : * am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me; declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times, the things that are not yet done; saying, My counsel shall stand, and I will do all my plea- sure.” If we could suppose the Deity to be wiser, and better, and mightier at some times than at others, we might suppose, that with every accession of knowledge, goodness, and power, he would form some new design. But he is always the same ; and as his character never alters, so his purposes never alter. Hence the divine immutability secures the doctrine of election. If the divine mind has formed any new purpose with regard to the salvation of men, then he has altered his plans, and is mutable; but if he has always been of the same mind, them, unless he actually saves the whole, he must have formed the purpose of saving a certain part. Every indi- vidual he saves, he must have “always meant to save,” —he must have always chosen and determined to save. But this is nothing more nor less than the doctrine of election. All the objections, therefore, that are made against the doctrine of election, are levelled equally against the divine immutability. 2. The doctrine of election may be conclusively argued from the DIVINE foreKNowLEDGE. The mere light of nature is enough to teach us that God knows all things present, past, and to come. It is impossible that a being of infinite wisdom should com- mence a system of operations without knowing what he is about to do. If God does not know all events before they actually take place, then his knowledge may in- crease, and he may be wiser to-morrow than he is to-day. In short, if he does not foreknow all things, he may not only from day to day discover things that are new, but he may deduce new results from them, may misjudge in his arrangements, and be frustrated in his purposes. But the Bible puts this question beyond a doubt.—“Known unto God are all his works, from the beginning of the world.” It is a settled point, them, that God knew from all eternity every thing that would take place. God, therefore, knows who will at last be saved. But s3\vation is his own work in the human soul. How then could this be known, unless it were a determined event? Iſ it were undetermined, it was uncertain; and if uncertain, it could not certainly be known. Let any man but an atheist look at this with an unprejudiced mind, and he must receive the doctrine of election. It is just as cer- tain, therefore, that God determined from eternity who would be saved, as that he knew from eternity who would be saved. “For whom he did foreknow, he also did pre- destinate.” But this is nothing more nor less than the doctrine of election. All the objections which lie against the doctrine of election, lie with equal force against the divine foreknowledge. 3. In proof of this doctrine, we shall make our appeal to THE ExPREss Test IMONY OF THE HOLY ScripTURes. We consider the doctrine unanswerably demonstrated from the preceding considerations; but “to the law and the testimony.” The Scriptures are the word of God, and the infallible rule of faith and practice. Here we have a standard to which every thing must bow. From this oracle there is no appeal. Let us go, then, to the Bible; and let us go—not to alter, not to expunge, not to supply, not to wrest from its plain and obvious meaning a single word; but simply to inquire what the Lord hath spoken, and to yield our preconceived opinions to the paramount authority of eternal truth. Here, if we are not deceived, we find the doctrine of election revealed as plainly as language can reveal it. - * Let the reader carefully consult the following passages, and interpret them according to just and fair principles of exegesis, and we leave it to his own judgment to deter- mine whether they do not teach the doctrine of a special election of particular persons to eternal life : Matt. 24: 22, 24. Acts 13: 48. Rom. 8: 28–30. 9; 23. 11: 5, 7. Eph. 1: 4, 5. 1 Thess. 1:4. 5: 9. 2 Thess. 2: 13. 2 Tim. 1:9. 2: 10. 1 Pet. 1: 2. The construction which some would force upon these passages, agreeably to which they understand merely the election or designation of nations or bodies of people to external religious privileges, cannot be maintained without unsettling the wº of the New Testament scheme of personal and individual salvation; and, however favorable such an idea may be to certain dogmas relative to the efficacy of a standing in what has been called the visible church, and the opus operatum of its sacraments, it cannot but prove highly prejudicial to the interests of genuine piety, and is, indeed, found to flourish chiefly in regions where that piety has little or no influ- ence.—Hend. Buck. EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL, (“To God the God of Israel,”) the name of an altar, built by Jacob in a piece of ground which he bought of Hamor, Shechem’s father, Gen. 33: 20.—Calmet. , - ELEMENTS, (stoicheia ;) the elements or first princi- ples of any art, whence the subsequent parts proceed. The elements or first principles of the Christian doctrine, Heb. 5: 12. St. Paul calls the ceremonial ordinances of the Mosaic law, “worldly elements,” (Gal. 4:3. Col. 2: 8, 20.) “weak and beggarly elements,” Gal. 4:9. , Ele- ments, as containing the rudiments of the knowledge of Christ, to which knowledge the law, as a pedagogue, (Gal. 3: 24.) was intended, by means of those ordinances, to bring the Jews; worldly, as consisting in outward worldly institutions, (Heb. 9: 1.) weak and beggarly, when considered in themselves, and set up in opposition to the great realities to which they were designed to lead. But, in Col. 2: 8. the elements or rudiments of the world are so closely connected with philosophy and vain deceit, or an empty and deceitful philosophy, that they must be understood there to include the dogmas of pagan philoso- phy; to which, no doubt, many of the Colossians were in their unconverted state attached, and of which the juda- izing teachers, who also were probably themselves infect- ed with them, took advantage to withdraw the Colossian converts from the purity of the gospel, and from Christ their living head. And from the general tenor of this chapter, and particularly from verses 18–23, it appears, that these philosophical dogmas, against which the apostle cautioned his converts, were partly Platonic, and partly Pythagorean ; the former teaching the worship of angels, or demons, as mediators between God and man; the latter enjoining such abstinence from particular kinds of meats and drinks, and such severe mortifications of the body, as God had not commanded.—Watson. ELEUTHERUS ; a river in Syria, which rises between Libanus and Anti-libanus. After watering the valley be- tween these two mountains, it falls into the Mediterra- nean sea, 1 Mac. 11: 7.—Calmet. ELEUTHEROPOLIS; a city of Judea, which, though not mentioned in the sacred writings, must have been very celebrated in the time of Eusebius and Jerome. It was an episcopal city, whence these authors estimated the distances and positions of other cities., Josephus says it was twenty miles from Jerusalem, and Antoninus places it twenty-four miles from Askalon, and eighteen from Lydda. Eusebius says five miles from Gath, six from Lachish, twenty-five from Gerar, twenty from Jättir, and eight from Keilah.--Calmet, E L I E L I [ 497 I ELEPHANT, the largest of existing quadrupeds, •elebrated for his sagacity, faithfulness and prudence. Calmet is of opinion that the behemoth of Job 11: is the elephant; but this notion is generally held to be untena- ble. §: BEHEMOTH; and Ivory.)—Calmet. ELI, a high-priest of the Hebrews, of the race of Itha- mar, who succeeded Abdon, and governed the Hebrews, both as priest and judge, during forty years. How Eli came to the high priesthood, and how this dignity was transferred from Eleazar's family to that of Ithamar, who was Aaron's youngest son, we know not. This much, however, is certain, that it was not done without an ex- press declaration of God's will, 1 Sam. 2: 27, &c. In the reign of Solomon, the predictions in relation to Eli's fami- ly were fulfilled; for the high priesthood was taken from Abiathar, a descendant of Eli, and given to Zadok, who was of the race of Eleazar, 1 Kings 2: 26. Eli appears to have been a pious, but indolent man, blinded by pa- termal affection, who suffered his sons to gain the ascen- dancy over him; and for want either of personal courage, or zeal for the glory of God sufficient to restrain their li- centious conduct, he permitted them to go on to their own and his ruin. Thus he carried his indulgence to cru- elty; whilst a more dignified and austere conduct on his part might have rendered them wise and virtuous, and thereby have preserved himself and family. A striking lesson for parents 1 Sam. 4: 12–18.-Watson. ELIAKIM ; son of Hilkiah, steward of the household, or keeper of the temple under king Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18: 18. Calmet thinks, that Eliakim was son of Hilkiah, the high-priest, that he succeeded his father, and was high- riest under Manasseh. He is sometimes called Jehoia- im; and there is great probability, that he is the Hilkiah mentioned in the reign of Josiah, and afterwards.—Calmet. ELIAS. (See ELIJAH.) ELIAS LEVITA, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, a native of Germany, was born at Neustadt, in Brandenburg, in 1472, and died at Venice, in 1549. For many years he was professor of Hebrew at Venice and Padua. Among his works, which are highly valuable, are, a Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinic Lexicon; a Hebrew Glossary; and a Commentary on the Grammar of Moses Kimchi.- Davenport. ELIEZER, a native of Damascus, and the steward of Abraham's house. It seems that Abraham, before the birth of Isaac, intended to make him his heir :-‘‘ One born in my house,” a domestic slave, “is mine heir,” Genesis 15: 1–3. He was afterwards sent into Mesopo- tamia, to procure a wife for Isaac, (Gen. 24: 2, 3,) &c.; which business he accomplished with fidelity and expedi- tion. “It is still the custom in India,” says Forbes, “es- pecially among the Mahometans, that in default of chil- dren, and sometimes where there are lineal descendants, the master of a family adopts a slave, frequently a Haff. shee Abyssinian, of the darkest hue, for his heir. He educates him agreeably to his wishes, and marries him to one of his daughters. As the reward of superior merit, or to suit the caprice of an arbitrary despot, this honor is also conferred on a slave recently purchased, or already grown up in the family; and to him he bequeaths his wealth, in preference to his nephews, or any collateral branches. This is a custom of great antiquity in the East, and prevalent among the most refined and civilized nations. In the earliest period of the patriarchal history, we find Abraham complaining for want of children; and declaring that either Eliezer of Damascus, or probably one born from him in his house, was his heir, to the ex clusion of Lot, his favorite nephew, and all the other col- lateral branches of his family.”—Watson. ELIHU ; one of Job's friends, a descendant of Nahor, Job 32: 2. (See JoB.)—Watson. ELIJAH. Elijah or Elias, a prophet, was a native or Tishbe beyond Jordan in Gilead. Some think that he was a priest descended from Aaron, and say that one Sa- baca was his father; but this has no authority. He was raised up by God, to be set like a wall of brass, in oppo- sition to idolatry, and particularly to the worship of Baal, which Jezebel and Ahab supported in Israel. His histo- ry may be found in the first and second books of Kings. 2. The Scripture introduces Elijah saying to Ahab, (1 Kings 17: 1, 2,) A. M. 3092, “As the Lord God of Israel liveth, before whom I stand, there shall not be dew nor rain these years, but aceording to my word.” It is re- markable, that the number of years is not here specified; but in the New Testament we are informed that it was three years and six months. By the prohibition of dew as well as-rain, the whole vegetable kingdom was depriv- ed of that moisture, without which neither the more hardy, nor more delicate, kinds of plants could shoot into her- bage, or bring that herbage to maturity. The Lord com- manded Elijah to conceal himself beyond Jordan, near the brook Cherith. He obeyed, and God sent ravens to him morning and evening, which brought him flesh and bread. Scheuzer observes, that he cannot think that the orebim of the Hebrew, rendered “ravens,” means, as some have thought, the inhabitants of a town called Oreb, nor a troop of Arabs called orbhim ; and contends that the bird called the raven, or one of the same genus, is in- tended. The word rendered raven, includes the whole ge- nus, among which are some less impure than the raven, as the rook. Rooks living in numerous Societies are sup- posed by some to be the kind of birds employed on this occasion, rather than ravens, which fly only in pairs. But upon all these explanations we may observe, that when an event is evidently miraculous, it is quite Superfluous, and often absurd, to invent hypotheses to make it ap- pear more easy. 3. Elijah was one of the most eminent of that illustrious and singular race of men, the Jewish prophets. Every art of his character is marked by a moral grandeur, which is heightened by the obscurity thrown around his connes: ions and his private history. He often wears the air of a supernatural messenger suddenly issuing from another world, to declare the commands of heaven, and to awe the proudest mortals by the menace of fearful judgments. His boldness in reproof; his lofty zeal for the honor of God; his superiority to softness, ease, and suffering, are the characters of a man filled with the Holy Spirit; and he was admitted to great intimacy with God, and enabled to work miracles of a very extraordinary and unequivo- cal character. These were called for by the stupid idola- try of the age, and were in some instances equally calcu- lated to demonstrate the being and power of Jehovah, and to punish those who had forsaken him for idols. The au- thor of Ecclesiasticus has an encomium to his memory, and justly describes him as a prophet “who stood up as a fire, and whose word burned as a lamp.” In the stern- ness and power of his reproofs, he was a striking type of John the Baptist, and the latter is therefore prophesied of, under his name. Malachi (4: 5, 6,) has this passage : “Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet, before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord.” Our Savior also declares that Elijah had already come in spirit, in the person of John the Baptist. At the transfi- guration of our Savior, Elijah and Moses both appeared and conversed with him respecting his future passion, Matt. 17: 3, 4. Mark 9: 4. Luke 9:30. Many of the Jews in our Lord's time believed him to be E”jaï', 9... that the soul of Elijah had passed into his body, Mºtt, 1º 14, 63 E L L E LI [ 498 ) Mark 6: 15. Luke 9: 8. In conclusion, we may observe, that to assure the world of the future existence of good men in a state of glory and felicity, and that in bodies changed from mortality to immortality, each of the three grand dispensations of religion had its instance of trans. lation into heaven; the patriarchal in the person of Enoch, the Jewish in the person of Elijah, and the Chris- tian in the person of Christ.—Watson. - ELIPHAZ; one of Job's friends, probably a descend- ant of Eliphaz, son of Esau, Job 4:1. He was of Te- man, in Idumea, (Jer, 49: 7, 20. Ezek, 25: 13. Amos 1: 11, 12. Obad. 8, 9.) and in the Greek versions of the poem, is described as king of his city. (See JoB.)— Calmet. ELISABETH, the wife of Zachariah, and mother of John the Baptist, was of the daughters of Aaron, or the race of the priests, Luke 1: 5–63.-Calmet. ELISABETH, (ST.) of Thuringia, distinguished for her piety and virtue, the daughter of Andrew II, king of Hungary, was born at Presburg, 1207, and, in 1211, was married to Louis, landgrave of Thuringia, who was then eleven years old, and was educated at Wartburg, in all the elegance of the court of Hermann, the abode of mu- sic and the arts. When Germany, and especially Thu- ringia, was oppressed with famine and pestilence, she caused many Thospitals to be erected, fed a multitude of the poor from her own table, and supplied their wants with money and clothing. She wandered about, in an humble dress, relieving the sorrows of the wretched. Louis died on a crusade, and her own life terminated November 19, 1231, in an hospital which she had herself established. She was regarded as a Saint by her admir- ing contemporaries, and, four years after her death, this canonization was approved by pope Gregory IX. A beautiful church and a costly monument were erected over her tomb. The latter is now one of the most splen- did remains of Gothic architecture in Germany.—Ency. Amer. ELISEUS; the same as Elisha, in the English transla- tion of the New Testament.—Calmet. ELISHA, son of Shaphat, and Elijah's disciple and successor in the prophetic office, was of Abelmeholah, 1 Kings 19: 16. Elijah having received God’s command to anoint Elisha as a prophet, came to Abel-meholah, and finding Elisha ploughing with twelve pair of oxen, he threw his mantle over him. Elisha left his Oxen, and ac- companied Elijah, chap. 19: 19–21, Elisha was ac- companying his master, when the Lord took him up in a whirlwind; and he inherited Elijah's mantle, with a double portion of his spirit. See his history in the books of Kings.-Calmet. ELISHA, (THE Fount AIN of,) rises two bow-shots from mount Quarantania, and runs through the plain of Jeri- tho, into the Jordan; passing south of Gilgal, and divid- ing into several streams. This is said to be the foun- tain whose waters were sweetened by Elisha, 2 Kings 2: 19–22,-Calmet. - ELISHAH, son of Javan, (Gen. 10: 4.) from whom the isſes of Elishah are named, (Ezek. 27: 7.) is believed to have peopled Elis in the Peloponnesus. We find there the province of Elis, and a country called Alisium, by Homer. Ezekiel, above, speaks of the purple of Elishah, brought to Tyre. The fish used in dyeing purple were caught at the mouth of the Eurotas, and the ancients fre- quently speak of the purple of Laconia.-Calmet. ELKANAH; second son of Korah, Exod. 6: 24. 1 Chron. 6: 26. The name of his elder brother was Assir, which imports, a close prisoner ; this name, Elkanah, (re- deemed by God,) appears to have been given in contra- distinction, alluding to the approaching deliverance of Is- rael.—Also, 2. The father of the prophet Samuel; (1 Sam. 1: 1.) perhaps so called in reference to one of the deliverances of Israel recorded in the book of Judges. Several others of the same name are mentioned in 1 Chron. 6; and other places.—Calmet. - ELKOTH; a village in Galilee, the birth-place of the prophet Nahum, Nah. 1: 1. It was shown in Jerome's time, but almost in ruins. Theophylact says it is beyond Jordan –Calmet. * ELLASAR. There was a city (mentioned by Ste. phanus, de Urbibus) called Ellas, in Coelo-Syria, on the borders of Arabia; where Arioch, one of the confederate kings, (Gen. 14; 9.) perhaps, commanded.—Calmet. .. ELLERIANS, or RoNsnoRFIANs, the followers of one Eller, an enthusiast, of Ronsdorf. He pretended to be a messenger from God, who resided in him, to form a new church, on which account he was ca leå “the father of Sion,” and his wife the mother, He is charged with be- ing ambitious and luxurious, and died in 1750–(Gré- goiré's Hist, vol. i. p. 307.)—Williams. ELIOT, (John,) minister of Roxbury, Massachusetts, usually called the apostle of the Indians, was born at Na- sin, Essex, England, in 1604. His pious parents early imparted to him religious instruction, and it was not with- out effect. After receiving his education at the university of Cambridge, he was for some time the instructer' of youth. In 1631, he came to this country, and was set- º teacher of the church in Roxbury, November 5, 1632, - . . . . . - His benevolent labors were not confined to his own people. Having imbibed the true spirit of the gospel, his heart was touched with the wittched condition of the In- dians, and he became eagerly desirous of making them acquainted with the glad tidings of salvation. There were at the time, when he began his missionary exertions, near twenty tribes of Indians within the limits of the English planters. But they were very similar in man- ners, language, and religion. Having learned the bar- barous dialect, he first preached to an assembly of Indians at Nonantum, in the present town of Newton, October 28, 1646. After a short prayer, he explained the com- mandments, described the character and sufferings of Christ, the judgment day" and its consequences, and ex- horted them to receive Christ as their Savior and to pray to God. After the sermon was finished, he desired them to ask any questions, which might have occurred. One immediately inquired, whether Jesus Christ could under- stand prayers in the Indian language. Another asked how all the world became full of people, if they were |ali once drowned. A third question was, how there could be the image of God, since it was forbidden in the com- mandment. He preached to them a second time, No. vember 11, and some of them wept while he was address- ing them. An old man asked, with tears in his eyes, whether it was not too late for him to repent and turn unto God. Among the other inquiries were these, how it came to pass, that sea water was salt, and river water fresh ; how the English came to differ so much from the Indians in the knowledge of God and Jesus Christ, since they all at first had but one father; and why, if the water is larger than the earth, it does not overflow the earth. He was violently opposed by the Sachems and pawaws or priests, who were apprehensive of losing their autho- rity, if a new religion was introduced. When he was alone with them in the wilderness, they threatened him with every evil, if he did not desist from his labors; but he was a man not to be shaken in his purpose by the fear of danger. He said to them, “I am about the work of the great God, and my God is with me; so that I neither fear you, nor all the sachems in the country; I will go on, do you touch me, if you dare.” With a body capable of enduring fatigue, and a mind firm as the mountain oaks, which surrounded his path, he went from place to place, relying for protection upon the great Head of the church, and declaring the salvation of the gospel to the children of darkness. “I have considered,” said he, tº the word of God, (1 Tim. 2: 3,) Endure hardship as a good soldier of Jesus Christ.” He made a missionary tour every fortnight, planted a number of churches, and visited all the Indians in Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies, pursuing his way as far as cape Cod. - In 1651, an Indian town was built on a pleasant spot on Charles' river, called Natick. A house of worship was erected, and a form of government was established similar to that, which is mentioned in Exodus 18:21. He was convinced, that in order to the most permanent suc. cess, it was necessary to introduce with Christianity the arts of civilized life. He accordingly made every exer. tion to persuade the Indians to renounce their savage cus. toms and habits; but he never could civilize those, who E L 1 E. L. 1 [ 499 J went out in hunting parties. The first Indian church, established by the labors of Protestants in America, was formed at Natick, in 1660, after the manner of the con- gregational churches in New England. Those, who wished to be organized into a Christian body, were strictly examined as to their faith and experience by a number of the neighboring ministers, and Mr. Eliot afterwards ad- ministered to them baptism and the Lord's supper. Other Indian churches were planted in various parts of Massa- chusetts, and he frequently visited them ; but his pastoral care was more particularly over that which he first es- tablished. He made every exertion to promote the wel- fare of the Indian tribes; he stimulated many servants of Jesus to engage in the missionary work; and, although he mourned over the stupidity of many who preferred darkness to light, yet he lived to see twenty-four of the copper-colored, aborigines fellow preachers of the pre- cious gospel df. Christ. In 1661, he published the New Testament in the Indian language, and in a few years the whole Bible, and several other books, best adapted for the instruction of the natives. . He possessed an influence over the Indians, which no other missionary could obtain. He was their shield in 1575, during Philip's war, when some of the people of Massachusetts, actuated by the most infuriate spirit, had resolved to destroy them." He suffered, every abuse, for his friendship, to them; but nothing coulá, quench, ºhā di: vine charity which, glówed in, his hearſ." His firinness, his zeal, his benevolence at this period'increased the pure lustre of his character. º * … . . . When he reached the age of fourscore years, he offered to give up his'salary, and desired to be liberäted from the labors of his office, as a teacher of the church at Röxbû- ry. It was with joy, that he received Mr. Walter as his colleague in 1688. When he was bending under his infir- mities and could no longer visit the Indians, he persuad- ed a number of families to send their negro servants to him once a week, that he might instruct them in the truths of God. He died, May 20, 1690, aged about eighty-six years, saying, that all his labors were poor and small, and exhorting those, who surrounded his bed, to pray. His last words were, “Welcome joy.” g Mr. Eliot was one of the most useful preachers in New England. No minister saw his exertions attended with greater effects. He spoke from the abundance of his heart, and his sermons, being free from that labored dis’ play of learning, from the quibbles and quaint terms, with . which most discourses were at that fime infected, Were a C- ceptable in all the churches. • * * . . . * His moral and religious character was as excellent, as , his ministerial qualifications were great. He carried his good principles with him in, every situation, viewing all- things in reference to Gºd. He’ habitually, \º up his heart for a blessing upon, every person whom he met, and when he, went into a family, he would sometimes, call the youth to him, that he pnight lay his hands upon them, and give them his benediction. In his manner of living he was very simple. One plain dish was his repast at home, and when he dined abroad, he seldom tasted any of the luxuries before him. He drank water; and said of wine, “It is a nebla, generous liquor, and we should be humbly thankful for it; but, as I remember, water was made be- fore it.” - Clothing, himself with humility, he actually. wore a leathern girdle about his loins. In domestic life he was peculiarly happy. , By the prudent management of his wife, who ...” well to, the ways of her house- hold, he was enabled, to be generops to his friends, and hospitable to strangers, and with a small salary to educate four sons at Cambridge, of whom John, and Joseph, min- isters of Newton and Guilford, were the best preachers of that age. rx.ht ºw. . . . * * *y-, * * * * * f In his principles of church government, he was attached to the congregational, order. , , * ... }… . . . . So remarkable was he for his charities, Athit.the parish, had sent them some relief. Being welcomed by the suf. ferers with tears of gratitude, he began to untie the knots. After many fruitless efforts, and impatient of the perplex- ity and delay, he gave the handkerchief and all the money to the mother of the family, saying, “Here, my dear, take it; I believe the Lord designs it all for you.” Mr. Eliot published several works besides his great ones mentioned above. At the end of his Indian Gram- mar he is said to have recorded this memorable sentence; “PRAYER AND PAINs, THROUGH FAITH IN CHRIST Jesus, CAN Do ANY THING.” Mather's Magnalia, iii. 170—211; Eliot's Life and Death ; Neal's Nºm England, i. 151, 242, 258; ii. 98; Hist. Col. i. 176; iii. 177—188; Doug- *i; 113; Hutchinson, i. 162–169,212; Holmes, i. 434. --All!672. ELIOT, (ANDRew, D. D.) minister in Boston, was a descendant of Andrew Elliott, as he wrote his name, from Somersetshire, who settled at Beverly about 1683. His father, Andrew, was a merchant in Boston. He was born about the year 1719, and in 1737, was graduated at Harvard college. He early felt the impressions of reli- gion, and was induced to devote himself to the service of the Lord Jesus. He was ordained pastor of the New North church in Boston, as colleague with Mr. Webb, April 14, 1742. Here he continued in high reputation till his death, September 13, 1778, aged fifty-nine years. He was highly respected for his talents and virtues. While he preached the distinguishing doctrines of the gospel, his sermons were not filled with invectives against those, who differed from him. He was anxious to pro- moté'the interests of practical godliness, and, destitute of bigotry, he embraced all, who appeared to have an honest regard to religious truth. He revered the constitution of the churches of New England, and delighted in their prosperity. In 1743, he united with many other excel- lent ministers in giving his testimony in favor of the very remarkable revivál of religion in this country. When the British took possession of Boston, he sent his family out of the tºwn, with the intention of following them; but a number ºf the people, belonging to his soci- ety and to,9ther’sgääties, being obliged to remain, re- quested hig, not to ſéaye them. After seeking divine di. rection, bºth qught it his diity to comply with their re- quest, and in ng perigg of his life was he more eminently useful. He was a friend to the freedom, peace, and in- dependejce of America. By his benevolent offices he contributed much towārd alleviating the sufferings of the inhabitants; he ministered to his sick and wounded countrymen in prison; he went about doing good; and he appeared to be more than ever disengaged from the world, and attached to things heavenly and divine. He was a friend of literátute and science, and he rendered important services ig Härvāślºgſlege, both as an indi- vidual benefaçtor, and as a member of the board of over- seers and of *. corporation. So highly were his literary acquirements and general character estimated, that he was once elected president of the university; but his attach- ment to his people was such, that he declined the appoint- ment. In his last sickaeśs he expressed unshaken faith in those doctrines of the graçº. of God, which he had preached to others, and ºf frequently breathe out the pious ejaculation, “Comé, Lord Jesus, come quickly.” Besides Qccasional discourses, he published a volume of twenty sermöns, 8v8. 1774:Thacher's Funeral Sermon; Memoirs of Thomas Hollis ; Hist. -Col. x. 188; Farmer.— Allen. * r ELIOT, (John, D. D.) minister iń Boston, the son of Dr. Andrew E., was born May 31, 1754, and graduated at Harvard cºllege in 1772. Afterpreaching a few years in different . he was ordained, as the successor of his father, November 3, 1779, pastor of the New North church in Boston. He died of an affection of the heart < or pericardium, February 14, 1813, aged fifty-eight. Dur. ing his ministry of thirty-four years, he baptized one treasurer, when he once paid him the money.due, for his thousand four hundred and fifty-four persons; performed salary, tied the ends of a handkerchief, into which he put. it, in as many, hard knots as he could, to prevent him from giving away the money before he should reach, home. The good man immediately went to the house of a sick and necessitous family, and told them, that God the ceremony of marriage eight hundred and eleven times; and admitted öné"huñdred and sixty-one to full communion in the churgh. . . . . Dr. Eliot was very mild, courtequs, and benevolent; as a preacher he was plain, familiar, and practical, avoiding E L O E L O [ 500 J disputed topics, and always t?commending charity and ce. For nine years he was one of the corporation of Harvard college. With his friend, Dr. Belknap, he co- operated in establishing and sustaining the Massachusetts Historical society, to the publications of which he contri- buted many, writings. His attention was much devoted to biographical and historical researches. He published a New England Biographical Dictionary, 8vo., 1809; be- sides various articles in the Historical Collections. 2 Hist. Col. i. 211—248.—Allen. ELLSWORTH, (Oliver, L. L. D.,) chief justice of the United States, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, April 29, 1745, and was graduated at the college in New Jersey in 1766. He soon afterwards commenced the practice of the law, in which profession he became eminent. His perceptions were unusually rapid, his reasoning clear and conclusive, and his eloquence powerful. He died No- vember 26, 1807, aged sixty-five. Mr. Ellsworth was an accomplished advocate, an up- right legislator, an able and impartial judge, a wise and incorruptible ambassador, and an ardent, uniform, and indefatigable patriot. He moved for more than thirty years in a most conspicuous sphere, unassailed by the shafts of slander. His integrity was not only unim- hº but unsuspected. The purity and excellence of is character are rare in any station, and in the higher walks of life are almost unknown. i If it be asked, to what cause is the uniformity of his virtue to be attributed ? The answer is at hand. He was a Christian: , He firmly believed the great doctrines of the gospelli. Having its spirit transfused into his own heart,"and being directed by its maxims and impelled by its motives, he at all times pursued a course of upright conduct. The principles, which governed him, were not of a kind which are liable to be weakened or destroyed by the opportunity of concealment, the security from dis- honor, the authority of numbers, or the prospects of in- terest. He made an explicit confession of Christianity in his youth'; and in all his intereourse with the polite and learned world, he was not ashamed of the gospel of Christ. In the midst of multiplied engagementsy he made theology a study, and ...? with unvarying punctuality on-the worship of the sanctuary. The sage, whose eloquence had charmed the senate, and whose decisions from the bench were regarded as almost oracular, sat with the sim- plicity of a child at the feet of Jesus, devoutly absorbed in the mysteries of redemption. His religion was not cold and heartless, but practical and vital. Meetings for social worship and pious conference he countenanced by his presence. He was one of the trustees of the Mission- ary society of Connecticut, and engaged with ardor in the benevolent design of disseminating the truths of the gos- pel. In his last illness he was humble and tranquil. He expressed the submission, the views, and the consolations of a Christian. Panoplist and Miss. Mag. i. 193—197; Bronn's Amer. Reg.ii.95–108; Dwight's Trav. i. 301–304.—Allen. ELM ; this word occurs but, bnce in the English, Bible; (Hos. 4: 13;) but the Hebrew'aleh, is in every other place rendered oAK, which see.—Calmet. . . . f ELNATHAN, son of Achboº; and father of Nehusta, mother of Jehoiakim, king of Judah. He opposed the king's burning of Jeremiah's prophecies; and was sent into Egypt to bring back the prophet Uriah. Jer. 26: 22. 36:12,-Calmet. * * * * . . . ELOHIM, ELoIII, or ELo! ; one of the names of God. Angels, princes, great men, judges, and even false gods, are sometimes called Elohim: Theº-connexion of the dis- course assists us in determining the proper meaning of this word where it occurs. It is the same as eloha : one being singular, the other plural: . . Nevertheless, elohim is often construed in the singular, particularly when the true God is spoken of; when ſalse gods are spoken of, it is rather construed in the plural. .” This word, however, has been the subject of so much controversy, and is, finifact, so important, that it may jus- tify a few remarks in illustration of its general idea and application. lohim would seem to be second in dignity only to the name Jehovah ; as that name imports, the essantial-being of the Divinity, so Elohim seems to import the power inhe. * > *t → * ~ * w g rent in Deity; or the manifestation of that powerson its rela, tive subjects. Of the creation, the Deity exhibited his at. tribute of power ; he manifested himself to be God ALL- mighty. Compare Ps. 100: 3. Isa. 40: 28, 42: 5. et al. So, on occasion of miracles: “Thou art the God that doest wonders” by thy power. Ps. 77: 14. “Who is like unto thee among the mighty 7” (Exod. 15: 11, marg.) im: plying superior power, in the true God above all. And this appears to be attributed in a lower sense to angels, spiritual º possessing powers superior to those of man. Judg. 13:21. Ps. 8: 5.97: 7, 9. Kings have greater power than their subjects; magistrates greater power than those who come before them, to obtain decision of their suits, and application of the laws; and princes, or men of rank, whether in office or not, possess power and influence by their wealth, station, retinue, &c. Idols, also, represent- ed the powers of heaven; that is, celestial influences, or ter- restrial influences, as procreative powers, &c. So the golden calf is called Elohim; (Exod, 32: 31.) that is, the power that had brought Israel out of Egypt; so Dagon, (Judg. 16: 23, &c.) Astaroth, Chemosh, and Milcom, (1 Kings 11:33,) —the powers productive, whether masculine or feminine. So Moses was the depository of power in respect of God, or the source whence power emanated and influenced Aaron; (Exod. 4: 16. 7: 1;) and the ark was thus es: teemed by the Philistines; (1 Sam. 4; 7.) that is, as the depository of power, or the sacred symbol whence power might emanate to their injury. (See GoD, and Gods.), It is remarkable, that the names Jehovah and Elohim though not interchangeable, are occasionally placed one before the other without scruple ; but, perhaps, the critical observer would find, that according to the occasion, the essential being of God, or the manifestative power of God, is pre-eminent in such passages, according to the order of the words. The Jewish critics find great mysteries in some of these words, Eloi, Elohi, Elohim, &c, which are always written full, while others are written deficient. Whether the word Elohim be singular or plural, adjective or substantive, or whether it have any root in the Hebrew language, they are not agreed,—-Calmet. ELOI. (See ELohim.) I. ELON ; a grove of oaks: Elon-Mamre, Elon-More, Elon-Beth-Chanan, the grove—or oak—of Mamre, &c. II. A city of Dan. Josh. 19:43.-Calmet. ELQQUENCE, PULPIT. “The chief characteristics of the eloquence suited to the pulpit are these two, -gravity and warmth...' The serious nature of the subjects belong- ingºko, the pulpit requires gravity; their importance, to mankind requires, warmth." It is far from being either easy or common to unite these characters of eloquence, The grave, when it is predominant, is apt to run into a dull, uniform solemnity. The warm, when it wants, gra- vity, borders on the theatrical and light. The union of the two must be studied by all preachers, as of the utmost consequence, both in the composition of their discourses, and in their manner of delivery. Gravity and warmth -united, form that character of preaching which the French call onction ; the affecting, penetrating, interesting manner, ſlowing from a strong sensibility of heart in the preacher, the importance of those truths which he delivers, and an earnest desire that they may make full impression on the hearts of his hearers.” (See DeclamATION ; SERMONs). ,, . It has been justly remarked, “He who ascends the put- pit hopelessly and heartlessly—who expects his reasonings to fall like the dart of Priam, “telum imbelle sine ictu,' on the breast of the audience—he, in short, who preaches without faith, is not likely to give the thought, the time, the mind to his sermons which are essential to any high achievement in this department of his labors. But this negligence, issextremely culpable. Let the ministers of the gospel expect, under the divine blessing, larger results from their sermons. Let them not be faithless, but believing; let them throw far from them every suggestion which may minister to the natural and universal sloth of our nature. Let them regard their ser- mons, as they would the wand of the prophet, designed to draw the waters of contrition from the stony heart. , Let them believe that, God, intends to accomplish much b them, and anxiously labor to fit themselvés for their hiš E M E E M I | 501 J purpose and destination.”—Hend. Buck; Chris. Observer; Blair's Lectures; Campbell's Rhetoric: Griffin's Pastoral Sermon; Ware's Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching, and on the Connexion of Pulpit Eloquence and the Pastoral Care; Fenelon on Eloquence ; Porter's Homiletics and Analysis of Rhetoric; Whateley's Rhetoric ; Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. p. 135–155. vol. iii. p. 87 and 95–124. LUL ; the sixth month of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and the twelfth of the civil year, answering to our August and part of September, containing twenty-nine days.- Watson. * | * ELXAITES; ancient heretics, who made their appear- ance in the reign of the emperor Trajan, and took their name from their leader, Elxai. They kept a mean be- tween the Jews, Christians, and pagans: they worshipped but one God, observed the Jewish Sabbath, circumcision, and the other ceremonies of the law; yet they rejected the pentateuch and the prophets; nor had they any more re- spect for the writings of the apostles. Some are of opinion that Elxai ultimately joined the sect of the Ebionites.— Hend. Buck. ELYMAIS; the capital of Elam, or the, ancient coun- try of the Persians. 1 Mac. 6: 1. informs us, that Antio- chus Epiphanes, understanding there were very great trea- sures in the temple at Elymais, determined to plunder it; but the citizens resisted him successfully. 2 Mac. 9: 2. calls this city Persepolis, probably because it formerly had been the capital of Persia; for Persepolis and Elymais were very different cities; the former situated on the Araxes, the latter on the Eulaeus. The temple which An- tiochus designed to pillage was that of the goddess Nan- naea, according to Maccabees; Appian says, a temple of Venus; Polybius, Diodorus, Josephus, and Jerome say, a temple of Diana. (See PARTHIANs.)—Calmet. ELYMAS. (See: BAR-JEsps.). . . . $ EMANATION, EFFLux; (from the Latin emanare, to issue, to flow out, to emanate.) Philosophical systems, which, like most of the ancient, do not adopt a spontane- ous creation of the universe by a supreme Being, frequent- ly explain the universe by an eternal emanation from the supreme Being. This doctrine came from the East. Tráces of it are found in the Indian, mythology, and in the old Persian or Bactro-Median doctrine of Zoroaster. It had a powerful influence on the ancient Greek philoso- phy, as may be seen in Pythagoras. In theology, the doc- trine of emanation is the doctrine of the Trinity, which re- gards the Son and Holy Ghost, &c. as effluxes from the Deity himself—Ency. Amer. tº EMBALMING; the art of preserving dead bodies from putrefaction. (See BURIAL.) • , , , EMBER WEEKS; weeks of abstinence preceding the Sundays appointed in the , church of England for ordina- tion, which are, the first in Lent, the Sunday after Whit- Sunday, after the 14th of September, and 13th of Decem- ber.—Broughton's Dictionary; Williams. EMBRACE ; kindly to take into one's bosom. Gen. 29: 13. To embrace promises is to trust in them with delight and pleasure. Heb. 11: 13, To embrace noisdom is to re- ceive Jesus and his truth into our heart, and to take plea- sure to follow him. Prov. 4: 8.-Bromwn. EMBROIDER. (See BroidERED.) EMERALD. Exod. 28; 19. Ez, 27: 16. 28: 13. Rev. 21: 19. Eccl. 32: 6. Tobit, 13: 16. Judith 10: 21. It is one of the most beautiful of all the gems, and is of a bright green color, without the admixture of any other. Pliny thus, speaks of it: “The sight of no color is more pleasant than green; for we love to view green fields and green leaves; and are still more fond of looking at the eme- rald, because all other greens are dull in comparison with this. , Besides, these stones, seem larger at a distance, by tinging the circumambient air. Their lustre is not chang- ed by the sun, by the shade, nor by the light of lamps; but they have always a sensible moderate brilliancy.” From the passage in Ezekiel we learn that the Tyrians traded in these jewels; in the marts of Syria. They pro- bably had them from India, or the south of Persia. The true oriental emerald is very scarce, and is only ſound at present in the kingdom of Cambay.—Watson. 1. EMERODS. The ark having been taken by the Phi- ſistines, and being kept at Ashdod, the hand of God afflict- ed them with a painful disease,1 Sam. 5; 6, Interpreters are not agreed on the signification of the original ophelimſ nor on the nature of the disease. The Hebrew, properly signifies, that which is obscure and hidden, and most in terpreters think, that those painful tumors in the funda- ment are meant, which sometimes turn into ulcers. Ps. 78: 66. The Seventy and Vulgate add to verse 9, that the Philistines made seats of skins, upon which to sit with more ease, by reason of their indisposition. Herodotus seems to have had some knowledge of this history, but has assigned another cause. He says, the Scythians hav- ing plundered the temple of Askalon, a celebrated city of the Philistines, the goddess who was worshipped there afflicted them with a peculiar disease. The Philistines, perhaps, thus related the story; but it evidently passed. for truth, that this disease was ancient, and had been sent among them by some avenging deity. To remedy this suffering, and to remove the ravages committed by rats, which wasted their country, the Philistines were advised by their priests and soothsayers p return the ark of God with the following, offerings : (1 Sam. 6: 1–18.) five figures of a golden emerod, that is, of the part afflicted, and five golden rats; hereby acknowledging, that this plague was the effect of divine justice. This advice was followed; and Josephus, (Antiq. lib. vi. c. 1.) and others, believed that the five cities of the Philistines made each a statue, which they consecrated to God, as votive offerings for their deliverance. This, however, seems to have ori- ginated from the figures of the rats. The heathen fre- quently offered to their gods figures representing those parts of the body which had been diseased; and such kinds of ex votis are still frequent in Catholic countries; being consecrated in honor of some saint, who is supposed to have wrought the cure : they are images of wax, or of metal, exhibiting those parts of the body in which the dis- ease, was seated.—Calmet. EMERSON, (Joseph,) minister of Malden, Massachu- setts, the son of Edward Emerson, and the grandson of Rev. Joseph Emerson, of Mendon, was born at Chelms- ford, April 20, 1700; was graduated at Harvard college in 1717; and ordained October 31, 1721. For near half a century he continued his benevolent labors without being detained from his pulpit but two Sabbaths. He died sud- denly, July 13, 1767, aged sixty-seven. His wife was Mary, daughter of Rev. S. Moody, of York. He had nine sons and four daughters. Three of his sons were minis- ters; Joseph, of Pepperell, William, of Concord, and John, of Conway. He was pious in early life, and his parents Witnessed the effect of their instruction and prayers. As a teacher of religion to his fellow men, and their guide to heaven, he searched the Scriptures with great diligence, that he might draw his doctrines from the pure fountains of truth. In the various relations, which he sustained, he was just, amiable, kind, and benevolent. One tenth of his income was devoted to charitable uses. He at stated times every day addressed himself to heaven, and never engaged in any important affair without first seek- ing the divine blessing. Such was his humility, that when unguarded words fell from his lips, he would ask forgiveness of his children and servants. He published, the Importance and Duty of a timely Seeking of God, 1727; Meat out of the Eater, and Sweetness out of the Strong, 1735; Early Piety encouraged, 1738; at the ordination of his son Joseph, at Groton, now Pepperell, 1747–Funeral Sermon by his Son; Allen. EMESA, or HAMATH. (See HAMATH.) EMLYN, (THOMAs,) a native of Lincolnshire, born at Stamford in 1663, was brought up as a dissenting minis- ter, and, in 1691, settled at Dublin, as assistant to the Rev. Joseph Boyce; but was soon interdicted from his pastoral duties, on suspicion of Arianism. His humble inquiry into the Scripture account of Jesus Christ brought on him a prosecution for blasphemy, and he was heavily fined and imprisoned. On his release, he removed to London, where he died, in 1743. Emlyn's character was amiable and unimpeachable, and he was in habits of friendship with Dr. Clarke, Whiston, and other eminent men. His works have been collected into two volumes 8vo,-Davenport. EMIMS; ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan, E N A E N D [ b02 ) beyond Jordan, who were defeated by Chedorlaomer and his allies. Gen. 14: 5, , , Moses tells us that they were beaten at Shaveh-Kirjathaim, which was in the country of Sihon, conquered from the Moabites, Josh, 13:19–21. The Emims were a warlike people, of a gigantic stature, great and numerous, tall as the Anakims, and were ac- counted giants as well as they.. Deut. 2: 10, 11.—Watson, EMMANUEL.; (God with us.) Isaiah, in his celebrated prophecy (chap. 11) of the birth of the Messiah from a virgin, says, this child shall be called, that is, really be, “Emmanuel.” He repeats this while speaking of the enemy's army, which, like a torrent, was to overflow Ju- dea : “The stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land, O Emmanuel.” Matthew informs us, that this prophecy was accomplished in Jesus Christ, born of the virgin Mary, in whom the two natures, divine and human, united; so that he was really Emmanuel, or, God rvith us. §: ALMAH.)—Calmet. . . . . . . EMMA - north-west of Jerusalem, celebrated for our Lord’s conver- sation with two disciples who went thither on the day of his resurrection. that Vespasian left eight hundred soldiersih Judea, to whom he gave the village of Emmaus, which was sixty furlongs from Jerusalem. D'Arvieux states, (vol. vii. p. 259,) that É. from Jerusalem to Rama, he took the right from the igh road to Rama, at some little distance from Jerusalem, and “travelled a good league over rocks and flint stones, to the end of the valley of terebinthine trees,” till he reach- ed Emmaus. that it was formerly larger than it was in our Savior’s time.—Calmet. - EMPTY, Persons are empty when they are poor, with: out wealth, (Ruth 1:21;) without reward, (Gen. 31:42.) without an offering, (Exod. 23: 15. 1 Sam. 6: 3.) and, in fine, without any thing good. Luke 1:53. Ruth 3:17. To empty, is to pour out, (Zech. 4: .12.) or to take forth, Gen. 43: 35. Moab had not been emptied from vessel to vessel; they had not been tossed from place to place, nor their condition, changed, as that of the Jews had been. Jer, 48: 11. The Medes and Chaldeans are called emptiers, because they drained Nineveh of its inhabitants, power, wealth, and glory. Mal. 2: 2.—Brown. EMULATION ; a generous ardor kindled by the praise- worthy examples of others, which impels us to imitate, to rival, and, if possible, to excel them. This passion in- volves in it esteem of the person whose attainments or conduct we emulate, of the qualities and actions in which we emulate him, and a desire of resemblance, together with a joy springing from the hope of success. 'The word comes originally from the Greek amiilla, contest; whence the Latin amulus; and thence our emulation. In Gal. 5: 20, the word zeloi, rendered “ emulations,” signifies jea- lousies, and is classed aſhong “ the works of the flesh.” Plato makes emulation the daughter of envy; if so, there is a great difference between the mother and the offspring; the one being a virtue, and the other a vice. Emulation admires #;" actions, and strives to imitate them; envy reſúses them ibe praises that are their due; emulation is geneious, and only thinks of equalling or surpassing a rival; envy is low, and only seeks to lessen him. It would, therefore, be more proper to suppose emülation the daughter of admiration; admiration being a principal ingredient in the composition of it.—Hend. Buck. EN, (ain) signifies a fountain ; for which reason we find it compounded with many names of towns and places ; as en-dor, en-gedi, en-eglaim, en-shemish, q. d. the fountain of dor—of gedi, &c.—Calmet. ENAIM; a town of Judah, (Josh, 15: 34,) perhaps mentioned in Gen. 38: 14, where the Vulgate reads, that Tamar sat in a place where two ways met, Heb. She sat at Enaim ; LXX. She sat at Enan by the nyay. English translation, She sat in an open place which is by the way. Others think Enan, or Enaim, signifies a fountain or well; which is most probable. Perhaps even this might be translated, “the two wells,” or “the double well;” a very likely place of rendezvous.—Calmet. ENAN. Ezekiel speaks of Enan, (chap. 48: 1,) or Hazar-Enan, as of a town well known; the northern boundary of the land. See also Num. 34: 9. This may S, (hot baths,) a village seven miles and ājīalf Josephus (de Bello, lib;8, cap, 27.) says, It seems, by the ruins which surrounded it, be Gaana, north of Damascus, or Ina, mentioned by Pto: lemy, or Aennos in Peutinger's tables, south of Damascus. Possibly likewise the En-hazor of Naphtali. Josh. 19:37 —Calmet. • × . ENCENAS; a Spaniard, and a martyr of the twelfth century. He was sent to Rome to be brought up in the papal faith, but there became acquainted with the follow- ers of Arnold of Brescia, the celebrated reformer. They put into his hands several treatises, by means of which he was converted to the Protestant faith. When the fact. became known, one of his own relations informed against him, and he was burnt alive by order of the pope and a conclave of cardinals. ... His brother was arrested about the same time for having a New Testament in the Spanish language in his possession; but, before the day appointed for his executiºn, he found means to escape from prison, and retired to Germáñy—Fox. * * * * * * - + ENCôURAGE"; to rendër one héârty; hopeful, Ghéºt. ful, and ready for acting. Moses encouraged"Joshūā, by laying before him the goodness of his work, his 'superna- tural assistance and undoubted success. Deut. 1: 28. Da- vid encouraged himself in the Lord, when his warriors threatened to stone him ; he considered God's former kind and wonderful interpºsitions for him, his continued power, wisdom, and mercy, and his faithful promise and gracious relations to him. I Sām. 30:6–Brown. . " " ' " ENCRATITES; a sect in the second'éentury; who ab- stained from marriage, winé,"and animal food.—Hend. Buck. • , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' . END. Jesus Christ is the end of the law for righteous- ness: the law was given to cause men to seek fighteous. ness in him : he perfected the ceremonial law as he was the scope and substance of all its types, and therefore abolish- ed it; through his obedience and 'death, Hé fulfilled the moral law, in its precepts and 'penalty; and in him, as their righteousness, believers enjoy whatever the law, as a covenant, can demand for them. Rom. 10:4. He is the end of ministers' conversation; he is the scopé and sub- stance of all their ministrations, and, in all they do, they ought to aim at the advancemént of his glory. Heb. 13: 7. The end of the faith of the saints is what is exhibited in the promise, and they trust to obtain even the eternal salvation of their souls. 1 Pef. 1; 9.” An oath is the end of strife, as no further inquiry' is to be madé'ih a cause, but all parties are to rest satisfied with the détermination made by an oath. Heb. 6: 16–Bronºl.” ' " ' ENDICOTT, (John,) governor of Massáchitisetts. He was sent to this country by ä 'company" in England as their agent to carry on the plantátion” at Naumkeag, or Salem, and arrived in September, 1528. He continued at Salem till 1644, when he was elected governor oſ Mas- sachusetts, and removed to Boston. He died, March 15, 1665, aged seventy-five. He was a sincere and zealous Puritan, rigid in his principles, and severe in the execu- tion of the laws against sectaries, or those, who differed from the religion of Massachusetts. Two Episcopalians, who accused the members of the church of Salem of be- ing separatists, were sent back to England by his orders. The Quakers and the Baptists had no occasion to remem- ber him with affection. In 1659, during his administra. tion, four Quakers were put to death in Boston.—Neal's New England, i. 139, 364; Hutchinson, i. 8–17, 38, 235; Winthrop ; Hist. Col. vi. 245, 261 ; ix. 5; Holmes ; Mor- ton, 81, 188; Magn. ii. 18.—Allen. ENDOR ; a city in the tribe of Manasseh, where the witch resided whom Saul consulted a little before the battle of Gilboa, Joshua 17: 11. 1 Sam. 28: 13. Mr Bryant derives Endor from En-Ador, signifying fons py thonis, “the fountain of light,” or oracle of the god Ador; which oracle was probably founded by the Canaanites, and had never been totally suppressed. The ancient world had many such oracles; the most famous of which were that of Jupiter-Ammon in Lybia, and that of Delphi in Greece; and in all of them, the answers to those who consulted them were given from the mouth of a female ; who, from the priestess of Apollo at Delphi, has generally received the name of Pythia. That many such oracles existed in Canaan, is evident from the number which Saul himself is said to have suppressed; and such an one, with its Pythia, was this at Endor. At these shrines, either as E N F E N L [. 503 ) mock oracles, contrived by a crafty and avaricious priest- hood, to impose on the credulity and superstition of its followers; or, otherwise, as is more generally supposed, as the real instruments of infernal power, mankind, hav. ing altogether departed from the true God, were permitted to be deluded. . That, in this case, the real Samuel appear- ed, is plain both from the affright of the woman herself, and from the fulfilment of his prophecy. It was an in- stance of God's overruling the wickedness of men, to manifest his own supremacy and justice.—Watson. ENDOWMENT, EccLesiASTIAL; a term used in Eng- land to denote the settlement of a pension upon a minister, or the building of a church, or the severing a sufficient j of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appro- priated. Among the dissenters, endowments are benefactions left to their place or congregation, for the support of their ministers. Where the congregation is poor or small, these have been found beneficial; but in many cases they have been detrimental. Too often has it tended to relax the exertions of the people; and when such a fund has fallen into the hands of an unsuitable minister, it has prevented his removal; when, had he derived no support from the people, necessity would have caused him to de- part, and make room for one more worthy. Scarcely has it been found that any congregation turned Arian or Soci- }; but such as enjoyed such endowments.-Hend. wek. - . . . ENDURE; to continue, to bear with. To endure, refer- red to God, denotes his constancy, perpetual continuance in being, life, and greatness, (Ps. 9: 7.) or his bearing with persons, in his long-suffering patience. Rom. 9: 22. Referred to men, it signifies, (1.) To bear up under the exercise of the duties of an office, (Exod. 18; 23.) or un- der any thing that ſatigues and presses. Gen. 33: 14. Job 31:23. (2.) To bear affliction, especially for Christ, with a sensible, calm, and affectionate complacency—the will of God. Heb. 12: 7. 2 Tim. 3: 11. The saints endure to the end; they persevere in their holy profession and prac- tice, notwithstanding manifold opposition and trouble. Matt. 24; 13. Anti-Christians, and other wicked persons, will not endure sound doctrine; they dislike it, they re- proach it, persecute it, and endeavor to banish it from them. 2 Tim. 4: 3.—Bronyn. ' ENEMY; one who opposes another, or thwarts his designs. God becomes men's enemy, when he pursues them with his wrathful judgments. 1 Sam. 28: 16. Job supposed him an enemy when he grievously afflicted him. Job 33: 10. Wicked men count faithful teachers their enemies, imagining they act from hatred in reproving and opposing their wicked ways. 1 Kings 21: 20. Col. 4: 16. Satan is an enemy to God and his creatures ; he hates them, and seeks their dishonor and ruin. Matt, 13:25, 28. Wicked men are enemies to God; they hate his true cha- racter, and do what in them lies to dishonor his name, and ruin his interest. Rom. 5: 10. Death is called an enemy ; it really ruins the wicked, it terrifies the saints, and for a while detains their body from the heavenly glory. 1 Cor. 15: 26.-Brown. - - EN-EGLAIM. Ezekiel (47: 10.) speaks of this place in opposition to En-gedi : “The fishers shall stand upon it from En-gedi, even to En-eglaim; they shall be a place to spread forth nets.” Jerome says, En-eglaim is at the head of the Dead sea, where the Jordan enters it.—Calmet. ENERGICI; a denomination in the sixteenth century; so called because they held that the eucharist was the energy and virtue of Jesus Christ; not his body, nor a re- presentation thereof—Hend. Buck. ENERGUMENS; persons supposed to be possessed with the devil, concerning whom there were many regula- tions among the primitive Christians. They were denied baptism and the eucharist; at least this was the practice of some churches; and though they were under the care of exorcists, yet it was thought a becoming act of charity to let them have the public prayers of the church, at which they were permitted to be present.—Hend. Buck. ENFIELD, (WILLIAM,) a dissenting minister and gene- ral writer, was born at Sudbury in 1741, and, after having been pastor to a congregation at Liverpool, became resi- dent tutor and lecturer on belles lettres at Warrington academy; a situation which he retained till the dissolu- tion of that establishment. He died at Norwich, in 1797. He published an abridged translation of Brucker's History of Philosophy; The Speaker; Exercises on Elocution; In- stitutions of Natural Philosophy, and various other works, and was one of the principal contributors to Aikin's Bio- graphical Dictionary.—Davenport. ENGAGE ; to bind by promise. How delightful a won- der, that God’s Son engaged his heart, or pledged his soul, that he would approach to an offended God, in room of us, sinful men, in order to obey the broken law, and satisfy justice for us! Jer. 30: 21.-Bronn. EN-GEDI. This name is probably suggested by the situation among lofty rocks, which, overhanging the valleys, are very precipitous. A fountain of pure water rises near the summit, which the inhabitants call En-gedi—the foun- tain of the goat—because it is hardly accessible to any other creature. It was called also Hazazon-Tamar, that is, the city of palm trees, there being a great quantity of palm trees around it. It stood near the lake of Sodom, about thirty miles north-east of Jerusalem, not far from Jericho, and the mouth of the river Jordan. In some cave; of the wilderness of En-gedi, David had an opportunity of killing Saul, who was then in pursuit of him. 1 Sam. 24: The vineyards of En-gedi are mentioned, (Cant. 1: 14,) and the hills around it produce, at present, the best wines of the country.—Calmet. . . s ENGLISH, (GeoRGE. B.,) an adventurer, the son of Thomas English of Boston, was graduated at Harvard college in 1807, and afterwards for a while studied theolo- gy. He then became an officer of marine in the navy. Embracing, as is said, Islamism, he entered the service of the Pasha of Egypt, and accompanied an expedition under Ismael to Upper Egypt. He died at Washington, in September, 1828, aged thirty-nine. He published, Grounds of Christianity examined, 12mo. 1813, which was answered by E. Everett and S. Cary; Letter to Mr. Cary on his review ; Letter to Mr. Channing on his two sermons on infidelity, 1813; Expedition to Dongola and Sennaar, 8vo. 1823.−Allen. ENGRAVING. This art of cutting precious stones and metals is frequently referred to in the Old Testament Scriptures. Its origin and progress, as connected with biblical inquiries, has been investigated and illustrated with much ingenuity by Mr. Landseer, in his “Sabaean Researches,” passim. (See SEALs, WRITING.)—Calmet. EN-HADDAH; a town of Issachar. Josh. 19:21. Eu- sebius mentions a place of this name between Eleuthero- polis and Jerusalem; ten miles from the former place.— Calmet. - EN-HAZOR; a city of Naphtali. Josh. 19:37. Whe- ther this be the Atrium Ennon, or Hazar-enan of Ezekiel, (47: 17. 48: 1,) and of Moses, (Num. 34: 9,) it is difficult to determine. (See LEHI.)—Calmet. ENJOY; aş To possess with pleasure. Josh. 1: 15. (2.) To have in abundance. Heb. 11:25. The land of Canaan enjoyed her sabbaths when it lay untilled for want of inhabitants. Lev. 26: 34. God’s elect long enjoy the work of their hands, when, they receive a long-continued happiness on earth, and everlasting blessedness in heaven, as the gracious reward of their good works. Isa. 65:22, —Brown. - ENLARGE. To enlarge nations, is to grant them delive- rance, liberty, happiness, and increase of numbers, terri- tory, or wealth. Esth. 4: 14. Job 12:23. Deut. 23:20. Enlargement of heart imports loosing of spiritual bands, fulness of inward joy, (Ps. 119: 32.) or extensive love, care, and joy. 2 Cor. 6: 11. Enlargement of mouth imports readiness to answer reproaches, and to pour forth praise to God for his kindness. 1 Sam. 2: 1. God enlargeth men in trouble, or enlargeth their steps, when he grants them re- markable deliverances, and liberty to go where they please. Ps. 4: 1, and 18:36. He enlargeth Japheth in giving him a numerous posterity, and a very extensive territory, viz. the north half of Asia, all Europe, and almost all Ame. rica, to dwell in ; or the word may be rendered, God will persuade Japheth; by the preaching of the gospel a multi- tude of his posterity have been or shall be turned to Christ. Gen. 9; 26. Hell's enlarging itself, imports that the state of the dead, and even the regions of the damned, should E N O E N T [ 504 J quickly receive multitudes of the sinful Jews. Isa. 5: 14. 4-Brown. ENLIGHTEN ; to give light to. God enlightens his people's darkness when he frees them from trouble, grants them prosperity, and gives them knowledge and joy, Ps. 18:28. He enlightens their eyes when, by his word and spirit, he savingly teaches them his truth, and shows them his glory. Ps. 13; and 19: 8, Eph. 1; 18. Hypocrites are enlightened with the speculative knowledge of divine truth, and the miraculous though not saving influences of the Holy Ghost. Heb. 6: 4.—Brown. - EN-MISHPAT; (fountain of judgment.) Moses says, (Gen. 14: 7,) that Chedorlaomer, and his allies, having traversed the wilderness of Paran, came to the fountain of Mishpat, otherwise Kadesh. It had not this name till Mosés drew from it the waters of strife ; and God had ex- ercised his judgments on Moses and Aaron. Num. 20: 13. 27: 14. (See KADesh.)—Calmet. ENMITY; opposition; very bitter, deep-rooted, irrecon- cilable hatred and variance. Such a constant enmity there is between the followers of Christ and Satan; nay, there is some such enmity between mankind and some serpents. Gen. 3; 15. Friendship with this world, in its wicked members and lusts, is enmity with God ; is opposed to the love of him, and amounts to an actual exerting of our- selves to dishonor and abuse him. James 4: 4. 1 John 2: “15, 16. The carnal mind, or minding of fleshly and sin- ful things, is enmity against God; is opposed to his nature and will in the highest degree; and, though it may be re- moved, cannot be reconciled to him, nor he to it. Rom. 8: 7, 8. The ceremonial law is called enmity; it marked God's enmity against sin, by demanding atonement for it; it occasioned men's enmity against God by its burdensome services, and was an accidental source of standing vari- ance between Jews and gentiles; or perhaps the enmity here meant is the state of variance between God and men, whereby he justly loathed and hated them as sinful, and condemned them to punishment; and they wickedly hated him for his holy excellence, retributive justice, and sove- reign goodness; both are slain and abolished by the death of Christ. Eph. 2: 15, 16.-Bronn. ENOCH; the son of Cain, (Gen. 4: 17,) in honor of whom the first city noticed in Scripture was called Enoch, by his father Cain, who was the builder. It was situated on the east of the province of Eden.—Watson. ENOCH; the son of Jared, and father of Methuselah. He was born, A. M. 622, and being contemporary with Adam, more than three hundred years, he had every op- portunity of learning from him the story of the creation, the circumstance of the fall, the terms of the promise, and other important truths. An ancient author affirms, that he was the father of astronomy; and Eusebius hence in- fers, that he is the same with the Atlas of the Grecian mythology. Enoch’s fame rests upon a better basis than his skill in science. The encomium of Enoch is, that he “walked with God.” While mankind were living in open rebellion against heaven, and provoking the divine vengeance daily by their ungodly deeds, he obtained the exalted testimony “that he pleased God.” This he did, not only by the ex- emplary tenor of his life, and by the attention which he paid to the outward duties of religion, but by the souhd- ness of his faith, and the purity of his heart and life. (See Heb. 11: 5, 6.) The intent of the apostle, in the discourse containing this passage is, to show that there has been but one way of obtaining the divine favor ever since the fall, and that is, by faith. (See ABEL.) Enoch is said, by another evangelical writer, to have spoken to the antediluvian sinners of the coming of Christ to judgment. (See Jude 14, 15.) This prophecy is a clear, and it is also an awful, description of the day of judgment, when the Messiah shall sit upon his throne of justice, to determine the final condition of mankind, according to their works; and it indicates that the different offices of Messiah both to save and to judge, or as Prophet, Priest, and King, were known to the holy patriarchs. On what the apostle founded this prediction, has been matter of much speculation and inquiry. Some, indeed, have pro- duced a treatise, called “The Book of Enoch,” which, as they pretend, contains the cited passage; but its authority times for that purpose. is not proved, and internal evidence sufficiently marks its spurious origin. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose that the prophecy cited by St. Jude was eithel traditional- ly handed down, or had been specially communicated to that apostle. - In the departure of Enoch from this world of sin and sorrow, the Almighty altered the ordinary course of things, and gave him a dismissal as glorious to himself, as it was instructive to mankind. To convince them how accepta- ble holiness is to him, and to show that he had prepared for those that love him a heavenly inheritance, fifty years after Adam had been laid in the dust, he caused Enoch to be taken from the earth into his glorious presence above, without passing through death. (See ELIJAH.)—Watson; Calmet; Jones. ENON, (dove's eye, or fountain,) where John baptized, because there was much water there, (John 3: 23,) was eight miles south of Scythopolis, between Shalim and the Jordan.-Calmet. - ENOS, or Enosh; the son of Seth, and father of Cai- nan. He was born, A. M. 235. Moses tells us that then “men began to call upon the name of the Lord,” (Gen. 4: 26.) that is, such as abhorred the impiety and immorality which prevailed among the progeny of Cain, began to worship God in public, and to assemble together at stated Good men, to distinguish them- selves from the wicked, began to take the name of sons or servants of God; for which reason Moses, (Gen. 6: 1, 2.) says that “the sons of God,” or the descendants of Enos, “seeing the daughters of men,” &c. The eastern people make the following additions to his history:—that Seth, his father, declared him sovereign prince and high priest of mankind, next after himself; that Enos was the first who ordained public alms for the poor, established. public tribunals for the administration of justice, and plant- ed, or rather cultivated, the palm tree.—Watson. ENRAUDUS, a martyr of the thirteenth century, was a knight of France. Being accused of embracing the opinions of Peter Waldo, he was delivered to the secular power, and burnt at Paris, A. D. 1201,–Foz. EN-ROGEL; (fuller's eye ;) the same as the fountain of Siloam, east of Jerusalem, at the foot of mount Sion.— Calmet. EN-SHEMESH, was on the frontiers of Judah and Benjamin, (Josh. 15: 7.) but whether it was a town or a fountain, is questionable. The Arabians give this name to the ancient metropolis of Egypt, which the Hebrews called On, and the Greeks Heliopolis.-Calmet. ENSIGN ; a military token or signal to be followed; a standard. The ancient Jewish ensign was a long pole, at the end of which was a kind of chafing-dish, made of iron bars, which held a fire, and the light, shape, &c. of which, denoted the party to whom it belonged. God says, he would lift up an ensign, Isa. 5: 26. Christ was an “ensign to the people; and to it shall the Gentiles seek,” chap. 11; 10. The brazen serpent was liſted up on an ensign pole, and to this our Lord compares his own “lift- ing up,” (John 3: 14.) in consequence of which he will draw all men to him, as men follow an ensign, chap. 12: 32.—Calmet. ENTER. To enter at the strait gate, and into the king- dom of God, is, by receiving Jesus Christ as our Savior, door, and way to happiness, to become members of God's spiritual family and kingdom in heaven and earth. Matt. 7: 13. John 3: 5. To enter into joy, peace, or rest, is to re- ceive the earnest or the full possession thereof. Matt. 25: 21. Isa, 57:2. Heb. 4:3. To enter into other men's labors, is to enjoy the fruit of them. John 4:38.—Bromm. ENTHUSIASM. To obtain just definitions of words which are promiscuously used, it must be confessed, is no small difficulty. This word, it seems, is used both in a good and a bad sense. In its best sense it signifies a di- vine afflatus or inspiration. It is also taken for that no- ble ardor of mind which leads us to imagine any thing sublime, grand, or surprising. In its worse sense it sig- nifies any impression on the fancy, or agitation of the ſº. of which a man can give no rational account. t is generally applied to religious characters, and is said to be derived (apo ton en thusiais mainomenön,) from the wild gestures and speeches of ancient religionists, pre- E N V E P. H. [ 505 ) tending to more than ordinary and more than true com- munications with the gods, and particularly en thusiais, in the act or at the time of sacrificing. In this sense, then, it signifies that impulse of the mind which leads a man to suppose he has some remarkable intercourse with the Deity, while at the same time it is nothing more than the effects of a heated imagination, or a sanguine constitu- tion. That the Divine Being permits his people to enjoy fel- lowship with him, and that he can work upon the minds of his creatures when and how he pleases, cannot be de- nied. But, then, what is the criterion by which we are to judge, in order to distinguish it from enthusiasm It is necessary there should be some rule, for without it the greatest extravagancies would be committed, the most no- torious impostors countenanced, and the most enormous evils ensue, Now this criterion is the word of God; by which we are to try all pretences to new revelations, and extraordinary gifts, as in the apostles' time; (1 John 4: 1–6.) Whatever opinions, feelings, views, or impressions we may have, if they are plainly inconsistent with the Word, if they are not accompanied with humility, if they do not influence our temper, regulate our lives, and make us just, pious, honest, and uniform, they cannot come from God, but are evidently the effusions of an enthusiastic brain. On the other hand, if the mind be enlightened, if the will which was perverse be renovated, detached from evil, and inclined to good; if the powers be roused to ex- ertion for the promotion of the divine glory, and the good of men ; if the natural corruptions of the heart be sup- pressed; if peace and joy arise from a view of the gos- pel of Christ, attended with a spiritual frame of mind, a heart devoted to God, and a holy, useful life, however this may be branded with the name of enthusiasm, it cer- tainly is from God, because bare human efforts, unassist- ed by him, could never produce such effects as these. Theol. Misc., vol. ii. p. 43 ; Locke on Underst., vol. ii. ch. 19; Spect, No. 201, vol. iii.; Wesley's Serm. on Enthusi- asm ; Mrs. H. More's Hints tonwards forming the Character of a young Princess, vol. ii. p. 246; Natural History of En- thusiasm.—Hend. Buck. ENTICE ; cunningly to persuade and move one to what is sinſul and hazardous. Satan enticed Ahab to go up and fall at Ramoth-Gilead by making the false prophets promise him victory. 2 Chron. 18:20. Whore- mongers entice virgins with promises of reward, and hopes of secrecy, in uncleanness. Exod. 22: 16. Our lusts entice to sin for hopes of profit, pleasure, honor, by means of it. Jam. 1: 14. Outward objects entice to sin, as they are occasions of tempting our evil hearts to it. Job 31: 26, 27. False teachers, pretended friends, and wicked companions entice ; by their fair speeches and guileful ex- amples, they persuade us to embrace error, commit sin, or rush on snares. Col. 2: 4. Enticing words of man's wisdom are such as please the ear aná. fancy of hearers, but lead away the heart from the regard of the true mat- ter and scope of divine truth. 1 Cor. 2: 4. Col. 2: 4.— Bronyn. - ENVY ; a sensation of uneasiness and disquiet, arising from the advantages which others are supposed to possess above us, accompanied with malignity towards those who possess them. “This,” says a good writer, “is univer- sally admitted to be one of the blackest passions in the human heart. No one, indeed, is to be condemned for defending his rights, and showing di-)leasure against a malicious enemy; but to conceive ill will at one who has attacked mone of our rights, nor done us any injury, sole- ly because he is more prosperous than we are, is a dispo- sition altogether unnatural. Hence the character of an envious man is universally odious. All disclaim it; and they who feel themselves under the influence of this pas- sion, carefully conceal it. The chief grounds of envy may be reduced to three: accomplishments of mind; ad- vantages of birth, rank, and fortune; and superior suc- cess in worldly pursuits. To subdue this odious disposi- tion, let us consider its sinful and criminal nature; the mischiefs it occasions to the world; the unhappiness it produces to him who possesses it; the evil causes that nourish it, such as pride and indolence : let us, moreover, bring often into view those religious considerations which ..ºf regard us as Christians; how unworthy we are in the Sight of God; how much the blessings we enjoy are above what we deserve, Let us learn reverence and sub- mission to that divine government which has appointed to every one such a condition as is fittest for him to pos- sess; let us consider how opposite the Christian spirit is to envy ; above all, let us offer up our prayers to the Al- mighty, that he would purify our hearts from a passion which is so base and so criminal.”—Buck. EONIANS, or EoNITes; the followers of Eon, a wild famatic, of the province of Bretagne, in the twelfth centu- ry: he concluded, from the resemblance between eum, in the form for exorcising malignant spirits, viz. per eum qui venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos, and his own name Eon, that he was the son of God, and ordained to judge the quick and dead. Eon was, however, solemnly condemn- ed by the council at Rheims, in 1148, and ended his days in a prison. He left behind him a number of followers, whom persecution and death, so weakly and cruelly em- ployed, could not persuade to abandon his cause, or to re- nounce an absurdity, which, says Mosheim, one would think could never have gained credit but in such a place as bedlam.—Hend. Buck. EOQUINIANS ; a denomination in the sixteenth centu- ry; so called from one Eoquinus, their master, who taught that Christ did not die for the wicked, but for the faithful only.—Hend. Buck. EPAPHRAS was, it is believed, the first bishop or pas- tor of Colosse. He was converted by Paul, and contri- buted much to convert his fellow-citizens. He came to Rome while Paul was there in bonds, and was imprisoned with the apostle. taking advantage of his absence, had sown tares among the wheat in his church, he engaged Paul, whose name and authority were reverenced throughout Phrygia, to write to the Colossians, to correct them. In this epistle Paul calls Epaphras his “dear fellow-servant, and a faith- ful minister of Christ,” chap. 1: 7.—Calmet. EPAPHRODITUS, a minister and messenger of the Philippians, who was sent by that church to carry money to the apostle, then in bonds; and to do him service, A. D. 61. He executed this commission with such zeal, that he brought on himself a dangerous illness, which obliged him to remain long at Rome. The year following (A. D. 62) he returned with haste to Philippi, having heard that the Philippians, on receiving information of his sickness, were very much afflicted, and Paul sent a letter to them by him, Phil. 4: 18.—Calmet. EPARCHY ; in the Greek church, the jurisdiction of a bishop, or other high ecclesiastical ruler.—Hend. Buck. EPEFANOFTSCHINS ; a small Russian sect, followers of a monk of Kieff, who got himself ordained a bishop through forged letters of recommendation. Being impri- soned on a discovery of the cheat, he died in confinement, but is by his sect esteemed a ma syr. Their sentiments are nearly the same as the Starobredsi, or Old Ceremoni- alists. Pinkerton's Greek Church, p. 304.—Williams. EPENETUS; a disciple of Paul; (probablv one of the first he converted in Asia;) “the first fruits of Asia;” in the Greek, “first fruits of Achaia,” Rom. 16: 5.-Calmet. EPHAH; the eldest son of Midian, who gave his name to a city and small extent of land in the country of Midi- an, situated on the eastern shore of the Dead sea, Gene- sis 25: 4. This country abounded with camels and dro- medaries, Isaiah 60: 6, &c.—Watson. EPHAH, a measure both for things dry and liquid, in use among the Hebrews. The ephah for the former contained three pecks and three pints. In liquid measure, it was of the same capacity as the bath.-Watson. EPHER ; second son of Midian, and brother of Ephah, 1 Chron, 1: 33. He dwelt beyond Jordan, (1 Kings 4: 10.) and might people the isle of Upher in the Red sea, or the city of Orpha, in the Diarbekr. Jerome cites Alex. ander Polyhistor and Cleodemus, surnamed Malec, who affirm, that Epher made an incursion into Libya, con- quered it, and called it after his own name, Africa. Her- cules is said to have accompanied him.—Calmet. EPHESIANS, (EPISTLE To THE.) (See Ephesus.) EPHESUS, a much celebrated city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, forty-five miles south east of Smyrna, situated Having understood that false teachers, . *** z ž. Yºr a". & ‘º, & º .*** *& * x * ~ * *ś, * * * • ‘p - 64 # PH £ P H [ 506 ) upon the river Cayster, and on the side of a hill five miles from the sea. It was the principal mart, as well as the metropolis of the Proconsular Asia, and formerly in great renown among heathen authors on account of its famous temple of Diana. (See DIANA). The city had a fine prospect to the west, of a lovely plain, covered with groves of tamarisk, and watered and embellished by the mazy windings of the Cayster. It was a place of prodigious resort for various purposes; but so addicted were the inhabitants of the city to idolatry and the arts of magic, that the prince of darkness would seem to have, at that time, fixed his throne in it. Ephes. 2: 2. Ephe- sus is supposed to have first invented those obscure mys- tical spells and charms by means of which the people pretended to heal diseases and drive away evil spirits; whence originated the Ephesia grammata, or Ephesian let- ters, so often mentioned by the ancients. 2. Ephesus was greatly damaged by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, who repaired and embellished it. Pliny styles it “the ornament of Asia.” The Jews, ac- cording to Josephus, were very numerous, and had ob- tained the privileges of citizenship; as Ephesus was au- immos gºverned by its own laws. The entire popula- tion was, it is supposed, not less than six hundred thou- sand souls. 3. The apostle Paul first visited this populous : A. D. 54; but being then on his way to Jerusalem, he abode there only a few weeks, Acts 18: 19–21. During his short stay, he found a synagogue of the Jews, into which he went, and reasoned with them upon the interesting topics of his ministry, with which they were so pleased that they wished him to prolong his visit. He however declined that, for he had determined, God willing, to be at Jerusalem at an approaching festival; but he promised to return, which he did a few months afterwards, and continued there three years, Acts 19:10. 20:31. Such was the success of the gospel, that magical books to the value of more than thirty thousand dollars, were burnt by the converted Ephesians ! While the apostle abode in Ephesus and its neighborhood, he gathered a numerous Christian church, to which, at a subsequent period, he wrote that epistle, which forms so important a part of the apostolic writings. He was then a prisoner at Rome, and the year in which he wrote it must have been 60, or 61, of the Christian era. It appears to have been transmitted to them by the hands of Tychicus, one of his companions in travel, Ephesians 6: 21. The critics have remarked that the style of the epistle to the Ephesians is exceeding- ly elevated; and that it corresponds to the state of the apostle's mind at the time of writing, " Overjoyed with the account which their messenger brought him of the steadfastness of their faith, and the ardency of their love to all the saints, (Eph. 1: 15.) and, transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God dis- played in the work of man's redemption, and of his amaz- ing love towards the gentiles, in introducing them, as fellow-heirs with the Jews, into the kingdom of Christ, he soars into the most exalted contemplation of those sub- lime topics, and gives utterance to his thoughts in lan- guage at once rich and varied. The epistle, says Mack- night, is written as it were in a rapture. Grotius remarks that it expresses the sublime matters contained in it in terms more sublime than are to be found in any human language, to which Macknight subjoins this singular but striking observation, that no real Christian can read the doctrinal part of the epistle to the Ephesians, without being impressed and roused by it, as by the sound of a trumpet. 4. Ephesus was one of the seven churches to which special messages were addressed in the book of Revela- tion. After a commendation of their first works, to which they were commanded to return, they were accused of having left their first love, and threatened with the removal of their candlestick out of its place, except they should repent, Rev. 2: 5. The contrast which its present state presents to its former glory, is a striking fulfilment of this prophecy. Ephesus was the metropolis of Lydia, a great and opulent city, and, according to Strabo, the greatest emporium of Asia Minor. In the times of Christi- anity it had been favored with the labors of Timothy and the apostle John, and was subsequently the seat of the pri. mate of the Asian diocese. But now a few heaps of stones, and some miserable mud cottages, occasionally tenanted by Turks, without one Christian residing there, are all the remains of ancient Ephesus. It is, as describ- ed by different travellers, a solemn and most forlorn spot. The epistle to the Ephesians is read throughout the world; but there is none in Ephesus to read it now. They left their first love, they returned not to their first works. Their “candlestick has been removed out of its place;” and not only the Christian church, but even the great city of Ephesus is no more. Dr. Chandler says, “Its streets are obscured and overgrown. A herd of goats was driven to it for shelter from the sum at noon; and a noisy flight of crows from the quarries seemed to insult its silence. We heard the partridge call in the area of the theatre and the stadium. The glorious pomp of its heathen worship is no longer remembered; and Christianity, which was here nursed by apostles, and fostered by general councils, until it increased to fulness of stature, barely lingers on in an existence hardly visible.”—Jones ; Wells; Calmet, Watson. EPHOD; an ornamental part of the dress worn by the Hebrew priests. Ephod comes from aphad, to tie, to fasten, to gird; and the use of the ephod was suitable to this signification, being a kind of girdle, passing from be- hind over the neck and shoulders, and hanging down be- fore, crossing the stomach, then being carried round the waist, and used as a girdle to the tunic; it went twice round the body, girt about the tunic, and after this the ex- tremities of it fell before, and hung to the ground. There were two kinds of ephod; one plain for the priests, ano- ther embroidered for the high-priest. As there was nothing singular in that of the priests, Moses does not describe it ; but that belonging to the high-priest, (Exod. 28; 6.) which was composed of gold, blue, purple, crimson, and twisted cotton, was a very rich composition of different colors. On that part of the ephod, which came over the shoulders of the high-priest, were two large precious stones, on which were engraven the names of the twelve tribes of Israel, six names on each stone. Where the ephod crossed his breast, was a square ornament called the pectoral, il, which were set twelve precious stones, with the names of the twelve tribes of Israel engraved on them, one on each stone. (See BREAST-PLATE.) Calmet is of opinion, tha. the ephod was peculiar to priests, and Jerome observes, that we find no mention of it in the Scripture, except when priests are spoken of. But some considerations render dubious this opinion. We find that David wore it at the removal of the ark from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem, and Samuel, although a Levite only, and a child, yet wore the ephod, 1 Sam. 2: 18. The Jews held, that no worship, true or false, could subsist without the priesthood, or the ephod. Gideon made an ephod out of the spoils of the Midianites, and this became an offence in Israel. Micah, having made an idol, did not fail to make an ephod, Judg. 8:27. 17: 5. God foretold, by the prophet Hosea, (3: 5.) that Israel should long remain with- out kings, princes, sacrifices, altar, ephod, and teraphim. The ephod is often taken for the pectoral; and for the Urim and Thummim also ; because these were united to it.—Calmet. EPHRA, a city of Ephraim, and Gideon's birthplace. Its true situation is unknown ; but it is thought to be the same as Ophrah, Judg. 6: 11.-Calmet. EPHRAIM; Joseph’s second son, by Asenath, Poti. pherah's daughter, born in Egypt, about A. M. 2294. Ephraim, with his brother Manasseh, was presented by Joseph, his father, to the patriarch Jacob on his death bed. Jacob laid his right hand on Ephraim, the youngest, and his left hand on Manasseh, the eldest. Joseph was desi- rous to change this situation of his hands; but Jacob an- swered, “I know it, my son; he (Manasseh) also shall become a people, and he also shall be great : but truly his younger brother shall be greater than he,” Gen. 48:13– 19. The sons of Ephraim having made an inroad on Palestine, the inhabitants of Gath killed them, 1 Chron. 7:20, 21. Ephraim their father mourned many days for them, and his brethren came to comfort him. Afterwards, he had sons named Beriah, Rephah, Resheph, and Tela, & E F I E P I [ 507] and a daughter named Sherah. His posterify multiplied in Egypt to the number of forty thousand five hundred men, capable of bearing arms, Num. 2: 18, 19. , Joshua, who was of this tribe, gave the Ephraimites their portion between the Mediterranean sea west, and the river Jor- dan east, Josh. 16: 5. (See CANAAN.) The ark, and the tabernacle, remained long in this tribe, at Shiloh; and, after the separation of the ten tribes, the seat of the king- dom of Israel being in Ephraim, Ephraim is frequently used to signify that kingdom. Ephrata is used also for Bethlehem, Mic. 5: 2. The tribe of Ephraim was led captive beyond the Euphrates, with all Israel, by Shalman- eser, king of Assyria, A. M. 3283, ante A. D. 721.-II. A city of Ephraim, towards the Jordan, whither, it is proba- ble, Jesus retired before his passion, John 11:54. This Ephraim was a city in the confines of the land of Ephraim, (2 Chron. 13:19.) and was famous for fine flour. Josephus calls Ephraim and Bethel two small cities; and places the former not in the tribe of that name, but in the land of Benjamin, near the wilderness of Judea, in the way to Je- richo. III. A city of Benjamin, eight miles from Jerusa- lem, according to Eusebius, near Bethel. We believe these two cities have been confounded; for instead of the eight miles in Eusebius, Jerome reckons twenty-–IV. The forest of Ephraim was east of the Jordan, and in it Absa- lom lost his life, 2 Sam. 18: 6–8. It could not be far from Mahanaim.—Calmet. EPHRATAH. (See EPHRATH.) EPHRATH, Caleb's second wiſe, who was the mother of Hur, 1 Chron. 2: 19. From her, it is believed that the city of Ephratah, otherwise called Bethlehem, where our Lord was born, had its name; and this city is more than once known in Scripture by the name of Ephrath, Gen. 35; 16,-1Watson. EPICUREANS ; the disciples of Epicurus, a Greek philosopher, who flourished about A. M., 3700. This sect maintained that the world was formed not by God, nor with any design, but by the fortuitous concourse of atoms. They denied that God governs the world, or in the least condescends to interfere with creatures below ; they deni- ed the immortality of the soul, and the existence of an- gels; they maintained that happiness consisted in plea- sure; but some of them placed this pleasure in the tran- quillity and joy of the mind arising from the practice of moral virtue, and which is thought by Some to have been the true principle of Epicurus; others understood him in the gross sense, and placed all their happiness in corpore- al pleasure. His system found many followers in Rome, among whom Celsus, Pliny the elder, and Lucretius were the most eminent. When Paul was at Athens, he had conferences with the Epicurean philosophers, Acts 17: 18. The word Epicurean is used, at present, for an indolent, effeminate, and voluptuous person, who only consults his private and particular pleasure, and particularly one who is devoted to the enjoyments of the table. (See AcA DEMIcs.)—Hend. Buck. * EPIPHANES, (splendid, illustrious) an epithet given to the gods, when appearing to men. Antiochus, brother of Seleucus, coming fortunately into Syria, a little after the death of his brother, was regarded as some propitious deity, and was hence called Epiphanes, the illustrious. (See ANTIochus IV.)—Calmet. g EPIPHANY; a festival, otherwise called the manifes. tation of Christ to the gentiles, observed on the sixth of January, in honor of the appearance of our Savior to the three magi, or wise men, who came to adore and bring him presents. In Germany, this feast is called the day of the holy three kings. The Greeks term it Theophany, or appearance of God.—Hend. Buck. & #PISCOPACY ; that form of church government in which diocesan bishops are established as distinct from and superior to priests or presbyters. The controversy respecting episcopacy commenced soon after the Reformation, and has been agitated with great warmth, between the Episcopalians on the one side, and the Presbyterians and Independents on the other. Among the Protestant churches abroad, those which were reform- ed by Luther and his associates are in general episcopal : whilst such as follow the doctrines of Calvin, have for une most oart thrown off the order of bish90s as Qūe ef the corruptions of popery. In England, however, the con, troversy has been considered as of greater importance than on the continent, . It has been strenuously maintain ed by one party, that the episcopal order is essential to the constitution of the church; and by others, that it is a pernicious encroachment on the rights of men, ſor which there is no authority in Scripture. (See article Bishop.) I. Episcopacy in the Church of Rome.—In the church of Rome, the pope has the chief right of electing bishops; and even where sovereign princes have reserved to them- selves a right of nominating to bishoprics, the pope sends his approbation and bulls to the new bishop. When a person hears that the pope has raised him to the episcopal dignity, he enlarges his shaven crown, and dresses himself in purple. Three months after his elec- tion, he is consecrated in a solemn manner. The offi- ciating bishop sits on the episcopal seat, placed about the middle of the altar, and the bishop elect stands between two "assistant bishops. Then one of the assistants ad- dresses himself to the officiating prelate, saying to him, that the Catholic church requires such an one (naming him) to be raised to the dignity of a bishop. Then the officiating prelate demands of him the apostolical mandate; which being read by the notary, the officiating prelate an- swers at the close of it, “God be praised.” This first ceremony concludes with the oath of the candidate, which he takes on his knees; by which he obliges himself to be faithful to the see of Rome, and the Catholic church, &c. We are told in one of the rubrics of the pontifical, that all patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops of Italy are obliged to renew this oath every three years; those of France, Germany, Spain, Flanders, the British islands, Poland, &c. every four years; those of the extremities of Europe and Africa, every five years; and, lastly, those of Asia and America every ten years. After the oath, the candidate, on his knees, kisses the hand of the officiating prelate. He next receives the pon- tifical ornaments, and, being full habited, reads the office of the mass at the altar, the two assistant bishops stand- ing on each side of him. This done, he bows to the offi ciating prelate, who repeats the following words to him, which include the episcopal functions:—“The duty of a bishop is to judge, interpret, consecrate, confer orders, sacrifice, baptize, confirm.” After which words, the can- didate bishop prostrates himself, and continues some time in that posture, during which the officiating prelate, with his pastoral staff, signs him with the sign of the cross. This done, the officiating prelate and the two assistants lay their hands on his head ; and the former, laying the book of the gospels on his shoulders, says, “Receive the Holy Ghost.” Then a napkin is put on the neck of the bishop elect, and the officiating prelate anoints his head with the chrism, as also the palms of his hands: next he blesses the pastoral staff, sprinkling it with holy water, and presents it to the new bishop. The book of the gos. pels, shut, is put into his hands, with this exhortation:— “Receive the Gospel, go, and preach it to the people com- mitted to your charge.” After this exhortation, the offi- ciating prelate and the assistant bishops give him the kiss of peace. These ceremonies end with the mystical offer. ings of the new prelate, which are two lighted torches, two loaves, and two small casks of wine. The church of Rome early lost many bishoprics by the conquests of the Mohammedans; hence the great number of titular bishops, whose bishopries lie in partibus infide- bum, that is, in countries in the possession of infidels. The Roman see, however, only honors with this title eccle- siastics of a high rank. II. Episcopacy in England, &c.—The earliest account we have of %s. bishops, is carried up no higher than the council of Arles, assembled by the emperor Constan- tine, in the fourth century, at which were present the bishops of London, York, and Caerleon. Before the Norman conquest, bishops were chosen by the chapters, whether monks or prebendaries. From the Conqueror's time, to the reign of king John, it was the custom to choose bishops at a public meeting of the bi- shops and barons, the king himself being present at the Solemnity, who claimed a right of investing the bishops, by delivering to them the ring and pastoral staff. It is E P I E P I [ 508 J true, the popes endeavored to gain the election of bishops to themselves; and this occasioned great struggles and contests between the Roman pontiffs and the kings. At length, after various disputes between king John and the pope, the former, by his charter, A. D., 1215, granted the right of election to the cathedral churches. A statute, in the reign of Henry VIII., settles the election of bishops as follows:—“The king, upon the vacancy of the see, was to send his conge d’élire to the dean and chapter, or prior and convent, and, in case they delayed the election above twelve days, the crown was empowered to nominate the person by letters patent. And, after the bishop thus elect- ed had taken an oath of fealty to the king, his majesty, by his letters patent under the broad seal, signified the election to the archbishop, with orders to confirm it, and consecrate the elect. And, lastly, if the persons assigned to elect and consecrate deferred the performing their re- spective offices twenty days, they were to incur a praemu- nire.” * A bishop of England is a peer of the realm, and, as such, sits and votes in the house of lords. He is a baron in a three-fold manner, viz.—feudal, in regard of the tem- poralities annexed to his bishopric; by writ, as being summoned by writ to parliament; and by patent and creation. Accordingly, he has the precedence of all other barons, and votes both as baron and bishop. But though their peerage never was denied, it has been contested whether the bishops have a right to vote in criminal mat- ters. At present, the bishops have their vote in the trial and arraignment of a peer; but, before sentence of death is passed, they withdraw, and vote by their proxy. The jurisdiction of a bishop, in England, consists in collating to benefices; granting institutions on the pre- sentation of other patrons; commanding induction; taking care of the profits of vacant benefices for the use of the successors; visiting his diocese once in three years; in suspending, depriving, degrading, and excommunicating; in granting administrations, and taking care of the pro- bate of wills: these parts of his functions depend on the ecclesiastical law. By the common law he is to certify the judges touching legitimate and illegitimate births, and marriages. And to his jurisdiction, by the statute law, belongs the licensing of physicians, chirurgeons, and school-masters, and the uniting small parishes ; which º: privilege is now peculiar to the bishop of Nor- W1CIl. The bishops' courts have this privilege above the civil courts, that writs are issued out from them in the name of the bishop himself, and not in the king's name, as in other courts. The judge of the bishop's court is his chancellor, anciently called ecclesia, causidicus, the church- lan'yer. The Swedish bishops constitute one of the estates of the kingdom, like the English, but have little power. The English church has left to its bishops more authority than the rest, and for this reason has received the name of Episcopal. In Protestant Germany, bishoprics were abo- lished by the reformation : but they have been restored in Prussia within the last ten years. In the United States bishops have no civil power. (See PROTESTANT EPIscoPAL CIIURCH IN THE UNITED ś Ill. Episcopacy, how introduced.—It is easy to apprehend how episcopacy, as it was in the primitive church, with those alterations which it afterwards received, might be gradually introduced. The apostles seem to have taught chiefly in large cities; they settled ministers there, who, preaching in country villages, or sumaller towns, increased the number of converts : it would have been most rea- sonable that those new converts, which lay at a conside- rable distance from the large towns, should, when they grew numerous, have formed themselves into distinct churches, under the care of their proper pastors or bish- Ops, independently of any of their neighbors; but the reverence which would naturally be paid to men who had conversed with the apostles, and perhaps some desire of influence and dominion, from which the hearts of very good men might not be entir-ly free, and which early be- gan to work, (John 3: 9. 2 Thess. 2; 7,) might easily lay a foundation for such a subordination in the ministers.of men erected churches to those which were more ancient, and much more easily might the superiority of a pastor to his assistant presbyters increase, till it at length came tº that great difference which we own was early, made, and probably soon carried to an excess, And if there were that degree of degeneracy in the church, and defection from the purity and vigor of religion, which the learned Vitringa supposes to have happened between the time of Nero and Trajan, it would be less surprising that those evil principles, which occasioned episcopal, and at length the papal usurpation, should before that time exert Some considerable influence. & IV. Episcopacy, reduced plan of Archbishop Usher prººf a plan for the reduction of episcopacy, by which fe would have moderated it in such a manner as to have brought it very near the Presbyterian government of the Scotch church, the weekly parochial vestry answering to their church session; the monthly synod to be held by the Chorepiscopi, answering to their presbyteries; the di- ocesan synod to their provincial, and the national to their general assembly. The meeting of the dean and chapter, practised in the church of England, is but a faint shadow of the second, the ecclesiastical court of the third, and the convocation of the fourth. Bingham's Origines Ecclesi- astica; Stillingfleet's Origines Sacraj Boyse and Homº ºn Epis. ; Benson's Dissertation concerning the first Set, of tle Christ. Church; King's Const. of the Church ; Doddridge's Lectures, lcc. 196; Clarkson and Dr. Maurice on Episcopacy; Enc. Brit.; Dr. Campbell on Church. Hist. 5 Controversy ºf Drs. How and Miller, Bowden and Wilson. Also see the article Bishop.—Hend. Buck. g EPISCOPALIAN ; one who prefers the episcopal, go- vernment and discipline to all others. (See last article. Also, Cirurch of England, and PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.)—Hend. Buck. EPISTLES; letters written from one party to another; but the term is eminently applied to those letters in the New Testament which were written by the apostles, on various occasions, to approve, condemn, or direct the con: duct of Christian churches. It is not to be supposed that every note, or memorandum, written by the hands of the apostles, or by their direction, was divinely inspired, or proper for preservation to distant ages; those only have been preserved, by the overruling hand of Providence, from which useful directions had been drawn, and might in after-ages be drawn, by believers, as from a perpetual directory for faith and practice;—always supposing that similar circumstances require similar directions. In read ing an epistle, we ought to consider the occasion of it, the circumstances of the parties to whom it was addressed, the time when written, the general scope and design of it, as well as the intention of particular arguments and pas- sages. We ought also to observe the style and manner of the writer, his mode of expression, the peculiar effect he designed to produce on those to whom he wrote, to whose temper, manners, general principles, and actual situation, he might address his arguments, &c. The epistles afford many and most powerful evidences of the truth of Christianity; they appeal to a great number of extraordinary facts; and allude to principles, and opin- ions, as admitted, or as prevailing, or as opposed, among those to whom they are addressed. They mention a con- siderable number of persons, describe their situations in life, hint at their connexions with the churches, and by sometimes addressing them, and sometimes recommend- ing them by name, they connect their testimony with that of the writer of the epistle; and often, no doubt, they gave a proportionate influence to those individuals, Be- side this, it is every way likely, that individuals mention- ed in the epistles, would carefully procure copies of these writings, would give them all the authority and, all the notoriety in their power, would communicate them to other churches, and, in short, would become vouchers, for their genuineness and authenticity. We in the present ſlay, who possess these instructive documents, may learn from them many things for our advantage and our conduct; how to avoid those evils which formerly injured the profess- ors of true religion; and how to rectify those errors and abuses to which time and incident occasionally gave rise, or to whose spread and prevalence particular occurrences or conjunctures are favorable. (See BIBLE, CANON, &c.) E. R. A E. R. A [ 509 ) s of the fall must be taken as history, or the histors' s ::aracter of F A I F AM . [ 526 ) the whole five books of Moses must be unsettled; and if none but infidels will go to the latter consequence, then no one who admits the Pentateuch to be a true history generally, can consistently refuse to admit the story of the fall of the first pair to be a narrative of real events, be- cause it is written in the same style, and presents the same character of a continuous record of events. So conclusive has this argument been felt, that the anti-lite- ral interpreters have endeavored to evade it, by asserting that the part of the history of Moses in question bears marks of being a separate fragment, more ancient than the Pentateuch itself, and transcribed into it by Moses, the author and compiler of the whole. This point is ex- amined and satisfactorily refuted in Holden’s learned and excellent work, entitled, “Dissertation on the Fall of Man;” but it is easy to show, that it would amount to nothing, if granted, in the mind of any who is satisfied on the previous question of the inspiration of the holy Scriptures. For two things are to be noted, first, that the inspired character of the books of Moses is authenticated by our Lord and his apostles, so that they must necessa- rily be wholly true, and free from real contradictions; and, secondly, whether it be an embodied tradition, or the insertion of a more ancient document, (though there is no foundation at all for the latter supposition,) it is obvi- ously a narrative, and a narrative as simple as any which precedes or follows it. 3. The other indisputable fact to which we just now ad- verted, as establishing the literal sense of the history, is that, as such, it is referred to and reasoned upon in vari- ous parts of Scripture. Job 20: 4, 5. 31:33. 15: 14. “Eden” and “the garden of the Lord” are also fre- quently referred to in the prophets. We have the “tree of life” mentioned several times in the Proverbs and in the Revelation. “God,” says Solomon, “made man upright.” The enemies of Christ and his church are spoken of, both in the Old and New Testaments, under the names of “the serpent,” and “the dragon;” and the habit of the serpent to lick the dust is also referred to by Isaiah. If the history of the fall, as recorded by Moses, were an allegory, or any thing but a literal history, several of the above allusions would have no meaning; but the matter is put beyond all possible doubt in the New Testa- ment, unless the same culpable liberties be taken with the interpretation of the words of our Lord and of St. Paul as with those of the Jewish lawgiver. Matt. 19: 4, 5. 1 Cor. 15:22. 2 Cor. 11: 3. 1 Tim. 2: 13, 14, Rom, 5: 12–19. When, therefore, it is considered, that these passages are introduced, not for rhetorical illustration, or in the way of classical quotation, but are made the basis of grave and important reasonings, which embody some of the most important doctrines of the Christian revela- tion, and of important social duties and points of Chris- tian order and decorum ; it would be to charge the writers of the New Testament with the grossest absurdity, may, with even culpable and unworthy trifling, to suppose them to argue from the history of the fall as a narrative, when they knew it to be an allegory. And if we are, therefore, compelled to allow that it was understood as a real history by our Lord and his inspired apostles, those speculations of modern critics, which convert it into a parable, stand branded with their true character of infidel and semi-infidel temerity. 4. The effect of the sin or lapse of Adam, was to bring him under the wrath of God; to render him liable to pain, disease, and death; to deprive him of primeval ho- finess; to separate him from communion with God, and that spiritual life which was before imparted by God, and on which his holiness alone depended, from the loss of which a total moral disorder and depravation of his soul resulted; and finally to render him liable to everlasting , misery. (See ADAM, and ORiGINAL SIN.) Infidels, it is true, have treated the account of the fall and its effects with contempt, and considered the whole as absurd ; but their objections to the manner have been ably answered by a variety of authors; and as to the effects, one would hardly think any body could deny. 5. For that man is a fallen creature, is evident, if we consider his misery as an inhabitant of the natural world; the disorders of the globe we inhabit, and the dreadfu. scourges with which it is visited; the deplorable and shocking circumstances of our birth; the painful and dangerous travail of women; our natural uncleanliness, helplessness, ignorance, and nakedness; the gross dark- ness in which we naturally are, both with respect to God and a future state ; the general rebellion of the brute creation against us; the various poisons that lurk in the animal, vegetable, and mineral world, ready to destroy us; the heavy curse of toil and sweat to which we are: liable; the innumerable calamities of life, and the pangs of death. Again, it is evident, if we consider him cs a citizen of the moral world,—his commission of sin, his omission of duty, the triumph of sensual appetites over his intellectual faculties, the corruption of the powers. that constitute a good head, the understanding, imagina. " tion, memory, and reason ; the depravity of the powers which form a good heart, the will, conscience, and af. ſections; his manifest alienation from God; his amazing disregard even of his nearest relatives ; his unaccounta- ble unconcern about himself; his detestable tempers; the general outbreaking of human corruption in all individu- als; the universal overflowing of it in all nations. Some striking proofs of this depravity may be seen in the general propensity of mankind to vain, irrational, or cruel diver- sions; in the universality of the most ridiculous, impi- ous, inhuman, and diabolical sins; in the aggravating circumstances attending the display of this corruption; in the many ineffectual endeavors to stem its torrent; in the obstinate resistance it makes to divine grace in the unconverted; the amazing struggles of good men with it; the testimony of the heathens concerning it; and the preposterous conceit which the unconverted have of their own goodness. (See DePRAviTY, HUMAN,) Holden on the Fall of Man ; Fletcher's Appeal to Matters of Fact; Berry Street Lectures, vol. i. 180, 189; South's Sermons, vol. i. 124, 150; Bates's Harmony of Div. Att., p. 98; Boston's Fourfold State, part i. ; Divight's Theology.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. FALSEHOOD; untruth, deceit. (See LYING...) FALSE CHRISTS. (See Messiah.) - FAME, sometimes signifies common talk; public re- port; (Gen. 45: 16.) but ordinarily it means a widely- spread report of one's excellence and of glorious deeds. Zeph. 3:19. (See REPUTATION.)—Brown. - FAMILIARS OF THE INQUISITION ; persons who assist in apprehending such as are accused, and carrying them to prison. They are assistants to the inquisitor, and called familiars, because they belong to his family. . In some provinces of Italy, they are called cross-bearers; and in others, the scholars of St. Peter the Martyr; and wear a cross before them on the outside garment. They are properly bailiffs of the Inquisition; and the vile office is esteemed so honorable, that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have been ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this surprising, when it is considered that Innocent III. granted very large indulgences and privileges to these familiars; and that the same plenary indulgence is grant- ed by the pope to every single exercise of this office, as was granted by the Lateran council to those who succored the Holy Land. When several persons are to be taken up at the same time, these ſamiliars are commanded to order matters that they may know nothing of one ano- ther's being apprehended; and it is related, that a father and his three sons and three daughters, who lived together in the same house, were carried prisoners to the Inquisi- tion, without knowing any thing of one another's beng there till seven years afterwards, when they that were alive were released by an act of faith. (See article, Act of FAITH.)—Hend. Bºuch. - FAMILIAR SPIRITS. (See Divination.) FAMILY PRAYER. (See PRAYER.) . - FAMILY OF LOVE, or FAMILists. (See Love.) FAMINE. Scripture records several famines in Pa- lestine, and the neighboring countries, Gen. 12: 10. 26: 1. The most remarkable one was that of seven years in Egypt, while Joseph was governor. It was distinguished for continuance, extent, and severity ; , particularly, as Egypt is one of the countries least subjected to such a calamity, by reason of its general fertility. (See Prof Robinson's Bibl. Repository, for Oct. 1832.) FAR F. A. R. [ 527 J Famine is sometimes a natural effect, as when the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, or rains do not fall in Judea, at the customary seasons, spring and autumn; or, when caterpillars, locusts, or other insects destroy the fruits. The prophet Joel notices these last causes of famine. He compares locusts to a numerous and terrible army ravaging the land, Joel 1. Famine was sometimes an effect of God's anger, 2 Kings 8: 1,2. The prophets fre- quently threaten Israel with the sword of famine, or with ºwar and famine, evils that generally go together. Amos º threatens another sort of famine : “I will send a famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord.”—Calmet. FAN ; an instrument used in the East for winnowing corn. Fans are of two kinds; one having teeth, with which they throw up the corn to the wind, that the chaff may be blown away; the other is formed to produce wind when the air is calm, Isa. 30: 24. An allusion to this in- strument is found in Matt. 3: 12. to illustrate our Lord's discriminating character as a preacher and as a judge.— Calmet. - - FANATICS; enthusiasts, who combine the malign emotions with the fictitious fervors of the imagination, especially those who pretend to revelation and inspiration. The ancients called those fanatici who passed their time in temples (fana,) and being often seized with a kind of en- thusiasm, as if inspired by the divinity, burst into wild and antic gestures, cutting and slashing their arms with knives, shaking the head, &c. Hence the term was ap- plied to the Quakers, &c. at their first rise, and is now an epithet given to modern false prophets, and enthusiasts; but unjustly to those persons who possess zeal and fervency of devotion, united to Christian benevolence. (See “Fa- naticism,” by the Author of the Natural History of Enthusi- asm.)—Hend. Buck. - FANINUS; a learned Italian of the twelfth century, who embraced the reformed religion, as taught by Peter de Bruis, and Arnold of Brescia. When first apprehend- ed, he was so wrought upon by the persuasions of his friends and family, as to gain his release from prison by a recantation. But the bitter reproaches of conscience he soon found more intolerable than the chains of a prison. He returned from his temporary apostasy to a more zea- lous avowal and defence.of the truths of the reformation, and was again imprisoned. He was offered liberty and life as before, but refused. Being asked why he would persist in a course which would leave his wife and chil- dren without a protector, he replied, “I shall not leave them in distress. I have recommended them to the care of an excellent trustee.”—“What trustee ?”—“Jesus Christ . I think I could not commit them to the care of a better.” On the way to execution, being reproached by his enemies for his cheerfulness, when Christ was exceed- ing sorrowful at the approach of death, he answered, “Christ sustained all manner of pangs and conflicts with death and hell on our account; and by his sufferings freed those who really believe in Him from the fear of them.” He was then strangled, his body burnt, and his ashes scattered to the wind.—Foz. - FAR. God is far from the wicked ; he has no friend- ship with them, is perpetually angry with, and is averse to deliver them, Prov. 15:29. He is far from their reins; he is not seriously and affectionately thought of, esteem- ed, loved, or desired by them, Jer. 12:2. He seems far from his own people when he appears angry with them, hides the comforting views of his countenance, and con- tinues to deny them assistance or relief, Ps. 22: 1. 10:1. He removes our transgressions far from us when he fully and finally forgives them, that they can never come into iudgment against us, Ps. 103: 12. He set the Jewish temple far from them when he permitted the Chaldeans to carry them captives into Babylon, a_place about six hundred miles east of Jerusalem, Ezek. 7:20–Brown. FAREL, º This learned minister of the Protestant church, and most intrepid reformer, was born in Dauphiny, in France, in 1489. He studied at Paris with great success, and was for some time teacher in the college of cardinal Le Moine. He was invited to preach by Briconnet, bishop of Meaux, in 1521, but in 1523 per: secution obliged him to seek his safety out of France. He retired to Strasburg, where Bucer and Capito wel- comed him as a brother; as he was afterwards at Zurich by Zuinglius, at Berne by Haller, and at Basil by Oeco- lampadius. He was advised to carry the reformed reli- gion into Montbellecard, and succeeded most happily, the duke of Wittenberg giving him his support. He was a man of the most lively zeal, which sometimes led him to excess, and provoked Erasmus against him. In 1528, he was successful in the city of Aigle and the bailiwick of Morat, and also was the means of establishing the re- formed religion in Neufchatel in 1530. He was sent as a deputy to the synod of the Waldenses, held in the valley of Angrogne. Hence he went to Geneva and labored with Wiret, but was ſorced to retire till 1534, when he was recalled by the inhabitants who had then renounced popery. He was the great means of fixing Calvin in this city. Both, however, were banished in 1538, and after struggling with a thousand difficulties and dangers, Farel returned to Neufchatel, and resumed his pastoral labors. Here he continued till his death, Sept. 13, 1565, having survived Calvin about one year. He was a man of in- vincible courage, great piety, learning, innocence of life, and unassuming modesty. He was not so much a writer as a preacher; swords were drawn and bells rung while he was preaching, but in vain; and such was his ardor and force of expression, that “he seemed rather to thun- der than to speak.” His prayers also were wonderſul; his heart seemed to lift the heart of his hearers to heaven. —Middleton, vol. ii. 97. . . FARELISTS; a name given by the Papists to the Re- formed, on account of their attachment to Farel. 2 (See FAREL. - FARMER, (Rev. Hugh) a learned and eminently use- ful minister of the Independent denomination, was born in 1714, near Shrewsbury. His ancestors, who were natives of North Wales, were held in high estimation for their religion and virtue. He entered upon his academic.l studies, under the superintendence of the celebrated Dr. Philip Doddridge. He was one of the doctor's first pu- pils; and gained his entire esteem and approbation. On leaving Northampton, he became assistant to Mr. David Some. His services, however, proving acceptable to the dissenters in the neighborhood of Walthamstow, a place of worship was soon built, and a congregation assembled, which rapidly increased. For many years Mr. Farmer labored at Walthamstow, with increasing popularity; many of the more opulent dissenters either took houses or lodgings in the neighbor- hood, for the purpose of attending on his ministry; so that it was soon found necessary to enlarge the meeting-house in which he preached. Most of this time he occupied both parts of the day; but, on being joined by a suitable col- league, he gave up the afternoon service. As Mr. Farmer declined in years, he gradually relinquished his engage- ments as a preacher. In 1772 he resigned the afternoon lec- ture at Salters' Hall, and eight years after, he gave up the Tuesday morning sermon; but he did not leave his church at Walthamstow till a few years later, when he gave up pulpit exercises entirely. He was still in full possession of his mental faculties, and his powers of address had not failed him; he, however, thought some ministers continued too long to exercise their public functions; and through excessive delicacy, he was so unnecessarily anxious to avoid this fault, that he fell into the opposite error. After his retirement from his public labors, he usually spent part of his winters at Bath, from the waters of which he had experienced great benefit. As Mr. Farmer lived for years at a small expense, being never married, and received considerable legacies from some of his deceased friends, as well as liberal supplies from his congregation, it need not excite wonder, that his circumstances were very easy, es- pecially in the latter part of his life. He died on the 5th of February, 1787, aged 72, manifesting to all around his deep humility, lively faith, and animated hope of a bless- ed immortality. - - Mr. Farmer was the author of several works, in which he displayed much learning and critical sagacity, particu- larly his “Dissertation on Miracles;” “An Inquiry into the Nature and Design of Christ's Temptation in the Wilderness;” and “An Essay on the Demoniacs of th F A S FAT [ 528 ) New Testament,” in which he endeavored to prove that these were not cases of real possession, but of persons afflicted with disorders usually attributed to such influ- ence. This publication was answered by the late Mr. Fell, tone of the tutors of Homerton academy; and a contro- versy ensued, in which much acrimony of temper was discovered on both sides. Mr. Farmer was rather of a high spirit and hasty temper; but abating these defects, he was a most estimable man. (See Memoirs of his Life and Writings, by Michael Dodson, Esq.)—Jones' Chris. Biog. #ARNOVIANs; a sect of Socinians, so called from Stanislaus Farnovius, who separated from the other Uni- tarians in the year 1568. He asserted that Christ had been engendered or produced out of nothing by the Su- preme Being, before the creation of this terrestrial globe, and warned his disciples against paying religious worship to the Divine Spirit. This sect did not last long; for hav- ing lost their chief, who died in 1615, it was scattered, and reduced to nothing.—Hend. Buck, - FARTHING ; a piece of brass money used by the Ro- mans. Our translators give this English to both Assa- RION and QUADRANs; but these were different; the assari- on was the tenth part of a Roman penny, or about three farthings sterling, being little more than one cent, Matt. 10: 29. The quadrans was equal to two mites, and so is about the fifth part of an English farthing, or half a mill, Mark 12:42.-Bromm. & FASHION. A pattern or form, Ex. 16: 30. To fash- ion a thing is to give it being or form, Job 10: 8. Ex. 32: 11. To fashion one's self according to former lusts, is to live under their power, and to act according to their sin- ful inclinations and motions, 1 Pet. 1: 14.—Bromwn. FASTING ; abstinence from food. Religious fasting consists, 1. “In abstinence from every animal indulgence, and from food, as far as health and circumstances will admit.—2. In the humble confession of our sins to God, with contrition or sorrow for them.—3. An earnest depre- cation of God's displeasure, and humble supplication that he would avert his judgments.—4. An intercession with God for such spiritual and temporal blessings upon our- selves and others as are needful.” It does not appear that our Savior instituted any particular fast, but left it op- tional. Any state of calamity and sorrow, however, natu- rally suggests this. - . 2. The propriety of it may appear, 1. From many ex- amples .# in Scripture.—2. By plain and undemi- able inferences from Scripture, Matt. 6: 16. 3. From divine commands given on some oecasions, though there are no commands which prescribe it as a constant duty.—4. It may be argued from its utility. The end or uses of it are these, 1. A natural expression of our sorrow.—2. A help to devotional exercises.—3. I(eeping the body in subjection.—4. It may be rendered subservient to charity. 3. How far or how long a person should abstain from food, depends on circumstances. The great end (, be kept in view is, humiliation for, and abstinence fom sin. “If,” says Marshall, “abstinence divert our minds, by reason of a gnawing appetite, then you had better eat sparingly, as Daniel in his greatest fast.” Dan. 10: 2, 3. They, however, who in times of public distress, when the judgments of God are in the earth, and when his providence seems to Čall for humiliation, will not relin- quish any of their sensual enjoyments, nor deny them- selves in the least, cannot be justified; since good men in all ages, more or less, have humbled themselves on such occasions; and reason, as well as Scripture, evi- dently prove it to be our duty. 4. Although the first Christians, says Dr. Neander, did not by any means retire from the business of life, yet they were accustomed to devote many separate days en- tirely to examining their own hearts, and pouring them out before God, while they dedicated their life anew to him with uninterrupted prayers, in order that they might again return to their ordinary occupations with a renovated spirit of zeal and seriousness, and with renewed powers of sanc- tification. These days of holy devotion, days of prayer and penitence, which individual Christians appointed for themselves, according to their individual necessities, were often a kind of fast-days. In order that their sensual $ - . . . . . . . feelings might less distract and impede the occupation of their heart with its holy contemplations, they were ac- customed on these days to limit their corporeal wants more than usual, or to fast entirely. In the consideration of this, we must not overlook the peculiar nature of that hot climate in which Christianity was first promulgated. That which was spared by their abstinence on these days was applied to the support of the poorer brethren. Matt. 9: 15. 1 Cor. 7: 5. Bennet's Christ. Orat., vol. ii. pp. 18, 25; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 39; Simpson's Essay on Fast-, ing ; Marshall on Sanc. pp. 273, 274.—(See Roga.TION; LENT.)—Hend. Buck ; Watson. . . . FAT. God forbade the Hebrews to eat the fat of beasts offered in sacrifice: “All the fat is the Lord's. It shall be a perpetual statute for your generations, throughout all your dwellings, that ye eat neither fat nor blood,” Lev. 3:17. In the Hebrew style, fat signifies not only that of beasts, but also the richer or prime part of other things: “He should have fed them with the finest” (in Hebrew, the fat) “of the wheat.” Fat denotes abundance of good things: “I will satiate the souls of the priests with fat- ness,” Jer. 31: 14. “My soul shall be satisfied with mar- row and fatness,” Psalm 63: 5. The fat of the earth im- plies its fruitfulness: “God give thee of the dew of hea- ven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine,” Gen. 27:28.- Watson. - . - FATE, (fatum) denotes an inevitable necessity depend- ing upon a superior cause. The word is formed a %. “from speaking,” and primarily implies the same with effatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced by God, or a fix- ed sentence whereby the Deity has prescribed the order of things, and allotted to every person what shall befall him. The Greeks called it eimarmene, as it were a chain or me- cessary series of things indissolubly linked together. (See PROvIDENCE ; NEcessity.)—Hend. Buck. FATHER. This word, besides its common accepta- tion, is taken in Scripture for grandfather, great-grand- father, or the founder of a family, how remote soever. So the Jews in our Savior's time called Abraham; Isaac, and Jacob their fathers. Jesus Christ is called the Son of David, though David was many generations distant from him. By father is likewise understood the institutor, teacher, or prime example of a certain profession. Jabal “was father of such as dwell in tents, and such as have cattle.” Jubal “was father of all such as handle the harp and organ,” or flute, &c. Gen. 4: 20, 21. On a some- what similar principle, the devil is called the father of the wicked, and the father of lies, John 8: 44. He deceived Eve and Adam ; he introduced sin and falsehood; he in- spires his followers with his spirit and sentiments. On a like principle, Abraham is the father of the faithful, the father of the circumcision. He is called also the “father of many nations,” because many people sprung from him; as the Jews, Ishmaelites, Arabs, &c. (See ADOPTION, ABBA.)—Watson. FATHERS; a term of honor applied to the first and most eminent writers of the Christian church. Those of the first century are called apostolical fathers; those of the first three centuries, and till the council of Nice, Ante- Nicene; and those later than that council, Post-Nicene. Learned men are not unanimous concerning the degree of esteem which is due to these ancient fathers. Some represent them as the most excellent guides, whilst others place them in the very lowest rank of moral writers, and treat their precepts and decisions as perfectly insipid, and, in many respects, pernicious. It appears, however, incon- testable, that, in the writings of the primitive fathers, are many sublime sentiments, judicious thoughts, and several things well adapted to form a religious temper, and to excite pious and virtuous affections. At the same time, it must be confessed, that, after the earliest age, they abound still more with precepts of an excessive and unreasonable austerity, with stoical and academical dogmas, with vague and indeterminate notions, and, what is still worse, with decisions absolutely false, and in evident opposition to the commands of Christ. Though the judgment of antiquity in some disputable points may certainly be useful, yet we ought never to consider the writings of the fathers as of equal authority with the Scriptures. In many cases they may be deemed competent witnesses, but we must not - *. : • *. * . . . . . . E. º' * , . . . ; confide in theißdict as judges. As biblical critics they are often fanciful and injudicious, and their principal value consists in this, that the succession of their writings enables us to prove the existence and authenticity of the sacred books, up to the age of the apostles. The following is a list of the entire fathers: Contempo- raries of the apostles, Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Her- mas, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Papias, A. D. 116; Justin Martyr, 140, Dionysius of Corinth, 170; Tatian, 172; Hegesippus, 173; Melito, 177; Irenaeus, 178; Athenago- ras, 1783. Miltiades, 180; Theophilus, 181; Clement of Alexandria, 194; Tertullian, 200; Minutius Felix, 210; Ammonius, 220; Origen, 230; Firmilian, 233; Diony- sius of Alexandria, 247; Cyprian, 248; Novatus, or No- vatian, 251; Arnobius, 306; Lactantius, 306; Alexander of Alexandria, 313; Eusebius, 315; Athanasius, 326; Cyril of Jerusalem, 348; Hilary, 354; Epiphanius, 368; Basil, 370; Gregory of Nazianzen, 370; Gregory of Nyssa, 370; Optatus, 370; Ambrose, 374; Philaster, 380; Jerome, 392; Theodore of Mopsuestia, 394 ; Ruš. finus, 397; Augustine, 398; Chrysostom, 398; Sulpitius Severus, 401; Cyril of Alexandria, 412; Theodoret, 423; and Gennadius, 494. Jortin's Works, vol. vii. chap. 2.; Kett's Serm. at Bamp- ton Lecture, ser, 1 ; Warburton's Julian ; Simpson's Strictures on Religious Opinions, latter end; Daillè's Use of the Fa- thers, p.167; Lan's Theory; Dr. Clarke's Vien, of the Succes- sion of Sacred Literature, p. 312.-Watson ; Hend. Buck. FATHOM; a measure of six feet length. Our sailors have three kinds of fathoms: that of war-ships is six feet; that of merchant-ships is five and a half; and that of fly- boats and fishing-vessels, it is said, is five feet, Acts 27: 28.-Brown. - - FAULT; a slight defect or crime which subjects a per- son to blame, but not to punishment; a deviation from, or transgression ef a rule in some trifling circumstance. FAVOR OF GOD. (See GRACE.) FAWCETT, (John, D. D.) was born at Lidget Green, near Bradford, in Yorkshire, Jan. 6th, 1739. Having been early initiated in the common branches of learning, he soon manifested a fondness for reading, eagerly de- vouring whatever came in his way. Soon after his fa- ther's death, at the age of twelve, he was put apprentice to a person in Bradford. The celebrated George Whitefield was at this time in the zenith of his popularity, and young Fawcett had the opportunity of hearing him preach, which made an impression on his mind that was never oblitera- ted. At the age of nineteen, he was baptized on a person- al profession of his faith, March 11th, 1758, and became a member of the Baptist church, in Bradford. He was ordained over a church at Wainsgate, in Feb- ruary, 1764. Here a field of usefulness presented itself, and he made many acquaintances with persons who have since distinguished themselves in the religious world; among whom were Mr. Wenn, of Huddersfield; the late Henry Foster, of Clerkenwell; John Thornton, Esq. of Clapham; Dan Taylor, of Mile End, &c. &c. In 1772, he visited London, to supply for Dr. Gill, who then, through age and infirmities, was incapacitated for public preaching. He continued in London about two months, and preached fifty-eight times. The doctor dying soon afterwards, Mr. Fawcett was invited to return to London, with a view to a permanent settlement; but though his income from the church at Wainsgate was only 25l. per annum, he resisted the tempting offer, and contin- ued with his flock. To help out his scanty pittance of in- come, however, he now began to take pupils; and in a course of time succeeded in raising a very respectable seminary. Numbers of young ministers had recourse to him for the purpose of improving their education, among whom were the late Mr. Ward, of Serampore, and Mr. Sutcliff, of Olney. In 1774, Mr. Fawcett published ** The Sick Man's Friend; or, Views of Death and Eternity rea- lized;" occasioned by an attack of the stone, which brought him to the brink of the grave. On his recovery from this illness, he removed his residence from Wainsgate to Brearley Hall, a much preferable situation for his academy. The increase of the congregation at Wainsgate also led to the erection of a newand more suitable place of worship at 'Hebden Bridge, in 17. - 7 t 529 F E A Mr. Fawcett had a talent for poetry. In 1792, he pub . lished a small volume of “Hymns adapted to Public Wor. ship and Private Devotion.” In 1788, he published, “An Essay on Anger,” an invaluable little volume. George III. on being presented with a copy, was so much gratified with its contents, that he made the amiable author an offer of serving him in any way he might point out. Mr. Fawcett at the time modestly declined availing himself of the royal munificence; but a most distressing occur- rence some time afterwards imposed upon him the painful task of petitioning for the life of a youth, the son of -one of his most intimate friends; who, in an unguarded hour, had cömmitted a forgery, for which he was tried and con- demned by the laws of his country. The sovereign re- ceived the petition, recollected his offer, and graciously. extended pardon to the unhappy youth. Mr. Fawcett afterwards published several other valu- able works. And it deserves recording, that most of them were issued from a small printing-office, which he had established in his own house; so that, as occasion served, he was alternately the author, the printer, and the binder, of his literary productions. But the greatest of his undertakings was the “Devotional Family Bible,” which he commenced in the month of November, 1807, and com- pleted in about four years; the work forming two large quarto volumes. He died the 25th July, 1817. Dr. Fawcett was, in a considerable degree, like his brethren, Booth, M*Lean, and Fuller, self-taught.—He - could read the sacred writings in their original languages, and criticise the force of a Greek or Hebrew term ; but beyond this, he did not aspire. As a Christian minister, it is scarcely possible to speak of him beyond his merits. His doctrinal sentiments were those of moderate Calvin- ism; equally free from a tendency to foster pharisaic pride, and to encourage Antinomian licentiousness. And if, as Cicero tells us, “true glory consists in doing what deserves to be written, and in writing what deserves to be read,” this honor is due to the character of John Faw- cett.—Jones' Chris. Biog. FEAR, is that uneasiness of mind which arises from an apprehension of danger, attended with a desire of avoid- ing it. “Fear,” says Dr. Watts, “shows itself by pale- ness of the cheek, sinking of the spirits, trembling of the limbs, hurry and confusion of the mind and thoughts, agonies of nature, and fainting. Many a person has died with fear. Sometimes it rouses all nature to exert itself in speedy flight, or other methods to avoid the approaching evil; sudden terror has performed some almost incredibles of this kind.” - Fear is of different kinds: 1. There is an idolatrous and superstitious fear, which is called deisidaimonia, a fear of demons, which the city of Athens was greatly addicted to. “I perceive,” says the apostle Paul, “that in all things ye are too superstitious,” or given to the fear and wºrship of false deities. 2. There is an external fear of God, an out-. ward show and profession of it, which is taught by the precepts of men; as in the men of Samaria, who pretend- ed to fear the Lord, as the priest instructed them, and yet served their own gods; and such an external fear of God, Job's friends supposed was all that he had, and that even he had cast that off. 3. There is an hypocritical fear, when men make a profession of religion; but only serve him for some sinister end and selfish view, which Satan insinuated was Job’s case. “Doth Job fear God for nought º’’. Job 1:9. 4. There is a servile fear which they possess who serve God from fear of punishment, and not from love to him. 5. There is a filial fear, such as that of a son to his father. 2 Cor. 7: 1. Fear is sinful when—1. It proceeds from unbelief or distrust of God. 2. When it ascribes more to the creature than is due ; or when we fear our enemies without consid- ering they are under God. 3. When we fear that in God that is not in him, or that he will break his promise, &c. 4. When our fear is immoderate, so as to distract us in our duty. (See next article.) Hend. Buck. - , FEAR OF GOD, is that holy disposition or gracious habit formed in the soul by the Holy Spirit, whereby-we are inclined to obey all God's commands; and evidences itself—1. By a dread of his displeasure. 2. Desire of his favor, 3. Regard for his excellencies. 4. Submission to F E A | 530 | his will. 5. Gratitude for his benefits. 6. Sincerity in his worship, 7. Conscientious obedience to his commands, Prov. 8: 13. Job 28:28. Bates's Works, page 913; Gill's Body of Divinity; Dwight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. ſ'EAR OF DEATH. (See DEATH.) FEARS. (See Doubts.) . FEARFUL. The fearful who shall have their portion in hell, are such as, being destitute of a holy awe of God, have such a slavish fear of him, that they will not dare to come boldly to a throne of grace, and receive his Son and the blessings of the new covenant in him; or those who fear man more than God, Rev. 21:8. Matt. 10; 28.-Brown. FEAST, in a religious sense, is a ceremony of feasting and thanksgiving. - - - The principal feasts of the Jews were the feasts of trum- pets, of expiation, of tabernacles, of the dedication, of the passover, of Pentecost, and that of purification. Feasts, and the ceremonies thereof, have made great part of the religion of almost all nations and sects; hence the Greeks, the Romans, Mahometans, and Christians, have not been without them. Feasts, in the established churches of Christendom, are innovations upon the simplicity of the gospel, which ordains but one Christian feast, viz. the Lord's Supper. They are either immovable or movable. Immovable feasts are those constantly celebrated on the same day of the year. The principal of these are Christmas-day, Cir- cumcision, Epiphany, Candlemas, or Purification ; Lady- day or the Annunciation, called also the Incarnation and Conception; All Saints and All Souls; besides the days of the several apostles, as St. Thomas, St. Paul. Mova- ble feasts are those which are not confined to the same day of the year. Of these the principal is Easter, which gives law to all the rest, all of them following and keep- ing their proper distances from it. Such are Palm Sun- day, Good Friday, Ash Wednesday, Sexagesima, Ascen- sion day, Pentecost, and Trinity Sunday. Besides these feasts, which are general, and enjoined by the church, there are others local and occasional, en- joined by the magistrate, or voluntarily set on foot by the people; such are the days of thanksgiving for delivery from war, plagues, &c. Such also are the vigils or wakes in commemoration of the dedication of pºrticular churches. The prodigious increase of feast-days in the Christian church commenced towards the close of the fourth centus ry, occasioned by the discovery that was made of the re- mains of martyrs, and other holy men, for the commemo- rañon of whom they were established These, instead of being set apart for pious exercises, were abused, in indo- lence, voluptuousness, and criminal practices. Many of them were instituted on a pagan model, and perverted to similar purposes. (See Holy DAY.)—Hend. Buck. FEAST OF ASSES. This was a festival in the Ro- mish church, and was celebrated at Beauvais. They • chose a young woman, the handsomest in the town; made her ride on an ass richly harnessed, and placed in her arms a pretty infant. In this state, followed by the bishop and clergy, she marched in procession from the cathedral to the church of St. Stephen ; entered into the sanctuary, placed herself near the altar, and then celebrated mass; not forgetting to explaim the fine qualities of the animal, and exhorting him to make a devout genuflexion, with a variety of other fooleries.—Hend. Buck. FEASTS OF LOVE. (See AGAP je.) FEATLY, (DANIEL, D.D.) alearned divine of the seven- teenth century, was born at Charlton, upon Otmore, March, 1582. While fellow of Corpus Christi college, where he re- ceived his education, his admirable method of preaching, his skill in disputation, and other rare accomplishments, were such, that Sir Thomas Edmunds, ambassador of king James to France, chose him as his chaplain. There he spent three years, and did great honor to the English nation and the Protestant cause. His most learned papal anta- gonists gave him the titles of acutissimus and acerrimus. After his return, he became successively rector of Northill in Cornwall, of Lambeth in Surrey, and of All-hallows in London. This last he soon changed for Acton in Mid- dlesex, and then became prevost of Chelsea college. In 1626, he published his Ancilla Pietatis, or “The Hand- maid to Private Devotion,” and soon after, “The Practice of Extraordinary Devotion,” and from that time devoted himself to authorship and disputation, till the civil war in 1642. He was attached to the king's party, and in conse- quence narrowly escaped from the fury of the parliament soldiers who sought his destruction. - In 1643, he was appointed one of the assembly of di- vines, and was a witness against archbishop Laud. Dr. Heylin has said of him, that he always was a Calvinist in his heart, but he never showed it openly till then. He was, however, a great opposer of the covenant, and a letter of his to archbishop Usher on this subject, being inter- cepted, he was regarded as a traitor, and thrown into pri- son, where he remained six months, and where he chiefly composed his celebrated answer to the Jesuit's challenge, published under the name of “Roma Ruens.” Nearly at the same time he wrote his book against the Baptists, call- ed “The Dipper Dipt.” His sufferings in prison brought on the dropsy, of which he died, April 1, 1645. His will begins thus, “First, for my soul I commend it to him, whose due it is by a three-fold right: My Creator, who in- fused it into me: My Redeemer, who freely ransomed it with his dearest blood: My Sanctifier, who assisted me now in my greatest and latest assaults of temptation.” &c. He was the author of nearly forty works, chiefly controversial,—Middleton, vol. iii. 166. FEED, is a metaphor taken from flocks, and is express- ive both of the eating of the flock and of the care of the shepherd to provide their food. Christ feeds his people; he wisely and kindly applies to their souls his supporting, strengthening, comforting word, blood, and spirit: he rules and protects them, and will forever render them hap- py in the enjoyment of himself and his fulness. Isa. 40: 1. Rev. 7: 17. (See PASTOR and SHEPHERD.)—Brown. FEEL. Christ has a feeling of our infirmities; hav- ing endured the like, he tenderly sympathizes with us in our troubles. Heb. 4: 15. Such as keep God’s com- mandments feel no evil, meet with nothing that really tends to their hurt. Eccl. 8:3. The heathen feel after God when, amid great ignorance and mistake, they search out and perceive his existence, and some of his perfec- tions. Acts 17: 27. They are past feeling, who have their conscience so seared that they can commit the most horrid crimes without the least conviction or remorse. Eph. 4: 19.-Brown. - r FEELINGS, (RELIGIOUs,) are those sensations or emotions of the mind produced by the views we have of religion. While some enthusiasts boast of, depend on, and talk much of their feelings, there are others who are led to discard the term, and almost to abandon the idea of religious feeling; but it is evident, that however many have been misguided and deceived by their feelings, yet there is no such thing as religion without them. For in- stance, religion consists in contrition, repentance, and de- votion; now what is contrition but a feeling of sorrow for sing what is repentance but a feeling of hatred to it, with a relinquishing of it f what is devotion but a feeling of love to God and his ways? Who can separate the idea of feeling from any of these acts 2 The fact is this ; reli- gious feelings, like every thing else, have been abused ; and men, to avoid the imputation of fanaticism, have run into the opposite evil of lukewarmness, and been content with a system without feeling its energy. (See AFFEc- TION ; ENTHUSIASM ; ExPERIENCE.)—Hend. Buck. FEET. (See Foot.) FEIGN ; deceitfully to forge, (Neh. 6: 8.) to put on ap- pearance of what is not real. Feigned lips are such as utter what the heart thinks not. Ps. 17: 1. Feigned obe- dience is what proceeds not from a sincere and good will. Ps, 80: 14. Feigned nords are such as represent persons and things otherwise than as they really are, 2 Pet. 2: 3. Unfeigned is that which is sincere, true, and candid; so faith unfeigned is that whereby the heart, with sincerity and candor, receives Christ and all his fulness, as offered in the gospel. 1 Tim. 1: 5–Brown. FELICITAS; a lady of Lyons, and a Christian mar- tyr of the second century, who suffered in company with Perpetua. (See PERPETUA..) FELICITATUS, an illustrious Roman lady, who suf. fered martyrdom under the emperor Aurelius. She was of noble descent, and the most Shining virtues adorned - FEL F E N I 531 J her Christian Fº . She had seven sons, whom she educated in the most exemplary piety. They were all arrested on the charge of being Christians. Publius, the Roman governor, sought to prevail on the mother to re- linquish Christianity, hoping through her to influence her sons. She was equally inflexible to persuasion and me- nace. The sons were then tried separately, but each was found faithful to Christ, in consequence of which the whole family was ordered to execution. The mother, af. ter beholding her sons put to death with various modes of barbarity, calmly yielded her own neck to the sword of the executioner.—Foz. FELIX, (CLAUDIUs,) succeeded Cumanus in the gov- ernment of Judea, in the days of the apostles. He mar- ried Drusilla, the sister of the young king Agrippa, having prevailed on her to leave her former husband, Azizus, king of the Emessenians. (See DRUSILLA.) The character of Felix as delineated by his contemporaries, is far from reflecting any honor upon his memory. He was so oppres- sive, says Tacitus, that “he exercised the authority com- mitted to him with all manner of cruelty and lewdness.” He resided at the city of Caesarea, when Paul was brought there for safety under an escort of the Roman soldiers. Acts 23:26, 27. 24:1, &c. The apostle's address before him and his adulterous paramour, has been universally admired both for its being strikingly adapted to the characters and circumstances of his audience, and for the boldness with which this illustri- ous prisoner must have uttered it, though standing before the tribunal of a man who might have sentenced him to death. - • Mark the impression, which the apostle's reasoning made upon the conscience of the man to whom it was directed. Neither the flattering harangue of Tertullus be- fore, nor the presence of his Drusilla now, nor the con- scious dignity of his office as Caesar's viceroy, could shield him from that conviction, which, like a flash of lightning, darted the evidence of truth, with an irresistible force, on his mind. And what makes the instance before us so re- markable is, that the inward perturbation of Felix's con- science became so visible, that his courage and command of countenance . forsook him; and he, at whose tribunal others had been accustomed to tremble, now sat a trembling spectacle of conscious guilt, pallid and confused at the sight of a prisoner, armed with no other weapon than the voice of honest truth. But the voice of truth and the voice of God are one, whether they speak by the mouth of an apostle, or that of an angel; by the Sound of the gospel, or the voice of thunder. Yet so unwilling was Felix to be delivered from the tyranny of his passions, that he gave the apostle the most abrupt dismission, saying, “Go thy way for this time; when I have a convenient season, I will send for thee.” Alas! that season never arrived in a sense correspondent with the wishes of Paul, or consistent with the feelings of a man trembling under a sense of guilt, and Solicitous about his everlasting salvation. For, though he sent for the apostle afterwards, from a hope that his friends would advance a considerable sum for his release; yet he in- quired no more “concerning the faith in Christ,” and he trembled no more, his conscience returning to a deeper stu- pefaction, and the sinner to a deeper guilt—the usual conse- quence of slighting the gospel and stifling conviction, after the terrors of a temporary impression. He returned to his Drusilla, and threw away his honor and his salvation in the arms of a base woman, the very name and sight of whom, it is to be feared, he would have cause to execrate to all eternity. - Unhappy man to consult the favor of the world, at the expense of truth, justice, and religion' and to throw away in guilty supineness and unbelief the golden oppor- tunity which Providence afforded him of hearing the truth, from the mouth of the chief of the apostles. See De Courcy's Christ Crucified; Atterbury's Sermons; Saurin's Ser- º6)??.S. & Felix was recalled to Rome in the year of Christ 60, and many of the Jews followed him thither to complaim of the extortion and various acts of violence by which his admi- mistration in Judea was disgraced, the consequence of all which would have been fatal to him, had not his brother Pallas interceded for him with the emperor, and by his interest rescued him from the effects of his indignation. And as to the lascivious Drusilla, we are told by Josephus, that, along with her son, the fruit of their illicit amour, she was consumed in an eruption of mount Vesuvius. Felix was succeeded in the government of Judea, by Por- tius Festus. Joseph. Antiq., b. xx. ch. 5–Jones. FELL, (John, D. D.) bishop of Oxford, an eminently learned divine, was born at Longworth, in Berks, June 23d, 1625, and graduated as master of arts in 1643. During the protectorate, he continued in obscurity; but on the restoration he obtained a stall at Chichester, whence he was preferred to a more valuable one at Christ church, and soon after became dean of that Society. In 1666, he served the office of vice-chancellor of the univer- sity, and ten years after was raised to the see of Oxford, retaining his deanery. As a prelate he was distinguished equally by his learning and munificence. Several valua- ble works from his pen are extant, among others, a Latim translation of Wood’s “History and Antiquities of Ox- ford,” in two volumes, folio; “A Life of Dr. Hammond,” published in 1660; another of Dr. Allestree; an edition of Cyprian's Works; St. Clement's two Epistles to the Corinthians, in Greek and Latin; “Artis Logicae Com- pendium;” “A Paraphrase on St. Paul's Epistles;” a new edition of the Greek Testament with notes, and a collec- tion of the various readings; and several sermons. His death took place in 1686.-Biog. Brit. ; Jones. FELLOWSHIP; joint interest, or the having one com- mon stock. The fellowship of the saints is two-fold:— 1. With God. 1 John 1: 3. 1 Cor. 1: 9. 1 Cor. 13: 14.—2. With one another. 1 John 1: 7. Fellowship with God consists in knowledge of his will. Job 22: 21. John 17: 3. Agreement in design. Amos 3: 2. Mutual affection. Rom. 8:38, 39. Enjoyment of his pre- sence. Ps. 4: 6. Conformity to his image. 1 John 2: 6. 1 John 1: 6. Participation of his felicity. 1 John 1: 3, 4. Ephes. 3:14–21. 2 Cor. 13: 14. Fellowship of the saints may be considered as a fellow- ship of duties. Rom. 12:6. 1 Cor. 12: 1. 1 Thess. 5: 17, 18. James 5: 16. Of ordinances. Heb. 10:24: Acts 2: 46. Of graces, love, joy, &c. Heb. 10: 24. Mal. 3: 16. 2 Cor. 8: 4. Of interest spiritual, and sometimes tempo ral. Rom. 12:4, 13. Heb. 13: 16. Of sufferings. Rom. 15 1, 2. Gal. 6: 1, 2. Rom. 12:15. Of eternal glory. Rev 7: 9. (See CoMMUNION.)—Hend. Buck. FELTHAM, (Owen,) a valuable writer, of whom noth, ing is known but that he was a native of Suffolk, lived many years in the earl of Thomond's family, and died about 1678. His only work is, Resolves, Divine, Political, and Moral. It has passed through thirteen editions, and its merit justifies our lamenting that Feltham wrote no more. —Davenport. FENCED CITIES; walled round about; fortified and so made strong and difficult to be taken or hurt. 2 Chron. 11: 10. Job 10: 11.—Bronwn. FENCING TABLES; the designation of a sacramen- tal rite among the Scotch Presbyterians, which takes place almost immediately before the distribution of the ele- ments, and consists in the minister's pointing out the cha- racter of those who have, and of those who have not, a right to sit down at the table. This address is followed up by the reading of several passages of Scripture, descrip- tive of the character of saints and sinners.-Hend. Buck. FENELON, (FRANCIS DE SALIGNAc DE LA MoTTE,) one º §: \ i - - t N \ of the most able of French writers and virtuous of men, was born, in 1651, at the castle of Fenelon, in Perigord; F E R F ET | 532 J studied at Cahors and Paris; and entered into holy orders at the age of twenty-four. The archbishop of Paris ap- pointed him superior of the newly-converted female Ga- tholics, and his success in this office, and the merit of his treatises on Female Education and on the Ministry of Pastors, induced Louis XIV. to send him on a mission to Poitou to convert the Protestants. This post Fenelon ac- cepted only on the express condition that force should not be employed in aid of his efforts. In 1689, he was select- ed by M. de Beauvilliers to be tutor to the duke of Bur- gundy and his younger brothers. . It was for the use of his royal pupil that he composed his Telemachus. In 1694, he was raised to the archbishopric of Cambray: He did not, however, long enjoy in peace his well-merited preferment. Having espoused the cause of Madam Guy- on, and published a work, The Maxims of the Saints, which was considered as teaching her doctrine of quie- tism, he was bitterly attacked by Bossuet, and his book was ultimately censured by the pope. Fenelon himself read his recantation in his own cathedral. The anger of Louis XIV. was still more roused against him by the ap- pearance of Telemachus, which was surreptitiously pub- lished by a servant, to whom it had been intrusted for transcription. It was looked-upon by the haughty and ambitious monarch as a covert satire upon his own mis- government and criminal love of war. Fenelon was, in consequence, kept at a distance from the court. But, though discountenanced by his own Sovereign, a just tri- bute was paid to his merit by foreigners. The lands of his diocese were exempted from pillage, and his person was treated with the utmost respect by the duke of Marl- borough, and the other generals of the allies. His conduct through life was consistent with his doc- trines and principles. Habitually cheerful and amiable, he endeavored to imitate his master, Jesus Christ. He slept little; ate little ; and allowed himself no pleasure, but what he enjoyed in the accomplishment of duties. The exercises of walking or riding were his only recrea- tions during the whole time he was archbishop of Cam- bray. When he went out, he spent his time in useful con- versation with his friends, or in benevolent visits to the people of his diocess; conversing seriously with the poor; entering their houses and admonishing, reproving, or con- soling them, as their several circumstances and characters required. He gave almost all his revenue to hospitals; clergymen whom he educated; monasteries of nuns in distress; decayed gentlemen, and persons of all ranks, who, during the time of war, were within the reach of his generosity. He died in 1715, at the age of sixty-three, leav- ing behind him an imperishable reputation, as an eloquent writer, a conscientious prelate, and an amiable, enlight- ened, and virtuous man. Calm and composed on the verge of eternity, reposing on the Savior, his only lan- guage amidst the severest sufferings was, “Not my will, but thine be done !” His productions form nine volumes in quarto. The principal of them, besides those already mentioned, are, Dialogues on Eloquence; Dialogues of the Dead ; De- monstration of the Existence of a God; and Spiritual Works,—Butler's Life of Fenelon ; Nen, Edin. Ency. ; Ency. Amer. ; Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. FERDIN ANDO ; a Protestant martyr of Seville in Spain. He was a teacher of youth, and was apprehended on the charge of instructing his pupils in the principles of the Protestant faith. He was condemned to the tor- ture and the stake. While in prison awaiting the day of execution, a monk, who had abjured the errors of popery, was his fellow-prisoner. This unhappy man, through fear of death, offered to return to the Romish communion. Ferdinando on hearing this, exerted himself to show him the guilt and danger of such a course after being enlight- ened ; and with such success that the monk solemnly re- nounced his weak intention, calmly submitted to the sen- tence of the inquisitors, and was burnt to death at the same time with his more courageous friend.—Foz, p. 135. FERRAR, (RoPERT,) bishop of St. David's, one of the sufferers in the reign of queen Mary. He received his education at Oxford, where he became a regular canon and bachelor of divinity. The duke of Somerset, lord protector in the reign of Edward VI, was his friend and patron, and employed him in carrying on the important work of reformation. . He was one of , the committee nominated to compile the English liturgy. The zeal of Ferrar, who was consecrated bishop in 1547, soon procur. ed him many enemies among the papists, and after the fall of his eminent patron, he was under a false charge committed to prison, some time before the death of the king. On the accession of Mary, he was tried on the new charge of heresy as a Protestant, degraded from his ecclesiastical functions, and, in company with Hooper, Bradford, Rogers, Saunders, and others, delivered over to the secular power for punishment. So much for the union of church and state : A little before this good bishop suffered, a young gen- tlemen who visited him, lamented the severity of the kind of death he was about to undergo. Ferrar, with all the firmness of the primitive martyrs, immediately replied, “If you see me once to stir, while I suffer the pains of burning, then give no credit to those doctrines for which I die.” By the grace of God he was enabled to make good this assertion; for so patiently he stood, says Mr. Fox, that he never moved, until he was struck down in the flames by a blow on his head. Bishop Ferrar was burned at Carmarthen, in Wales, March 30, 1555.-Mid- dleton, vol. i. 346. FERRARA, (RENATA, DUCHEss of,) famous for her virtues and attachment to the reformed church, was the daughter of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany. She was born at Blois in 1510. In 1527, she was married to Her- cules d' Este, duke of Ferrara and Modena. She is said to have been mistress of immense erudition, excelling in all parts of the mathematics, but especially in astronomy. Her husband died in 1559, and the next year she left Italy on account of her religion, and returned to France, where she was permitted to profess the Protestant faith. She re- sided at Montargis, and there gave protection to as many as were persecuted, till she was obliged to do so no longer. It was with great regret she yielded to so rigorous a re- straint; and if her courage appeared on this occasion, her charity was no less conspicuous; for during the trou- bles of France, she fed and maintained a great number of Protestants in her castle, who had fled to her for refuge. She interceded strongly for the prince of Conde, when he was imprisoned at Orleans in the time of the young king Francis ; but was afterwards displeased with him, because neither she nor her ministers approved of the Protestants taking up arms. This Christian prineess died at Montargis in 1575.—Betham. FERRET; a sort of weasel, which Moses declares to be unclean, Lev. 11:30. The Greek mugalé is composed of mus, a rat, and gale, a weasel, because this animal has something of both. The Hebrew anaca, is by some trans- lated hedge-hog, by others leech, or salamander; by Bochart, lizard.—Calmet. FERVENT; earnest, warm, burning, all in a glow. Rom. 12: 11, 2 Cor. 7: 7. 1 Pet. 4: 8, and 1:22. Col. 4: 12. James 5: 6.-Brown. FESTUS, (Portius,) succeeded Felix in the govern- ment of Judea, A. D. 60. Finding how much robbing abounded in Judea, Festus very diligently pursued the thieves ; and he also suppressed a magician, who drew the people after him into the desert. To oblige the Jews, Felix, when he resigned his government, had left Paul in bonds at Caesarea in Palestine, (Acts 24; 27.) and when Festus arrived, he was entreated by the principal Jews to condemn the apostle, or to order him up to Jerusalem; they having conspired to assassinate him in the way. Festus, however, answered, that it was not customary with the Romans to condemn any man without hearing him, and promised to hear their accusations at Caesarea. But Paul appealed to Caesar; and so secured himself from the prosecution of the Jews, and the intentions of Festus, whom they had corrupted. Festus died in Judea, A. D. 62, and Albinus succeeded him.—Calmet. FETISH ; an idol. This word, now frequently met with in the French and German languages, was first brought into use by De Brosses, in his work Du Culte des Dieuz Fetiches, (1760,) and is derived either from the Portu- guese fetisso, a block adored as an idol, or, according tº Winterbottom, from feticzeira, an enchantress. The Por FIF F i G. I 533 ] tuguese gave this name to the idols of the negroes, on the Senegal, and afterwards the word received a more ex- tensive meaning. The general signification now given to fetish seems to be an object worshipped, not represent- ing any living figure. Hence stones, arms, vessels, &c. are fetishes. The negroes of Guinea suppose a fetish to preside over every canton or district, and one also over every family, and each individual, which the individual worships on the anniversary of his birth-day. Those of the better sort have, besides this, weekly festivals, on which they kill a cock or sheep. They believe the mate- riaſ substances which they worship to be endowed with intelligence, and the power of doing them good or evil; and also that the fetishere, or priest, being of their council, is privy to all that those divinities know, and thence ac- quainted with the most secret thoughts and actions of men. The household, or family fetish, narrowly inspects the conduct of every individual in the house, and rewards or punishes each according to his deserts. The rewards consist in the multiplication of the slaves and wives of the worshipper, and the punishment in their diminution; but the most terrible punishment is death. At Cape Coast there is a public guardian fetish, supreme in power and dignity. This is a rock which projects into the sea from the bottom of the cliff, on which the castle is built. To this rock annual sacrifices are presented, and the re- sponses given through the priests are rewarded by the blinded devotees.—Hend. Buck. FETTERS; shackles or chains, for binding prisoners and madmen. With such were Joseph's feet hurt in the prison. Ps. 105: 18. The saints bind nobles with fetters of iron, when, by prayer and the exercise of the power that God gives them, they restrain them from accomplish- ing their wicked designs. Ps. 149: 8-Bronn. FEVER ; a well-known species of disease, consisting in the fermentation of the blood, accompanied with a quick pulse and excessive heat. Deut. 28: 22.—Bronn. FEUILLANTINES ; a reformed order of Cistertian monks, who went barefoot, lived only on herbs, and prac- tised astonishing austerities. Their congregation was afterwards divided into two by pope Urban VIII. in 1630, who separated the French from the Italians, and gave them two generals.-Hend. Buck. FIDELITY; faithfulness, or the conscientious discharge of those duties of a religious, personal, and relative na- ture, which we are bound to perform. (See an excellent sermon on the subject in Dr. Erskine's Sermons, vol. ii. p. 304.)—Hend. Buck. - FIELD. (See FURRows.) FIELD, (RICHARD, D. D.,) an eminent divine of the Church of England, was born at Hampstead, Hertford- shire, in 1561, and educated at Oxford. He continued seven years at Magdalen hall, where he was distinguish- ed as a great divine, a great preacher, and an acute dis- utant. He was afterwards reader of divinity at Lincoln's nn, London, and rectorof Burrowclerein Hampshire. Here he refused the offer of St. Andrew’s, in Holborn, London, a much more valuable living, that he might serve God, and pursue his studies, in a more retired situation. . In 1598, queen Elizabeth made him one of her chaplains, and he formed a warm friendship with Richard Hooker, a man of kindred spirit. In 1609, he was made dean of Gloucester, and published an enlarged edition of his cele- brated work, the Four Books of the Church. He was es- teemed a perfect oracle in this kind of learning, Divines, even of the first order, scarce ever went to him without loading themselves with questions. Fuller calls him, “ that learned divine, whose memory smelleth like a field which the Lord hath blessed.” When king James heard him preach the first time, he said, “This is a FIELD for God to dwell in.” His majesty retained so good an opi- nion of him, that he designed to raise him to the bishopric of Oxford; but God was pleased, as Mr. Wood remarks, to prefer him for a better place, for, on the twenty-first of November, 1616, he died, aged fifty-five years, leaving behind him a character equally great and amiable.—Mid- dleton, vol. ii. 374. - . . FIFTH-MONARCHY-MEN; a denomination which arose in the seventeenth century. They derived their name from maintaining that there will be a fifth universal monarchy under the personal reign of Jesus Christ upóñ. earth. This sentiment is similar to that of Origen and the Millenarians; but with this important difference in practice, that the latter were willing to wait till Christ came to assume the government, whereas the former at- tempted to take possession of it in his name. They were equally enemies to the protector and the king. Their first plan was to blow up Cromwell, at Whitehall; afterwards they plotted against his son Richard; and, soon after the restoration of Charles II, they raised an open rebellion against him. Their leader in all these attempts, was Thomas Wenner, a wine-cooper, who was also a preacher, and had a meet- ing-house in Coleman street. One Sunday morning, (January 6, 1661) having raised the passions of his hear- ers by an inflamāatory discourse, they sallied out, to the number of fifty of sixty, with appropriate standards, cry- ing out, “No King but Christ.” Some of them were weak enough to expect the King of Heaven would come down to head them. The lord mayor first drew up some of the trained bands to oppose them; and afterwards, general Monk marched his regiment into London. At first they fought with a desperate valor, and killed several ; but be- ing completely subdued, after two or three days skirmish- ing; Wenner, and about twenty others, were taken, tried, and most of them executed for high treason.— Bis Burnett's Own Times, vol. i. book ii. anno 1660; Wilson's Dissent. Churches, vol. ii. p. 427; Benedict ; Williams. FIG-TREE. Gen. 3: 7. Num. 13: 23. Matt. 7: 16. 21: 19. 24; 32. Mark 11: 13, 20, 21. 13:28. Luke 6:44. 13: - 6, 7. 21: 29. John 1: 48. James 3: 12. Rev. 6: 13. This tree was very common in Pales- tine. It becomes large, dividing into many branches, which are furnished with leaves shaped like those of the mulberry, and af. fords a friendly shade. Accordingly, we read, in the Old Testament, of Judah and Israel * dwelling, or sitting Se- curely, every man under his fig-tree, 1 Kings 4: 25. Micah 4:4. Zech. 3:10. 1 Mac. 14:12. And, in the New Testa- ment, we find Nathanael under a fig-tree, probably for the purposes of devotional retirement, John 1:49–51. Hassel- quist, in his journey from Nazareth to Tiberias, says, “We refreshed ourselves under the shade of a fig-tree, where a shepherd and his herd had their rendezvous; but without either house or hut.” The fruit which it bears is produced from the trunk and large branches, and not from the smaller shoots, as in most other trees. It al- ways precedes, the leaves, and is soft, sweet, and very nourishing. The first ripe fig is still called boccóre in the Levant, which is nearly its Hebrew name, Jer: 24; 2. Thus Dr. Shaw, in giving an account of the fruits in Bar- bary, mentions, “the black and white boccóre, or early fig,” which is produced in June, though the kermes, or kermouse, the “fig,” properly so called, which they pre- serve and make up into cakes, is rarely ripe before Au- gust.” And on Nahum 3: 12, he observes, that “the boccóres drop as soon as they are ripe, and, according to the beautiful allusion of the prophet, fall into the mouth of the eater upon being shaken.” Farther, “it frequent- ly falls out in Barbary,” says he, “ and we need not doubt of the like in this hotter climate of Judea, that, according to the quality of the preceding season, some of the more forward and vigorous trees will now and then yield a few ripe figs six weeks or more before the full season. Some- thing like this may be alluded to by the prophet Hosea, when he says, “I saw your fathers as the first ripe in the fig-tree, at her first time,’ Hosea 9:10. Such figs were reckoned a great dainty.” (See Isaiah 28; 4.) 2. The account of our Savior's denunciation against the barren fig-tree, (Matt. 21:19. Mark 11: 13,) has occasion- ed some of the boldest cavils of infidelity; and the vindi- cation of it has needlessly exercised the ingenuity of se- F I L F I N [ 534 Veral of the most learned critics and commentators. The whole difficulty arises from the circumstance of his disap- pointment in not finding fruit on the tree, when it is ex- pressly said, that “the time of figs was not yet”, While it was supposed that this expression signified, that the time for such trees to bring forth fruit was not yet come, it looked very unaccountable that Christ should reckon a tree barren, though it had leaves, and curse it as such, when he knew that the time of bearing figs was not come ; and that he should come to seek figs on this tree, when he knew that figs were not used to be ripe so soon in the year. But the expression does not signify the time of the coming forth of figs, but the time of the gathering in of ripe figs, as is plain from the parallel expressions. Matt. 21:34. Mark 12: 2. Luke 20:10. St. Mark, by saying, “For the time of figs was not yet,” does not design to give a reason for “his finding nothing but leaves;” but he gives a reason for what he said in the clause before, “He came, if haply he might find any thereon; ” and it was a good reason for our Savior’s coming and seeking figs on the tree, because the time for their being gathered was not come. St. Matthew informs us that the tree was “in the way,” that is, in the common road, and therefore, probably, no particular person’s property. Jesus was pleased to make use of this miracle to pre- figure the speedy ruin of the Jewish nation, on account of its unfruitfulness under greater advantages than any other people enjoyed at that day; and, like all the rest of his miracles, it was done with a gracious intention, namely, to alarm his countrymen, and induce them to repent. In the blasting of this barren fig-tree, the distant appearance of which was so fair and promising, he delivered one more awful lesson to a degenerate people, of whose hypocritical exterior, and flattering but delusive pretensions, it was a just and striking emblem.—Watson ; Jones ; Abbott. FIGHT. The violent and irreconcilable struggle be- tween the saints' inward grace and corruption, and their striving against the temptations of Satan, are called a war, or warfare. Rom. 7: 23, 1 Pet. 2: 11. Eph. 6: 11, 12. Both are the good fight of faith, carried on by the exercise of the grace of faith, or Christ's word and power; and in maintainance of the doctrine of faith : and it is good in respect of their cause, captain, and the manner and end of their conflict. 1 Tim. 6: 12. 2 Tim. 4: 7. Outward opposition, trouble, and distress, are likened to a fight or warfare. 2 Cor. 7: 5. Isa. 40: 2. (See BATTLE.)—Bronn. FIGURES. (See Types.) FILIAL PIETY, is the affectionate attachment of chil- dren to their parents, including in it love, reverence, obe- dience, and relief. Justly has it been observed, that these great duties are prompted equally by nature and by grati- tude, independent of the injunctions of religion; for where shall we find the person who hath received from any one benefits so great, or so many, as children from their parents 2 And it may be truly said, that if persons are undutiful to their parents, they seldom prove good to any other relation. (See article CHILD.)—Hend. Buck. FILIATION, of The Son of God. (See Son of God.) FILL. To fill up what is behind of the sufferings of Christ, is to bear the troubles assigned by him to his fol- lowers, and which are borne for his sake. Col. 1: 24. To fill up the measure of sin, is to add one iniquity to ano- ther, till the patience of God can no longer suffer them to escape unpunished. Matt. 23:32. 1 Thess. 2: 16. Satan fills the heart when he strongly inclines and emboldens it to sin. Acts. 5: 3. Sinners are filled with their own devi- ces, with their own ways, with drunkenness, and have their faces filled nith shame, when God, to punish their wicked acts and designs, brings dreadful and confounding calami- lies upon them. Prov. 1: 31. 14:14. 12:21. Ezek. 23:33. Ps. 83: 16. Christ filleth all in all : he is every where resent; is in all their churches; and their true members; e is the great substance of all the blessings of the new covenant, and of all the graces and duties of his people. Eph. 1:23.—Bromwn. * FILIOQUE, a term signifying “and from the Son,” which the Greeks accuse the Latin church of introducing into the ancient creed, relative to the procession of the Holy Spirit: the former maintaining that his procession is from the Father only. At what time this introduction took place cannot be ascertained, but Augustine has the expression, procedere ab utroque; and the synod of Toledo, in 589, declares every one to be a heretic, who does not be- lieve, a patre filioque procedere Spuritum sanctum. Every at- tempt to reconcile the two churches, with respect to this point, has proved abortive, so that it continues to be a mark of distinction between them.—Hend. Buck. FILTHY LUCRE, is gain basely and sinfully gotten; as when ministers make their benefice their great aim in their work. Tit. 1: 7, 11. 1 Pet. 5: 2–Brown. FIND, to meet with, is used sometimes for to attack, to surprise one’s enemies, to light on them suddenly, &c. so Anah, “found the Emim,” Gen. 36:24, (See EMIM.) To find favor in the sight of any one, is an expressive form of speech common in Scripture.—Calmet. - FINGER. The finger of God, denotes his power, his operation. Pharaoh’s magicians discovered the finger of God in some of the miracles of Moses, Exod. 8: 19. That legislator gave the tables written with the finger of God, to the Hebrews, Exod. 31: 18. The heavens were the work of God’s fingers, Psalm 8: 3. • . To put forth one's finger, is a bantering gesture, or an insulting gesture, Isa. 59: 8. Some take this for a menacing gesture, as Nicanor stretched out his hand against the temple, threatening to burn it, 2 Mac. 14; 33. —Hend. Buck. FINISH, means to bring to pass, to accomplish, to perfect, or to put an end to any thing. One of the evangelists re- lates that when Jesus was suspended upon the cross, and immediately prior to his giving up the ghost, “he cried with a loud voice, IT is FINISHED!” 1. The ministry which his heavenly Father had commit- ted unto him, when he sanctified him and sent him into the world to publish the glad tidings of peace to guilty men, was now fulfilled. John 17:4. 2. His awful and complicated sufferings were ended. The whole of his life had corresponded to the prophetic delineation of his character. “He was a man of Sorrows and acquainted with grief.” Isa. 53: 3. - 3. An end was now virtually put to the Levitical dis- pensation. That economy, founded in divine appoint- ment, and which had subsisted during a period of fifteen hundred years, having answered the great purposes for which it was instituted, now obtained its consummation. Col. 2: 14, 15. Eph. 2: 14, 15. Heb. 9; 10. But, 4. The work of purchasing our redemption was now finished. The justice of God obtained full satisfaction, for the dishonor which sinners had done to his violated law, so that now “God is just even in justifying the un- godly who believe in Jesus,” at whose hands he hath re- ceived ample satisfaction for all their sins. Rom. 3: 24– 26. These are some of the important things that are indi- cated in that memorable saying, “IT IS FINISHED.”—Jones. FINLEY, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) president of the college of New Jersey, was born in the county of Armagh, Ireland, in 1715, of pious parents, and was one of seven sons, who were all pious. Very early in life it pleased God to awaken and convert him. He arrived at Philadelphia, Sept. 28, 1734. He was ordained Oct. 13th by the presbytery of New Brunswick. The first part of his ministry was spent in fatiguing, itinerant labors. He contributed his efforts with Gilbert Tennent and Mr. Whitefield in promot- ing the revival of religion, which was at that period so re- markable throughout this country. His benevolent zeal sometimes brought him into trying circumstances. His exertions were greatly blessed in a number of towns in New Jersey, and he preached for six months with great ac- ceptance in Philadelphia. In June, 1744, he accepted an invitation from Nottingham, Maryland, where he continu- ed near seven years, faithfully and successfully discharging the duties of his office. Here he established an academy, which acquired great reputation. Upon the death of presi- dent Davies, of Princeton, Mr. Finley was chosen his suc- cessor. The college flourished under his care; but it en- joyed the benefit of his superintendence but a few years. He died July 17, 1766, aged 50, and was buried by the side of his friend, Gilbert Tennent. During his last sickness he was perſectly resigned to the divine will; he had a strong faith in his Savior; and he frequently expressed an earnest desire of departing, that F I R. F I R. [ 535 J he might dwell with the Lord Jesus. A short time before his death he sat up, and prayed earnestly, that God would enable him to endure patiently to the end, and keep him from dishonoring the ministry. He then said, “Blessed be God, eternal rest is at hand. Lternity is but long enough to enjoy my God. This, this has animated me in my se- verest studies; I was ashamed to take rest here, O, that I might be filled with the fulness of God!” He then ad- dressed himself to all his friends in the room, “O, that each of you may experience what, blessed be God, I do, when you come to die; may you have the pleasure in a dying hour to reflect, that with faith and patience, zeal and sincerity, you have endeavored to serve the Lord; and may each of you be impressed, as I have been, with God's word, looking upon it as substantial, and not only fearing but being unwilling to offend against it.” On being ask- ed how he felt, he replied, “Full of triumph : I triumph through Christ! Nothing clips my wings, but the thoughts of my dissolution being delayed. O, that it were to-night! My very soul thirsts for eternal rest.” When he was ask- ed, what he saw in eternity to excite such vehement desires, he said, “I see the eternal love and goodness of God; I see the fulness of the Mediator; I see the love of Jesus. O, to be dissolved, and to be with him! I long to be clothed with the complete righteousness of Christ.” Thus this excellent man died in the full assurance of salvation. º published a number of sermons and pamphlets. —Allen. FINLEY, (Robert, D. D.,) president of the university of Georgia, was born at Princeton in 1772, and graduated at Princeton college in 1787 He was the minister of Basking-Bridge, New Jersey, from June 1795 until 1817. Deeply interested in the welfare of the free blacks, he formed a plan of sending them to Africa and may be considered as the father of the Colonization society. Dec. 1816, he went to Washington, and succeeded in call- ing a meeting of gentlemen, Dec. 21, at which addresses were made by Mr. Clay and Mr. Randolph. The next week a constitution was adopted and judge Washington chosen president. On his return, Dr. Finley caused the establishment of an auxiliary society at Trenton. Being at this period chosen president of Franklin college, at Athens, Georgia, he repaired to that place in 1817, and in a few months died there, Oct. 3, 1817, aged 45, leaving a wife and nine children. He published several sermons.— Memoirs of Finley.—Allen. FIR, (Heb. berosh,) an evergreen tree, of beautiful ap- pearance, whose lofty height and dense foliage afford a spacious shelter and º &#### shade. It has a very § § strait trunk, and its §, wood is of great us; in *sº furniture, &c. The sº aſº.4% LXX have rendered it, Sºº for want of established tº principles of natural history—cypress, fir, myr- tle, juniper. The Chal- dee reads fir constantly; and, as Mr. Taylor re- marks, it is likely this ! translator should be quite as well acquainted with the subject as any foreigner. In 2 Sam. 6: 5. it is said, that “David and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all man- ner of instruments º: of fir-wood,” &c., Take the fol- lowing passage from Dr. Burney's history of music; “This species of wood, so soft in its nature and Sonorous in its effects, seems to have been preferred by the ancients, as well as the moderns, to every other kind, for the construc. tion of musical instruments, particularly the bellies of them, on which their tone chiefly depends. Those of the harp, lute, guitar, harpsichord, and violin, in present use, are constantly made of fir-wood.”—Calmet. FIRE. God, to represent to man the glory of his ma- jesty and the terrors of his justice, hath often appeared in fire, and encompassed with fire, as when he showed him. *T-Tº smºs- In self in the burning bush, and descended on mount Sihai, in the midst of flames, thunderings, and lightning; Ex. 3: 2. 19: 18, Hence fire is a symbol of the Deity, and of his just and jealous regard to his glory. “The Lord thy God is a consuming fire,” Deut. 4; 24. The Holy Ghost is compared to fire; “He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire,” Matt, 3: 11. Acts 2:3. It is the work of the Holy Spirit to enlighten, purify, and sanctify the soul; and to inflame it with love to God, and zeal for his glory. (See BAPTISM of THE Holy Ghost.) 2. The fire which came down from heaven, first upon the altar in the tabernacle, and afterwards descended anew upon the altar in the temple of Solomon, at its consecration, was there constantly fed and maintained by the priests, day and night, in the same manner as it had been in the tabernacle. At the destruction of the temple, it was ex- tinguished: and in the time of the second temple, nothing was made use of for all their burnt offerings but common fire only. 3. The word of God is compared to fire: “Is not my word like a fire?” Jer. 23:20. It is full of life and efficacy; like a fire it warms, expands, and melts, and is powerful to consume the dross, and burn up the chaff and stubble. Fire is likewise taken for the rage of persecution, dissen- sion, and division; “I am come to send fire on earth;” Luke 12:49. as if he had said, Upon my coming and publishing the gospel, there will follow, through the devil's malice and corruption of men, fearful persecution to the professors thereof, and manifold divisions in the world, whereby men will be tried, whether they will be faithful Or DOt. 4. The torments of hell are described by fire, both in the Old and New Testament. Our Savior makes use of this similitude, to represent the punishment of the damned, Mark 9:44. He likewise speaks frequently of the eternal fire prepared for the devil, his angels, and reprobate, or wicked men. Matt. 25: 41. The sting and remorse of conscience is generally thought to be the worm that will never die; and the wrath of God upon their souls and bodies, the fire that shall never go out. There are writers, however, who maintain, that by the worm is to be under- stood a living and sensible, not an allegorical and figura- tive worm; and by fire, a real elementary and material fire. Among the abettors of this opinion are Austin, Cyprian, Chrysostom, Jerome, &c.— Watson. FIRE PHILOSOPHERS. (See Theosophists.) FIRMAMENT. It is said, (Gen. 1: 7.) that God made the firmament in the midst of the waters, to separate the inferior from the superior. The word used on this occa- sion properly signifies expansion, or something expanded. This expansion is properly the atmosphere, which encom- passes the globe on all sides, and separates the water in the clouds from that on the earth:—Watson. FIRST. Our Savior required his disciples “to seek first the kingdom of God;” i.e. before all things; (Matt. 6: 33.) and Paul says, that God displayed his mercy towards him, “who was the chief [first] of sinners,” and that in him the first, “he showed forth all long-suffering, for a pattern,” &c. 1 Tim. 1: 15, 16.—Calmet. FIRST-BORN. (See BIRTHRIGHT.) FIRST FRUITS, among the Hebrews were oblations of part of the fruits of the harvest, consecrated to God as an acknowledgment of his sovereign dominion. In this sense of special consecration to God, it is, that the regene- rate are called “a kind of first fruits of his creatures,” James 1: 18. It may mean also that the first Christians were converted as an earnest of the future conversion of the whole world. There was another sort of first fruits which was paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family, a portion of it was set apart, and given to the priest or Levite who dwelt in the place. If there were no priest or Levite there, it was cast into the oven, and consumed by the fire. These offerings made a conside- rable part of the revenues of the priesthood. Lev. 23: Exod. 22: 29. Chron. 23:19. Num. 15: 19, 20. The first fruits of the Spirit are such communications of his grace on earth, as fully assure us of the full enjoy- ment of God in heaven, Rom. 8:23. Christ is called the first fruits of them that slept; for as the first fruits were earnests to the Jews of the succeeding harvest, so Christ F 1 S F L A [ 536 J is the first fruits of the resurrection, or the earnest of a future resurrection; that as he rose, so shall believers also rise to happiness and life, 1 Cor. 15:20. First fruits are mentioned in ancient writers as one part of the church revenue. - - - First fruits, in the church of England, are the profits of every spiritual benefice for the first year, according to the valuation thereof in the king's book.—Hend. Buck. FISH, , (Heb. dag, Greek icthus, Matt. 7: 10. 17:27. Luke 5: 6. John 21 6 & 11) occurs very frequently, This appears to be the general name in Scripture of aquatic animals. Boothroyd, in the note upon Num. 11: 4. says, “I am inclined to think that the word here ren- dered flesh, denotes only the flesh of fish, as it certainly does in Lev. 11:11; and indeed the next verse seems to support this explication: “We remember how freely we ate fish.’ It was then, particularly, the flesh of fish, for which they longed, which was more relishing than either the beef or mutton of those regions, which, unless when young, is dry and unpalatable. Of the great abundance and deliciousness of the fish of Egypt, all authors, ancient and modern, are agreed.” Hence we may see how dis- tressing to the Egyptians was the infliction which turned the waters of the river into blood, and occasioned the death of the fish, Exod. 7: 18–21. Their sacred stream became so polluted as to be unfit for drink, for bathing, and for other uses of water to which they were supersti- tiously devoted, and themselves obliged to nauseate what was the usual food of the common people, and held sacred by the priests, Exod. 2: 5. 7: 15. 8:20.—Watson. FISK, (PLINY,) missionary to Palestine, was born at Shelburne, Mass., June 24, 1792, became pious at 16, and was graduated in 1814 at Middlebury college. Such was his poverty that for two years he lived on bread and milk, carried his corn to mill on his shoulders, and a good woman baked his loaf for him. He studied theology at Andover, was employed as an agent for the American Board of foreign missions one year, and then sailed for Palestine with Mr. Parsons, Nov. 3, 1819. On arriving at Smyrna, Jan. 15, 1820, they engaged in the study of the eastern languages; but in a few months removed to Sció, In order to study modern Greek under professor Bambas. The college at Scio then had seven or eight hundred stu- dents. But in 1821, the island was desolated by the bar- barous Turks. In 1822, he accompanied to Egypt his fellow laborer, Mr. Parsons, and witnessed his death, and buried him in the Greek convent. From Egypt he pro- ceded in April, 1823, through the desert to Judea, accompa- nied by Mr. King and Mr. Wolff. Having visited Jeru- salem, he went to Beyroot, Balbect, Damascus, Aleppo, and Antioch. He made a third visit to Jerusalem with Mr. King. When he withdrew from Jerusalem, in the spring of 1825, he retired to the mission family of Mr. Goodell and Mr. Bird, at Beyroot, where he died of a prevailing fever, Sabbath morning, Oct. 23, 1825, aged 33. , Mr. Fisk was eminently qualified to be a missionary in the East. He was a preacher in Italian, French, Modern Greek, and Arabic. His various communications are found in several volumes of the Missionary Herald.— Pond's Memoir of Fisk-Allen. FISKE, (JoBN,) first minister of Wenham and Chelms- ford, Mass., was born in England, in 1601, and was edu- cated at Cambridge. He came to this country in 1637, and being in the same ship with John Allen, they preached two sermons almost every day during the voyage. He was for some time the teacher of a school at Cambridge. As his property was large, he made considerable loans to the province. He lived almost three years at Salem, preach- ing to the church, and instructing a number of young per- sons. . When a church was gathered in Enon, or Wenham, Oct. 8, 1644, he was settled the minister, and here he continued till about the year 1656, when he removed to Chelmsford, then a new town, with the majority of his church. Having been an able and useful preacher in this place twenty years, he died, Jan. 14, 1677. He was a skilful physician, as well as an excellent minister. His son Moses, was minister of Braintree. Among the severest afflictions, to which he was called, says Dr. Mather, was the loss of his concordance ; that is, of his wife, who was so expert in the Scriptures, as to render any other concord. ance unnecessary. He published a catechism, entitled The Olive Branch Watered.— Magnalia, iii. 141–143. Hist. Col. vi. 239, 249 –Allen. - FITCHES, or WETCHES; a kind of tare. There are two words in Hebrew which our translators have rendered tehes, retsaeh and resmet : the first occurs only in Isaiah 8: 25–27. and must be the name of some kind of seed; but the interpreters differ much in explaining it. Jerome, Maimonides, R. David Kimchi, and the rabbins, understand it of the gith. The gith was called by the Greeks nulanthion, and by the Latins nigella ; and is thus described by Bal- lester; “It is a plant commonly met with in gardens, and grows to a cubit in height, and sometimes more, according to the richness of the soil. The leaves are small, like those of fennel, the flower blue, which disappearing, the ovary shows itself on the top, like that of a poppy, furnished with litle horns, oblong, divided by membranes into several partitions, or cells, in which are inclosed seeds of a very black color, not unlike those of the leek, but of a very fra- grant Smell.” And Ausonius observes, that its pungency is equal to that of pepper:— Est inter fruges morsu piper a quiparens git, Pliny says it is of use in bakehouses, pistrinis, and that it affords a grateful seasoning to the bread. The Jewish rabbins also mention the seeds among condiments, and mixed with bread. For this purpose it was probably used in the time of Isaiah; since the inhabitants of those countries, to this day, have a variety of rusks and biscuits, most of which are strewed on the top with the seeds of sesamum, coriander, and wild garden saffron. - The other word is rendered fitches in our translation of Ezek, 4:9. ; but in Exod. 9: 32. and Isaiah 28:25, “rye.” Some think it the spelt ; and this seems to be the most probable meaning of the Hebrew word; at least it has the greatest number of interpreters from Jerome to Celsius. There are not, however, wanting, who think it was rye; among whom, R. D. Kimchi, followed by Luther, and our English translators : Dr. Geddes, too, has retained it, though he says that he is inclined to think that the spelt is preferable. . . * - Dr. Shaw thinks that this word may signify rice. Has- Selçuist, on the contrary, affirms that rice was brought into cultivation in Egypt under the Caliphs. This, however, may be doubted. One would think from the intercourse of ancient Egypt with Babylor, and with India, that this country could not be ignorant of a grain so well suited to its climate.— Watson. FIVE POINTS, are the five doctrines controverted between the Arminians and Calvinists. (See CALVINISM.) —Hend. Buck. FIX. The heart is fixed when it is powerfully capti- vated by love of Christ; firmly depends on God's pro- mises, perfections, and new covenant relations, and has its thoughts and desires firmly settled on him. Ps. 62: 5. 112: 7.—Bronyn. - FLACIANS ; the followers of Matthias Flacius Illyricus, who flourished in the sixteenth century. He taught that original sin is the very substance of human nature; and that the fall of man was an event which extinguished in the human mind every virtuous tendency, every noble faculty, and left nothing behind it but universal darkness and corruption.—Hend. Buck. FLAG, (Heb. achu,) occurs Gen. 41: 2, 18. Job 8: 11. and suph, needs, Exod. 2: 3, 5. Isaiah 19: 6. John 2: 5, The word achu, in the first two instances, is translated “meadows,” and in the latter, “flag.” It probably denotes the sedge, or long grass, which grows in the meadows of the Nile, very grateful to the cattle. The word suph is called by Aben Ezra, “a reed growing on the borders of the river.” Bochart, Fuller, Rivetus, Ludolphus, and Junius and Tremellius, render it by juncus, carez, or alga, and Celsius thinks it the fucus or alga, “sea-weed.” Dr. Geddes says there is little doubt of its being the sedge called sari, which, as we learn from Theo- phrastus and Pliny, grows on the marshy banks of the Nile, and rises to the height of almost two cubits. This, indeed, agrees very well with Exod. 2: 3, 5. and the thickets of arundinaceous plants, at some small distances •from the Red Sea, observed by Dr. Shaw; but the place F L A F L A [ 537 J in Jonah seems to require some submarine plant.— Watson. . . . . . . . . . . . º, FLAGELLANTS, (from the Latin flagellare, to beat,) the name of a fanatical sect in the thirteenth century, who thought that they could best expiate their sins by the severe discipline of the scourge. Rainer, a hermit of Perugia, is said to have been its founder, in 1260. He soon found followers in nearly all parts of Italy. Old and young, great and small, ran through the cities, scourging them- selves, and exhorting to repentance. Their number soon amounted to ten thousand, who went about, led by priests, bearing banners and crosses. They went in thousands from country to country, begging alms. In 1261, they broke over the Alps in crowds into Germany, showed them- selves in Alcatia, Bavaria, Bohemia, and Poland; and found there many imitators. In 1296, a small band of Flagellants appeared in Strasburg, who, with covered faces, whipped themselves through the city, and at every church. The princes and higher clergy were little pleased with this new fraternity, although it was favored by the people. The shameful public exposure of the person by the Flagellants offended good manners; their travelling in such numbers afforded opportunity for seditious commotions, and irregu- larities of all sorts; and their extortion of alms was a tax upon the peaceful citizen. On this account, both in Ger- many and in Italy, several princes forbade these expeditions of the Flagellants. The kings of Poland and Bohemia expelled them with violence from their states, and the bishops strenuously opposed them. In spite of this, the society continued under another form in some of the fra- ternities of the Beghards, in Germany and France, and in the beginning of the fifteenth century, among the Brothers of the Cross, so numerous in Thuringia, (so called from wearing on their clothes a cross on the breast and on the back,) of whom ninety-one were burnt at once at San- gershausen, in 1414. The council, assembled at Con- stance, between 1414 and 1418, was obliged to take decisive measures against them. Since this time nothing more has been heard of a fratermity of this sort.—Hend. Buck. FLAGELLATION, has almost always been used for the punishment of crimes. Its application as a means of religious penance is an old oriental custom, admitted into corrupt churches, partly because self torment was consider- ed salutary as the mortifying of the flesh, and partly be- cause both Christ and the apostles underwent scourging. It became general in the eleventh century, when Peter Damiani, of Ravenna, abbot of the Benedictine monastery near Gubbio, afterwards cardinal bishop of Ostia, zealously recommended .# as an atonement for sin, to Christians generally, and in particular to the monks. His own example, and the ſame of his sanctity, rendered his exhortations effective. Clergy and laity, men and women, began to torture themselves with rods, and thongs, and chains. They fixed certain times for the infliction of this discipline upon themselves. Princes caused themselves to be scourged naked by their father confessors. It was considered as equivalent to every sort of expiation ſor past sins. Three thousand strokes, and the chanting of thirty penitential psalms, were deemed sufficient to can- cel the sins of a year; thirty thousand strokes, the sins of ten years, &c. An Italian widow, in the eleventh cen- tury, boasted that she had made expiation by voluntary scourging for one hundred years, for which, as the requi- site number, she had inflicted on herself no fewer than three hundred thousand stripes. The opinion was preva- lent, likewise, that, however great the guilt, hell might be escaped by self-inflicted pain, and the honor of peculiar holiness acquired. By this means, flagellation "obtained a charm in the sight of the guilty and ambitious, which raised them above the dread both of sinning and suffer- ing, till these vain deceits of hypocrisy vanished before the clearer light of the gospel, of civilization, and know- ledge. See Fanaticism, by the author of the Nat. Hist, of En- thusiasm.—Hend. Buck. - - FLAGONS. In Cant. 2: 5. the bride says, “stay me with flagons; comfort me with apples.” . Mr. Taylor sug- gests that some kind of fruit seems to be intended. As one kind of gourd is by us called flagon, so might another kind, but of a similar genus, be formerly called. The word occurs here without the insertion “of wine,” which is added by our translators; but in Hosea 3: 1. is added “of grapes,”—“Loving measures—flagons of grapes.” Might these be grapes gathered into gourds Or do they mean wine, as our translators have rendered them here; and have inserted the word wine in the other places— thereby fixing them to this sense?—Calmet. . . . FLAMINES; an order or class of priests among the ancient Romans, instituted, according to Plutarch, by Ro- mulus, and according to Livy, by Numa. They were chosen by the people, and their inauguration was perform- ed by the sovereign pontiff. Their number was originally three, but was afterwards increased to fifteen, the three first of whom, being taken from the senate, were called Flamines Majores ; and the twelve others, taken from the people, Flamines Minores. When the emperors were dei- fied, they also had flamens, as flamen Augusti. Their or- dinary duties were to see that the ancient and customary honors were paid to the publicly acknowledged deities, and that all due respect was paid to the religion of the state; but, in the opinion of the superstitious, they were invested with interest and influence with the gods, which enabled them to maintain and exercise a powerful do- minion over the minds of the vulgar.—Hend. Buck. FLATTERY ; a servile and fawning behavior, attend- ed with servile compliances and obsequiousness, in order to gain a person's favor.—Hend. Buck. - - FLAVEL, (John,) a pious and popular divine, was born in Worcestershire, England, in 1627. He was in early life religiously educated by his father, and complet- ed his public education at Oxford. Having devoted him- self to the gospel ministry, he was settled at Deptford, in 1650, as assistant to Mr. Walplate. He applied himself here with great diligence to pastoral duties, while at the same time his assiduity in reading, meditation, and prayer, raised him to a high eminence in ministerial qualifica- tions. On Mr. Walplate's death, he succeeded to the rec- tory. His first wife dying in childbirth, he married again a year or two afterwards, and in this connexion was very happy; she also being removed, he married a third, and Subsequently a fourth time. In 1655, he accepted a unan- imous and pressing call to remove to Dārtmouth, where he received a much smaller stipend, but had a larger field of usefulness. In 1656, Mr. Allen Gear, was settled as his assistant, by an order from Whitehall, with whom Mr. Flavel lived in great harmony, the labors of the ministry being divided between them. Of his preaching at this time, one of his most judicious hearers remarked, “that persons must have a very soft head, or a very hard heart, or both, that could sit under Mr. Flavel’s ministry unaf. fected.” Mr. Flavel was master of the various controversies of the day on all points of importance in theology. He was well acquainted with the school divinity. In the oriental lan- guages, he was singularly well versed and exact. He had one way of improving his knowledge worthy of imitation : whenever in conversation, any remarkable fact, or state- ment was related, and he was familiar with the relater, he would request him to repeat it again, and insert it in his common-place book. By this method, among others, he accumulated rich materials for the pulpit, and the press. In prayer, his gift was excellent, and he always brought to it, a broken heart, and moving affections. When the act of uniformity turned him out of his situ- ation, he did not forsake his flock, but seized every oppor- tunity of ministering to their spiritual necessities. His colleague dying soon after, the whole care devolved on him. On the execution of the Oxford act, he was com- pelled to remove five miles from Dartmouth to Slapton, where he was out of the reach of legal disturbance, and where many of his former flock, in spite of severity of the laws, resorted to him, and he at times stole into the town to visit them. He was invited to preach in a wood near Exeter, but scarcely was the sermon begun, before the enraged enemies broke in, and he narrowly escaped. Many of his hearers were taken and fined, but the rest, undismayed, took Mr. Flavel to another wood, where he preached to them without interruption. When a respite occurred he returned to Dartmouth and preached freely; but persecution being renewed, he went to London. Dur- . 68 F L E FL E [ 538 ing his passage, a violent storm arose, and prevailed, so that all hope was extinguished without a change of the wind, which, while Mr. Flavel was supplicating in the ca- bin, was granted; for no sooner had he ceased, than one came down from the deck exclaiming, “Deliverance De- liverance I, God is a God hearing prayer . In a moment the wind is become fair west º' Arriving safely in Lon- don, Mr. Flavel found many friends, much work, and great encouragement; but being sought after, narrowly escaped arrest, and returned to Dartmouth. He had af. terward urgent calls to settle in London, from two large and wealthy congregations; but he decided to stay with his poor people in Dartmouth. . . . In 1687, when James II. thought best to dispense with the penal laws, Mr. Flavel came forth from obscurity, and shone like a beacon of flame on the summit of a hill. He allowed himself little recreation: for time now seemed truly a precious jewel to be improved at any rate. But he was equally zealous in the closet, as in the pulpit. He was a mighty wrestler with God, especially for a blessing on his sermons and books, that they might be the means of the conversion of sinners: and he frequently had let- ters announcing the joyful fact that his labors were not in vain. He lived to see the union between the Presby- terian and Independent churches, in 1691, but while re- joicing in that event, he found the hand of death upon him, and calmly saying, “I know that it will be well with me,” expired without a groan. He is best known by his works on “Reeping the heart,” “Token for Mourners,” “Husbandry Spiritualized,” and “Navigation Spiritualiz- ed.”—Middleton, vol. iv. 48. FLAX; (Heb. phastah, Exod. 9: 31. Levit. 13:47, 48, **, 59. Deut. 22: 11. Joshua 2: 6. Judges 15:14. Prov. 31: - 13. Isaiah 19: 9. 42: 3. 43: 17. Jer. 13:1. Ezek. 40:8. 44; 17, 18. Hosea 2: 5, 9. Gr. linon, Matt. 12:20. Rev. 15: 6;) a plant very common, and § too well known to need a description. It is a ve- getable upon which the been exercised with the greatest success and uti- lity. On passing a field of it, one is struck with astonishment when he considers that this ap- parently insignificant plant may, by the labor and ingenuity of man, be made to assume an entirely new form and appearance, and to con- tribute to pleasure and health, by furnishing us with agreeable and ornamental apparel. This word, Mr. Parkhurst thinks, is derived from the verb phasth, to strip, because the substance which we term flaw is properly the bark or fibrous part of the vegetable, pilled or stripped off the stalks. From time immemorial, Egypt was cele- brated for the production or manufacture of flax. Wrought into garments, it constituted the principal dress of the in- habitants, and the priests never put on any other kind of clothing. The fine linen of Egypt is celebrated in all ancient authors, and its superior excellence mentioned in the sacred Scriptures. The manufacture of flax is still carried on in that country, and many writers take notice of it. Rabbi Benjamin Tudela mentions the manufactory at Damiata; and Egmont and Heyman describe the arti- cle as being of a beautiful color, and so finely spun that the threads are hardly discernible.—Watson. - FLEA; (Heb. phrosh, 1 Sam. 24: 14. 26:20.) It seems, says Mr. Parkhurst, an evident derivative from phra, free, and rosh, to leap, bound, or skip, on account of its agility in leaping or skipping. David likens himself to this in- sect; importing that while it would cost Saul much pains to catch him, he would obtain, but very little advantage from it. – Watson. industry of mankind has FLECHIER, (ESPRIT,) a celebrated French prelate and preacher, was born in 1632, at Pernes, near Avignon. He first became known in the capital of France by a Latin poem, on the famous Carousal, given by Louis XIV. in 1662. His Sermons and Funeral Orations soon raised him to such a pitch of reputation, that the duke of Mon tausier recommended him to fill the office of reader, to the dauphin. It was not till 1685, that he obtained the bishopric of Lavaur. When the monarch gave it to him, he said, “Do not be surprised that I have been so tardy in rewarding your merit; I was loath to be deprived of the pleasure of hearing you preach.” In 1687, he was removed to the bishopric of Nimes. In his Episcopal character he gained the love of even the Protestants of His diocese, by his uniform piety, charity, and mildness. He died in 1710. Flechier-has been called the French Isocrates; his eloquence partakes, indeed, of the beauties and defects of that of the Grecian orator. His Fº: works are, A History of Theodosius the Great; A Life of Cardinal Ximenes; Funeral Orations; and Sermons.— Davenport. • FLECHIERE, DE LA, (Rev. John WILLIAM,) was born at Nyon, in Switzerland, on the 12th of September, 1729. He was very early the subject of serious impressions, which, however, (as is too frequently the case,) impercep- tibly wore off. His youth was marked by his great love of learning. After spending the whole of the day in reading and study, his nights were frequently devoted to meditation ; and, by means of memorandums, he retained much of what he had perused during the day. This mode of proceeding gave him that classical taste, and that ac- cumulated and extensive knowledge, for which he was so justly celebrated. His parents, perceiving his principles to be good, and his mind comprehensive, designed him for a minister of the establishment of the church of Eng- land, but he preferred a military life. When his father refused to grant permission to his going into the army, he set off to Lisbon, accepted of a captain's commission, and engaged to serve the king of Portugal, on board a man of war which was going to Brazil; but, by the in- terposition of Providence, was prevented; for the morn- ing on which the vessel was to sail, the servant, on wait- ing on him, scalded Mr. Flechiere's leg so much, that he was unable to move from his bed for several weeks. Thus his hopes being cut off, he gave up all idea of becoming a soldier. In the year 1754, his views began to change, and, as his mind became more impressed with a sense of divine goodness, he determined on devoting his life to the glory of God; and accordingly, as soon as he could, he consulted with the Rev. Mr. Wesley, and other pious men, on that important subject, who advised him to follow the dictates of his conscience. He therefore dedicated him. self to the important work of the ministry; and in March, 1757, received deacon's orders, and priest’s orders on the same month, from the hands of the bishop of Bangor. He now began to preach both in English and French. Three years after his ordination, Mr. Flechiere was pre- sented to the living of Madely; a place for which, by his rare endowments, he was highly qualified. There he per- formed the work of an evangelist, and lost no opportunity of declaring the truths of the gospel. Those who en- deavored to escape his vigilance, he pursued to every cor- ner of his parish, warning and entreating them to flee from the wrath to come. Some made it an excuse for not attending the church service on a Sunday morning, that they could not wake early enough to get their families ready; which inconvenience he remedied by “taking a bell in his hand, and, at five o’clock in the morning, go- ing round the most distant parts of the parish, and invit- ing all the inhabitants to the house of God.” Notwith- standing the evident pains he took, he saw but little fruit of his labor; and was much persecuted by some of the private gentlemen, by some of the neighboring clergy, and even by magistrates. Placards were posted on the church doors, charging him with rebellion and 'schism, and of being a disturber of the public peace. Notw: h. standing these continued revilings, he reviled not again, but bore his persecutions with the mildness and resigna. tion of a Christian. His daily walks were among the fatherless, and the widows, and the oppressed. F L E $. F L I [ 539 | In the summer of 1759, Mr. Flechiere, with Mr. Ireland, one of his most intimate friends, visited France, Italy, and Switzerland. Passing through the south of France, he went on foot to see the Protestants in the Cevennes mountains, whose fathers had suffered so much in the cause of truth. Towards the close of the summer he re- turned to England; when, at the request of Lady Hun- tingdon, he undertook the superintendence of her semi- nary for educating young men for the ministry, at Tre- vecka, in Wales. In 1770, he went there to reside, but shortly afterwards resigned that situation, on account of some difference with Lady Huntingdon; and he then la- bored with eminent success among the Wesleyan Metho- dists. Soon after this event his health became so bad as to oblige him again to visit Switzerland. That journey he therefore undertook; and after finding great benefit from the change of climate, he returned to England, when hé was introduced to the presence of a lady with whom he had been previously acquainted, and was so much pleased with her piety and good sense, that he offered her his hand; and in 1781, they were united, and soon after returned to Madely. Mr. Flechiere had for many years seen, with regret and pain, the disconsolate condi- tion of poor children who were uninstructed; and accor- dingly opened a school-room for them in Madely Wood, which was the last public work in which he was employed. The health of Mr. Flechiere now declined, and on the 14th of August, 1685, he expired, in a sure and certain hope of a joyful resurrection. In him the world lost a man possessed of many accomplishments; and the Chris- tian church a member, whose piety, lowliness of mind, and meek and quiet spirit, entitled him to the esteem of posteri- ty.—See Benson's Life of Flechiere.—Jones's Chris. Biog. FLEETWOOD, (WILLIAM,) an eminent prelate, and eloquent preacher, surnamed “The silver tongued,” was born in 1656, in the Tower of London, where his father resided; was educated at Eton and King's college, Cam- bridge; and, after having held several valuable but minor preferments, was made bishop of St. Asaph, in 1706. Rrom St. Asaph he was translated to Ely, in 1714. He died in 1723. He is said to have excelled in every virtue that constitutes a wise man, and in all the graces that adorn the Christian. In his political sentiments he was liberal, classing with Hoadley and Tillotson. He was very learned, though chiefly distinguished as an antiqua- ry. His principal works are, An Essay on Miracles; In- scriptionum Antiquarum Sylloge ; Chronicon Pretiosum, or an Account of English Money; and Practical Dis- courses.—Jones's Chris. Biog. ; Davenport. FLEMING, (Robert.) . This extraordinary man was born at Bathens, Scotland, in 1630, of pious parents, who took great care of his early education. He studied phi- losophy at the university of Edinburgh, and divinity at St. Andrews, under the excellent Rutherford. His facul- ties were rich and profound, and his attainments of a correspondent order; but all learning was valued by him only as it conducted him to the knowledge of God; to whom he had at a very early age consecrated his heart. For in the language of his biographer, “It was but a little time that he had dwelt in this world, before God dwelt in him, and he in God, and that so evidently in the exercise of Christian graces, that little more doubt was made of his being born again from above, than of his be- ing born of woman.” His first pastoral charge was at Cambuslang, in Clydesdale. He was one of four hundred ministers rejected by the Glasgow act after the Restora- tion of Charles II. He had then a wiſe and seven chil- dren to support; but he committed them with himself to the providential care of his heavenly Master, and found him faithful. He was imprisoned in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh, in 1673, but after a while being liberated, he went to Holland, where he succeeded the famous Mr. Brown, as pastor of the Scots congregation at Rotterdam. Here, as his activity was great, so was his success in win- ning souls. “The sun stood still,” says his biographer, “all the time in which he had no design for God's glory on foot.” He died July 15, 1694, aged sixty-three; leav- ing behind him several works, of which the most remark- able is “The Fulfilling of the Scriptures.”—Middleton, vol. iv. 69. - - FLEMINGIANS, or FLANDRIANs ; a set of rigid Ana baptists, who acquired this name in the sixteenth century because most of them were natives of Flanders, by way of distinction from the Waterlandians. (See WATER. LANDIANs.)—Hend. Buck. - FLESH; a term of great moment in the Scriptures An eminent critic has enumerated no less than six dif. ferent meanings which it bears in the sacred writings, and for which, he affirms, there will not be found a single au- thority in any profane writer: 1. It sometimes denotes the whole body considered as animated, as in Matt. 26: 41, “The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.” 2. It sometimes means a human being, as in Luke 3: 6, “All flesh shall see the salvation of God.” 3. Sometimes a person's kindred collectively considered, as in Rom. 11: 14, “If by any means I may provoke them which are my flesh.” 4. Sometimes any thing of an external or cere- monial nature, as opposed to that which is internal and moral, as in Gal. 3: 3, “Having begun in the Spirit, are ye now made perfect in the flesh?” 5. The sensitive part of our nature, or that which is the seat of appetite, as in 2 Cor. 7: 1, “Let us cleanse ourselves from all filthi- ness of the flesh and spirit;” where there can be no doubt that the pollutions of the flesh must be those of the appe- tites, being opposed to the pollutions of the spirit, or those of the passions. 6. It is employed to denote the inward principle of moral pravity of whatever kind. Thus among the works of the flesh, (Gal. 5: 19—21,) are num- bered not only adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lascivi- ousness, drunkenness, and revellings, which all relate to criminal indulgence of appetite, but idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, here- sies, envyings, and murders, which are manifestly vices of a different kind, and partake more of the diabolical na- ture than of the beastly. Hence “in the flesh,” is a phrase used to denote the condition of all who are not renewed by the Spirit of God. John 3: 6. Rom. 7: 18. 8: 1.- Watson ; Jones. ‘. . FLEURY, (CLAUDE, ABBE,) a divine and historian, born at Paris, in 1640, was an advocate, but subsequently took orders, became preceptor to the princes of Conti, and the count de Vermandois, and sub-preceptor to the duke of Burgundy and his royal brothers. In his character he greatly resembled his celebrated associate, the pious, hum ble, and amiable Fenelon. He obtained the abbey of Loc Dieu, and the priory of Argenteuil, and was for six years confessor to the youthful Louis XV. Many other prefer- ments were offered him, but he refused them; not wishing to expose himself to the temptations of a more public life. Of Fleury, it has been truly said, “ Glorificavit illum Deus in conspectum regum.” He died in 1722. His most im- portant works are, Ecclesiastical History, thirteen vols. 4to; Manners of the Israelites; Manners of the Chris- tians; and a Treatise on Public Law.—Jones’s Chris. Biog ; Davenport. - - ". FLIES. The kinds of flies are exceedingly numerous; some with two, and some with four, wings. They abound in warm and moist regions, as in Egypt, Chaldea, Pales- tine, and in the middle regions of Africa; and during the rainy seasons, are very troublesome. In the Hebrew Scriptures, or in the ancient versions, are seven kinds of insects, which Bochart classes among muscae, or flies. 2. M. Sonnini, speaking of Egypt, says, “Of insects there the most troublesome are the flies. Both man and beast are cruelly tormented with them. No idea can be formed of their obstinate rapacity when they wish to fix upon some part of the body. It is in vain to drive them away; they return again in the self-same moment; and their perseverance wearies out the most patient spirit. They like to fasten themselves in preference on the cor- ners of the eye, and on the edge of the eyelid; tender parts, towards which a gentle moisture attracts them.” The Egyptians paid a superstitious worship to several sorts of flies and insects. If then, such was the supersti- tious homage of this people, nothing could be more deter- minate than the judgment brought upon them by Moses. They were punished by the very things they revered; and though they boasted of spells and charms, yet they could not ward off the evil. - 3. How intolerable a plague of flies can prove, is evi F L O F L O [ 540 J dent from the fact, that whole districts have been laid waste by them. Such was the fate of Myuns in Ionia, and of Alarnae. The inhabitants were forced to quit these cities, not being able to stand against the flies and gnats with which they were pestered. Trajan was oblig- ed to raise the siege of a city in Arabia, before which he had sat down, being driven away by the Swarms of these insects. Hence different people had deities whose office it was to defend them against flies. Among these may be reckoned Baalzebub, the fly-god of Ekron : Her- cucles muscarum abactor, “Hercules, the expeller of flies;” and hence Jupiter had the titles of apomnios, mutagros, muiochoros, because he was supposed to expel flies, and especially to clear his temples of these insects. 4. Solomon observes, “Dead flies cause the apothecary’s ointment to stink,” Eccles. 10: 1. “A fact well known,” says Scheuchzer; “wherefore apothecaries take care to prevent flies from coming to their syrups and other fer- mentable preparations. For in all insects there is an acrid volatile salt, which, mixed with sweet or even alka- line substances, excites them to a brisk intestine motion, disposes them to fermentation, and to putrescence itself; by which the more volatile principles fly off, leaving the grosser behind: at the same time, the taste and odor are changed, the agreeable to fetid, the sweet to insipid.” This verse is an illustration, by a very appropriate simili- tude, of the concluding assertion in the preceding chapter, that “one sinner destroyeth much good,” as one dead fly spoils a whole vessel of precious ointment, which, in east- ern countries, was considered as very valuable, 2 Kings 20: 13. The application of this proverbial expression to a person’s good name, which is elsewhere compared to sweet ointment, (Eccles. 7: 1. Cant. 1: 3.) is remarkably significant. As a fly, though a diminutive creature, can taint and corrupt much precious perfume; so a small mixture of folly and indiscretion will tarnish the reputa- tion of one who, in other respects, is very wise and honor- able ; and so much the more, because of the malignity and ingratitude of mankind, who are disposed rather to censure one error, than to commend many excellencies, and from whose minds one small miscarriage is sufficient to blot out the memory of all other deserts. It concerns us, therefore, to conduct ourselves unblamably, that we may not by the least oversight or folly blemish our pro- fession, or cause it to be offensive to others.-Watson. FLOCK. (See ShepherD.) - FLOOD. (See DELUGE: ARK.) FLOOR, for threshing grain, or threshing-floor, is fre- quently mentioned in Scripture. This was a place in the diſſº - sinº i. -º-º-º-º-º: sº #º sºjºs * * * * #!!!..., ſº sessºsº;sº ſº ºr N #Mºiſſºjišić #º sº =:: º º, ; ºººººººººiſi º | . Wº: - -º.: s: º i littl|| |'''Filt Zºº. |ilºšičE=ºff}<º º º W tºº: § º Đ ºššº: #5: Ž ſ ºf ºğ ºn 2, § º sºlº º Nºs. º º, * * : º: *** * * § º §§º. - Sºś is: ººze Re six-e- Jºſsºs B-> * - . *-* S sº - : E. É. º º:==: -::, , Ø ". º - | º ſºlº. .." } ſ à § ſ 't U. M W º § w # ă º º a rºw A ºr tº ºx! º, ºf t.: §§ *- 5. open air, in which grain was threshed, by means of a cart or sledge, or some other instrument, drawn by oxen. The threshing-floors among the Jews were only, as they are to this day in the East, round level plats of ground in the open air, where the grain was trodden out by oxen. Thus Gideon’s floor appears to have been in the open air, (Judges 6:37;) and also that of Araunah the Jebusite, (2 Sam. 24:) otherwise it would not have been a proper place for erecting an altar, and offering sacrifices. In Hosea 13: 3, we read of the chaff which is driven by the whirl- wind from the floor. The circumstance of the threshing- floor's being exposed to the agitation of the wind seems is be the principal reasºn of its Hebrew name. It appears, therefore, that a threshing-floor, which is rendered in our textual translation, “a void place,” might well be near the entrance of the gate of Samaria, and a proper situa- tion in which the kings of Israel and Judah might hear the prophets, 1 Kings 22: 10. 2 Chron. 18; 9. An instrument sometimes used in Palestine and the East, to force the corn out of the ear, and bruise the straw, was a heavy kind of sledge, made of thick boards, and furnished beneath with teeth of stone or iron, Isa. 41: 15. The sheaves being laid in order, the sledge was drawn over the straw by Oxen, and at the same time threshed out the grain, and cut or broke the straw into a kind of chaff. An instrument in the East is still used for the same pur- ose. This sledge is alluded to in 2 Sam. 12: 31. Isa. 28: 27, 41: 15. Amos 1: 3. Dr. Lowth, in his Notes on Isaiah 28:27, 28, observes, that four methods of threshing are mentioned in this passage, by different instruments; the flail, the drag, the wain, and the treading of the cattle. The staff, or flail, was used for the infirmioro semina, the grain that was too tender to be treated in the other me- thods. The drag consisted of a sort of frame of strong planks, made rough at the bottom with hard stones or iron ; it was drawn by horses or oxen over the sheaves on the floor, the driver sitting upon it. The wain was nearly similar to this instrument, but had wheels with iron teeth, or edges, like a saw. The last method is well known from the law of Moses, which forbids the ox to be muzzled when he treadeth out the corn. Niebuhr, in his Travels, gives the following description of a machine which the people of Egypt use at this day for threshing out their grain : “This machine,” says he, “is called nauridsj. It has three rollers, which turn on their axles; and each of them is furnished with some irons, round and flat. At the beginning of June, Mr. Forskall and I several times saw, in the environs of Dsjise, how corn was threshed in Egypt. Every peasant chose ſor himself, in the open field, a smooth plat of ground, from eighty to a hundred paces in circumference. Hither was brought, on camels or asses, the corn in sheaves, of which was formed a ring of six or eight feet wide, and two high. Two oxen were made to draw over it again and again the sledge, trainedu, above mentioned; and this was done with the greatest convenience to the driver; for he was seated in a chair fixed on the sledge. Two such parcels or layers of corn are threshed out in a day, and they move each of them as many as eight times, with a wooden fork of five prongs, which they call meddre. Afterwards they throw the straw into the middle of the ring, where it forms a heap, which grows bigger and bigger. When the first layer is threshed, they replace the straw in the ring, and thresh it as before. Thus the straw becomes every time Smaller, till at last it resembles chopped straw. After this, with the fork just described, they cast the whole some yards from thence, and against the wind; which driving back the straw, the corn and the ears not threshed out fall apart from it, and make another heap. A man collects the clods of dirt, and other impurities to which any corn adheres, and throws them into a sieve. They afterwards place in a ring the heaps, in which a good many entire ears are still found, and drive over them, for ſour or five hours together, ten couple of oxen joined two and two, till 33 by absolute trampling they have separated the grains, which they throw into the air with a shovel to cleanse them.”— Watson. * FLORINIANS, or FLORINIANI, so called from Florinus, a priest of Rome, said to be a disciple of Polycarp. This sect was a branch of the Valentinians in the second cen- tury. (See VALENTINIANs.)—Williams. FLORUS, (Gessius,) succeeded Albinus in the govern- ment of Judea, A. D. 54. His excesses exasperated the Jews beyond patience, and forced them to rebel against the Romans, A. D. 66. He is thought to have left Judea, when Vespasian went there, A. D. 67.-Calmet. - FLOUR. (See BREAD; CAKEs ; OFFERINGs; &c.) FLOURISH ; to bud, spring forth; appear beautiful as a flower, Sol. Song 7: 12, Christ's crown flourisheth when his authority and glory are signally displayed, and many become his faithful, loving, and obedient subjects, F O H F O 1, [ 541 ) Ps. 132: 18. The church flourisheth when the ordinances are pure and powerful, her ministers faithful, wise, and §. and her members mightily increase, and walk as becomes the Gospel, Sol. Song 6: 11. Men in general flourish when they appear gay in youth, and prosper and increase in wisdom, honor, wealth, or pleasure, Ps. 90: 6, and 92; 7, Saints flourish when their grace, comforts, and good works more and more abound, Isa. 66: 14.—Bronm. FLOWERS. (1.) A running of blood. Lev. 15: 24. (2.) The open, fragrant, and beautiful buds of some vege- tables. Flowers are very delightful, but easily and quick- ly fade, James 1: 10. Men in general are like flowers: in youth and prosperity how blooming, delightful, and glorious ! but how quickly does trouble or death mar their beauty, and bereave them of wealth, honor, or life, Job. 14: 2. Isa. 40; 6, and 28: 1. Jam. 1: 10, 11.—Bromwn. FLUTE ; a musical instrument, sometimes mentioned in Scripture by the names Chalil, Machalath, Masrokoth, and Huggab. The last word is generally translated or- gan; but Calmet thinks it was nothing more than a flute; though his description of it corresponds to “the Pandean pipes,” which are extremely ancient, and were perhaps the original organ. There is notice taken in the gospels, of players on the flute, [Eng. Trans. minstrels,) who were collected at funerals; See Matt. 9:23, 24. The rabbins say, that it was not allowable to have less than two players on the flute, at the funeral of persons of the meanest condition, beside a professional woman hired to lament; and Jose- phus relates, that a false report of his death being spread at Jerusalem, several persons hired players on the flute, by way of preparation for his funeral. In the Old Testa- ment, however, we see nothing like it. The Jews proba- bly borrowed the custom from the Romans. When it was an old woman who died, they used trumpets; but flutes when a young woman was to be buried.—Calmet. FLUX, (BLoopy,) another name for the dysentery, Acts 28: 8. - lº FOAM ; to cast forth as a raging sea. Foaming at the mouth is expressive of rage, or tormenting inward pain. Mark 9: 16. Seducers foam out their own shame, when, from a corrupt heart, and with rage against Christ and his ways, they publish their vain and erroneous doctrines, and indulge themselves in shameful practices, Jude 13. The king of Samaria was cut off as the foam of water. Some of their last kings were basely murdered; and Hoshea, the last, was easily and quickly destroyed, and reduced to abject slavery, Hos. 10: 7.-Bronn. FOLD ; a house, or small enclosure, for flocks to rest together in by night or at noon, Isa. 13:20. The coun- try which a nation possesseth and dwelleth together in, is called their fold, Jer. 23: 3. The church and ordinances of Christ are as a fold: there his sheep or people are ga- thered together; they enter by him as the door, and have strict union, and delightful society, and pleasant refresh- ment and rest together, and are surrounded with his pro- tection and laws, John 10: 1–Brown. - FOLLOW. To follon, the Lord is to choose him as our portion, observe his laws, imitate his perfections, and cleave to his worship, Jer. 17: 16. To follow Christ, the Lamb of God, is, under the direction and influence of his word and Spirit, to depend on his righteousness and strength, imitate his example, and cleave close to his truth and ordinances, (Rev. 14: 4;) or to die with him, John 13:36. To follon false gods is idolatrously to honor and worship them, Judg. 2: 12. God’s goodness and mercy follon, the saints; in the exercise thereof he constantly at- tends, supports, and relieves them ; forgives their sins, protects them from danger, and bestows on them grace and glory, Ps. 23: 6. Our good works follon us into heaven; though they do not go before, to purchase our entrance, yet we there obtain the pleasant and gracious reward of them, Rev. 13: 14.—Brown. FO, FOE, FOHI, is revered in China as the founder of a religion, which was introduced into China in the first century of the Christian era. According to tradition, he was born in Cashmere, about the year B. C. 1027. While his mother was in travail, the stars were darkened, and nine dragons descended from heaven. He was born from her right side, and immediately after the birth she died. At the moment of his entrance into the world, he stood upright on his feet, stepped forward seven paces, and pointing one hand to heaven, and the other to the earth, spoke distinctly these words:—“None in heaven or earth deserves adoration besides me.” In his seventeenth year he married three wives, and became the father of a son; but in his nineteenth year he left his family, and went with four wise men into the wilderness. When thirty, he was deified; and, confirming his doctrines by pretended . miracles, collected an immense number of disciples round him, and spread his doctrines throughout the East. His priests and disciples were called in China Seng, in Tarta- ry Lamas, in Siam Talapoins, and in Europe Bonzes. In the seventy-ninth year of his age, perceiving that his end was approaching, Fo declared to his disciples, “That hitherto he had spoken only in enigmatical and figurative language; but that now, being about to take leave of them, he would unveil to them the mysteries of his doc- trine. Know then,” said he, “that there is no other prin- ciple of all things but the void and nothing; that from nothing all things have sprung, and to nothing all must return; and there all our hopes, must end.” This final declaration of Fo divided his disciples into three sects. Some founded on it an atheistical sect; the greater part adhered to his ancient doctrines; while others made a distinction between an exoteric and an esoteric doctrine, which they endeavored to bring into harmony. The exoteric doctrine of Fo contains his system of Ino- rality. It distinguishes between good and evil : he who has done good during his life will be rewarded after death; and he who has done evil will be punished. He gave his followers only these five precepts:—Not to kill any living creature; not to take the property of another; to avoid impurity and unchastity; not to speak falsely; and to ab-- stain from wine. They are taught the practice of charity; the merit accruing from the building of temples and con- vents; and the punishment of their souls entering into the bodies of the vilest and most unclean animals if they commit sin. . - The principal esoteric or secret doctrines, into which but few are initiated, are the following:—The origin and end of all things is the void and nothing. The first hu- man beings have sprung from nothing, and are returned to nothing. The void constitutes our being. All things, living and inanimate, constitute one whole; differing from each other not in essence, but only in form and qualities. The original essence of all things is pure, un- changeable, highly subtle, and simple, and, because it is simple, the perfection of all other beings. It is perfect, and therefore exists in an uninterrupted quiet, without possessing virtue, power, or intelligence; nay, its very essence consists in the absence of intelligence, activity, and want or desire. Whoever desires to be happy, must constantly endeavor to conquer themselves, and become like the original essence. To accomplish this, he must accustom himself not to act, desire, feel, nor think. The great precept was—endeavor to annihilate thyself; for, as soon as thou ceasest to be thyself, thou becomest one with God, and returnest into his being. The other followers of Fo adopt the doctrine of the void and nothing, and the transmigration of Souls; but teach that they enter ulti- mately the class of Samanoeans, and finally appear in the bodies of perfect Samanoeans, who have no more crimes to expiate, and need no longer to revere the gods, who are only the servants of the Supreme God of the universe. This Supreme unoriginated Being cannot be represented by any image; neither can he be worshipped, because he is elevated above all worship; but his attributes may be represented, adored, and worshipped. Hence the source of the worship of images by the natives of India, and of the multitude of particular tutelary deities in China. All the elements, the changes of the weather, &c. have each its particular genius; and all these gods are servants or officers of the Supreme God, Seng-wang-Man. The public worship of Fo, which became a national re- ligion, is called, in India, Brahmanism.—Hend. Buck. FOLLY, according to Mr. Locke, consists in the draw- ing of false conclusions from just principles, by which it is distinguished from madness, which draws just conclu- sions from false principles. But this seems too confined Jº O O Foo [ 542 a definition. Folly, in its most general acceptation, de- notes a weakness of intellect or apprehension, or some p. absurdity in sentiment or conduct. (See Fool ; Foolish SPEAKING ; Evil; SIN.)—Hend. Buck. - FOOD, Questions concerning meats and drinks have occasioned much angry and bitter contention, both in the Jewish and Christian church. Undue importance has often, no doubt, been attached to certain distinctions in these matters, and many have been scrupulously nice about what they might eat and drink, while they seem to have forgotten that the kingdom of heaven consisted of righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. others, however, have erred on the other hand, by de- spising all attention to such things, as too trifling to de- serve regard. But it must certainly be admitted, that the food by which man is supported and nourished, is not in itself of small importance. He who made all things for the use of man, best knows what is good for food, and what is fitted to serve other purposes. He has an un- doubted right to grant or to withhold the use of his crea- tures; and if he has interfered in this matter, it becomes us to bow with deference to his authority. That particular kinds of food may be productive of certain physical and moral effects on the human constitution, is not to be de- nied ; in this point of view, therefore, the importance of divine enactments respecting their use may be shown. And if distinctions in the use of animals were connected with important religious institutions, and intended to illus- trate some interesting doctrines of morality, their pro- priety may be still further defended. That laws and regulations have been given by the Almighty to guide mankind in this affair, must be obvious to every man who looks into the Bible; and an investigation of the na- ture of these laws will be found interesting both to the philosopher and the Christian. - That we may have the whole subject before us at once, it may be proper to place, under its proper head, the Se- veral grants or laws which have been made on these matters at different times. See Grant to Adam, Gen. 1: 29. 2: 16. Grant to Noah, Gen. 9: 3, 4. Jennish Lany, Lev. 17: 10, 11. Christian Lany, Acts 15: 28, 29. Jennish Restrictions, Lev. 11. Christian Liberty, Acts 10: 9, 15. 1 Cor. 10: 25, 26. 1 Tim. 4: 4, 5. Gen. 2: 16. 9: 3, 4. Lev. 17: 10, 11. Acts 15: 28, 29. Lev. 11. Acts 10: 9, 15. 1 Cor. 10: 25, 26. 1 Tim, 4: 4, 5. In these passages we have a general view of the law of Scripture on the subject of meats, from the earliest period to the present time. It is evident there has been a con- siderable difference in it during the several dispensations. At first, the grant of food was very limited ; it afterwards was greatly extended; by the Mosaic law it was restricted in a peculiar manner, and now again we enjoy a high degree of liberty. On THE GRANT To ADAM we would observe : 1. That in the state of original innocence, neither man nor beasts seem to have been intended to live upon ani- mals. Man was allowed vegetables and fruit; beasts were restricted to the use of the green herb. 2. Whatever is not mentioned in the grant, must be con- sidered as excluded from it; for Adam could have no ex- perience of the fitness or unfitness of any thing for food, but what he was told by God. He would, therefore, judge every thing improper or unlawful which he was not ex- pressly permitted to use. *. 3. To the general use of fruits there was one particular exception;–the fruit of the tree of knowledge, which was intended to answer, certain important moral purposes. 4. The first grant, we have no doubt, was fully ade- quate to all the wants of the first race of men; and suffi- cient to nourish them under a genial climate, and with the small degree of labor which they had to undergo. 5. The slaughtering of animals would perhaps have been inconsistent with a state of innocence. The sorrows and death of the brute creation are connected with a state of sin, as well as our own. Even the heathen excluded the use of animals from their golden age. “During the reign of Saturn, that is, the golden age,” says Dicaearchus, quoted by Jerome, “when the ground poured forth in abundance, no flesh was eaten, but all lived on vegetables and fruits, which the earth brought folth spontaneously.” *** So Ovid': - . g . At vetus illq atas, cui ſecimus aurea numen Føtibus arborets, et quºts humus educat herbis Fortunata fuit, mec pollutit ora cruore.-I, xv. And Plato tells us “men all then lived from the earth, for they had abundance of trees and fruits; the soil being so fruitful that it supplied those fruits with its own accord, without the labor of agriculture.”—Gale, C. G. p. i. 336. 6. It is impossible to say from Scripture whether the antediluvians used animal food or not. It is by no means improbable they transgressed this as well as other divine precepts; that they had not received permission so to do is evident, both from this, and also from THE GRANT To NoAH; on which we now observe : 1. That this is the first revealed grant of animals for food. They had already been slain in sacrifice, but not for meat. The reasons assigned by Bochart and Grotius for being of a different opinion have little weight, and have been repeatedly answered. - 2. There is in the second grant a plain allusion to the first, which is quite inexplicable on the ground of any previous permission to use animal food. “Even as the green herb have I given you all things.” Had animal food been allowed in the grant to Adam, would not a grant to Noah have been unnecessary 2 3. The grant of animal food was now probably given on account of the physical changes produced both on, the world and the human constitution by the flood. Men are now subjected to a greater degree of bodily labor ; they of course require more nourishing aliment than vegeta- ble ; and perhaps the vegetable productions themselves are less nutritious than they were before ; and in many parts of the earth—a sufficiency of vegetable food could not be procured; such are all the cold northern and southern regions of the globe. By having a choice of food we are enabled to suit it to our health and circumstances, and to resist the debilitating effects of changeable and unfriendly atmospheres. Merciful are all the appointments of God. 4. As in the first, so also in the second grant, is there an exception, or limitation:—“Flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat.” This limita- tion we understand to contain two things; first, it prohibits eating the flesh of a living animal ; and, next, the blood of a creature by itself; for this plain reason, that the blood was the life of the animal. The first will generally be granted, because the practice is repugnant to our feel- ings and to humanity; the latter, however, has been a subject of dispute. (See ANIMAL; and BLoop.) i On the Jewish AND CHRISTIAN LAw upon this subject, it appears that they both unite in prohibiting the same thing—blood, whether in or out of the animal; for things strangled seem to relate to things strangled for the sake of keeping the blood in them. It deserves to be noticed, that the Christian prohibition is absolute. The decree assigns neither one reason nor another. Its language is as pointed with regard to blood as to fornication; and no man has any right to add rea- sons limiting the prohibition to particular times or cir- cumstances, where the Holy Spirit has been silent. That which had never before been granted, this decree undoubt- edly does not sanction. - The Christian law prohibits also “meats offered to idols,” or “pollutions of idols.” “Meats were polluted by idolatrous worship when the whole had been previously offered in sacrifice, and a part afterwards converted into a feast, or when a part was taken from table and put into the fire, with an invocation of the idol. Now, as meats are “sanctified by the word of God and prayer,” (1 Tim. 4:3, 5;) so meats are polluted by the name of idols, and prayer to them. From the first epistle to the Corinthians, ch. 8: 10, it appears that the Gentile brethren were not always very willing to admit this truth, but were some- times inclined to feast with their heathen neighbors, not only in private houses, but even in the temples of idols. It was necessary, therefore, to write unto them to abstain from those pollutions. This prohibition is inculcated and defended by Paul, at great length, in the passages just mentioned of his epistle to the Corinthians, which afford an excellent illustration of this clause in the decree, and of the manner in which Christians are bound to observe F O O fo R [ 543 it. Some have thought that Paul departs from the strict letter of this injunction, because, in ch. 8, he argues merely from the effect of example. But his doctrine, when fully examined, will be found exactly the same with that of James. It still amounts to a prohibition; for al- though he allows all meats to be indifferent in themselves, he expressly condemns the practice of eating meats offered to idols, especially in ch. 10, where he shows it to be inconsistent with fellowship at the table of the Lord, with regard for the conscience of other men, and with the duty of a Christian, whether he eats or drinks, or whatsoever he does, to do all to the glory of God. Wherever meats, therefore, are polluted by idolatrous worship, Christians, when they know the fact, are to testify their abhorrence of idolatry by abstaining from such meats.”—Ewing's Ilect. on Acts 15. * . . It is not unworthy of observation, that Mahomet pro- hibits his followers from eating the same things which are forbidden by the Jewish and Christian laws.-Hend. Buck. FOOL ; one who has not the use of reason or judgment. In Scripture, wicked persons are often called fools, or foolish, because such act contrary to reason, trust to their own hearts, violate the laws of God, and prefer things vile, trifling, and temporal, to such as are important, di- vine, and eternal. . Our Lord seems to have used the term in a sense some- what peculiar, in Matt. 5:22. “Whosoever shall say to his brother, thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.” But the whole verse shows the meaning to be, that when, any one of his professed disciples indulges a temper and disposition of mind opposite to charity, or that peculiar love which the brethren of Christ are bound by his law to have towards each other, (John 13:34.) not only evineing anger against another without a cause, but also treating him with contemptuous language, he shall be in danger of eternal destruction.—Hend. Buck; Jones. FOOLISH SPEAKING; such kind of conversation as includes folly, and can no ways be profitable and inte- resting, Eph. 5:4. Facetiousness, indeed, is allowable, when it ministers to harmless divertisement, and delight to conversation; when it is used for the purpose of expos- ing things which are base and vile; when it has for its aim the reformation of others ; when used by way of de- ſence under unjust reproach. But all such kind of speak- ing as includes profane jesting, loose, wanton, Scurrilous, injurious, unseasonable, vain-glorious talk, is strictly for- bidden. See Barron's excellent Sermon on this subject in his Works, vol. i. ser. 14.—Hend. Buck. FOOLS, (FEAST of.) Festivals under this name were regularly celebrated from the fifth to the sixteenth century,in several countries of Europe, by the clergy and laity, with the most absurd ceremonies, and form one of the strangest phenomena in the history of mankind. They were an imitation of the Saturnalia, or heathen festivals, and like these were celebrated in December. The chief celebration fell on New Year, or Innocents' Day ; but the feast con- tinued from Christmas to the last Sunday of Epiphany. At first only the boys of the choir, and young sacristans, played the principal part in them; but afterwards all the inferior servants of the church, whilst the bishop, or high- est clergymen of the place, with the canons, formed the audience. The young people, who played the chief parts, chose from their own number a bishop or archbishop of fools, as he was called, and consecrated him, with many ridicu- lous ceremonies, in the principal church of the place. This officer then took the usual seat of the bishop, and caused high mass to be said, unless he preferred to read it himself, and to give the people his blessing. During this time the rest of the performers, dressed in different kinds of masks and disguises, engaged in indecent songs and dances, and practised all possible follies in the church. These incongruous practices were condemned by popes and councils, and forbidden by the Sorbonne in 1444; but they continued to be stoutly defended till the time of the reformation.—Hend. Buck. . ." . FOOT. Anciently it was customary to wash the feet of strangers coming off a journey, because generally they travelled barefoot, or wore sandals only, which did not secure them from dust or dirt, Jesus Christ washed the feet of his apostles and thereby taight them to perform the humblest services for one another. Feet, in the sas cred writers, often mean inclinations, affections, propensi, ties, actions, motions : “Guide my feet in thy paths.” “Keep thy feet at a distance from evil.” “The feet of the debauched woman go down to death.” “Let not the foot of pride come against me.” “If thou turn away thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure on my holy day,” (Isa. 58: 13;) if thou forbear walking and travelling on the sabbath-day, and do not then thine ownt will. We know that journeys were forbidden on the sab- bath-day, Matt. 24:20. Acts 1: 12. To be at any one's feet, signifies obeying him, listening to his instructions and commands. Moses says that “the Lord loved his people; all his saints are in thy hand: and they sat down at his feet,” Deut. 33: 3. St. Paul was brought up at the feet of Gamaliel. Mary sat at our Savior's feet, and heard his word, Luke 10: 39. - 2. To be under any one's feet, to be a footstool to him, signifies the absolute subjection of enemies; but not their reconciliation or willing obedience. It is a phrase which is illustrated by the history of the five kings of Canaan, and is clearly an allusion to it. See Josh. 10: 24, com- pared with Ps. 110: 1. 3. It is said that the land of Canaan is not like Egypt, “where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot,” Deut. 11; 10. Palestine is a country which has rains, plentiful devs, springs, rivulets, brooks, &c., that supply the earth with the moisture necessary to its fruit- fulness. On the contrary, Egypt has no river except the * Nile : there it seldom rains, and the lands which are not within reach of the inundation continue parched and bar- ren. To supply this want, ditches are dug from the river, and water is distributed throughout the several villages and cantoms: there are great struggles who shall first ob- tain it; and, in this dispute, they frequently come to blows. Notwithstanding these precautions, many places have no water; and, in the course of the year, those places which are nearest the Nile require to be watered again by means of art and labor. This was formerly done by the help of machines, one of which is thus de- scribed by Philo : It is a wheel which a man turns by the motion of his feet, by ascending successively the several steps that are within it. This is what Moses means in this place by saying, that, in Egypt, they water the earth with their feet. The water is is conveyed to cisterns; and when the gardens want refreshment, water is con- ducted by trenches to the beds in little rills, which are stopped by the foot, and turned at pleasure into different directions.—Watson. FOOTSTOOL. The common manner of sitting, in the Eastern countries, is upon the ground, or floor, with the legs crossed. People of distinction have the floors of their chambers covered with carpets for this purpose ; and round the chamber broad couches, raised a little above the floor, spread with mattresses handsomely covered, which are called sofas. When sitting is spoken of as a posture of more than ordinary state, it is quite of a differ- ent kind; and means sitting on high, on a chair of state or throne; for which a footstool was necessary, both in order that the person might raise himself up to it, and for sup- porting the legs when he was placed in it. “Chairs,” says Sir John Chardin, “are never used in Persia, but at the co- romation of their kings, when the monarch is seated in a chair of gold set with jewels, three feet high. The chairs which are used by the people in the East are always so high as to make a footstool necessary; and this proves the propriety of the style of Scripture which always joins the footstool to the throne, Isa. 66: 1. Ps, 1.10: 1.” Char- din's Travels in Persia.-Jones. FORBEARANCE, is the act of patiently enduring pro- vocation or offence. The following may be considered as the most powerful incentives to the exercise of this disposi- tion :-1. The consideration that we ourselves often stand in need of it from others, Gal. 6: 1. 2. The expresscommand of Scripture, Eph. 4:2. Col. 3: 13. 3. The felicity of this disposition. It is sure to bring happiness at last, while resentment only increases our own misery. 4. That it is one of the strongest evidences we can give of the reality of our religion, John 13: 35. 5. The beautiful example of Christ, Heb, 12: 3. 1 Pet, 2:21–23.-Hend. Buck. F OR F OR [ 544 | FORBEARANCE OF GOD. (See PATIENCE of God.) FORDYCE, (JAMEs, D. D.) an admired Scotch divine, was born, in 1720, at Åberdeen; was educated at Maris. chal college; and was, successively, minister at Brechin, Alloa, and Monkwell street, London. In 1782, he relin- quished the pastoral office, and retired first to Hampshire, and afterwards to Bath, He died at Bath, in 1796. Dr. Fordyce is said to have been a warm hearted evangelical Christian. His compositions are elegant, but not eminent- ly distinguished for gospel truth, if we except his excellent charge to his successor, Dr. Lindsay. He wrote Sermons to Young Women; Addresses to Young Men i. Addresses to the Deity; and some single Sermons. His brother, David, born in 1711, and died in 1750, was also in orders; and wrote Dialogues concerning Education; Theodorus, a Dialogue on the Art of Preaching; and the Treatise on Moral Philosophy, in Dodsley’s Preceptor.—Daven- port ; Jones's Chris. Biog. FOREHEAD, (MARK on THE,) Ezekiel 9:4, Mr. Maurice, speaking of the religious rites of the Hindoos, says, before they can enter the great pagoda, an indispen- sable ceremony takes place, which can only be performed by the hand of a brahmin ; and that is, the impression of their foreheads with the tiluk, or mark of different colors, as they may belong either to the sect of Veeshnu, or Seeva. If the temple be that of Veeshnu, their foreheads are marked with a longitudinal line, and the color used is vermillion. If it be the temple of Seeva, they are marked ... with a parallel line, and the color used is tumeric, or saffron. But these two grand sects being again subdivid- ed into numerous classes, both the size and the shape ºf the tiluk are varied, in proportion to their superior or infe- rior rank. In regard to the tiluk, I must observe, that it was a custom of very ancient date in Asia to mark their servants in the forehead. It is alluded to in these words of Ezekiel, where the Almighty commands his angels to “go through the midst of the city, and set a mark on the foreheads of the men who sigh for the abominations com- mitted in the midst thereof.” The same idea occurs also in Rev. 7: 3. 22:4.—Watson. - FOREKNOWLEDGE OF GOD, is his foresight or knowledge of every thing that is to come to pass, Acts 2: 23. This foreknowledge, says Charnock, was from eter- nity. Seeing he knows things possible in his power, and things future in his will, if his power and resolves were from eternity, his knowledge must be so too; or else we must make him ignorant of his own power, and ignorant of his own will from eternity, and consequently not from eternity blessed and perfect. His knowledge of possible things must run parallel with his will. If he willed from etermity, he knew from etermity what he willed; but that he did will from eternity we must grant, unless we would render him changeable, and conceive him to be made in time of not willing, willing. The knowledge God hath in time was always one and the same, because his under- standing is his proper essence, as perfect as his essence, and of an immutable nature. “To deny this (says Saurin) is to degrade the Al- mighty; for what, pray, is a God who created beings, and who could not foresee what would result from their exist- ence 2 A God who formed spirits united to bodies by cer- tain laws, and who did not know how to combine these laws so as to foresee the effects they would produce : A God forced to suspend his judgment? A God who every day learns something new, and who doth not know to-day what will happen to-morrow 2 A God who cannot tell whether peace will be concluded, or war continue to ra- vage the world; whether religion will be received in a certain kingdom, or whether it will be banished; whether the right heir will succeed to the crown, or whether the crown will be set on the head of an usurper ? For accord- ing to the different determinations of the wills of men, of king, or people, the prince will make peace, or declare war; religion will be banished or admitted; the tyrant or the lawful king will occupy the throne : for if God cannot foresee how the volitions of men will be determined, he cannot foresee any of these events. What is this but to degrade God from his Deity, and to make the most perfect of all intelligences a being involved in darkness and un- certainty like ourselves.” (See OMNIscience.) The whole plan of man's redemption resolves itself in- to the Divine foreknowledge; and every minute circum- stance pertaining to it was regulated thereby, Rom. 8: 29, 30. Eph. 1: 3–12. 2 Tim. 1:9. All the heirs of salvation are said to have been foreknown to God; for “whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate,” Rom. 8:29. To know in Scripture, often includes the idea of special favor and good will, as in Exod. 33: 17. John 10: 14, 15; and God's foreknowledge of his people is evidently used in this sense by the apostle, when he says, “God hath not cast away his people whom he fore- knew,” Rom. 11; 2. “He hath not appointed them to wrath; but to obtain salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ, who died for them, that whether they wake or sleep they should live together with him,” 1 Thess. 5: 9, 10. Ş. the articles ELECTION and PREDESTINATION.)—Hend. uck; Jones. - - FORE-ORDAIN, is to appoint before hand to some specific end or purpose. Thus the apostle says, “ Christ was fore-ordained before the foundation of the world,” 1 Pet. 1: 20 ; that is, he was appointed, or destined, in the Divine etermal counsels, to the great work of redeeming sinners, which in due time he accomplished by the shed. ding of his own precious blood, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot, ver. 18, 19. See also Ps. 40: 6–8. Heb. 10: 5–10.—Jones. ` FORE-RUNNER, (Gr. prodromos,) precursor, denotes a person who hastens before to some particular place, with the view of arranging certain important concerns belong- ing to others that are coming aſter. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews applies the title to Christ, in that well-known passage, ch. 6: 20: “Whither the fore-runner is for us entered, even Jesus, made an high-priest forever after the order of Melchisedek.” There is, probably, in this adoption of the term, an allusion to Christ's own con- solatory words before he left the world: “I go to prepare a place for you; and if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you to myself; that where I am, there ye may be also,” John 14: 2, 3.. He is gone in- to heaven not only as the High-priest but also as the Head of the Christian church, and as such to make way for the entrance of all his people after him.—Jones. FORESKIN. (See CIRCUMcision.) FOREST; a woody tract of ground. There were se- veral such tracts in Canaan, especially in the northern parts. The chief of these were, THE Forest of EPHRAIM, near Mahanaim. THE Forest of HARETH, in Judah. - The Forest of LIBANUs. In addition to the proper forest of Libanus, where the cedars grow, Scripture thus calls a palace, which Solomon built at Jerusalem, contigu- ous to the palace of the king of Egypt's daughter; and in which he usually resided. All the vessels of it were of gold. It was called the house of the forest of Libanus, probably from the great quantity of cedar used in it, i Kings 7: 2. 10: 27. FORGET. Men forget God when they neglect to think of and worship him; when they break his laws, and pour contempt on any thing pertaining to him, Judg. 3: 7. Men forget Jerusalem when they are thoughtless of and unconcerned how things go in the church, Ps. 137: 5. God’s elect forget their father's house and their own peo- ple; in embracing Christianity, the Jews quitted their own ceremonies and temple; in receiving Christ, every one quits his natural dispositions, false persuasions, self. righteousness, and sinful customs; and parts with natu- ral relations so as to prefer Christ to all, Ps. 45: 10. Saints forget the things behind when they disesteem their works and attainments, and think of, and press after fur- ther knowledge of, intimacy with, and conformity to, Christ, Phil. 3: 15.—Bronn. - ... FORGIVENESS, (CHRISTIAN;) the pardon of any of. fence committed against us. The Christian lawgiver, while forbidding the retaliation of injuries, hath suspend- ed the exercise of forgiveness among his disciples, upon the repentance of the transgressor, or on an ac- knowledgment of having done wrong., “If he repent, forgive him,” Matt. 18: 15–35, comp. with Luke 17:3, 4. But when the sin or trespass is confessed, the forgive. ness must be prompt and from the very heart; free from ~ F o R [ 545 J all mental reservation ; no grudging, no evil surmising 'must be entertained; in their manner of forgiving, Chris- tians must imitate that divine pattern which their heaven- ly Father hath set them, when, “for Christ's sake he for- gave them,” Col. 3: 12, 13. Eph. 4:32. And he has bound them in the most solemn manner to the exercise of this duty under the awful penalty of not having their own daily trespasses forgiven, and themselves rejected in the great day of account, Matt. 6: 12, 14, 15. 18: 21–35. To all which may be added, that Christianity, in the most pointed manner, forbids its friends to retaliate injuries, which they may sustain from the unbelieving world; but, on the contrary, they are to “love their ene- “mies; to bless those that curse them; to do good to such as hate them; and to pray for those who despitefully use and persecute them,” Matt. 5:44. “This,” says an in- genious writer, “was a lesson so new and utterly un- known, till taught by his doctrines and enforced by his example, that the wisest moralists of the wisest nations and ages represented the desire of revenge as a mark of a noble mind. But how much more magnanimous, how much more beneficial to mankind, is forgiveness . It is more magnanimous, because every generous and exalted disposition of the human mind is requisite to the practice of it; and it is the most beneficial, because it puts an end to an eternal succession of injuries and retaliations.” It has been truly said, “The feuds and animosities in fami- lies, and between neighbors, which disturb the intercourse of human life, and collectively compose half the misery of it, have their foundation in the want of a forgiving temper, and can never cease but by the exercise of this virtue on one side, or on both.” Paley's Mor: Phil. vol. i. p. 271; Soame. Jenyn's Int. Evid. pp. 67,68; Clarke's Ser, ser. ii. vol. x.; Tºilotson's Ser, vol. viii. p. 254.— Massilon's Sermons ; Hend. Buck ; Jones. - FORGIVENESS OF SINS. (See PARDon; MERcy.) FORM, is generally taken for the figure, shape, or like- ness of a thing. Thus one of Job’s friends, alluding to a nocturnal spectre, says, “I could not discern the form thereof.” Job 4: 16. Sometimes it is taken for a draught or pattern of any thing. So the apostle says to Timothy, “ Hold fast the form of sound words, which thou hast heard of me,” (2 Tim. 1: 13.) that is, let all thy discourses correspond exactly to “the faith once delivered to the saints;” and adhere closely to the original pattern. It is also taken to denote external splendor, pomp, and dignity. Hence the prophet says of the Messiah, “He hath no form, nor ...sºs. 53: 2.) that is, he possessed no such outward state and splendor as the Jews expected in their Messiah. But the most remarkable passage in which this term occurs is Phil. 2:6, where the apostle, speaking of Christ, says, that “being in the form of God, he thought it no robbery to be equal with God, but made himself of no reputation, and took upon him the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of man.”—Jones. ... FORM OF GOD." Phil. 2:6. This remarkable expres- sion has been made the subject of endless criticism, and for very opposite purposes; but as it is incompatible with a work of this nature to go at large into matters of con- troversy, we shall content ourselves with subjoining Dr. Macknight's Note on the place. “As the apostle is speak- ing of what Christ was before he took the form of a ser. vant, the form of God, of which he is said to have divest- ed himself, (ver, 7.) when he became man, cannot be any thing which he possessed during his incarnation, or in his divested state; consequently, neither the opinion of Eras- mus, that “the form of God” consisted in those sparks of divinity by which Christ, during his incarnation, mani- fested his Godhead; nor the opinion of the Socinians, that it consisted in the power of working miracles, is well founded. For Christ did not divest himself either of the one or the other, but possessed both, all the time of his public ministry. In like manner, the opinion of those, who by “the form of God” understand the Divine nature, and the government of the world, cannot be admitted; since Christ, when he became man, could not divest him- self of the nature of God. And with respect to the go- vernment of the world, we are led by what the apostle says, (Heb. 1: 3.) to believe he did not part with that ; but in his divested state ºil. upheld all thirgs by the 9 - word of his power.” The opinion of Whitby, therefore and others, seem better founded, who, by “the form of God,” understand that glorious state in which the Deity is said to dwell, (1 Tim. 6: 16.) and in which he manifested himself to the patriarchs of old, (Deut. 5: 22–24.) and which was commonly accompanied with a numerous re- tinue of angels, (Ps. 68: 17.) and which in Scripture is called the similitude, (Num. 12; 8.) the face, (Ps. 31: 16.) the presence, º 33: 15.) and the shape of God, John 5: 37. This interpretation is supported by the term morphe here used, which signifies a person’s external ap- pearance, and not his nature or essence, Mark 16: 12. att. 17: 2. Farther, this interpretation agrees with the fact: “The form of God,” that is, the visible glory, and the attendance of angels above described, the Son of God enjoyed with his Father, before the world was, (John 17: 5.) and on that, as on other accounts, he is “the bright- ness of the Father's glory,” Heb. 1: 3. But he divested himself thereof when he assumed human nature.—Last- ly, this sense of the words morphe theou is confirmed by the meaning of morphen doulou, (ver. 7.) which evidently denotes the state, or appearance and behavior of a ser- vant.” See Macknight's Translation of the Apostolic Epis- tles. Note on Phil. 2: 6. See also M'Lean's Commenta- ry on Heb. 1: 3, in his Works, vol. v. p. 16–18; and Works of Robert Hall, vol. iii. 24 and 340.-Jones. FORMALIST, one who places his dependence on the outward ceremonies of religion, or who is more tenacious of the form of religion than the power of it, 2 Tim. 3: 5. —Hend. Buck. . . . . FORMS OF PRAYER. (See PRAYER.), , , , FORNICATION ; whoredom, or the act of incontinency between single persons; for if either of the parties be married, it is adultery. While the Scriptures give no sanction to those austerities which have been imposed on men under the idea of religion, so, on the other hand, they give no liberty for the indulgence of any propensity that would either militate against our own interest or that of others. It is in vain to argue the innocency of fornica- tion from the natural passions implanted in us, since “marriage is honorable in all,” and wisely appointed for the prevention of those evils which would otherwise en- sue; and, besides, the existence of any natural propensi- ty in us, is no proof that it is to be gratified without any restriction. That fornication is both unlawful and unrea- sonable, may be easily inferred, if we consider, 1. That our Savior expressly declares this to be a crime, Mark 7: 21, 23. 2. That the Scriptures declare that fornicators cannot inherit the kingdom of God, 1 Cor. 6:9. Heb. 12: 16. Gal. 5:-19–22. 3. Fornication sinks into a mere bru- tal commerce, a gratification which was designed to be the cement of a sacred, generous, and tender friendship.- 4. It leaves the maintenance and education of children, as to the father, at least, utterly unsecured. 5. It strongly tempts the guilty mother to guard herself from infamy by methods of procuring abortion, which not only de- stroys the child, but often the mother. 6. It disqualifies the deluded creatures to be either good wives or mothers, in any future marriage, ruining that modesty which is the guardian of nuptial happiness. 7. It absolutely disquali- fies a man for the best satisfactions,—those of truth, vir- tue, innocent gratifications, tender and generous friend- ship. 8. It often propagates a disease which may be ac- counted one of the sorest maladies of human nature, and the effects of which are said to visit the constitution of even distant generations.—Hend. Buck. . FORSAKE. Men forsake God and his law when they disregard and contemn him, and disobey his law, deny his truth, neglect his worship, and depend not on his fulness, Jer. 17: 3. .9: 13. God seemingly forsakes his people when he withdraws his sensible presence, and withholds his assistance and comfort, (Ps. 71: 11. 22: 1. Isa. 49: 14.) but he never forsakes them as to real love, or such influence as is absolutely necessary for the sub- sistence of their graces, Heb. 13: 5. Ps. 37: 28. (See DESERTION.)—Bronm. - FORTITUDE, is a virtue or quality of the mind gene. rally considered the same with courage; though, in a more accurate sense, they seem to be distinguishable. Courage resists danger,-fortitude supports pain. Cou- Fo U FO U [ 546 ) rage may be a virtue or vice, according to the circum- stances; fortitude is always a virtue : we speak of despe- rate courage, but not of desperate fortitude. A contempt or neglect of dangers may be called courage; but forti- tude is the virtue of a rational and considerate mind, and is founded in a sense of honor, and a regard to duty. Christian fortitude may be defined that state of mind which arises from truth and confidence in God; enables us to stand collected and undisturbed in the time of diffi- culty and danger; and is at an equal distance from rash- ness on the one hand, and pusillanimity on the other. Fortitude takes different names, according as it acts, in opposition to different evils; but some of those names are applied with considerable latitude. With respect to danger in general, fortitude has been called intrepidity; with respect to the dangers of war, valor; with respect to pain of body, or distress of mind, patience; with re- spect to labor, activity; with respect to injury, forbear- ance; with respect to our condition in general, magnani- mitv. - - ~~ ºristian fortitude is necessary to vigilance, patience, self-denial, and perseverance; and is requisite under af. fliction, temptation, persecution, desertion, and death. The noble cause in , which the Christian is engaged, the glorious Master whom he serves, the provision that is made for his security, the illustrious examples set before him, the approbation of a good conscience, and the grand prospect he has in view, are all powerful motives to the exercise of this grace. Watts's Ser., ser, 31; Evans's Ser., ser. 19. vol. i.; Steele's Christian Hero ; Mason's Ser, vol. i. ser. 5.—Hend. Buck. - FORTUNATUS. Paul calls Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus, the first-fruits of Achaia, and set for the ser- vice of the church and saints. They carried Paul's first epistle to Corinth, 1 Cor. 16:15, 17.-Calmet. - FOSTER, (JAMEs, D. D.) an eloquent dissenting minister of England, was born, in 1697, at Exeter. He quitted the Independent sect to become a General Baptist. He suc- ceeded Dr. Gale as preacher at the Barbican, and was after- wards minister at Pinner's Hall, and lecturer at the Old Jewry. Such were his talents as a pulpit orator, that crowds flocked to hear him, and even Pope sang his praise. He died in 1752. He wrote an Essay on Fundamentals; Tracts on Heresy; Discourses on Natural and Social Vir. tue; and other works.--Davenport. - FOSTER, (BENJAMIN, D. D.) pastor of the first Baptist church in the city of New York, was born at Danvers, Mass. June 12th, 1750. His parents were pious mem- bers of the Congregational church in that town, whose cares in his Christian education were rewarded by evidence of his early piety. At the age of eighteen, he was sent to Yale college, Conn. where, under president Dagget, he soon distinguished himself, no less as a Christian, than as a scholar. While there, the subject of baptism being agi- tated, Mr. Foster was appointed to defend infant sprink- ling; but after an anxious examination, he astonished the college by avowing himself a convert to Baptist principles. After graduating in 1772, he was baptized by the Rev. Dr. Stillman, of Boston, with whom he afterwards pursued his theological studies. He was settled in the ministry at Leicester, Mass. whence he removed to Danvers, and Newport, R. I. and in 1788, to New York. There he la- bored with fidelity, honor, and usefulness, till his lamented death, during the yellow fever, in 1798, aged forty-nine years. As an oriental scholar, an evangelical divine, and inde- fatigable preacher, Dr. Foster left few superiors behind him. He published a learned Dissertation on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel; The Divine Rite of Immersion; and Primitive Baptism Defended.—Benedict, vol. ii. 301. FOUNDATION ; the groundwork or lowest part of a building, and that upon which the superstructure rests; thus we speak of the foundation of a house, of a castle, of a fort, or tower, &c. The word is frequently used by the prophets and apostles, but almost always in reference to Christ, and his church and kingdom, or the heavenly state. Thus the prophet, “Behold I lay in Ziofi, for a foundation, a stone, a tried stone, a precious corner-stone, a sure foundation,” Is. 38: 16. This text is quoted by the apostle Peter, and expressly applied to Christ, 1 Pet. 2: 6. He is the alone ground of hope to guilty men the only true foundation of peace, comfort, wisdom; and holiness. All the great and précious promises which God hath made to men, centre in him, for “they are all yea and amen in Christ;” sure and stable, being ratified by his blood and their accomplishment infallibly secured to the heirs of promise, 2 Cor. 1: 20. . . . . . . . . . Christ is also the foundation of the church; the corner- stone which unites the whole building and all its several parts. In him there is neither Jew nor Greek, barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free, but Christ is all, and in all, Col. 3: 11. He hath broken down the middle wall of partition which formerly separated Jews and Gentiles, destroyed the enmity which had so long subsisted between theme reconciling both of them unto God and to one another, in virtue of his death upon the cross, and by means of the influence of the Gospel upon their minds, through the power of the Holy Spirit; and hence they become united in one church, under him, their head and governor, “are built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner-stone; in whom all the building fitly framed together, groweth un- to an holy temple in the Lord, a habitation of God, through the Spirit,” Eph. 2: 20–22. That the apostle in this passage had the temple of Diana at Ephesus in his eye, and intended to contrast with it the Christian church as the temple of God, is too obvious to require proof, and the felicity of the allusion has been admired even by lord Shaftesbury. . . . . . . , . . . . The inhabitants of Ephesus gloried exceedingly in the honor which their city derived from its being adorned with so magnificent a structure, and were intoxicated with the splendor of its worship. ...(See DIANA). The apostle, therefore, to lessen in his Christian brethren of that city, their admiration of that famoustºmple, and to wean them from the worship of the lifeless image of an idol, contrasts with it the Christian church, which is a temple much more magnificent and beautiful; being built, not upon the foundation of wooden piles driven deep into the earth, like the temple of Diana, but upon the more sure founda- tion of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself be: ing the chief corner-stone; a temple, too, not constructed of stones and other lifeless materials, but of living men, whose hearts, being purified by faith, were rendered ca- pable of offering up spiritual worship; a temple, not de- dicated to an idol, but to the living and true God, who fills with his presence every part of it, Eph. 3: 19.- Jones. The Corner Stone, by J. Abbott. - - FOUNDER. God and his prophets are likened to a founder, because, by the judgments declared by the pro- phets, and executed by God, nations are melted with trou. ble, to purge off their dross, and form them into a con- formity to his will, Jér. 6: 29-Brown. FOUNTAIN, is properly the source or spring-head of waters. There were several celebrated fountains in Ju- dea, such as that of Rogel, of Gihon, of Siloam, of Na- zareth, &c. &c. and allusions to them are often to be met with in both the Old and New Testament. Dr. Chand- ler, in his travels in Asia Minor, says, “the reader, as we proceed, will find frequent mention of fountains. Their number is owing to the nature of the country and the climate. The soil, parched and thirsty, demands moisture to aid vegetation ; and a cloudless sun, which inflames the air, requires for the people the verdure, with shade and air, its agreeable attendants. Hence fountains are met with not only in the towns and villages, but in the fields and gardens, and by the sides of the roads, and of the beaten tracks on the mountains. Many of them are the useful donations of humane persons, while living, or have been bequeathed as legacies on their decease.” As fountains of water were so extremely valuable to the inhabitants of the eastern countries, it is easy to under- stand why the inspired writers so frequently allude to them, and thence deduce some of their most beautiful and striking similitudes, when they would set forth the choic- est spiritual blessings. Thus Jeremiah calls the blessed God, “the fountain of living waters,” ch. 2: 13. As those springs or fountains of water are the most valuable and highly prized, which never intermit or cease to flow, but are always sending forth their streams, such is Jeho. F O X. F O X. & vah to the souls of his people ; he is a perennial sourge of felicity, John 17; 3. Ps, 36: 7; 9. 16.11. Rev. 7. 17. Zechariah, pointing in his days to the atonement which was to be made in the fulness of time, by the shed- ding of the blood of Christ, describes, it as a fountain that was to be opened, in which the inhabitants of Jeru. salem might wash away all their impurities. “In that day there shall be a fountain opened to the house of Da- vid, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for sin and ſor uncleanness,” Zech. 13: 1. Joel. 3; 18. (See Abound.) The word fountain is sometimes taken to denote chil. dren or posterity, as in Prov. 5: 16. “Let thy fountains be dispersed abroad:” that is, may thy posterity be nu- merous, Again, in Deut. 33:28, it is said, “the ſountain of Jacob shall be upon a land of corn and wine;” that is, the people that proceed from Jacob. In these and other passages, fountains are put for streams or rivers flowing from them, by a metonymy of the cause for the effect.—Jones. ... . . . . . . . . . . . ..FOWL. The Hebrew ouph, which we translate fowl, from the Saxon fleon, to fly, is a word used to denote birds in general. (See BIRDs.)—Calmet. FOX, or, JACKAL. . This animal is called in Scripture shual, probably from his burrowing, or making holes in the earth, to hide himself, or to dwell in. The LXX ren- der it by alopez, the fox; so the Vulgate, vulpes, and our English translation, fox. But still it is no easy matter to determine, whether the animal intended be the common fox, or the jackal, the little eastern fox, as Hasselquist calls him. Several of the modern Oriental names of the jackal, from their resemblance to the Hebrew, favor the latter interpretation; and Dr. Shaw, and other travellers, inform us, that while jackals are very numerous in Pales. tine, the common fox is rarely to be met with. ... We shall be safe, perhaps, under these circumstances, in admitting, with Shaw, Taylor, and other critics and writers on natural history, that the Hebrew Shu AL is the jackal of the East. We shall first describe this animal, and then notice those passages of Scripture in which he is spoken of “. . The jackal, or thaleb, as he is called in Arabia and Egypt, is said to be of the size of a middling dog, resem- bling the fox in the hinder parts, particularly the tail; and the wolf in the fore parts, especially the nose. Its legs are shorter than those of the fox, and its color is of a bright yellow. There seems to be many varieties among them; those of the warmest climates appear to be the largest, and their color is rather of a reddish brown, than of that beautiful yellow by which the smaller jackal is chiefly distinguished. - . . . - - Although the species of the wolf approaches very near to that of the dog, yet the jackal seems to be placed be- tween them; to the savage fierceness of the wolf, it adds the impudent familiarity of the dog. Its cry is a howl, mixed with barking, and a lamentation resembling that of human distress. It is more noisy in its pursuits even than the dog, and more voracious than the wolf. The jackal never goes alone, but always in a pack of forty or fifty together. These unite regularly every day, to form a combination against the rest of the forest. Nothing then can escape them; they are content to teke up with whole go down. the smallest animals; and yet, when thus united, they have courage to face the largest. They seem very little afraid of mankind, but pursue their game to the very doors, testifying neither attachment or apprehension. They enter insolently into the sheepfolds, the yards, and the stables, and, when they can find nothing else, devour the leather harness, boots, and shoes, and run off with what they have not time to swallow. They not only at- tack the living, but the dead. They scratch up with their feet the new-made graves, and devour the corpse, how putrid soever. In those countries, therefore, where they abound, they are obliged to beat the earth over the grave, and to mix it with thorns, to prevent the jackals from scraping it away. They always assist each other as well in this employment of exhumation as in that of the chase, and while at their dreary work, exhort each other by a most mournful cry, resembling that of children under chastisement; and when they have thus dug up the body they share it amicably between them. Like all other Savage animals, when they have once tasted human flesh, they can never after refrain from pursuing mankind. They watch the burying grounds, follow armies, and keep in the rear of caravans. They may be considered as the vulture of the quadruped kind; every thing that once had animal life seems equally agreeable to them ; the most putrid substances are greedily devoured; dried leather, and any thing that has been rubbed with grease, how insipid soever in itself, is sufficient to make the Such is the character which naturalists have furnished of the jackal, or Egyptian fox : let us see what references are made to it in Scripture. To its car- nivorous habits there is an allusion in Ps. 63: 9, 10. “Those that seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the earth : they shall fall by the sword; they shall be a portion for foxes;” and to its ravages in the vineyard, Solomon refers in Cant. 2: 15. “Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines: for our vines have tender grapes.” In Scripture, says professor Paxton, the church is often compared to a vineyard; her members to the vines with which it is stored; and by con- sequence, the grapes may signify all “the fruits of right- eousness” which those mystical vines produce. The foxes that spoil these vines must therefore mean false. teachers, who corrupt the purity of doctrine, obscure the simplicity of worship, overturn the beauty of appointed order, break the unity of believers, and extinguish the life and vigor of Christian practice. º } 2. At the feast of Ceres, the goddess of corn, celebrat- ed annually at Rome about the middle of April, there was the observance of this custom, to fix burning torches to the tails of a number of foxes, and to let them run through " the circus till they were burnt to death. This was done in revenge upon that species of animals, for having once burnt up the fields of corn. The reason, indeed, assign- ed by Ovid, is too frivolous an origin ſor so solemn a rite ; and the time of its celebration, the Seventeenth of April, it seems, was not harvest time, when the fields were covered with corn, vestitos messibus agros; for the mid- dle of April was seed time in Italy, as appears from Virgil's Georgics. Hence we must inſer that this rite must have taken its rise from some other event than that by which Ovid accounted for it; and Samson's foxes are a proba- ble origin of it. The time of year agrees exactly. Wheat- harvest in Palestine happened about the middle of April; the very time in which the burning of foxes was observed at Rome.—Calmet ; Watson. s FOX, (John,) author of the celebrated Book of Mar- tyrs, was born, in 1517, at Boston, in Lincolnshire, was educated at. Oxford, and elected a fellow of Magdalep college. From his fellowship he was expelled in 1545, for having espoused the doctrines of the Reformation, and, till he was restored to it by Edward VI., he subsist- ed by acting as a tutor, first to the family of Sir Thomas Lucy, and afterwards to the children of the imprisoned earl of Surrey. During the reign of Mary, he sought an asylum at Basil. Returning, on the accession of Elisa- beth, he was taken into the house of the duke of Norfolk, and Cecil obtained for him a prebend in the cathedral of Salisbury. His conscientious scruples as to church cere- monies prevented his ſarther promotion. He died in 1587. F R. A F R. A. [ 548 Mr. Fox was no ordinary man. His piety was sincere and deep, his zeal ardent, his love of truth and of man- kind active and inextinguishable. His great work is the Acts and Monuments of the Church, usually known by the name of Fox's Book of Martyrs; the merits and de- merits of which have been a source of violent dispute be- tween Protestant and Catholic writers. To the credit of Fox it must be recorded, that he strenuously, though vainly, en: deavored to prevail upon Elisabeth not to disgrace herself by carrying into effect the sentence which condemned two Baptists to the flames as heretics—Davenport; Middleton. FOX, (GEORGE,) the founder of the society of Friends, or Quakers, was born, in 1624, at Drayton, in Leicester- shire; and was the son of a weaver, a pious and virtuous man, who gave him a religious education. Being ap- prenticed to a grazier, he was employed in keeping sheep; an occupation, the silence and solitude of which were well calculated to nurse his naturally enthusiastic feelings. When he was about nineteen, he believed himself to have received a divine command to forsake all, renounce socie- ty, and dedicate his existence to the service of religion. For five years he accordingly led a wandering life, fast- ing, praying, and living secluded; but it was not till about 1648, that he began to preach his doctrines. Man- chester was the place where he first promulgated them: Thenceforth he pursued his career with untirable zeal and activity, in spite of frequent imprisonment and brutal usage. It was at Derby that his followers were first de- nominated Quakers, either from their tremulous mode of speaking, or from their calling on their hearers to “trem- ble at the name of the Lord.” The labors of Fox were crowned with considerable success; and, in 1669, he ex- tended the sphere of them to America, where he spent two years. He also twice visited the continent. He died in 1690, His writings were collected in three volumes, folio. Whatever may be thought of the tenets of Fox, there can be no doubt that he was sincere in them, and that he was a man of strict temperance, humility, modera- tion, and piety.—Davenport. - , * FRAME OF MIND. This word is used to denote any state of mind a man may be in ; and, in a religious sense, is often connected with the word feeling, or used synony- mously with it. (See FEELING...) - “If our frames are comfortable,” says one, “we may make them the matter of our praise, but not of our pride; we may make them our pleasure, but not our portion; we may make them the matter of our encouragement, but not the ground of our security. Are our frames dark and uncomfortable? they should humble us, but not, discourage us; they should quicken us, but not obstruct usin our ap- plication for necessary and suitable grace; they should make us see our own emptiness, but not make us suspect the fulness of Christ; they should make us see our own unworthiness, but not make us suspect the willingness of Christ; they should make us see our own weakness, but not cause us to suspect the strength of Christ; they should make us suspect our own hearts, but not the firmness and freeness of the promises.”—Hend. Buck. - - FRANCISCANS, an order of Friars, founded in 1209, by St. Francis, of Assisi, who, having led a dissolute life, was reclaimed by a fit of sickness, and fell into an extreme of false devotion. Absolute poverty was his fundamental rule, and rigorously enjoined on all his followers. Some years afterward, this rule was relaxed, by the indulgence of several successive Popes; but this occasioned a schism in the order, about the end of the thirteenth century, and di- vided them into two parties; many adhering strictly to their founder's rule, and extolling him as equal to Jesus Christ himself. These were called, in ridicule, Fratricelli, or Little Brothers; which name Francis himself had assumed out of humility, and prescribed to his followers. They were also called Spiritual, while the others were called Brethren of the community, or Observantine friars; in France they were called Cordeliers, from girding their habit with a cord. The Franciscans maintained that, the Virgin Mary was born without original sin, which the Dominicans denying, occasioned a contention, which ended much to their disgrace. (See Dominicans,)—Mosheim's E. H. vol. *: 196, &c.; C. Butler's Confess, p. 131; Williams. RANKE, (Augustus HERMANN,) founder of the Or. phan house at Halle, and of several institutions connected with it, distinguished in the 'annals of Christian ſº. thropy and zeal. He was born at Lubeck, March 23, 1663, and studied so assiduously that, in his fourteenth year, he was ready to enter the university. He studied theology and the languages at Erfurt, Kiel, and Leipsic. . In 1681, he began to lecture at the latter university, on the practi. cal interpretation of the Scriptures, and, by the divine blessing, met with so much success, that the enemies of genuine and spiritual-religion were roused *. him, and attacked him on all sides; but he was defended by the celebrated Thomasius, then... residing at Leipsic. Franke then accepted an invitation to preach at Erfurt, where his sermons attracted such numbers, among whom were many Catholics, that the elector of Mentz, to whose jurisdiction Erfurt then belonged, ordered him to leave the city within twenty-four hours. On this he went to Halle, as professor in the new university, at first of the oriental languages, and afterwards of theology. At the same time he became pastor of Glaucha, a suburb of Halle, the in- habitants of which he found sunk in the deepest ignorance and wretchedness, and for whose benefit he immediately began to devise schemes of usefulness. He first instruct- ed destitute children in his own house, and gave them alms; he then took into his house some orphans, the In this charitable number of whom rapidly increased. - work he was aided by some benevolent citizens of Halle; and his charitable institutions increased from year to year. In 1698, was laid the first stone of the buildings which now form two rows, eight hundred feet long. Sums of money poured in to him from allºquarters; and frequently, when reduced to the utmost embarrassment in meeting the expense, the providence of God, in which he implicitly trusted, appeared for his relief. A chemist, whom he visited on his death-bed, left him the recipe for compound- ing several medicines, which afterwards yielded an annual income of from twenty thousand to thirty the usand dol- lars, by which he was enabled to prosecute his benevolent undertakings without-any assistance from government. What is commonly called “Franke's Institution,” compri- ses, 1. An Orphan Asylum. 2. The Royal Padagogium. 3. The Latin School. 4. The German School. 5. The Canstein Bible Press, founded by Baron Canstein, a pious friend of Franke's, from which upwards of two million copies of the whole Bible, and one million of the New Testament, have been issued at low prices. 6. A li- brary, and collections of natural-history and philosophy. The whole establishment forms one of the noblest monu- ments, of Christian faith; benevolence, and zeal; and the philological and exegetical labors of Franke are gratefully acknowledged by biblical scholars of the present day, whose views of the doctrines of revelation widely differ from his. In his “Collegia Biblica,” or Biblical Lectures, delivered at Halle, there was a return from human forms and systems to the sacred Scriptures, as the pure’ and only source of faith, and the substitution of practical reli- gion for scholastic subtleties and unfruitful speculations. Thus Scripture interpretation again became, as among the first reformers, the basis of theological study. After a life of eminent usefulness, this excellent man died, June 8, 1727, at the age of sixty-four years.-Jones; Hend... Buck. FRANKINCENSE ; an odoriferous gum, anciently much burnt in the temples, and now used in medicine. It exudes from incisions made in the tree during the heat of Summer; the largest, and best trees are called male incense. Some frankincense is still brought from the East Indies, but that of Arabia or Syria is much preferred to it. The form of the tree from which it is extracted, does not appear to be distinctly ascertained. Frankincense is mentioned, figuratively, no doubt, among the articles of ºuise in which Babylon traded, Rev. 18: 13.− 0728S. - - - - - " - º - . . . - - . . . . . . . FRATERNITY, in the Roman Catholic countries, signifies a society for the improvement of devotion. Of these there are several sorts, as–1. The fraternity of the Rosary, founded by St. Dominic. It is divided into two branches, called the common rosary; and the perpetual rosary; the former of whom are obliged to confess and communicate every first Sunday in the month, and the latter to repeat the rosary continually. 2. The fratermity F. R. E. F. R. E. [ 549 J of the Scapulary, whom it is pretended, according to the Sabbatine bulf of Pope John XXII. the Blessed Virgin has promised to deliver out of hell the first Sunday after their death. 3. The fraternity of St. Francis's girdle are clothed with a sack of a grey color, which they tie with a cord; and in processions walk barefooted, carrying in their hands a wooden cross. 4. That of St. Austin’s leathern girdle comprehends a great many devotees. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are the countries where are seen the greatest number of these fraternities, some of which assume the name of arch-fraternity. Pope Clement VII. instituted the arch-fraternity of charity, which distri- butes bread every Sunday among the poor, and gives por- tions to forty poor girls on the feast of St. Jerome, their patron. The fraternity of death buries such dead as are abandoned by their relations, and causes masses to be celebrated for them.—Hend. Buck, - FRATRICELLI, or LITTLE BROTHERs. . Though this name, as above observed, was originally given to the reform- ed and spiritual Franciscans, (not less than two thousand of whom are recorded to have been burned by the Inquisi- tion,) it was afterwards given to a multitude of sects which inundated Europe in the thirteenth century; and particularly to the Carthari and Waldenses, among whom many of the purer Franciscans were probably incorpo- rated—Morison's Th. Dict. ; , Bell's Wanderings, p. 216; Williams. . . . . . . . - - FRAUDS, (Pious;) artifices and falsehoods made use of in propagating religion, under the Fº of promoting the spiritual interests of mankind. These have been more particularly practised in the Church of Rome, and considered not only as innocent, but commendable. Nei- ther the terms nor the thing signified, however, can be justified. The terms pious and fraud form a solecism; and the practice of doing evil that good may come, is directly opposite to the injunction of the sacred Scriptures, Rom. 3: 8-Hend. Buck. - - - FREE. (1.) Without price; out of mere favor, Rom. 5: 15, and 3: 24. (2.) Without constraint or obligation, Ps. 54: 6. Rom, 8: 2. (3.) Without restraint or hinde- rance, 2 Thess. 3: 1. God’s spirit is free, voluntary, or princely; he is freely bestowed on sinners; and, in a princely and liberal manner, he influences, convinces, instructs, draws, and comforts men's souls, Ps. 51: 12. God’s blessings of the new covenant are free; though purchased by Christ, yet they are given to sinful men without money or price on our part, and are to be received as gifts of mere grace and favor, Rom. 5: 18. Rev. 22: 17. A free heart is one disposed to bestow freely and willingly, 2 Chron. 29: 31. Free, or free-will offerings, were those given without any obligation of God’s law, Exod. 36:3, Lev. 22: 21. Persons are free when in no slavish bondage, or exempted from paying tribute, (Deut. 15: 13. Matt. 17:26.) or not obliged to maintain pa- rents, Matt. 15:6. The saints are free, or freed from the law, or freed from sin: they are, by the grace of God in Christ, delivered from the yoke of the broken law, the dominion of sin, and the slavery of Satan; and now, under the gospel, from the Jewish ceremonies, are enti- tled to all the privileges of the children of God, Rom. 8:2. 6:22. John 8:34, 36, and Gal. 5: 1. Sinners are free from righteousness, quite destitute of, and no way influenc- ed by, a holy principle, Rom. 6: 20. To be free among the dead, is to be in a miserable case on earth, as if a citizen of the grave, Ps, 88: 5.—Brown. - - FREE AGENCY, is the power of choosing between good and evil, and following one’s inclination. Many and long have been the disputes on this subject; not that man has been denied to be a free agent; but the dispute has been in what it consists. (See articles LIBERTY, and WILL.) A distinction is made by writers between free agency and what is called the Arminian notion of free will. The one consists merely in the power of following our prevailing inclination; the other in a supposed power of acting con- trary to it, or at least of changing it. The one predicates freedom of the man; the other, of a faculty in man, which Mr. Locke, though an anti-necessarian, explodes as an ab- surdity. The one goes merely to render us accountable beings; the other arrogantly claims a part, yea, the very turning point of salvation. According to ths latter, we need &nly certain helps or assistantes, granted to inen in common, to enable us to choose the path of life; but, ac- cording to the former, our hearts by nature being wholly depraved; our choice, though free, is opposed to holiness, so that we need an Almighty Power to renew them. (See Necessity.)—Hend. Buck. - * - - FREEDOM. (See LIBERTY.) - - FREE, or FIGHTING QUAKERS. During the revolu- tionary war in America, some Friends, less rigid than oth. ers, took part in the contest, and fought for their indepen- dence; among whom was the celebrated general Green. These, being expelled by their brethren, formed a separate congregation, which still exists in Philadelphia; and they are called, by way of distinction, Free, or Fighting Quakers. —Grégoire's Hist. tom. i. p. 133; H. Adams's V. last ed. under Quakers ; Williams. - * - . . FREETHINKERS; a name assumed by Deists and Sceptics, to express their boasted freedom from religious prejudices, and from any religious system. The term originated in the eighteenth century, and contains a sneer at believers, like the French esprit fort, and the German rationalist. Free-thinking first appeared in England in the reigns of James II. and William III. In 1718, a weekly paper, entitled the “Freethinker,” was published. Collins, Toland, Tindal, and Morgan, rank among the champions of the sect; but Bolingbroke and Hume are the most dis- tinguished. In France, Woltaire, D'Alembert, Diderot, and Helvetius, led the opposition againstrevealed religion. In Germany the same spirit became fashionable in the reign of Frederic the Great, and obtained a most extensive influence through the medium of the press, the universi- ties, and even of the pulpit. Colton, in his “Lacon,” has keenly observed, that in modern times free-thinking seems to be only another name for freedom from thinking. (See ATHEISTs; DEISTs.)—Hend. Buck. - FREETHINKING CHRISTIANS; a name adopted by a society which had its origin in the end of the year 1796, and has ever since regularly assembled in London, calling itself a Church of God, founded on the principles of free inquiry. Their first members separated from a congrega- tion of Trinitarian Universalists, in Parliament-court Cha- pel, Bishopsgate-street. They rejected the doctrine of the Trinity, the atonement, and other points of Calvinism ; then the sacraments, and the immateriality of the soul; and, lastly, the inspiration of the Scriptures, and public worship; for they have neither singing nor prayer in their assemblies, and regard the Bible only as an authentic history !—Williams. . FREE-WILL BAPTISTS.* In North America, in the year 1780, the first church of this denomination was or- ganized at New Durham, in New Hampshire, under the pastoral charge of Elder Benjamin Randall. They have since spread into various parts of the country; and now have churches in twelve different states, and in the Cana- das. From the latest accounts of their numbers, (Jan. 1834,) there are eight yearly meetings, and forty-six quar- terly meetings: and, including about three thousand Gen- eral Baptists, in North Carolina, who have lately taken the name of Free-Will Baptists, about seven hundred church- es; five hundred and sixty preachers; and thirty thou- sand, five hundred communicants. The net increase in numbers, for three years past, has been seven and one third per cent. . . . - External Polity. 1. They have held the Holy Scrip- tures to be their only rule of religious faith and practice, to the exclusion of all written creeds, covenants, rules of discipline, or articles of organization. Some, however, think no religious order can be maintained on the basis of Scripture, without, at least, an implied agreement in their understanding of the Scriptures, and believe it better that this understanding be definitely expressed and known ; and they have, in some instances, adopted written articles of organization, in the form of a constitution. 2. Government is vested primarily in the churches; which are usually composed of such believers as can meet together for wor- ship. These send delegates to the quarterly meetings; the quarterly meetings to the yearly meetings: the yearly meetings to the general conference. In cases of difficulty, • This article was prepared for the Encyclopedia, by the late Elder Samuel Beede, one of the editors of the Morning Star. F R I F. R. I [ 550 J appeals are made from one body to another, for advice and instruction. 3. The officers in the church, supposed to be designated in Scripture, are elders and deacons. . After having been licensed and proved, the elders are ordained, jointly by the church to which they belong, and the quar- terly meeting acting by a council. They are authorized to baptize believers, administer the Lord's supper, assist in ordinations, and to organize churches: they are ame- nable to the church and the presbytery. In each quarterly and yearly meeting, is an elders' conference; which, with the general conference, regulates the affairs of the minis- fry, so far as the presbytery is concerned. No inferiority of rank is acknowledged in the ministry. They consider piety, and a call to the work, to be the essential qualifica- tions for a minister; and maintain, that one having a call to preach, ought not to delay for want of an education, or, theological study; nor neglect preaching to acquire litera- ture and science. Doctrine. The Free-Will Baptists reject the peculiari- ties of Calvinism formerly denominated the “Five Points,” so far as they represent the happiness or misery of man, as resulting from a divine decree, and not influenced by the personal actions of men; believing them, as they have understood them to have been held, unscriptural. They believe, that by the death of Christ, salvation was provid- ed for all men; that, through faith in Christ, and sanctific cation of the Spirit, though by nature entirely sinners, all men may, if they improve every means of grace in their power, become new creatures in this life, and, after death, enjoy eternal happiness;–that all, who, having actually sinned, die in an unrenewed state, will suffer eternal mis- ery. Respecting the divine attributes of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, they in substance agree with the Calvin- istic Baptists, and other orthodox Christians. Yet some individuals, for want of properly knowing the Scriptures, or from adhering to such professing Christians, and such authors, as advocate unitarian, or Arian views of Christ, and the Holy Spirit, have imbibed Arian notions. This is a departure from the faith of the first Free-Will Baptists, and of the connection as a body. From a neglect to ex- tirpate such doctrines, by sound discipline, and from the repeated attempts of the Christian Society to assimilate the two denominations, the Free-Will Baptists have lost much prosperity at home, and much reputation among others. They are a people distinct from the Christian Society, and ought always to be so distinguished. They essentially differ from the Christians in several important points of faith and church government. . . . - - Institutions; benevolent, literary, &c. A Foreign Mission society has lately been incorporated, and has received some donations. Numerous societies have been formed to promote temperance. Sunday schools are supported in various churches; and in several places charitable socie- ties have been instituted. Till lately, no literary institu- tion existed in the connection. About a year since, an academy, located at Parsonsfield, Me. was incorporated; it is now in a flourishing state. It must be understood, however, that all these benevolent operations are yet in their infancy. One printing press is employed by the connection, and the Morning Star, a weekly paper, is pub- lished at Dover, N. H. A Register, containing the statis- tics of the denomination, is also issued annually. See the Morning Star; Buzzel's Magazine; and D. Mark's Narrative. FRENCH CHURCH. (See CHURCH GALLIcAN.) FRENCH PROPHETS. (See CAMISARs.) FRIAR, or BROTHER ; a term common to the monks of all orders. In a more peculiar sense, it is restrained to such monks as are not priests ; for those in orders are usually dignified with the appellation of father.—Hend. Buck. - - - . - FRIENDSHIP, is the state of minds united by mutual affection, and abounding in acts of reciprocal kindness. “To live in friendship,” says a heathen writer, “is to have the same desires, and the same aversions.” So ma- ny qualities, indeed, are requisite to the possibility of friendship among men, and so many favorable circum- stances must concur to its rise and continuance, that the greatest part of mankind content themselves without it, and supply its place as they can with interest and depend- ence. The generality of mankind are unqualified for a constant and warm interchange of benevolence, as indeed they can show their design only in its execution. tal the appellation of friend they are incapacitated ſor any other elevated excellence, by perpetual attention to their own interests and unresist. ing subjection to their depraved passions. An inveterate selfishness predominates in their mind, and all their ac- tions are tainted with a sordid love of gain. But there are many varieties of disposition, as well as this hateful and confirmed 'corruption, that may exclude friendship from the heart. Some persons are ardent enough in their benevolence, who nevertheless are constitutionally mu- table and uncertain, soon attracted by new objects, dis- gusted without offence, and alienated without enmity. Others are soft and flexible; easily influenced by repprts and whispers, ready to catch alarms from every dubious circumstance, and to listen to every suspicion which envy or flattery may suggest. Some are impatient of contra- diction; more willing to go wrong by their own judg- ment, than to be indebted for a better or a safer way to the sagacity of another. Too many are dark and involv- ed, anxious to conceal their purposes, and pleased when - Some are universally communicative, alike open to every eye, and equally profuse of their own secrets and those of others, without the necessary vigilance of caution, ready to accuse without malice, and to betray without treachery. Each of these are unfit for close and tender intimacies. “He cannot properly be chosen for a friend, whose kind- ness is exhaled by its own warmth, or frozen by the first blast of slander; nor can he be a useful counsellor who will hear no opinion but his own; that man will not much invite confidence whose principal maxim is to suspect; nor can his candor and frankness be much esteemed, who makes every man without distinction a denizen of his' bosom.” . 2. That friendship may be at once ardent and hasting, there must not only be a congeniality of disposition, but there must be equal virtue on each part; not only must the same end be proposed, but there must be a similarity of pursuit in its attainment. We are often induced to love those whom we cannot esteem ; we are sometimes compelled to esteem those whom we cannot love. But true friendship is compounded of esteem and love ; it de- rives its tenderness from one, and its permanence from the other. It therefore requires that its candidates should not only gain the judgment, but attract the affection; they should be firm in the day of adversity, and participate in the jöy of prosperity; their presence should communicate cheerfulness as well as courage, and dispel alike the gloom of fear and of melancholy. - 3. Among all the honors which God conferred upon his servant Abraham, and those were neither few nor small, there was none equal to that of calling him his friend, 2 Chron. 20:7, with Isa. 41: 8. “Thou art the seed of Abraham my friend.” The apostle James takes notice of it, in this view, “Abraham believed God, and it was im- puted to him for righteousness, and he was called the friend of God,” James 2: 23. How amazing is the con- descension to which infinite goodness can stoop ! We are sometimes led to express surprise when we see one human being, who happens to be raised a little above the rest of his species, descending from his elevated station to enter into familiar converse with one that is beneath him, and more especially to select such an one for his friend. But how do all such acts of condescension dwin- dle into insignificance, when we are led to think of the majesty of heaven deigning to confer upon a guilty mor- Yet this honor was not peculiar to Abraham. The Son of God, in the days of his flesh, thus addressed his disciples : “Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends; ye are my friends iſ ye do whatsoever I com- mand you : henceforth I call you not servants; for the servant knoweth not what his lord doeth, but I have call- ed you FRIENDs; for all things that I have beard of my Father I have made known unto you,” John 15: 13–15. What a fund of interesting comment would this passage afford, were this the place to indulge in it ! . It would lead us to contemplate the friendship of Christ towards his people, demonstrated by the highest evidence it was pos. sible for him to afford: “He laid down his life for them.” FR 1 a F Ro --- [ 551 ) He redeemed them to God at the expense of his blood! 1 Pet; 1:18, 19.3, And then, their friendship towards him. “Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you.”. Would we know what is necessary to evince our friendship to the Savior? His next words plainly in- form us ; “These things. I command you, that ye love one-another,” ver. 17. All pretensions, therefore, to be the friends of Christ, which are not justified by love to the brethren, must evidently be futile and vain, 1 John 4:20, 21... And as one of the first dictates of friendship is a concern for the honor and reputation of those who are the objects of our esteem, it must follow that if we are the friends of Jesus, we shall feel deeply interested about his character; we shall resent, with becoming in- dignation, all the efforts of his enemies to tarnish his honors, and degrade him to the level of a mere human being; to set aside his atoning sacrifice, and despoil him of the glory which is justly due to him as the Savior of his guilty people. - 4. The book of friendship, and with encomiums on its value. “A friend loveth at all times,” ch. 17: 17. “There is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother,” (ch. 18: 24;) the meaning of which probably is, that real friendship is more opera- tive than natural affection. “Faithful are the wounds of a friend,” ch. 27: 6. “As ointment and perfume rejoice the heart, so does the sweetness of a friend by hearty counsel,”ver. 9. “As iron sharpeneth iron, so doth a man the countenance of his friend,” ver. 17. . 5. The genius and injunctions of the Christian religion also inculcate this virtue; for it not only commands universal benevolence to men, but promotes the strongest love and friendship between those whose minds are en- lightened by divine grace, and who behold in each other the image of their Divine Master. As friendship, how- ever, is not enjoyed by every one, and as the want of it arises often from ourselves, we shall here subjoin, from an eminent writer, a few remarks, by way of advice, respecting it. 1. We must not expect perfection in any with whom we contract fellowship.–2. We must not be hurt by differences of opinion arising in intercourse with our friends.—3. It is material to the preservation of friendship, that openness of temper and obliging manners on both hands be cultivated.—4. We must not listen rashly to evil reports against our friends.-5. We must not desert our friends in danger or distress. Blair's Ser. ser, 17, vol. iv.; Bp. Porteus's Ser. vol. i. ser, 15; W. Melmoth's Translation of Cicero's Laclius, in a Note; Hall's Sermon on the Death of Dr. Ryland.—Jones; Hend. Buck. FRIENDS, (Society of.). (See QUAKERs.) FRITH, (John,) a learned divine, and protestant mar- tyr, was born at Sevenoak, in Kent, educated at Cam- bridge, and afterwards chosen a junior canon of Oxford. In 1525, he became acquainted with Tindal, who was the instrument of sowing the seed of the pure gospel in his heart. His principles becoming known, he was imprisoned. for a time with several others; some of whom died with severe usage. Being released, in 1528, he went to the continent, where he spent two years, and became greatly confirmed in the protestant faith. Two years after, leav- ing his wife and children in a place of safety, he ventured to visit England; where, after a while, he was arrested by Sir Thomas More, (whose work on Purgatory he had confuted,) and committed to the tower. On the 20th of June, 1533, he underwent a public examination at St. Paul's, before the assembly of bishops, and for his fearless and inflexible defence of protestant principles, was con- demned to be burnt at Smithfield. - A young man named Andrew Hunt, suffered with him. With a courage that astonished the spectators, Frith embraced the faggot and the stake, smiling amidst the flames, and praying for the forgiveness of his enemies. He suffered in the prime of life, July 4, 1533. - . . . . It is said that there was a time when, owing to the im- pression made by his excellent character on the servants who had charge of him, he might have escaped; but to an offer of the kind, he replied, “Before I was seized, I would fain have enjoyed my liberty, for the benefit of the church of God; but now being taken by the higher power, and delivered into the hards of the bishops, to give testi- Proverbs abounds with the praises of mony to that religion and doctrine, which, under pain of damnation, I am bound to maintain and defend; if there- fore I should now start aside and run away, I should run away from my God, and from the testimony of his word.” . He was, says bishop Bale, a polished scholar as well as master of the learned languages. He was the author of seven or eight valuable treatises, and was the first man in England that professedly wrote against Christ's bodily resence in the sacrament. His works were reprinted at ondon, in 1753, in folio.—Middleton, vol. i. 123. - FRITIGILA, queen of the Marcomans, became famous in 396. Being instructed in Christianity, by the writings of Ambrose, she embraced it herself, and by her influence her husband, and then the whole nation, were led to emi- brace it also. By her persuasion they entered into a du- rable alliance with the Romans, so that in the various "irruptions of the barbarians on the empire, the Marco- mans are never mentioned as among them, though sepa- rated only by the Danube-Gifford’s France ; Betham. FROG ; a small and well-known amphibious animal. Frogs were unclean : Moses, indeed, does not name them, but he includes them by saying, Ye shall not eat of any thing that moves in the waters, unless it have fins or scales, Lev. 11:9. John (Rev. 16: 13.) says, he saw three unclean spirits, issuing out of the false prophet's mouth like frogs; and Moses brought on Egypt a plague of frogs, Exod. 8: 5, &c.—Calmet. . . . . . . . FRONTLETS, are thus described by Leo of Modena; the Jews take four pieces of parchment, and write with an ink made on purpose, and in square letters, these four passages, one on each piece : (1) “Sanctify unto me all the first born,” &c. Exod, 13; to the 10th verse. (2.) From verse 11 to 16: “And when the Lord shall bring thee into the land of the Canaanites,” &c. (3.) Deut. 6: 4, “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord,” to verse 9. (4.) Deut. 11: 13, “If you shall hearken dili- gently unto my commandments,” to verse 21. This they doin obedience to the words of Moses: “These command- ments shall be for a sign unto thee upon thine hand, and for a memorial between thine eyes.” These four pieces are fastened together, and a square formed of them, on which the letter Shin is written ; then a little square of hard calf's skin is put at the top, out of which come two leathern strings an inch wide, and a cubit and a half, or thereabouts, in length. This square is put on the middle of the forehead, and the strings being girt about the head, make a knot in the form of the letter Resh ; they are then brought before, and fall on the breast. It is called Teffia. schel-Rosch, the Tephila of the head. The most devout Jews put it on both at morning and moon-day prayer; but the generality wear it only at morning prayer. Only the chanter of the synagogue is obliged to put it on at noon, as well as morning. , & - It has been much disputed whether the use of frontlets, and phylacteries, was literally ordained by Moses. Be- fore the Babylonish captivity, no traces of them appear in the history of the Jews; the prophets never inveigh against the neglect of them; nor was there any question concern- ing them in the reformation of manners at any time among the Hebrews. The almost general custom in the East of wearing phylacteries and frontlets, determines nothing for the obligation or usefulness of the practice. Christ did not absolutely condemn them ; but he condemned the abuse of them in the Pharisees, their wearing them with affectation, and larger than other Jews. The Caraite Jews, who adhere to the letter of the law, and despise traditions, call the rabbinical Jews “bridled asses,” be- cause they wear these tephilim and frontlets. (See MEzu- zoth, and PHYLACTERIES.)—Calmet. F R U. F U E [ 552 J ERUGALITY, is the keeping due bounds in our expen- ses; the happy mean between parsimony on the one hand, and prodigality on the other. The example of Christ, (John 6: 12;) the injunctions of God's word, (Luke 15:1. Prov. 18; 95) the evil effects of inattention to it, (Luke 11:1, 13;) the peace and comfort which arise from it, together with the good which it enables us to do to others, should operate as motives to excite us to the practice of it. Wood's Serm. on Frugality, 1795; Robinson's Mor. Ez, ex. 3; Ridgley's Body of Div. p. 546; Buckminster's Sermons. —Hend. Buck. '*. . - - FRUIT. The fruit of the lips is the sacrifice of praise or thanksgiving, Heb. 13:15. The fruit of the righteous, that is, the counsel, example, instruction, and reproof of the righteous, is a tree of life, is a means of much good,. both º and eternal; and that not only to himself, but to others also, Prov. 11:30. Solomon says, in Prov. 12: 14, “A man shall be satisfied with good by the fruit of his mouth;” that is, he shall receive abundant blessings from God as the reward of that good he has done, by his pious and profitable discourses. “Fruits meet for re- pentance,” §. 3: 8,) is such a conduct as befits the profession of penitence. 2. The fruits of the Spirit are those gracious habits which the Holy Spirit of God produces in those in whom he dwelleth and worketh, with those acts which flow from them, as naturally as the tree produces its fruit. apostle enumerates these fruits in Galatians 5:22, 23. The same apostle, in Eph. 5:9, comprehends the fruits of the sanctifying Spirit in these three things; namely, goodness, righteousness, and truth. The fruits of right- eousness are such good works and holy actions as spring from a renewed heart : “Being filled with the fruits of righteousness,” Phil. 1: 11. Fruit is taken for a charita- ble contribution, which is the fruit or effect of faith and love: “When I have sealed unto them this fruit,” (Rom. 15:28;) when I have safely delivered this contribution. When fruit is spoken of good men, then it is to be under- stood of the fruits or works of holiness and righteousness; but when of evil men, then are meant the fruits of sin, immorality, and wickedness. This is our Savior's doc- trine, Matt. 7: 16–18.—Watson. - FRUITFULNESS, in the divine life, stands opposed to an empty, barren, unproductive profession of religion; or that state of things to which Christ adverts when ad- dressing the church in Sardis : “I know thy works, that thou hast a name that thou livest, and art dead,” Rev. 3: 1. The writers of both the Old and New Testaments speak much upon this subject; at one time encouraging the people of God to press after it, as the end which is to be accomplished in them by means of their attendance on divine ordinances; at another, solemnly warning them of the awful consequences of remaining unfruitful under the advantages of religious instruction with which they may be privileged. See in particular relative to this, Ps. 92: 12–15. Hosea 14: 5–9. Matt. 13: 3–9. Heb. 5:12– 14, and 6: 7, 8. But the subject is more especially in- sisted upon, and most strikingly illustrated by our Lord, in John, ch. 15: where he not only states its vast impor- !ance to all his disciples, if they would promote the glory of God; but, under the beautiful similitude of a vine and its branches, points out to them the only possible way of attaining it. “I am the vine,” says he ; “ye are the branches; as the branch cannot bear fruit of itself, ex- cept it abide in the vine, no more can ye, except ye abide in me. He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth fort me, ye can do nothing,” ver. 4, 5. To understand this, it must be remembered that in Christ, the “one mediator between God and men,” it hath “pleased the Father that all fulness should dwell,” Col. 1: 19. (See the article FULNess.) He is made of God unto them, “wisdom, and righteousness, and sanctification, and redemption,” 1 Cor. 1:30. By believing the divine testimony concerning him, as the Son of God, who was “delivered (unto death) for the offences of the guilty, and raised again for their justification,” they become virtually united to him, as the branches are united to the vine, and so are said to be “IN HIM,” 1 John 5:20. He is not only the object of their faith, and hope, and love, but the very life of their The much fruit; but without (or severed ſº souls also, Gal. 2; 20. Col. 3; 3, 4. And as believers live in him, or, which is the same thing, live “by the faith of the Son of God,” and upon that fulness which is treasur- ed up in him, so it is by means of his words, or the doctrine concerning him, dwelling in them richly through the pow- er of the Holy Spirit, that he lives and abides in them, (ver, 7.) quickens them at first from a death in trespasses and sins, to a life of obedience acceptable to God, (Eph. 2: 1, 5, 6.) and makes them fruitful in every good word and . work, John 15: 8, 16. . . . . . . . Fruitfulness in religion, must necessarily include in it. a growth in knowledge, Col. 1:9, 10, . It stands opposed to that state of childhood which the apostle alludes to and blames in many professors, Eph. 4: 14. Heb. 5: 12. But there must also be a growth in faith, in love, and in con- formity to the will of God, or to the image of his Son "Jesus Christ. See Eph. 4:13–16. So we find the apos- stle Peter exhorting his brethren, who had obtained like precious faith with himself, to “give all diligence,” by a continual increase in every Christian virtue, to make their calling and election sure—“for if these things be in you. and abound,” says he, “they make you that ye shall neither be barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ;” and with this he connects their enjoying “an abundant entrance into his everlasting kingdom,” 2. Pet. 1: 5–11. (See the words ADD, EDIFICA. TION, and GRowTH IN GRACE.)—Jones. . . FRUSTRATE ; to disappoint, to render vain or abor- tive, to annul or make void. Thus when Jehovah is said to “frustrate the tokens of the liars, and make diviners mad,” (Isa. 44; 25.) it means, that as all events are under his sovereign control, he renders abortive all the prog- nostications of the soothsayers, or magicians, and disap- points their purposes. . When the apostle said to the Galatians, “I do not frus- trate the grace of God, for if righteousness come by the law, then Christ is dead in vain,” (Gal. 2:21.) his language evidently implies two things; first, that it was the express end and purpose of the death of Christ to procure right- eousness or justification for his people; and secondly, that the teachers, who sought to impose circumcision and other observances of the law of Moses upon believing. Gentiles, with a view to their obtaining acceptance with God, virtually annulled the grace of God, rendering it of no effect. And his conclusion is demonstrable; for as justification by grace, and justification by the works of the law, whether moral or ceremonial, are in direct oppo- sition to each other, so in whatever proportion or degree men seek to obtain the ſavor of God through the medium of the latter, they destroy the efficacy of the former. But even this is not all; for the apostle labors to show that such is the nature of grace that it disdains any compro- mise, for “if the blessing be by grace, then it is no more of works, otherwise grace is no more grace; but if it be of works, then it is no more of grace, otherwise work is no more of work,” Rom. 11; 6.—Jones. * FUEL. In preparing their victuals, the Orientals are, from the extreme scarcity of wood in many countries, re- duced to use cow-dung for fuel. At Aleppo, the inhabi- tants use wood and charcoal in their rooms, but heat their baths with cow-dung, the parings of fruit, and other things of a similar kind, which they employ people to gather for that purpose. (See BAKING, and DUNG.) - Wood, however, and even any other combustible sub- stance, is preferred when it can be obtained. The in- habitants of Aleppo, according to Russel, use thorns, and fuel of a similar kind, for those culinary purposes which require haste, particularly for boiling, which seems to be the reason that Solomon mentions the “crackling of thorns under a pot,” rather than in any other way. The same allusion to the use of thorns for boiling occurs in other parts of the sacred volume: thus, the Psalmist speaks of the wicked, “Before your pots can feel the thorns, he shall take them away as with a whirlwind, both living, and in his wrath.” The Jews are sometimes compared in the prophets to a “brand plucked out of the burning,” (Amos 4: 11, Zech. 3: 2,) a figure which Char- din considers as referring to vine twigs, and other brush- wood, which the Orientals frequently use for fuel, and which, in a few minutes, º: consumed if they are F U L F U L [ 553 ] not snatched out of the fire; and not to those battens, or large, branches, which will lie a long time in the fire be- fore they are reduced to ashes. If this idea be correct, it displays in a stronger and more lively manner the season- able interposition of God's mercy, than is furnished by any other view of the phrase. The same remark applies to the figure by which the prophet Isaiah describes the sudden and complete destruction of Rezin, and the son of Remaliah ; “Take heed and be quiet; fear not, neither be faint-hearted for the two tails of these smoking firebrands, for the fierce anger of Rezin with Syria, and of the son of Remaliah,” Isa. 7:4. It is not easy to conceive an image more striking than this; the remains of two small twigs burning with violence at one end, as appears by the steam- ing of the other, are soon reduced to ashes; so shall the kingdoms of Syria and Israel sink into ruin and disappear.. 2. The scarcity of fuel in the East obliges the inhabi- tants to use, by turns, every kind of combustible matter. The withered stalks of herbs and flowers, the tendrils of the vine, the small branches of myrtle, rosemary, and other plants, are all used in heating their ovens and bag- nios. We can easily recognize this practice in these words of our Lord: “Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin : and yet I say unto you, that Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like one of these. Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not much more clothe you, O ye of little faith?” Matt. 6: 28–30. The grass of the field, in this passage, evidently includes the lilies of which our Lord had just been speaking, and by conse- quence, herbs in general; and in this extensive sense the word chortos is not unfrequently talken. These beautiful productions of nature, so richly arrayed, and so exquisitely perfumed, that the splendor even of Solomon is not to be compared with theirs, shall soon wither and decay, and be used as fuel to heat the oven and the bagnio. Has God so adorned these flowers and plants of the field, which retain their beauty and vigor but for a few days, and are then applied to some of the meanest purposes of life; and will he not much more clothe you who are the disciples of his own Son, who are capable of immortality, and destined to the enjoyment of eternal happiness?— Watson. FULFIL. (See Prophecy, and QUoTATION.) FULLER, §. THOMAS,) a learned historian and di- vine, was the son of the minister of Aldwinkle, in North- amptonshire, at which place he was born, in 1608. He was educated at Queen's college, Cambridge; was ap- pointed minister of St. Bennet's parish, Cambridge; and acquired great popularity as a pulpit orator. He received further preferment in the church, of which, however, he was deprived during the civil war, in consequence of his activity on the side of the monarch. Between 1640, and 1656, he published nearly the whole of his works. In 1648, he obtained the living of Waltham, in Essex, which, in 1658, he quitted for that of Cranford, in Middlesex. At the restoration he recovered the prebend of Salisbury, was made D. D. and king's chaplain, and was looking forward to a mitre, when his prospects were closed by death, in 1661. Dr. Fuller possessed a remarkably tenacious memory. It is said among other things, that he could re- cite a sermon verbatim, after he had heard it once. He had also a considerable portion of wit and quaint humor, which he sometimes, allowed to run riot in his writings. Among his chief works are, A History of the Holy War; The Church History of Britain; The History of the Uni. versity of Cambridge; and The History of the Worthies of England.—Davenport. FULLER, (ANDREw,) first secretary of the Baptist Missionary society, and one of the most extraordinary men of this, or any other age, was born at Wicken, in Cambridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1754. His pious father occupied a small farm at that place, and was the parent of three sons, of whom Andrew was the youngest. He received the common rudiments of an English education at the free school of Soham; and, till the age of twenty, was en- gaged in husbandry. When about sixteen years of age, his mind became enlightened; he sincerely repented of his past transgressions; he forsook his former evil ways, was publicly immersed, on a profession of his faith; and from that time he continued to make an honorable and consistent profession of Christianity. For the two suc- ceeding years, he occasionally preached at Soham. In January, 1774, he received a unanimous invitation from that congregation to become their pastor, and was ordain- ed in May, 1775. The income of Mr. Fuller being very small, he opened a seminary in 1779, but which, in the succeeding year, he relinquished; and not being able comfortably to provide for his increasing family, and the conduct of some of the members of the church at Soham being lukewarm and unsatisfactory to him, he accepted an invitation from a Baptist congregation at Kettering, to become their pastor. Mr. Fuller's removal to Kettering, in 1783, formed a new era in his life. It brought him into contact with a number of ministers of his own denomination, to whom he was greatly attached, and who were equally ardent with himself in the investigation of truth. Here his la- bors took a wider range, and were determined towards a more definite object. The prevailing system of doctrine among the Baptist churches, at this period, was ultra- calvinism—a system which denies true faith to be the duty of every one to whom the gospel comes; and which, con- sequently, must paralyze the efforts of ministers to “go into all the world, and preach the gospel to every crea- ture; commanding all men everywhere to repent” at the peril of their souls. Mr. Fuller saw the baneful effects of this unscriptural system, and set himself to op- pose and refute it with all his might. With this view he drew up and published a small volume, entitled, “The Gospel of Christ worthy of all Acceptation; or, The Obli- gations of Men, fully to credit, and cordially to approve whatever God makes known : wherein is considered the Nature of Faith in Christ, and the Duty of those where the Gospel comes in that Matter.” This valuable treatise operated powerfully, and set thousands upon examining their received principles. A host of opponents presently rose up to oppose this new doctrine, as it was termed; and our author had to defend himself on every side, which he did with no ordinary dexterity; taking his stand on the word of God, with the meekness of wisdom, but with the lion heart of Luther. In 1790, he composed his “Dialogues and Letters on the Fundamental Principles of the Gospel;” and a cele- brated work “On the Calvinistic and Socinian Systems, Examined and Compared as to their Moral Tendency.” This work deservedly ranks among the ablest and most useful of Mr. Fuller's literary productions; having done more to stem the torrent of Socinianism in England, than. any one book of modern times. It consists of a series of letters, each occupying a particular subject, and the whole forming a storehouse of sound observations, scriptural principles, important facts, and logical reasonings. The book was well received by the public, and will long main- tain its ground. The writings of Mr. Fuller having circulated in America, and having been generally approved, Princeton and Yale colleges conferred on him the title of Doctor of Divinity; which, however, supposing it to be incompatible with the simplicity of the Christian character, he declined to use. In 1792, the Baptist Missionary society was first esta- blished at Kettering, by Mr. Fuller and a few of his friends, among whom was Mr. Carey, of Leicester, now the celebrated Dr. Carey, who volunteered his services as a missionary. India was selected as the country which they should visit; and, in the spring of 1793, Mr. Carey and other missionaries set sail for Bengal, where they arrived in the succeeding October. In the establishment of that society, Mr. Fuller had taken the liveliest interest, and he was appointed to the situation of secretary. The society, ever afterwards, was inseparable from his mind, and depended, under God, mainly on his exertions. The consultations which he held, the correspondence he main- tained, the personal solicitations which he employed, the contributions he collected, the management of these and other funds, the selection, probation, and improvement of intended missionaries; the works which he composed and compiled on these subjects, the discourses he delivered, and the journeys he accomplished, to extend the know- 70 F U L F U R [ 554 J ledge, and to promote the welfare of the mission, required energy almost unequalled. In 1799, he made a tour through Scotland for the benefit of the society; and, on his return home, he found that he had travelled nine hun- dred miles, and collected full nine hundred pounds. In 1804, he visited the Baptist congregations throughout Ire- land, and collected a considerable sum for the mission. In July, 1805, he made another tour through Scotland, to collect for the printing of the Scriptures in the Eastern languages, and travelled one thousand eight hundred miles: in one month, preached every day, and collected one thou- sand eight hundred pounds. In 1807, he drew up a state- ment of the proceedings of the society; and, in fine, the history of the last twenty-three years of his life was com- pletely identified with that of the mission. Besides the publications already mentiomed, Mr. Fuller was the author of a great number of treatises on various subjects, which, since his decease, have been collected and printed in eight volumes, octavo ; recently reprinted in this country in two large volumes; among which we may particularly mention, “The Gospel its own Witness;” * The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems compared ;” “Expository Discourses on the Books of Genesis and the Apocalypse;” “Sermons on various subjects;” “Apology for Christian Missions to the Heathen ;” with many other smaller works, of peculiar excellence. All his writings bear the powerful stamp of a mind, which, for native vigor, original research, logical acumen, profound knowledge of the human heart, and intimate acquaintance with the Scriptures, has had no rival since the days of president Edwards. - On the 7th of May, 1815, in the sixty-second year of his age, this zealous, intelligent, benevolent, and most useful Christian minister expired ; his heart being devoted to God, and his soul resting on Christ alone for Salvation and eternal happiness. It has been well said, that Fuller is “the Franklin of theology.” The views entertained of him, by those best 2cquainted with his writings, are thus eloquently express- ed by the Rev. Robert Hall: “I cannot refrain from ex- pressing, in a few words, the sentiments of affectionate veneration with which I always regarded that excellent person while living, and cherish his memory now that he is no more; a man whose sagacity enabled him to pen- etrate to the depths of every subject he explored, whose conceptions were so powerful and luminous, that what was recondite and original, appeared familiar; what was intricate, easy and perspicuous in his hands; equally suc- cessful in enforcing the practical, in stating the theoretical, and discussing the polemical branches of theology. With- out the advantages of early education, he rose to high distinction among the religious writers of his day, and, in the midst of a most active and laborious life, left monu- ments of his piety and genius, which will survive to dis- tant posterity. Were I making his eulogium, I should necessarily dwell on the spotless integrity of his private life, his fidelity in friendship, his neglect of self-interest, his ardent attachment to truth, and especially the series of unceasing labors and exertions, in Superintending the mission to India, to which he most probably fell a victim. He had nothing feeble or undecisive in his character, but, to every undertaking in which he engaged, he brought all the powers of his understanding, all the energies of his heart; and, if he were less distinguished by the compre- hension than the acumen and solidity of his thoughts, less eminent for the gentler graces than for stern integrity and native grandeur of mind, we have only to remember the necessary limitation of human excellence. While he endeared himself to his denomination by a long course of most useful labor, by his excellent works on the Socinian and Deistical controversies, as well as his devotion to the cause of 1.)issions, he laid the world under lasting obliga- tions.” For more complete details of the life of Mr. Fuller, see Morris's Life of Fuller; Ryland's Life of Fuller ; and Me- moir preſized to his Complete Works, by his Son ; Jones's Chris. Biog. ; Am. Quar. Obs. and Bap. Mag.—Hend. Buck. FULLER's FIELD ; FULLER's FOUNTAIN. (see Rogel, and SILOAM.) . FULLER'S SOAP. (See Soap.) FULKE, (WILLIAM, D. D.) This pious and learned divine, of the church of England, was born in London, and educated at Cambridge, where, in 1564, he was chosen a fellow. He had previously spent six years in the study of law, and his father was so offended at his returning to college, that, though he was rich, he refused him any supplies. Fulke, however, easily made his way by his talents and learning. He became eminent alike in the mathematics, in the oriental languages, and in divinity, and published books in them all. Cartwright, the divinity professor, was his intimate friend. In consequence of this, however, Fulke was suspected of puritanism, and expelled from his college. The earl of Leicester, out of policy, became his patron, gave him the livings of Warley and Didington, and in 1574, sent him as chaplain of an .ambassador to France. On his return he was made master of Pembroke-hall, and Margaret professor of divi- nity in Cambridge, and held these offices till his death, in 1589. His works are very numerous ; written in Latin and English ; and levelled chiefly at the Papists. The principal one is his Confutation of the Rhemish Testament, printed in 1580, by the Papists, in opposition to the Prº- testant versions. Mr. Hervey styles this Confutation, a valuable piece of ancient controversy and criticism, full of Sound divinity, weighty arguments, and important ob- servations.—Middleton, vol. ii. 261. - - FULNESS, means the state of being filled, so as to have no part vacant; it necessarily includes the idea of completeness, such as leaves nothing more to be desired; (compare Col. 1: 19, with ch. 2:10.) and, in scriptural style, it sometimes imports satiety. In this last acceptation it occurs, Isa. 1: 11, “I am full of the burnt offerings of rams,” for, it is afterwards added, “they are a trouble to me, I am weary to bear them,” ver. 14. The term fre- quently occurs in the New Testament, and its signification is commonly very important. Thus the apostle speaks of “the fulness of time,” when God sent forth his son, (Gal. 4: 4;) it was the time that he himself had, in his eternal counsels, appointed—it was the time promised to the fathers, and foretold by the prophets; expected by the Jews themselves, and earnestly longed for by all that looked for redemption in Israel, Luke 2: 25, 26, 38. - 2. The church is termed “the fulness of Christ; because it is that which constitutes him a complete and perfect head. For though he has a natural and personal fulness, as God over all and blessed forever, yet, as Mediator, he is not full and complete without his mystical body; even as a king is not complete without his subjects; so Christ receives a relative fulness from his members, Eph. 1:23. 3. But the most important view of this subject, is that which regards the personal fulness of Christ, considered as Mediator; for “it hath pleased the Father,” says the apostle, “that in him should all fulness dwell,” (Col. 1:19;) and “out of his fulness,” says another apostle, “have all we received, even grace for grace,” John 1: 16. The pleni- tude here referred to, as dwelling in Christ, is a copious and delightful theme of contemplation, for it comprehends. all spiritual and heavenly blessings, answerable to the utmost exigencies of his guilty, helpless, and ruined peo- ple, in their state of dependence on him, in this world, John 1: 14. Rom. 10: 4. 2 Cor. 12: 9. PS. 68: 18. Col. 2: 9. Cant. 5: 16. PS. 45: 2. 4. It is said, that “the fulness of the Godhead dwells in Christ bodily,” (Col. 2:2;) that is, the whole nature and attributes of God are in Christ, and that really, essentially, or substantially; and also personally, by nearest union; as the soul dwells in the body; so that the same person who is man is God also.-Jones; Watson. FUNERAL RITES. (See BURIAL.), FURLONG ; a measure of length containing one hun- dred and twenty-five paces, which made the eighth part of an Italian mile ; but Maimonides says the Jewish furlong contained 266 2–3 cubits, and so seven furlongs and a half went to one mile, Luke 24: 13.—Brown. FURMAN, (RICHARD, D. D.) an eminent minister in Charleston, South Carolina, and president of the Baptist General Convention of the United States, was a native of New York, but brought up in South Carolina, at the High Hills of Santee. His education was conducted by his father, a gentleman of more than ordinary intelligence, F U R. F U T. [ 555 J judgment, and discretion, by whom the mind of his son was early imbued with an elegant taste, the most ardent thirst for knowledge, and profound reverence for the word of God. He became a subject of divine grace in youth; and such was the soundness of his piety, as well as the extent of his attainments, that he was admitted to the gospel ministry at the age of eighteen. His youthful ministrations left a deep impression upon every mind, and many of his vicious hearers, were by the divine blessing turned to righteousness. He at this time laid the foundation of many of the churches afterwards embodied in the Charleston Association. “There was a greatness in the rudiments of his work, a majesty in the style of his youthful perform- ances, which agreed well with the sedate lustre of his subsequent life.” - During the American revolution, he retired with his. family into North Carolina and Virginia, where his patri- otism, character and talents, attracted the attention of some of the leading men of the revolution, and gained him the friendship of the celebrated Patrick Henry. He after- wards assisted in framing the constitution of South Caro- lina. In 1787, he was settled as pastor of the Baptist church in Charleston, where for nearly forty years he continued to exemplify, by rich and affecting illustrations, both the active and passive virtues of the Christian character, equally esteemed in every relation, the social and civil, humane and benevolent, religious and professional. His mind was alive to every incident which could be thought to have a bearing on the happiness of the community in which he lived. If in a mind where every excellence stood in the equipoise of truth and dignity, there might be a preponderating principle, that principle was the feeling. of a humane kindness which suffering in any form elicited. In the hut of the unhappy slave, and in the chambers of the sick and the dying, there was something in his manner which partook of a divine eloquence, and was carried with a soothing power to the heart. - His religious views coincided in the main with those of Doddridge, Fuller, and Dwight, though he called no man on earth master. As an experimental Christian he stood pre-eminent. The distinguishing feature in his religion was a keen and penetrating conviction of his own depravi- ty. In the deep and practical knowledge of the heart he excelled, yet he was charitable in his judgment of others. In the general character of his preaching he was judicious, affectionate, and instructive, but at intervals he rose to a strain of masculine dignity and eloquence, which held his astonished hearers, even of the highest order, in breathless attention. But a divine unction, the love of Christ cruci- fied, pervaded and sweetened all his character and endow- ments. He died among his attached people, August 25, 1825. - The dying bed of this eminent man was an edifying scene. Among other things, he said to some friends pre- sent, “On a review of life I see much to be thankful for; but O what cause to be humbled before my God. I am overwhelmed with the sense of my ingratitude, of my neglects, of my unfaithfulness as a minister of Christ. I am a dying man, but my trust is in the Redeemer; I preach Christ to you dying, as I have attempted to do while living.”—Brantly’s Funeral Sermon; Am. Bap. Mag. FURNACE; a place for melting gold and other metals. “The fining pot is for silver, the furnace for gold,” Prov. 17: 3. Metaphorically, it signifies a place of cruel bond- age and oppression, such as Egypt was to the Israelites, who there met with much hardship, rigor and severity, to try and purge them, (Deut. 4:20. Jer. 11:4.) the sharp and grievous afflictions and judgments, wherewith God tries his people, (Ezek, 22: 18. 20:22.) also a place of capital punishment, as Nebuchadnezzar's fiery furnace, Dan. 3: 6, 11. * * on the last we may remark, that this mode of punish- ment is not unusual in the East in modern times. After speaking of the common modes of punishing with death in Persia, Chardin says, “But there is still a particular way of putting to death such as have transgressed in civil affairs, either by causing a dearth, or by selling above the tax by a false weight, or who have committed them: selves in any other manner: they are put upon a spit and ble end roasted over a slow fire, Jer. 29:22. Bakers, when they offend, are thrown into a hot oven. During the dearth in 1668, I saw such ovens heated in the royal square in Ispa- han, to terrify the bakers, and deter them from deriving advantage from the general distress. To this dreadful mode of punishment our Lord repeatedly alludes in speak ing of the end of the wicked, Matt. 13:42, 50.-Watson. FURROWS; openings in the ground, made by a plough, or other instrument. The sacred writers sometimes bor- row similitudes from the ſurrows of the field, Job 31: 38. “If my land cry against me, or the furrows thereof com- plain;” if I have employed the poor to till my ground, without paying them ſor their labor. And Hosea 11: 12, I will make Judah plough, and Jacob shall break the clods, and form the furrows. The ten tribes and Judah shall one after the other endure the effects of my anger. But, the prophet adds, immediately, “Sow in righteousness, and reap in mercy.”—Calmet. . . FURY, is attributed to God metaphorically, or speaking after the manner of men; that is, God's method of punish. ing the wicked is as fearful as the violent exertions of a man in a state of fury. So that when he is said to pour out his fury on a person, or on a people, it is a figurative expression for dispensing afflictive providences; but we must be very careful not to attribute human infirmities, passions, or malevolence to the Deity.—Calmet. FUTURE STATE ; a term made use of in relation to the existence of the soul after death. That there is such a state of existence, we have every reason to believe; “for if we suppose,” says a good writer, “the events of this life to have no reference to another, the whole state of man becomes not only inexplicable, but contradictory and inconsistent. The powers of the inferior animals are perfectly suited to their station. They know, nothing higher than their present condition. In gratifying their appetites, they fulfil their destiny, and pass away.—Man, alone, comes forth to act a part which carries no meaning, and tends to no end. Endowed with capacities which extend far beyond his present sphere, fitted by his rational nature for running the race of immortality, he is stopped short in the very entrance of his course. He squanders his activity on pursuits which he discerns to be vain. He languishes for knowledge which is placed beyond his reach. He thirsts after a happiness which he is doomed never to enjoy. He sees and laments the disasters of his state, and yet, upon this supposition, can find nothing to remedy them. Has the eternal God any pleasure in sport. ing himself with such a scene of misery and folly as this life (if it had no connection with another) must exhibit to his eye 2 Did he call into existence this magnificent universe, adorn it with so much beauty and splendor, and surround it with those glorious luminaries which we behold in the heavens, only that some generations of mortal men might arise to behold these wonders, and then disappear forever ? How unsuitable in this case were the habitation to the wretched inhabitant How inconsis- tent the commencement of his being, and the mighty preparation of his powers and faculties, with his despica- How contradictory, in fine, were every thing which concerns the state of man, to the wisdom and per fection of his Maker : * But that there is such a state is clear from many pas- sages of the New Testament: John 5: 24. Acts. 7: 9. Rom. 8: 10, 11. 2 Cor. 5: 1, 2. Phil. 1: 21. 1 Thess. 4: 14; 5: 10. Luke 16:22, &c. But though these texts prove the point, yet some have doubted whether there be any where in the Old Testament any reference to a future state at all. The case, it is said, appears to be this : the Mosaic covenant contained no promises directly relating to a future state; probably, as Dr. Warburton asserts, and argues at large, because Moses was secure of an equal provi- dence, and therefore needed not subsidiary sanctions taken from a future state, without the belief of which the doctrine of an universal providence cannot ordinarily be vindicated, nor the general sanctions of religion secured. But, in opposition to this sentiment, as Doddridge observes. “it is evident that good men, even before Moses, were animated by views of a future state, (Heb. 11; 13, 16.] as he himself plainly was, (24th to 26th verse;) and that the promises of heavenly felicity were contained even in G. A. D G. A. D [ 556 ) the covenant made with Abraham, which the Mosaic could not disannul. Succeeding providences also con- firmed the natural arguments in its favor, as every re- markable interposition would do; and when general pro- mises were made to the obedient, and an equal providence relating to the nation established on national conformity to the Mosaic institution, and not merely to the general precepts of virtue ; as such an equal providence would necessarily involve many of the best men in national ruin, at a time when, by preserving their integrity in the midst of general apostasy, their virtue was most conspi- cuous; such good men, in such a state, would have vast additional reasons for expecting future rewards, beyond what could arise from principles common to the rest of mankind; so that we cannot wonder that we find in the writings of the prophets many strong expressions of such an expectation, particularly Gen. 49: 18. Ps. 16:9–11. Ps. 17: last verse; Ps. 73: 17, 27. Eccl. 3:15, 16, &c. Eccl. 7: 12, 15. Isa. 3: 10, 11. Ezek. 18; 19, 21. Job. 19:23, 37. Dan. 12: 2. Isa. 35: 8. Isa. 26; 19. The same thing may also be inferred from the particular pro- mises made to Daniel, (Dan. 12: 13.) to Zerubbabel, (Hag. 2: 23.) and to Joshua, the high priest, (Zech. 3: 7.) as well as from those historical facts recorded in the Old Testament, of the murder of Abel, the translation of Enoch and Elijah, the death of Moses, and the story of the witch of Endor, and from what is said of the appear- ance of angels to, and their converse with, good men.” See articles INTERMEDIATE STATE ; Resurrection; and SouL ; also Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 216 ; Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses, vol. ii. p. 553–568; Dr. Ad- dington's Dissertations on the Religious Knowledge of the ancient Jews and Patriarchs, containing an inquiry into the evidences of their belief, and expectation of a future state ; , Blair's Sermons, ser, 15. vol. i.; Robinson's Claude, vol. i. p. 132; W. Jones's Works, vol. vi. ser, 12; Logan's Ser- mons, vol. ii. p. 413–Hend. Buck. - G. GAASH; a mountain of Ephraim, north of which stood Timnath-Serah, celebrated for Joshua’s tomb, (Josh. 24; 30.) which, Eusebius says, was known in his time- II. A brook, or valley, (2 Sam. 23: 30.) probably at the foot of mount Gaash.--Calmet. . . GABA ; a city at the foot of mount Carmel, between Ptolemais and Cesarea.—Calmet. GABAA, (a hill.) Many places in a mountainous coun- try like Judea, might be called Gibeah, Gibeon, Gabba- tha, Gibethon, Gabbath, Gabe, or Gabaa ; signifying emi- nences.—Calmet. GABAL.A. (See GEBAL.) GABATHA ; a town in the south of Judah, twelve miles from Eleutheropolis, where the prophet Habakkuk’s sepulchre was shown.--Calmet. GABBATHA, (Heb. high, or elevated. In Greek, litho- ströton, paved with stones, John 19:13.) It was probably an eminence, or terrace ; a gallery or balcony paved with stone or marble, and of considerable height.—Calmet. GABINIUS, (AULUs ;) one of Pompey's generals, who was sent into Judea against Alexander and Antigonus, B. C. 60. (See ALEXANDER, and III. ANTIGONUs.) He restored Hircanus at Jerusalem, confirmed him in the high-priesthood, and settled governors and judges in the provinces, so that Judea, from a monarchy, became an aristocracy. He established courts of justice at Jerusa- lem, Gadara, (or at Dora,) Amatha, Jericho, and Sepho- ris; that the people, finding judges in all parts of the coun- try, might not be obliged to go far from their habitations. Some learned men are of opinion, that the establishment of the Sanhedrim owed its origin to Gabinius.—Calmet. GABRES, or GUEBREs. (See GAURs.) The Turks ap- ply the term to Christians in the sense of infidels or hea- thens.—Calmet. GABRIEL, (the strength of God ;) a principal angel. He was sent to the prophet Daniel to explain his visions; also to Zacharias, to announce to him the future birth of John the Baptist, Dan. 8: 16. 9: 21. 10: 16. Luke 1: 11, et seq. Six months afterwards, he was sent to Nazareth, to the virgin Mary, Luke 1:26, &c. (See ANGEL; and ANNUNCIATION.)—Calmet. - - GABRIEL, (SAINT, CoNGREGATION of ;) a society of lay gentlemen, founded by Caesar Bianchetti, at Boulogne, about A. D. 1646, for improvement “in Christian know. ledge and virtue.”—Hist. des Ord. Relig, tom. viii. c. 22.-- Williams. • GAD, (fortunate,) son of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah's ser- vant, Gen. 30: 9, 10, 11. Leah called him Gad, saying, “Happy am I ?” . Gad had seven sons, Zipheon, Haggai, Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Arodi, and Areli, Gen. 46; 16. Jacob, blessing Gad, said, “A troop shall overcome him, but he shall overcome at the last,” Gen. 49: 19. Moses, in his last song, mentions Gad, “as a lion which teareth the arm with the crown of the head,” &c. Deut. 33. The tribe of Gad came out of Egypt, in number, fºrty- five thousand six hundred and fifty. TAfter the defeat of the kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reuben desired to have their allotment east of Jordan, alleging their great num- ber of cattle. Moses granted their request, on condition that they should accompany their brethren, and assist in conquering the land west of Jordan. Gad had his inhe- ritance between Reuben south, and Manasseh north, with the mountains of Gilead east, and Jordan west. (See CANAAN.)—Calmet. GAD, David's friend, who followed him when persecut- ed by Saul. Scripture styles him a prophet, and David's seer, 1 Sam. 22: 5. 2 Sam. 24: 11. 1 Chron. 21:9–11. He wrote a history of David's life, which is cited 1 Chron. 29:29.-Calmet. - - GAD, the god or goddess of fortune, a heathen deity, mentioned in several passages of Scripture. We find a place in Canaan, called the tower of Gad, (Josh. 15:37.) and another in the valley of Lebanon, called Baal-Gad, Josh. 11: 17. In Isaiah 65: 11, those who prepare the table for Gad are allotted to the sword; and those who furnish a drink-offering to Meni, to the slaughter. We find Meni, in medals of Antioch, to be either male or fe- male, without distinction; and therefore Gad, the associ- ate of Meni, may well be thought similar in this respect. (See MEN1.)—Calmet. - GADAR.A.; a celebrated city of Palestine, the capital of Peraea, situated eastward of the lake of Tiberias, eight miles from the shore. It was strong- ly fortified, had a court of justice, and several hot baths. It gave name also to a canton, which is men- tioned as the country of the Gadarenes, (Mark 5: 1. and Luke 8: 26.) though Matthew calls it the country of the Gerga- senes, ch. 8:28. Ger- gasa was near Gada- ra, and therefore one evangelist might with as much propriety call it the country of the Gergasenes, as another, that of the Gadarenes. - - “Along the borders of this lake Tiberias,” says Dr. . Clarke, “may still be seen the remains of those ancient tombs, hewn by the earliest inhabitants of Galilee, in the rocks which face the water. They were deserted in the time of our Savior, and had become the resort of wretch- ed men, afflicted by diseases, and made outcasts of socie- tw: for in the account of the cure performed by our Sa G. A. L. G. A. L. [ 557 J vior upon a demoniac in the country of the Gadarenes, these tombs are particularly alluded to ; and their exis- tence to this day, offers strong internal evidence of the accuracy of the evangelist who has recorded the transac- tion : “There met him out of the tombs a man with an unclean spirit, who had his dwelling among the tombs.” Dr. Clarke's Travels in the Holy Land, part ii. p. 466, &c.—Jones. GAIANITAE ; a denomination which derived its name from Gaian, a bishop of Alexandria, in the sixth century, who denied that Jesus Christ, after the hypostatical union, was subject to any of the infirmities of human nature.— FIend. Buck. GAIUS; a Christian who accompanied Paul on his tra- vels through some of the Gentile countries, Acts 19:29. 20: 4. Rom. 16:23. It is highly probable, though not absolutely certain, that this was the same Gaius who is mentioned in such honorable terms by the apostle John in , his third epistle.—Jones. - GALATIA; a province in Asia Minor, having the river Halys east, Bithynia and Paphlagonia north, Cappadocia and Phrygia south, and Mysia and Lydia west. The Gauls, having invaded Asia Minor, in several bodies, conquered this country, settled in it, and called it Gallo- Grecia, or Galatia, which, in Greek, signifies Gaul; (per- haps, New Gaul, or Little Gaul.) The Galatians worshipped the mother of the gods. Callimachus, in his hymns, calls them “a foolish people;” and Hilary, himself a Gaul, as well as Jerome, describes them as Gallos indociles. Their inland situation cut them off in a great degree from intercourse with more civilized nations, and they still retained their native language in the days of Paul. They also seem to have retained much of the warmth and volatility of character, for which the Gauls (French) in all ages have been remarkable. The apostle Paul preached several times in Galatia; first, A. D. 51, (Acts 16: 6.) afterwards, A. D. 54, (Acts 18: 23.) and formed considerable churches there. It is probable, he was the first who preached there to the Gen- tiles; but, possibly, Peter had preached there to the Jews, since his first epistle is directed to the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, &c. These Jews, it has been supposed by some, occasioned those differences in the Galatian church, on account of which Paul wrote his epistle in A. D. 52, in which he takes some pains to es- tablish his character of apostle, which had been disputed, with intention to place him below Peter, who preached generally to Jews only, and who observed the law. But his main object throughout nearly the whole of it is, to counteract the pernicious influence of the doctrine of those false teachers, particularly as it respected the article of justification, or a sinner's acceptance with God. And in no part of the apostle's writings is that important doctrine handled in a more full and explicit manner; nor does he any where display such a firm, determined, and inflexible opposition to all who would corrupt the truth from its simplicity. - “The erroneous doctrines of the judaizing teachers,” says Dr. Macknight, “and the calummies they spread for the purpose of discrediting St. Paul’s apostleship, no doubt occasioned great uneasiness of mind to him and to the faithful in that age, and did much hurt, at least for a while, among the Galatians. But in the issue these evils have proved of no small service to the church in general; for by obliging the apostle to produce the evidences of his apostleship, and to relate the history of his life, especially after his conversion, we have obtained the ſullest assur- ance of his being a real apostle, called to the office by Je- sus Christ himself; consequently we are assured that our faith in the doctrines of the gospel, as taught by him, (and it is he who hath taught the peculiar doctrines of the gospel most fully,) is not built on the credit of a man, but on the authority of the Spirit of God, by whom St. Paul was inspired in the whole of the doctrine which he has delivered to the world.”—Calmet; Watson. GALATIANS, (EPISTLe To.) (See GALATIA.) GALBANUM ; a gum, or sweet spice, and an ingredi- ent in the incense burned at the golden altar, in the holy place, Exod. 30: 34. It is a juice, drawn by incision from 8. º: called metopion, much like the large kind of fennel. —Calmet. - - - GALE, (Theophilus,) a learned non-conformist divine, was born in 1628, at King's Teignton, in Devonshire and educated at Oxford, where his education commenced under a private preceptor in his father's vicarage-house, from whence he was removed to a grammar school in the neighborhood, where he made great proficiency in classical learning. In 1652, he commenced master of arts; and soon became an eminent tutor, fellow, and a distinguished preacher in the university. While engaged in the prosecution of his great under- taking, “The Court of the Gentiles,” Mr. Gale, however, did not fail to discharge the duties of his ministerial office in the most conscientious manner. He preached con- stantly; and his discourses from the pulpit were so many conspicuous proofs of his distinguished piety and learn- -ing. He was invited to Winchester, and became a stated preacher there in 1657, in which station he continued for several years, generally admired and esteemed, both for his excellent sentiments, and his exemplary life and con- versation. But having now, for some considerable time past, imbibed the principles of the non-conformists, on the re-establishment of episcopacy, at the restoration of Charles the Second, he refused to comply with the act of uniformity, which passed in 1661; and rather than vio- late his conscience he preferred suffering all the penalties which the law could inflict. Thus excluded from the public service of his function, and deprived of his fellowship at Oxford, he found friends among those of his own sentiments, and was taken into the family of Philip, lord Wharton, in the capacity of tu- tor to his two sons. In 1669, Mr. Gale published, at Oxford, in quarto, the first part of “The Court of the Gentiles; or, a Discourse touching the Original of human Literature, both Philo- logy and Philosophy, from the Scriptures and Jewish church,” &c. This was received by the public with great applause, and was reprinted in 1672. The second part was printed at Oxford in 1671, and at London in 1676. Parts iii. and iv. were printed at London in 1677. The whole was speedily translated into Latin, by which means the reputation of the author was spread into all parts of Europe, but especially in Germany, where his perform- ance was much read and admired. In the first part of this learned work, Mr. Gale endeavors to prove, that all languages have their origin and rise from the Hebrew ; instancing particularly in the Oriental tongues, such as the Phoenician, Coptic, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Samaritan, and Ethiopic; and then in the European, es- pecially the Greek, Latin, the old Gallic, and Britannic. To this he adds a deduction, importing that the pagan theology, physic, politics, poetry, history, rhetoric, are de- duced from Sacred names, persons, rites, and records; and showing withal, how the Jewish traditions came to be corrupted and mistaken by pagāns. In the second part, he makes it his business to evince, that philosophy also has its original from the Jewish church, commencing with the Barbaric philosophy, under which he compre. hends the Egyptian, Phoenician, Chaldean, Persian, In- dian, Ethiopic, Scythian, and Britannic; thence proceed- ing to the Grecian, and chiefly to the Ionic and Italic, or Pythagorean, where he displays extensive reading and great learning, while he deduces this doctrine of Judaic origin from the testimonies of heathem, Jewish, and Chris- tian authors, passing through all the particular sects of philosophers with great care and industry. In the third part, the vanity of pagan philosophy is demonstrated from its causes, parts, properties, and effects; namely, pagan idolatry, Judaic apostasy, Gnostic infusions, errors among the Greek fathers, especially Origenism, Arianism, Pelagianism, and the whole system of Popery, or Anti. christianism, distributed into three parts, mystic, schola- stic, and canonic theology. In the fourth part, he treats of reformed philosophy, wherein Plato's moral or meta- physic, or prime philosophy, is reduced to a useful form or method. He divides this, which is larger than any of the former parts, into three books, discoursing in the first of moral philosophy; in the second, of metaphysics; and in the third, of divine predetermination. Mr. Gale continued to be an assistant to Mr. Rowe, of London, till the death of that gentleman, in 1677, and G. A. L. G. A. L. [ 558 | then he was chosen to succeed him as pastor of the church. His stated residence was at Newington, where he died in 1678. * . . . Mr. Gale was a man of very extensive learning, of un- questionable piety, and animated with an ardent love of truth. His great merit, and the irreproachableness of his life, gained him the respect of all parties. He was a de- cided non-conformist on principle, and evinced his zeal in its support by bequeathing all his estate, real and person- al, to the education of young students destined for the dissenting ministry, and appointing trustees for its man- agement. His vaſuable and well chosen library, with a few exceptions, he bequeathed towards promoting useful learning in New England, where those principles exten- sively prevailed. Besides his great work, “The Court of the Gentiles,” he published in Latin an abridgment of it for the use of students, under the title of “Philosophia Generalis,” &c. London, 1676, 8vo.; “Theophily; or, a Discourse of the Saints' Amity with God in Christ,” London, 1671, 8vo.; “The true Idea of Jansenism, both historic and dogmatic,” 1669, 8vo.; “The Anatomy of Infidelity,” 1672, 8vo.; “A Discourse on the Coming of Christ,” 1673, 8vo. ; “Idea. Theologiae,” &c. 12mo.; and “The Life and Death of Thomas Tregosse,” &c. 1671, 8vo.—Jones's Chris. Biog. . . e GALE, (DR. John,) one of the ablest, ministers of his time among the General Baptists, was born in the year 1679, and was the son of a respectable citizen of London, who, perceiving in him superior talents, determined to give him a liberal education, and to devote him to the work of the Christian ministry. With this view he sent young Gale to the university of Leyden, where he con- tinued two years; and by his rapid improvement, the re- sult of indefatigable application, he gained the esteem of the professors, and was honored with the degrees of mas- ter of arts and doctor in philosophy, before he was nine- teen years of age. He went afterwards to Amsterdam, and spent some years among the Remonstrants, under the tuition of Limborch and Le Clerc. On his return to England he pursued his studies with redoubled ardor, and treasured up in his mind a considerable portion of valua- ble knowledge. . * Dr. Gale did not begin to preach statedly till he was thirty-five years of age. The publication which gave ce- lebrity to his name was his “Reflections, on Dr. Wall's History of Infant Baptism;” in which he is generally acknowledged to have displayed considerable ability, and, what is not so common in that controversy, mildness of temper. He had projected several important undertak- ings, but the execution of these plans was prevented by the attack of a fever, which put a period to his life in De- cember, 1721, in the forty-second year of his age. His illness was of short duration, but “borne with that calm- ness and patience which became a mind firmly possessed with a belief in the superintendence of a wise and good God, to whose providence he always resigned himself and his affairs.” He was a man who did honor to human na- ture. Four volumes of sermons, with his Life prefixed, were published after his decease. See Memoirs of Dr. John Gale.—Jones's Chris. Biog. GALENISTS; the followers of Galen Abraham Haan, a physician at Amsterdam, and an eloquent preacher among the Mennonites, (which see.) He was considered a Latitudinarian, admitting to his communion all who be- lieved the Scriptures and led religious lives. He was op- posed by Samuel Apostool. (See ApostooDIANs.) Mo- sheim's E. H. vol. v. p. 496.-JWilliams. GALILEAN ; a name of reproach first given to our Sa- vior and his disciples by the Jews, and afterwards libe- rally used by the pagans. Julian the Apostate constantly employed it, and wished to have it established as the le- gal name by which the Christians should be designated. The Redeemer he called “the Galilean God,” and with his dying breath thus gave vent to his rage, while forced to acknowledge his power : menikekas Galilai.e.: “O Gali- lean, thou hast conquered ſ”—Hend. Buck. . . . . GALILEANS ; a sect of the Jews which arose in Judea som- years after the birth of our Savior. They sprang from one Judas, a native of Gaulam, in Upper Galilee, J upon the occasion of Augustus appointing the people to be mustered, which they looked upon as an instance of servitude which all true Israelites ought to oppose. They pretended that God alone should be owned as master and lord, and in other respects were of the opinion of the Pharisees; but as they judged it unlawful to pray for in- fidel princes, they separated themselves from the rest of the Jews, and performed their sacrifices apart. As our Savior and his apostles were of Galilee, they were sus- pected to be of the sect of the Galileans; and it was on this principle, as St. Jerome observes, that the Pharisees laid a snare for him, asking, Whether it were lawful to give tribute to Caesar 2 that in case he denied it, they might have an occasion of accusing him.—Hend. Buck, GALILEE ; one of the most extensive provinces into which the Holy Land was divided; but it probably varied in its limits at different periods. It is divided by the rab- bins into (1.) The Upper; (2.) The Nether; and, (3.) The Valley. Josephus limits Galilee west by the city of Ptolemais and mount Carmel ; on the south by the coun- try of Samaria and Scythopolis; on the east by the can- tons of Hippos, Gadara, and Gaulan ; on the north by the confines of the Tyrians. Lower Galilee reaches in length from Tiberias to Chabulon, or Zabulon, the frontier of Ptolemais; in width from Chaloth, in the great plain, to Bersabee. The breadth of Upper Galilee begins at Bersabee, and extends to Baca, which separates it from the Tyrians. Its length reaches from Tella, a village on the river Jordan, to Meroth. But the exact situation of these places is not known. - - - This province contained four tribes; Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher; a part also of Dan; and part of Perea, beyond the river." Upper Galilee abounded in mountains, and was termed “Galilee of the Gentiles,” as the mountainous nature of the country enabled those who possessed the fastnesses to maintain themselves against invaders. Strabo (lib. 16.) enumerates among its inhabitants Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenicians. Lower Galilee, which contained the tribes of Zebulun and Asher, was sometimes called the Great Field, “the cham- paign,” Deut. 11:30. They valley was adjacent to the sea of Tiberias. Josephus describes Galilee as being very populous, containing two hundred and four cities and towns, the least of which contained fifteen thousand in- habitants. It was also very rich, and paid two hundred talents in tribute. The natives were industrious, high spirited, brave, and made good soldiers; they were also seditious, and prone to insolence and rebellion. Their language and customs differed considerably from those of the Judeans, Mark 14: 70. articles.)—Calmet. - GALILEE, (SEA of .) This inland sea, or more pro- perly lake, forever dear in the imagination of the Chris- tian, from the memorable scenes acted on its shores and on its bosom, derives its several names, the lake of Tibe- rias, the sea of Galilee, and the lake of Gennesareth, from the territory which forms its western and south-wes- tern border. It is computed to be between seventeen and eighteen miles in length, and from five to six in breadth. It is naturally pure and sweet, secluded in its situation, and surrounded by elevated, and anciently fruitful decli- vities. The mountains on the east come close to its shore, and the country on that side has not a very agreeable as- pect: on the west, it has the plain of Tiberias, the high ground of the plain of Hutin, or Hottein, the plain of Gennesareth, and the foot of those hills by which you as- cend to the high mountain of Saphet. To the north and south it has a plain country, or valley. There is a cur- rent throughout the whole breadth of the lake, even to the shore; and the passage of the Jordan through it is discernible by the smoothness of the surface in that part. “The lake of Gennesareth,” says Dr. Clarke, “is sur- rounded by objects well calculated to heighten the solemn impression made by historical recollections, and affords one of the most striking prospects in the Holy Land. In picturesque, beauty, it comes nearest to the lake of Lo- carno in Italy, although it is destitute of any thing simi- lar to the islands by which that majestic piece of water is adorned. It is inferior in magnitude, and in the height of its surrounding mountains, to the lake Asphaltites.” (See the two preceding * G. A M G. A M [ 559 | The situation of the lake, lying, as it were, in a deep basin, between the hills which inclose it on all sides, ex- cepting only the narrow entrance and outlets of the Jor; dan at eithér end, protects its waters from long-continued tempests; its surface is in general as smooth as that of the Dead sea. But the same local features render it oc- casionally subject to whirlwinds, squalls, and sudden gusts from the mountains, of short duration; especially when the strong current formed by the Jordan is opposed by a wind of this description from the south-east, sweep- ing from the mountains with the force of a hurricane, it may easily be conceived that a boisterous sea must be instantly raised, which the small vessels of the country would be unable to resist.— Watson. GALL, (rash;) something excessively bitter, and sup- posed to be poisonous, Deut. 29: 18. 32: 32. Psalm 69: 21. Jer. 8: 14. 9:15. 23:15. Lam. 3:19. Hosea 10:4. Amos 6: 12. It is evident, from the first-mentioned place, that some herb or plant is meant of a malignant or nauseous kind. It is joined with wormwood, and, in the margin of our Bibles, explained to be “a very poisonful herb.” In Psalm 69: 21, which is justly considered as a prophecy of our Savior's sufferings, it is said, “They gave me gall (rash) to eat.” And, accordingly, it is recorded in the history, “They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall,” Matt. 27:34. But, in the parallel passage, it is said to be “wine mingled with myrrh,” (Mark 15:23.) a very bitter ingredient. From whence it is probable that the word may be used as a general name for whatever is exceedingly bitter; and, consequently, where the sense requires it, may be put specially for any bitter herb or plant.—Watson. . . GALLEY ; a ship rowed with oars. The enemies of the Jews, and the Assyrian army in particular, are liken- ed to galleys, or gallants, that is, according to ancient ideas, large and magnificent ships, Isa. 33: 21.—Bronn. GALLICAN. (See CHURCH, GALLICAN.) GALLIO; the brother of Seneca, the philosopher. He was at first named Marcus Annaeus Novatus; but, being adopted by Lucius Junius Gallio, he took the name of his adoptive father. The emperor Claudius made him pro- consul of Achaia. He was of a mild and agreeable tem- per. To him his brother Seneca dedicated his books, “Of Anger.” He shared in the fortunes of his brothers, as well when out of favor as in their prosperity at court. At length, Nero put him, as well as them, to death. The Jews, enraged at St. Paul for converting many Gentiles, in A. D. 53, dragged him to the tribunal of Gal- lio, who, as proconsul, generally resided at Corinth, Acts 18: 12, 13. They accused him of teaching “men to wor- ship God contrary to the law.” Sosthenes, the chief ruler of the synagogue, was beaten by the Greeks before Gal- lio's seat of justice; but this governor did not concern himself about it. ligious controversy, perhaps did credit to his prudence; ne- vertheless, his name has passed into a reproachful proverb; and a man regardless of all piety is called “a Gallio,” and is said, “Gallio-like, to care for none of these things.” Little did this Roman anticipate that his name would be so immortalized.— Watson. GAMALIEL; an illustrious doctor of the Jewish law, a Pharisee, and Paul's master. It is said he was the grandson of the famous Hillel, (see HILLEL) uncle to Nico- demus, and for thirty-two years president of the Jewish Sanhedrim. It is certain that the family of Gamaliel was so distinguished as to enjoy privileges of a peculiar kind, especially in relation to the study of Greek literature, which was generally prohibited among the Jews. See Robinson's Bib. Repos. 1832. - . The Jews having brought Peter before the assembly of rulers, Gamaliel moved that the apostles should retire ; and then advised the assembly to take heed what they in- tended to do touching these men, and to treat them with lenity. Gamaliel's advice was followed; and the apos- tles were liberated, Acts 5: 34. When Paul, in Rom, 10:1, affirms, “My heart's desire and prayer to God for Israelis, that they might be saved,” we should not forget how much of an interesting and af. fecting character was connected with the personal character of many of whom he spoke. Could he cease to feel for his His abstaining from interfering in a re-- former venerated teacher, so richly cultivated, intelligent and amiable as he was, yet, in neglecting to embrace Christianity, so fatally mistaken Heb. 2: 3.--Calmet; Bromm. & GAMBA, (FRANcis;) a Lombard of the Protestant per- suasion, and a martyr of the sixteenth century. He was apprehended and condemned to death by the senate of Milan. At the place of execution, a monk presented a cross to him; to whom he said, “My mind is so full of the real merits and goodness of Christ, that I want not a piece of senseless stick to put me in mind of him.” For this expression his tongue was bored through, after which he was burnt to death.-Foz. p. 185. GAMES, (PUBLIc, or GYMNAstic.) Games and combats were instituted by the ancients in honor of their gods; sº a 2: *† *- fºllº and were celebrated with that view by the most polished and enlightened nations of antiquity. The most renown- ed heroes, legislators, and statesmen, did not think it un- becoming their character and dignity, to mingle with the combatants, or contend in the race; they even reckoned it glorious to share in the exercises, and meritorious to carry away the prize. The victors were crowned with a wreath of laurel in presence of their country; they were celebrated in the rapturous effusions of their poets; they were admired, and almost adored, by the innumerable multitudes which flocked to the games, from , every part of Greece, and many of the adjacent countries. They re- turned to their own homes in a triumphal chariot, and made their entrance into their native city, not through the gates which admitted the vulgar throng, but through a breach in the walls, which were broken down to give them admission ; and at the same time to express the persuasion of their fellow-citizens, that walls are of small use to a city defended by men of such tried courage and ability. Hence the surprising ardor which animated all the states of Greece to imitate the ancient heroes, and en- circle their brows with wreaths, which rendered them still more the objects of admiration or envy to succeeding times, than the victories they had gained, or the laws they had enacted. But the institutors of those games and combats had higher and nobler objects in view than veneration for the mighty dead, or the gratification of ambition or vanity; it was their design to prepare the youth for the profession of arms; to confirm their health ; to improve their strength, their vigor, and activity ; to enure them to fa- tigue; and to render them intrepid in close fight, where, in the infancy of the art of war, muscular force commonly decided the victory. This statement accounts for the striking allusions which the apostle Paul makes in his epistles to these celebrated exercises. Such references were calculated to touch the heart of a Greek, and of every one familiarly acquainted with them, in the liveliest man- ner, as well as to place before the eye of his mind the most glowing and correct images of spiritual and divine things. 1. Certain persons were appointed to take care that all things were done according to custom, to decide contro- versies that happened amongst the antagonists, and to adjudge the prize to the victor. Some eminent writers are of opinion that Christ is called the “Author and Fin- isher of faith,” in allusion to these judges. 2. Those who were designed for the profession of athletae, or combatants, frequented from their earliest years the academies maintained for that purpose at the public ex- º G. A M G. A. M. [ 560 J pense. In these places, they were exercised under the direction of different masters, who employed the most effectual methods to inure their bodies for the fatigues of the public games, and to form them for the combats. The regimen to which they submitted was very hard and se- vere. At first, they had no other nourishment than dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and a gross, heavy sort of bread, called maza; they were absolutely ſorbidden the use of wine, and enjoined continence. 3. When they proposed to contend in the Olympian games, they were obliged to repair to the public gymnasi- um at Elis, ten months before the solemnity, where they prepared themselves by continual exercises. that had omitted to present himself at the appointed time, was allowed to be a candidate for the prizes; nor were the accustomed rewards of victory given to such persons, if by any means they insinuated themselves, and over- came their antagonists; nor would any apology, though seemingly ever so reasonable, serve to excuse their ab- sence. No person that was himself a motorious criminal, or nearly related to one, was permitted to contend. Fur- ther, to prevent underhand dealings, if any person was convicted of bribing his adversary, a severe fine was laid upon him ; nor was this alone thought a sufficient guard against unfair contracts, and unjust practices, but the contenders were obliged to swear they had spent ten whole months in preparatory exercises; and, besides all this, they, their fathers, and their brethren, took a solemn Oath, that they would not, by any sinister or unlawful means, endeavor to stop the fair and just proceedings of the games. The spiritual contest, in which all true Christians aim at obtaining a heavenly crown, has its rules also, devised and enacted by infinite wisdom and goodness, which re- quire implicit and exact submission, which yield neither to times nor circumstances, but maintain their supreme authority, from age to age, uninterrupted and unimpaired. The combatant who violates these rules forfeits the prize, and is driven from the field with indelible disgrace, and consigned to everlasting woe. Hence the great apostle of the Gentiles exhorts his son Timothy strictly to observe the precepts of the gospel, without which he can no more hope to obtain the approbation of God, and the pos- session of the heavenly crown, than a combatant in the public games of Greece, who disregarded the established rules, could hope to receive from the hands of his judge the promised reward: “And if a man also strive for masteries, yet is he not crowned except he strive lawful- ly,” (2 Tim. 2: 5.) or according to the established laws of the games. But the apostle intimates, that there was this peculiar circumstance attending the Christian con- test, that the person who proclaimed its laws and rewards to others, was also to engage in it himself; and that there would be a peculiar infamy and misery in his miscarry- ing, 1 Cor. 9: 27. 4. The athletoe took care to disencumber their bodies of every article of clothing which could in any manner hinder or incommode them. In the race, they were anx- ious to carry as little weight as possible, and uniformly stripped themselves of all such clothes as, by their weight, length, or otherwise, might entangle or retard them in the course. The Christian also must “lay aside every weight, and the sin which doth so easily beset” him, Heb. 12: 1. In the exercise of faith and self-denial, he must “cast off the works of darkness,” lay aside all malice and guile, hypocrisies, and envyings, and evil-speakings, inordinate affections, and worldly cares, and whatever else might obstruct his holy profession, damp his spirits, or hinder his progress in the paths of righteousness. 5. The foot race seems to have been placed in the first rank of public games, and cultivated with a care and in- dustry proportioned to the estimation in which it was held. The Olympic games generally opened with races, and were celebrated at first with no other exercise. The lists or course where the athleta, exercised themselves in running, was at first but one stadium in length, or about six hundred feet; and from this measure it took its name, and was called the stadium, whatever might be its extent. This, in the language of St. Paul, speaking of the Chris- tian's course, was “the race which was set before them,” No man of several kinds. determined by public authority, and carefully measured. On each side of the stadium and its extremity, ran an as- cent, or kind of terrace, covered with seats and benches, upon which the spectators were seated,—an innumérable multitude, collected from all parts of Greece, to which the apostle thus alludes in his figurative description of the Christian life: “Seeing we are compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight,” Heb. 12:1. The most remarkable parts of the stadium were its en- trance, middle, and extremity. The entrance was marked at first only by a line drawn on the sand, from side to side of the stadium. To prevent any unfair advantage being taken by the more vigilant or alert candidates, a cord was at length stretched in front of the horses or men that were to run; and sometimes the space was railed in with wood. The opening of this barrier was the signal for the racers to start. The middle of the stadium was remarkable only by the circumstance of having the prizes allotted to the victors set up there. According to some writers, however, it was at the goal, or extremity, and not in the middle of the course, that the prizes were exhibit- ed; and they were placed in a very conspicuous situation, that the competitors might be animated by having them always in their sight. This accords with the view which the apostle gives of the Christian life: “Brethren, I count not myself to have apprehended; but this one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things which are before, I press toward the mark, for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus,” Phil. 3: 13, 14. 6. The honors and rewards granted to the victors were They were animated in their course by the rapturous applauses of the countless multitudes that lined the stadium, and waited the issue of the contest with eager anxiety; and their success was instantly fol. .. lowed by reiterated and long-continued plaudits; but these were only a prelude to the appointed rewards, which, though of little value in themselves, were accounted the highest honor to which a mortal could aspire. These con- sisted of different wreaths of wild olive, pine, parsley, or laurel, according to the different places where the games were celebrated. After the judges had passed sentence, a public herald proclaimed the name of the victor; one of the judges put the crown upon his head, and a branch of palm into his right hand, which he carried as a token of victorious courage and perseverance. As he might be victor more than once in the same games, and sometimes on the same day, he might also receive several crowns and palms. When the victor had received his reward, a herald, preceded by a trumpet, conducted him through the stadium, and proclaimed aloud his name and country; while the delighted multitudes, at the sight of him, re. doubled their acclamations and applauses. - The crown in the Olympic games was of wild olive; in the Pythian, of laurel; in the Isthmian or Corinthian, of pine tree; and in the Nemaan, of smallage or parsley. Most of these were evergreens; yet they would soon grow dry, and crumble into dust. “Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible.” The Christian is called to fight the good fight of faith, and to lay hold of eternal life ; and to this he is more powerſully stimulated by considering, that the ancient athletoe took all their care and pains only for the sake of obtaining a garland of flowers, or a wreath of laurel, which quickly fades and perishes, possessed little intrinsic value, and only served to nourish their pride and vanity, without imparting any solid advantage to themselves or others; but that which is placed in the view of the spirit. ual combatants, to animate their exertions, and reward their labors, is no less than a crown of glory, which never decays; “an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for them,” 1 Peter 1: 4. 5: 4. * - - . 7. But the victory sometimes remained doubtful; in consequence of which a number of competitors appeared before the judges, and claimed the prize. The candidates who were rejected on such occasions by the judge of the games, as not having fairly merited the prize, were called by the Greeks adokimoi, or disapproved, which we render G AN G. A. R. [ 561 ) castanjay, in a passage already alluded to from St. Paul's first epistle to the Corinthians: “But I keep under my body, and bring it into subjection, lest that by any means, when I have preached to others, I myself should be cast away,” rejected by the Judge of all the earth, and disap- pointed of my expected crown. The affecting passage of the same apostle, in the second epistle of Timothy, writ- ten a little before his martyrdom, is beautiſully allusive to the above-mentioned race, to the crown that awaited the victory, and to the Hellanodics, or judges, who bestowed it : “I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith. Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the right- eous Judge, shall give me at that day: and not to me only, but to all them also that love his appearing,” 2 Tim. 4:8. — Watson. - GAMMADIMI; (contracted ones; cubit-high men.) It is very uncertain what people are meant by this term, in Ezek. 27: 11. The Vulgate renders the word pygmies. Mr. Taylor takes them to be Nubians, whom the ancient writers describe as being of diminutive stature, contracted proportions, bº warlike, and even terrible to the neighbor- ing nations; all which answers very well to the Gamma- dim.—Calmet. GAMMELL, (WILLIAM,) an eminent minister of New- port, R. I. was born in Boston, in 1786. In early liſe he made a profession of religion, and united with the church, under the care of the Rev. Dr. Stillman. At the age of nineteen, he commenced the study of theology, with the Rev. Mr. Williams, of Wrentham, and began soon to supply the vacant churches in the vicinity. He was set- tled in Bellingham four years. In 1812, or 14, he remov- ed to Medfield, where his field of labor was extensive, and where he remained until the year 1823, when he removed ... to Newport, R. I. and became pastor of the second Bap- tist church in that town. Here his commanding talents soon replenished their capacious house, and filled it often to overflowing. His influence was also felt with a saluta- ry power through the whole state ; when it pleased God, in his mysterious providence, suddenly to remove him from the world, and to draw a dense cloud over the large circle that was rejoicing in his light. He died May 1, 1827, in the forty-second year of his age, leaving a widow and seven children. Mr. Gammell published several interesting discourses, but they give a very inadequate conception of the charm of his preaching. There was a rich and spontaneous eloquence, naturally adapting itself to every variety of occasion, an unction and a pathos, accompanied with an interesting personal appearance, which could not be trans- ferred into his written communications, but which found their way effectually to the heart. These appendages of public speaking, as Campbell remarks of certain peculiari- ties of language, are like essences which cannot be turn- ed from one vessel to another without suffering a loss. His piety was of an order that kept his eye continually fixed on that better world, into which, we trust, he has found an abundant admission.—R. I. Rel. Messenger; Chris. Watchman. º GANO, (John,) a distinguished minister in New York, collected the first Baptist society in that city, and was or- dained its pastor, in 1762. He was born at Hopewell, New Jersey, July 22, 1727. In this place he was con- verted to God, and ordained to the ministry, in 1754. The famous Tennant was one of his earliest friends. His first labors were in the southern states, where, as an itine- rant, he was inferior to none but Whitfield. Early espous- ing the cause of his country in the contest with Great Britain, at the commencement of the war he joined the standard of freedom in the capacity of chaplain. His preaching contributed to impart a determined spirit to the soldiers, and he continued in the army till the conclusion of the war. When a lieutenant, after uttering some pro- fane expressions, accosted him, saying, “Good morning, Dr. Good Man;” he replied—“You pray early this morn- ing.” The reproved man said, “I beg your pardom.” “O,” retorted Mr. G., “I cannot pardon you; carry your case to God.” He left his society in New York, in 1788, and removed to Kentucky. He died at Frankfort, August 10, 1804, aged seventy-seven, resigned to the divine will, and in the hope of everlasting blessedness in the presence of his Re- deemer. - - ... ' Mr. Gano, as a minister of Christ, shone as a star of the first magnitude in the American churches. For this office, God had endowed him with a large portion of grace and with excellent gifts. His pulpit talents have been rarely equalled. To the refinements of learning he did not aspire. “He believed, and therefore spake.” The careless and irreverent stood arrested and awed before him, and the most insensible were made to feel. The seals of his ministry were ample. Memoirs of his life, written prin- cipally by himself, were published in 12mo, 1806. Ga- no's Memoirs; Benedict’s His. Bap. vol. ii. 306.—Allen. GANO, (Dr. STEPHEN,) son of the preceding, was born in the city of New York, December 25, 1762. He was originally destined for the medical profession, and accordingly, after completing his studies, served some time in the revolutionary army in the capacity of surgeon. About this time, being enlightened and changed by divine grace, he entered the gospel ministry, and spent a few years in Hudson, Hillsdale, and the adjacent region, in the state of New York. In 1792, he was called to the pastoral care of the First Baptist church in Providence, R. I., and occupied this important station till his death, August 18, 1828, a period of thirty-six years. Endowed by nature with a noble person, a masculine understand- ing, a heart full of the most generous sympathies, and a voice of singular power, compass, and melody, all improv- ed by education, and sanctified by the spirit of Christ, it is not surprising that he filled successfully a pulpit that, originally venerable with the memory of Rogert WILLIAMs, had been dignified with the piety of a MANNING, and graced with the eloquence of a MAxcy. Several powerful revivals were experienced in the course of his ministry, and he baptized not far from seven hundred souls on a profession of vital faith in the crucified Savior. He was the intimate friend of BACKUs, and SMITH, and STILLMAN, and BALDw1N. He filled a large space in the eye of the Christian public, and his praise is in the churches as a man of God, whose whole life and death bore witness to the glory of the cross.—Chris. Watchman; Am. Bap. Mag. GAP ; a breach made in a dam, wall, or hedge. The Jewish false prophets did not stand in the gap, or make up the hedge; they did nothing tending to stop the course of wickedness, which opened a door for the vengeance of God to break in upon their nation ; nor did they with ef- fectual, fervent prayer, intercede with God to turn away his wrath, Ezek. 13:5, and 22: 30.-Bronn. GARDENS, in the eastern countries, were objects of particular attention; and hence came to be frequently spoken of by the inspired writers, in the way of illustrat- ing subjects of a spiritual and heavenly nature. In the hotter parts of the eastern countries, a constant supply of water is so absolutely necessary for the cultiva- tion, and even for the preservation and existence of a garden, that should it want water but for a few days, every thing in it would be burnt up with the heat, and totally destroyed. There is therefore no garden whatever in those countries, but what has such a certain supply, either from some neighboring river, or from a reservoir of water collected from springs, or filled with rain water in the proper season, in sufficient quantity to afford ample provision for the rest of the year. Mr. Maundrell, speaking of the Emir of Berytus, says, “The best sight that the palace affords, and that which is most deserving of recollection, is the orange garden. It contains a large quadrangular plot of ground, divided in- to sixteen lesser squares, four in a row, with walks be- tween them. The walks are shaded with orange trees of a large spreading size. Every one of these sixteen lesser squares in the garden was bordered with stone, and in the stone-work were troughs, very artificially contrived, for conveying the water all over the garden, there being little outlets cut at every tree, for the stream, as it passed by, to flow out and water it.” Travels, p. 39. Kempfer de- scribes the royal gardens at Ispahan as being watered exactly in the same manner. Amaen. Exot. p. 193. These extracts may enable us to form a clear idea of what the Psalmist means by “the rivers or divisions of - 71 G. A. R. G A S [ 562 water,” mentioned Ps. 1: 3, and other plaees of Scripture ; that is, waters distributed in artificial canals, for such is the import of the phrase. The prophet Jeremiah has im- itated, and elegantly amplified the passage of the Psalmist above referred to :— - - “He shall be like a tree planted by the water side, And which sendeth forth her roots to the aqueduct; She shall not fear when the heat conneth; But her leaf shall be green ; In the year of drought she shall not be anxious, Neither shall she cease from bearing fruit.” - Jeremiah 17: 8. We may also learn from this the true meaning of the following elegant proverb: - - “The heart of the king is, in the hand of JEHow AH, Like the canals of waters. . Whithersoever it pleaseth him, he inclineth it.” Prov. 21: 1. In other words, the direction of it is in the hand of the Lord, as the distribution of the water of the reservoir, through the garden, by different canals, is at the will of the gardener. See Eccles. 2: 5–9.—Jones. GARDINER, (WILLIAM,) an English merchant, resid- ing in Lisbon, in the seventeenth century, who was so shocked with the superstitions of popery, that he delibe- rately formed the design of making a reform in Portugal, or perishing in the attempt. To this end, he settled all his worldly affairs, paid his debts, closed his books, and consigned over his merchandise. This done, he entered the cathedral, the following Sunday, and placed himself near the altar, with a New Testament in his hand. The king and court soon appeared, and a cardinal began to say mass. At that part of the ceremony at which the people adore the wafer, the spirit of Gardiner could en- dure no longer. Springing towards the cardinal, he snatched the host from him, and trampled it under his feet, to the amazement of the whole congregation. Being arrested, and brought before the king, he was asked, who was his abettor; to which he replied, “My own conscience alone. I would not hazard what I have dome for any man living, but I owe that, and all other services, to God.” He endured the tortures of the stake with firmness and joy.—Foz, 165. GARDINER, (CoLonEL JAMEs,) so justly celebrated for his piety and valor, was born at Carriden, in Linlithgow. shire, January 10, 1687. It was the peculiar advantage of Gardiner, that he possessed a mother, able and willing to implant in his young and tender mind principles of truth and vital Christianity, which, in after life, yielded solid and lasting pleasure and advantage. He was, how- ever, taken from her maternal guidance and protection, to enter an academy at Linlithgow, where he made very considerable progress in literature. At a very early age he made up his mind to follow a military life. The tears of his mother, whose judgment and affection he much valued, opposed his wishes; but though such opposition was added to the entreaties of his nearest friends, they did not operate on his mind, for it was fixed; and he accordingly entered the army as a ca- det; and, at the age of fourteen, bore an ensign’s commis- sion in a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, in which he continued till the year 1702, when he received an ensign’s commission from queen Anne, which he bore in the battle of Ramillies, being at that time sixteen years of age. In that memorable action he received a wound in his mouth by a musketball. On the 31st of January, 1715, he was made captain-lieutenant in colonel Ker’s regiment of dragoons. For some time he was stationed at Paris; and though he there entered into every scene of dissipation and licentiousness he could, conscience, that faithful monitor, frequently checked him; and, in his ap- parently happiest hours, he was often wretched. He could not always forget the prayers, the tears, the cautions of his mother. In the year 1719, the impressions that had been made on the mind of colonel Gardiner were revived, and his mind was awakened from the lethargy into which, for so many years, it had fallen. The circumstances were the following: on one Sunday, he had spent the evening in some very gay and trifling company; about eleven, the company broke up, and he retired to his room to loiter away an hour, when accidentally he discovered a book lying near him, entitled “The Christian Soldier; or, Heaven taken by Storm.” . This book he took up with an intention of ridiculing the plain and simple truths it contained; but, while perusing, he fell into a sound slum- ber, and dreamed that he saw's universailblaze of light fall on the book while he was reading it, and, lifting up his eyes, saw, suspended in the air, a visible representa- tion of the Lord Jesus Christ upon the cross, and distinctly heard a voice to this effect: “Oh sinner, did I suffer all this for thee, and are these the returns?” Struck with this awful circumstance, he sank down, and awoke in a state bordering on distraction, appearing to himself the vilest monster in the creation. At that time he had such a view, both of the majesty and goodness of God, as caused deep repentance. From that time his mind was continu- ally taken up with reflections on the divine purity and goodness, and of his own sinfulness: he began to lead a new life, and he now found that he had fresh battles to fight, and joyfully took up the sword of the Spirit, and, like a brave soldier, continued resolute and firm. He pursued his religious duties with the utmost strictness, constantly rising at four o'clock in the morning, and devot- ed two hours to the secret exercises of devotion, reading, meditation and prayer; in which last, he expressed him- self with so much of fervor and spiritual devotion, that it has seldom been equalled, and never excelled. If at any time he was obliged to leave his room earlier than usual, he rose an hour sooner; so that when a journey, or a march called him out at four, he rose at two; he also retir- ed for an hour in the evening, that his mind might not be too wandering. His valued and beloved mother he maintained till her death, which event was one of the greatest domestic trials he was ever called upon to experience, but which he bore with the piety and resignation of a sincere Christian. In the year 1726, he was united to lady Frances Erskine, daughter of the late earl of Buchan, who was pious, sen- sible, and amiable, and of whom he made the observation, that the greatest imperfection in her character was, that “she valued and loved him more than he deserved.” By this lady he had thirteen children, five only of whom sur. vived their father. - Towards the latter end of the year 1742, he embarked for Flanders, and spent some time at Ghent; and, amidst all the hurry and bustle, and fatigue of marches, and the care of the regiment, he was tranquil and serene. In 1745, the memorable battle of Preston Pans was fought, which proved fatal to him. Colonel Gardiner took leave of his beloved wife and his eldest daughter at Stirling castle. The former being more than usually affected at their separation, he asked her the reason; and, on her assign- ing the natural cause, instead of offering her consolation, as he had generally done on such occasions, he only re- plied, “We have an eternity to spend together!” Eminent for his piety, gentleness, wisdom, and excel- lence, he was beloved and respected while living, and most deeply regretted when dead. As a husband he was exemplary, affectionate, attentive and kind; and as a friend, condescending and sincere. His temper was both mild and amiable ; before he governed others, he had learned the very difficult lesson of governing himself. See Life of Colonel Gardiner, by Dr. Doddridge.—Jones's Chris. Biog. GARLANDS; a kind of crowns made with flowers, ribands, &c. Those brought by the priest of Jupiter, were probably designed to crown the ox destined for sacrifice, in like manner as the Jews crowned their victims of first- fruits with olive branches, Acts 14: 13.—Bronn. GARLI.S.K. This word occurs only in Num. 11:5, but the Talmudists frequently mention the use of this plant among the Jews, and their fondness for it. That garlicks grew plentedusly in Egypt, is asserted by Dioscorides; there they were much esteemed, and were both eaten and worshipped. “Then gods were recommended by their taste. Such savory deities must needs be good, Which served at once for worship and for food.” Watson, . GARMENTS. (See HABITs.) - - GASTRELL, (FRANcis, D.D.) bishop of Chester, was born at Slapton, in Northamptonshire, in 1662. He was G. A. T G. A. Z. [ 563 ) educated at Oxford, where he took the degrees in arts; and then, devoting himself to the church, entered into holy orders. In the year 1694, he took the degree of bachelor oſ divinity; and about the same time he was appointed º: to the Honorable society of Lincoln's Inn ; in which station he acquitted himself so well, that, in the year 1697, he was appointed to preach Mr. Boyle's lecture. - In the following year, Mr. Gastrell took the degree of doctor in divinity; being at this time chaplain to the house of commons; and, in the year 1702, queen Anne collated him to a canonry of Christ church, in Oxford. The ferment which had been raised by the dispute be- tween the doctors South and Sherlock, concerning the Trinity, being still kept up with an ill-governed zeal, Dr. Gastrell published, this same year, “Some Considerations concerning the Trinity,” and “the Ways of managing that Controversy;” which soon passed through two edi- tions; and coming to a third, in the year 1707, the author subjoined to that edition a vindication of it, in answer to some animadversion of Mr. Collins', in his “Essay concerning the Use of Reason.” In this year, likewise, it was that Dr. Gastrell published his excellent book, en- titled “The Christian Institutes; or, the sincere Word of God : being a plain and impartial Account of the whole Faith and Duty of a Christian. Collected out of the Writ- ings of the Old and New Testament: digested under pro- per Heads, and delivered in the Words of Scripture.” This treatise has been frequently reprinted; and is es- teemed a very useful performance. In 1711, he was chosen proctor in convocation for the chapter of Oxford; and was appointed one of the chap- laims in ordinary to queen Anne. In 1714, he published “Remarks on Dr. Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Tri- nity.” Dr. Clarke observes, that the objections in those “Remarks” were set forth to particular advantage, by the skill of a very able and learned writer, and proposed with a reasonable and good spirit. Dr. Gastrell held the preacher's place at Lincoln's Inn till this year; when he resigned it upon his promotion to the see of Chester, in 1714. He died November 24, 1725, “leaving,” says Dr. Willis, “a sufficient monument of himself in his excellent writings.”—Jones's Chris. Biog. GATAKER, (THOMAs,) was born 1574, in London, where his father was then minister. When he was six- teen years of age, he was placed at St. John’s college, at Cambridge; and there proceeded to master of arts with uncommon applause. After various testimonies to his talents and worth, about the year 1601, he became preacher at Lincoln's Inn, and he held this employment, with great reputation, for ten years. But, having entered into the matrimonial state, in 1611, he quitted the office of preacher to that so- ciety for the rectory of Rotherhithe, in Surrey. He published, in 1619, his “Discourse of the Nature. and Use of Lots; a Treatise Historical and Theological.” This treatise made a great noise in the world, and was opposed by several writers. In 1620, he set out on a tour to the Low Countries. In his travels he confuted some of the English papists in Flanders; and, soon after, re- turned to England. In 1642, Mr. Gataker was appointed one of the assembly of divines who met at Westminster. He was employed, together with some other members of the assembly, in writing “Annotations upon the Bible;” wherein, those upon Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Lamentations, were exe- cuted by him, and have great merit. In the mean time, on the removal of Dr. Comber, he was offered the master- ship of Trinity college, in Cambridge, but he declined it on account of his ill state of health. He continued, how- ever, to publish several learned works, most of which were printed among his “Opera Critica,” at Utrecht, in 1668, folio. He also published, in 1652, an edition of the “Meditations of Marcus Antoninus;” with a Latin trans- lation, and a commentary, and a preliminary discourse on the philosophy of the Stoics, which is much esteemed. He died in 1654. * Echard says, “Mr. Gataker was the most celebrated among the assembly of divines, being highly esteemed by Salmasius and other foreigners; and it is hard to say which is most remarkable, his exemplary piety and c, ºri- ty, his polite literature, or his humility and modest, in refusing preferments.”—Jones's Chris. Biog. GATE. The gates or doors to the houses of the He- brews, with their posts, were generally of wood; such were the gates of Gaza which Samson carried away on his shoulders; (Judg. 16: 3.) that is, the gate, bars, posts, and locks, if there were any. - “Gate,” is often used in Scripture to denote a place of public assembly, where justice was administered, (Deut. 17: 5, 8. 21:19. 22:15. 25: 6, 7, &c.) because, as the Jews mostly labored in the fields, assemblies were held at their city gates, and justice administered there, that labor- ers might lose no time; and that country people, who had affairs of justice, might not be obliged to enter the town. See Ruth 4: 1. Gen. 23: 10, 18. Hence, also, “gate” sometimes signifies power, domin- ion; almost in the same sense as the Turkish sultan’s palace is called the Porte. God promises Abraham, that his posterity shall possess the gates of their enemies, their towns, their fortresses; (Gen. 22:17.) and Christ says to Peter, “Thou art Peter; and on this rock will I build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it,” Matt. 16:18. (See HADEs, and HELL, ad fin.) - Solomon says, “He that exalteth his gate seeketh de- struction.” The Arabs are accustomed to ride into the houses of those they design to harass. To prevent this, Thevenot tells us that the door of the house in which the French merchants lived at Rama was not three feet high, and that all the doors of that town are equally low.— Calmet ; Watson. GATH, (Heb. wine-press ;) the fifth of the Philistine cities. It was a place of strength in the time of the pro- phets Amos and Micah, and is placed by Jerome on the road between Eleutheropolis and Gaza, eighteen miles south of Jöppa, and thirty-two west of Jerusalem. It ap- pears to have been the extreme boundary of the Philistine territory in one direction, as Ekron was on the other. Hence the expression, “from Ekron even unto Gath,” 1 Sam. 7: 14.— Watson. GATHER. God gathers sinners to himself, when, by his preaehed gospel and Holy Spirit, he powerfully draws and unites them to his person, and instates and preserves them in fellowship with him, Matt. 23:37. Those gather njith Christ that promote the true interests of religion and welfare of men’s souls, Matt. 12:30. Luke 11:23. The gathering of the people, was to Judah, as, at the three so- lemn feasts, the Hebrew tribes went up to Jerusalem; and their gathering was, and is, to Shiloh, when multitudes attended his instructions; multitudes, chiefly of Gentiles, believe on, and walk in him, Gen. 49: 10. To have one's soul gathered with sinners, and his life with bloody men, is to be shut up in their company, to share in their plagues, and be carried into hell with them, Ps. 26: 9.—Brown. GATH-HEPHER, the birthplace of the prophet Jonah, was situated in Galilee, and in the canton of Opher, 2 Kings, 14: 25. Joshua makes this city to be part of the tribe of Zebulon, (Josh, 19:15.) and Jerome, in his pre- ſace to the prophecy of Jonah, says, that it was two miles from Sephoris, or Diocaesarea.—Jones. GAULAN ; a celebrated city beyond Jordan, from which the small province of Gaulanites derived its name. It was seated in Upper Galilee beyond Jordan, and was given to the half tribe of Manasseh, Deut. 4:43. It was one of the cities of refuge, Josh. 21: 27.—Jones. GAURS; the supposed descendants of the ancient Par- sees, (See MAGI, and PARSSEs,) who still subsist in differ- ent parts of the East. - The Mahometans denounce this people as monsters of cruelty and iniquity; but modern travellers describe them as harmless and inoffensive, though very superstitious in their devotions. For their ancient principles, said to be derived from Zoroaster, see the articles above referred to ; but it is difficult to say how far they retain the same prin- ciples. From some circumstances, it has been supposed that they (or a part of them) have imbibed some points of Christianity, but little certain is known respecting them. —Ency. Brit. in Gabres; Hennay's Travels, vol. i. p. 263; Pinkerton's Geogr. Persia, ch. ii.— Williams. GAZA ; a city of the Philistines, made by Jºshua part G. E. D G. E. N | [ 564 J of the tribe of Judah. It was one of the five principalities of the Philistines, situated towards the southern extremity of the promised land, (1 Sam. 6: 17.) between Raphia and Askelon. The advantageous situation of Gaza was the cause of the numerous revolutions which it underwent. It first of all belonged to the Philistines, and then to the Hebrews. It recovered its liberty in the reigns of Jotham and Ahaz, and was reconquered by Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18:8. It was subject to the Chaldeans, who conquered Syria and Phoenicia. Afterwards, it fell into the hands of the Persians, then of the Greeks and Romans, and since of the Turks. Luke speaks of the old city, (Acts 8: 26.) and Strabo also notices “Gaza, the desert.” The new city was built seventeen miles nearer the sea. - “Modern Gaza,” says Dr. Wittman, “is situated on an eminence, and is rendered picturesque by the number of fine minarets which rise majestically above the buildings, and by the beautiful date-trees which are interspersed. The suburbs are composed of wretched mud huts; but within side the town the buildings make a much better appearance than those we had generally met with in Syria. The streets are of a moderate breadth. Many fragments of statues, columns, &c. of marble, are seen in the walls and buildings in different parts of the town. The suburbs and environs of Gaza are rendered extremely agreeable by a number of large gardens, cultivated with the nicest care, which lie in a direction north and south of the town ; while others of the same description run to a considerable distance westward. These gardens are filled with a great variety of choice fruit-trees, such as the fig, the mulberry, the pomegranate, the apricot, the peach, and the almond; together with a few lemon and Orange trees. The numerous plantations of olive and date-trees which are interspersed, contribute greatly to the picturesque effect of the scene exhibited by the surrounding plaims, and the view of the sea, distant about a league, tends to diversify still more the animated features of this luxuriant scene.” This and similar descriptions of modern travel- lers, which are occasionally introduced into this work, are given both as interesting in themselves, and to show that relics of the ancient beauty and fertility of the Holy Land are still to be found in many parts of it.—Watson. GAZARES; a small party, probably, of Albigenses, in the twelfth century, who, to enjoy their religious liberties, had strayed as far as Gazare, in Dalmatia; but they were found out and condemned by pope Innocent III. Brough- ton's Dict.— Williams. G.E.B.A. Geba, seems to have been the northern limit of the kingdom of Judah, 2 Kings 23: 8. “From Geba to Beersheba,” seems to be, with respect to Judah, of the same import as “from Dan to Beersheba” had been, with respect to all Israel, when under one dominion.—Calmet. GEBAL ; a district, or perhaps a sovereignty, south of Judah, and in south Idumea. Also a city of Phoenicia, between Sidon and Orthosia, on the shore of the Mediter- ranean, (Ezek. 27: 9.) written by Stephens, Ptolemy, and Strabo, Gabala ; by Pliny, Gabale ; and by the LXX, Byblus. The city of Gcbal has the important office of “call:ers” to the ships of Tyre assigned to it by the pro- phet Ezekiel ; its chiefs are also characterized as wise. Its ruins are splendid. The modern city is called by Mr. Maundrell, Jebilee. This city was famous for its worship of Adonis, who was believed to have been wounded by a boar in mount Libanus. The river Adonis, whose waters are at some seasons as red as blood, passes by it; and when this phenomenon appeared, the inhabitants lamented Adonis, pretending their river to be colored with his blood. (See ADONIs.)—Calmet. - GEDDES, (ALEXANDER,) a learned but injudicious Roman Catholic divine, was born, in 1737, at Ruthven, in Banffshire; was educated at the Scotch college at Pa- ris; and officiated at various chapels till 1782, when he desisted entirely from the exercise of his clerical functions. For many years he was engaged on a new translation of the Old and New Testament, of which he published only two volumes. . This work raised a tempest of indignation against him, from both Protestants and Catholics. He died in 1802. Besides the version of the Bible, he pub- lished a translation of Horace's Satires; Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures: and other works of less im: portance. See Magee on Atonement.—Davenport. GEDER. This name occurs several times in the Scriptures, and we are under the necessity of distinguish- ing the towns so called with considerable attention; be- cause they have hitherto been subject to much confusion. They are all in the tribe of Judah ; and apparently in the south of that tribe. They were, probably, rather forts, or military posts, than extensive and populous towns. Some of them were single, others, apparently, were double ; and, perhaps, one was almost, or altogether, a chain of fencible posts, in a military sense.—Calmet. GEHENNA, or GEHENNoM, or valley of Hinnom ; or valley of the son of Hinnom ; (see Josh. 15: 8, 2 Kings 23: 10. Heb.) a valley adjacent to Jerusalem, through which the southern limits of the tribe of Benjamin passed. Eusebius says it lay east of Jerusalem, at the foot of its walls; but we are certain it also extended south, along the brook Kedron. It is thought to have been the common sewer belonging to Jerusalem, and that a fire was always burning there to consume the filth of the city. In allusion to this circumstance, or to the fire kept up in the valley in honor of Moloch, the false god, to whom the Hebrews fre- quently offered human sacrifices, and even their own children, (Jer. 7: 31.) hell is called Gehenna, in some parts of the New Testament. Josiah, to pollute this place, and to render it odious, commanded all manner of ordure, and dead men's bones, to be thrown into it, 2 Rings 23: 10. , After having been the scene of much cruelty, then, Ge- henna became the receptacle of much pollution; so far it coincided in character with hell; and the perpetual fires that were kept burning there to consume the filth of the city, added another similarity to those evils attributed to the place of torment. The combined ideas of wickedness, pollution, and punishment, compose that character which might well justify the Syriac language in deriving its name of hell from this valley of the sons of Hinnom. Comp. Matt. 5: 22, and 10: 28. (See HELL.)—Calmet. GELDENHAUR, (GERARD,) better known by the name of Geradus Noviomagus, a very learned German, was born at Nimeguen, in 1482. From his earliest youth he was distinguished by his love of learning, especially of history and poetry. He studied at Daventer and Louvain, with great success. At the latter university he contract- ed a close friendship with Erasmus. He served as read- er and historian successively to Charles of Austria, Philip, and Maximilian, of Burgundy. In 1526, being sent to Wittemberg to inquire into the state of the schools and churches there, he became convinced that the doctrine of Luther was the doctrine of Scripture, renounced popery, and retired toward the Upper Rhine. He became an in- structor of youth at Worms, at Augsburg, and Marpurg, at which last place he taught divinity, as well as history. He died of the plague, January 10, 1542. His change of religion, and some writings which he published against the church of Rome, occasioned a quarrel between him and Erasmus, who, to preserve appearances with Rome, found it aecessary to abuse him. Geldenhaur was the author of many learned works.-Middleton, vol. i. 81. GEMARA. (See TALMUD.) GENE ALOGY, signifies the line of descent, or a list of a person's ancestors. The common Hebrew expression for it is Sepher-Toledoth, “the Book of Generations.” No nation was ever more careful to preserve their genealogies than the Jews. The sacred writings contain genealogies extended three thousand five hundred years backward. The genealogy of our Savior is deduced by the evangelists from Adam to Joseph and Mary, through a space of four thousand years and upwards. Matthew gives the line of descent through Joseph, his reputed or legal father, and Luke through Mary, his mother. In reading these genea- logies we should remember that the Messiah was restricted by divine appointment, 1. To the posterity of Abraham. 2. To the family of David. 3. To the existence of the second temple. It appears that our Lord was of the direct line, the elder branch of the royal family, in short the very person who, had the dominion continued in the fami- ºf David, would have legally sat on the throne, Gen. 49: 0. Acts. 2: 25–36. G. E. N. G. E. N. [ 565 The Jewish priests were obliged to produce an exact genealogy of their families; before they were admitted to exercise their function. Wherever placed, the Jews were particularly careful not to marry below themselves; and to prevent this, they kept tables of genealogy in their several families, the originals of which were lodged at Jerusalem, to be occasionally consulted. These authentic monu- ments, during all their wars and persecutions, were taken great care of, and from time to time renewed. But, since the last destruction of their city, and the dispersion of the people, their ancient genealogies are lost. But to this the Jews reply, that either Elias, or some other inspired priest or prophet, shall come and restore their genealogical tables before the Messiah's appearance; a tradition, which they ground on a passage in Nehemiah 7:64, 65.—Calmet ; Watson. . GENERAL CALL. (See CALLING...) - GENERATION. Besides the common acceptation of this word, as signifying descent, it is used for the history and genealogy of any individual. The ancients some- times computed by generations; “In the fourth generation thy descendants shall come hither again,” Gen. 15: 16. Among the ancients, when the duration of generations was not exactly described by the age of four men succeeding one another from father to son, it was fixed by some at a hundred years, by others at a hundred and ten, by others at thirty-three, thirty, twenty-five, and even at twenty years; being neither uniform nor settled : only, it is re- marked, that a generation is longer as it is more ancient. —Calmet ; Watson. . GENERATION, ETERNAL is a term used as de- scriptive of the Father’s communicating the divine nature to the Son. To this mode of representing the relation of these two persons of the Trinity, as it respects their essence, it has been objected, that it goes to subvert the supreme and eternal Deity of the Son, and to represent him as essentially derived and inferior; a doctrine nowhere taught in the Scriptures. Some prefer saying that it was not the divine nature that was communicated to the Son, but only distinct personality. In regard to this, and all similar subjects which lie beyond the limits of the human faculties, the wisest, and most truly philosophical, as well as the safest way, is, to abstain from all metaphysical subtleties, and rest satisfied with the biblical mode of representation. That Christ is the Son of God in a sense perfectly unique, and that he was from eternity God, are truths which the Scriptures clearly teach; but wherein, in that sense, his filia- tion consisted, is a subject on which they are entirely silent. Every past attempt to explain it has only furnished a fresh instance of “darkening counsel, by words without know- ledge.” (See article Son of God.) Onven on the Spirit, and on the Person of Christ; Pearson on the Creed ; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, p. 73, 76, 3d edition; Gill's ditto, p. 205, vol. i. 8vo edition; Lambert's Sermons, ser. 13, text John 11 : 35 ; Hodson's Essay on the Eternal Filiation of the Son of God; Watts's Works, vol. v. p. 77; Kidd on the Trini- ty; Stuart and Miller's Letters; Fuller's Works, vol. i. 26, ii. 815. (See CALVINISM.)—Hend. Buck. GENEROSITY; the disposition which prompts us to bestow favors which are not the purchase of any particu- lar merit. It is different from humanity. Humanity is that exquisite feeling we possess in relation to others, so as to grieve for their sufferings, resent their injuries, or rejoice at their prosperity; and as it arises from sympathy, it requires no great self-denial, or self-command; but gene- rosity is that by which we are led to prefer some other person to ourselves, and to sacrifice any interest of our own to the interest of another. Generosity is peculiarly amiable when it is spontaneous and unsolicited, when it is disinterested, and when, in the distribution of its benefits, it consults the best season and manner in conferring them. —Hend. Buck. GENESIS; a canonical book of the Old Testament, so called from the Greek genesis, or generation, because it contains an account of the origin of all visible things, and of the genealogy of the first patriarchs. In the Hebrew it is called ber&shit, which signifies, in the beginning, because it begins with that word. (See PENTATEuch.)—Watson. GENIUS, in the ancient mythology, signified a good or evil spirit, set over each person to direct his birth, accom- pany him in his life, to guard his person, and guide his thoughts. - . - - Genius, among the moderns, signifies that peculiar apti. tude which some men naturally possess, to perform well and easily that which others can do but indifferently, and with a great deal of pain. It is defined by Sir Joshua Reynolds, “the power of expressing a subject as a whole;” by others, “greater acuteness of perception and memory;” by others, “the predominance of the ideal faculty, or imagination ;” by some it is resolved into “intuitive judgment,” and others still into “patient thought,” study, and application. Probably it comprehends something of all these.—Hend. Buck. - GENNESARETH, (LAND of,) or GENNESAR ; SO named from Cinmereth, the ancient name of a city and adjoining tract, extending four miles along the north-west- ern shore of the sea of Galilee. This part of Galilee is described by Josephus as possessing a singular fertility, with delightful temperature of the air, and abounding in the fruits of different climates. (See GALILEE, SEA CF.)— Watson. . GENTILE ; in matters of religion, a pagan, or wor- shipper of false gods. The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews, who called all those who were not of their race and religion gojim, i. e. gentes, which, in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, is rendered ta ethne, in which sense it frequently occurs in the New Testament; as in Matt. 6: 32. “All these things the nations or Gen- tiles seek.” The prophets of the Old Testament dwell frequently and with benevolent delight on the future call- ing of the Gentiles to the faith of Christ. (See NATIONs ; HEATHEN ; PAGANISM.) In the writings of St. Paul, the Gentiles are generally denoted as Greeks, Rom. 1: 14, 16. 2: 9, 10. 3: 10: 12. 1 Cor. 1: 22–24. Gal. 3: 28. St. Luke, in the Acts, expresses himself in the same manner, Acts 6: 1. 11; 20. 18: &c.—Hend. Buck; Watson. GENTILES, (Court of THE.) Josephus says there was in the court of the temple a wall, or balustrade, breast- high, with pillars at particular distances, and inscriptions on them in Greek and Latin, importing that strangers were forbidden from entering farther; here their offerings were received, and sacrifices were offered for them, they standing at the barrier; but they were not allowed to approach to the altar. sº From the above particulars, we learn the meaning of what the apostle Paul calls “the middle wall of partition,” between Jews and Gentiles, broken down by the gospel. — Watson. GENTILES, (ISLEs of THE,) (Gen. 10: 5.) evidently denote Asia Minor and the whole of Europe, which were peopled by the descendants of Japheth-Calmet. GENTLENESS; softness or mildness of disposition and behavior. Little as this disposition is thought of by many, we find it considered in Scripture as a characteristic of the true Christian. “The wisdom that is from above,” saith St. James, “is gentle,” ch. 3: 17. “This gentleness indeed, is to be distinguished from passive tameness of spirit, and from unlimited compliance with the manners of others. That passive tameness, which submits without a struggle to every encroachment of the violent and assum- ing, forms no part of Christian duty; but, on the contrary, is destructive of general happiness and order. That unlimited complaisance, which on every occasion falls in with the opinions and manners of others, is so far from be- ing a virtue, that it is itself a vice, and the parent of many vices. It overthrows all steadiness of principle, and pro- duces that sinful conformity with the world which taints the whole character. In the present corrupted state of hu- man manners, always to assent and to comply, is the very worst maxim we can adopt. True gentleness, therefore, is to be carefully distinguished from the mean spirit of cowards and the fawning assent of sycophants. It re- nounces no just right from fear; it gives up no important truth from flattery : it is, indeed, not only consistent with a firm mind, but it necessarily requires a manly spirit and fixed principle, in order to give it any real value. It stands opposed to harshness and severity, to pride and arrogance, to violence and oppression : it is properly that part of charity which makes us unwilling to give pain to any of our brethren, Compassion prompts us to relieve G. E. R. G. E. S [ 566 ) their wants; forbearance prevents us from retaliating their juries; meekness restrains our angry passions; candor our severe judgments; but gentleness corrects whatever is, offensive in our manner, and, by a constant train of humane attentions, studies to alleviate the burden of com- mon misery.”—Hend. Buck. GENTOOS; a term signifying mankind, assumed by the inhabitants of Hindostan, now called Hindoos, which Bee.—Williams, GENUFLEXION ; the act of bowing or bending the knee, or rather of knºi. down, The Jews usually rayed standing, but not always. Baronius is of opinion hat genuflexion was not established in public worship in the year of Christ 58, from that passage in Acts 20:36, where St. Paul is expressly mentioned to kneel down at prayer; but Saurin shows that nothing can be thence concluded. The same author remarks, also, that the pri- mitive Christians carried the practice of genuflexion in private so far, that some of them had worn cavities in the floor where they prayed; and St. Jerome relates of St. James, that he had contracted a hardness on his knees equal to that of camels.—Hend. Buck. GEORGE, prince of Anhault, and bishop of Mersburg, was born of religious parents, August 14, 1507, and edu- cated at Leipsic, under George Forcheme. When twenty- two years of age, his attainments were such, that he was chosen by Albert, elector of Mentz, to be one of his coun- cil, and gained his highest confidence. About this time the Reformation attracted the attention of all men; and Luther's writings concerning the differ- ence between the law and gospel, &c., were dispersed and read everywhere. Prince George was no idle spectator. He sought truth like a philosopher, and loved it as a Christian. He began all his investigations with prayer. He sought truth in its fountain, the Holy Scriptures. The result was, that he openly embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, and renounced all connection with popery. He put down superstition and set up seminaries of learn- ing—the surest way under God of exterminating the errors which superstition had engendered. All however was done with Christian mildness, and multitudes were soon brought by divine grace to rejoice experimentally in the light of the gospel. •. In 1545, by the persuasion of Luther, he consented to give himself to the work of the ministry, and was made bishop of Mersburg—an office full of danger and difficulty, which no worldly man would covet. His whole time was thenceforth devoted to this holy work. Above all low ambition and revenge himself, he endeavored to remove it from others. He was a peacemaker among princes. Insults he bore with Christian magnanimity. He lived with God in his heart, and ſor God in his intercourse with men. Luther, Justus, Jonas, and others, were his most intimate friends. As in life, so in death he was full of resignation, faith, and love; dwelling most sweetly on the promises, especially John 3: 16. 10: 27, 28, and Matt. 11: 28. He died October 17, 1553, aged forty-six. Melancthon wrote two elegies on his death. He wrote and published many tracts and sermons.—Middleton, vol. i. 292. - - GERAH ; the smallest piece of money among the He- brews, twenty of which made a shekel, Exod. 30: 13.— Calmet. GERAR. We find a city of this name so early as Gen. 20: 1. 26: 1, 17, expressly stated to be a city of the Philistines. The probability is, that some wandering tribe of Palli had settled here, before the great influx of their nation into these parts, during the captivity of the Israelites in Egypt. As Abraham himself was a pilgrim from a region not very distant from the original country of these Palli, they might, perhaps, feel some kind of sym- pathy with him and for him. Gerar was not far from Gaza, in the South of Judah.—Calmet. GERARD, (ALEXANDER, D. D.) a Scotch divine and writer, born in 1728, at Garioch, in Aberdeenshire, was educated at Marischal college, at which, in 1752, he suc- ceeded Fordyce, as professor of moral philosophy, and, in 1760, was appointed divinity professor. In 1771, he ob. tained the theological professorship at King's college, Ab- erdeen. He died in 1795. He wrote an Essay on Taste; an Essay on Genius; Sermons; and Dissertations on the Genius and Evidences of Christianity.—Davenport, GERGESENES, or GIRGASHITes; a people of the land of Canaan, who settled east of the sea of Tiberias; and gave name to a region and city. (See GADAR.A.)—Calmet. GERIZIM ; a mount near Shechem, in Ephraim, a province of Samaria. Shechem lay at the foot of two mountains, Ebal and Gerizim. (See EBAL.) As to the original of the temple upon Gerizim, we must take Josephus's relation of it. Manasseh, the grandson of Eliashib, the high-priest, and brother to Jaddus, high- priest of the Jews, having been driven from Jerusalem in the year of the world 3671, and not enduring patiently to see himself deprived of the honor and advantages of the priesthood, Sanballat, his father-in-law, addressing him- self to Alexander the Great, who was then carrying on the siege of Tyre, and having paid him homage for the province of Samaria, whereof he was governor, he farther offered him eight thousand of his best troops, which dis- posed Alexander to grant what he desired for his son-in- law, and for many other priests, who, being married, as well as he, contrary to the law, chose rather to forsake their country than their wives, and had joined Manasseh in Samaria. When Antiochus Epiphanes began to persecute the Jews, A. M. 3836; B. C. 186, the Samaritans entreated him that their temple upon Gerizim, which hitherto had been dedicated to an unknown and nameless god, might be con- secrated to Jupiter the Grecian, which was easily consent- ed to by Antiochus. The temple of Gerizim subsisted some time after the worship of Jupiter was introduced into it; but it was destroyed by John Hircanus Macea. bacus, and was not rebuilt till Gabinius was governor of Syria; who repaired Samaria, and called it by his own name. It is certain, that, in our Savior’s time, this tem- ple was in being, John 4: 20. We are assured, that Herod the Great, having rebuilt Samaria, and called it Sebaste, in honor of Augustus, would have obliged the Samaritans to worship in the temple which he had erected there, but they constantly refused.—Watson. - GERMANICUS; a young man, and a Christian mar- tyr of the second century, who, being delivered to the wild beasts, on account of his faith, behaved with such aston- ishing courage, that several pagans became converts to Christianity.—Foz, p. 17. - GESENIUS, (WILLIAM,) a celebrated orientalist and biblical critic, was born 1786, at Nordhausen, where his father, who was known as a respectable medical writer, was engaged in the practice of his profession. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and at the universities of Helmstädt and Göttingen. His atten- tion, however, was almost exclusively devoted to the study of the Oriental languages; and the necessity which he soon perceived of a better grammar and lexicon of the Hebrew language, led him to devote himself entirely to this, and to the study of the Old Testament. This he did during a three years' residence at Göttingen, as Magister legens and lecturer on theology, from 1806 to 1809, when he made preparations for his Hebrew lexicon. In 1809, he was appointed by the government of Westphalia pro- fessor of ancient literature in the Catholic and Protestant gymnasium, at Heiligenstadt; afterwards, in 1810, ex traordinary, and in 1811, ordinary professor of theology at Halle. Here he attracted particular attention to the study of the Old Testament; and remaining after the re- storation of the university in 1814, as doctor of theology, he wrote his Commentary on the origin, character, and authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which will always be regarded as a model in investigations of such a nature. In the summer of 1820, he made a scientific tour to Paris and Oxford, where he prepared collections in the Semitic languages, for lexicographical purposes, and also took a copy of the Ethiopean book of Enoch, with a view to fu- ture publication. In 1810 and 1812, appeared his Hebrew and German Lexicon, in two volumes, and in 1815, an abridgment of the same, a translation of which, by Mr. Gibbs, of Andover, has been published, both in America and England. - The chief peculiarities of these valuable works are a just estimation of, and thorough examination of, all the GIA G I B [ 567 sources of lexicography, a correct apprehension of the relation between the Hebrew and its cognate languages, a complete statement and explanation of the construc- tions and phrases which are derived from each word; a clear distinction between what belongs to the province of the lexicon, the #. and the exegetical commentary respectively, and attention to the various kinds of diction. • Some excellent remarks, which have had no small effect in the dissemination of right views upon these subjects, are to be found in the prefaces to the lexicon. His ver- sion of Isaiah, with a commentary, is one of the ablest critical works that have ever appeared; but unfortunately the neological views of the author have deeply tinge many parts of his exposition, especially such as relate to the prophecies respecting the Messiah. The last twenty- six chapters of the book he considers to have been written, not by Isaiah, but by some later author—an hypothesis which has been refuted by several writers, but by none more ably than by Hengstenberg, in his Old Testament Christology. Making deductions for these serious faults, it may nevertheless be asserted, that more philological, historical, and antiquarian research is to be found in this work, than in any other commentary on the Scriptures. The celebrity which Gesenius acquired by these labors has attracted a vast number of students to Halle, where he and Wegscheider take the lead of the naturalist party, and have for a time given eclat and currency to their principles; but of late their popularity as theologians has begun to decline, and the students are taught to discrimi- nate between the speculating, unbelieving philologist, and the profound, consistent, and pious divine.—Hend. Buck. GESHURITES; a people who dwelt east of the Jordan, north of Bashan, and within mount Hermon, Deut. 3: 14. Josh. 12: 5. They were not driven out by the Isra- elites; (Josh. 13: 13.) and after the death of Saul, Ishbo- sheth was acknowledged king by them, [Eng. Tr. Ashu- rites, and by the Israelites of Gilead, 2 Sam. 2: 9. The Geshur of 2 Sam. 3: 3. 15: 8, is a different country pro- bably.—Calmet. - GETHIN, (Lady GRACE,) daughter of Sir George Nor- ton, and wife of Sir Richard Gethin, of Gethin Grot, Ire- land, was born 1676, and died 1697, at the early age of twenty-one. Her mother, a lady of piety, had given her all the advantages of a liberal education, and the rapid advances she made were an ample recompense for the pains bestowed. Her reading and observations were ex- traordinary; for she had considered the human passions with unusual penetration and judgment; and laid such a foundation for her conduct as would have elevated her to a high rank in Christian excellence ; but she was cut off in the bloom of life, early, but not unprepared. Her monument in Westminster Abbey is of beautiful black and white marble; but a more interesting monument re- mains in a posthumous volume of her writings, entitled Reliquia, Gethiniana, celebrated by Congreve. For per- petuating her memory, provision was made for a sermon to be preached in Westminster Abbey on Ash Wednesday forever.—Betham. GETHSEMANE, (the oil press, or valley of oil ;) a vil- lage at the foot of the mount of Olives, to which our Sa- vior sometimes retired ; and in a garden belonging to which, often visited by him for the purpose of private de- votion, he endured his agony, and was taken by Judas, Matt. 26:36, et. seq. I would desire grace, says Dr. Hawker, that by faith I might often visit Gethsemane; and while traversing the hallowed ground, call to min that here it was Jesus entered upon that spiritual conflict with the powers of darkness, which, when finished, com- pleted the salvation of his people. Sacred Gethsemane! (See Agony.)—Hanker ; Calmet. GIAH; a valley, probably not far from Gibeon, which might be an outlet, as its name imports, from a narrow and contracted road or country, to one more open ; or it might be an eruption of water, as it were, from the moun- tain, 2 Sam. 2: 24.—Calmet. GIANT, (nophel; Greek, gigas;) a monster, a terrible man, a chief who beats and bears down other men. Scripture speaks of giants before the flood: “Nephilim, mighty men who were of old, men of renown,” Gen. 6: 4. Scrip- ture sometimes calls giants Rephaim : Chedorlaomer beat the Rephaim at Ashteroth-Karnaim. The Emim, ancient inhabitants of Moab, were of a gigantic stature, that is, Rephaim. The Rephaim and the Perizzites are connect- cd as old inhabitants of Canaan. 2. The Rephaim, in some parts of Scripture, signify spirits in the invisible world, in a state of misery, Job says that the ancient Rephaim groan under the waters; and Solomon, that the ways of a loose woman lead to the Rephaim ; that he who deviates from the ways of wisdom, shall dwell in the assembly of Rephaim, that is, in hell, Prov. 2: 18. 4: 18, 21: 16, &c. Gen. 14: 5. Deut. 2: 11, 20. 3: 11, 13. Josh. 12; 4. 13: 12. Job 26: 5. 3. As to the existence of giants, several writers, both ancient and modern, have thought that the giants of Scripture were men famous for violence and crime, rather than for strength or stature. But it cannot be denied, that there have been races of men of a stature much above that common at present; although their size has often been absurdly magnified. The ancients considered per- sons whose stature exceeded seven feet as gigantic. Liv- ing giants have certainly been seen who were somewhat taller; but the existence of those who greatly surpassed it, or were double the height, has been inferred only from remains discovered in the earth, but not from the ocular testimony of credible witnesses. Were we to admit what has been reported on the subject, there would be no bounds to the dimensions of giants; the earth would seem un- suitable for them to tread upon. History, however, ac- quaints us that, in the reign of Claudius, a giant named Galbara, ten feet high, was brought to Rome from the coast of Africa. An instance is cited by Goropius, an author with whom we are otherwise unacquainted, of a female of equal stature. A certain Greek sophist, Proare- sius, is said to have been nine feet in height. Julius Capitolinus affirms that Maximinian, the Roman emperor, was eight feet and a half; there was a Swede, one of the lifeguards of Frederick the Great, of that size. M. Le Cat speaks of a giant exhibited at Rouen, measuring eight feet and some inches; and we believe some have been seen in England, within the last thirty years, whose sta- ture was not inferior. In Plott’s “History of Stafford- shire,” there is an instance of a man of seven feet and a half high, and another, in Thoresby’s account of Leeds, of seven feet five inches high. Examples may be found elsewhere of several individuals seven feet in height, be- low which, after the opinion of the ancients, we may cease to consider men gigantic. Entire families some- times, though rarely, occur of six feet four, or six feet six inches high. From all this we may conclude, that there may have possibly been seen some solitary instances of men who were ten feet in height; that those of eight feet are extremely uncommon, and that even six feet and a half far exceeds the height of men in Europe. We may reasonably understand that the gigantic nations of Canaan were above the average size of other people, with instan- ces among them of several families of gigantic stature. This is all that is necessary to suppose, in order to explain the account of Moses; but the notion that men have gra- dually degenerated in size has no foundation.—Watson, GIBBON, (Edward,) one of the three greatest of Eng- lish historians, was born in 1737, at Putney ; was imper- fectly educated at Westminster school, and Magdalen college, Oxford; and finished his studies at Lausanne, under M. Pavillard, a Calvinistic minister. It was his having embraced popery that occasioned his being sent to Lausanne. Pavillard reclaimed him from popery; but, after having vibrated between Catholicism and Protest- antism, Gibbon settled into a confirmed sceptic. In 1758, he returned to England, and entered upon the duties of active life. More than two years he subsequently spent in visiting France, Switzerland, and Italy; and it was while he sat musing among the ruins of the Capitol, and the barefooted friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing a history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, first arose in his mind. Several other historical schemes had previously occupied his attention. Of this great work the first volume ap- peared in 1776, the second and third in 1781, and the con- cluding three volumes in 1788. It raised him at once to the summit of literary fame; but its artful attacks on G I B G. I. F [ 568 Christianity excited great disgust and indignation, and ealled forth several antagonists. One of them impeached his fidelity as a historian, and thus provoked a reply, which gave the assailant ample cause to repent his rash- ness. The facts Gibbon has recorded are not hostile to Christianity, when stripped, as they should be, of the sneers and insinuations by which he pandered to the scep- tical spirit of his age. In 1774, he became a member of parliament, and throughout the American war, he gave a silent support to the measures of lord North. In 1783, he retired to Lausanne, whence he twice returned to his native country. He died, January 16, 1794, during his last visit to Eng- land. His posthumous works were published, in two quarto volumes, by his friend lord Sheffield. It is lamentable to reflect, that history has fallen under the dominion of infidelity; that of the three eminent histo- rians, Robertson is barely neutral, and Hume and Gibbon are decidedly hostile to Christianity. Thus the book of God’s providence, and of the manifestations of his wisdom, and long suffering, and justice, can scarcely be read by the general eye, till it is blurred and partly effaced by the comments of scepticism and profaneness; and the belief of the unguarded reader is assailed, not by arguments and open objections, but by continual insinuations, and by a slight but perpetual misrepresentation of facts. Notwith- standing his great powers, Gibbon has already sunk, and must sink still lower, in the scale of popularity, and be- 2ins to receive, even in this world, a measure of retribu- tion for having chosen the worst side, in the great contest for evil and for good, and for having staked his all on Christianity being untrue—his reputation here, and his happiness hereafter. Yet even Gibbon is an important witness to the fulfilment of prophecy.—Davenport; Doug- las on Errors ; Keith's Evidence of Prophecy, &c. GIBBONS, (Thomas, D. D.,) was born at Reek, eight miles from Cambridge, in 1720. His father was pastor of a Congregational church at Olney, in Bucks, who gave him the best education his circumstances would permit. His indefatigable application and industry enabled him to surmount every obstacle, and he made considerable ac- quisitions in useful and ornamental literature. About the year 1742, he had the felicity to become ac- quainted with Dr. Isaac Watts; and by showing him a volume of poems in manuscript, a peculiar and intimate friendship was formed between them, which continued un- abated to the close of Dr. Watts's life, which took place in 1748, and eventually led to the writing of his “Memoirs,” which appeared in 1780, in an octavo volume. Dr. Gibbons entered upon the work of the ministry in 1742, and in the following year he was called to the pas- toral charge of the Independent church, meeting in Ha- berdashers’ hall, Staining lane, Cheapside, where he continued his official labors to the period of his death, which took place on the 22d of February, 1785, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Dr. Gibbons was a man of great piety, of irreproacha- ble manners, upright and benevolent, and of great cheer- fulness of temper. He possessed a considerable portion of classical literature, and distinguished himself as an author by a variety of publications both in prose and verse. Among these, besides his Liſe of Dr. Watts, we may specify “Poems, on several Occasions,” 1743; “Ju- venilia; or, Poems on various Subjects of Devotion and Virtue,” octavo, 1750; “Rhetoric ; or, a View of its prim- cipal Tropés and Figures, in their Origin and Powers; with a variety of Rules to escape Errors and Blemishes, and attain Propriety and Elegance in Composition,” octavo, 1767. In 1777, he published “Lives and Me- moirs of eminently pious Women, who were Ornaments of their Sex, Blessings to their Families, and edifying Examples to the Church and the World,” two volumes, octavo. After Dr. Gibbons's death, three volumes of ser- mons by him were published in octavo, by subscription.— Jones’s Chris. Biog. GIBEAH; a city of Benjamin, about seven miles north of Jerusalem, and the birth-place of Saul, king of Israel; whence it is frequently called “Gibeah of Saul,” 1 Sam. 11:4. 15: 34, 2 Sam. 21: 6. Isa. 10: 29. Gibeah was also famous for its sins; particularly for that committed his ministry attracted much attention. with the freedom of the city. by forcing the young Levite's wife, who went to lodge there; and for the war which succeeded it, to the almost entire extermination of the tribe of Benjamin, Judges 19. Scripture remarks, that this happened at a time when there was no king in Israel, and when every one did what was right in his own eyes.—Calmet. GIBEON ; a city situated on a hill about five miles north of Jerusalem, and belonging to the tribe of Judah. It is spoken of as “a great city;” (Josh. 10.) and the cap- ture of it by Joshua seems to have spread much conster- nation, at that time, throughout the neighborhood. The Gibeonites continued ever afterwards faithful in their at- tachment to the Israelites, though they appear to have suffered dreadfully under the sanguinary reign of Saul, 2 Sam. 21. Previous to the building of the temple at Jerusalem, it appears that the tabernacle and altar of sacrifice were for some time stationed at Gibeon, 1 Chrom. 21:29, 30. 1 Kings 3: 4.—Jones. GICHTEL, (John George,) a mystic and fanatic, born at Ratisbon, in 1638. In his sixteenth year he pretended to have divine visions and revelations; he afterwards went to Holland, where he attended to certain religious exercises, with a view to fit himself for the duties of a missionary in America. After enduring several persecu- tions in Germany, the result of the disturbances created by his doctrines, and suffering considerable opposition from a number of his followers, who withdrew from him that support for which he was entirely dependent on them, he died at Amsterdam, in 1710. He wrote several works, which were published by himself or his disciples, who called themselves the Angelic Brethren. These works have recently been drawn forth from oblivion, and are held in great esteem by the present mystics of Germany. —Hend. Buck. GIDEON ; the son of Joash, of the tribe of Manasseh ; the same with Jerubbaal, the seventh judge of Israel. He dwelt in the city of Ophra, and was chosen by God in a very extraordinary manner to deliver the Israelites from the oppression of the Midianites, under which they had labored for the space of seven years. See Judges 6: 14– 27. 8: 1–24, &c.—Watson. GIDGAD; a mountain in the wilderness of Paran, be- tween Bene-jaakan and Jotbathah, where the Hebrews encamped, Num. 33: 32.-Calmet. GIER-EAGLE ; (racham, Lev. 11: 18. Deut. 14: 17.) Bruce says, “We know from Horus Apollo, that the rachma, or she-vulture, was sacred to Isis, and adorned the statue of the goddess; that it was the emblem of parental affection; and that it was the hieroglyphic for an affec- tionate mother.” Hasselquist says, “The appearance of the bird is as horrid as can well be imagined. The face is naked and wrinkled, the eyes are large and black, the beak black and crooked, the talons large, and extended ready for prey, and the whole body polluted with filth. These are qualities enough to make the beholder shudder with hor- ror. Notwithstanding this, the inhabitants of Egypt can- not be enough thankful to Providence for this bird. All the places round Cairo are filled with the dead bodies of asses and camels; and thousands of these birds fly about and devour the carcasses, before they putrefy and fill the air with noxious exhalations.” No wonder that such an animal should be deemed unclean.—Watson. GIFFORD, (ANDREw, D. D.,) a distinguished minister of London, and assistant librarian of the British museum, was born at Bristol, August 17, 1700. Becoming the subject of divine grace at an early age, he was baptized on profession of his faith in Christ, in 1715, and united with the Pithay church in that city, of which his father was pastor. He finished his classical studies under the celebrated Dr. Ward, of Gresham college, in 1723, and commenced preaching at Nottingham and Bristol, where He removed to London, in 1729, and became pastor of the Baptist church in Little Wild street. He was also chaplain to the family of Sir Richard Ellys, the learned author of the “Fortuita Sacra.” In 1743, he visited Edinburgh, and was honored In 1754, he was made D. D. ty the Marischal college, Aberdeen. In 1757, having G 1 H G I L [ 569 J been some time a member of the Antiquarian society, he was appointed assistant librarian of the British museum, a station which he held till his death, i.e. twenty-seven years. In a perfect acquaintance with ancient coins and manuscripts he is said to have eminently excelled. Many of the nobility courted his acquaintance; and occasionall attended his meeting, which was then in Eagle street. The ministry of Dr. Gifford was eminently useful. He was a pathetic and powerful preacher, uniting in his character the Barnabas and the Boanerges. His biogra- pher, Dr. Rippon, says of him, “His heart was in the work, and it might have been said of him, Vividus vultus, vivide occuli, vividae manus, denique omnia vivida. When above eighty years of age, he was more zealous and ac- tive in his Master's work than many young men of twenty-five ; and it was truly said of him that “the doc- tor will die popular.” But popularity merely, would have been regarded as a light thing by Dr. Gifford. He Supremely valued and sought “the honor that cometh from God only,” and the happiness springing from com- munion with the Savior. In his last moments he said with characteristic feeling, “I want no friend but Christ; I wish to see no friend but Christ. What should I do now, were it not for an interest in Jesus Christ.” Thus affectionately recommending the Savior to all around him, he fell asleep, June 19, 1784, aged eighty-four. Besides other charitable legacies, Dr. Gifford bequeathed his valuable books, pictures, and manuscripts, with a vast variety of curiosities, to the Baptist academy at Bristol, and caused an elegant room to be erected, which is called “Gifford's Museum.”—Memoir of Dr. Rippon ; Am. Bap. Mag. for 1825. - - - - GIFT OF TONGUES; an ability given by the Holy Spirit to the apostles and others, of readily and intelligibly speaking a variety of languages which they had never learned. This was a glorious and decisive attestation to the gospel, as well as a suitable, and, indeed, in their cir- cumstances, a necessary qualification for the mission for which the apostles and their coadjutors were designed. Nor is there any reason, with Dr. Middleton, to under- stand it as merely an occasional gift, so that a person might speak a language most fluently one hour, and be entirely ignorant of it the next; which neither agrees with what is said of the abuse of it, nor would it have been sufficient to answer the end proposed, Acts 2. Some appear to have been gifted with one tongue, others with more. - To St. Paul this endowment was vouchsafed in a more liberal degree, than to many others; for, as to the Corinthians, who had received the gift of tongues, he says, “that he spake with tongues more than they all.”— Watson. p GIFTS. The practice of making presents is very com- mon in Oriental countries. The custom probably had its origin among those men who first sustained the office of kings or rulers, and who, from the novelty and perhaps the weakness attached to their situation, chose, rather than make the hazardous attempt of exacting taxes, to content themselves with receiving those presents which might be freely offered, 1 Sam 10: 27. Hence it passed into a custom, that whoever approached the king or his officers, should come with a gift. This was the practice and the expectation. Gifts of this kind, that have now been described, are not to be confounded with those which were presented to judges, not as a mark of esteem and honor, but for purposes of bribery and corruption. The former were considered an honor to the giver, but a gift of the latter kind has been justly reprobated in every age, Exod. 23: 8. Deut. 10: 17. 16: 19. 27:25. Ps. 15: 5. 26; 10. Isa. 1:23. 5: 23. 33: 15. The giver was not restricted as to the kind of present which he should make. He might present not only silver and gold, but clothes and arms, also different kinds of food, in a word, anything which could be of benefit to the recipient, Gen. 43: 11. 1 Sam. 9: 7. 16:20. Job 42: 11. It was sometimes the case, that the king, when he made a feast, presented vest- ments to all the guests who were invited, with which they clothed themselves before they sat down to it, 2 Kings 10: 22, Gen. 45; 22. Rev. 3: 5. Matt. 22: 11, 12.—Watson. GIHON; a fountain west of Jerusalem, where Solomon wgs anointed king by zºna Nahan. IIezekiah or- 7 * dered the waters of the upper channel of Gihon to be con- veyed into Jerusalem, 1 Kings 1: 33. 2 Chron. 32: 30. 2. The name of one of the four rivers of Paradise, Gen. 2: 13. (See EDEN.)—Calmet. - & GILBERTINES; a religious order; thus called from St. Gilbert, of Sempringham, in the county of Lincoln, who ſounded the same about the year 1148; the monks of which observed the rule of St. Augustine, and were accounted canons, and the nuns that of St. Benedict.— Hend. Buck. . - - GILBOA ; a ridge of mountains, memorable for the de- feat and death of Saul and Jonathan, (1 Sam. 31.) run- ning north of Bethshan or Scythopolis, and forming the western boundary of that part of the plain of the Jordan. They are said to be extremely dry and barren, and are still called, by the Arabs, Djebel Gilbo.—Calmet. GILEAD; a mountainous distriet east of the Jordan, and which separated the lands of Ammon, Moab, Reuben, Gad, and Manassah, from Arabia. Deserta, Gen. 31: 21. The scenery of the mountains of Gilead is described by Mr. Buckingham as being extremely beautiful. The plains are covered with a fertile soil, the hills are clothed with forests, and at every new turn the most beautiful landscapes that can be imagined are presented. The Scripture references to the stately oaks and herds of cat- tle in this region are well known.—Calmet. GILGAL; a celebrated place situated on the west of Jordan, one league from the river, and at an equal dis- tance from Jericho, Josh. 5: 2–4. The word Gilgal sig- nifies rolling. Here the ark was long stationed, and con- sequently the place was much resorted to by the Israelites. It seems to have been the place in which Jeroboam or some of the kings of Israel instituted idolatrous worship; and hence the allusions to it by the prophets, Hosea 4. 15. Amos 4: 4. It is probable that there were idols at Gilgal as early as the days of Ehud, who was one of the judges; for it is said that, having delivered his presents to the king, “Ehud went away, but returned again from the quarries that were by Gilgal,” Judges 3:19. The margin of our Bibles reads, “the graven images,” or idols set up by the Moabites, the viewing of which, it is thought, stirred up Ehud to revenge the affront thereby offered to the God of Israel.— Watson. GILL, (John, D. D.,) was born the 23d of November, 1697, at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, where his father sº was deacon of the Baptist church. He made rapid ad- vances in classical learning, at a neighboring grammar- school, in which he was placed while very young; and even then he resorted so frequently to a bookseller's, for the purpose of reading, that it became proverbial to say, that a thing was as certain as that John Gill was in the bookseller's shop. Being driven from the grammar- school, by the bigotry of the clergyman who presided over it, his friends endeavored to procure him admission into a seminary for the ministry, by sending specimens of his advancement in different branches of literature. These, however, defeated their object, for they produced the following answer: “He is too young; and should he continue, as it might be expected he would, to make such rapid advances, he would go through the common circle before he would be capable of taking care of himself, or of being employed in any public service.” It is to be hoped that this reply was accompanied with some expla- nation, which made it appear more justifiable than in its present detached state; or it would seem that the guar- dians of this seminary felt but little solicitude to see the * G I L G I w [ 570 . finest talents consecrated to the noblest of causes. Not discouraged by this repulse, young Gill pursued his studies with so much ardor, that before he was nineteen, he had read the principal Greek and Latin classics; had gone through a course of logic, rhetoric, natural and moral philosophy; and acquired a considerable knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. But it is supremely, gratifying to find that religion was still dearer to him than learning; for, instead of resembling those sciolists who suppose it a proof of genius to disdain the study of their Maker's will, he imitated Him who, in early youth, resorted to the tem- ple as his Father's house, and there employed in sacred re- searches that understanding at which all were astonished. The Baptist church in his native town first received this extraordinary youth as a member, and then called him forth into the ministry. For this work he went to study under Mr. Davies, at Higham Ferrers; but was soon invited to preach to the Baptist congregation in Horsly- down, near London, over which he was ordained in 1719, when he was in his twenty-second year. He now applied with intense ardor to Oriental litera- ture; and having contracted an acquaintance with one of the most learned of the Jewish rabbies, he read the Tar- gums, the Talmud, and every book of rabbinical lore which he could procure. In this line it is said that he had but few equals, and that he was not excelled by any whose name is recorded in the annals of literature. Hav- ing published, in 1748, “A Commentary on the New- Testament,” in three folio volumes, the immense reading and learning which it displayed induced the university of Aberdeen to send him the diploma of doctor of divini- ty, with the following compliment: “On account of his knowledge of the Scriptures, of the oriental languages, and of Jewish antiquities; of his learned defence of the Scriptures against deists and infidels, and the reputation gained by his other works, the university had, without his privity, unanimously agreed to confer on him the de- gree of doctor in divinity.” He published also “A Com- mentary on the Old Testament,” which, together with that of the New, forms an immense mass of nine folio volumes. At the close of this Herculean labor, he was so far from resting satisfied, that he said, “I considered with myself what would be next best to engage in, for the further insuruction of the people under my care, and my thoughts led me to enter upon a scheme of doctrinal and practical divinity;” this he executed in three quarto volumes. Amidst these labors of the study, and the pulpit, he lived to a good old age, and died 1771, aged 73. Besides the works already mentioned, he maintained the five points of Calvinism in his “Cause of God and Truth,” with much temper and learning. He published also “A Dissertation on the Hebrew Language;” “Dis- courses on the Canticles,” to which considerable objections have been made ; and many sermons, as well as smaller controversial pieces. His private character was so ex- cellent, that it has been said, “his learning and labors were exceeded only by the invariable sanctity of his life and conversation.” As a divine, he was a supralapsarian Calvinist; but in his Body of Divinity, he is so far from condemning sublapsarian sentiments as heretical, or Ar- minianised, that he attempts to show how the two systems coalesce. While his works impress the judicious reader with esteem for the purity of his intentions, and admira- tion for the magnitude of his labors, they excite regret that they had not been prepared with greater delicacy of taste, and revised with more accurate judgment. It is, above all, to be lamented, that they have diffused a taste for Ultra Calvinism, which has induced many, who were devoid of his sanctity, to profane his name, in order to sanction their errors, or their lusts. Dr. Gill was, never- theless, a great and good man ; and his character is highly esteemed by every well-informed Christian. His “Body of Divinity,” abridged by the late Dr. Staughton, was pub- lished in Philadelphia, in 1816, in one volume, octavo. See Memoirs of Dr. Gill; Jones's Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck. GILPIN, (BERNARD,) a Protestant reformer, was born, in 1517, at Kentmire, in Westmoreland; and was educated at Queen's college, Oxford. His Catholic principles were first Shaken by Peter Martyr, against whom he had been brought forward as the champion of the Romish church. Aſter having embraced the Protestant faith, he became rector of Houghtonle Spring, in the diocese of Durham. In the reign of Mary, the sanguinary Bonner marked him out for one of his victims, but the queen’s death took place before Gilpin could be brought to London. In the next reign he refused the highest offers of preferment, and he died, deeply lamented by his parishioners, in 1583. His piety, benevolence to the poor, and unwearied endeavors to spread religion, gained him the honorable appellation of “the Northern Apostle.”—Middleton; Jones's Chris. Biog. GILPIN, (WILLIAM,) a divine and elegant writer, was born, in 1724, at Carlisle; received his education at . Queen’s college, Oxford; for many years kept a celebrated academy at Cheam; and died, in 1807, vicar of Boldre, and prebendary of Salisbury. He wrote Lives of Bernard Gilpin and Wicliff; Sermons; and various theological works; Remarks on Forest Scenery; a Tour to the Lakes; and several volumes of Observations on the Picturesque Beauties of many parts of England.—Davenport. - GIRDLE. The girdle is an indispensable article in the dress of an Oriental. It has various uses; but the principal one is to tuck up their long flowing vestments, that they may not incommode them in their work, or on a journey. The Jews, according to some writers, wore a double girdle, one of greater breadth, with which they girded their tunic when they prepared for active exertions; the other they wore under their shirt, around their loins. The upper girdle was sometimes made of leather, the material of which the girdle of John the Baptist was made; but it was more com- monly fabricated of worsted, often very artfully woven into a variety of figures, and made to fold several times about the body; one end of #s, which being doubled back, and ## sewn along the edges, serves them # for a purse, agreeably to the accept- # ation of zone in the Scriptures, sº which is translated purse in several # places of the New Testament, Matt. *T** 10: 9. Mark 6:8. The Turks make these girdles, by fixing their knives and poinards in them; while the writers and secretaries sus- pend in them their ink-horns; a custom as old as the pro- phet Ezekiel, who mentions “a person clothed in white linen, with an ink-horn upon his loins,” Ezek. 9:2. That part of the ink-holder which passes between the girdle and the tunic, and receives their pens, is long and flat; but the vessel for the ink, which rests upon the girdle, is square, with a lid to clasp over it. - ... " 2. To loose the girdle and give it to another, was, among the Orientals, a token of great confidence and affection. A girdle curiously and richly wrought, was, among the ancient Hebrews, a mark of honor, and sometimes bestow. ed as a reward of merit, 2 Sam. 18: 11. People of rank and fashion in the East wear very broad girdles, all of silk, and superbly ornamented with gold and silver, and precious stones, of which they are extremely proud, re- garding them as the tokens of their superior station and the proof of their riches. “To gird up the loins,” is to bring the flowing robe within the girdle, and so to prepare for a journey, or for some vigorous exercise.—Watson. GIRGASHITES. (See GERGESENEs.) - GITH ; a grain, by the Greeks called Melanthion, by the Latins, Nigella, because it is black; in our translation, fitches or vetches, which see.—Calmet. GITTITES; the inhabitants of Gath, Josh. 13: 3. Obed- Edom and Ittai are called Gittites, (2 Sam. 6; 10. 15:19.) probably, because they visited David at Gath, or because they were natives of Gittaim, a city of Benjamin, 2 Sam. 4; 3.-Calmet. GITTITH ; a Hebrew word, which occurs frequently in the titles of the Psalms. It is generally translated wine- presses. Calmet is of opinion, that such psalms were given to the class of young women, or songstresses of Gath, to be sung by them, (see Ps, 8.) remarking that Gittith does not signify wine-presses, but a woman of Gath. If wine-presses were meant, it should be gitteth.—Calmet. GIVE, properly signifies to bestow a thing freely, as in G. L. A G L O [ 571 J alms, John 3: 16. But it is used to signify the imparting or permitting of any thing good or bad, Ps. 16: 7. John 18: 11. Ps. 28; 4. To give ourselves to Christ, and his ministers and people, is solemnly to devote ourselves to the g” 3° 13'y. sº %, sº wº %; faith, profession, worship, and obedience of Jesus Christ, as our husband, teacher, Savior, portion, and sovereign Lord; and to a submissive subjection to the instruction, government, and discipline of his ministers; and to a walking with his people in all the ordinances of his grace, 2 Cor. 8: 5. To be given to a thing, is to be much set upon, earnest for, and delighted in it, 1 Tim. 3; 3–Dronn. GLAS, (John,) the father of Scotch independency, and founder of a denomination which is called after him— though, in England, better known by the term Sandema- nians—was born, 1695, in the parish of Auchtermuchty, in the county of Fife, North Britain. At St. Andrews and Edinburgh, he perfected his studies in philosophy and theology. In 1719, he was ordained minister of the pa- rish of Tealing, near Dundee. Mr. Glas had studied, with great diligence and care, the doctrinal systems of Calvin and Arminius; and being de- cidedly fixed in the former, he held forth the doctrine of rich, free, and sovereign grace, with extraordinary ability, from the pulpit ; and his fame as a preacher soon spread abroad, and drew numbers to hear him. An extraordinary stir being made in Scotland, about the duty of covenant- ing, Mr. Glas was put upon the task of investigating this subject, and of bringing it to the touchstone of the New Testament. tion of a small volume, which made its first appearance in 1729, under the title of “The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning his Kingdom;” being an explana- tion and illustration of Christ's good confession before Pontius Pilate, John 18:36, 37. He could no longer offici- ate, with a good conscience, as a clergyman of the nation- al establishment. - . Mr. Glas now took up his residence in Dundee, where he was the means of collecting a church, which was form- ed on Congregational principles, and of which he was chosen a presbyter, in conjunction with Mr. Francis Archibald, who had left the church of Scotland at the same time as himself. From this period Mr. Glas was busily engaged for several years in maintaining his princi- ples against a host of opponents, who rose up in rapid succession to defend those of the national establishment. By the spirit of inquiry thus set on foot, the profession spread rapidly throughout Scotland, and the formation of churches in the various towns of Dunkeld, Perth, Edin- burgh, Glasgow, &c. found abundant employment for Mr. Glas for a number of years. He removed his residence from Dundee to Edinburgh, where he officiated several years as the pastor of a church which had been collected , there; and when his labors were no longer required there, t * 2 * , 2 Yſ he removed to Perth, where he labored with assiduity till the year 1737; when, having established the profession in that city, he again returned to Dundee, where he continu- ed his labors in his Master's vineyard to the termination of his useful life, November 2d, 1773, at the advanced age of seventy-eight. Besides his “Testimony of the King of Martyrs,” he published a great number of differ- ent treatises, of which a uniform edition was printed in five volumes, octavo, Perth, 1782.-Hend. Buck. GLASITES. See GLAs, (John ;) and SANDEMANIANs. GLASS, (hualos.) This word occurs Rev. 21:18, 21. 4:6. 15:2. There seems to be no reference to glass in the Old Testament. The art of making it was not known. Our translators have rendered the Hebrew in Exodus 38: 8, and Job 27: 18, “ looking-glass.” But the making mirrors of glass, coated with quicksilver, is an invention quite modern. g polished metal. The word esoptron, or mirror, occurs in 1 Cor. 13:12, and James 1:23. Dr. Pearce thinks that in the former place it signifies any of those transparent substances which the ancients used in their windows, and through which they saw external objects obscurely. It is certain that the specimens of Roman glass, dug up from Pompeii, are all dull and cloudy. But others are of opin- ion that the word denotes a mirror of polished metal; as this, however, was liable to many imperfections, so that the oliect before it was not seen clearly or fully, the mean- The result of his inquiries was the publica- Mirrors were then made of . ing of the apostle is, that we see things as it were by images reflected from a mirror, which shows them very obscurely and indistinctly. In the latter place, a mirror undoubtedly is meant.—Watson. - GLEANING. The Hebrews were not permitted to go over their trees or fields a second time, to gather the fruit or the grain, but were to leave the gleanings for the poor, the fatherless, and the widow, Lev. 19:10. 23:22. Deut. 24; 21. Ruth 2:3. (See HARVEST.)—Calmet. GLEDE; a fowl of the ravenous kind. It is called daah, from its swift flight; and raah, from its quick sight. It is impatient of cold, and so is seldom seen in the winter; through fear and cowardice, it seldom attacks any but tame fowls, hens, &c. Deut. 16: 13. It is called a vulture, Lev. 11: 14. Was this unclean bird an emblem of persecutors, destitute of courage except to harass and destroy the saints 2–Bronn. GLENORCHY, (LADY WILHELMINA MAxwell,) distin. guished for her benevolence and piety, was born at Preston, in North Britain, in the year 1742. She was the daughter of Dr. William Maxwell, a gentleman of great fortune and respectability. The instructions she received were such as to improve her heart, as well as enlighten her un- derstanding. Her mind was strong and vigorous, yet polished and delicate. Her memory was retentive, her person interesting, her behavior affable, her imagination lively, and her temper excellent. Her juvenile years, though sedulously watched over by her kind and intelli- gent mother, were nevertheless too much devoted to the follies and gayety of fashionable life. When, however, she had attained the age of twenty-three years, her mind was aroused by a serious illness, to reflections on her present character and future prospects; and musing on the first question in the Assembly’s Catechism, “What is the chief end of man?”—“It is to glorify God, and enjoy him for- ever,” she asked herself, Have I answered the design of my being 2 Have I glorified God? Shall I enjoy him forever? Thus reflecting, she gradually felt the sinful- ness of her nature; perceived the total alienation of her heart from God; and applied to her heavenly Father through Christ for pardon and grace. Like many young professors of religion, she endeavor- ed at first to conceal from observation the change which had been wrought on her heart, and, as ſar as possible, to compromise with the world; but such conduct she soon discovered to be incompatible with spirituality of mind, and she therefore determined on making an open and de- cided profession of Christianity. The remainder of her life was distinguished by the consistency of her deport- ment. She employed much of her time in acts of benevo- lence ; in wise and pious conversation; in an extensive, judicious, and profitable correspondence; and in every other means for promoting the conversion of sinners and the edification of saints. For such benevolent actions, the worldly and irreligious branded her with the name of Methodist, and endeavored to represent her as a wild en- thusiast; but such opposition her principles enabled her patiently to endure, and, through evil and good report, to pursue her work of faith and labor of love. Though her health declined, her activity and usefulness were unabat- ed; till, on the 17th of July, 1786, she was summoned to her reward. She bequeathed, by her will, five thousand pounds for the education of young men for the ministry in England; five thousand pounds to the society in Scot- land for the propagation of Christian knowledge; and the greatest part of the residue of her property to charitable and pious purposes. - - See Memoirs of Lady Glenorchy, in Burder's Pious Women.—Jones's Chris. Biog. - GLORIFY ; to render glorious. God is glorified by Christ, or by creatures, when his perfections are acknow- ledged, or manifested by their praising, trusting in, or serving him ; or are displayed in his favors, and judg- ments executed on them, John 17:4. Ps. 1:23. Rom. 4:20. Lev. 10:3. Isa. 44; 23. Christis glorified in God's receiv. ing him into heaven, bestowing on him the highest honor, power, and authority, as our Mediator, (John 17: 1, 5.) and in the Holy Ghost's declaring, and revealing his excel. lencies, and communicating his fulness to men, (John 16: 14.) and in his people's believing on him, walking in G. N. O G. No [ 572 ) nim, praising, obeying and imitating him; and his exert- ing, and manifesting his power and wisdom, by doing good to them, 2 Thess. 1: 10, 12, and John 11: 4. Men are glorified when endowed with great and shining holi- ness, happiness, and honor, in the heavenly and eternal state, Rom. 8: 17, 30. To glorify one’s self, is to claim, or boast of honor not due to one, Heb. 5: 5, and Rev. 18; 7. —Bronm. - GLORY ; splendor, magnificence ; also admiration, praise, or honor, attributed to God, in adoration or worship. The glory of God, is the splendid manifestation of the divine perfections in creation, providence, and grace, Exod, 33: 18. It is also used for the state of future hap- piness, Rom. 3: 23. 5: 2. - We may be said to give glory to God when we confess our sins, when we love him Supremely, when we commit ourselves to him, are zealous in his service, improve our talents, walk humbly, thankfully, and cheerfully, before him, and recommend, proclaim, or set forth his excel- lencies to others, Jos. 7: 19. Gal. 2:20. John 15: 8. Ps. 1:23. Matt. 5: 16. (See GLORIFY.)—Hend. Buck. GLOSSARIUM, in biblical literature, is a book or writ- ing, comprehending glosses or short explanations of dark and difficult words or phrases in the inspired writings or the Greek authors. Among the Greeks, glössa meant either an idiomatic mord, peculiar to a certain dialect only, and unknown in others, an obsolete word, or an obscure one. A glossary, of course, extends only to a few of the words and phrases of an author. It is not to be used as a lexi- con, but as a comment on particular passages. Its value depends on its antiquity, or on the learning of its author. The principal ancient glossaries published are these : Hesychius, Suidas, Phavorinus, Cyrill, Photius, Etymolo- gicon Magnum.—Hend. Buck. . GNAT, (könöps ; Matt. 23:24.) a small winged insect, comprehending a genus of the order of diptera. In those hot countries, as Servius remarks, speaking of the East, gnats and flies are very apt to fall into wine, if it be not carefully covered ; and passing the liquor through a strain- er, that no gnat or part of one might remain, became a proverb for exactness about little matters. This may help us to understand that passage, (Matt. 23:24.) where the proverbial expression of carefully straining out a little fly from the liquor to be drunk, and yet swallowing a camel, intimates, that the scribes and Pharisees affected to scruple little things, and yet disregarded those of the greatest mo- ment.— Watson. - GNOSIMACHI ; a name which distinguished those in the seventh century who were professed enemies to the Gnosis; i. e. the studied knowledge or science of Christi- anity. (See GNOSTIcs.)—Hend. Buck. GNOSTICS, from gnosis, “knowledge;” men of science and wisdom, illuminati ; men who, from blending the philosophy of the East, or of Greece, with the doctrines of the gospel, boasted of deeper knowledge in the Scriptures and theology than others. It was, therefore, not so pro- perly a distinct sect as a generic term, comprehending all who, forsaking the simplicity of the gospel, pretended to be “wise above what is written,” to explain the New Tes. tament by the dogmas of the philosophers, and to derive from the Sacred writings mysteries which never were con- tained in them. The origin of the Gnostic heresy, as it is called, has been variously stated. The principles of this heresy were, however, much older than Christianity; and many of the errors alluded to in the apostolic epistles are doubtless of a character very similar to some branches of the Gnostie system. (See CAbALA.) Cerinthus, against whom St. John wrote his gospel; the Nicolaitans, mentioned in the Revelation, and the Ebionites, (described under that arti- cle,) were all early Gnostics, although the system was not then so completely formed as afterwards. Dr. Burton, in his Bampton Lectures, says, “It was not by any means a new and distinct philosophy, but made up of selections from almost every system. Thus we find in it the Pla- tonic doctrine of ideas, and the notion that every thing in this lower World has a celestial and immaterial archetype. We find in it evident traces of that mystical and cabba- listic jargon, which, after their return from captivity, de- formed the religion of the Jews; and many Gnostics adopt- ‘ed the Oriental notion of two independent co-eternal princi. ples, the one the author of good, the other of evil. Lastly, we find the Gnostic theology full of ideas and terms, which must have been taken from the gospel; and Jesus Christ, under some form or other of a on, emanation, or in- corporeal phantom, enters into all their systems, and is the means of communicating to them that knowledge which raised them above all other mortals, and entitled them to their peculiar name. The genius and very soul of Gnos- ticism was mystery : its end and object was to purify its followers from the corruptions of matter, and to raise them to a higher scale of being, suited only to those who were become perfect by knowledge.” - - Such as would be thoroughly acquainted with all their. doctrines, reveries, and visions, may consult Irenaus, Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and Epiphanius ; particularly the first of these writers, who relates their sentiments at large, and confutes them. Indeed he dwells more on the Valentinians than any other sect of Gnostics; but he shows the general principles whereon all their mis- taken opinions were founded, and the method they follow- ed in explaining Scripture. He accuses them of introduc. ing into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies, i. e. a kind of divine processions or emanations, which had no other foundation but in their own wild imagination. The Gnostics confessed that these alons or emanations were nowhere expressly delivered in the sacred writings; but insisted that Jesus Christ had intimated them in parables to such as could understand them. They built their the- ology not only on the gospels and the epistles of St. Paul, but also on the law of Moses and the prophets. These last were peculiarly serviceable to them, on account of the allegories and allusions with which they abound, which are capable of different interpretations; though their doc- trine concerning the creation of the world by one or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfect nature, led them to deny the divine authority of the books of the Old Testa- ment, which contradicted this idle fiction, and filled them with an abhorrence of Moses and the religion he taught ; alleging, that he was actuated by the malignant author of this world, who consulted his own glory and authority, and not the real advantage of men. Their persuasion that evil resided in matter, as its centre and source, made them treat the body with contempt, discourage marriage, and reject the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, and its reunion with the immortal spirit. Their motion, that malevolent genii presided in mature, and occasioned diseases and calamities, wars and desolations, induced them to apply themselves to the study of magic, in order to weaken the powers or suspend the influence of these malignant agents. The Gnostics considered Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and inferior to the Father, who came into the world for the rescue and happiness of miserable mortals, oppressed by matter and evil beings; but they rejected our Lord's humanity, on the principle that every thing corporeal is essentially and intrinsically evil; and therefore the greatest part of them denied the reality of his sufferings. They set a great value on the beginning of the gospel of St. John, where they fancied they saw a great deal of their acons, or emanations, under the terms the nord, the life, the light, &c. They divided all nature into three kinds of beings, viz. hylic, or material; psychic, or animal; and pneumatic, or spiritual. On the like princi- ple they also distinguished three sorts of men ; material, animal, and spiritual. The first, who were materia), and incapable of ſºng. inevitably perished, both soul and body; the third, such as the Gnostics themselves pretended to be, were all certainly saved; the psychic, or animal, who were the middle between the other two, were capable either of being saved or damned, according to their good or evil actions. With regard to their moral doctrines and conduct, they were much divided. The greatest part of this sect adopted very austere rules of life, recommended rigorous abstinence, and prescribed severe bodily mortifi. cations, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind. However, some maintainëd that there was no moral differ. . ence in human actions; and thus confounding right with wrong, they gave a loose reign to all the passions, and asserted the innocence of following blindly all their mo- tions, and of living by their.tumultuous dictates, They * G O A G O D [ 573 ] supported their opinions and practice by various authori- ties; some referred to fictitious and apocryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroaster, Christ, .."—his apostles; others boasted that they had deduced their sentiments from secret doctrines of Christ, concealed from the vul- gar; others affirmed that they arrived at superior degrees of wisdom by an innate vigor of mind; and others assert- ed that they were instructed in these mysterious parts of theological science by Theudas, a disciple of Paul, and by Matthias, one of the friends of our Lord. The tenets of the ancient Gnostics were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by a sect called the Priscillianists. At length the name Gnostic, which originally was glorious, became infamous, by the idle opinions and dissolute lives of the persons who bore it.—Watson; Hend. Buck. G.O. When God is said to go don'n, or up, it does not mean, that he changes his place in respect of his essence, but that his knowledge, or powerful operation, or the sym- bol of his presence, bears such relation to a particular place, Gen. 11: 5, 7, and 25: 13. His GoINGs are the dis- play of his perfections, and the acts of his providence towards the world, towards Jesus, or his church; and in respect of this he may be said to come or go from one, Ps. 68: 24. Christ's goings forth from everlasting, prove his divine nature, prior to his incarnation, Mic. 5: 2. The saints' going out and in, denotes their whole conversation, which is by Christ as the door; they have great liberty in him, and live by faith on him, Ps. 17:5, and 121:8. John 10: 9. The prince in the midst of them nºmen they go wn shall go in ; and rohen they go forth shall go forth. Jesus, who is among his people in their heart, always present to assist them, shall go with them when they go in to the throne of grace, that he may present their petitions, and render them accepted ; when they go in to the house of God, he shall go in to feed them on good pasture; when they go in to their heart to search it, he shall go in to dis- cover it to them, and comfort against all grief on every side. When they go out from public ordinances he shall go with them, to impress what they have been about on their mind; he shall go out with them to the world, to keep them from the evil; he shall go out of the world with them at death, to introduce them to eternal glory, Ezek. 46: 10.—Bronyn. GOAD; a long staff or wand for driving cattle, Judg. 3: 26. It had a piece of sharply pointed iron in the small end, and perhaps a paddle on the other, to cut up weeds. The words of the wise are as goads; they penetrate into men's minds, and stir them up to the practice of duty. Eccl. 12: 11.-Brown. GOAT, (gnav.) The goat was one of the clean beasts which the Israelites might both eat and offer in sacrifice. tº * * gº--> * º º: * “... - º, cº 's. : º ſº The kid is often mentioned as a food, in a way that im- plies that it was considered as a delicacy. The akav, or wild goat, mentioned Deut. 14:5, and nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible, is supposed to be the tragelaphus, or “goat-deer.” Schultens conjectures that this animal might have its name, ob fugacitatem, from its shyness, or running away. The word jol, or jaal, occurs 1 Sam. 24: 3. Job 39: 1. Psalm 104: 18. Prov. 5: 19, and various have been the sentiments of interpreters on the animal intended by it. Bochart insists that it is the ibex, or “rock- goat.” The root whence the name is derived, signifies to ascend, to mount; and the ibex is famous for clamber- ing, climbing, and leaping, on the most craggy precipices. The Arab writers attribute to the jaal very long horns, bending backwards; consequently it cannot be the cha- mois. The horns of the jaal are reckoned among the valuable articles of traffic, Ezek. 27: 15. The ibex is finely shaped, graceful in its motions, and gentle in its manners. The female is particularly celebrated by nat- ural historians for tender affection to her young, and the incessant vigilance with which she watches over their safety; and also for ardent attachment and fidelity to her mate.— Watson ; Abbott. s - GOATS' HAIR, was used by Moses in making the curtains of the tabernacle, Exod. 25: 4, &c. The hair of the goats of Asia, Phrygia, and Cilicia, which is cut off, in order to manufacture stuffs, is very bright and fine, and hangs to the ground; in beauty it almost equals silk, and is never sheared, but combed off. The shepherds carefully and frequently wash these goats in rivers. The women of the country spin the hair, which is carried to Angora, where it is worked and dyed, and a considerable trade in the article carried on. The natives attribute the quality of the hair to the soil of the country.—Calmet. GOB ; a plain where two battles were fought between the Hebrews and Philistines, 2 Sam. 21: 18, 19. In 1 Chron. 20: 4, we read Gezer instead of Gob. The LXX, in some copies, read Nob instead of Gob ; and in others Gath.-Calmet. GOD ; that infinitely great, intelligent, and free Being ; of perfect goodness, wisdom, and power; transcendently glorious in holiness; who made the universe, and con- tinues to support it, as well as to govern and direct it, by his providence and laws. The name is derived from the Icelandic Godi, which signifies the supreme Magistrate, and is thus perfectly characteristic of JEHowAH as the moral Governor of the universe. It also corresponds to the Jewish and Christian sense of the Greek words Theos and Kurios, in the New Testament, the names usually ap plied to the ETERNAL. For an account of the various at tributes which enter into our conception of the divine character, as revealed in the Scriptures, the reader is re ferred to those articles. (Also, see º 2. By his personality, intelligence, and freedom, God is distinguished from Fate, Nature, Destiny, Necessity, Chance, Anima Mundi, and from all the other fictitious beings acknowledged by the Stoics, Pantheists, Spinosists, and other sorts of Atheists. (See ATHEISM.) 3. The knowledge of God, his nature, attributes, wor", and works, above all, his moral character, with the rela. tions between him and his creatures, makes the subject of the extensive science called theology, that master sci- ence, of which all the other sciences are but subordinate and illustrative parts. If there have been men of science, who have failed to trace the relation of all science to the knowledge of God, it has been owing to a bias of mind, altogether foreign to Sound philosophy. - 4. “The plain argument, (says Maclaurin, in his Ac- count of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries,) for the existence of the Deity, obvious to all, and carrying irresistible conviction with it, is from the evident contri- vance and fitness of things for one another, which we meet with throughout all parts of the universe. There is no need of nice or subtle reasonings in this matter; a manifest contrivance immediately suggests a contriver. It strikes us like a sensation ; and artful reasonings against it may puzzle us, but it is without shaking our belief.” (See Existence of God.) 5. Not only the works of creation, but the course of divine operation in the government of the world, has from age to age been a manifestation of the divine character; continually receiving new and stronger illustrations, until the completion of the Christian revelation by the ministry of Christ, and his inspired followers; and still placing it- ‘self in brighter light, and more impressive aspects, as the scheme of human redemption runs on to its consummation (; O D G O D [ 574 | From all the acts of God as recorded in the Scriptures, we are taught that he alone is God; that he is present everywhere, to sustain and govern all things; that his wis- dom is infinite, his counsel settled, his truth Sure, and his ower irresistible; that his character, as well as his law, is immutably holy, just, and good; above all, that he is rich in mercy; that he has freely provided, whether as Father, or Son, or Holy Ghost, the means of our salvation; that he is alike and at once the Father and Lord, the Re- deemer and Judge, the Sanctifier and Friend of man. 6. Under these deeply awful, but consolatory views, do the Scriptures present to us the supreme object of our worship, love, and trust; and they dwell upon each of the above particulars with inimitable sublimity and beau- ty of language, and with an inexhaustible variety of il- lustration. Nor can we compare these views of the di- vine nature with the conceptions of the most enlightened of pagans, without feeling how much reason we have for everlasting gratitude, that a revelation so explicit, so com- prehensive, and so joyful, should have been made to us, in our guilty and perplexed condition. It is thus that Christian philosophers, even when they do not use the lan- guage of the Scriptures, are able to speak of this great and mysterious Being, in language so clear, and with conceptions so noble ; in a manner, too, so equable, so different from the sages of antiquity, who, if any time they approach the truth, never fail to mingle with it some essentially erroneous or grovelling conception. 7. “The IDEA of THE SUPREME BEING,” says Robert Hall, “has this peculiar property : that as it admits of no substitute, so, from the first moments it is formed, it is capable of continual growth and enlargement. God him- self is immutable; but our conception of his character is continually receiving fresh accessions, is continually grow- ing more extended and reſulgent, by having transferred to it new elements of beauty and goodness; by attracting to itself as a centre, whatever bears the impress of digni- ty, order, or happiness. It borrows splendor from all that is fair, subordinates to itself all that is great, and SITs EN- THRONED ON THE RICIIES OF THE UNIVERSE. 8. “As the object of worship will always be in a de- gree the object of imitation, hence arises a fixed standard of moral excellence; by the contemplation of which, the tendencies to corruption are counteracted, the contagion of bad example is checked, and human nature rises above its natural level.” Who then, as he contemplates this glorious Being in the transcendent beauty of his revealed character, can forbear to pray, “TIIY NAME BE HALLowed ; THY KINGnoM come ; Tily will, BE DONE ; AS IN HEAVEN, so IN EARTH!” (See Existence of GoD.)—Hend. Buck; Works of Robert Hall, vol. i. p. 30; Watson. GODS, FALSE Gods. The Hebrew name of God, (Elo- him,) like the English, “Lord,” is used in various appli- cations. The true God is often called Elohim; as are the angels, judges, princes, and sometimes idols and ſalse gods. (See Gen. 1: 1. Exod. 22: 20. Psal. 86:8. ; also the following passages in the Hebrew: Exod. 21: 6. 22:8. 1 Sam. 2:25. Exod. 22: 28.) The Israelites had so great an aversion and contempt for strange gods, that they would not name them ; but substituted some term of contempt : so, instead of Elohim, they called them clilim ; nothings, vanities, gods of no value. Instead of Mephi-baal, and Meri-baal, and Jeru-baal, they said, Me- phi-bosheth, and Meri-bosheth, and Jeru-bosheth. Baal signifies master, husband ; bosheth, a shame. The beings, whether real or imaginary, adopted as ob- jects of worship among men, in preference to the thrice holy Jehovah, but too clearly display the fallen condition, of the human mind. Fear, lust, malignity or pride, evi- dently predominate in the conception and choice of such objects of adoration. Nothing like pure and elevating devotional sentiment could, or did attach to them. The principal of the ancient gods, whom the Romans called dii mayorum tium, and Cicero celestial gods, Varro se- lect gods, nobiles deos, others consentes deos, were Ju- iter, Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Tercury, Neptune, Vulcan, and Apollo. Jupiter is con- sidered as the god of heaven ; Neptune, as god of the sea ; Mars, as the god of war; Apollo, of eloquence, poetry, and physic; Mercury, of thieves; Bacchus, of wine; Cupid, of love, &c. A second sort of gods, called demi-gods, semi-dii, dii minorum gentium, indigetes, or gods adopted, were men canonized and deified. As the greater gods had possession of heaven by their own right, these secondary deities had it by merit and donation, being translated into heaven because they had lived as gods upon earth. . 2. The heathem gods may be all reduced to the follow- ing classes : (1) Created spirits, angels, or demons, whence good and evil gods; Genii, Lares, Lemures, Ty- phones, guardian gods, infernal gods, &c. (2.) Heaven- ly bodies; as the sun, moon, and other planets; also, the fixed stars, constellations, &c. (3.) Elements; as air, earth, ocean, Ops, Westa; the rivers, fountains, &c. 4.) Meteors. Thus the Persians adored the wind; thun- er and lightning were honored under the name of Gcr- yon ; and several nations of India and America have made themselves gods of the same. Castor, Pollux, He- lena, and Iris, have also been preſerred from meteors to be gods; and the like has been practised in regard to comets: witness that which appeared at the murder of Caesar. (5.) They erected minerals or fossils into deities. Such was the Baetylus. The Finlanders adored stones; the Scythians, iron; and many nations, silver and gold. (6.) Plants have been made gods. Thus leeks and on- ions were deities in Egypt; the Sclavi, Lithuanians, Cel- tae, Wandals, and Peruvians, adored trees and forests; the ancient Gauls, Britons, and Druids, paid a particular de- votion to the oak ; and it was no other than wheat, corn, seed, &c., that the ancients adored under the names of Ceres and Proserpina. (7.) They took themselves gods from among the waters. The Syrians and Egyptians adored fishes; and what were the Tritons, the Nereids, Syrens, &c., but fishes 2 Several nations have adored ser- pents; particularly the Egyptians, Prussians, Lithuani- ans, Samogitians, &c. (8.) Insects, as flies and ants, had their priests and votaries. (9.) Among birds, the stork, raven, sparrowhawk, ibis, eagle, grisson, and lap- wing, have had divine honors; the last in Mexico, the rest in Egypt and at Thebes. (10.) Fourfooted beasts have had their altars; as the bull-dog, cat, wolf, baboon, lion, and crocodile, in Egypt and elsewhere; the hog in the island of Crete; rats and mice in the Troas, and at Tenedos; weasels at Thebes; and the porcupine through- out all Zoroaster's school. (11.) Nothing was more com- mon than to place men among the number of deities; and from Belus or Baal, to the Roman emperors before Con- stantine, the instances of this kind are innumerable ; fre- quently they did not wait so long as their deaths for the apotheosis. Nebuchadnezzar procured his statue to be worshipped while living; and Virgil shows that Augus- tus had altars and sacrifices offered to him ; as we learn from other hands that he had priests, called Augustales, and temples at Lyons, Narbona, and several other places; and he must be allowed the first of the Romans in whose behalf idolatry was carried to such a pitch. The Ethio. pians deemed all their kings gods; the Welleda of the Germans, the Janus of the Hungarians, and the Thaut, Woden, and Assa, of the northern nations, were indisput. ably men. (12.) Not men only, but every thing that re- lates to man, has also been deified ; as labor, rest, sleep, youth, age, death, virtues, vices, occasion, time, place, numbers, among the Pythagoreans; the generative pow- er, under the name of Priapus. Infancy alone had a cloud of deities; as Wagetanus, Levana, Rumina, Eduſa, Polina, Cuba, Cumina. Carna, Ossilago, Statulimus, Fabu- linus, &c. They also adored the gods Health, Fever, Fear, Love, Pain, Indignation, Shame, Impudence, Opin- ion, Renown, Prudence, Science, Art, Fidelity, Felicity, Calumny, Liberty, Money, War, Peace, Victory, Triumph, &c. Lastly, Nature, the universe, or to Pan, was re- puted a great god. - - 3. Hesiod has a poem under the title of Theogonia, that is, “The Generation of the Gods,” in which he explains their genealogy and descent, sets forth who was the first and principal, who next descended from him, and what issue each had ; the whole making a sort of system of heathen theology. Beside this popular theology, each philosopher had his system, as may be seen from the Go D G O M I sis. “Timaeus” of Plato, and Cicero “ De Natura Deorum.” Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Arnobius, Minutius Felix, Lactantius, Eusebius, Augustine, and Theodoret, show the vanity of, the heathen gods. It is very difficult to discover the real sentiments of the heathens with respect to their gods; they are exceedingly intricate and confus- ed, and even frequently contradictory. They admitted so many superior and inferior gods, who shared the empire, that every place was full of gods. Varro reckons up no less than thirty thousand adored within a small ex- tent of ground, and yet their number was every day in- creasing... ln modern Oriental paganism they amount to many millions, and are, in fact, innumerable. Who that loves the true God, can realize the actual condition of mankind at this moment, without horror and grief! Who but must labor and pray for the success of the missionary enterprise ! Who but must rejoice in the divine assurance, that “ The gods that have not made the heavens and the earth, even they shall perish from the earthrand from under these heavens !” Jer. 10: 11–Calmet ; Watson. . GODFATHERS, and GODMOTHERS; in established churches, persons who, at the baptism of infants, answer for their future conduct, and solemnly promise that they will renounce the devil and all his works, and follow a life of piety and virtue; and by these means lay them- selves under an indispensable obligation to instruct them, and watch over their conduct. In the Catholic church, the number of Godfathers and Godmothers is reduced to two; in the church of England, to three ; formerly the number was not limited.—Hend. Buck. GODLINESS, strictly taken, is right worship or devo- tion; but in general it imports the whole of practical re- ligion, 1 Tim. 4: 8. 2 Pet. 1:6. It is difficult, as Saurin observes, to include an adequate idea of it in what is called a definition. “It supposes knowledge, veneration, affection, dependence, submission, gratitude, and obedi. ence ; or it may be reduced to these four ideas: know- ledge in the mind, by which it is distinguished from the visions of the superstitious; rectitude in the conscience, that distinguishes it from hypocrisy; sacrifice in the life, or renunciation of the world, by which it is distinguished from the unmeaning obedience of him who goes as a hap- py constitution leads him ; and, lastly, zeal in the heart, which differs from the languishing emotions of the luke- warm.” The advantages of this disposition are honor, peace, Safety, usefulness, support in death, and prospect of glory; or, as the apostle sums up all in a few words, “It is profitable unto all things, having the promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come,” 1 Tim. 4:8. Saurin's Ser. vol. v. ser. 3, Eng. trans. ; Barron’s Works, vol. i. p. 9; Scott's Christian Life; Scougal's Life of God in the Soul of Man.—Hend. Buck. GODLY ; godlike; that which proceeds from God and is pleasing to him. It also signifies conformity to his will, and an assimilation to his character, Psal. 12: 1. Mal. 2: 15. 2 Cor. 1: 12. Tit. 2: 12, &c.—Calmet. GODMAN, (John D., M. D.,) a man of genius, and one of the most distinguished naturalists and physicians America has produced, was born at Annapolis, in Mary- land, and having lost his parents at an early age, was bound apprentice to a printer. He afterwards entered the navy, and at the age of fifteen commenced the study of medicine. On completing his studies, he settled in Phila- delphia as a physician and private teacher of anatomy, and for some time was an assistant editor of the Medical Journal. It was at this period that he published his Nat- ural History of American Quadrupeds, in three volumes, 8vo. Having been elected to the professorship of anato- my in Rutgers' Medical college, he removed to New York, where he soon acquired extensive practice as a surgeon. Ill health, however, obliged him to relinquish his pursuits, and he returned, in 1829, to Philadelphia, where he died in 1830, in the thirty-second year of his age. He possess- ed much and varied information in his profession, in nat- ural history, and in general literature. Besides the work above referred to, he is the author of Rambles of a Natu- ralist, and the articles on natural history in the Encyclo- paedia Americana, as far as the letter C. - Dr. Godman had at one time adopted the infidelity and atheism of the French naturalists of the last century, but the happy death of a Christian friend, in 1827, led him to the Scriptures. In them he ſound the words of eternal life; and not only did he find peace to his own soul in the Savior, but he was the means of leading Dr. E. Judson, (brother of the distinguished missionary,) who had pre- viously been an infidel, to the same blessed hope. Both died near the same time, bearing like testimony to thc divine supports of the gospel.--Davenport ; Allen : Ame. ricana Ency. ; Amer. Quar. Review ; Dr. Senall's Eulogy. GOEL, (Heb.;) among the Hebrews, one whose right and duty it was to avenge the blood of his relation, but who was not allowed to break in upon the security of an asylum or city of refuge. (See AVENGER of BLOOD.). Hend. Buck. GOERING, (Jacob,) minister of the German Lutheran church in York, Pennsylvania, commenced the labors of the sacred office when only twenty years of age ; and 1 pleased God to give such success to his faithful exertionſ at this early period of life, that a revival of religion al ways attended his preaching. He died in 1807, aged fifty. two. He was a president of the synod of the German Lutheran church in the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. He was a man of profound erudition ; and among the languages, with which he was acquainted, the Hebrew and Arabic were his favorites. Though warmly interested in his country's welfare, he yet declined a civil station, in which his fellow-citizens would gladly have placed him, dedicating himself wholly to the minis- try. He died in the full assurance of obtaining and en- joying a perpetual happiness through the merits of his Redeemer. Brown's Amer. Reg. ii. 84, 85.—Allen. GOG AND MAGOG; symbolical names of the heathen nations of northern Asia, more particularly the Tartars and Mongolians, which the Arabic and other Oriental wri- ters term Yajuj and Majuj. They occur in Ezek. 38; and 39: and Rev. 20.—Hend. Buck. GOLD the most valuable of the precious metals. It is the heaviest of all known bodies, and the most ductile of all the metals. It is wholly incapable of rust, and is not sonorous when struck upon. It requires a strong fire to melt it, remaining unaltered in the degree of heat that fuses tin or lead, but running with a less vehement one than is necessary to the fusing of iron or copper. It does not retain its color till the time of melting, but becomes ignited and white before it runs; and when in fusion, it appears of a pale, bluish, green color on the surface. Common fire carried to its utmost vehemence has no far- ther effect on gold than the fusing of it. It will remain ever so long in its fiercest heat, and come out at last un- altered, and with its weight entire. Arabia had formerly its golden mines. “The gold of Sheba,” (Psalm 72: 15.) is, in the Septuagint and Arabic versions, “the gold of Arabia.” Sheba was the ancient name of Arabia Felix. Mr. Bruce, however, places it in Africa, at Azab. The gold of Ophir, so often mentioned, must be that which was procured in Arabia, on the coast of the Red sea. We are assured by Sanchoniathon, as quoted by Eusebius, and by Herodotus, that the Phoeni- cians carried on a considerable traffic with this gold even before the days of Job, who speaks of it, 22: 24.—Watson. GOLGOTHA. (See CALVARY.) GOLIATH; a famous giant of Gath, (1 Sam. 17:4, &c. A. M. 2941. ante A. D. 1063.) who defied the He- brews, and was encountered and slain by David. He was descended from Arapha; that is, the old Rephaim. (See GIANTs ; and ARMs, MILITARY.)—Calmet. - GOMAR, (FRANCIS,) an eminent Calvinistic divine, was a native of Bruges, and born 1563. He came over to England to obtain his education, and studied awhile in both the universities, but graduated at Cambridge, as bachelor of divinity. On returning to the continent, he obtained a professorship at Heidelberg, which, in 1593, he relinquished for the theological chair at Leyden, the celebrated Arminius being his colleague. The different views taken by these two professors on some of the lead- ing polemical questions, both as to doctrine and discipline, terminated in a controversy, which was carried on with much acuteness and no little acrimony. It has been re- marked by an acute observer, that while many pens were ei gaged in opposing Arminius, there were but few who G O O G Q O [ 576 ) §º him on the same footing with Gomar, who was C iefly concerned about the ground of a sinner's accep- tance with God, as he understood it to be affected by that controversy, The greater part of the disputants chose to make the controversy turn upon another hinge, contend- ing about grace and free will, and what influence these had in the conversion of a sinner; but with Gomar the grand inquiry was, what is necessary to the justification of a sinner before God; is any thing besides the work finished upon the cross? Any addition to this, he con- tended, was subversive of the true grace of God. For this doctrine he evinced great zeal, and wrote with extra- ordinary ability. He subsequently filled literary situa- tions, both at Middleburgh and Saumur, but died at Gro- ningen, in 1641, having for some short time prior to his decease filled the chair of Hebrew professor there. His controversial tracts were collected four years after his death, and printed in one folio volume, at Amsterdam. Aikin's Gen. Biog. and Glas's Works, vol. v. p. 359.- Jones's Chris. Biog. GOMARISTS; Calvinists; so called from Francis Go- mar, the chief antagonist of Arminius. (See GOMAR.) GOMER, the eldest son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) peo- pled a considerable part of Asia Minor, particularly the region of Phrygia ; the appellation of which Bochart conceives, with great probability, to be a translation into Greek of the Hebrew word Gomer, “a coal.” Phrygia is literally “the burnt country.” (See DISPERSION.)—Calmet. GOMORRAH; one of the five cities of the Pentapolis, consumed by fire, Gen. 19:24, &c. (See DEAD SEA.)— Watson. GOOD, in general, is whatever increases pleasure, or diminishes pain in us. Great confusion has been intro- duced into philosophical writings, from not distinguishing between the three distinct senses in which this term good is used. 1. The agreeable, or that which gives immediate pleasure, without regard to consequences. 2. The useful, or that which, on the whole, is best for us in the pre- sent life. And, 3. The virtuous, or that which God ap- roves as right, and which is productive of everlasting appiness. If men always choose the greatest apparent ood, as metaphysicians have contended, we must never #: to examine which kind of good it is which they pre- ſer, since this determines their character. Those who consult only their senses, prefer the agreeable. Those who consult their reason only, prefer the useful; and those who consult their conscience also, prefer the virtu- ous. This last is the only true wisdom. For this kind of good in the natural order, as well as in the final event of things, comprehends every other.—Hend. Buck. GOOD, (John MASON,) a distinguished physician, poet, and philologist, the son of a dissenting minister, was born, in 1764, at Epping, in Essex; practised for some years as a surgeon and apothecary at Coggeshal, and in London; took his degree, and began to practise as a physician, in 1820; and died January 2, 1827. Dr. Good was a man of vast and diversified knowledge; was intimately acquainted with many of the Oriental lan- guages; and was no contemptible poet and theologian. He published translations of Solomon's Song, Job, and Lucretius; Memoirs of Alexander Geddes; Medical Tech- nology; a Physiological System of Nosology; the Book of Nature, three vols.; and the Study of Medicine, five volumes, 8vo. His life has been written by Dr. O. Gre- gory. Dr. Good was at one period of his life a Socinian of the school of Priestley; but a number of years before his death he became a decided and experimental believer in the orthodox faith, an active promoter of Bible and missionary associations, and all means of advancing the eternal happiness of man. His last moments were bright with the faith and hope of the gospel.—Memoir; Davenport. GOODELL, (SoLoMon,) a liberal-hearted Christian, who’ died at Jamaica, Vermont, in September, 1815, aged se- venty. He was a farmer, living in a rude spot in the neighborhood of the Green mountains; all his property was gained by severe personal labor, and saved by strict frugality; yet his liberality was such as might shame Mr. Girard, the possessor of fifteen millions of dollars. At no time was his property worth five thousand dollars; yet, besides providing for his family, the amount of his donations for missions to the heathen, besides other cha- rities, was three thousand six hundred and eighty-six dol- lars. He was a Baptist, yet most of his donations were intrusted to the hands of his fellow-Christians, not Bap- tists. In this way he proved that he was no sectarian; not, like Mr. Girard, by contemning all religions alike. The power that moved him to his self-denying distribu- tions in his life, not, like Mr. Girard, when he could hold and accumulate no longer, was a settled religious princi- ple ; a conviction, that all his property was the gift of God, and that it should be used by him as the steward of God to promote his Master's glory, and the salvation of mankind.—Allen. GOOD FRIDAY ; a fast kept in national churches, in memory of the sufferings and death of Jesus Christ. It is observed on the Friday in Passion Week, and it is call- ed, by Way of eminence, good ; because of the good ef. fects of our Savior's sufferings. Among the Saxons it was called Long Friday; but for what reason does not appear, except on account of the long offices then used. The Protestants on the continent consider this day as the most solemn in the whole year; by the Catholics, how- ever, it is only celebrated as a half holiday.—Hend. Buck. GOODNESS; philosophically, the fitness of a thing to produce any particular end. In morals, perfection, kind- ness, benevolence.—Hend. Buck. *: GOODNESS OF GOD relates both to the absolute per- fection of his own nature, and his kindness maniſested to his creatures. Goodness, says Dr. Gill, is essential to God, without which he would not be God, Exod. 33: 19. 34: 6, 7. Goodness belongs only to God, he is solely good, (Matt. 19: 17.) and all the goodness found in creatures is only an emanation of the divine goodness. He is the chief good; the sum and substance of all felicity, Ps. 144: 12, 15. 73: 25. 4: 6, 7. There is nothing but goodness in God, and nothing but goodness comes from him, 1 John 1: 5. James 1: 13, 14. He is infinitely good; finite minds cannot com- prehend his goodness, Rom. 11:35, 36. He is immutably and unchangeably good, Zeph. 3: 17. The goodness of God is communicative and diffusive, Ps. 119:68. 33: 5, With respect to the objects of it, it "may be considered as general and special. His general goodness is seen in all his creatures; yea, in the inanimate creation, the sun, the earth, and all his works; and in the government, support, and protection of the world at large, Ps. 36:6. 145: His special goodness relates to angels and saints. To angels, in creating, confirming, and making them what they are. To Saints, in election, calling, justification, adoption, sanc- tification, perseverance, and eternal glorification. Gill’s Body of Div. v. i. p. 133, 8vo ed. ; Charnock's Works, v. i. p. 574; Paley's Nat. Theol., ch. 26; South's admirable Sermon on this subject, vol. viii. ser. 3; Tillotson's Serm., ser. 143–146; Abernethy's Serm., vol. i. No. 2; Dwight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. GOODWIN, (THOMAs, D. D.) a celebrated non-conformist divine of the seventeenth century, was born at Rolesby, in Norfolk, in the year 1600. He was educated at Christ- church college, and Catharine hall, Cambridge, of which he afterwards became fellow. Having taken orders, he was elected lecturer of Trinity church, in Cambridge, in 1628; and four years afterwards was presented by the king to the vicarage of the same church. Becoming dis- satisfied, however, with the terms of conformity, he relin- quished his preferments, and, in 1634, quitted the univer. sity. When the Puritans were persecuted by the episcopal consistories, he fled to Holland, where he became minister of a congregation at Arnheim. At the beginning of the long parliament he returned to London, and was one of the assembly of divines, with whom, however, he did not always agree. His attachment to the Independents render- ed him a favorite with Cromwell, through whose influence, in 1649, he was made one of the commissioners for licens- ing preachers, and appointed president of Magdalen col- lege, Oxford, where he collected a church upon the Con- gregational model. Anthony Wood styles him and Dr. Owen “the two at- lasses and patriarchs of Independency.” In the common register of Oxford he is said to be “in scriptis in re Theo- logica quam plurimis orbi notus.” The writer of his life, G O S G O J t 577 ) preſixed to his works, tells us, that “he was much addict- éd to retirement and decp contemplation, had been much exercised in the controversies agitated in the age in which he lived, and had a deep insight into the economy of divine grace.” He died on the 23d of February, 1679, aged eighty years. His works have been published in four volumes, ſolio. Brit. Biog.—Jones's Chris. Biog. GOPHER-WOOD. (See ARK.) GORDIUS; a Roman centurion and Christian martyr, under the emperor Diocletian. He was a native of Cesa- rea. For avowing his faith in Christ, he was first put to the torture, and afterwards burnt to death, A. D. 311.- Ioac. 59. . GORTONIANS; the followers of Samuel Gorton, of New England, about 1643. He was charged with being a Familist and Antinomian, and was banished as a com- mon disturber from Plymouth, Rhode Island, and Massa- chusetts. Hutchinson's Hist, of Massachusetts, vol. i. p. 117; Holmes's American Annals, in 1637.-Williams. GOSHEN. This was the most fertile pasture ground in the whole of Lower Egypt; thence called Goshen, from gush, in Arabic, signifying “a heart,” or whatsoever is choice or precious. There was also a Goshen in the ter- ritory of the tribe of Judah, so called for the same reason, Josh. 10: 41. Gen. 47: 11. 45: 18. The land of Goshen lay along the most easterly branch of the Nile, and on the east side of it; for it is evident that, at the time of the exode, the Israelites did not cross the Nile. In ancient times, the fertile land was considerably more extensive, both in length and breadth, than at present, in consequence of the general failure of the eastern branches of the Nile; the main body of the river verging more and more to the west continually, and deepening the channels on that side. — Watson. - GOSPEL; the revelation of the grace of God to fallen man through a mediator. It is taken also for the history of the life, actions, death, resurrection, ascension, and doc- trine of Jesus Christ. The word is compounded of two Saxon words—god, “good,” and spell, a “message,” or “tidings,” and thus corresponds to the Greek euanggelion, which signifies a joyful message, or good news. It is call- ed the gospel of his grace, because it flows from his free love, Acts 20: 24. The gospel of the kingdom, as it treats of the kingdom of grace and glory. The gospel of Christ, because he is the author and subject of it, Rom. 1: 16. The gospel of peace and salvation, as it promotes our pre- sent comfort, and leads to eternal glory, Eph. 1: 13. 6: 15. The glorious gospel, as in it the glorious perſections of Je- hovah are displayed, 2 Cor. 4: 4. . The everlasting gospel, as it was designed from eternity, is permanent in time, and the effects of it are eternal, Rev. 14: 6. There are about thirty or forty apocryphal gospels—as the gospel of St. Peter, of St. Andrew, of St. Barnabas, the eternal gospel, &c. &c. &c.; but they were never re- ceived by the Christian church, being evidently fabulous and trifling. (See CHRISTIANITY.)—IIend. Buck. GOSPEL, A LAw. It has been disputed whether the . gospel consists merely of promises, or whether it can in any sense be called a law. The answer plainly depends upon adjusting the meaning of the words gospel and lany. If the gospel be taken for the declaration God has made to men by Christ, concerning the manner in which he will treat them, and the conduct he expects from them, it is plain that this includes commands, and even threatenings, as well as promises; but to define the gospel so, as only to express the favorable part of that declaration, is indeed taking the question for granted, and confining the word to a sense much less extensive than it often has in Scripture: (compare Rom. 2; 16., 2 Thess. 1:8. 1 Tim. 1: 10, 11.) and it is certain, that, if the gospel be put for all the parts of the dispensation taken in connexion one with another, it may well be called, on the whole, a good message. In like manner the question, whether the gospel be a law or not, is to be determined by the definition of the law and of the gospel, as above. If lan) signifies, as it generally does, the discovery of the will of a superior, teaching what he requires of those under his government, with the intima- tion of his intention of dispensing rewards and punish- ments, as this rule of their conduct is observed or neglect- ed; in this latitude of expression it is plain, from the pro- position, that the gospel, taken for the declaration made to men by Christ, is a lan', as in Scripture it is sometimes called, James 1:25. Rom. 4: 15. 8; 2. But if law be taken, in the greatest rigor of the expression, for such a discovery of the will of God, and our duty, as to contain in it no intimation of our obtaining the divine favor other- wise than by a perfect and universal conformity to it, in that sense the gospel is not a law. (See NeoNOMIANs.) Witsius on Cov., vol. iii. ch. 1; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 172; Watts's Orthodoxy and Charity, essay 2.—Hend. Buck. GOSPEL CALL. (See CALLING...) -- GOSRELLERS ; according to Mr. Grant, a sect of An- tinomians, which rose about the time of the Reformation; but we think, with Dr. Johnson, it was rather a term of reproach applied by the papists to all who advocated the circulation of the Scriptures, and the doctrines of the gos- pel, particularly to the followers of Wickliffe in England. So Rowe uses it:— “These Gospellers have had their golden days, Have trodden down our holy Roman faith.” Grant's Hist. of the English Church, vol. i. p. 408; John- son's Fol. Dict.— PWilliams. GOUGE, (WILLIAM, D.D.). This excellent divine was born in Stratford, Bow, in 1575. He was early distinguish- ed for piety and the love of study. His public education was received at Cambridge, where he lived nine years. He was accustomed to rise so early that he had time for his private devotion, and to read five chapters in the Bible regularly, before called to the chapel prayers at half past five o'clock, A. M. He read a few chapters more after dinner, and five before rest at night, constantly; and often lay awake in the night in sweet meditations on what he had read. He entered the ministry at the age of thirty- one, richly furnished for that holy work, and with a heart entirely devoted to its duties. He was minister of Black- friars, London, forty-five years. He was often offered places of greater profit, but always refused, saying, “that the height of his ambition was to go from Blackfriars to heaven.” God wonderfully honored his ministry, for thousands have owned that they were converted and built up under it. His doctrine was sound, his method clear, and his expressions plain and familiar. His life was co- incident with his doctrine, and his family of thirteen chil- dren was trained as careſully, wisely, and religiously as his church. He was esteemed as the father of the London ministers, and the spiritual oracle of his time. In 1643, he was called to be a member of the assembly of divines, and though infirm in health, was constant in attendance. In the moderator's absence he frequently filled the chair. The vacancies in business he always occupied with his Bible or other books which he carried with him. He was appointed one of the annotators on the Scriptures, and performed as his part, from the beginning of 1 Kings to the book of Job, in a manner that gained high appro: bation. He also published several works, the principal of which were his & Gommentary on Hebrews,”, “Domes- tical Duties,” and “The Whole Armor of God.” tº He was a man of great meekness, yet firm against wrong doing. He utterly refused to read the “Book of Sports,” though required by royal authority, choosing rather to suffer than to sin. He was distinguished for his charity, keeping what he called a SACRED STOCK for the poor, and seemed covetous of nothing but his time. If he heard any at work before he got to his study at four in the morning, he used to say, with Demosthenes, “ that he was much troubled that any should be at their calling before he was at his.” He has been heard to say: “ that he took not any journey merely for pleasure in all his lifetime.” Yea, it was his meat and his drink to be doing the will of his heavenly Father. Yet no grace was more eminent in his character than humility. Even in old age, when suffering under the asthma and stone, he spoke of himself not as a great sufferer, but only as a great sinner, and of Christ as a great Savior. His last days were full of calm triumph. He died December 12, 1653, aged seventy-nine, “worn out,” as was said of him, tº not with rust, but with whetting.”—Middleton, vol. iii. 267–284. 4. GOUGE, (THOMAs.) The following extraordinary char- acter of this extraordinary man is given by archbishop 73 G O U G ow [ 578 ) Tillotson. After mentioning that he was born at Bow, in 1605, educated at Cambridge, and after a few years set- tled at St. Sepulchre's, London, with various other par- ticulars of his life and character, he adds, “But that virtue, which, of all others, shone brightest in him, and was his peculiar character, was his cheerful and unwearied dili- gence in acts of pious charity. In this he left behind him all that ever I knew, and, as I said before, had a singular sagacity and prudence in devising the most effectual ways of doing good. For about nine or ten years last past, he did almost wholly apply his charity to Wales, because there he judged was most occasion for it, ands because this was a very great work; he did not only lay out upon it whatever he could spare out of his own estate, but em- ployed his whole time and pains to excite and engage the charity of others for his assistance in it. By the large and bountiful contributions thus obtaincá, to all which he constantly added two thirds of his own estate, (two hun- dred pounds a-year,) there were every year eight hundred, sometimes one thousand poor children educated; and by this example, several of the most considerable towns of Wales were excited to bring up, at their own charge, the like number of poor children, in the like manner, and un- der his instruction and care. But, which was the great- est work of all, and amounted indeed to a mighty charge, he procured a new and very fair impression of the Bible, and the liturgy of the church of England, in the Welsh tongue, to the number of eight thousand; the former im- pression being spent, and not twenty of them to be had in all Jondon. This was a work of that charge, that it was not likely to have been done in any other way; and for which this age, and perhaps the next, will have great cause to thank God on his behalf. Once always, but usu- ally twice a-year, at his own charge, he travelled over a great part of Wales, mone of the best countries to travel In. But for the love of God and man he endured all that, &c. So that, all things considered, there have not, since the primitive times of Christianity, been many among the £ons of men, to whom that glorious character of the Son aſ God might be better applied, that he went about doing good.” He died Oct. 29, 1681. Mr. Gouge wrote seve- făl practical works, which have been held in much esteem. “While I read his practical writings,” says Mr. Rogers, “I am, as it were, in a house well furnished, where there is every thing for convenience, and delight in life; there wants nothing here to compose an entire body of religion i. is beauty, power, and extent.”—Middleton, vol. iii. p. 50. - GOURD, (kikivan ; Jonah 4: 6, 7, 9, 10.) Michaëlis, in his remaks on this subject, says, “Celsius appears to me to have proved that it is the Kiki of the Egyptians.” Niebuhr says, “I saw, for the first time at Basra, the olant el-Keroa, mentioned in Michaëlis's ‘Questions.” It has the form of a tree. The trunk appeared to me rather I9 resemble leaves than wood; nevertheless, it is harder than that which bears the Adam's ſig. Each branch of the keroa has but one large leaf, with six or seven ſold- ings in it. This plant was near to a rivulet, which water. ed it amply. At the end of October, 1765, it had risen in five months' time about eight ſeet, and bore at once flow. ers and fruit; ripe and unripe. Another tree of this spe- cles, which had not had so much water, had not grown Ynore in a Whole year. The flowers and leaves of it which I gathered withered in a few minutes; as do all plants of 9, rapid growth. ... This tree is called at Aleppo, palma Christi. An oil is made from it called oleum de feroa. oleum ciculum; oleum ſicus infernalis, the Christians and Jews of Mosul (Nineveh) say, it was not the koroa whose shadow refreshed Jonah, but a sort of gourd, el-kera, which has very large leaves, very large fruit, and iasts but about four months.” The epithet which the prophet uses in speaking of the plant, “Son of the night it was, and, as a son of the night it died,” does not compel us to believe that it grew in a single night, but, either by a strong Oriental figure that it was of rapid growth, or akin to night in the shade it spread for his repose. The figure is not uncommon in the East, and one of our own poets has called the rose “child of the Summer.” Nor are we bound to take the expression “on the morrow,” as strictly importing the *: very next day, since the word has reference to much more distant time, Exod. 13: 14, Deut, 6: 20. Joshua 4: 6. It might be simply taken as aſternards. But the author of “Scripture Illustrated” justly remarks, “As the history in Jonah expressly says, the Lord prepared this plant, no doubt we may conceive of it as an extraordinary one of its kind, remarkably rapid in its growth, remarkably hard in its stem, remarkably vigorous in its branches, and re- markablé for the extensive spread of its leaves, and the deep gloom of their shadow ; and, after a certain dura- tion, remarkable for a sudden withering, and a total use- lessness to the impatient prophet.” 9. 2. We read of the wild gourd in 2 Kings 4:39. This plant or fruitis called in IIebrew pakovat and pakoim. There have been various opinions about it. Celsius supposes it the colocynth. The leaves of the plant are large, placed alternate ; the flowers white, and the fruit of the gourd kind, of the size of a large applc, which, when ripe, is yel- low, and of a pleasant and inviting appearance, but to the taste intolerably bitter, and proves a drastic purgative. It scems that the fruit, whatever it might have been, was early thought proper for an ornament in architecture. It furnished a model for some of the carved work of cedar in Solomon’s temple, 1 Kings 6: 18. 7: 24.—Watson. GOVERNMENT OF GOD, is either providential, moral, or spiritual. His providential government is the disposal of his creatures, and all events relative to them, according to his infinite justice, power, and wisdom. His moral government is his rendering to every man according to his character, considered as good or evil. His spiritual government is that which he maintains by his spirit and word, over the hearts and lives of his saints, both indi- vidually, and as collected into the visible church; hence. called, in the current language of the New Testament, the “kingdom of God,” Rom. 14: 17. 1 Cor. 4:20. Col. 1: 12, 13. John 3: 3–7. (See Dominion ; and Sovereignty.) —IIend. Buck. GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. The pos. terity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were set apart and destined to the great object of preserving and transmitting the true religion, Gen. 18:16–20. 17: 9–14. 12: 3. 22: 18, 28: 14. Having greatly increased in numbers in Egypt, it appeared very evident that they could not live among nations given to idolatry without running the ha- zard of becoming infected with the same evil. They were, therefore, in the providence of God, assigned to a particular country, the extent of which was so small, that they were obliged, if they would live independently of other nations, to give up in a great measure the life of shepherds, and devote themselves to agriculture. Fur- ther: very many of the Hebrews, during their residence in Egypt, had fallen into idolatrous habits. These were to be brought back again to the knowledge of the true God, and all were to be excited to engage in those under- talkings which should be found necessary for the support of the true religion. All the Mosaic institutions aim at the accomplishment of these objects. principle, therefore, of those institutions, was this, that the true God, the Creator and Governor of the universe, and none other, ought to be worshipped. To secure this end the more certainly, God became king to the Hebrews. Accordingly, the land of Canaan, which was destined to be occupied by them, was declared to be the land of Je- hovah, of which he was to be the king, and the Hebrews merely the hereditary occupants. God promulgated, from the clouds of mount Sinai, the prominent laws for the go- vernment of his people, considered as a religious commu. nity, Exod. 20. These laws were aſterwards more fully developed and illustrated by Moses. The rewards which should accompany the obedient, and the punishments which should be the lot of the transgressor, were at the same time announced, and the Hebrews promised by a solemn oath to obey, Exodus 21:—24. Deut. 27:—30. 2. When we remember that God was expressly chosen the King of the people, and that he enacted laws and de- cided litigated points of importance; (Num. 17:1–11. 27:1–11. 36: 1–10.) when we remember also that he answered and solved questions proposed, (Num. 15: 32– 41. Joshua 7: 16–22. Judges 1: 1, 2, 20: 18, 27, 28. 1 Sam. 14; 37. 23: 9–12. 30: 8, 2 Sam. 2: 1) that he The fundamental - & G O W G R A [ 579 ) threatened punishment, and that, in some instauces, he actually inflicted it * the hardened and impenitent; (Num. 11:33–35. 12: 1–15. A6: 1–50. Lev. 26: 3– Å6. Deut. 26:-—30.) when, finally, we take into account, that he promised prophets, who were to be, as it were, his ambassadors, (Deut. 18.) and afterwards sent them ac- cording to his promise; and that, in order to preserve the true religion, he governed the whole people by a striking and peculiar providence, we are at liberty to say, that God was, in fact, the Monarch of the people, and that the government was a theocracy. But, although the govern- ment of the Jews was a theocracy, it was not destitute of the usual forms which exist in civil governments among men. God, it is true, was the King, and the high-priest, if we may be allowed so to speak, was his minister of state; but still the political affairs were in a great meas. ure under the disposal of the elders, princes, &c. It was to them that Moses gave the divine commands, dctermin- cd expressly their powers, and submitted their requests to the decision of God, Num. 14: 5. 16: 4, &c. 27: 5. 37: 5; 6. It was in reſerence to the great power possessed by these men, who formed the legislative assembly of the nation, that Josephus pronounced the government to be aristocratical. But from the circumstance that the people possessed so much influence, as to render it necessary to submit laws to them for their ratification, and that they even took upon themselves sometimes to propose laws or to resist those which were enacted; from the circumstance also that the legislature of the nation had not the power of laying taxes, and that the civil code was regulated and enforced by God himself, independently of the legislature, Lowman and Michaëlis are in favor of considering the Hebrew government a democracy. In support of their opinion such passages are exhibited as the following: Exodus 19:7, 8. 24: 3–8. Deut. 29: 9–14. Joshua 9: 18, 19. 23: 1, &c. 24; 2, &c. 1 Samuel 10: 24. 11: 14, 15. Num. 27: 1–8. 36: 1–9. The truth seems to lie between these two opinions. The Hebrew government, putting out of view its theocratical feature, was of a mix- ed form, in some respects approaching to a democracy, in others assuming more of an aristocratical character. 3. In the time of Samuel, the government, in point of form, was changed into a monarchy. The election of a king, however, was committed to God, who chose one by lot ; so that God was still the ruler, and the king the vice- gerent. The terms of the government, as respected God, were the same as before, and the same duties and princi- ples were inculcated on the Israelites as had been origi- nally, 1 Sam. 8: 7. 10: 17—23. 12: 14, 15, 20–22, 24, 25. In consequence of the fact, that Saul did not choose at all times to obey the commands of God, the kingdom was taken from him and given to another, 1 Sam. 13: 5– 14. 15:1–31. David, through the agency of Samuel, was selected by Jehovah for king, who thus gave a proof that he still retained, and was disposed to exercise, the right of appointing the ruler under him, 1 Samuel 16: 1 —3. David was first made king over Judah ; but as he received his appointment from God, and acted under his authority, the other eleven tribes submitted to him, 2 Sam. 5: 1–3. 1 Chron, 28: 4–6. The paramount authority of God, as the King of the nation, and his right to ap- point one who should act in the capacity of his vicege- rent, are expressly recognized in the books of Kings and Chronicles. 4. The rebuilding of Jerusalem was accomplished, and the reſormation of their ecclesiastical and civil polity was effected, by the two divinely inspired and pious governors, Ezra and Nehemiah ; but the theocratic government does not appear to have been restored. The new temple was not, as formerly, God’s palace; and the cloud of his pre- sence did not take possession of it. After their death the Jews were governed by their high-priests, in subjection however to the Persian kings, to whom they paid tribute, (Ezra 4: 13. 7: 24.) but with the full enjoyment of their other magistrates, as well as their liberties, civil and re- ligious. Nearly three centuries of uninterrupted prospe- rity ensued, until the reign of Antiochus Epiphames, king of Syria, when they were most, cruelly oppressed, and compelled to take up arms in their own defence. Under the able conduct of Judas surnamed Maccabeus, and his valiant brothers, the Jews maintained a religious war for twenty-six years with five successive kings of Syria; and after destroying upwards of two hundred thousand of their best troops, the Maccabees finally established the independence of their own country and the aggrandize- ment of their ſamily. This illustrious house, whose prin- ces united the regal and pontifical dignity in their own persons, administered the aſſairs of the Jews during a period of one hundred and twenty-six years; until, dis- putes arising between Hyrcanus II. and his brother Aris- tobulus, the latter was defeated by the Romans under Pompey, who captured Jerusalem, and reduced Judea to dependence, B. C. 59. (See Jews.)— Watson. • GRACE ; a term of very ſrequent occurrence in the Scriptures, especially those of the New Testament, in which the place it occupies is so important, that, without a proper understanding of its import, we can never make any considerable progress in the khowledge of the Scrip- tures, or indeed comprehend the general design of divine revelation ; and yet unhappily no subject is more misun- derstood. - The primary and principal scnse of the word is, ſrce favor; unmcrited kindness. In this acceptation it is most frequently used in the inspired volume. Grace, in the writings of Paul, stands in direct opposition to works and worthiness—all works and worthiness of every kind, and of every degree. This appears from the following pas- Sages: “Now to him that worketh, the reward is not reck- oned of grace, but of debt;-therefore it is of faith, that it might be by grace. For by grace are ye saved—not of works, lest any man should boast. Who hath saved us—not according to our works, but according to his own purpose and grace,” Rom. 4: 4, 16. Eph. 2: 8. 2 Tim. 1: 9. As the word mercy, in 1ts primary signification, has re- lation to some creature, either actually in a suffering state, or obnoxious to it; so grace, in its proper and strict Sense, always presupposes unworthiness in its object. Hence, whenever any thing valuable is compºunicatcd by the blessed God, it cannot be of grace, any further than the person on whom it is conferred is considered as tin- worthy. For, so far as any degree of worth appears, the province of grace ceases, and that of equity takes place. Grace and worthiness, therefore, cannot be Connected in the same act, and for the same end. The One must ne- cessarily give place to the other, according to that re- markable text: “If by grace, then it is no more of works; otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then it is no more grace; otherwise work is no more work,” Rom. 11; 6.-Besides, when the word of God represents the capital blessings of salvation as flow. ing from divine grace, it describes the persons on whom they are bestowed, not only as having no claim to those benefits, but as deserving quite the reverse; as having incurred a tremendous curse, and as justly exposed to eternal ruin, Rom. 3: 19, 23. Gal. 3: 10. * Grace, therefore, may be thus defined: it is the favor of God, manifested in the vouchsafement of spiritual and eternal blessings to the guilty and the unworthy, through our Lord Jesus Christ. Such is the eternal origin, such the glorious basis, of our salvation Hence it proceeds and is carried on to perfection. Grace shines through the whole. For, as an elegant writer observes, it is “not like a fringe of gold bordering the garment; not like an em- broidery of gold, decorating the robe; but like the mercy- seat of the ancient tabernacle, which was gold—pure gold —all gold throughout.” This is the inexhaustible source of all those inestimable blessings which the Lord bestows on his unworthy crea- tures, in this, or in a future world. It is this which, in all that he does, or ever will do ſor sinners, he intends to render everlastingly glorious in their eyes, and in the eyes of all holy intelligences. The indelible motto, in- scribed by the hand of Jehovah on all blessings of the evangelical covenant, is, “To THE PRAISE AND GLORY OF IIIs GRACE.” Divine grace is in Scripture compared to a sovereign. Now a sovereign, considered as such, is in- vested with regal power, and the highest authority. Grace, therefore, in her beneficent government, must exert and manifest sovereign oower—must supersede the reign, and G R A G. R. A [ 580 ) * counteract the mighty and destructive operations of sin; or she cannot bring the sinner to eternal life. terminates in death. - Divine grace, therefore, as reigning in our salvation, not only appears, but appears with majesty; not only shines, but triumphs; providing all things, bestowing all things, working in us all things, necessary to our eternal happi- |\eSS. - - If we carefully examine the Scriptures concerning this important subject, we shall find the revealed properties of divine grace to be the following: it is free, foregoing, distinguishing, sovereign, effectual, rich, eternal, and regu- lated by infinite wisdom in such a way as to satisfy justice, secure holiness, maintain truth, and multiply happiness. Divines have distinguished grace into common or general, and special or particular. Common grace is what all men have who hear the gospel; the illumination and strivings of God's Spirit, convictions of sin, &c., Gen. 6: John 16. Special grace is that which is peculiar to the saved; such as electing, redeeming, justifying, pardoning, adopting, establishing, and sanctifying grace, Rom. 8:30. This special grace is by some distinguished into imputed and inherent. Imputed grace consists in the holiness, obedi- ence, and righteousness of Christ, imputed to us for our justification; inherent grace is what is wrought in the heart by the Spirit of God in regeneration. Grace is also said to be efficacious, irresistible, and victorious; not but that there are in human nature, in the first moments of convic- tion, even in the saved, some struggles, opposition, or con- flict ; but by these terms we are to understand, that, in the end, victory declares for the grace of the gospel. There have been many other distinctions of grace; but as they are of too frivolous a nature, and are now obsolete, they need not a place here. - Groſvth in grace is the progress we make in the divine life. It discovers itself by an increase of spiritual light and knowledge; by our renouncing self, and depending more upon Christ; by growing more spiritual in duties; by being more humble, submissive, and thankful; by ris- ing Superior to the corruptions of our mature, and finding the power of sin more weakened in us; by being less at- tached to the world, and possessing more of a heavenly disposition. M'Laurin's Essays, essay 3; Gill's Body of Div., vol. i. p. 118; Doddridge's Lect., part viii. prop. 139; Pike and Haynard's Cases of Conscience ; Saurin on 1 Rom. 9:26, 27, Vol. iv.; Booth's Reign of Grace ; Scott on Gronoth in Grace ; Fuller's Works; Dwight's Theol.-Jones ; Hend. Buck. GRACE AT MEALS; a short prayer, imploring the divine blessing on our food, and expressive of gratitude to God for supplying our necessities. The propriety of this act is evident from the divine command, (1 Thes. 5: 18. , 1 Cor. 10: 31. 1 Tim. 4: 5.) from the conduct of Christ, (Mark 8: 6, 7.) from reason itself; not to mention that it is a custom practised by most nations, and even not neglected by heathens themselves. - As to the manner in which it ought to be performed, as Dr. Watts observes, we ought to have a due regard to the occasion, and the persons present; the neglect of which hath been attended with indecencies and indiscretions, Some have used themselves to mutter a few words with 30 low a voice, as though by some secret charm they were to consecrate the food alone, and there was no need of the rest to join with them in the petitions. Others have broke out into so violent a sound, as though they were bound to make a thousand people hear them. Somé perform this part of worship with so slight and familiar an air, as though they had no sense of the great God to whom they speak; others have put on an unnatural solemnity, and changed their natural voice into so different and awkward a tone, not without some distortions of countenance, that have tempted strangers to ridicule. It is the custom of some to hurry over a single sentence or two, and they have done, before halſ the company are prepared to lift up a thought to heaven. Others, again, make a long prayer, and, among a multitude of other pe. titions, do not utter one that relates to the table before them. The general rules of prudence, together with a due ob- servation of the custom of the place where we live, would For the Holy Spirit has compared sin to a sovereign, whose reign correct all these disorders, and teach us that a few senten- ces suited to the occasion, spoken with an audible and pro- per voice, are sufficient for this purpose, especially if any strangers are present. Watts’ Works, oct. edition, vol. iv. p. 160; Law's Serious Call, p. 60; Seed's Post. Ser, p. 174; Aids to Devotion.—Hend. Buck. - - - GRACIOUS; full of free favor, and disposed to give free gifts, Exod. 22: 27, and 34:6. Gen. 43:29. Christ's words were gracious: they showed the grace that was in him ; related to the precious and honorable truths of God; and tended to the edification of others, Luke 4: 22. The word is often used for truly pious.--Bronn. - GRADMONTAINS ; a severe order of monks, institut- ed by Stephen de Muret, in the eleventh century, at Mu- ret, in the nighborhood of Grammont, whence its name. His laws enjoined poverty, obedience, and silence. They were interdicted all the comforts of life, and became, in consequence, burdens to themselves and useless to society. Moshiem’s E. H., vol. ii. pp. 532–534; Broughton's Dict. — Williams. - - - GRAFTING ; the act of inserting a shoot or scion taken from one tree, into the stem or some other part of another, in such a manner that they unite, and produce fruit of the kind belonging to the tree from which the Scion was taken. By this practice, particular sorts of fruit may be kept from degenerating, which they are very apt to do when raised from the seed; for the graſts, though they receive their nourishment from the stocks, always produce fruit of the same sort as the tree from which they were taken. This process, probably from the abundant supply of nourish- ment afforded to the graft, has the advantage of hastening the period of its bearing. God grafted in the Gentiles when he brought them into his church, and united them to Jesus Christ as their spiritual and fructifying root, Rom. 11: 17 —24. God’s word is ingrafted, as it is put into and plant- ed in our hearts, that it may bring forth the fruit of good works in our life, Jam. 1:21–Bromm Ency. Amer. - GRAHAM, (MRs. ISABELLA.) This pious, charitable, and intelligent woman was born in Scotland, in the county of Lanark, on the 29th of July, 1742. Her father and mother, Mr. and Mrs. John Marshall, were both religious people, and instilled into her young and tender mind the value of that religion, the truths of which she exemplified in her maturer years. Isabella, also, for some time en- joyed the pastoral exertions of the excellent Dr. Wither- spoon, aſterwards president of Princeton college ; and when she had arrived at the age of seventeen, she was ad- mitted by him to the sacrament of the Lord’s supper. In 1765, she was married to Dr. Graham, and accompanied him to Canada, where his regiment was stationed. At Niagara they spent four happy years; but being obliged to go to Antigua, she there lost her beloved husband, in 1774. She then returned to Scotland, and supported her father and her four children by opening a school for young ladies. In 1789, she leſt Scotland for America, and arrived at New York on the 8th of September, where she was receiv- ed with the greatest kindness by Dr. Rodgers and Dr. Ma- son. She then again opened her seminary with as much success as before, and in this place became a member of Dr. Mason's church. But though greatly distinguished for her personalendowments, Mrs. Graham was peculiarly enji. nent as a public benefactor. In the year 1799, a society was instituted at New York, for the relieſ of poor widows with small children; a society which arose into great respectabi- lity, and has been productive of very beneficial effects. The Original plan of the society was formed at the house of Mrs. Graham; and she made, at the first anniversary, a Very pleasing report of the proceedings of the managers, and of the amount of relief aſſorded to the poor. During the winter of 1799, she was indefatigable in her attentions to the poor; she exerted herself to procure work for her widows, and occupied much of her time in cutting it out and preparing it for them. The society for the relief of poor widows opened a school for the instruction of their orphans, and many of Mrs. Graham's former pupils volum- teered their services, taking upon themselves, by rotation, the part of instructors. Besides establishing this schooi. Mrs. Graham selected some of the widows best qualified for the task, and engaged them for a small compensation, G R A G R A [ 581 to open day schools for the instruction of the children in distant parts of the city. She also established two Sunday schools, one of which she superintended herself, and the other she placed under the care of her daughter. On the 15th of March, 1815, the female subscribers, in order to make proposals for providing an asylum for orphan chil- dren, met at the City hotel. Mrs. Graham was called to the chair, a society organized, and a board of direction chosen. Mrs. Hoffman was elected the first directress of the Orphan Asylum society. Mrs. Graham continued in the office of first directress of the Widows' society, but felt also much interest in the success of the Orphan Asy- lum society; and herself, or one of her family, taught the orphans daily, until the friends of the institution were sufficient to provide a teacher and superintendent. In the year 1811, some gentlemen of New York established a Magdalen society; they elected a board of ladies, request- ing their aid to superintend the internal management of the Magdalen house : this board chose Mrs. Graham their presiding lady, which office she held until her decease; and its attending duties she discharged with fidelity and zeal. In 1812, the trustees of the Lancasterian school solicited the attendance of several pious ladies, to give catechetical instruction to their scholars one afternoon in every week. Mrs. Graham attended regularly to that duty. In the spring of 1814, she was requested to unite with some ladies in forming a society for the promotion of industry among the poor; and to that object she afforded her best support. But the termination of such varied and important labors now appeared to approach. For some weeks previous to her last illness she was favored with unusual health, and much enjoyment of religion. She died on the 24th of July, 1814. See Life of Mrs. Graham, and Funeral Sermon, by Rev. Dr. Mason.—Jones’ Chr. Biog. GRAHAM, (MARY JANE,) author of the “Test of Truth,” was born in London, in April, 1803, and died at Stoke Fleming, Devon, in December, 1830, at the age of twenty-seven. She was a young lady of superior talents, highly cultivated mind, and uncommon scientific attain- ments. No one can, doubt this who reads her writings, especially her Essay on the Study of the Mathematics. She was mistress of the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian languages, and her English style shows that she was in an uncommon degree mistress of her own. She was well acquainted with Music, and her published “Letter on Music,” while it clearly develops its principles, is buoyant with spirit and liſe and beauty. . But all these attainments were consecrated by the pow- er of Christianity to the glory of God, and the good of mankind. She delighted in doing good. Her views of religious truth were decidedly evangelical, lucid, consis- tent, and practical. Her piety commenced when she was seven years old. At seventeen she was led astray by lite- rary temptations, and her Christian hope was eclipsed for a time in the gloom of infidelity. Restored by divine grace after a severe conſlict to an established faith in God’s word, she published a full account of her exercises in her “Test of Truth,” with the hope of recovering others from unbelief. It should be remarked, that it was origi- nally written in the form of a letter to her Spanish teacher, who was an infidel. Miss Graham's health was very delicate from her child- hood, and for the last few years of her life she was a great sufferer. But hers was a religion that triumphed over suffering, and reaped from it “the peaceable ſruits of right- eousness.” “Strengthened with all might, unto all long- suffering with joyfulness,” she remarked on one occasion that her “pains were sweeter than honey or the honey- comb.” Death to her had no sting, “It is not death to me,” she would say, “for Jesus hath tasted death for me, and hath drunk up all its bitterness.” After a violent attack of coughing and spasm, a friend said to her, “I fear you suffer much.” “Oh, no!” she replied, “I delight to feel the pins of the tabernacle taking out.” Yet she observed, “It is not the cessation from pain that can make Chris- tians view the approach of death with satisfaction. For, believe me, they have not one pain too many. But, oh, to behold the King in his beauty and beholding, to be transformed into his glorious likeness! and then to cease from sin! this, this is the blessed cessation after which real tions. Christians pant.” She maintained the use of her pen to the - last, and prepared for the press her valuable work on “The Freeness of Divine Grace,” and part of a series of “Let. ters to a Governess,” full of the most admirable instruc. See Memoir of her Life, by Rev. Charles Bridges. GRANTHAM, (Thomas,) a distinguished minister among the General Baptists of England in the seventeenth century, was born 1633, and died in 1692, aged fifty-eight years. He is represented as “a man endowed with every Christian grace and virtue,” a learned scholar, a faithful confessor, and laborious servant of Christ; who with Chris- tian fortitude endured ten persecutions for conscience' sake. He was selected to deliver to Charles II. the con- fession of faith, drawn up by the body of Christians to which he belonged, and also at a later period to present a remonstrance against persecution, both of which were kindly received by the king, and redress of grievances pro- mised. In that disputing age he was often engaged in public disputations, in which he successfully displayed his skill as an accomplished logician. He also conducted an epistolary dispute, in sixty letters, with the Rev. John Con- mould, the learned vicar of Norwich, who afterwards felt a great esteem and friendship for him through life. Mr. Grantham was the founder of the Baptist church in Nor- wich. He was also the author of numerous publications, which display singular merit and greatness of mind. One of the most beautiful facts in history, of the power of Christian love over party spirit, occurred at the death of Mr. Grantham. Mr. Connould, his former antagonist, on hearing that indecencies were threatened by the bigot- ed populace to the corpse of his friend, had it conveyed to his own church, and there perſormed the burial service, before a crowded audience, with many tears, adding, as he closed the book, This day is a very great man fallen in our Israel. The remains of Mr. Grantham were then so- lemnly interred in the middle aisle of the church. A me- morial of Mr. Grantham, in golden capitals, is hung up in the General Baptist chapel, in the parish of St. James, in Norwich-Benedict's His. Bap., vol. i. p. 227. GRAPE ; the fruit of the vine. There were fine vine. yards and excellent grapes in the promised land. The bunch of grapes which was cut in the valley of Eschel, and was brought upon a staff between two men to the camp of Israel at Kadeshbarnea, (Num. 13: 23.) may give us some idea of the largeness of the fruit in that country. It would be easy to produce a great number of witnesses to prove that the grapes in those regions grow to a prodi- gious size. By Calmet, Scheuchzer, and Harmer, this subject has been exhausted. “At Beidtdjin,” says Schultz, “a village near Ptolemais, we took our supper under a large vine, the stem of which was nearly a foot and a half in diameter, the height about thirty feet, and covered with its branches and shoots (for the shoots must be supported) a hut of more than fifty feet long and broad. The bunches of these grapes are so large that they weigh from ten to twelve pounds, and the grapes may be compared to our plums. Such a bunch is cut off and laid on a board, it und which they seat themselves, and each helps himself to as many as he pleases.” Forster, in his Hebrew Dictionary, (under the word Eschol,) says, that he knew at Nurenburg a monk of the name of Acacius, who had resided eight years in Palestine, and had also preached at Hebron, where he had seen bunches of grapes which were as much as two men could conveniently carry. The wild grapes, (Isa, 5: 2–4.) are the fruit of the wild or bastard vine; sour and unpalatable, and good for no thing but to make verjuice. Hasselquist is inclined to be lieve that the prophet here means the solanum incanum, “hoary nightshade,” because it is common in Egypt and Palestine, and the Arabian name agrees well with it. The Arabs call it aneb el diff, “wolf’s grapes.” The prophei could not have found a plant more opposite to the vine than this; for it grows much in the vineyards, and is very pernicious to them. It is likewise a vine. See Jer. 2: 21, and Deut. 32:32, 33.—Watson. GRASS, (desha,) or HERBAGE ; (Gen. 1: 11.) the well known vegetable upon which flocks and herds feed, al. i which decks our fields, and refreshes our sight with its grateful verdure. Its feeble frame and transitory duration are mentioned in Scriptive as emblematic of the frail con- G R E. G R TE [ 582 J dition and fleeting existence of man. The inspired poets draw this picture with such inimitable beauty as the labor- ed elegies on mortality of ancient and modern times have never surpassed. Sce Ps, 90:6. 103; and particularly Isa. 40: 6–8, As, in their decay, the herbs of thc fields strikingly illustrate the shortness of human life, so, in the order of their growth, from seeds dead and buried, they give a natural testimony to the doctrine of a resurrection. The prophet Isaiah, and the apostle Peter, both speak of bodies rising from the dead, as of so many seeds spring- ing from the ground to renovated existence and beauty, although they do not, as some have absurdly supposed, eonsider the resurrection as in any sense analagous to the process of vegetation, Isa. 26:19. 1 Pet. 1: 24, 25. (See HAy; HERB ; and FUEI.) * In several places, Scripture reſers to grass growing on the house-tops, but which comes to nothing. The follow- ing quotation will show the nature of this: “In the morn- 1ng the master of the house laid in a stock of earth, which was carried up, and spread evenly on the top of the house, which is flat. The whole roof is thus formed of merc earth, laid on, and rolled hard and ſlat. On the top of every house is a large stone roller, for the purpose of hardening and flattening this layer of made soil, so that the rain may not penetrate; but upon this surface, as may be supposed, grass and weeds grow freely. It is to such grass that the Psalmist alludes as useless and bad.” Jonett's Christian Researches in Syria, p. 89.— PValSon ; Calmet. GRASSHOPPER ; (hened ;) Lev. 11; 22. Num, 13:33. 2 Chron. 7: 13. Eccl. 12: 5. Isa. 40: 22. 2 Esdras 4: 24. Wisdom 16:9. Eccl. 4:3; 17. Our translators render the Hebrew word locust in the prayer of Solomon at the dedi- cation of the temple, (2 Chron. 7: 13.) and with propriety. But it is rendered grasshopper, in Eccl. 12: 5. where Solo- mon, describing the infelicities of old age, says, “The grasshopper shall be a burden.” The prophet Isaiah contrasts the grandeur and power of God, and every thing reputed great in this world, by a very expressive reference to this insect: Jehovah sitteth on the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants are to him as grass- hoppers, Isa. 40: 22. What atoms and inanitics are they all before him, who sitteth on the circle of the immense heavens, and views the potentates of the earth in the light of grasshoppers, those poor insects that wander over the barren heath for sustenance, spend the day in insignificant chirpings, and take up their contemptible lodging at night on a blade of grass 1 (See Locus T.)—TWatson. GRATITUDE, is that pleasant affection of the mind which arises from a sense of favors received, and by which the possessor is excited to make all the returns of love and service in his power. “Gratitude,” says Mr. Cogan, in his Treatise on the Passions, “is the powerſul reac- tion of a well-disposed mind, upon whom benevolence has conſerred some important good. It is mostly connect- ed with an impressive sense of the amiable disposition of . the person by whom the benefit is conferred, and it imme- diately produces a personal affection towards him. We shall not wonder at the peculiar strength and energy of this affection, when we consider that it is compounded of love placed upon the good communicated, affection for the donor, and joy at the reception. Thus it has goodness ſor 1ts object, and thc most pleasing, perhaps unexpected, exer- tions of goodness for its immediate cause. Thankſulness refers to verbal expressions of gratitude.” (See THANK- FUINess.) Chalmers' Works.-Hend. Buck. GRAVE. (See BURAL.) GRAVITY, is that seriousness of mind, united with dig- nity of behavior, that commands veneration and respect. It is often enjoined in the New Testament as a branch of Christian morals. See D . PVatts' admirable Sermon on Gravily, ser. 23. vol. i.—Hend. Buck. GREATNESS OF GOD, is the inſinite glory and cxcel- lency of all his perfections. His greatness appears by the attributes he possesses, (Deut. 32: 3, 4.) the works he hath made, (Ps. 19: 1.) by the awful and benign providences he displays, (Ps. 97: 1, 2.) the great effects he produces by his word, (Gen. 1:) the constant energy be maniſests in the exister.ce and support of all his creatures, (Ps. 145:) and the everlasting provision of glory made for his peo- Ile, 1 Thes, 4: 17. This greatness is of himself, and not derived ; (Ps. 21: 13.) it is inſinite, (Ps. 145; 3.) not diml. nishcd by exertion, but will always remain the same, Mal. 3: 6. The considerations of his greatness should excite veneration, (Ps. 89: 7.) admiration, (Jer, 9; 6, 7) humili- ty, (Job 42: 5, 6.) dependence, (Isa. 26: 4.) submission, (Job 1: 22.) obedience, Deut. 4:39, 40. (See ATTRIBUTEs, and books under that article.)—Hend. Buck. GREAVES ; deſensive armor for the legs. MILITARY.). GRECIA, or GREECE, both names occurring in the Eng- lish Scriptures. In the Old Testament it is often called Ja- van. The boundaries of the country which received this name differed under the different governments which rul- ed over it. Thus the Greece of the Old Testament is not exactly the same as that of the New : the former including Macedonia, Thessaly, 12pirus, IHellas or Greece Proper, and the Peloponnesus or Morea; while the latter excludes Macedonia, Thessaly, and Epirus. But the Romans, in the time of the apostles, had, in ſact, made two divisions of these countries. The first, which was that of Ma- cedonia, included also Thessaly and Epirus; and the other, that of Achaia, all the rest of Greece, which is, pro- perly speaking, the Greece of the New Testament. But the term Greek admits of a larger interpretation, and ap- plies not only to the inhabitants of Grecce Proper, but to those of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, over nearly the whole of the former of which countries, and great part oſ the two latter, Grecian colonies and the Grecian language had extended themselves. In ſact, in the two books of the Maccabees, and in those of the New Testament, the word Greek commonly implies a Gentile. 2. The Scripture has but little reference to Greece till the time of Alexander, whose conquests extended into Asia, where Greece had hitherto been of no importance. Yet that some intercourse was maintained with these countries from Jerusalem, may be inferred from the desire of Baasha to shut up all passage between Jerusalem and (See ARMs, Joppa, which was its port, by the building of Ramah ; and the anxiety of Asa to counteract his scheme, 1 Kings 15: 2, 17. Greece was certainly intended by the prophet Daniel under the symbol of the single-horned goat ; (Dam. 8: 5–21.) and it is probable that when he calls Greece Chittim, he spoke the language of the Hebrew nation, ra- ther than that of the Persian court. After the establish- ment of the Grecian dynasties in Asia, Judea could not but be considerably aſſected by them; and the books of the Maccabees afford proofs of this. The Roman power, superseding the Grecian establishments, yet left traces of Greek language, customs, &c., to the days of the Herods, when the gospel history commences. By the activity of the apostles, and especially by that of St. Paul, the gospel was propagated into those countries which used the Grc- cian dialects: hence, we are interested in the study of this language. Moreover, as Greece, like all other countries, had its peculiar manners, and national spirit, we are not able to estimate properly an epistle written to those who dwell where they prevailed, without a competent acquaini- ance with the manners themselves, with the sentiments and reasonings of those who practised them, and with the arguments employed in their defence by those who adher.’ ed to them. (See ATHENs, CoRINTH, &c.)—– Watson. GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. The cha. racter of the New Testament diction, although pretty defi- nitely marked, was for a long time mistaken, or was only imperfectly and partially understood, by biblical philolo- gists, and has been the subject of much dispute. From" the time of Henry Stephens (1576) down to the middle of last century, two parties existed among the interpreters of the New Testament; the one of which labored to show that the diction of the New Testament is in all respects conformed to the style of the Attic Greek writers; while the other maintained, on the contrary, and supposed them. selves able to prove, ſrom every verse, that the style was altogether mixed with Hebraisms, and came very far short of the ancient classic Greek in respect to purity. Though latterly the former of these positions has been shown to be inadmissible, yet it was not till quite lately that the im- perſect notions of those who maintained the latter began to be ſelt, and the spirit of the New Testament diction came to be more deeply investigated G R jº G. R. E. [ 583 ] In the age which succeeded that of Alexander the Great, GREGORY, (of Nyssa,) the younger brother of St. Ba- the Greek language underwent an internal change of a sil, was born at Sebaste, about 331, and was ordained double mature. In part a prosaic language of books was formed, (6 koiné dialektos,) which was builton, the Attic dia- lect, but was intermixed with not a few provincialisms; and partly a language of popular intercourse was formed, in which the various dialects of the different Grecian tribes, heretofore separate, were more or less mingled together; while the Macedonian dialect was peculiarly prominent. The latter language constitutes the basis of the diction employed by the LXX., the writers of the Apocrypha, and the New Testament. This popular Greek dialect was not spoken and written by the Jews, without some foreign intermixtures. They particularly introduced many idioms, and the general complexion of their vernacular language. Hence arose a judaizing Greek dialect. The basis of this dialect consists of the peculiarities of the later Greek; but in the use of all the parts of speech, the Hebrew idioms and modes of construction are combined with them. It should further be noticed, that there occur in the New Testament, words that express both doctrines and practices which were utterly unknown to the Greeks; and also words bearing widely different interpretations from those which are ordinarily found in Greek writers. It contains ex- amples of all the dialects occuring in the Greek language, as the AEolic, Boeotic, Doric, Ionic, and especially of the Attic ; which, being most generally in use on account of its elegance, pervades every book of the New Testament. 2. A variety of solutions has been given to the question, why the New Testament was written in Greek. The true reason is, that it was the language most generally under- stood both by writers and readers; being spoken and writ- ten, read and understood, throughout the Roman empire, and particularly in the eastern provinces. Now what should that one language be, in which it was proper to write the Christian revelation, but the Greek, which was then generally understood, and in which there were many books extant; that treated of all kinds of literature, and on that account were likely to be preserved, and by the reading of which Christians, in after ages, would be ena- bled to understand the Greek of the New Testament 2 This advantage none of the provincial dialects used in the apostles' days could pretend to. Being limited to particu- lar countries, they were soon to be disused; and few (if any) books being written in them which merited to be pre- served, the meaning of such of the apostles' letters as were composed in the provincial languages could not easily have been ascertained. (See ARAMEAN LANGUAGE.) Many Jews had two names, one Greek and the other Hebrew ; others grecised their Hebrew name: of Jesus they made Jason; of Saulos, Paulos; of Simon or Simeon, Petros, &c.—Hend. Buck; Watson. GREEKS, were properly the inhabitants of Greece; but this is not the only acceptation of the name in the New Testament. It seems to import, (1.) Those persons of Hebrew descent who, being settled in cities where Greek was the natural language, spoke this language ra- ther than their parental Hebrew. They are called Greeks to distinguish them from those Jews who spoke Hebrew, Acts 6. (2.) Such persons as were Greek settlers in the land of Israel, or in any of its towns. After the time of Alexander, these aliens were numerous in some places, Mark 7: 26. Matt. 15: 21.-Calmet. GREEK CHURCH. (See CHURCH, GREEK.) GREEKS, (UNITED;) certain Greek congregations in Italy, Hungary, Gallicia, Poland, and Lithuania, which have acknowledged the Supremacy of the pope, and are in communion with the church of Rome. They are also to be found in some other parts of the East, but in comparative- ly small numbers.-Hend. Buck. GREGORY NAZIANZEN, the son of the bishop of Nazianzum, in Cappadocia, was born A. D. 328, and studi- ed at Caesarea, Alexandria, and Athens. After having displayed great theological and other talents, he was rais- ed by Theodosius, in 380, to the archiepiscopal throne of Constantinople. He, however, soon resigned his high office, and retired to Nazianzum, where he died, in 389. His works, which form two folio volumes, consist of ser- mons, poems, and letters, and are pure in their style, and highly eloquent.—Davenport ; Murdock's Mosheim, burgh. bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, in 372. The zeal of Gre gory against the Arians induced Valens to expel him from his see, but he was restored by Gratian. The drawing up of the Nicene creed was intrusted to him by the council of Constantinople. He died about 396. His sermons, funeral orations, scriptural commentaries, lives, and other works, form two folio volumes.—Davenport ; Mosheim. GREGORY I., (Pope,) who bears the surname of Great, and obtained the honors of saintship, was born, about 544, at Rome; was raised to the papal throne in 590; and died in 604. It was by him that Augustin was commissioned to convert the Anglo-Saxons. Grégory was pious, chari- table, and a reformer of the clerical discipline; but he had lofty notions of papal authority; could, for political pur- poses, flatter the vicious great; and was an inveterate ene- my of classical literature. His works occupy four folio volumes.—Davenport ; Jones' Church. History. GREGORY VII., (Pope,) whose real name was Hilde- brand, is said to have been the son of a carpenter, at Soa. no, in Tuscany. Aſter having held various clerical pre- ferments, he was invested with the tiara, in 1073. His persecution of Henry IV. of Germany, is one of the most prominent events of his pontificate. No pope ever exceed. ed, and very few equalled him, in ambition, daringness, perseverance, and want of principle. The power of de- posing sovereigns, releasing subjects from their allegiance and acting as lord paramount of kingdoms, he was the first pope who claimed. He died in 1085. He is the au. thor of Lettcrs, in cleven books; a Commentary upon the Seven Penitential Psalms, which work has been often as- cribed to Gregory I. ; and a Commentary upon the Gospel of St. Matthew.—Davenport ; Campbell's Lec, Eccles. His. GREGORY XIII., (Pope,) whose name was Hugh Buon- compagno, was born, in 1502, at Bologna ; acquired a con- summate knowledge of the civil and canon law ; succeed- ed Pius W. as pope, in 1572; and died in 1587. The reformation of the calendar, which took place under his auspices, in 1582, is the most remarkable event of his pontificate.—Davenport. GREGORY, (GEORGE, D. D.,) a divine and miscellane- ous writer, the son of the prebendary of Ferns, in Ireland, was born in 1754, and completed his education at Edin- In 1778, he took orders, and became a curate at Liverpool ; whence, in 1782, he removed to London, where he obtained the curacy of Cripplegate, and was chosen evening preacher of the Foundling. As a reward for hav. ing written in defence of the Addington administration lord Sidmouth, in 1804, procured for him the living of Westham, in Essex, which Dr. Gregory held till his de- cease, in 1808. Among his works are, Essays, historical and moral; a Liſe of Chatterton; a Church History; Sermons ; Letters to a Daughter; Letters on Literature; on the Composition of a Sermon; and a translation of Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry.—Davenport. GREY, (Lady JANE, ) whose accomplishments and whose fate have rendered her an object of universal admi- ration and pity, was the daughter of the marquis of Dorset, and was born, about 1537, at Bradgate hall, in Leicester- shire. Her talents, which were of a superior order, were early developed, and by the time that she was fourteen she had mastered Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, and French and Italian. Aylmer, who was afterwards bishop of London, was her tutor. Bishop Burnet says, “She was the wonder and delight of all who knew her.” In 1553, she was united to lord Guilford Dudley; and, shortly aſterwards, reluctantly accepted the diadem which the intrigues of her father and her father-in-law had induc- ed Edward VI. to settle upon her. Her brief reign of nine days ended by her being committed to the Tower with her husband, and, in February, 1554, they were brought to the iscaffold by the relentless Mary. She refused to apostatize from the Protestant faith, and died with the utmost firm- ness, in the flower of youth and beauty. Lady Jane was early instructed in the principles of the reformed religion, for which she was so zealous. Her great piety and concern for the reformation from popery, and the extension of the Redeemer's kingdom, are evident- ly displayed in her conversations and letters. The good --~~~~ G R I G R I [ 584 | ness and benevolence of her heart are also strongly depict- ed in the affectionate and tender letter which she wrote her father, assuring him of her entire forgiveness, and joyful resignation to her fate; telling him, that there “could be nothing more welcome than from this vale of misery to aspire to that heavenly throne of all joy, and leasure with Christ her Savior.” She read much of the oly Scriptures, and attained great knowledge in divinity. She had a mind superior to the empty troubles of the world; and delighted, not only to know, but to do her Sa- vior's will. The day appointed for the execution of lady Jane, and her husband, lord Dudley, was the 12th of Febru- ary, 1554. The fatal morning having arrived, her hus: band was desirous to take a long farewell of his beloved wife; but she declined, saying “such a meeting would rather add to his afflictions than increase that quiet where- with they had possessed their souls for the stroke of death; that he demanded a lenity which would put ſire into the wound, and that it was to be feared her presence would rather weaken than strengthen him ; that he would do well to remit this interview to the other world; that there, indeed, friendships were happy and unions indissoluble ; and that theirs would be eternal, if they carried nothing with them of terrestrial, which might hinder them from re- joicing.” Her Remains were published after her death, and some of her letters and devotional pieces are preserved in Fox's Martyrology.—Davenport ; Jones's Chris. Biog. GRIESBACH, (John JAMEs,) an eminent German the: ologian, was born, in 1745, at Butzbach, in the duchy of Hesse Darmstadt; was educated at Frankfort, Tübingen, Halle, and Leipsic; and was successively professor of theology at Halle and at Jena, rector of the university of Jena, and ecclesiastical privy counsellor to the duke of Saxe Weimar. He died in 1812. Of his numerous and erudite publications, one of the most celebrated is his edition of the Greek Testament, with various readings. From Griesbach’s preface to vol. 2, of this work, we quote the following words as expressive of the theological views of this distinguished critic: “There are so many arguments for the true Deity of Christ that I see not how it can be called in question; the divine authority of the Scriptures being granted, and just rules of interpretation acknowledg- ed. The exordium of John’s gospel is so perspicuous, and above all exception, that it never can be overturned by the daring attacks of critics and interpreters.”—Davenport. GRIEVE. God is grieved when he is higly offended with men's sinning, and provoked to execute his judg- ments on them, Gen. 6: 6. Heb. 3: 10. Men grieve the Holy Ghost when they resist his persuasions, abuse his gifts or grace, and so displease and offend him, and provoke him to withdraw his influences, and give them up to their corrupt lusts, Eph. 4:30.—Bronn. GRIEWOUS; that which furnishes great cause of grief. (1.) What is very offensive; so sin is grievous when it is very great and aggravated, (Lam. 1:8—20. Ezek. 14:13.) and men are grievous revolters when they sin exceedingly, Jer. 6: 28. (2.) What is very ill-natured, outrageous, and provoking; so grievous words stir up anger, Prov. 15: 1. (3.) What is very afflicting and hard to be borne; and so war, visions, &c. are said to be grievous, Isa. 21:15. Matt. 23: 4. (4.) What is very hurtful and destructive; so wolves and false teachers are called grievous, Acts. 20:29. Men write grievousness, which they have prescribed, when they establish and ratify wicked and oppressive laws, Isa. 1U: 1. —Bronyn. t GRIFFIN, (EDMUND D.,) a young clergyman of distin- guished talents, was born at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, September 10, 1804. His parents removing to New York, he was at the age of twelve placed under the instruction of David Graham of that city. With unequalled ardor he here pursued the various branches of study, gaining the highest rank in the school. In this school it was an excel- lent arrangement, which required frequent exercises in composition. Young Griffin wrote nine little volumes of essays, and thus acquired a rich flow of language, and remarkable copiousness and energy of thought. In 1823, at the age of eighteen, he was graduated at Columbia col- lege with the highest honors of his class. After prosecut- ing the study of law about two months in the office of his father, he determined to prºpare for the ministry; and ſeeling a repugnance to Calvinistic views, cntered on his studies in the seminary of the Episcopal church. In August, 1826, he was admitted to deacon's orders, and soon became an assistant preacher in the church in Hamilton square, and also associate with Dr. Lyell. In the hope of promoting his ultimate usefulness, he visited Europe in 1828, from which he returned in April, 1830; and aſter delivering an admirable course of lectures in Columbia. college, on the history of literature, died suddenly of an inflammation of the bowels, September 1, at the age of twenty-six. “In the midst of life, we are in death !” He died in meek submission and joyſul trust in the Redeemer, admonishing others to pursue the course to a blessed immortality. On reviving, after a spasm, which seemed to be fatal, he said with a smile of inexpressible sweetness, “I did not get off that time;” but, checking himself, he added, “that was a rebellious thought; I must wait God’s time to die.” Probably America cannot boast of any young man, un- less it be the lamented Duckminster, who at so early a period reached such a height of learning and eloquence. He had taste, and feeling, and enthusiasm; and his powers of description are unrivalled. His poetical talents also were of a high order. Two volumes of his works have been published, with the title, Remains of Rev. Edmund D. Griffin. See Memoir, prefixed to the Remains.—Allen. GRIMSHAW, (WILLIAM.) This humble, laborious, and ardent minister of Christ, was born, in 1708, at Brin- dle, Lancashire, and educated at Cambridge. He entered the ministry in 1731, without any true piety; but in 1734, he was brought under deep conviction of sin, and embrac- ed Christ only as his all in all. In 1742, aſter his preach- ing had become evangelically clear and powerful, he came to Haworth, near Bradford, in Yorkshire, where his labors soon drew crowds of awakened hearers. So fully did he lay himself out to do good, that for fiſteen or sixteen years together, he was accustomed, besides visiting the sick, and performing other pastoral duties, to preach fifteen, twenty, and often thirty times a week. During all this time he was only once suspended from his labors by sickness; though he ventured upon the bleak mountains in all weathers. His soul enjoyed large manifestations of God’s love, that he might not ſaint, and he drank deep into his Spirif. His cup ran over, and at some seasons, his faith was so strong, and his hope so abundant, that higher degrees of spiritual delight would have overpowered his mortal frame. At the very mention of his Savior's name he would often pause, and then break out into some express admiration of his love. His sublime soul was lifted above the world. He aimed to live as a king and priest unto his God. The employment of his life was in sermons, prayers, and praises. His usual hour of rising was five, and the melody of his heart rose with him. His first gratulation was constantly that excellent doxology of Watts, “Praise God from whom all blessings flow ;” &c. After prayer with bis family he would take an affectionate leave of them for the day, as one who might see them no more, giving them his fervent benediction. “May God bless you in your souls, and in your bodies, and in all you put your hands to do this day ! Whether you live or die, may the Lord grant that you may live to him, and for him, and with him ſ” In like manner he parted with them at night. God gave him very numerous seals of his ministry. His communicants rose to twelve hundred, most of whom he had good evidence were in communion with Christ. He has often preached five times in a day, rarely less than three or four, and to do this would often travel forty or fiſty miles. When pressed by his friends to spare him- self, he would say, “Let me labor now ; I shall rest enough by and by. I cannot do enough for Christ, who has done so much for me.” He died April 7, 1763, aged fifty-five. His last words in relation to his own labors were, “AN UN- PROFITABLE SERVANT ſ”—Middleton, vol. iv. p. 394. GRIND. (See MILL.) - GRINDAL, (Archbishop EDMUND,) was born in the year 1519, in Cumberland. In his early days he studied much ; books were his delight and recreation, and he car- ried them habitually about with him. He was educated at Cambridge. He was on all occasions distinguished as a learned man at the university. He passed thro agh G R O G R O [ 585 J. various preferments, but in 1553, on the death of king Ed. 'ward the Sixth, apprehending the persecution of the Pro- testants, he fled to Strasburgh, in Germany, where he was well received. During his residence abroad he devoted much time to the duties of religion; to his studies; to the matter of the controversies at Frankfort; to assisting Mr. John Fox in his celebrated martyrological histories. In 1558, Grindal, on the accession of queen Elisabeth to the crown, returned to England; was diligently employed in the reſormation of religion; assisted in public disputa- tions; preached at the court and at St. Paul's, with great zeal and piety; and, in 1559, on the removal of Bonner, bishop of London, the queen thought none so fit to suo ceed him as Grindal. He reluctantly accepted the office, but nobly discharged its duties. In 1575, he was nomi nated and appointed for the see of Canterbury, which he retained until 1582, when, being afflicted with the loss of sight, he resigned. In 1583, having made his will, be: queathed most of his property to charitable objects, and devised means for the advancement of learning and piety, he expired on the 6th of July, at Croydon. Grindal was a man of sincere personal piety, and of great firmness and resolution, though of a mild and affable temper, and friendly disposition. In the time in which he lived, he was celebrated for his episcopal abilities, and admirable endowments for spiritual government, as well as his singular learning.—Jones' Chris. Biog. GRIZZLED ; having many white spots like hail stones, Zech. 6: 3.—Bronyn. GROANING, is expressive of great trouble ; and of a vehement desire of relief, Exod. 2: 24. The Saints groan earnestly, and nwith groanings that cannot be uttered ; they have a deep and heart-burdening sense of their sins, and afflictions; and with ardent desire, long, and cry for deliv- erance, 2 Cor. 5: 2, 4. Rom. 8: 26.-Brown. GROSSETESTE, or GREATHEAD, (RoPERT,) bishop of Lincoln, was born at Stradbroke, in the county of Suf- folk, in the year 1175. He was a prelate of great learn- ing and integrity; and, considering the age in which he lived, must be regarded as a phoenix. Though of obscure parentage, his studies were prosecuted at the university of Oxford, where he acquired an intimate acquaintance with the Greek and Hebrew languages; after which he went to Paris, then the first seminary in Europe, where he be- came a perfect master of the French language. Return- ing to his native country, he took up his residence at Oxford, where his reputation as a theologian procured him many scholars; till, having been appointed successively archdeacon of Chester and of Wilts, he was in 1235 raised to the mitre, and made bishop of the diocess of Lincoln. He no sooner entered upon this high station than he began to reform the abuses which he found to exist in the church. He convened the clergy of his diocess at stated times; to whom he preached, and inculcated upon them the duties of their office. But as the latter had no ear to give to these things, the bishop soon began to be involved in litigations with the monks and other popish agents. in the year 1253, when the pope commanded him to prefer an Italian youth to a rich benefice in the cathedral of Lincoln, whom Grosseteste knew to be wholly unworthy and incompetent for the duties of the office, the noble bish- op refused, saying, “No man can obey such mandates with a good conscience, even though they were seconded by the high order of angels, themselves; on the contrary, every faithful Christian ought to oppose them with all his might.” This venerable and courageous reſormer died Oct. 9, 1253. The pope's dread of him is strikingly displayed in the fact that when he heard of his death, he exultingly exclaimed, “I rejoice; and let every true Son of the church rejoice with me, that my great enemy is removed.” The following character of Grosseteste, drawn by Matthew Paris, the monk of St. Albans, is so honorable, that it de- serves to be recorded. - , “The holy bishop, Robert,” says he, “departed this world, which he never loved; and which was always to him a place of banishment. . He was the open reprover of my lord the pope, and of the king, as well as the pre- lates. He was the corrector of monks, the director of priests, the instructer of the clergy, the patron of scholars, a preacher to the laity, the punisher of incontinence, the diligent investigator of various writings, and the scourge of lazy and selfish Romanists, whom he heartily despised. In regard to temporal concerns, he was liberal, copious, polite, cheerful, and affable ; in spiritual things he was devout, humble, and contrite; in the execution of his episcopal office, he was diligent, venerable, and indeſati- gable.”. See Jones' History of the Christian Church, vol. ii. chap. v. sect. 7.-Jones' Chris. Biog. GROTIUS, or DE GROOT, (HUGH,) an eminent Scho- lar, was born, in 1583, at Delft, in Holland, of which place º * N w º \ %) his father was burgomaster. From his childhood he man ifested talents, and a love of learning, which were care- fully fostered. At Leyden, Francis Junius was his tutor, and Scaliger also assisted to direct his studies. In his fifteenth year he accompanied Barnevelt, the Dutch am- bassador, to Paris; was presented by Henry IV. with his picture and a gold chain; and received the most flattering attentions from men of rank and learning. On his return home, he began to practise as an advocate. His legal avocations, however, did not prevent him from making an indefatigable and effective use of his pen. The honors conferred on him kept pace with the reputation which he acquired. He was successively appointed historiographer, advocate general of Holland and Zealand, pensionary of Rotterdam, a member of the states general, and envoy to England, to adjust some disputes between the two countries. But, in 1618, his fortune changed, and, along with Barnevelt, he was involved in the proscription of the Arminian party by prince Maurice. He narrowly escap- ed the fate of Barnevelt, but was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the castle of Louvestein. At the expira- tion of eighteen months, however, which he had employed in writing his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion, he was delivered by the contrivance of his wife, who sent him out of the castle concealed in a large chest. Grotius sought an asylum in France, and it was during his residence there that he composed his great work, De Jure Belli et Pacis. After an absence of twelve years he returned to Holland, but persecution still awaited him, and he quitted his native land forever. In 1635, Christina of Sweden appointed him her ambassador at Paris, and this office he held nearly eleven years. He died at Rostock, on his way to Sweden, in August, 1645. Two of his dying expressions are recorded :-‘‘Alas! I have spent my life in laboriously doing nothing.” “I place all my hopes in Jesus Christ.” On his death two medals were struck, one containing this just inscription, that he was “The Phoenix of his country, the oracle of Delft, the great genius, the light which enlighteneth the earth.” Grotius was master of all that is worth knowing in sacred and proſane literature. There was no art or sci- ence with which he was not acquainted. He possessed a clear head, an excellent judgment, universal learning, immense reading, and a sincere and unwavering love of truth and Christianity. In his annotations on the Old and New Testament he discovers his amazing store of classi- cal erudition, and the acuteness of his critical tact. He adheres rigidly to the literal sense throughout, objects to the double sense of prophecy, is rather hostile to the ap- plication of the Old Testament revelation to the Messiah, and attaches too little importance to the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, many of which, indeed, he appears grossly to have misapprehended. It has been remarked by pro- fessor Gaussen, that while no commentators deserve to be 74 G R O G R Y * [ 586 preferred to Erasmus and Grotius, whoever makes use of their writings should be aware that “he is treading on fire overspread with faithless ashes.” His Socinian per- versions were ably exposed by Dr. Owen, in his “Vindi- cia, Evangelicæ,” and by Calovius, in his “Biblia Illus- trata.” See M. de Burigny's Life of Grotius ; Jones' Chris. Biog.—Davenport ; Clissold ; Hend. Buck. GROSVENOR, (BENAMIN, D. D.,) was born in Lon- don, Jan. 1, 1675. From a very early period he was the subject of deep and abiding impressions of religion, and resolved upon dedicating himself to the service of God and his church. For this purpose he pursued a liberal course of study. Mr. Grosvenor entered upon his public ministry in the year 1699. Soon after this he was chosen to succeed Mr. Slater, as pastor of the Presbyterian congregation in Crosby square. To this charge he was ordained July 11, 1704; and the success of his ministry was apparent in raising the church to a flourishing state, in which it continued for many years. - The popularity of Mr. Grosvenor as a preacher, his solid judgment, added to a lively imagination, his grace- ful clocution, and fervent devotion, occasioned his being appointed to take a part in several important lectures which were then carrying on in the metropolis. In 1730, the university of Edinburgh presented him, unsolicitedly, with the honorary degree of doctor in divinity. He con- tinued to discharge the ministerial functions till the year 1749, when the infirmities of age compelled him to relin- quish his pastoral office, having been a preacher half a century. He died on the 27th of October, 1758, at the age of eighty-three. .* A catalogue of his published pieces, amounting to about thirty in number, may be found in Wilson’s History of Dissenting Churches. As an author, he is peculiarly ac- ceptable, for the devotional spirit which pervades his works, as well as for his ingenious remarks, and his ex- tensive acquaintance with the history of the church. Prot. Diss. Mag. vol. iv.–Jones' Chris. Biog. * GROVE. The use of groves for religious worship is zenerally supposed to have been as ancient as the patri- archal ages; for we are informed, that “Abraham plant- ed a grove in Beersheba, and called there on the name of the Lord,” Gen. 21: 33. The reason and origin of plant- ing sacred groves is variously conjectured; some imagin- ing it was only hereby intended to render the service more agreeable to the worshippers, by the pleasantness of the shade; whereas others suppose it was to invite the pre- sence of the gods. The one or the other of these reasons, In the case of idolaters, seem to be intimated in Hosea : “They burn incense under oaks, and poplars, and elms, because the shade thereof is good,” Hosea 4: 13. Others conceive their worship was performed in the midst of groves, because the gloom of such a place is apt to strike a religious awe upon the mind; or else, because such dark concealments suited the lewd mysteries of their idolatrous worship. Another conjecture, which seems as probable as any, is, that this practice began with the wor- ship of demons, or departed souls. It was an ancient custom to bury the dead under trees, or in woods. “De- horah was buried under an oak, near Bethel,” (Genesis 35: 8.) and the bones of Saul and Jonathan under a tree at Jabesh, 1 Samuel 31: 13. Now an imagination pre- vailing among the heathen, that the souls of the deceased hover about their graves, or at least delight to visit their dead bodies, the idolaters, who paid divine honors to the souls of their departed heroes, erected images and altars for their worship in the same groves where they were buried; and from thence it grew into a custom afterward to plant groves, and build temples, near the tombs of de- parted heroes, (2 Kings 23: 15, 16.) and to surround their temples and altars with groves and trees; and these sa- cred groves being constantly furnished with the images of the heroes or gods that were worshipped in them, a grove and an idol came to be used as convertible terms, 2 Kings 23: 6. The use of them was therefore forbidden of God, Deut. 16:21. 12: 2, 3, 13, 14.—Watson. GROVE, (HENRy,) a learned divine among the English Presbyterians, was born at Taunton, in Somersetshire, January 4, 1683; and, at fourteen years of age, being possessed of a sufficient stock of classical literature, he went through a course of academical learning under the reverend Mr. Warren, of Taunton, who was for many years at the head of a flourishing academy. Soon after his beginning to preach he married; and at the age of twenty-three, on the death of his tutor, Mr. Warren, was chosen to succeed him in the academy at Taunton. The province first assigned him was ethics and pneumatolo- gy; and he composed a system in each. His concern in the academy obliging him to a residence in Taunton, he preached for eighteen years to two small congregations in the neighborhood. In 1708, he commenced author, by a piece entitled “The Regulation of Diversions;” drawn up for the use of his pupils. In 1718 he published “An Essay towards a Demonstration of the Soul's Immortal- ity.” About 1719, when those angry disputes relating to the Trinity unhappily divided the Presbyterians, and when the animosities were carried so high as to produce excom- munications, &c., Mr. Grove's moderate conduct was such as drew on him the censures and displeasure of some of his own persuasion ; the reasons for this moderate con- duct are mentioned in his “Essay on the Terms of Chris- tian Communion.” In 1725, he lost his partner in the academy, the Rev. Mr. James; and was now obliged to take the students in divinity under his direction. He confined himself to no system in divinity, but directed his pupils to the best wri- ters on natural and revealed religion, and an impartial consideration of the chief controversies therein. He like- wise succeeded Mr. James in his pastoral charge at Full- wood, near Taunton, in which he continued till his death. In 1730, he published “The evidence of our Savior's Re- surrection considered;” and, the same year, “Some Thoughts concerning the Proof of a future State, from Reason.” In 1732, he printed “A Discourse concerning the Nature and Design of the Lord's Supper,” where he set that institution in the same light as bishop Hoadly. In 1734, he published without his name, “Wisdom the first Spring of Action in the Deity,” which was animad- verted on, as to some particulars, by Mr. Balguy, who, however, allowed the discourse in general to abound with solid remarks and sound reasonings. In 1736, he publish- ed “A Discourse on saving Faith.” The same year he met with an affliction, which gave him an opportunity of showing the strength of his Christian patience and resig- nation; this was the death of his wife; and a fittle more than a year after this he died himself, February 27, 1737–8. After his death, came out by subscription, his “Posthumous Works,” 1740, in four volumes, octavo. The character of Mr. Grove may, in a great measure, be collected from the account we have given of his life. It was, in every respect, excellent and amiable. As a preacher, also, he was admired and esteemed.—Jones' Chris, Biog. GRYNAEUS, (SIMON,) an eminent Protestant theolo- gian, was born, in 1493, at Weringen, in Swabia; was pro- fessor of Greek at Heidelberg, and theology at Basil; was the friend of Luther, Melancthon, and Erasmus; and died. in 1541. The last five books which we possess of Livy were discovered by Grynaeus, in a monastery at Lorach. Bibliander called him “an incomparable man, in whom every Christian grace and virtue, with all learning and politeness, seemed to have taken up their habitation.” Middleton, vol. i. 149.—Davenport. GRYNAEUS, (John JAMEs, D. D.) an eminent Swiss divine, was born at Bern, in 1540, of pious parents, and was educated at the university. In 1559, he began to preach. In 1564, he was made doctor in divinity, and in 1565, succeeded his father in the pastoral charge at Rontela. He coincided with Zuinglius in his views of the Lord's supper, which lost him many of his Lutheran friends. In 1575, however, he was called to Basil as the- ological professor, where he was happily instrumental in uniting the Lutheran and Zuinglian churches, and was exceedingly useful. Two years he lectured at Heidelberg for prince Cassimire, but on the death of Sculcer, he suc- ceeded him in the pastoral office at Basil, where he re. mained the rest of his life. His great learning and worth. drew travellers from all parts to visit him. His great wit was tempered with an amiable gravity. He was remark- ably patient under wrongs, which he revenged only by ... . . .*. H A B Christian silence, and regarded not the reproaches of men, if his Master could by any means be glorified in his ser- mons and writings. The number of his published works is fourteen, among which is an Ecclesiastical History. In his old age, having lost his wife, children, and friends, and being a great sufferer in body, he sustained all with admirable patience. He would often say, “To die in Christ is sweet, but to rise in him is sweeter. At the last day we shall have lasting joys.”—Middleton, vol. ii. 383. GUARDIAN ANGEL. (See ANGEL.) GUEBRES. (See 㺠GUELPHS, and Guibellines; two religio-political factions of the thirteenth century, which filled Italy with civil wars and blood. The former took part with the pope, the latter with the emperor. Mosheim's E. H. vol. iii. p. 180; En- cy. Perth.- Williams. GUEST. Gospel hearers are likened to guests ; at Christ’s invitation by his ministers, or others, they come to his ordinances, professing to feed with him on his full- ness, Matt. 22: 10, 11. The Chaldeans were guests bidden to the Lord’s sacrifice; he raised them up and enabled them to execute his vengeance; and they satiated their own pride and covetousness in murdering and spoiling the Jews, and nations around, Zeph. 1: 7.—Bronm. GUIDE. God is a guide ; he directs the motions of all his creatures, (Job 38: 22.) and, by his word, spirit, and providence, he directs his people in their proper course, and comforts them under their troubles, Isa. 49: 10. A first husband is called a guide of youth ; (Prov. 2: 17.) so God was to the Hebrews, Jer. 3: 4.—Bronn. GUILT; the state of a person justly charged with a crime; a consciousness of having done amiss; liability to punishment.—Hend. Buck. GUILTY; chargeable with crimes that expose to pun- ishment, Gen. 42: 21. He that offends in one point is guilty of all ; of breaking all the commandments of God; he tramples on the authority which establishes, and fails of that love which fulfils the whole law, James 2:10. An . unworthy partaker of the Lord's supper is guilty of the body and blood of the Lord; he is chargeable with the horrid crime of crucifying Christ afresh, and offering the highest indignity to his person and righteousness, represented by the symbols of that ordinance, 1 Cor. 11: 27-Bronn. GULF. The great gulf fixed between Abraham and the rich man, may denote the great distance between heaven and hell, and the irremovable hindrances of coming from one to the other, Luke 16: 26.—Bronn. GUSTAWUSADOLPHUS, king of Sweden, the grand- son of Gustavus Vasa, was born in 1594, and succeeded to the crown at the age of seventeen. The first eighteen years of his reign were employed in ameliorating the situ- ation of his subjects, and in bringing to a glorious con- clusion a war in which his country was involved with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. In 1630, he entered upon a still more heroic career. For the noble purpose of rescuing the Protestants of Germany from the tyranny of the house of Austria, he led into the empire an army of sixty thousand men. In 1631, and 1632, he defeated Til- ly, near Leipsic, and on the banks of the Lech ; but, in 1633, and on the 16th of November, he fell, in the mo- ment of victory, at the battle of Lutzen. To the virtues of a man Gustavus joined the talents of a consummate general. He was a lover of learning, humane, equitable, generous, and pious; and even the most splendid success- es never prompted him to deviate from his wonted sim- plicity of manners, and moderation of conduct.—Davenport. | 587 | H A B GUYON, (JANE Bouvier DE LA MoTTE,) a French lady who became celebrated through her religious enthusiasm, was born, in 1648, at Angers, and was left a widow at the age of twenty-eight. Her mind had naturally a strong devotional tendency. It has now heated by meditation ; and, misled by the bishop of Geneva and two monks, she was taught to believe that heaven destined her for an extraordinary mission. For five years she wandered about, preaching her doctrines. During that period she published her Short and easy Method of Praying; and The Song of Songs interpreted according to its mystical Sense. The system of quietism which she taught, and which was first imagined in Spain by Michael Moli- nos, excited the attention of the French clergy, and drew upon her a long persecution, in which Bossuet was a prin- cipal actor. Fenelon in vain espoused her cause. After having been confined in the Bastile and various prisons, she was liberated in 1702, and she died at Blois, in 1719. Her works occupy thirty-nine volumes, and are now al- most forgotten. Some of her poems have bean translated by Cowper.—Davenport ; Douglas ; Jones' Chris. Biog. GUYSE, (John D. D.,) was born at Hertford, in 1680, of pious parents. Being religiously educated, God was pleased to call him early by his grace, and he became a member of the dissenting church, in Hertford, at the age of fourteen. His views being directed to the ministry, he diligently studied to prepare himself for usefulness. He entered into the holy work at the age of twenty, as assist- ant to Mr. Haworth, who soon after dying, Mr. Guyse was chosen to succeed him as pastor of the church at Hertford. Here he labored with much acceptance and usefulness, refusing many pressing invitations to remove, and guarding his flock especially against Arian sentiments, at that time prevalent in the west of England; until his health failing, his physicians recommended a change of air and situation. He accordingly accepted an invitation to remove to London, as successor to Rev. Matthew Clarke. Here his sphere of usefulness was enlarged, and his worth became widely known as a scholar, Christian, and divine. In 1732, the university of Aberdeen conferred on him the degree of D. D. He published many sermons, but his great work is his Paraphrase on the New Testament, which has been generally approved as a very judicious work. He was much beloved by those who knew him for the benevolence of his disposition. He made con- science of devoting a tenth part of his income to charita- ble uses. He died November 22, 1761, at the age of eighty. His last words were, “Oh my God, thou who hast always been with me, thou wilt not leave me.” Bless- ed are they whose confidence is equally evangelical.—Mid- dleton, vol. iv. p. 374. GYMNOSOPHISTS, i. e. naked philosophers; so call- ed, because they wore no more clothing than they found needful for decency and convenience. They were of two parties, Indian and Ethiopian. The former were a sort of wild philosophers; some of whom were, probably, Brahmans; others, hermits and devotees. The Ethiopi- ans are said to have discharged the sacred functions in the manner of the Egyptian priests. They had colleges and disciples of different classes. The Gymnosophists were remarkable for contempt of death, and are said to have practised suicide in the most deliberate manner, by casting themselves into the flames ; it is probable this, however, was an act of devotion to their idols, and with a view to merit immortality. En. field's Philos. vol. i. pp. 66, 96.— PWilliams. HABADIM ; a subdivision of the Jewish sect of Chasi- dum, founded by rabbi Solomon, in the government of Mohilief. They may not improperly be termed the “Jew- ish Quietists,” as their distinguishing peculiarity consists in the rejection of external forms, and the complete aban- donment of the mind to abstraction and contemplation. Instead of the baptisms customary among the Jews, they go through the signs without the use of the element, and consider it their duty to disengage themselves as much as possible from matter, because of its tendency to clog the mind in its ascent to the Supreme Source of Intelligence, In prayer they make no use of words, but simply place themselves in the attitude of supplication, and exercise themselves in mental ejaculations.—Hend. Rºck. H A B H A B [ 588 ) HABAKIKUK; a prophet of the tribe of Simeon. He is said to have prophecied about B. C. 605, and to have been alive at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. It is generally believed that he remain- ed and died in Judea. The principal predictions contain- ed in this book, are, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the captivity of the Jews by the Chaldeans or Babylonians; their deliverance from the oppressor “at the appointed time;” and the total ruin of the Babylonian empire. The promise of the Messiah is confirmed; the overruling providence of God is asserted; and the concluding prayer or rather hymn, recounts the wonders which God had wrought for his people, when he led them from Egypt into Canaan, and expresses the most perfect confidence in the fulfilment of his promises. The style of Habakkuk is highly poetical, and the hymn in the third chapter is per- haps unrivalled for sublimity, simplicity, and power.— Watson. HABERGEON. (See ARMs, MILITARY.) HABIT; a peculiar power and facility of doing any thing, acquired by frequent repetition of the same action. It is distinguished from custom, Custom respects the ac- tion ; habit the actor. By custom we mean a frequent reit- eration of the same act; and by habit the effect that custom has on the mind or body. “Man,” as one observes, “is a bundle of habits. There are habits of industry, atten- tion, vigilance, advertency; of a prompt obedience to the judgment occurring, or of yielding to the first impulse of passion; of apprehending, methodizing, reasoning; of Vanity, melancholy, fretfulness, suspicion, covetousness, &c. In a word, there is not a quality or function, either of body or mind, which does not feel the inſluence of this great law of animated nature.” To cure evil habits, we should be as early as we can in our application, principiis obsta ; to cross and mortify the inclination by a frequent and obstinate practice of the contrary virtue. To form good habits, we should get our minds well stored with knowledge; associate with the wisest and best men ; re- flect much on the pleasure good habits are productive of ; and, above all, supplicate the Divine Being for direction and assistance. ... Iaimes's El... of Crit. ch. xiv. vol. i. ; Grove’s Mor, Phil. vol. i. p. 143; Paley's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 46; Jortin on Bad Habits, ser. 1, vol. iii.; Reid on the Active Powers, p. 1:17; Cogan on the Passions, p. 235; Buckminster's Sermons ; Taylor on Character; Chalmers on the Intellectual and Moral Constitution of Man.—Hend. Buck. HABITATION. God is the habitation of his people; in him they find the most delightful rest, safety, and comfort, Ps. 91: 9. Justice and judgment are the habita- tion or establishment of God’s throne; all his royal acts are founded on justice and judgment; he takes pleasure to execute them; and being executed on our Redeemer, they became the ſoundation of his exercise of mercy, and per- formance of his promises to us; by his righteous distribu- tion of rewards and punishments, he supports the honor of his character, Ps. 89: 14. The land of Canaan, the city of Jerusalem, the tabernacle and temple, heaven and the heart of the Saints, are represented as the habitation of God; there he did or does signally show himself present, Work by his power, or bestow his favor and influence, Jer, 25; 30. Ezra 7: 15. Exod. 15:2, Ps. 132: 5, 13. Eph. 2: 22. Eternity is represented as his habitation; he As eternal in a manner no other is, nor does his duration increase as that of angels and men, Isa. 57: 15. He in- habited the praises of Israel; he dwelt in the temple when they praised ; he owns, deserves, is the object of, and kindly accepts the praises of his people. Ps. 22. 3.—Brown. HABITS, (DRess.) The dress of Oriental nations, to which the inspired writers often allude, has undergone almost no change from the earliest times. Their stuffs were fabrigated of various materials; but wool was gen- orally used in their finer fabrics; and the hair of goats, camels, and even of horses, was manufactured for coarser purposes, especially for sackcloth, which they wore in time of mourning and distress. Sackcloth of black goat's hair was manufactured for mournings; the color and the coarseness of which being reckoned more suitable to the circumstances of the wearer, than the finer and more valuable texture which the hair of white goats supplied. This is the reason why a clouded sky is represented, in the bold figurative language of Scripture, as covered with sackcloth and blackness, the color and dress of persons in affliction. In Egypt and Syria, they wore also fine linen, cotton and byssus, probably fine muslin from India, (in Hebrew bavats,) the finest cloth known to the ancients. In Canaan, persons of distinction were dressed in fine linen of Egypt; and, according to some authors, in silk, and rich cloth, shaded with the choicest colors, or, as the Wul- gate calls it, with feathered work, embroidered with gold. The beauty of their clothes consisted in the fineness and color of the stuffs; and it seems, the color most in use among the Israelites, as well as among the Greeks and Romans, was white, not imparted and improved by the dyer's art, but the native color of the wool. The general use of this color seems to be recognised by Solomon in his direction: “Let thy garments be always white,” Eccles. 9: 8. But garments in the native color of the wool were not confined to the lower orders; they were also in great esteem among persons of superior station, and are particu- larly valued in Scripture, as the emblem of knowledge and purity, gladness and victory, grace and glory. The priests of Baal were habited in black; a color which ap- pears to have been peculiar to themselves, and which few others in those countries, except mourners, would choose to wear. Blue was a color in great esteem among the Jews, and other Oriental nations. The robe of the ephod, in the gorgeous dress of the high-priest, was made all of blue ; it was a prominent color in the sumptuous hangings of the tabernacle; and the whole people of Israel were re- quired to put a fringe of blue upon the border of their garments, and on the fringe a riband of the same color. The palace of Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, was furnish- ed with curtains of this color, on a pavement of red, and blue, and white marble; a proof that it was not less esteemed in Persia than on the Jordan. And from Eze- kiel we learn, that the Assyrian nobles were habited in robes of this color: “She doated on the Assyrians her neighbors, which were clothed with blue, captains and rulers, all of them desirable young men.” 2. The Jewish nobles and courtiers, upon great and solemn occasions, appeared in Scarlet robes, dyed, not as at present with madder, with cochineal, or with any mo- dern tincture, but with a shrub, whose red berries give an orient tinge to the cloth. Crimson or vermilion, a color, as the name imports, from the blood of the worm, was used in the temple of Solomon, and by many persons of the first quality; sometimes they wore purple, the most sublime of all earthly colors, says Mr. Harmer, having the gaudiness of red, of which it retains a shade, soſtened with the gravity of blue. This was chieſly dyed at Tyre, and was supposed to take the tincture from the liquor of a shell-fish, anciently found in the adjacent sea; though Mr. Bruce, in his Travels, inclines to the opinion, that the murex, or purple fish at Tyre, was only a concealment of their knowledge of cochineal, as, if the whole city of Tyre had applied to nothing else but fishing, they would not have colored twenty yards of cloth in a year. The children of wealthy and noble families were dressed in vestments of different colors. This mark of distinction may be traced to the patriarchal age; for Joseph was arrayed, by his indulgent and imprudent father, in a coat of many colors. A robe of divers colors was anciently reserved for the kings' daughters who were virgins; and in one of these was Tamar, the virgin daughter of David, arrayed, when she was met by her brother. 3. In our region of the world, the fashion is in a state. of almost daily fluctuation, and different ſashions are not unfrequently seen contending for the superiority; but in the East, where the people are by no means given to change, the ſorm of their garments continues nearly the same from one age to another. The greater part of their clothes are long and flowing, loosely cast about the body, consisting only of a large piece of cloth, in the cutting and sewing of which very little art or industry is employ- ed. They have more dignity and gracefulness than ours, and are better adapted to the burning climates of Asia. From the simplicity of their form, and their loose adapta. tion to the body, the same clothes might be worn, with equal ease and convenience, by many different persons. The clothes of those Philistines whom Samson slew at H. A. B H A D [ 589 J Askelon, required no altering to fit his companions; nor the robe of Jonathan, to answer his friend. The arts of weaving and fulling seem to have been distinct occupa- tions in Israel, from a very remote period, in consequence of the various and skilful operations which were neces- sary to bring their stuffs to a suitable degree of perfection ; but when the weaver and the fuller had finished their part, the labor was nearly at an end; no distinct artizan was necessary to make them into clothes; every family seems to have made their own. Sometimes, however, this part of the work was performed in the loom ; for they had the art of weaving robes with sleeves all of one piece : of this kind was the coat which our Savior yore during his abode with men. The loose dresses of these countries, when the arm is lifted up, expose its whole length; to this circumstance the prophet Isaiah refers : “To whom is the arm of the Lord revealed?” that is, un- covered; who observes that he is exerting the arm of his power 2 4. The chosen people were not allowed to wear clothes of any materials or form they chose ; they were forbidden by their law to wear a garment of woollen and linen. This law did not prevent them from wearing many diffe- rent substances together, but only these two; nor did the prohibition extend to the wool of camels and goats, (for the hair of these animals they called by the same name,) but only to that of sheep. It was lawful for any man who saw an Israelite dressed in such a garment to fall upon him and put him to death. In the opinion of Mai- monides, this was principally intended as a preservative from idolatry; for the heathen priests of those times wore such mixed garments of woollen and linen, in the super- stitious hope, it was imagined, of having the beneficial influence of some lucky conjunction of the planets or stars, to bring down a blessing upon their sheep and their flax. The second restraint referred to the sexes, of which one was not to wear the dress appropriated to the other. This practice is said to be an abomination to the Lord ; which critics suppose refers to some idolatrous custom, of which Moses and the prophets always spoke in terms of the utmost abhorrence. Nothing, indeed, was more com- mon among the heathen, in the worship of some of their ſalse deities, than for the males to assist in women’s clothes, and the females in the dress appropriated to men; in the worship of Venus, in particular, the women ap- peared before her in armor, and the men in women’s ap- parel; and thus the words literally run in the original Scriptures, “Women shall not put on the armor of a man, nor a man the stole of a woman.” But whatever there may be in these observations, it is certain that, if there were no distinction of sexes made by their habits, there would be danger of involving mankind in all man- ner of licentiousness and impurity. 5. The ancient Jews very seldom wore any covering upon the head, except when they were in mourning, or worshipping in the temple, or in the synagogue. To pray with the head covered, was, in their estimation, a higher mark of respect for the majesty of heaven, as it indicated the conscious unworthiness of the suppliant to lift up his eyes in the divine presence. To guard themselves ſrom the wind or the storm, or from the still more fatal stroke of the sunbeam, to which the general custom of walking bareheaded particularly exposed them, they wrapped their heads in their mantles, or upper garments. But during their long captivity in Babylon, the Jews be- gan to wear turbans, in compliance with the customs of their conquerors ; for Daniel informs us, that his three friends were cast into the fiery furnace with their hats, or, as the term should be rendered, their turbans. . It is not, however, improbable, that the bulk of the nation con- tinued to follow their ancient custom ; and that the com- pliance prevalled only among those Jews who were con- nected with the Babylonish court; for many ages after that, we find Antiochus Epiphanes introducing the habits and fashions of the Grecians among the Jews; and as the history of the Maccabees relates, he brought the chief young men under his subjection, and made them wear a hat, or turban. Their legs, ſrom the knee down, were ge- nerally bare, though persons of great dignity wore long and flowing robes; (Rev. 1: 13.) and they never wore any thing upon the feet, but soles fastened in different ways, according to the taste or fancy of the wearer. (See GIRDLE ; SHOE.)—Watson; Calmet; Jones. HACHILAH; a mountain about ten miles south of Je- richo, where David concealed himself from Saul, 1 Sam. 23: 19. Jonathan Maccabaeus built here the castle of Massada.-Calmet. HADAD, son to the king of East Edom, was carried into Egypt by his father’s servants, when Joab, general of David’s troops, extirpated the males of Edom. Hadad was then a child. The king of Egypt gave him a house, lands, and every necessary subsistence, and married him to the sister of Tahpenes, his queen. By her he had a son, named Genubath, whom queen Tahpenes educated in Pharaoh’s house with the king’s children. Hadad be- ing informed that David was dead, and that Joab was killed, desired leave to return into his own country. Pha- raoh wished to detain him, but at last permitted his return to Edom. Here he began to raise disturbances against Solomon; but the Scripture does not mention particulars. Josephus says, that Hadad did not return to Edom till long after the death of David, when Solomon’s affairs be- gan to decline, by reason of his impieties. He also ob- serves, that, not being able to engage the Edomites to re- volt, because of the strong garrisons which Solomon had placed there, Hadad got together such people as were willing, and carried them to Razon, then in rebellion against Hadadezer, king of Syria. Razon received Ha- dad with joy, and assisted him in conquering part of Sy- ria, where he reigned, and from whence he insulted So- lomon’s territories.—Watson. HADADEZER ; king of Zobah, a country which ex- tended from Libanus to the Orontes, whom David defeat- ed, 2 Sam. 8: 3. B. C. 1044.—Calmet. - HADES, (Gr. from a, privative, and idein, to see;) the invisible world, or the place of the departed, in the inter- mediate state, prior to the resurrection. The corresponding term in Hebrew is Sheol, which is derived from the root shae, to demand, inquire ; and either signifies the place with respect to which it may be asked, “Man giveth up the ghost, and where is he f" (Job 14: 10.) or the insatiable receptacle which crieth Give, give, and never saith, It is enough, Prov. 30: 15, 16. Both words Sheol and Hades are employed to express the state of the dead, in its most comprehensive point of view ; including the grave as the invisible residence of the body, and the world of spi- rits as the invisible abode of the soul. At other times they are used, either of the one or the other, taken sepa- rately. They are often very improperly rendered hell in our common version ; the instances being comparative- ly few in which the words have the accessory signification of the place of punishment. In other passages the term rave is too limited a rendering. The reader must judge from the context, and all the circumstances of the case, in which acceptation the words are to be taken. That the Hebrews ordinarily understood something be- yond the grave by the term Shevl, is evident from the cir- cumstance, that the common name for that receptacle of the human body is Keber; so that when in any given in stance they did apply it in this sense, it was only designat ing a part for the whole. It was the state in which the aged patriarch expected to meet his deceased son, (Gen. 37: 35.) into which the fathers had entered, and whither their posterity were removed at death to join their society, Gen. 25: 8. 35: 29. 49: 29, Deut. 32: 50. In all these passages, the being “gathered to one's people,” is spoken of as something distinct from mere burial; and, indeed, in the cases of Abraham and Moses, it is obvious, that, in such a sense, no phrase can be more incongruous, since the former had no people in the cave of Machpelah, Sarah being the only individual who as yet had been buried in it; and of the grave of the latter, the children of Israel were profoundly ignorant. To his people he certainly was not gathered, if by the phrase be meant that his body was deposited in his family grave. It has justly been ob- served that Hades, and the corresponding Hebrew word Sheol, are always singular, in meaning as well as in form. The word for grave is often plural. The former never ad- mit the possessive pronouns, being the receptacle of all the dead, and therefore incapable of appropriation to in- H A L [ 590 | dividuals; the latter ſrequently does. Where the disposal of the body or corpse is spoken of, taphos, or some equi- valent term, is the name of its repository. When men- tion is made of the spirit aſter death, its abode is called Hades. Campbell's Dissert. No. vi.; Dwight's Theology; Prof. Stuart’s Exegetical Essays; Whitman's Letters to a Universalist ; and the Controversy of Messrs. Balfour, Hud- son, and Cooke.—Hend. Buck. (See HELL.) HADGEE ; the title of a Mohammedan who performs a pilgrimage to Mecca ; a religious act which every ortho- dox Mussulman is directed to do once in his life. It is also the name of the celebration which takes place on the ar- rival of the caravan of pilgrims at Mecca.-Hend. Buck, HADID, or CHADID ; a city of Benjamin, (Ezra. 2: 33. Nehem. 7: 37.) probably the Adita or Adiada of Josephus, and of 1 Mac. 12:38. 13: 3, in Sephela, or in the plain of Judah. —Calmet. - HADRACH, or ADRA; a city mentioned by Zechariah, (9: 1.) who denounced dreadful threatenings against it. Ptolemy notices a city called Adra. It could not be far from Damascus; for Zechariah calls Damascus the bul- wark, defence, and eonfidence of Hadrach.—Calmet. HAERETICO COMBURENDO; a writ which, in Eng- land, anciently lay against a heretic, who, having once been convicted of heresy by his bishop, and having abjur- ed it, afterwards falling into it again, or into some other, is thereupon committed to the secular power. By 2 Henry IV. cap. 15, the diocesan alone, without the intervention of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets; and unless the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapsed, the sheriff was bound ex officio, iſ required by the bishop, to commit the unhappy victim to the flames, without waiting for the consent of the crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually executed on two Baptists, in the seventh year of Elisabeth, and on two Arians in the ninth of James I.-Hend. Buck. HALF-WAY COVENANT ; a scheme adopted by the Congregational churches of New England, in 1657–1662, in order to extend the privileges of church membership and infant baptism beyond the pale of actual communi- cants at the Lord's table. An opinion at this time began to prevail, that all persons baptized in infancy, not scandalous in life nor formally excommunicated, ought to be considered members of the church, in all respects except the right of partaking the Lord's supper, for which evidence of regeneration was still generally held to be a requisite qualification. The proposal of so great an innovation on the principles and practices of the first settlers, as would be expected, met with a decided opposition; and a contest arose which occasioned great agitation in all the New England colo- nies, especially in Connecticut and Massachusetts. At length, in 1657, the court of Massachusetts advised to a general council; and sent letters to the other courts, sig- nifying their opinion. The general court of Connecticut acceded to the proposal, and appointed four delegates to the proposed council. These with the delegates from Mas- sachusetts convened at Boston, in June, 1657. The ques- tions submitted to this council were seventeen in number, most of them relating to baptism and church member- ship. Their determination was in substance, that all bap- tized persons ought to be considered members of the church, under its discipline, and to be admitted to all its privileges except a participation of the communion. The churches were inflamed instead of being reconciled by this decision. The general court of Massachusetts thereſore, in 1662, appointed a synod of all the ministers of that colony, to deliberate and decide on two questions; of which the most deeply interesting was, “Who ARE THE subjects of BAPTISM 2'' Their answer to the question con- cerning baptism, which, as they vicwed it, involved that of church membership, was substantially the same as that given by the council in 1657. They were not unani- mous however : several learned and pious men protesting against the decision, which was drawn up in the following propositions:— - “1. They that according to Scripture are members of the visible church, are the subjects of baptism. “2. The members of the visible church, according to Scripture, are confederate, visible believers in particular churches, and their inſant seed, i.e. children in minority, whose next parents one or both are in covenant. - “3. The infant seed of confederate visible believers are members of the same church with their parents, and wheh grown up are personally under the watch, discipline, and government of that church. - “4. Those adult persons are not therefore to be admit- ted to full communion, merely because they are and con- tinue members, without suitable qualifications, as the word of God requireth thereunto. “5. Church members who were admitted in minority, understanding the doctrine of faith, and publicly profess- ing their assent, thereto, not scandalous of life, and so- lemnly owning the covenant before the church wherein they give up themselves and their children to the Lord, and subject themselves to the government of Christ in the church, their children are to be baptized,” &c. See Ma- ther's Magmalia, book 5. p. 64. - - Most of the New England churches after a time acqui. esced in this decision. It has been called very commonly since, the half-way covenant ; “a name which itself indi- cates,” says Dr. Wisner, “that religion and the observance of its sacred rites were extensively becoming, in the esti- mation of the people, a sort of half-way business, and of course its energy and vitality dying away. According to the provisions of this arrangement, persons, who confess- edly had not given their hearts to God, for the purpose of obtaining access to the (in such case) mere ceremony of baptism for their children, were permitted and encouraged to come and ‘profess before God, angels, and men, to give themselves up to God the Father as their chief good; to the Son of God as their Mediator, Head, and Lord, relying upon him as the Prophet, Priest, and King of their salva- tion ; to the Holy Spirit of God, as their Sanctifier, Guide, and Comforter, to be temples for him to dwell in ;’ were permitted and encouraged to come and make, in the most solemn circumstances, the most solemn of all professions, when they did not regard themselves, and those around did not regard them, as having at all in heart given them- selves away to God, and trusted in Christ, and yielded themselves up to be temples of the Holy Ghost. And as to the promises which were annexed, of educating children in the ſear of the Lord, and submitting to the discipline of the church, on the one hand, and of watchful care on the other, they soon came to be alike disregarded, both by those who exacted and by those who made them ; parents did not, and soon were not expected to, fulfil their engage- ments, in form so significant and solemn ; and churches did not, and were soon not expected to fulfil theirs. Thus the most solemn and impressive acts of religion came to be regarded as unmeaning ceremonies; the form only to be thought important, while the substance was overlooked and rapidly passing away. - “And now another and still more fatal step was taken in this downward course. Why should such a difference be made between the two Christian sacraments, which reason infers from the nature of the case, and the Scriptures clearly determine, require precisely the same qualifica- tions? And why, if persons were qualified to make, in order to come to one ordinance, the very same profession, both in meaning and in terms, required to come to the other, why should they be excluded from that other ? . The prac- tical result every one sees would be, that if the innovation already made were not abandoned, another would speedily be introduced. And such was the ſact. Correct moral deportment, with a profession of correct doctrinal opinions, and a desire for regeneration, came to be regarded as the only qualification for admission to the communion. This innovation, though not as yet publicly advocated by any, there is conclusive proof had become quite extensive in practice previously to 1679. The churches soon came to consist very considerably, in many places, of unregenerate persons—of those who regarded themselves, and were re- garded by others, as unregenerate.—Of all these things the consequence was, that within thirty years after the commencement of the eighteenth century, a large propor- tion of the clergy—through the country—were either only speculatively correct, or to some extent actually erroneous, in their religious opinions, maintaining regularly the forms of religion, but in some instances having well nigh lost, H A I H A L . t 591 ) and in others, it is to be feared, having never felt, its OWel’. . - p “Thus was abandoned by the New England churches extensively, that P. viz. that particular churches ought to consist of regenerate persons—the letting go of which soon after the apostolic age, a distinguished writer (Dr. Owen) has affirmed and proved, ‘was the occasion and means of introducing all that corruption in doctrine, worship, order, and rule, which ensued and ended in the great apostasy.’” . It should be added, that the half-way covenant is now universally abandoned by the evangelical Congregational churches in New England, and that if retained at all, it is at present found only among the Unitarians.—Wisner's JHistory of the Old South Church; Spirit of the Pilgrims ; 1Mather's Magnalia; Hutchinson ; Trumbull. HAGAR ; an Egyptian servant belonging to Sarah, who being barren, gave her to Abraham for a wife, that by her, as a substitute, she might have children, Gen. 16, and 21. The Mussulmen and Arabians, who are de- scended from Ishmael, speak highly in her commendation. They call her “Mother Hagar,” and maintain that she was Abraham's lawful wife; the mother of Ishmael, his eldest son, who as such possessed Arabia, which very much exceeds, in their estimation, both in extent and riches, the land of Canaan, which was given to his young- er son Isaac. • , Hagar, according to Paul, may symbolize the syna- gogue, which produces only slaves—the offspring always following the condition of the mother, Gal. 4:24.—Calmet. HAGARENES; the descendants of Ishmael: called also Ishmaelites and Saracens, or Arabians, from their country.—Calmet. HAGGAI, the tenth of the minor prophets, was proba- bly born at Babylon, whence he accompanied Zerubbabel. The captives, immediately after their return to Judea, be- gan with ardor to rebuild the temple; but the work was suspended fourteen years, till after the death of Cambyses. Darius Hystaspes succeeding to the empire, Haggai was excited by God to exhort Zerubbabel, prince of Judah, and the high-priest Joshua, to resume the work of the temple, which had been so long interrupted, (B. C. 521.) The remonstrances of the prophet had their effect, and in the second year of Darius, and the sixteenth year after the return from Babylon, they resumed this work, Hag. 1: 14. 2: 1. . The Lord commanded Haggai to tell the people, that if any one recollected the temple of Solomon, and did not think this to be so beautiful and magnificent as that structure was, he ought not to be discouraged; because God would render the new temple much more august and venerable than the former had ever been ; not in embel- lishments of gold or silver, but by the presence of the Messiah, the desire of all nations, and by the glory which his coming would add to it. We know nothing of Haggai's death. Epiphanius as- serts, that he was buried at Jerusalem among the priests; which might induce us to believe, that he was of Aaron's family: but Haggai says nothing of himself to favor this opinion.—Calmet. HAGIOGRAPHA, (Gr. for holy writings;) the name given to the third division of the Jewish Scriptures, which comprises the book of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ez- ra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, Esther, and the Chronicles. These books appear to have received the name of “Sacred Writings,” to intimate that, though they were not written by Moses, nor by any of the prophets, strictly so called, they were nevertheless to be received as of the same divine authority, having been written or added to the canon, under the in- ſluence of that Holy Spirit by whose inspiration the other books were composed. (See BIBLE.)—Hend. Buck. HAHIROTH, whence Pi—hahiroth, as it is called in Exod. 14: 2, 9, but simply Hahiroth, in Numb. 33:8; the gullet, or opening; but whether of a cave, or a passage between rocks into a wider place, or of a narrow sea into a broader, is not determined. We take it for the opening of a gullet of water, at the present Suez, in the northern ex- tremity of the Red sea. (See ExoDUs.)—Calmet. HAICTITES; a Musselman sect, who attempt to unite their faith with the religion of Christ, whose second coming $ they expect, as the Judge of all; quoting these words from the IXoran—“O Mohammed, thou shalt see thy Lord, who will come in the clouds.” Rycaut's Ottoman Empire, cited by Broughton.— Williams. r HAIL! a salutation, importing a wish for the welfare of the person addressed. It is now seldom used among us; but was customary among our Saxon ancestors, and imported as much as “joy to you;” or “health to you;” including in the term health all kinds of prosperity.— Calmet. HAIL-STONES, are congealed drops of rain, formed into ice by the power of cold in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Hail was among the plagues of Egypt; (Exod. 9: 24.) and that hail, though uncommon, is not absolutely unknown in Egypt, we have the testimony of Volney, who mentions a hail-storm, which he saw crossing over mount Sinai into that country, some of whose frozen stones he gathered; “and so,” he says, “I drank iced water in Egypt.” Hail was also the means made use of by God, for defeating an army of the kings of Canaan, Josh. 10: 11. God’s judgments are likened to a hail-storm, in Isa. 28: 2; but the most tremendous hail mentioned in Scripture, or in any writer, is that alluded to in Rev. 16: 21 —“Every stone was about the weight of a talent.” How prodigious is this description in comparison with it all accounts of hail-stones, and hail-storms, are diminutive. We have, in the Philosophical Transactions, mention of hail as large as pullets' eggs: but what is this to the weight of a talent —Calmet. º HAIR. The Eastern females wear their hair, which the prophet emphatically calls the “instrument of their pride,” very long, and divided into a great number of tresses. Black hair was regarded by the Hebrews as most beautiful, Cant. 5: 11. Horace represents this also as the taste of the Romans. In Barbary, the ladies all affect to have their hair hang down to the ground, which, after they have collected into one lock, they bind and plait with ribbons. Where nature has been less liberal in its ornaments, the defect is supplied by art, and foreign is procured to be interwoven with the natural hair. The apostle's remark on this subject corresponds entirely with the custom of the East, as well as with the original design of the Creator:—“Does not even nature itself teach you, that if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him 2 But if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her; for her hair is given her for a covering,” 1 Cór. 11: 14. The men in the East, Chardin observes, are shaved; the wo- men nourish their hair with great fondness, which they lengthen by tresses, and tufts of silk down to the heels. But among the Hebrews the men did not shave their heads; they wore their natural hair, though not long; and it is certain that they were, at a very remote period, ini- tiated in the art of cherishing and beautifying the hair with fragrant ointments, Exod. 30: 32, 33. Ps. 23: 5. Eccl. 9: 8. Matt. 6: 17. After the hair is plaited and perfumed, the Eastern ladies proceed to dress their heads, by tying above the lock into which they collect it, a triangular piece of linen, adorned with various figures in needle-work. This, among persons of better fashion, is covered with a sarmah, as they call it, which is made in the same triangular shape, of thin, flexible plates of gold or silver, carefully cut through, and engraven in imitation of lace. This ex- cessive attention to ornament is noticed and forbidden by the apostles, 1 Tim. 2: 9. 1 Pet. 3: 3. Cutting off the hair was a sign of mourning, Jer. 7:29; but sometimes in mourning they suffered it to grow long. In ordinary sor- rows they neglected their hair; and in violent paroxysms they plucked it off with their hands.-Calmet ; Watson. HAIRETITES; a sort of Mohammedan sceptics, who affect to doubt of every thing, while they inconsistently consider themselves as Musselmen. They drink freely of opiates, and cannot be supposed very strict in conform- ing to a religion which they do not believe: yet there are said to have been muftis (priests) of this sect. Rycaut's Ottoman Empire, cited by Broughton.—Williams. HALAH; a river of Media, or of Colchis—Also, a city or country of Media, to which the kings of Assyria trans- Fº the ten tribes. It is mentioned with Habor; (2 ings 17:6.) which shows it to have been on the river Gozan. Hyde supposes it to be Holwan; Bochart thinks H A L H A L [ 592 J it to be the metropolis of the Calachene, admitting a per- mutation of the first letter.--Calmet. HALCYONS ; a name assumed, in 1802, by a small body of Christians in the United States, whose tenets re- sembled those now known by the name of CHRISTIANs. HALDANITES ; the followers of Robert and James Alexander Haldane, two gentlemen of fortune, brothers, and seceders from the church of Scotland; who, between twenty and thirty years since, formed the design of de- voting themselves to the propagation of the gospel in India; but, being prevented by the East India company, directed their attention to its dissemination at home, and spent considerable sums in the erection of large places of worship in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen; and in other means of circulating evangelical religion. In the prosecution of their inquiries after truth, they adopted many of the tenets of Sandeman, with some rigid forms of discipline. Afterwards they became Baptists, and the party divided and subdivided, till they became, as a sect, extinct; and most of their followers have either joined the Scotch Baptists, or Independents. It should be observed, that though these gentlemen have vacillated on minor points, they have always adhered to the great and fundamental truths of revelation; and, as they have latterly relaxed in their zeal on inferior points, they have become more zealous for the great essentials of religion. Mr. Robert Haldane has recently published a work on the Evidence of Divine Revelation, which is re- commended by the London Christian Observer as in some respects preferable to Paley. (See BAPTISTs, the Scottish.) —J. A. Haldane's Social Worship ; Morison's Theol. Dict. ; Evans' Sketch, (1817,) p. 317, &c.—Williams. . HALE, (Sir MATTHEw,) an eminent and incorruptible judge, born, in 1609, at Alderley, in Gloucestershire, was the son of a retired barrister. With the exception of one period, when his mind was corrupted by attending the theatre, from which, however, he was happily recovered by divine grace, he studied diligently at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and Lincoln's Inn; and was called to the bar not long before the breaking out of the civil war. Though he acted as counsel for Strafford, Laud, Hamilton, and many others of the king's party, and even for Charles himself, he conformed to the republican government, and became a lay member of the Westminster assembly of divines. By dint of importunity, Cromwell prevailed upon him, in 1654, to become one of the justices of the Common bench, but he soon offended the Protector by refusing to warp the laws, and the result was, that he thenceforth refused to try criminal causes. Having promoted the Restoration, he was, in 1660, appointed chief baron of the exchequer, and, in 1671, chief justice of the king's bench. He died in 1676. The seat of judgment was never more purely filled than by Sir Matthew Hale. No influence, no power, could turn him aside from the path of rectitude. His private character was equally estimable. He was a Protestant, and a most devout Christian. He delighted to encourage youthful genius, diligence, and piety. His “Letters to his Children,” and “Grandchildren,” are among his most useful works.-The knowledge of judge Hale was not confined to the law, but extended to divinity, mathematics, and history, upon all of which subjects works of his are extant. His principal religious production is, Contempla- tions, Moral and Divine. Among his legal labors are, A History of the Pleas of the Crown; and A History of the Common Law of England.—Davenport. HALL, (Joseph, D. D.,) bishop of Norwich, a divine and poet, was born, in 1574, at Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire, and was educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge. His mother was a woman of uncommon pi- ety. After having held the livings of Halsted and Wal- tham, and the deanery of Worcester, and been chosen as one of the English divines deputed to the synod of Dort, he was raised, in 1627, to the see of Exeter, whence, in 1641, he was translated to Norwich. Though he had re- fused to persecute the Puritans, yet, having joined the other bishops in the celebrated protest against laws made dur- ing their absence from the upper house, he was committed to the Tower, and his estate was subsequently seques- trated. To insults and affronts the most paltry, yet gall- ing and oppressive, he was compelled to submit; though he deserved the respect and esteem of all men, and of all parties. Soon after his expulsion from his bishopric, he retired to a small place called Higham, in Norfolk, where, notwithstanding the diminution of his income, he was charitable to the destitute, and distributed considera- ble sums to poor widows. In that retirement he finished his valuable life; and on the 8th of September, 1656, in the eighty-second year of his age, he expired, and was buried in the churchyard of that parish, without any memorial. Bishop Hall was a man of great wit and learning, meekness, modesty, and piety. His writings, which are numerous, and which are generally known by the appella- tion of “Hall's Contemplations,” are replete with fine thoughts, excellent morality, and sincere piety: they are a complete body of divinity. In some single pages and sentences, more of knowledge and information is commu- nicated, than in volumes of modern treatises and sermons. Few men knew so well the human heart; and though sometimes his expressions are coarse, his style too collo- quial, and his manner offensive; yet whoever can value a diamond, though its encrustation may be coarse and un- pleasing, for its intrinsic excellence and value, will, on the same principle, prize the works of this very excellent man. They consist of five volumes quarto, or twelve volumes octavo, and have gained their author the name of the English Seneca.—Davenport ; Jones' Chr. Biog. HALL, (GoRDON,) first American missionary at Bom: bay, was a native of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, and was graduated at Williams college in 1808. Having stu- died theology, he refused an invitation to settle in Connec- ticut, saying, “Wo is me if I preach not the gospel to the heathen.” Offering himself as a missionary to the Ame- rican Board of Commissioners for foreign missions, he was ordained at Salem, with Judson, Newell, Nott, and Rice, February 6, 1812, and in the same month sailed for Cal- cutta. Mr. Hall arrived at Bombay in February, 1813; and there spent thirteen years in his benevolent toils, with a purpose unaltered and zeal unquenched. He had just revised the New Testament in Mahratta, when, as he was on a journey in the interior, he was seized with the chole- ra, which proved fatal in eight or nine hours. He died March 20, 1826, aged about thirty-six. He was a man of great force of mind and decision of character, of ardent piety, and of entire devotedness to the work of a missionary. His vigorous frame and habits of life fitted him to endure the hardships of a missionary. His qualifications of every kind for the work to which he devoted his life, were very uncommon. He published An Appeal to American Christians, in behalf of the Twelve Millions speaking the Mahratta Language, 1826. He wrote also, with Mr. Newell, The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hundred Millions, &c. 2d ed. 1818. The New Testament, in Mahratta, was printed at the mission press in Bombay, in 1826. Memoir. Miss. Her, Oct. 1826, —Allen. HALL, (Rev. Robert, A. M.;), a name rich in sacred as well as splendid associations. This extraordinary man, who, in the recorded judgment of Dr. Parr, combined “the eloquence of an orator, the fancy of a poet, the acuteness of a schoolman, the profoundness of a philosopher, and the piety of a saint,” was the son of the Rev. Robert Hall, of Arnsby, (Eng.) He was born May 2, 1764. His mother is represented as a woman of sterling sense, and distin- guished piety. Robert was the youngest of fourteen chil- dren, and while an infant was so delicate and feeble, that he was not expected to reach maturity, and he could nei- ther walk nor talk till two years old. His nurse taught him his alphabet from the grave stones in a burial ground near his father's dwelling. That burial ground beeame afterwards, out of school hours, his favorite study, where, reclining on the grass, he would remain with his books, till the shades of evening deepened around him. It is not improbable that he here contracted the injury and pain in his back from which he suffered so much through his whole life, and which led Dr. Prichard to remark, that “no man probably ever went through more physical suffering than Mr. Hall,” and that “he was a fine example of the triumph of the higher powers of mind, exalted by religion, over the infirmities of the body.” - H A L H A L [ 593 1 His intellect early developed its extraordinary vigor. Edwards on the Will, and Butler's Analogy, were the chosen companions of his childhood, being perused and re-perused with intense interest before he was nine years old. At eleven, his master, Mr. Simmons, declared him- self unable any longer to keep pace with his pupil. At the same time he manifested such unequivocal proofs of piety, that his delighted father began to think seriously of devoting him to the sacred office. Some friends, indeed, most injudiciously drew him forward repeatedly to preach, at the age of eleven, to select companies; a circumstance, which from the vanity it inspired, he afterwards strongly reprobated. He was put under the instructions of the Rev. John Ryland, of Northampton, where he made great pro- gress in the languages, acquired the general principles of abstract science, a thirst for knowledge of every kind, and the habit, as well as taste, for beautiful composition. In 1778, he entered the Bristol Institution as a student of theology. So precocious was the development of his pul- pit talents, that he was solemnly ordained to the work of the ministry, in 1780, at the age of sixteen. The next year, he entered King's college, Aberdeen, on Dr. Ward’s ſoundation. Here he enjoyed the instruction of Drs. Ge- rard, Ogilvie, Beattie, and Campbell, and here also formed that intimate friendship with Sir James Mackintosh, which continued through liſe, and which there is reason to believe is now made perfect in heaven. Mr. Hall was the first scholar in his class through his collegiate course, and was considered by all the students a model of social, moral, and religious excellence. Sir James said he became at- tached to Mr. Hall, “because he could not help it.” Nei- ther their tastes nor sentiments were alike at first, yet their cast of mind was similar, and it was not long before Sir James became, to use his own language, “fascinated with his brilliancy and acumen, in love with his cordiality and ardor, and awe-struck by the transparency of his conduct and the purity of his principles.” In 1785, Mr. Hall became assistant pastor at Broad- mead, Bristol, with Dr. Evans, and also classical tutor in the Baptist Academy, which offices he filled with great popularity for five years. In 1790, he removed to Cam- bridge, and became successor to Mr. R. Robinson, as pastor of the Baptist church. Here, in 1791, he published his “Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom,” and, in 1793, his “Apology for the Freedom of the Press.” The death of his excellent father, in 1791, led Mr. Hall to a deeper prayerfulness, and issued in the renunciation of some erroneous views which he had imbibed from the spe- culations of Dr. Priestley, whom as a philosopher he early admired and defended. Here also he revised and extended his knowledge in every department, re-arranged the whole furniture of his mind, and the economy of his habits, while at the same time his piety grew in seriousness, affection, and ardor. His labors were not only greatly admired, but blessed to the revival of evangelical piety, and a large in- crease of the church and congregation. Here also, in 1799, he preached and published his celebrated sermon on Modern Infidelity, which not only procured him the esteem of many illustrious men of all orders, but is supposed to have done more to check the growing scepticism of the times than any one work, Paley’s and Burke's not ex- cepted. It is indeed a masterly expose of the unsound principles and pernicious tendency of the atheistical French philosophy. In 1802, appeared his “Reflections on War.” The threatened invasion of Bonaparte, in 1803, brought him again before the public, in the discourse en- titled “Sentiments suitable to the Present Crisis,” which raised Mr. Hall's reputation for large views and powerful eloquence to the highest pitch. In November, 1804, owing chiefly to the increasing pain in his back, attended by the want of sufficient exer. cise and rest, the exquisitely toned mind of Mr. Hall lost its balance, and he who had so long been the theme of universal admiration, became the subject of as extensive a sympathy. He was placed under the care of Dr. Arnold of Leicester, where, by the divine blessing, his health was restored in about two months. But similar causes pro- duced a relapse, about twelve months afterwards, from which he was soon restored; though it was deemed essen- tial to the permanent establishment of his health, that he should resign his pastoral charge, and remove from Cam- bridge. This he did, though the attachment on both sides remained undiminished until death. Two shocks of so humiliating a calamity_within the compass of a year, deeply impressed Mr. Hall's mind. His own decided persuasion was, that he never before experienced a tho- rough transformation of character; and there can be no question that from this period his spirit was habitually more humble, dependent, and truly devotional. It became his custom to renew, every birthday, by a solemn act, the dedication of himself to God, on evangelical principles, and in the most earnest sincerity of heart. In 1807, he became pastor of the Baptist church in Leicester, where he soon after married, and where he labored most successfully for nearly twenty years. At no period was he more happy, active, and useful. The church, when he left it, was larger than the whole congre- gation when he took the charge of it. But his influence was not confined to the limits of his parish. He took an active part in all the noble charities of the age, and by his sermons, speeches, and writings, exerted a wide influence on society, not only in England, but on the continent of Eu- rope, America, and in India. His Review of Zeal without Innovation, &c. his tracts on the Terms of Communion, and his sermons on the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower Classes, on the Discouragements and Supports of the Christian Ministry, on the Character of a Christian Missionary, one the Death of the Princess Charlotte, and of Rev. Dr. Ryland, with several others, were given to the public while residing here. Here also, in 1823, he deli- vered his admirable course of lectures on the Socinian Controversy, partially preserved in his Works. Wherever he went, he was called to address overflowing congregations. Churchmen and dissenters; men of rank and influence, individuals in lower stations; men of sim- ple piety, and others of deep theological knowledge; men who admired Christianity as a beautiful system, and those who received it into the heart by faith; men in doubt, others involved in unbelief; all resorted to the place where he was announced as the preacher. In 1826, a sense of duty to the denomination of which he was so distinguished an ornament, induced him to accept of the unanimous invitation of the church in Broadmead, Bristol, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of the excellent Dr. Ryland. The separation from his flock at Leicester was mutually distressing, though soothed and sustained by Christian principles. At Bristol he was wel- comed with enthusiastic joy, and the same church which enjoyed his earliest ministry, was favored with his last. Large accessions were received during the five years which preceded his death, and this, together with the so- ciety of many valued friends, among whom was the Rev. John Foster, notwithstanding his disease in the back, and increasing infirmities, made the closing years of his life eminently happy. - In February, 1831, the church of Christ, and the world at large, were deprived of the services of this great man, now in his sixty-seventh year, after an illness of ten days, a full and affecting account of which has been given to the public by Dr. Chandler. When he first announced his apprehension that he should never again minister among his people, he added, “But I am in God’s hands, and I rejoice that I am. I have not one anxious thought, either for life or death. I think I would rather go that. stay ; for I have seen enough of the world, and I have an humble hope.” After one of his severe paroxysms, being asked if he felt much pain, he replied, that his sufferings were great; “but what,” he added, “are my sufferings, to the sufferings of Christ 2 His sufferings were infinitely greater; his sufferings were complicated. God has been very merciful to me; very merciful.” During the last day, when the final paroxysm came on, Mrs. Hall in much agitation exclaimed, “This can't be dying !” to which he replied, “It is death—it is death—death ; Oh the suffer- ings of this body P. Being asked, “But are you comfort- able in your mind?” he immediately answered, “Wery comfortable—very comfortable !” and exclaimed, “Come, Lord Jesus—Come.” He hesitated, as if incapable of bringing out the last word; and one of his daughters in- voluntarily anticipated him by saying, “quickly '' on 75 H A L. H A L [ 594 | which her departing father gave her a look of the most complacent delight. There was a solemn and awful gran- deur in this last scene. He died from a failure of the vital powers of the heart, amidst the most vigorous exercises of consciousness and volition. Peacefully he closed those brilliant eyes which had so often beamed rays of benignity and intellectual fire. Calmly, yet firmly, he sealed those lips which had so often charmed the ears of thousands with messages of divine mercy and grace. “I have never before seen,” says Dr. Chandler, “and scarcely shall I again witness, a death in all its circumstances so grand and impressive; so harmonious with his natural charac- ter, so consistent with his spiritual life. And when after death, we gazed upon his countenance, combining such peace, benevolence, and grandeur in its silent expressions, we felt the reaction of faith on sensible objects, exhilarating us with the consolatory conviction, that the gain of the departed was in a sense proportioned to the loss felt by the Christian church.” “The loss of Mr. Hall,” says John Foster, “is reflected on with a sentiment peculiar to the event, never experienced before, nor to be expected in any future instance.” In the social circle, and in the solemn assembly, Mr. Hall appeared as a distinguished representative, a most ex- pressive organ of our nature, in all its more familiar sen- timents, or in all its more sublime conceptions and aspira- tions. Hence he was regarded by the multitudes who sought his public or his private presence as a kind of uni- versal property, whom all parties had a right to enjoy, and none to monopolize: before him all forgot their denomina- tions, as he appeared to forget his own, in the comprehen- sive idea of the church of Christ. There was nothing very remarkable in Mr. Hall's man- ner of delivering his sermons. His simplicity, yet solemnity of deportment, engaged the attention, but did not promise any of his most rapturous effusions. His voice was feeble, but distinct, and as he proceeded trembled beneath his images, and conveyed the idea that the spring of sublimity and beauty in his mind was exhaustless, and would pour forth a more copious stream, if it had a wider channel than could be supplied by the bodily organs. The plainest and least inspired of his discourses were not without deli- cate gleams of imagery, and felicitous turns of expression. But he was ever best when he was intensest—when he unveiled the mighty foundations of the rock of ages—or made the hearts of his hearers vibrate with a strange joy, which they will recognise in more exalted stages of their being. His excellence did not so much consist in the predomi- nance of one of his powers, as in the exquisite proportion and harmony of them all. The richness, variety, and extent of his knowledge, were not so remarkable as his absolute mastery over it. There is not the least appear- ance of Straining after greatness in his most magnifi- cent excursions, but he rises to the loftiest heights with a childlike ease. His style as a writer is one of the clearest and simplest—the least encumbered with its own beauty— of any which ever has been written. His noblest passages do but make truth visible in the form of beauty, and “clothe upon” abstract ideas, till they become palpable in exquisite shapes. The dullest writer would not convey the same meaning in so few words, as he has done in the most sub- lime of his illustrations. “Whoever wishes to see the English language in its perſection,” says Dugald Stewart, “must read the writings of Rev. Robert Hall. He com- bines the beauties of Johnson, Addison, and Burke, with- out their imperfections.” - His “Works” have been collected and published, with a Memoir of his Liſe, by Dr. Gregory, and Observations on his Character as a Preacher by the profound Foster. They have been reprinted in this country, in three vols. octavo, and widely circulated. See Memoir, &c. HALLELUJAH. (See ALLELUIA.) HALLER, (Baron ALBERT Won,) a native of Switzer- land, who has many claims to fame, was born in 1708, at Berne, and displayed, even in childhood, the most extra- ordinary talents. Having chosen the medical profession, he studied at Tubingen and Leyden, after which he visit- ed England and France, and then proceeded to Basil, to make himself master of mathematics under James Ber- * nouilli. Botany also became one of his favorite pursuits, and he began to display those poetical powers, which eventually ranked him among the standard German poets. For nineteen years he was professor of anatomy, Surgery, and botany, at Gottingen, at the expiration of which period he returned to his native country. There he resided, honored by his fellow citizens, for nearly a quarter of a century; continued to benefit science by his literary la- bors; filled several important offices in the state, and adorned the gospel by his life. He died in 1777. Among his numerous productions are the collection of Bibliothecae, in ten quarto volumes; Prelections; Elements of Physi- ology; Outlines of Physiology; various works on Botany; and his invaluable Letters to his Daughter on the Excel- lence of the Christian Religion.—Davenport. - HALLET, (Joseph,) a learned and celebrated minister amongst the Protestant dissenters, was born at Exeter, Eng. in the year 1692. His father (the venerable Joseph Hallet) kept an academy in the same city; where his son went through the usual course of a learned education amongst the dissenters. After this he became on assis- tant to his father in the academy; and, in the year 1713, he was admitted to the ministerial office. In 1715 he was ordained at Exeter; and, soon after his ordination, he was chosen pastor of a small congregation at Shobrook, in the neighborhood of that city, where he continued to preach till the year 1722, when he was called to succeed his father as co-pastor with Mr. Peirce, in his native city. His first appearance, as a writer, was in the year 1720, when he published a tract, entitled, “The Unity of God not inconsistent with the Divinity of Christ.” In 1726 he published “The Reconciler; or, an Essay to show that Christians are much more agreed in their notions concern- ing the Holy Trinity, than has been commonly represent- ed;” and in 1729, “A collection of Notes on some Texts of Scripture,” &c. About this time the famous treatise of Tindal, entitled, “Christianity as Old as the Creation,” made its appear- ance ; the author of which had, amongst other things, advanced, that miracles are no proof of any religion, be- cause they may be performed by evil beings; and, as what he had said upon this subject had puzzled many, Mr. Hallet took occasion to lay before the public “An Essay on the nature and use of Miracles; designed against the assertion, that they are no proper proof of a Divine Mission. To which is prefixed an Answer to some other objections against Revealed Religion contained in a late book, entitled, ‘Christianity as old as the Creation.” This was followed, in 1731, by “A Defence of a Discourse on the Impossibility of proving a Future State by the Light of Nature : with an Answer to the Rev. Mr. Grove's Thoughts on the same Subject.” In the following year, Mr. Hallet published, “A Second Volume of Notes and Discourses.” Mr. Peirce's excellent Paraphrase and Notes on the Epis- tle to the Hebrews, being left unfinished, and printed in that imperfect state, our author, aſter, having waited above five years to see whether the work would be completed by any other person, was prevailed upon, by the importu- nity of some of his friends, to publish “A Paraphrase and Notes on the last Three Chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews; being a Supplement to the learned Mr. Peirce's Paraphrase and Notes on this Epistle; with an Essay to discover the Author of the Epistle, and the Language in which it was originally written.” In 1736 our author published “A Third Volume of Notes and Discourses.” In the same year, likewise, he published a tract, entitled, “The Truth and Importance of the Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation demonstrated.” In the follow- ing year, the publication of Dr. Morgan’s “Moral Philo- sopher,” making a great noise in the literary world, our author was one of the first that entered the lists against him. The piece which he wrote upon this occasion was printed the same year, under the title of “The Immorality of ‘The Moral Philosopher;' being an Answer to a Book lately published, entitled, ‘The Moral Philosopher.’” Dr. Morgan replying to this piece, our divine immediately published “A Letter to the Moral Philosopher; being a Windication of a Pamphlet, entitled, “The Immorality of the Moral Philosopher.’” This was fºllowed, some time H A L H A L [ 595 ) after, by “A Rebuke to the Moral Philosopher for the Errors and Immoralities contained in his Third Wol- ume;” which closed the controversy on the part of our author. In 1738 Mr. Hallet published “The consistent Christian; being a Confutation of the Errors advanced in Mr. Chubb's late book, entitled, ‘The True Gospel of Jesus Christ asserted,” relating to the Necessity of Faith, the Na- ture of the Gospel, the Inspiration of the Apostles, &c.; with Remarks on his Dissertation, on Providence.” He continued to prosecute his studies with his usual diligence; and faithfully discharged the duties of his profession till his death, which happened in the year 1744. Mr. Hallet's truly Christian behavior, and mild and p gentle temper, endeared him to all his acquaintance; and he enjoyed the general esteem of his contemporaries. His various publications, and particularly his “ Notes and Discourses on several passages of the Old and New Tes- tament,” are, and will remain, a sufficient proof of his having possessed the greatest critical sagacity, combined with extensive learning. Brit Biog.—Jones' Chris. Biog. HALLOW; to render sacred, set apart, consecrate. The English word is from the Saxon, and is properly to holify,to make holy; hence hallowed persons, things, places, rites, &c.; hence also, the name, character, power, dignity of God, is to be hallowed; that is, profoundly reverenced as holy in every human heart, Matt. 6. Luke 11. (See SANCTIFICATION ; Holly.)—Calmet. HALT; to go lame on the feet or legs. Many persons who were halt, were cured by our Lord. To halt between two opinions, (1 Kings 18: 21.) should perhaps be under- stood to hesitate, from indecision which to embrace; or to stagger from one to the other, repeatedly. Some say, it is an allusion to birds, who hop from spray to spray, for- wards and backwards:—as the contrary influence of Sup- posed convictions vibrated in the mind in alternate af. firmation and doubtfulness.-Calmet. HALYBURTON, (THOMAs,) professor of divinity in the university of St. Andrews, was born at Duplin, Scotland, in the parish of Aberdalgy, near Perth, Dec. 25, 1674. Both his parents were eminently pious. In 1682 his fa- ther died, in the fifty-fifth year of his age ; and the care of the Son’s morals and education devolved on his excel- lent mother. Never was the importance of the union of piety and literature in the maternal character more fully developed than in this instance. But for this the world might never have heard, nor the church have felt, the benefit of the talents and Christian virtues of Halyburton. He was in early youth the subject of frequent, but ineffec- tual religious convictions. In 1689 he began to be per- plexed respecting the evidences of revealed religion, till, after having experienced some mental relief from Robert Bruce’s “Fulfilling of the Scriptures,” he received further aid from Mr. Donaldson, an excellent old minister, who came to preach at Perth, and paid a visit to his mother. He inquired of his young friend, if he sought a blessing from God on his learning; remarking, at the same time, with an austere look—“Sirrah, unsanctified learning has done much mischief to the kirk of God.” This led him to seek divine direction in extraordinary difficulties; but this exercise, he acknowledges, left him still afar off from God.” At the university of St. Andrews his regard for religion increased; and, under the ministry of Mr. Thomas Forrester, he began to discover the more secret evils of his heart. He formed many good resolutions, and thought he had found peace; but it was a structure, which had for its foundation vows made, and sometimes fulfilled with apparent success, rather than the atonement of Christ. Having applied himself closely three years to the study of philosophy, he had thought of going abroad, in search of further improvement; but fear of the sea on the one hand, and the pressing solicitations of friends on the other, prevailed with him to engage as domestic chaplain in a nobleman’s family. Accordingly, in August, 1696, he went to the Wemyss. Here he met with considerable difficul- ties, arising out of his prominent situation, and more especially, from the debates into which he was drawn on the truth of religion. - - In resorting to the works of deists, with a view to meet their arguments, his own mind was much perplexed ; but the valuable fruit of his study, in reference to others, may his own mind. be seen in his admirable “Inquiry into the Principles of Modern Deists,” published some years after, which has been often republished, and is still a standard work on that subject. Nor in the issue, could he regret a research which taught him an humble submission to the dictates of divine revelation, notwithstanding at first he was the subject of the most distressing doubts. He represents his state of depression, during this conflict, as of a nature too grave to have been long sustained. But about the close of January, or beginning of February, 1698, he obtained from the Scriptures that salutary relief, which was no less necessary to his earthly existence, than to his spiritual eace. New light broke in upon his mind. From the doctrine of the cross he derived that consolation which he had in vain sought elsewhere, and that purity, which is connected, as a principle, with the religion of Christ His heart was expanded towards others, and for many days together, he says, he seemed admitted into the very “se- cret of the divine pavilion.” The most overwhelming sense of his own worthlessness pervaded his mind, and his feelings of reverence for God were exceedingly exalted ; —his joy, he states to have been “truly unspeakable, and full of glory.” So much was he raised above earth, that he could scarcely bend his mind to the perusal of any works but those of a devotional cast. His views of the enormity of sin, he says, grew clearer as he advanced in holiness; his contrition under it became more pungent, and his desire after freedom from its influence more ar. dent. “All his former doubts, respecting the being of a God, vanished in the clear light of an evangelical faith; and he had a witness to the existence of a Being, of infi. nite love and purity, in the internal satisfaction and holi- . ness of his heart.”. The divine authority of the Scriptures, which he had previously disputed, and on which his mind could be satisfied neither by personal investigation, nor by reading the works of others, now received sufficient proof in the discoveries which they had enabled him to make of his own guilt—of the being, attributes, and pur- poses of God—and the transforming, quickening, support- ing, and reviving influences which they had conveyed to In short, reason now became entirely the disciple of revelation, and the thoughts of entering the ministry, which he had previously laid aside, on account of the wavering state of his mind, now returned. He was licensed to preach, June 22, 1699, and appointed minister of Ceres parish, in 1700. Within a few years after his settlement at Ceres, his health began to fail; and at length, his indisposition so much increased, that with great diffi culty he went through the labors incident to so large a parish. In April, 1710, he was appointed, by patent from queen Anne, professor of divinity in the new college of St. Andrews, through the mediation of the synod of Fife, and delivered his inaugural oration in confutation of an athe- istical pamphlet, entitled, “Epistola Archimedis ad Regem Gelonem.” In April, 1711, he was seized with a dan- gerous pleurisy. This disease was removed, but he never fully recovered his former strength; and, on the 23d of September, 1712, he departed triumphantly to his eternal reSt. His last words are among the richest treasures which piety ever bequeathed to the church ; and the letters which he dictated on his dying bed, are specimens of his unparalleled devotion and eoncern for the welfare of oth- ers. He was singularly fitted for the schools: he spoke elegant Latin with fluency : he was well skilled in the Greek, but his sickness prevented the execution of his design to learn the Oriental languages. Few lives have been more useful and distinguished by genuine piety; his death was a loss to Scotland, and the world at large. His works, in addition to those already mentioned, consist of.- “The Great Concern of Salvation; in three parts, viz. –A Discovery of Man's Natural State; or, the Guilty Sinner Convicted: Man's Recovery by Faith in Christ ; or, the Convinced Sinner's Case and Cure: The Christian's Duty, with respect to both Personal and Family Religion.” “The Nature of Faith,” in answer to Mr. Locke; Glasgow, octavo, 1770. Ten Sermons, preached before and after the celebration of the Sacrament of the Lord's supper : to which are added, Two Sermons, preached upon occasion of the Death of a Friend. To these discourses is prefixed H A M H A M [ 596 | an excellent preface by Dr. Watts, highly expressive both of their own worth, and of their author’s. See the invalua- ble Memoir of Halyburton.—Jones' Chris, Biog, HAM, or CHAM, son of Noah, and brother to Shem and Japheth, is believed to have been Noah's youngest son. Ham, says Dr. Hales, signifies burnt or black, and this name was peculiarly significant of the regions allotted to his family. To the Cushites, or children of his eldest son, Cush, were allotted the hot southern regions of Asia, along the coasts of the Persian gulf, Susiana, or Chusis- tan, Arabia, &c.; to the sons of Canaan, Palestine and Syria; to the sons of Misraim, Egypt, and Libya, in Aſ- rica. The Hamites in general, like the Canaanites of old, were a sea-faring race, and sooner arrived at civilization and the luxuries of life, than their simpler pastoral and agricultural brethren of the other two families. The first great empires of Assyria and Egypt were founded by them ; and the republics of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage, were early distinguished for their commerce : but they sooner also fell to decay; and Egypt, which was one of the first, became the last and “basest of the kingdoms,” (Ezek. 29: 15.) and has been successively in subjection to the Shemites, and Japhethites; as have also the settle- ments of the other branches of the Hamites. (See CANA- AN, and Division of MANKIND.)—TWatson. HAMAN, son of Hammedatha the Amalekite, of the race of Agag ; or, according to other copies, of Hama- dath the Bugaean or Gogaean; that is, of the race of Gog, or it may be read, Haman the Son of Hamadath, which Haman was Bagua or Bagoas, eunuch, or officer, to the king of Persia. We have no proof of Haman’s being an Amalekite ; but Esthér 3: 1, reads, of the race of Agag. In the apocryphal Greek, $. 9: 24.) and the Latin, (ch. 16: 6.) he is called a Macedonian. See the particulars of his monitory history in the book of Esther. There is something so entirely different from the cus- toms of European civilization, in Haman’s proposed de- struction of the Jewish people, (Esther ch. 3.) that the mind of the reader, when perusing it, is alarmed. And, indeed, it seems barely credible that a king should endure a massacre of so great a proportion of his subjects—a whole nation cut off at a stroke However, that such a proposal might be made, is attested by a similar proposal made in later times, which narrowly escaped witnessing a catastrophe of the same nature. M. De Peysonnel, in delineating the character of the celebrated Hassan Pacha, (who, in the war of 1770, between Russia and Turkey, became eminent as a seaman,) says of him, “He pre- served the Greeks, when it was deliberated in the council [of the Grand Seignior] To EXTERMINATE THEM ENTIRELY, as a punishment for their deſection, (i.e. of some of them,) and to prevent their ſuture rebellion : he obtained for them a general amnesty, which he took care should be faithfully observed.” This account has subsequently been con- firmed by Mr. Elton, of Smyrna.-Calmet. ^ HAMATH ; a celebrated city of Syria, which Calmet supposes to be Emesa on the Orontes. “The entering in of Hamath,” is a narrow pass leading from Canaan to Syria, through the valley between Libanus and Antiliba- nus; and is placed as the northern boundary of Canaan; Judg. 3; 3. 1 Kings 8: 65. 2 Kings 14:25. 2 Chron. 7: 8.—Calmet. HAMET, (SECT OF ;) the followers of one Hamet, sup- posed to be the same with Mahady, the head of a modern sect of Musselmen, (A. D. 1792,) who reject the ancient doctrine of the caliphs. See Mahady. Morse's Goog. vol. ii. Boston ed. 1796; Grégoire's Hist, tom, ii. p. 424.— |Williams. HAMILTON, (PATRICK,) the first Scotch reformer. He was of royal descent, a circumstance valuable as it drew more attention to his doctrine, liſe, and sufferings. He was naturally of an amiable disposition, and being well educated, was very early made abbot of Ferme. At the age of twenty-three, he visited the continent, and at Wit- tenberg met Luther and Melancthon, from whom he re- ceived instruction in the doctrine of the gospel. Return- ing to Scotland, he began to impart the knowledge of true religion to his countrymen. His fervor and boldness in opposing the corruptions of popcry alarming the clergy, he was summoned before the archbishop of St. Andrews, “infected as many as it blew upon.” in Feb. 1527, condemned, and delivered over to the secu- lar power to be burnt. It was hoped he would be in- duced to recant, but all endeavors proved unavailing to shake the faith and firmness of the youthful martyr. At the place of execution he gave his servant his gar- ments, saying, “These are the last things you can receive of me, nor have I any thing now to leave you but the ex- ample of my death, which I pray you to bear in mind: for though it be bitter to the flesh, and fearful beſore men, yet 1t is the entrance into eternal life, which none shall inherit who deny Jesus Christ, before this wicked generation.” The fire burning slowly, his sufferings were long and dreadful, but his patience and piety were only more ſully displayed thereby; insomuch that many were led to in- quire into his principles, and to abjure the errors of popery. “The smoke of Mr. Patrick Hamilton,” said a papist, His writings called “Patrick’s Places,” have been esteemed by many, an admi- rable and invaluable performance.—Middleton,vol. i. p. 59. HAMILTON, (Gen. ALEXANDER,) first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, born in the island of Ne- vis in 1757. At the age of sixteen, he accompanied his mother to New York, and entered a student of Columbia college, in which he continued about three years. While a member of this institution the first buddings of his in- tellect gave presages of his future eminence. His brilliant military and civil career, with its melan- choly close, is well known. He died in 1804, from a mortal wound received in a duel with colonel Burr. With all his pre-eminence of talents, he is yet a melan- choly proof of the influence which intercourse with a de- praved world has in perverting the judgment. In principle he was opposed to duelling, his conscience was not harden- ed, and he was not indifferent to the happiness of his wiſe and children; but in an evil hour he yielded to public prejudice. His own views of usefulness were followed, in contrariety to the injunctions of his Maker and Judge. When afterwards, in conversation with the Rev. Dr. Mason, his sin was intimated to him, he assented with strong emotion. And when the Redeemer was exhibited as the only propitiation for sin, he said with emphasis, “I have a tender reliance on the mercy of the Almighty, through the merits of the Lord Jesus Christ.” . He had been for some time convinced of the truth of Christianity, and it was his intention, if his life had been spared, to have written a work upon its evidences. - His writings were collected and published in three vols. 1810. Mason's Orat. on his Death ; Nott’s Discourse ; Morris' Fun. Oration ; Otis' Eulogy; Ames’ Sketch ; Marshall, p. 131, 350–360, 607–611.-Allen. HAMILTON, (ELISABETH,) a female of great talents and acquirements, was born, in 1758, at Belfast; was brought up by an uncle who resided near Stirling, in Scotland; acquired reputation by her productions, and affection and respect by her disposition and character; and died unmarried, at Harrowgate, July 23, 1816. Among her works are, Letters of a Hindoo Rajah ; Memoirs of Modern Philosophers (a satire on modern philosophism ;) The Life of Agrippina; The Cottagers of Glenburnie; Popular Essays; Letters on the Elementary Principles of Education; and Letters on the Formation of the Religious and Moral Principle.—Davenport. - HAMLIN, (PIIILIP ;) a French martyr of the sixteenth century. He had been a Romish priest, but on renouncing the errors of popery, was apprehended, and condemned to the stake. He began there earnestly to exhort the peoplc, when the officer commanded the fagots to be immediate- ly lighted, and a trumpet blown while he was burning, that none might be converted by his dying voice.—Foz, p. 117. HAMMER. God’s word is like a hammer; with it he breaks our hearts, Jer. 23:29. Babylon nas the hammer of the whole earth ; the Chaldean armies broke in pieces and subdued a multitude of nations, Jer. 1:23. Neh. 1: 1.— Bronyn. HAMMOND, (HENRY, D. D.,) a learned and eloquent divine of the seventeenth century, was born the 18th of August, 1605, at Chertsey, in Surrey. His parents intend- ing him for the church, he was sent at an early age to Eton, whence he removed to Magdalen college, Oxford, and became a fellow of that socicty in 1625. In 1633, the Hºà. N H A N [ 597 J then earl of Leicester presented him to the rectory of Pens- hurst, Kent, where he resided till 1643, having graduated as doctor of divinity in the interval. During the revo- lution he suffered much for his attachment to the royalist cause. In 1660, he was called in to assist in restoring the church establishment, and was nominated by Charles II. to the bishopric of Worcester, but died before his conse- cration, the same year. Besides his “Practical Cate- chism,” he was the author of a paraphrase of the New Tes- tament, with notes, and had finished the book of Psalms, with a view to the publication of a similar illustration of the Old Testament, when death hindered the completion of his design. His works were collected after his decease, and printed in four ſolio volumes, in 1684. Dr. Hammond was in personal appearance very hand- some, well made, and of a strong and vigorous constitu- tion; of a clear and florid complexion, his eye remarkably quick and sprightly, and in his countenance there was a mixture of sweetness and dignity. He possessed un- common abilities, and his learning was great and extensive. His eloquence was free, graceful, and commanding. His piety was great and ſervent, and much of his time was spent in secret devotion. Bishop Burnet says that his death was an unspeakable loss to the church. See Fell’s Life of Dr. Hammond.—Jones' Chris. Biog. HAMONAH; a city where Ezekiel (39: 16.) foretold the burial of Gog and his people would be. We know not any town of this name in Palestine. Hamonah signifies multitude ; and the prophet intended to show, that the slaughter of Gog's people would be so great, that the place of their burial might be called Multitude.—Calmet. HANANI; the father of the prophet Jehu, 1 Kings 16: 7. Also a prophet who came to Asa, king of Judah, and said, “Because thou hast put thy trust in the king of Syria, and not in the Lord, the army of the king of Syria is escaped out of thine hands,” 2 Chron: 16: 7. We know not on what occasion the prophet spake thus; but Asa ordered him to be seized and imprisoned. Some Sup- pose him to have been father to the prophet Jehu ; but this does not appear from Scripture. Jehu prophesied in Israel: Hanani in Judah. Jehu was put to death by Baasha, king of Israel, who died A. M. 3075; but Hana- ni reproved Asa, king of Judah, who reigned from A. M. 30.19 to 3000.—Calmet. - HANANIAH; one of the three young men of the tribe of Judah and of the royal family, who, being carried cap- tive to Babylon, were selected for instruction in the sci- cnces of the Chaldeans, and to wait in Nebuchadnezzar's palace. His name was changed to Shadrach; and he be- came celebrated for his refusal to worship the golden image set up by Nebuchadnezzar, Dan, 1: 11. 3:4. (See ABED- NEgo.) Also a false prophet of Gibeon, who coming to Jeru- salem in the fourth year of Zedekiah, king of Judah, (A. M. 3409,) foretold to Jeremiah and all the people, that within two years all the vessels of the Lord’s house that Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, had carried to Babylon, would be restored, Jer. 28.—Calmet. HANBALLITES ; a sect of Mussulmen; so called from their leader, Abu Hanbal, (about 323,) who pretend- ed Mahomet was seated on the throne of God, which was generally considered as impious. He, however, contrived to raise a party, which occasioned an insurrection; in which several thousand lives were sacrificed. D'Herbelot's Bib. Orien. cited by Broughton.—Williams. HANCOCK, (Thomas,) a benefactor of Harvard college, was the son of Mr. Hancock, of Lexington, and died in Boston, August 1, 1764. Although his nephew, governor Hancock, inherited most of his property, yet he bequeath- ed one thousand pounds sterling for ſounding a professor- ship of the Hebrew and other Oriental languages in Harvard college; one thousand pounds to the society for propagating the gospel among the Indians in North America; and six hundred pounds to the town of Boston, towards erecting a hospital for the reçeption of such per- sons as are deprived of their reason. Ann. Reg. for 1764, 116; Holmes.—Allen. HAND. To kiss one's hand, is an act of adoration, 1 Rings 19:18. “If I beheld the sun when it shined, and my mouth hath kissed my hand,” Job 31: 27. To lift up one's hand, is a way of taking an oath which has been in use among all nations. To give one’s hand, signifies to grant peace, to swear friendship, to promise entire security, to make alliance, 2 Kings 10: 15. The Jews say the were obliged to give the hand to the Egyptians and Assyri- ans, that they might procure bread; (2 Macc. 13:22.) that is, to surrender to them, to submit. * - To stretch out one’s hand, signifies to chastise, to exer- cise severity or justice, Ezek. 25: 7. God delivered his people with a high hand, and arm stretched out; by performing many wonders, and inflicting many chastise- ments, on the Egyptians. To stretch out one's hand, sometimes denotes beseeching mercy :—“I have spread out my hands,” entreated, “all the day unto a rebellious people,” Isa. 65. 2. To seat one on the right hand, is a token of high favor, Ps. 16: 11. 77: 10. The Son of God is often represented as sitting at the right hand of his heavenly Father:—“The Lord said to my Lord, sit thou at my right hand;” (Ps. 110: 1.) thou hast done thy work upon earth, now take posses. sion of that sovereign kingdom and glory which by right belongeth unto thee; do thou rule with authority and honor, as thou art Mediator. The accuser was commonly at the right hand of the accused:—“Let Satan stand at his right hand,” Ps. 109: 6. And in Zech. 3: 1, Satan was at the right hand of the high-priest Joshua, to accuse him. Often, in a con- trary sense, to be at one’s right hand signifies to defend, to protect, to support him —“I have set the Lord always before me; because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved,” Ps. 16:8. Our Savior, in Matt. 6: 3, to show with what privacy we should do good works, says that our left hand should not know what our right hand does. Above all things, we should avoid vanity and Ostentation in all the good we undertake to do, and should not think that thereby we merit any thing. Laying on hands, or imposition of hands, is understood in different ways both in the Old and New Testament. It is often taken for ordination and consecration of priests and ministers, as well among the Jews as Christians, Num. 8: 10. Acts 6:6. 13: 3. 1 Tim. 4: 14. Thus, when Mo- ses constituted Joshua his successor, God appointed him to lay his hands upon him, Num. 27: 18. Jacob laid his hands on Ephraim and Manasseh, when he gave them his last blessing, Gen. 48: 14. The high-priest stretched out his hands to the people, as often as he recited the solemn form of blessing, Lev. 9: 22. The Israelites who presented sin-offerings at the tabernacle, confessed their sins while they laid their hands upon them, Lev. 1: 4. This testified that the person acknowledged himself worthy of death, that he laid his sins upon the sacrifice, that he trusted in Christ for the expiation of his sins, and that he devoted himself to God. Witnesses laid their hands upon the head of the accused person, as it were to signify that they charged upon him the guilt of his blood, and freed themselves from it, Deut. 13:9. 17: 7. Our Savior laid his hands upon the children that were presented to him, and blessed them, Mark 10: 16. And the Holy Ghost was conferred on those who were baptized by the laying on of the hands of the apostles, Acts 8: 17. 19: 6.- Watson. HANDBREADTH; a measure of about four inches. Our days are as a handbreadth ; they are very short, and their shortness ought to be ever before us, Ps. 39: 5.- Brown. HANDWRITING. The ceremonial law is called a handwriting against us; its rites witnessed our guilt and desert of death, and it was a means of shutting out the Gentiles from the church of God, Col. 2: 14.—Bromwn. HANNAH, wife of Elkanah, of Levi, and the excellent mother of Samuel. She dwelt at Ramath, or Ramathaim, in Ephraim, 1 Sam. 1: 2.—Calmet. HANUN, son of Nahash, king of the Ammonites, is known for his ruinous insult to David's ambassadors, sent to compliment him after his father's death, 2 Sam. 10. 1 Chron. 19.-Calmet, HANWAY, (Jonas,) a Christian philanthropist, was born 1712, at Portsmouth Eng.; was engaged in mercantile pursuits as a Russian merchant, in the course of which he visited Persia ; and died in 1786. Hanway was a man of great, active humanity. He was the chief founder of H. A. R. H A R. [ 598 | the Marine society and the Magdalen hospital ; and con- tributed to the establishment of Sunday schools, and to the improvement of the condition of climbing boys. Besides his Travels in Persia, he published many other works, faulty in style, but benevolent in purpose.—Davenport. HAPPINESS, absolutely taken, denotes the durable possession of perfect good, without any mixture of evil; or the enjoyment of pure pleasure unalloyed with pain, or a state in which all our wishes are satisfied; in which senses, happiness is only known by name on this earth. The word happy, when applied to any state or condition of human life, will admit of no positive definition, but is merely a relative term ; that is, when we call a man hap- py, we mean that he is happier than some others with whom we compare him ; than the generality of others; or than he himself was in some other situation. Moralists justly observe, that happiness does not consist : in the pleasures of sense or imagination ; as eating, drink- * ing, music, painting, theatrical exhibitions, &c. &c.; for 4 these pleasures continue but a little while, by repetition lose their relish, and by high expectation often bring dis- appointment. Nor does happiness consist in an exemption from labor; care, business, &c.; such a state being usual- ly attended with depression of spirits, imaginary anxieties, and the whole train of hypochondriacal affections. Nor is it to be found in greatness, rank, or elevated stations, as matter of fact abundantly testifies; but happiness consists in the exercise of the dispositions, and the enjoyment of the blessings, pointed out by our Lord in his sermon on the mount, Matt. ch. 5–7. Rom. 5: 1–10. In subordination to these, human happiness may be greatly promoted by the exercise of the social affections; the pursuit of some en- gaging end, the prudent constitution of the habits, and the enjoyment of our health. Fuller's Works, vol. i. 263; Maclaurin's Sermons and Essays ; Foster's Essays; Tillotson's Sermons ; , Bolton and Lucas on Happiness ; Henry's Plea- santness of a Religious Life ; Grove and Paley's Mor. Phil., Barrow's Serm., Serm. 1; Young's Centaur, 41–160; Wollaston's Religion of Nature, sec. 2; Oliver's Hints on the Pursuit of Happiness; Bentham ; Spurzheim ; Divight's Theology; and Memoir of Rev. Samuel Pearce.—H. Buck. HARA; a city or district of Media, to which the Israel- ites of the ten tribes were transplanted by Tiglath-Pileser, 1 Chron. 5: 26.—Calmet. - HARADAH; a camp station of Israel, Numb. 33: 24. (See ExoDUs.) From its vicinity to Egypt, the place of bustle, or hasty removal.—Calmet. HARAN ; the eldest son of Terah, and brother to Abra- ham and Nahor. He was the father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah, Gen. 11:26, &c. Haran died before his father Terah. 2. HARAN, otherwise called Charran, in Mesopotamia; a city celebrated for having been the place to which Abra- ham removed first, aſter he leſt Ur, (Gen. 11:31, 32.) and where Terah was buried. Thither it was likewise that Jacob repaired to Laban, when he fled from Esau, Gen. 27:43. 28: 10, &c. Haran was situated in the north- western part of Mesopotamia, on a river of the same name, running into the Euphrates. Mr. Kinneir says, that Ha- ran, which is still so called, or rather Harran, is now peo- pled by a few families of wandering Arabs, who have been led thither by a plentiful supply of good water from several small streams. It is situated in thirty-six degrees fifty-two minutes north latitude, and thirty-nine degrees five minutes east longitude; in a flat and sandy plain. Some think that it was built by Terah, or by Haran, his eldest son.— Watson. HARD. “A hard heart,” denotes a mind void of holy affections; “a hard forehead,” determined, insolent. “I have made thy forehead hard against their foreheads;” (Ezek. 3: 8.) the Israelites are hardened to insensibility, have lost all shame; but I will make you still harder, still bolder in reproving evil, than they are in committing it, Isa. 50: 7.—Calmet. HARDNESS OF HEART. (See BLINDness.) . HARE, (Heb. arnabeth, Arab. arneb, Lev. 11; 6. Deut. 14: 7.) This name is derived, as Bochart and others sup- pose, from areh, to crop, and nib, the produce of the ground; these animals being remarkable for devouring young plants and herbage. This animal resembles the rabbit, but is larger, and somewhat longer in proportion to its thickness, The hare in Syria, says Dr. Russell, is distinguished into & § º: ;: §. sº SSSº f -- Žº % - āş *:S w §§ •. - sº º º . sº N. Mºº w fºr Yºº-jºº: : X sº §§º sº §§ º 5'1' 4's ſº ſº. *::::::S, § º - āşş 7% & S.S./ º sº º % :ºſſºgºſº º . . . . =s. §. *##$º sº- * - 3-2:2: š Svennºn; --- 2. *. .."-" -> º º NSN: . - ;2. .* > a & E*º-sº - 2×. • * [. ... 22:34 :=>SS - K - - - -º-; :* - ſ - % ºs- S- A*** - ! • º % s:- - - ... YūN- 11, it in thi * -*. { sº * ...Tº !!!!IIIſfſiiſ, - • ** Tºlls-----seat! º -—. e-mº- two species, differing considerably in point of size. The largest is the Turkman hare, and chiefly haunts the plains; the other is the common hare of the desert: both are abun- dant. The difficulty as to this animal is, that Moses says the arnabeth chews the cud; but Aristotle takes notice of the same circumstance, and affirms that the structure of its stomach is similar to that of ruminating animals. Cowper the poet also tells us that his three hares “chewed the cud all day till evening.” The animal here mentioned may then be a variety of the species.—Watson. - HARLOT; literally a common prostitute; (Prov. 29: 3.) but the term most commonly occurs in Scripture meta- phorically, to denote the unchaste conduct of the Israelites in mingling the worship of the true God with the impure and idolatrous rites of the heathen nations, in violation of the covenant which had been ratified between God and them, Isa. 1: 21.—Jones. HARMER, (Thomas,) author of the “Observations on various Passages of Scripture,” was the minister of a Dis- senting congregation at Wattesfield, near Bury St. Ed- munds, in the county of Suffolk; a station which he filled with no inconsiderable degree of reputation and honor, for more than half a century. He was much and deservedly esteemed in the literary world, not only for his eminent attainments in Oriental literature, but also for his skill in the study of antiquities. Availing himself of some manu- scripts of the celebrated Sir John Chardin, who had tra- velled into Persia and other Eastern countries, and in which he described the customs and manners of the inha- bitants of those nations, Mr. Harmer seized the idea of applying the information thus obtained to the illustration of many portions of the prophetical writings, and of the evangelists also ; and with so much success, that he was considered to have poured a flood of light on several texts which, till then, had been involved in obscurity. The first volume of the “Observations” appeared in 1764; in 1776, the work again made its appearance, in two vo- lumes, octavo ; and in 1787, were published two addi. tional volumes; a fourth edition, in ſour volumes, was called for in a short time afterwards; and, since the de- cease of the author, a fifth edition has been brought for. ward by the learned Adam Clarke, LL.D., in four vo- lumes, octavo, 1816, with considerable additions and cor- rections, to which is prefixed a life of the author. Mr. Harmer also published “Outlines of a New Commentary on Solomon's Song,” London, 1768, one volume, octavo ; reprinted in 1775; and a posthumous volume has recently made its appearance, entitled, “The Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. Thomas Harmer,” with an introductory me. moir, by William Youngman, London, 1823, octavo. Mr. Harmer was born at Norwich, in 1715, and died in 1788, at the advanced age of seventy-three. Watts' Bib. Brit.— Jones' Chris. Biog. - HARMONISTS; certain emigrants from Wurtemberg to America, between 1803 and 1805, under Mr. George Rapp, their pastor, being compelled to leave their native country, on account of the then government insisting upon H.A.R H A R. I 599 their attendance at the parish church, after some altera- tion had been made in the public service, which they did not approve. They formed an economy on the primitive plan of having “all things in common,” Acts 4:32. They laid out a town about a hundred and twenty miles north of Philadelphia, where they so well succeeded, that, in about 1814, they sold the whole concern, and removed to form a new establishment, on an improved plan, in Indi- ana, farther up the country. They profess the Protestant religion, but admit of universal toleration. They cultivate the learned languages and professions, and maintain strict morals, with a due observation of the Sabbath. One cus- tom is peculiar. They keep watch by turns at night; and, after crying the hour, add, “A day is past, and a step made nearer our end. Our time runs away, and the joys of heaven are our reward.” (See SHAKERs.) Philanthro- pist, No. xx.; Philanthropic Gazette, 1817, p. 340; 1818, p. 322; 1819, p. 61; Birkbeck's Travels.-Williams. HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS; a term made use of to denote the concurrence or agreement of the writings of the four evangelists; or the history of the four evange- lists, digested into one continued series. By this means each story or discourse is exhibited with all its concurrent circumstances; frequent repetitions are prevented, and a multitude of seeming oppositions reconciled. Among some of the most valuable harmonies, are those of Cra- dock, Le Clerc, Doddridge, Macknight, Newcome, Car- penter; Towson's able Harmony on the concluding part of the Gospels; and Thompson’s Diatessaron. To the theological student Griesbach’s Synopsis of the first three gospels, in Greek, with the various readings, is inva- luable. An admirable harmony of both the Old and New Testament has recently been published in England, by the Rev. J. Townsend; in which every book, passage, and verse, is inserted as nearly as possible in the order of time. * The term harmony is also used in reference to the agreement which the gospel bears to natural religion, to the Old Testament, to the history of other nations, and to the works of God at large.—Hend. Buck. HARNESS; the furniture of a horse, to render him fit for work or war; (Jer. 46: 4.) but it is more frequently taken for a set of defensive armor, 1 Kings 22: 34. (See ARMOR.)—Bronn. HAROD; a well or ſountain not far from Jezreel and mount Gilboa, so called from the apprehensions and fears of those who were here tried by Gideon, Judg. 7: 1, 3. “Palpitation” of the heart, as a symptom of alarm and terror.—Calmet. - HAROSHETH OF THE GENTILES; a city sup- posed to be situated near Hazor, in the northern parts of Canaan, called afterwards Upper Galilee, or Galilee of the Gentiles, for the same reason that this place probably ob- tained that title; namely, from being less inhabited by Jews, and being near the great resorts of the Gentiles, Tyre and Sidon. This is said to have been the residence of Sisera, the general of the armies of Jabin, king of Ca- naan, who reigned at Hazor.—Watson. HARP; a stringed musical instrument. The Hebrew ward kinaor, which is translated “harp” in our English version, very probably denoted all stringed instruments. By the Hebrews, the harp was called the pleasant harp; and 1t was employed by them, not only in their devotions, but also at their entertainments and pleasures. It is pro- bable, that the harp was nearly the earliest, if not the earliest, instrument of music. David danced when he played on the harp : the Levites did the same. Hence it appears, that it was light and portable, and that its size was restricted within limits which admitted of that service, and of that manner of using it.—Watson. HARRIS, (Robert, D. D.,) president of Trinity college, Oxford, was born at Broad Campden, Gloucestershire, 1578, and educated at Oxford. There he became a sub- ject of divine grace, and relinquishing the law, for which his father had designed him, devoted himself to theology. Receiving ordination from archbishop Bancroft, he became minister of Hanwell, where he continued forty years a la- borious and successful pastor. God gave him so rich a harvest, that of Hanwell it was said there was not a family in it where God's name was not called upon, nor a person that refused to be examined and instructed for the table of the Lord. Here he remained, blessed in himself and a blessing to his people, till the civil war in 1642, when he was driven by the king's soldiers to London. Here he was appointed minister of St. Botolph, and one of the as: sembly of divines. In 1647, he was made president of Trinity college, Oxford, and rector of Garlington, near Oxford, which is always annexed to it. He governed his college with great prudence, and was beloved by the stu- dents as a father. Here he continued till his death, in 1658, at the age of eighty. His last days were days of great suffering and great consolation. Being asked where his comfort lay, he answered, “In Christ and in the free grace of God.” One having observed that he might take much comfort in the labors of his useful life, he answered, “All is nothing without a Savior. Without him my best works would condemn me. Oh, I am ashamed of them, as they were mixed with so much sin! Oh, I am an unpro- fitable servant! I have not done any thing for God, as I ought. Loss of time sits heavily on my spirit. ...Work, work apace, assuring yourselves that nothing will more trouble you when you come to die, than that you have done no more for God, who hath done so much for you. I never in all my life saw the worth of Christ, nor tasted the sweetness of God’s love in that measure that I do now.” So deeply were these sentiments impressed upon his heart, that he wrote in his will, “I bequeath to all my children, and to their children's children, to each of them, a Bible with this inscription: NoNE BUT CHRIST!”—Middle- ton, vol. iii. 379. - HARRIS, (SAMUEL,) a Baptist minister, called the Apos- tle of Virginia, was born of respectable parentage, in Ha- nover county, January 12, 1724. Removing to Pittsylva- nia county, he there sustained various offices, as colonel of the militia, captain of Mayo fort, and commissioner for the fort and army. He was baptized about 1758. He soon began to preach diligently, but was not ordained un- til 1769. In his power over the affections of his hearers he was thought to be equal to Whitfield. The Virginians say, he seemed to pour forth streams of lightning from his eyes. His worldly offices he resigned, as he ascribed to them the diminution of his religious enjoyments. In 1774, the general association of Separate Baptists, thinking to re-establish the primitive order, as mentioned Eph. 4: 11, chose Mr. Harris apostle, and ordained him by the hands of every minister in that body. No other instance of such an extraordinary appointment is recollected. His pious zeal met the usual return of persecution. He was once pulled down from his stand, as he was preaching, and dragged by the hair, and once knocked down. , Having much property, he devoted the greater part to charitable purposes. The following anecdotes may illustrate his character. Meeting a pardoned criminal, who showed him his pardon received at the gallows, he asked, “Have you shown it to Jesus Christ?” “No, Mr. Harris, I want you to do it for me.” Accordingly the good man dismounted and kneeled, and, with the pardon in one hand and the other on the offender's head, rendered thanks and prayed for God’s par- don.—He once requested a debtor to pay him in wheat, as he had a good crop; but the man replied, that he did not intend to pay until he was sued. Unwilling to leave preaching to attend a vexatious suit, he wrote a receipt in full and presented it to the man, saying, he had sued him in the court of heaven; he should leave the affair with the Head of the church, with whom he might settle ano- ther day. The man soon loaded his wagon and sent him the wheat. Benedict, ii. 40–58, 330—339–Allen. HARRISON, (John, A. M.;) pastor of a congregation at Weathersfield, Essex, (Eng.) who died in 1749. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, and his fine talents, sanctified by divine grace, well rewarded cultiva- tion. As a minister he shone with peculiar lustre, preach- ing his sermons to himself in private before he delivered them in public to others. The week before he was seized with his last sickness he had spent in visiting his people, and found, to his unspeakable joy, that upwards of twenty had of late been savingly wrought upon by his ministry. This powerfully affected him with humble, admiring gra- titude and joy. He was favored in his last days with H A R H A R. [ 000 great spiritual happiness. Among other things he said, “Oh, I never saw so much as I do now ! Oh the astonish- ing, the inconceivable glory of the other world ! What discoveries have I had of it this day. I long, I long to be there ! I must have an eternity of praise ! Oh the unspeak- able, the substantial joys I feel ! I know that my Redeemer liveth ! This is glory begun . I am filled with God! My life is hid with Christ in God.” He particularly mentioned how much Dr. Owen's work on the Person of Christ had been blessed to him, especially the last chapter concerning the exercise of the mediatory office of Christ in heaven, and the state of the worship there.—Middleton, vol. iv. 277. HART, (ail, Deut. 12: 15. 14: 5. Ps. 42: 1. Isa. 35: 6;) the stag, or male deer. Dr. Shaw considers its name in * - * § º - 3 º § W º N Sºº es *NS&Sº - * * ... *s- asy y; ; ; ޺ , ºr - Šºšš Hebrew as a generic word, including all the species of the deer kind; whether they are distinguished by round horns, as the stag; or by flat ones, as the fallow deer; or by the smallness of the branches, as the roe. Mr. Good observes that the hind and roe, the hart and the antelope, were held, and still continue to be, in the highest estimation in all the Eastern countries, for the voluptuous beauty of their eyes, the delicate elegance of their form, or their graceful agility of action. The names of these animals were perpetually applied, therefore, to persons, whether male or female, who were supposed to be possessed of any of their respec- tive qualitics. In 2 Sam, 1: 19, Saul is denominated “the roe of Israel;” and in the eighteenth verse of the ensuing chapter, we are told that “Asahel was as light of foot as a wild roe :” a phraseology perfectly synonymous with the epithet snift-footed, which Homer has so frequently be- stowed upon his hero Achilles. Thus again : “Her princes are like harts which find no pasture; they are fled without strength before their pursuers,” Lam. 1: 6. “The Lord Jehovah is my strength ; he will make my feet like hinds’ feet; he will cause me to tread again on my own hills,” Hab. 3:19. (See HIND.)— Watson. HART, (OLIVER, M. A.;) an eminent minister of Charleston, South Carolina. He was born in 1723, at Warminster, Pennsylvania; baptized in 1740, on profes- sion of his faith; and ordained to the gospel ministry in 1749. The same year, he succeeded Mr. Chanler at Charleston, as pastor of the Baptist church, where he la- bored honorably and successfully for thirty years. Many owned him as a spiritual father, among whom was the late Rev. Dr. Stillman, of Boston. Mr. Hart was a self- educated man. His countenance was open and manly; his voice clear, harmonious, and commanding; the powers of his mind were strong and capacious, enriched by a fund of useful knowledge, classical, scientific, and theolo- gical; and his taste was elegant and refined. He wrote much devotional poetry. But as a Christian and a pastor he was most conspicuous. He walked with God. The doctrines of free and efficacious grace were precious to him. His desire of usefulness was ardent and incessant. He was a prime mover in forming an Association of the churches. He also originated a society for educating young ministers of the gospel to enlarged usefulness. In 1775, he was chosen by the council of safety to tra- vel, in conjunction with Rev. William Tennent and IHon. William H. Drayton, in the interior, to conciliate the in- habitants of South Carolina to the measures of congress. In consequence of his successful efforts in this way, he was obliged to leave Charleston, in 1780, to avoid falling into the hands of the British. He settled at Hopewell, New Jersey, the same year, where he remained till his death, in 1795, at the age of seventy-two. He died in the triumph of faith, exclaiming, “Enough, enough P-Benedict, vol. ii. 323. HART, (Levi, D. D.,) minister of Preston, Connecticut, was graduated at Yale college, in 1760, and died, October 27, 1808, aged sixty-nine. Receiving from the gift of God a sound and vigorous mind, it was much improved by his scientific and literary acquisitions. Many young men were trained up by him for the ministry. He engaged zealously in the support of missionary institutions, and the progress of the gospel was the theme of his correspon- dence with a number of respectable friends of religion in Europe. He published several sermons. Panop. and Miss. Mag. i. 287, 288.—Allen. HARWARD, (John ;) the founder of Harvard college. He had been a minister in England; and aſter his arrival in this country, he preached a short time in Charlestown, where he died, in 1638. He left a legacy of seven hum- dred and seventy-nine pounds to the school at Newton, or Cambridge, aſterwards the college called by his name. Precisely one hundred and ninety years after his death, a granite monument was erected to his memory, September 26, 1828, on the top of the burying hill in Charlestown. Magnalia, iv. 126; Everett's Address; Hist. Coll. i. 242; Neal, i. 199; Holmes, i. 247; Hutchinson, i. 90–Allen. HARVEST. Three months intervened between the seed-time and the first reaping, and a month between this and the full harvest. Barley is in full ear all over the Holy Land, in the beginning of April; and about the middle of the same month, it begins to turn yellow, parti- cularly in the southern district; being as forward near Jericho in the latter end of March, as it is in the plains of Acre a fortnight afterwards. The reaping continues till the middle of Sivan, or till about the end of May or begin ning of June, which, as the time of wheat-harvest, finishes this part of the husbandman’s labors. 2. The reapers in Palestine and Syria make use of the sickle in cutting down their crops, and, according to the present custom in this country, “fill their hand” with the corn, and those who bind up the sheaves, their “bosom,” Ps. 129: 7. Ruth 2: 5. When the crop is thin and short, which is generally the case in light soils, and with their imperſect cultivation, it is not reaped with the sickle, but plucked up by the root with the hand. By this mode of reaping, they leave the most fruitful fields as naked as if nothing had ever grown on them ; and as no hay is made in the East, this is done, that they may not lose any of the straw, which is necessary for the sustenance of their cat- tle. The practice of plucking up with the hand is perhaps referred to in Ps. 129: 7. The tops of the houses in Judea are flat, and, being covered with plaster of terrace, are frequently grown over with grass. As it is but small and weak, and from its elevation exposed to the scorching sun, it is soon withered. A more beautiful and striking figure, to display the weak and evanescent condition of wicked men, cannot easily be conceived. 3. The reapers go to the field very early in the morning, and return home betimes in the afternoon. They carry provisions along with them, and keathern bottles, or dried bottle gourds, filled with water. They are followed by their own children, or by others, who glean with much success; for a great quantity of corn is scattered in the reaping, and in their manner of carrying it. The greater part of these circumstances are discernible in the - H As H A T [ 601 | §3. , . . . . . anners of the ancient Israelites. Ruth had not proposed to Naomi, her mother-in-law, to go to the field, and glean after the reapers; nor had the servant of Boaz, to whom she applied for leave, so readily granted her request, if gleaning had not been a common practice in that country. When Boaz inquired who she was, his overseer, after in- forming him, observes, that she came out to the field in the morning; and that the reapers left the field early in the aſternoon, as Dr. Russell states, is evident from this circumstance, that Ruth had time to beat out her glean- ings before evening. They carried water and provisions with them; for Boaz invited her to come and drink of the water which the young men had drawn ; and at meal- time, to eat of the bread, and dip her morsel in the vine- gar. And so great was the simplicity of manners in that part of the world, and in those times, that Boaz himself, although a prince of high rank in Judah, sat down to din- ner in the field with his reapers, and helped Ruth with his own hand. Nor ought we to pass over in silence the mu- tual salutation of Boaz and his reapers, when he came to the field, as it strongly marks the state of religious feeling in Israel at the time, and furnishes another proof of the artless, the happy, and unsuspecting simplicity, which characterized the manners of that highly favored people. “And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto the reapers, The Lord be with you. And they answered him, The Lord bless thee,” Ruth 2:4. It appears from the beautiful history of Ruth, that, in Palestine, the women lent their assistance in cutting down and gathering the harvest; for Boaz commands her to keep fast by his maidens. The women in Syria shared also in the labors of the harvest; for Dr. Russell informs us, they sang the ziraleet, or song of thanks, when the passing stranger accepted their present of a handful of corn, and made a suitable return. It was another custom among the Jews to set a confidential servant over the reap- ers, to see that they executed their work properly, that they had suitable provisions, and to pay them their wages: the Chaldees call him rab, the master, ruler, or governor of the reapers. Such was the person who directed the labors of the reapers in the field of Boaz. The right of the poor in Israel to glean after the reapers was secured by a positive law, couched in these words: “And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy land; neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard : thou shalt leave them to the poor and the stranger: I am the Lord your God,” Lev. 19:9. It is the opinion of some writers, that, although the poor were al- lowed the liberty of gleaning, the Israelitish proprietors were not obliged to admit them immediately into the field, as soon as the reapers had cut down the corn, and bound it up in sheaves, but when it was carried off: they might choose, also, among the poor, whom they thought most deserving, or most necessitous. These opinions receive some countenance from the request which Ruth presented to the servant of Boaz, to permit her to glean “among the sheaves;” and from the charge of Boaz to his young men, “Let her glean even among the sheaves:” a mode of speaking which seems to insinuate, that though they could not legally hinder Ruth from gleaning in the field, they had a right, if they chose to exercise it, to prohibit her from gleaning among the sheaves, or immediately after the reapers.—Watson. - HASSIDEANS, or AssiDEANs; those Jews who resorted to Mattathias, to fight for the laws of God and the liberties of their country. They were men of great valor and zeal, having voluntarily devoted themselves to a more strict ob- servation of the law than other men. For, after the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, there were two sorts of men in their church—those who contented them- selves with that obedience only which was prescribed by the law of Moses, and who were called Zadikim, i. e. the righteous; and those who, over and above the laws, super- added the constitutions and traditions of the elders, and other rigorous observances: these latter were called the Chasidim, i. e. the pious. From the former sprang the Sadducees and Caraites: from the latter, the Pharisees and Essenes, which see-ºff Buck. 6 HASTE ; HASTEN. To hasten righteousness is to exe. cute judgment and justice with all proper speed, Isa. 16: 5. To hasten to the coming of the day of God, is earnestly to long after and prepare for the last judgment, 2 Pet. 3: 12.-Bronyn. HASTINGS, (Lady ELISABETH,) was born on the 19th of April, in the year 1682. She was the daughter of Theo- philus, earl of Huntingdon. In her early years she evin':- ed much prudence, united to a sound judgment, good tem- per, and an excellent understanding. But in lady Has- tings these were not the only gems: she shone with a more resplendent lustre; and her heart was as excellent and as dignified, as her person was lovely. It had early been impressed with the great importance of religion ; and through life she discovered, that true religion imparted Solid pleasures, and, at death, yielded the most lasting and sweetest comforts. To piety she united a great mind, and considered that learning, when blended with piety, was profitable and desi- rable. At the age of twenty-seven, she was noticed by Congreve, in the Tatler, under the name of the divine As- pasia, who remarked, that “her countenance was the lively picture of her mind, which was the seat of honor, truth, compassion, knowledge, and innocence.” Lady Hastings chose for her companions the wise and the good; she sought not the adulation of the giddy and frivolous, but despised that praise which to her appeared censure in disguise. She wrote much and well; but such was her modesty, that she would not consent to publish many of her valua- ble productions, though some were suffered to be commu- nicated to the world. She began every day with supplica- tions and praises to God the most ardent and sincere; and by such exercises she was rendered more fit for the occu- pations and trials of her life. She much delighted in pub- lic worship, which she very constantly attended; to the poor she was compassionate and kind, visiting them her- self, and relieving every object that came within her search. Her ladyship's never-failing rule was, “to give the first place to justice, the second to charity, and the third to gene- rosity.” The last was exemplified in her ladyship in no ordinary degree. Five hundred pounds a year she gave to one relative, three thousand pounds she presented to another relative; and to a young friend, who had very much impaired her fortune by engaging in the South sea scheme, she gave three hundred guineas. But her life, though useful, at length drew to a close: disease com- menced, “and she indeed learned that through much tribu- lation the people of God are to enter his kingdom.” She annexed a codicil to her will, containing the devise of her manor of Wheldale to the provost and scholars of Queen's college, Oxford, for the education of students for the minis- try; and, indeed, her whole fortune was dedicated to the cause of truth and religion. She died December 22, 1739, aged fifty-seven years.-Jones' Chris. Biog. HATE. To hate is not always to be understood rigor- ously, but frequently signifies merely a less degree of love. “If a man have two wives, one beloved and another hated;” (Deut. 24: 15.) that is, less beloved. Our Savior says that he who would follow him must hate father and mother; that is, he must love them less than Christ, less than his own salvation, and not prefer them to God. “Ja- cob have I loved, and Esau have I hated;” that is, have deprived of the privileges of his primogeniture, through his own profaneness; and visited him with severe judg- ment on account of his sins.—Watson. HATRED, is the aversion of the will to any object con- sidered by us as evil, or to any person or thing we suppose can do us harm. (See ANTIPATHY.) Hatred is ascribed to God, but it is not to be considered as a passion in him as in man; nor can he hate any of the creatures he has made, as his creatures. Yet he is said to hate the wicked, (Ps. 5.) and indignation and wrath, tribulation and an- guish, will be upon every soul of man that does evil, Rom. 2: 9. § WRATH OF GOD.)—Hend. Buck. HATTEMISTS; in ecclesiastical history, the name of a modern Dutch sect; so called from Pontian Van Hattem, a minister in the province of Zealand, towards the close of the last century, who, being addicted to the sentiments of Spinosa, was on that account degraded from his pasto. ral office. The Werschorists and Hattemists resemble each H A W [602 | other in their religious systems, though they never So en- tirely agreed as to form one communion. The founders of these sects deduced from the doctrine of absolute de- crees a system of fatal and uncontrollable mecessity; they denied the difference between moral good and evil, and the corruption of human nature; from whence they fur- ther concluded, that mankind were under no sort of obli- gation to correct their manners, to improve their minds, or to obey the divine laws; that the whole of religion con- sisted not in acting, but in suffering; and that all the pre- cepts of Jesus Christ are reducible to this one,—that we bear with cheerfulness and patience the events that happen to us through the divine will, and make it our constant and only study to maintain a perfect tranquillity of mind. Thus far they agreed: but the Hattemists further affirmed, that Christ made no expiation for the sins of men by his death; but had only suggested to us, by his mediation, that there was nothing in us that could offend the Deity : this, they say, was Christ's manner of justifying his ser: vants, and presenting them blameless before the tribunal of God. It was one of their distinguishing tenets, that God does not punish men for their sins, but by their sims. These two sects, says Mosheim, still subsist, though they no longer bear the names of their ſounders.-Hend. Buck. HAURAN. The tract of country of this name is men- tioned only twice in Scripture, Ezek. 47: 16, 18. . It was probably of small extent in the time of the Jews; but was enlarged under the Romans, by whom it was called Aura- nitis. At present it extends from about twenty miles south pf Damascus to a little below Bozra, including the rocky district of El Ledja, the ancient Trachonitis, and the moun- tainous one of the Djebel Haouran. Within its limits are also included, besides Trachomitis, Ituraea or Ittur, now called Dejedour, and part of Batanaea or Bashan. It is represented by Burckhardt as a volcanic region, consisting of a porous tufa, pumice, and basalt, with the remains of a crater on the Tel Shoba, on its eastern side. It produces, however, crops of corn, and has many patches of luxu- riant herbage, which are frequented in the summer by the Arab tribes for pasturage. It abounds, also, with many interesting remains of cities, scattered over its surface, with Grecian inscriptions. . The chief of these are Bozra, Ezra, Medjel, Shoba, Shakka, Souerda, IQanouat, Hebran, Zarle, Oerman, and Aatyl; with Messema, Berak, and Om Ezzeitoun, in the Ledja.--Watson. " HAVEN, (NATHANIEI, APPLETON,) was born January 14, 1790; graduated at Harvard college in 1807; and set- tled as a lawyer at Portsmouth, where he died of the scar- let fever, Juñe 3, 1826, aged thirty-six. He wrote some fine poetry, and many valuable articles for the Portsmouth Journal, which he edited from 1821 to 1825. He wrote also for the North American Review. He was a member of the Rev. Dr. Parker's church, in Portsmouth, and for six years superintended a large and flourishing Sabbath school. His Remains, with a memoir by George Ticknor, were published in 1827. N. II, IIist. Col. ii. p. 229–235. —Allen. HAVILAH; the son of Cush, Gen. 10: 7. There must have been other, and perhaps many, Havilahs besides the original one, a part of the numerous and wide-spread posterity of Cush. By one and the first of these, it is pro- bable that the western shores of the Persian gulf were peopled; by another, the country of Colchis; and by an- other, the parts 2bout the southern border of the Dead sea and the confines of Judea, the country afterwards inhabit- ed by the Amalekites.—Watson. HAVOTH-JAIR. The Hebrew and Arabic Havoth or Avoſh signifies cabins, or huts, such as belong to the Ara- hians, and are placed in a circle; such a collection of them forming a hamlet or village. The district mentioned in Num. 32: 41. Deut. 3: 14, were in the Batanaea, beyond Jordan, in the land of Gilead, and belonged to the half- tribe of Manasseh.-Calmet. HAWK, (nets ;) from the root netsa, to fly, because of the rapidity and length of flight for which this bird is re- markable, Lev. 11: 16. Deut. 14: 15. Job 39: 26. Naz is used generically by the Arabian writers to signify both fal- con and hawk; and the term is given in both these senses by *!eninski. There can be little doubt that such is the real meaning of the Hebrew word, and that it imports various * species of the falcon family, as jer-ſalcon, goshawk, and sparrow-hawk. As this is a bird of prey, cruel in its tenn- º: B Af $º §ºss º lºs ; : § ſº; º £º 3 * §§§: §§§ .” Sº º **.*. jº: § º § §§§ § º º | W §§ §§ºš i º § § º § per, and gross in 1ts manners, it was forbidden as food, and all others of its kind, in the Mosaic ritual. The Greeks consecrated the hawk to Apollo; and among the Egyp- tians no animal was held in so high veneration as the ibis and the hawk. Most of the species of hawk, we are told, are birds of pâssage. The hawk, therefore, is produced, in Job 39:26, as a specimen of that astonishing instinct which teaches birds of passage to know their times and seasons, when to migrate out of one country into another for the benefit of food, or a warmer climate, or both. The common translation does not give the full ſorce of the pas- Sage.— Watson. - HAWLEY, (GIDEoN,) missionary to the Indians, was a native of Connecticut, and was graduated at Yale college in 1749. He commenced his missionary labors in Februa- ry, 1752, at Stockbridge. In July, 1754, Mr. Hawley was ordained at Boston, that his usefulness might be in- creased by being authorized to administer the ordinances of the gospel. In 1757, the commissioners of the Society for propagating the gospel persuaded him to visit the tribe of Indians at Marshpee, whose pastor, Mr. Briant, had been dismissed, and who were dissatisfied with the labors of Mr. Smith. Here he was installed, April 10, 1758, and passed the remainder of his life, being occupied in this place more than half a century in benevolent exertions to enlighten the darkened mind, and to promote the Salvation of his Indian brethren. He died October 3, 1807, aged eighty years. - In his last sickness he observed, “I have hope of accep- tance with God, but it is ſounded wholly on free and sove- reign grace, and not at all on my own works. It is true, my labors have been many; but they have been so very imperfect, attended with so great a want of charity and humility, that I have no hope in them as the ground of my acceptance.” Panoplist, iii. 431; IIist. Col. iii. 188–193; iv. 50—67.—Allen. - HAY. (See GRAss.) & - IIAZAEL; a striking example of self-deception, 2 Kings 8: 7–13. He was an officer of Benhadad, king of Syria, who sent him to the prophet Elisha to inquire the issue of his sickness. Looking him steadfastly in the face, Elisha burst into tears. Surprised at this conduct, Hazael inquir- ed the cause, “Because I know,” said the prophet, “the evil that thou wilt do to the children of Israel: their strong’ holds wilt thou set on fire, and their young men wilt thou slay with the Sword, and wilt dash their inſants against the stones, and rip up their women with child.” Hazael indignantly exclaimed, “Is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing?” Elisha merely answered, “The Lord hath showed me that thou shalt be king over Syria.” On his return home, Hazael concealed from his master Benhadad the prophet's answer, and inspired him with hopes of recovery ; but, on the following day, he took effectual means to prevent it, by stifling the king with a thick cloth dipped with cold water; and, as Benhadad had no son, and Hazael was a man much esteemed in the ar. my, he was without difficulty declared his successor, A. M. 3120. Mr. Taylor thinks Hazael did not intend the death of his master, since similar applications are some- times used in the East, in cases of ſever. This seems an *.** l, ºf al º - Mº- º sº sº º - * * * º w tº " . . - *- vº ..º.º. tº . Nºt ºf S Sº [ 603 J H E A º excess of charity. Hazael soon inflicted upon Israel all the cruelties which Elisha had foretold, 2 Kings 10: 32. 12: 17, 18, 13:22. 2 Chron. 24; 23.—Calmet; Watson. HAZERIM, HAZEROTH, HAzor, AZEROTHAIM, are all names which signify villages or hamlets; and are often put before the names of places. There is a town called Hazor in Arabia Petraea, in all probability the same as Hazerim, the ancient habitation of the Hivites, before they were driven away by the Caphtorim, (Deut. 2: 23.) who settled in Palestine. It seems also to be the Haze- roth, where the Hebrews encamped, Num. 11:35. 12; 16. 33: 15.-Calmet. HAZEZON-TAMAR ; a town (Gen. 14: 7.) called En- gedi in Josh. 15: 62. 1 Sam. 24: 1. 2 Chron. 20: 2. Cant. 1: 14. Ezek. 47: 10.— Calmet. HEAD. This word has several significations, besides its natural one, which denotes the head of a man. It is taken for one that hath rule and pre-eminence over others. Thus God is the head of Christ; as Mediator, from him he derives all his dignity and authority. Christ is the only spiritual head of the church, both in respect of eminence and influence; he communicates life, motion, and strength to every believer. Also the husband is the head of his wife, because by God’s ordinance he is to rule over her; (Gen. 3: 16.) also in regard to pre-eminence of sex, (1 Peter 3: 7.) and excellency of knowledge, 1 Cor. 14:35. The apostle mentions this subordination of per- sons in 1 Cor. 11: 3:—“But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the wo- man is the man, and the head of Christ is God.” “The stone which the builders rejected was made the head of the corner,” Ps. 118: 22. It was the first in the angle, whether it were disposed at the top of that angle, to adorn and crown it, or at the bottom, to support it. This, in the New Testament, is applied to Christ, who is the strength and beauty of the church, to unite the several parts of it, namely, both Jews and Gentiles, together.—Watson. HEAP. In early times heaps of stones were erected to preserve the memory of events. (See STONEs.)—Calmet. HEAR, or HEARING. It literally denotes the exercise of that bodily sense, of which the ear is the organ; to re- ceive information by the ear; (2 Sam. 15: 10.) and, as hearing is a sense by which instruction is conveyed to the mind, and the mind excited to attention and obedience, so the ideas of attention and obedience are grafted on the expression or sense or hearing. The caution to take heed how we hear, or what we hear, as it includes application, reception, and practice, was never more necessary than in the present day among ourselves; never was the necessity greater for appealing “to the law and to the testimony.” —Calmet. HEARING THE WORD OF GOD, is an ordinance of ºne appointment, Rom. 10: 17. Prov. 8: 4. Mark 4: 4 Public reading of the Scriptures was a part of syna- gogue worship, (Acts 13: 15. 15:21.) and was the practice of the Christians in primitive times. Under the former dispensation there was a public hearing of the law at stated seasons, Deut. 31: 10, 13. Neh. 8: 2, 3. It seems, therefore, that it is a duty incumbent on us to hear, and, if sensible of our ignorance, we shall also consider it our privilege. As to the manner of hearing, it should be con- stantly, Prov. 8:34. Jam. 1: 24, 25. Attentively, Luke 21: 38. Acts 10: 33. Luke 4: 20, 22. With reverence, Ps. 89: 7. With faith, Heb. 4: 2. With an endeavor to retain what we hear, Heb. 2: 1. Ps. 119: 11. With an humble, docile disposition, Luke 10: 42. With prayer, Luke 18. The advantages of hearing are, Information, 2 Tim. 3: 16. Conviction, 1 Cor, 14:24, 25. Acts 2. Conversion, Ps. 11: 7. Acts 4: 4. Confirmation, Acts 14: 22. 15: 5. Consola- tion, Phil. 1:25. Isa. 40: 1, 2, 35: 3, 4. Stennet's Parable of the Sonyer; Massillon's Serm. vol. ii.; Buckminster’s do. ; Gill’s Body of Div. vol. iii. p. 340, oct. ed., Works of Ro- bert Hall, vol. i. p. 249; Divight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. IIEART. The Hebrews used this word for the soul, comprehending all its feelings and faculties. Hence are derived many modes of expression. “An honest and good heart,” (Luke 8: 15.) is a heart studious of holiness, being prepared by the Spirit of God to receive the word with due affections, dispositions, and resolutions. We read of an evil heart, a broken heart, a clean heart, a liberal heart. To “turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers,” (Mal. 4: 6.) signifies to cause them to be perfectly reconciled, on the principles of true piety. To want heart; sometimes denotes to want wisdom and resolution :--“Ephraim is like a silly dove, without heart,” Hosea 7: 11. “O fools, and slow of heart;” (Luke 24; 25.) that is, ignorant, and reluctant to admit unwelcome truth. “This people's heart is waxed gross, lest they should understand with their heart;” (Matt. 13: 15.) their heart is through sin become incapable of un- derstanding spiritual things; they resist the light, and are proof against all impressions of truth. “The prophets prophesy out of their own heart;” (Ezek. 13: 2.) that is, according to their own imagination, without any warrant from God. To walk in the ways of one's heart, is to pre- fer pleasures to God, Eccl. 11:9. The heart is said to be dilated by joy, contracted by Sadr ness, broken by sorrow, to grow fat, and be hardened, by prosperity. The heart melts under discouragement, forsakes one under terror, is desolate in affliction, and fluctuating in doubt. To speak to any one's heart is to comfort him, to say pleasing and affecting things to him. The heart of man is naturally depraved and inclined to evil, Jer. 17: 9. A divine power is requisite for its reno- vation, Deut. 30:6. Jer. 31: 33. 32: 38–40. Ez. 18; 31. John 3: 1–11. When thus renewed, the effects will be seen in the temper, conversation, and conduct at large. Hardness of heart is that state in which a sinner is in clined to, and actually goes on in rebellion against God. This state evidences itselſ by light views of the evil of sin; partial acknowledgment and confession of it; fre- quent commission of it; pride and conceit; ingratitude; unconcern about the word and ordinances of God; imat- tention to divine providences; stifling convictions of con- science ; shunning reproof; presumption, and general ignorance of divine things. We must distinguish, how- ever, between that hardness of heart which even a good man complains of, and that of a judicial nature. 1. Judi- cial hardness is very seldom perceived, and never lament- ed; a broken and contrite heart is the last thing such desire; but it is otherwise with believers, for the hardness they feel is always a matter of grief to them, Rom. 7: 24. 2. Judicial hardness is perpetual; or, if ever there be any remorse or relenting, it is only at such times when the sinner is under some outward afflictions, or filled with the dread of the wrath of God; but as this wears off, or abates, his stupidity returns as much as, or more than ever; (Exod. 9: 27.) but true believers, when no adverse dispensations trouble them, are often distressed because their hearts are no more affected in holy duties, or inflamed with love to God, Rom. 7: 15. 3. Judicial hardness is attended with a total neglect of duties, especially those that are secret ; but that hardness of heart which a believer complains of, though it occasions his going uncomfortably in duty, yet does not keep him from it, Job. 23: 2, 3. 4. When a per- son is judicially hardened, he makes use of indirect and unwarrantable methods to maintain that false peace which he thinks himself happy in the enjoyment of ; but a be- liever, when complaining of the hardness of his heart, cannot be satisfied with any thing short of Christ, Ps. 101: 2. 5. Judicial hardness generally opposes the interest of truth and godliness; but a good man considers this as a cause nearest his heart; and although he have to lament his lukewarmness, yet he constantly desires to promote it, Ps. 72; 19. (See BLINDNess; and HARDNEss of HEART.) Reeping the heart is a duty enjoined in the sacred Scrip- tunes. It consists, says Mr. Flavel, in the diligent and constant use and improvement of all holy means and du- ties to preserve the soul from sin, and maintain commu- nion with God; and this, he properly observes, supposes a previous work of sanctification, which hath set the heart right by giving it a new bent and inclination. 1. It in- cludes frequent observation of the frame of the heart, Ps. 77; 6. 2. Deep humiliation for heart evils and disorders, 2 Chron. 32: 26. 3. Earnest supplication for heart puri- fying and rectifying grace, Ps. 19:12. 4. A constant, holy jealousy over our hearts, Prov. 27: 14. 5. It includes the realizing of God's presence with us, and setting him before us, Ps. 16:8. Gen. 17: 1. H E A H E A L 604 ) This is, 1. The hardest work; heart work is hard work Indeed. 2. Constant work, Exod. 17: 12. 3 The most important work, Prov. 23:26. - * This is a duty which should be attended to, if we con- sider it in connexion with, 1. The honor of God, Isa. 66: 3. 2. The sincerity of our profession, 2 Kings 10: 31. Ezek. 33:31, 32. 3. The beauty of our conversation, Prov. 12:26. Ps. 45: 1. 4. The comfort of our souls, 2 Cor. 13: 5. 5. The improvement of our graces, Ps, 63: 5, 6. 6. The stability of our souls in the hour of tempta- tion, 1 Cor, 16: 13. . The seasons in which we should more particularly keep our hearts are, 1. The time of prosperity, Deut. 6: 10, 12. 2. Under afflictions, Heb. 7: 5, 6. , 3. The time of Sion's troubles, Ps. 46: 1, 4. 4. In the time of great and threat- ening dangers, Isa. 26:20, 21. 5. Under great wants, Phil. 4: 6, 7, 6. In the time of duty, Lev. 10: 3. 7. Un- der injuries received, Rom. 11: 17, &c. 8. In the critical hour of temptation, Matt. 26: 41. 9. Under dark and doubting seasons, Heb. 12:8. Isa. 50: 10, 10. In time of opposition and suffering, 1 Pet. 4: 12, 13. 11. The time of sickness and death, Jer, 49: 11. The means to be made use of to keep our hearts are, 1. Watchfulness, Mark 13:37. 2. Examination, Prov. 4: 26. 3. Prayer, Luke 18: 1. 4. Reading God’s word, John 5: 39, 5. Dependence on divine grace, Ps. 86; 11. See Flavel on Keeping the Heart ; Jamieson's Sermons on the Heart ; Wright on Self-possession ; Ridgley’s Div. qu. 29; Onven on Indivelling Sin ; Fuller's Works,—Hend. Buck. HEATH, Jer. 17:6. Taylor and Parkhurst render it, “a blasted tree stripped of its foliage.” If it be a par- ticular tree, the tamarisk is as likely as any. Celsius thinks it to be the juniper; but from the mention of it as growing in a salt land, in parched places, the author of “Scripture Illustrated” is disposed to seek it among the lichens, a species of plants which are the last production of vegetation under the frozen zone, and under the glow- ing heat of equatorial deserts; so that it seems best quali- fied to endure parched places, and a salt land. Hassel- quist mentions several kinds seen by him in Egypt, Ara- bia, and Syria. The Septuagint translators render it in Jer. 48: 6, onos agrios, (nild ass;) and as this seems best to agree with the flight recommended in the passage, it is to be preferred. (See Ass, WILD.)—Watson. HEATHEN, (from heath, barren, uncultivated;) pagans who worship false gods, and are not acquainted either with the doctrines of the Old Testament or the Christian dispensation. For many ages before Christ, the nations at large were destitute of the true religion, and gave themselves up to the grossest ignorance, the most absurd idolatry, and the greatest crimes. Even the most learned men among the heathens were in general inconsistent, and complied with, or promoted, the vain customs they found among their countrymen. It was, however, divinely foretold, that in Abraham's seed all nations should be blessed ; that the heathen should be gathered to the Savior, and become his people, Gen. 22: 18, 49; 10, Ps. 2:8. Isa. 42: 6, 7. Ps. 72. Isa. 60. In order that these promises might be ac- complished, vast numbers of the Jews, aſter the Chaldean captivity, were left scattered among the heathen ; the Old Testament was translated into Greek, the most com- mon language of the heathen ; and a rumor of the Sa- vior's appearance in the flesh was spread far and wide among them. When Christ came, he preached chiefly in Galilee, where there were multitudes of Gentiles. He assured the Greeks that vast numbers of the heathen should be brought into the church, Matt. 4: 23. John 12: 20, 24. For seventeen hundred years past the Jews have been generally rejected, and the church of God has been com- posed of the Gentiles. Upwards of four hundred and eighty millions, (nearly half the globe,) however, are sup- posed to be yet in pagan darkness. Considerable attempts have been made of late years for the enlightening of the heathen ; and there is every reason to believe immense good has been done. From the aspect of Scripture pro- phecy, we are led to expect that the kingdoms of the hea- then at large s'all be brought to the light of the gospel, Matt. 24; 14. ſsa. 60. Ps. 22: 28, 29. 2: 7, 8. It has been much disputed whether it be possible that the heathen should be saved without the knowledge of the gospel: some have absolutely denied it, upon the au- thority of those texts which universally require faith in Christ ; but to this it is answered, that those texts regard only those to whom the gospel comes, and are capable of understanding the contents of it. The truth, says Dr. Doddridge, seems to be this : that none of the heathens will be condemned for not believing the gospel, but they are liable to condemnation for the breach of God’s natural law; nevertheless, if there be any of them in whom there is a prevailing love to the Divine Being, there seems rea- son to believe that, for the sake of Christ, though to them unknown, they may be accepted by God; and so much the rather, as the ancient Jews, and even the apostles, during the time of our Savior’s abode on earth, seem to have had but little motion of evangelical truth, Rom. 2: 10–22. Acts 10:34, 35. Matt. 8: 11, 12. Saurin, Mr. Grove, Dr. Watts, and Mr. Newton, favor the same opin. ion. Still whether there are any such where the gospel has not penetrated, must ever be a matter of uncertainty; and the language of our Lord’s commission binds us to Send them the gospel as the only known means of salva- tion, Mark 16: 16. Rom. 1: 16. 10: 1–15. Newton's Messiah; Dr. Watts' Strength and Weakness of Human Reason, p. 106; Saurin's Sermons, vol. ii. p. 314; Grove's Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 128; Turret Loc., vol. i. quaest. 4, § 1, 2, 17; Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 240, vol. ii. 8vo. edit. ; Bellamy's Religion Delineated, p. 105; Ridgley’s Body of Divinity, qu. 60; Gale's Court of the Gentiles ; Considerations on the Religious Worship of the Heathen ; Rev. W. Jones' Works, vol. xii; Ward's Letters ; Wayland, Wisner, and Tyler's Missionary Sermons; Am. Bap. Mag. for 1834.—Hend. Buck. HEAVEN ; the centre and metropolis of the universe, in which the omnipresent Deity affords a nearer and more immediate view of his perfections, and a more sensible manifestation of his glory, than in the other parts of the divine kingdom, 1 Kings 8:27. Isa. 63:15. 66:1. Matt. 6:9. The Jews enumerated three heavens: the first was the region of the air, where the birds fly, and which are therefore called “the fowls of heaven,” Job 35: 11. It is in this sense also that we read of the dew of heaven, the clouds of heaven, and the wind of heaven. The second is that part of space in which are fixed the heavenly lu. minaries, the sun, moon, and stars, and which Moses was instructed to call “the firmament or expanse of heaven,” Gen. 1:8. The third heaven, of which the Jewish holy of holies was the interesting type, is the seat of God and of the holy angels; the place into which Christ as- cended after his resurrection, and into which St. Paul was caught up, though it is not, like the other heavens, per- ceptible to mortal view, John 3: 12, 13. Heb. 8:1. 9:24. That there is a state of future happiness, both reason and Scripture indicate; a general motion of happiness after death has obtained among the wiser sort of heathens, who have only had the light of nature to guide them. If we examine the human mind, it is also evident that there is a natural desire after happiness in all men ; and, which is equally evident, is not attained in this life. It is no less observable, that in the present state there is an un- equal distribution of things, which makes the providences of God very intricate, and which cannot be solved without supposing a ſuture state. Revelation, however, puts it beyond all doubt. The Divine Being hath promised it, (1 John 2: 25. 5: 11. James 1: 12.) hath given us some intimation of its glory, (1 Pet. 3: 4, 22. Rev. 3: 4.) de- clares Christ hath taken possession of it for us, (John 14: 2, 3.) and informs us of some already there, both as to their bodies and souls, Gen. 5: 24. 2 Rings 2. Heaven is to be considered as a place as nell as a state ; it is expressly so termed in Scripture; (John 14: 2, 3.) and the existence of the body of Christ, and those of Enoch and Elijah, is a further proof of it. For if it be not a place, where can these bodies be? and where will the bodies of the saints exist after the resurrection ? Where this place is, however, cannot be determined. Supposi- tions are more curious than edifying, and it becomes us to be silent where divine revelation is so. - Heaven, homever, ne are assured, is a place of inexpressible H E A H E B [ 605 || felicity. The names given to it are proofs of this ; it is called “paradise,” (Luke 23:43.) “light,” (Rev. 21:23.) “a building and mansion of God,” (2 Cor. 5: 1. John 14: 2.) “a city,” (Heb. 11; 10, 16.) “a better country,” (Heb. 1ſ; 16.) “an inheritance,” (Acts 20:32,) “a kingdom,” (Matt. 25: 34.) “a crown,” (2 Tim. 4: 8.) “glory,” (Ps. 4; 11. 2 Cor. 4: 17.) “peace, rest, and joy of the Lord,” Isa. 57: 2. Heb. 4: 9. Matt. 25: 21, 23. The felicity of Heaven will consist in freedom from all evil, both of Soul and body; (Rev. 7: 17.) in the enjoyment of God as the chief good; in the company of angels and Saints; in per- ſect holiness, and extensive knowledge, 1 Cor. 13: 10–12. It has been disputed nihether there are degrees of glory in IIeaven. The arguments against degrees are, that all the people of God are loved by him with the same love, all chosen together in Christ, equally interested in the same covenant of grace, equally redeemed with the same price, and all predestinated to the same adoption of children; to suppose the contrary, it is said, is to eclipse the glory of divine grace, and carries with it the legal idea of being rewarded for our works. On the other side it is observed, that if the above reasoning would prove any thing, it would prove too much, viz. that we should all be upon an equality in the present world, as well as that which is to come ; for we are now as much the objects of the same love, purchased by the same blood, &c., as we shall be hereafter. That rewards contain nothing inconsistent with the doctrine of grace, because those very works which it pleaseth God to honor are the effects of his own operation. That all rewards to a guilty creature have re- spect to the mediation of Christ. That God's graciously connecting blessings with the obedience of his people, serves to show not only his love to Christ and to them, but his regard to righteousness. That the Scriptures ex- pressly declare for degrees, Dan. 12: 3. Matt. 10:41, 42. 19:28, 29. Luke 19:16, 19. Rom. 2:6. 1 Cor. 3: 8. 15: 41, 42. 2 Cor. 5: 10. Gal. 6:9. Another question has sometimes been proposed, viz. Whether the saints shall knomy each other in Heaven. The arguments in favor of it, are taken from those instances recorded in Scripture, in which persons, who have never seen one another before, have immediately known each other in this world, by a special, immediate, divine revelation given to them, in like manner that Adam knew Eve, Gen. 2: 23. Moreover, we read that Peter, James, and John knew Moses and Elias, Matt. 17. Christ also represents the redeemed from all nations as sitting down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, Matt. 8: 11. Luke 13: 28–30. From such like arguments, it may be inferred that the saints shall know one another in Heaven, when joined together in the same assembly. Moreover, this may be proved from the apostle's words, in 2 Cor. 1: 14. Phil. 4: 1, and especially 1 Thess. 2: 19, 20. “What is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing 2 Are not even ye in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming? for ye are our glory and joy.” Therefore it follows that they shall know one another; and conse- quently they who have walked together in the ways of God, and have been useful to one another as relations and intimate friends, in what respects more especially their spiritual concerns, shall bless God ſor the mutual ad- vantages which they have received, and consequently shall know one another. To which may be added that expression of our Savior, in Luke 16:9, “Make to your- selves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness, that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habi- tations;” especially if by these “everlasting habitations” be meant Heaven, as many suppose it is ; and then the meaning is, that they whom you have relieved, and shown kindness to in this world, shall express a particular joy upon your being admitted into Heaven; and consequently they shall know you, and bless God for your having been so useful and beneficial to them. It has been objected, that if the saints shall know one another in Heaven, they shall know that several of those who were their intimate friends here on earth, whom they loved with very great affection, are not there ; and this will have a tendency to give them some uneasiness, and a diminution of their joy and happiness. Hebrew language one that passes, or a pilgrim. To this it may be replied, that if it be allowed that the saints shall know that some whom they loved on earth are not in Heaven, this will give them no uneasiness : since that affection which took its rise principally from the natural relation which we stood in to persons on earth, or the domestic intimacy that we have contracted with them, will cease in another world, Matt. 22: 29, 30. Our affec tions will there be excited by superior motives: namely, their relation to Christ; that perfect holiness with which they are adorned; their being joined in the same blessed society, and engaged in the same employment: together with their former usefulness one to another in promoting their spiritual welfare, as made subservient to the happi- ness they enjoy there. And as for others, who are exclud- ed from their society, they will think themselves obliged, out of a due regard to the justice and holiness of God, to acquiesce in his righteous judgments. Thus, the inhabit- ants of Heaven are represented as adoring the divine per- fections, when the vials of God's wrath were poured out upon his enemies, and saying, “Thou art righteous, O Lord, because thou hast judged thus : true and righteous are thy judgments,” Rom. 16: 5, 7. We have reason to believe then, that Heaven will be a so- cial state, and that its happiness will, in some measure, arise from mutual communion and converse, and the ex- pressions and exercises of mutual benevolence. All the views presented to us of this eternal residence of good men are pure and noble ; and form a striking contrast to the low hopes, and the gross and sensual conceptions of a future state, which distinguish the pagan and Mahometan sys- tems. The Christian heaven may be described to be a state of eternal communion with God, and consecration to hallowed, devotional and active services; from which will result an uninterrupted increase of knowledge, holi- ness, and joy to the glorified and immortalized assembly of the redeemed. However inadequate may be our conceptions as to this and some other circumstances, this we may be assured of, that the happiness of Heaven mill be perfect and eternal. That it will be progressive, and that the saints shall always be increasing in their knowledge, joy, &c., is almost equally clear. Some indeed have supposed that this indicates an imperfection in the felicity of the saints for any addition to be made; but when we reflect that it is perfectly ana- logous to the dealings of God with us here; and that it corresponds with the language of Scripture, and the na- ture of the mind itself, it may be concluded certain, Isa. 9: 7. 2 Cor. 3: 18. 4: 17. Rev. 7: 17. 1 Pet. 1: 12. 5:4, 10. Heb. 11: 10. Watts' Death and Heaven ; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 495; Saurin’s Serm., vol. iii. p. 321 ; Toplady's Works, vol. iii. p. 471; Bates’ Works ; Ridgley's Body of Divinity; Fuller's Essays ; Dwight's Theology and Sermoris ; Works of Robert Hall.—Hend. Buck. HEAVINESS, of heart and ears. (See BLINDNess.) HEBER, or EBER, the father of Peleg, and the son of Salah, who was the grandson of Shem, one of Noah's sons, was born A. M. 1723; B. C. 2281. From him some have supposed that Abraham and his descendants derived the appellation of Hebrews. But others have suggested, with greater probability, that Abraham and his family were thus called, because they came from the other side of the Euphrates into Cansan; Heber signifying in the According to this opinion, Hebrew signifies much the same as for- eigner among us, or one that comes from beyond sea. Such were Abraham and his family among the Canaan- ites; and his posterity, learning and using the language of the country, still retained the appellation originally given them, even when they became possessors and sct- tled inhabitants as far as dying men ever can be. 2. HeBER the ICenite, of Jethro’s family, husband to Jael, who killed Sisera, Judges 4: 17, &c.— Watson. HEBER, (Bp. RegiNALD, D.D.,) a distinguished poet and divine, was born, in 1783, at Malpas, in Shropshire; re- ceived his education at Brazennose college, Oxford, where he distinguished himself by his poetical and other talents; travelled in Germany, Russia, and the Crimea; was for some years rector of Hodnet, in Shropshire; was appoint- ed bishop of Calcutta in 1823; and had already accom- olished much in his high office, and projected the accom- H E B II E B [ 606 | plishment of more, when his career was suddenly closed by apoplexy, at Trichinopoly, April 1, 1826. Bishop Heber was a man of high attainments and bril- liant genius; but the qualities of his heart far transcend- ed the talents of his mind. His disposition was sweet and affable, his temper most conciliating, and his piety fervent, humble, and sincere; he pursued the path of duty with cheerful alacrity, steadfast devotedness, and incessant ac- tivity; making every sacrifice to duty, even of those lite- rary projects which his ardent spirit had once fondly che- rished, and for the realization of which the circumstances and events of his life seemed to afford every facility. From the moment that he devoted himself to the ministry of the gospel among the heathen, he gave his heart to the work; and some of the latest and sweetest efforts of his muse breathe a missionary spirit of the most apostolic order. To the distinguishing doctrines of Christianity he was ardently attached; he felt their value, and was de- sirous to spread the knowledge of them, laboring in Sea- son and out of season, and exhibiting a bright example of faith and love, humility and meekness, gentleness and compassion for the necessities and miseries of his fellow men, both temporal and spiritual. He is the author of Poems, full of spirit and elegance; (one of the best of which, his Palestine, gained the prize at Oxford ;) Hymns; Bampton Lectures, for 1815; a Life of Bishop Taylor; and a Narrative of a Journey in Upper India. The last was a posthumous work, as is also the volume of his Sermons.—Life of Bishop Heber; Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. HEBREWS. (See Jews; and Gover NMENT OF THE HEBREws.) f HEBREW OF THE HEBREWS; an appellation which the apostle Paul applies to himself, (Phil. 3: 5.) concerning the meaning of which there has becn some difference of opinion. It is not likely that St. Paul would have mentioned it as a distinguishing privilege and hon- or, that neither of his parents were proselytes. It is more probable that a Hebrew of the Hebrews signifies a He- brew both by mation and language, which many of Abra- ham's posterity, in those days, were not ; or one of the Hebrew Jews who performed their public worship in the Hebrew tongue; for such were reckoned more honorable than the Jews born out of Judea, and who spoke the Greck tº ngue. (See HELLENISTs.)—Watson. HEBREW BIBLE. (See BIBLE.) HEBREW LANGUAGE ; one of the branches of an extensive linguistical family, which, besides Palestine, originally comprehended Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and extending even to Carthage and other places along the Mediterranean sea. It is confessedly one of the oldest of the Oriental or Semi- tic dialects, and is deserving of particular regard, not only as containing the most ancient written documents in ex- istence, some of which are upwards of three thousand two hundred and eighty years old, but as being the deposi- tory of the ancient divine revelations to mankind. Proofs that the Hebrew was the primitive language, have been drawn from the names of individuals, nations, and places; from the names of the heathen gods; ſrom the traccs of it in all languages; and from its great purity and simplicity. Its principal characteristics, which apply, however, more of less to the kindred Semitic dialects, are stated by Ge- senius to be the following:–1. It is fond of gutturals, which appear to have been pronounced with considerable force, but which our organs cannot enunciate. 2. The roots, from which other words are derived, generally consist of two syllables, and are more frequently verbs than nouns. 3. The verb has only two temporal forms, the past and the ſuture. 4. The oblique cases of the pronouns are always aſfixed to the verb, the substantive, or the particle, with which they stand connected. 5. The genders are only two, -masculine and feminine. 6. The only way of distinguishing the cases is by prepositions, only the geni- tive is formed by a noun being placed in construction with another noun, by which it is governed. 7. The compara- tive and superlative have distinct or separate forms. 8. The language exhibits few compounds, except in proper names. 9. The syntax is extremely simple, and the dic- tion is in the highest degree unperiodical. . The Hebrew language is found in its greatest purity in the writings of Moses. It was in a very flourishing state in the time of David and Solomon; but towards the reign of Hezekiah it began to decline, was subjected to an in- termixture of foreign words, principally Aramaean, and gradually deteriorated till the captivity, during which it became in a great measure forgotten, the Jews adopting the eastern Aramaean in Babylon; and on their return to their native land they spoke a mixed dialect, composed principally of the dialects just mentioned, and otherwise made up of Syriacisms, or western Aramaean materials. Some knowledge, however, of the ancient language con- tinued to exist among the learned of the nation : but they no longer spoke it in purity, and mixed it up with a nuro- ber of Persic, Greek, and Latin words, and thus formed the Talmudic dialect, which exhibits the language as pre- served in the Talmud. The rabbinical Hebrew, which is that of a still later age, contains a further mixture from the different languages with which the rabbins were con- versant. See Robinson's Biblical Repository.—Hend. Buck. HEBREW PHILOLOGY. In no department of sacred learning have the wild vagaries of a playful imagination, or the stubborn hardihood of preconceived opinions, and favorite theological theories, produced greater confusion, and thrown more formidable obstacles in the way of the youthful student, than that of Hebrew philology. The very facts, that some of the documents comprised in the sacred volume are upwards of three thousand years old, and were penned several centuries before the Greeks be- came acquainted with the use of letters; and, that a period of not fewer than twelve centuries intervened between the composition of the earliest and the most recent of its re- cords, together with the wide difference which is known to exist between the forms and structure of the Oriental languages and those of western Europe, present conside- rations which are of themselves suſiciently intimidating, and calculated to make a beginner despair of ever acquir- ing a satisfactory knowledge of the language in which it is written : but when, in addition to these facts, we reſlect on the various conflicting systems of Hebrew grammar and lexicography, the high-pretending, but contradictory hypotheses of divines eminent for theirerudition and piety, and the circumstance that few years elapse without Some production of novel and original claims being obtruded on the attention of the theological world in reſerence to this subject, it cannot be matter of surprise, that numbers even of those whose sacred engagements would naturally lead them to cultivate the study of Hebrew, are induced to abandon it as altogether unprofitable and vain. Such as have never particularly directed their attention to the subject, can scarcely form any idea of the widely diversified views that have becn entertained respecting the only proper and legitimate methods by which to determine the true meaning of the words constituting the ancient language of the Hebrews. We shall, therefore, here at- tempt a brief sketch of the different schools of Hebrew philology. 3. 1. The Rabbinical. This school, which is properly in- digenous among the Jews, derives its acquaintance with the Hebrew from the tradition of the synagogue; from the Chaldee Targums ; from the Talmud; from the Ara- bic, which was the language of some of the most learned rabbins; and from conjectural interpretation. In this school, at one of its earlier periods, Jerome acquired his knowledge of the language; and, on the revival of learn- ing, our first Christian Hebraists in the West were also educated in it, having had none but rabbins for their teachers. In consequence of this, the Jewish system of interpretation was introduced into the Christian church by Reuchlin, Sebastian Munster, Sanctes Pagninus, and the elder Buxtorf; and its principles still continue to exert a powerful and extensive influence through the medium of the grammatical and lexicographical works of the last- mentioned author, and the tinge which they gave to many parts of the biblical translations executed immediately after the Reformation. - 2. The Forsterian school, founded about the middle of the sixteenth century, by John Forster, a scholar of Reuchlin's, and professor in Tubingen and Wittenberg. This author catirely rejected the authority of the rabbins; ...” ". H E B H E B [ 607 J and, not being aware of the use to be made of the versions and cognate dialects, laid it down as an incontrovertible principle of Hebrew philology, that a perfect knowledge of the language is to be derived from the sacred text alone, by consulting the connexion, comparing the parallel passages, and transposing and changing the Hebrew let- ters, especially such as are similar in figure. His system was either wholly adopted and extended, or, in part, fol- lowed by Bohl, Gusset, Driessen, Stock and others, whose lexicons all proceed on this self-interpreting principle; but its insufficiency has been shown by J. D. Michaelis, in his “Investigation of the Means to be employed in order to attain to a Knowledge of the Dead Language of the He- brews,” and by Bauer, in his “Hermeneut. W. T.” 3. The Avenarian school, which proceeds on the princi- ple that the Hebrew, being the primitive language from which all others have been derived, may be explained by aid of the Greek, Latin, German, English, &c. Its foun- der, John Avenarius, professor at Wittenberg, has had but few followers; but among these we may reckon the ec- centric Hermann van der Hardt, who attempted to derive the Hebrew from the Greek, which he regarded as the most ancient of all tongues. 4. The Hieroglyphic, or cabalistic system, long in vogue among the Jews, but first introduced into Christendom by Caspar Neumann, professor at Breslau. It consists in at- taching certain mystical and hieroglyphical powers to the different letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and determining the signification of the words according to the position occupied by each letter. This ridiculously absurd hypo- thesis was ably refuted by the learned Christ. Bened. Michaelis, in a dissertation printed at Halle, 1709, in 4to. and has scarcely had any abettors : but recently it has been revived by a French academician, whose work on the subject exhibits a perfect anomaly in modern litera- ture. Its title is, “La Langue Hébraïque Restituée, et le véritable sens des mots Hébreux rétabli et prouvé par leur analyse radicale. Par Fabre D'Olivet, a Paris, 1815;” quarto. - 5. The Hutchinsonian school, founded by John Hutchin- son, originally steward to the duke of Somerset, and afterwards master of the horse to George I., who main- tained, that the Hebrew Scriptures contain the true prin- ciples of philosophy and natural history; and that, as natural objects are representative of such as are spiritual and invisible, the Hebrew words are to be explained in reference to these sublime objects. His principles per- vade the lexicons of Bates and Parkhurst; but though they have been embraced by several learned men in Eng- land, they are now generally scouted, and have never been adopted, as far as we know, by any of the conti- nental philologists. The disciples of this school are vio- lent anti-punctists. 6. The Cocceian, or polydunamic hypothesis, according to which the Hebrew words are to be interpreted in every way consistent with their etymological import, or, as it has been expressed, in every sense of which they are ca- pable. Its author, John Cocceius, a learned Dutch divine, regarded every thing in the Old Testament as typical of Christ, or of his church and her enemies; and the lengths to which he carried his views on this subject, considerably influenced the interpretations given in his Hebrew lexi- con, which is, nevertheless, a work of no ordinary merit. This system has been recently followed by Mr. Von Mey- er, of Frankfort, in his improved Version of the Holy Scriptures, with short Notes. 7. The Schultensian school, by which, to a certain extent, a new epoch was formed in Hebrew philology. Albert Schultems, professor of the Oriental languages at Leyden, was enabled, by his profound knowledge of Ara- bic, to throw light on many obscure passages of Scripture, especially on the book of Job; but, carrying his theory so ſar as to maintain, that the only sure method of fixing the primitive significations of the Hebrew words, is to de- termine what are the radical ideas attaching to the same words, or words made up of the same letters in Arabic, and then to transfer the meaning from the latter to the former, a wide door was opened for speculative and fan- ciful interpretation ; and the greater number of the deri- vations proposed by this celebrated philologist and his admirers, have been rejected as altogether untenable, by the first Hebrew scholars, both in England and on the continent. The great faults of the system consisted in the disproportionate use of the Arabic, to the neglect of the other cognate dialects, especially the Syriac, which, being the most closely related, ought to have the primary place allotted to it; want of due attention to thé context; an inordinate fondness for emphases; and far-fetched etymo. logical hypotheses and combinations. 8. The last school of Hebrew philology is that of Halle, so called from the German university of this name, where most of the Hebrew scholars have received their educa- tion, or resided, by whom its distinguishing principles have been originated, and brought to their present ad- vanced state of maturity. Its foundation was laid by J. H. and Ch. B. Michaelis, and the superstructure has been carried up by J. D. Michaelis, Simon, Eichhorn, Din- dorf, Schnurrer, Rosenmüller, and Gesenius, who is allowed to be one of the first Hebraists of the present day. The grand object of this school is to combine all the different methods by which it is possible to arrive at a correct and indubitable knowledge of the Hebrew lan- guage, as contained in the Scriptures of the Old Testa- ment :—allotting to each of the subsidiary means its relative value and authority, and proceeding, in the application of the whole, according to sober and well-ma- tured principles of interpretation. The first of these means is the study of the language itself, as contained in the books of the Old Testament. Though by some carried to an unwarrantable length, it cannot admit of a doubt, that this must ever form the grand basis of Scripture interpretation. Difficulties may be encoun- tered at the commencement; but when, as we proceed, we find from the subject-matter, from the design of the speaker or writer, and from other adjuncts, that the sense we have been taught to affix to the words must be the true one, we feel ourselves possessed of a key, which, as far as it goes, we may safely and confidently apply to un- lock the sacred writings. When, however, the significa- tion of a word cannot be determined by the simple study of the original Hebrew, recourse must then be had to the ancient versions, the authors of most of which, living near the time when the language was spoken in its purity, and being necessarily familiar with Oriental scenes and cus- toms, must be regarded as having furnished us with the most important and valuable of all the subsidiary means by which to ascertain the sense in cases of apax: legomena, words or phrases of rare occurrence, or connex- ions which throw no light on the meaning. Yet, in the use of these versions, care must be taken not to employ them exclusively, nor merely to consult one or two of them to the neglect of the rest. It must also be ascer- tained, that their text is critically correct in so far as the passage to be consulted is concerned ; and the biblical student must not be satisfied with simply guessing at their meaning, or supposing that they either confirm or desert what he may have been led to regard as the sense of the original; but must be practically acquainted with the esta- blished usage obtaining in each version, and the particular character of their different renderings. The rabbinical Lezicons and Commentaries furnish the next source of Hebrew interpretation. Not that this source is to be admitted as a principium cognoscendi, or an infallible criterion, by which to judge of the true signifi- cation of Hebrew words; but, considering that the rab- bins of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, whose works alone are here taken into account, possessed a knowledge of the Arabic as their vernacular language, or in which, at least, they were well versed; that they were familiar with the traditional interpretation of the syna- gogue, as contained in the Talmud and other ancient Jewish writings, or transmitted through the medium of oral communication; and, that they were mostly men of great learning, who rose superior to the trammels of tradi- tion, and did not scruple to give their own views respect- ing the meaning of certain words and phrases in opposition to the voice of antiquity; it must be conceded, that no small degree of philological aid may reasonably be ex- pected from their writings. The last means consists in a proper use of the cognate H E B HE B [ 608 ) dialects. These are the Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, Samaritan, Phoenician, and the Talmudical Hebrew. All these dialects possess, to a great extent, in common with the Hebrew, the same radical words, the same derivatives, the same mode of derivation, the same forms, the same grammatical structure, the same phrases, or modes of ex- pression, and the same, or nearly the same, signification of words. They chiefly differ in regard to accentuation, the use of the vowels, the transmutation of consonants of . the same class, the extent of signification in which certain words are used, and the peculiar appropriation of certain words, significations, and modes of speech, which are ex- hibited in one dialect to the exclusion of the rest. These languages, when judiciously applied to the illus- tration of the Hebrew Scriptures, are useful in many ways. They confirm the precise signification of words, both radicals and derivatives, already ascertained and adopted from other sources. They discover many roots or primitives, the derivatives only of which occur in the Hebrew Bible. They are of eminent service in helping to a knowledge of such words as occur but once, or at feast but seldom, in the sacred writings, and they throw much light on the meaning of phrases, or idiomatical com- binations of words; such combinations being natural to them all as branches of the same stock, or to some of them in common, in consequence of certain more remote affinities. * The best Hebrew grammars are those of Water, Wekher- lin, Jahn, Gesenius, and Ewald, in German ; and those of Marcus, Seixas, and Profs. Lee and Stuart, in English. —Hend. Buck. - HEBREWS, º To THE.) Though the author- ship of this epistle has been disputed both in ancient and modern times, its antiquity has never been questioned. It is generally allowed that there are references to it, although the author is not mentioned, in the remaining works of Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Justin Martyr; and that it contains, as was first noticed by Chrysostom and Theodoret, internal evidence of having been written before the destruction of Jerusalem, Heb. 8: 4. 9: 25. 10: 11, 37. 13: 10. The earliest writer now extant who quotes this epistle as the work of St. Paul, is Clement of Alexandria, towards the end of the second century; but, as he ascribes it to St. Paul repeatedly and without hesitation, we may conclude that in his time no doubt had been entertained upon the subject, or, at least, that the common tradition of the church attributed it to St. Paul. Clement is followed by Origen, by Dionysius and Alexander, both bishops of Alexandria, by Ambrose, Athanasius, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome, Chrysostom, and Cyril, all of whom consider this epistle as written by St. Paul ; and it is also ascribed to him in the ancient Syriac version, supposed to have been made at the end of the first century. Eusebius says, “Of St. Paul there are fourteen epistles manifest and well known ; but yet there are some who reject that to the Hebrews, urging for their opinion that it is contradicted by the church of the Ro- mans, as not being St. Paul’s.” In Dr. Lardner we find the following remark: “It is evident that this epistle was generally received in ancient times by those Christians who used the Greek language, and lived in the eastern parts of the Roman empire.” And in another place he says, “It was received as an epistle of St. Paul by many Latin writers in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries.” The earlier Latin writers take no motice of this epistle, except Tertullian, who ascribes it to Barnabas. It ap- pears, indeed, from the following expression of Jerome, that this epistle was not generally received as canonical Scripture by the Latin church in his time : “Licet eam Jatina consuetudo inter canonicas Scripturas non recipial.” The same thing is mentioned in other parts of his works. But many individuals of the Latin church acknowledged it to be written by St. Paul, as Jerome himself, Ambrose, Hilary, and Philaster; and the persons who doubted its Pauline origin were those the least likely to have been acquainted with the epistle at an early period, from the nature of its contents not being so interesting to the Latin churches, which consisted almost entirely of gentile Chris- tians, ignorant, probably, of the Mosaic law, and holding but little intercourse with Jews. 2. The moderns, who, upon grounds of internal evi- dence, contend against the Pauline origin of this epistle, rest principally upon the two following arguments: the omission of the writer's name, and the superior elegance of the style in which it is written. It is indeed certain that all the acknowledged epistles of St. Paul begin with a salutation in his own name, and that, in the epistle to the Hebrews, there is nothing of that kind; but this omis- sion can scarcely be considered as conclusive against positive testimony. St. Paul might have reasons for de- parting, upon this occasion, from his usual mode of salu- tation, which we at this distant period cannot discover. Some have imagined that he omitted his name, because he knew that it would not have much weight with the Hebrew Christians, to whom he was in general obnoxious, on account of his zeal in converting the Gentiles, and in maintaining that the observance of the Mosaic law was not essential to salvation : it is, however, clear, that the persons to whom this epistle was addressed knew from whom it came, as the writer refers to some acts of kind- ness which he had received from them, and also expresses a hope of seeing them soon, Heb. 10:34, 13: 18, 19, 23. As to the other argument, it must be owned that there does not appear to be such superiority in the style of this epistle, as should lead to the conclusion that it was not written by St. Paul. Those who have thought differently have mentioned Barnabas, St. Luke, and Clement, as authors or translators of this epistle. But surely the writings of St. Paul, like those of other authors, may not all have the same precise degree of merit; and if, upon a careful perusal and comparison, it should be thought that the epistle to the Hebrews is written with greater elegance than the acknowledged compositions of this apostle, it should also be remembered that the apparent design and contents of this epistle suggest the idea of more studied composition. And yet, there is nothing in it which amounts to a marked difference of style : on the other hand, there is the same concise, abrupt, and elliptical mode of expression, and it contains many phrases and sentiments which are found in no part of Scripture, except in St. Paul's epistles. We may further observe, that the manner in which Timothy is mentioned in this epistle makes it probable that it was written by St. Paul. Com- pare Heb. 13: 23. with 2 Cor. 1: 1. and Col. 1: 1. It was certainly written by a person who had suffered imprison- ment in the cause of Christianity; and this is known to have been the case of St. Paul, but of no other person to whom this epistle has been attributed. Upon the whole, both the external and internal evidence appear to prepon- derate so greatly in favor of St. Paul's being the author of this epistle, that it cannot but be considered as written by that apostle. g 3. “They of Italy salute you,” is the only expression in the epistle which can assist us in determining from whence it was written ; and the only inference to be drawn from these words, seems to be, that St. Paul, when he wrote this epistle, was at a place where some Italian converts were. This inference is not incompatible with the common opinion, that this epistle was written from Rome, and therefore we consider it as written from that city. It is supposed to have been written towards the end of St. Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, or immediately after it, because the apostle expresses an intention of visiting the Hebrews shortly : we therefore place the date of this epistle in the year 63. 4. Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, and Jerome, thought that this epistle was originally written in the Hebrew language; but all the other ancient fathers who have mentioned this subject speak of the Greek as the original work; and as no one pretends to have seen this epistle in Hebrew, as there are no internal marks of the Greek being a translation, and as we know that the Greek language was at this time very generally understood at Jerusalem, we may accede to the more common opinion, both among the ancients and moderns, and consider the present Greek as the original text. It is no small satis- faction to reflect, that those who have denied either the Pauline origin or the Greek original of this epistle, have always supposed it to have been written or translated by Some fellow-laborer or assistant of St. Paul, and that H E B H E E [609 ) almost every one admits that it carries with it the sanction and authority of the inspired apostle. - 5. There has been some little doubt concerning the per- sons to whom this epistle was addressed; but by far the most general and most probable opinion is, that it was written to those Christians of Judea who had been con- verted to the gospel from Judaism. That it was written, notwithstanding its general title, to the Christians of one certain place or country, is evident from the following passages : “I beseech you the rather to do this, that I may be restored to you the sooner,” Heb. 13:19. “Know ye that our brother Timothy is set at liberty, with whom, if he come shortly, I will see you,” Heb. 13: 23. And it appears ſrom the following passage in the Acts, “When the number of the disciples was multiplied, there arose a murmuring of the Grecians against the Hebrews,” (Acts 6: 1.) that certain persons were at this time known at Jerusalem by the name of Hebrews. They seem to have been native Jews, inhabitants of Judea, the language of which country was Hebrew, and therefore they were call- ed Hebrews, in contradistinction to those Jews who, resid- ing commonly in other countries, although they occasion- ally came to Jerusalem, used the Greek language, and were therefore called Grecians, or Hellenists. 6. The general design of this epistle was to confirm the Jewish Christians in the faith and practice of the gospel, which they might be in danger of deserting, either through the persuasion or persecution of the unbelieving Jews, who were very numerous and powerful in Judea. We may naturally suppose, that the zealous adherents to the law would insist upon the majesty and glory which at- tended its first promulgation, upon the distinguished cha- racter of their legislator, Moses, and upon the divine autho- rity of the ancient Scriptures; and they might likewise urge the humiliation and death of Christ as an argument against the truth of his religion. To obviate the impres- sion which any reasoning of this sort might make upon the converts to Christianity, the writer of this epistle be- gins with declaring to the Hebrews, that the same God who had formerly, upon a variety of occasions, spoken to their fathers by means of his prophets, had now sent his only Son ſor the purpose of revealing his will ; he then describes, in most sublime language, the divine dignity of the person of Christ, (Heb. 1.) and thence infers the duty of obeying his commands, the divine authority of which was established by the performance of miracles, and by the gifts of the Holy Ghost; he points out the ne- cessity of Christ's incarnation and passion; (Heb. 2.) he shows the superiority of Christ to Moses, and warns the Hebrews against the sin of unbelief; (Heb. 3.) he exhorts to steadſastness in the profession of the gospel, and gives an animated description of Christ as our perpetual High- Priest; (Heb. 4–7.) he shows that the Levitical priesthood and the old covenant were abolished by the priesthood of Christ, and by the new covenant; (Heb. 8.) he points out the inefficacy of the ceremonies and sacrifices of the law, and the sufficiency of the atonement made by the sacrifice of Christ; (Heb. 9, 10.) he fully explains the nature, value, and effects of faith; (Heb. 11.) and in the last two chapters he gives a variety of exhortations and admo- nitions, all calculated to encourage the Hebrews to bear with patience and constancy any trials to which they might be exposed. He concludes with the valedictory benediction usual in St. Paul’s epistles:—“Grace be with you all. Amen.” The most important articles of our faith are explained, and the most material objections to the gospel are answered with great ſorce, in this celebrated epistle. The arguments used in it, as being addressed to persons who had been educated in the Jewish religion, are principally taken from the ancient Scriptures; and the connexion between former revelations and the gospel of Christ, is pointed out in the most perspicuous and satis- factory manner. For a more ample discussion of the above points, see Prof. Stuart's Commentary on Hebrews; second edition. The Reviews of the first edition of this admirable work, in the Christian Examiner, and the Spirit of the Pilgrims, together with the Notes to the Letters of Canonicus, may be consulted with advantage.—Watson. HEBRON, or CHEBRON ; one of the most ancient { * cities of Canaan, being built seven years before Tanis, the capital of Lower Egypt, Num. 13:22. . It is thought to have been founded by Arba, an ancient giant of Pales- tine, and hence to have been called Kirjath-arba, Arba's city, #:osh. 14: 15.) which name was afterwards changed into Hebron. The Anakim dwelt at Hebron when Joshua conquered Canaan, Josh. 15: 13. Hebron, which was given to Judah, and became a city of refuge, was situated on an eminence, twenty miles south of Jerusalem, and about the same distance north of Beersheba. Abraham, Sarah, and Isaac were buried near the city, in the cave of Machpelah, Gen. 23: 7, 8,9. After the death of Saul, David fixed his residence at He- bron, and it was for some time the metropolis of his king- dom, 2 Sam. 2: 2–5. It is now called El Ilhalil, and contains a population of about four hundred Arabs. “They are so mutinous,” says D’Arvieux, “that they rarely pay [the duties] without ſorce, and commonly a reinforcement from Jerusalem is necessary. The people are brave, and when in revolt extend their incursions as far as Bethlehem, and make amends by their pillage for what is exacted from them. They are so well acquainted with the windings of the mountains, and know so well how to post themselves to advantage, that they close all the passages, and exclude every assistance from reaching the Soubachi. The Turks dare not dwell here, believing that they could not live a week if they attempted it. The Greeks have a church in the village.” The mutinous character of this people, one would think, was but a continuation of their ancient disposition ; which might render them fit instruments for serving David against Saul, and Absalom against David. The advantage they possessed in their knowledge of the passes, may account also for the protracted resistance which David made to Saul, and the necessity of the latter employing a conside- rable force in order to dislodge his adversary. David was so well aware of this advantage of station, that when Ab- salom had possessed himself of Hebron, he did not think of attacking him there, but fled in all haste from Jerusa- lem northward.—Calmet. HECATOMB, (kekaton bous ; a hundred ozen :) the sacri- fice of a hundred oxen, or, in a large sense, of a hundred animals of any sort. Such sacrifices were offered by the ancient heathen on extraordinary occasions.—Hend. Buck. HECKEWELDER, (John,) many years employed by the Moravian brethren as a missionary to the Delaware Indians, was a native of England. In 1819, he published at Philadelphia a history of the Manners and Customs of the Indian nations, who once inhabited Pennsylvania ; and in 1820, a narrative of the Moravian mission among the Delaware Indians, &c. from 1740 to 1808. He died at Bethlehem, in 1823, in the seventy-ninth year of his age.—Davenport; Allen. HEDGE, for protecting fields, gardens, &c. 1 Chron. 4: 13. God's protecting providence, magistrates, govern- ment, or whatever defends from hurt and danger, is called a hedge, Job 1: 10. Isa, 5:2, Ezek. 13: 6. Troubles and hinderances are called hedges, as they stop our way, and prevent our doing and obtaining what we please, Lam, 3: 7. Job. 19:8. Hos. 2:6. The may of the slothful is a hedge of thorns: he always apprehends great difficul ties in the way of doing any good, and often he entangles himself in inextricable difficulties, Prov. 15: 19.—Bronn HEDIO, (CASPAR, D. D.;) one of the reformers of the sixteenth century, the intimate friend of Capito, Bucer, and Oecolampadius. This truly excellent, learned, and useful man, was born at Etting, and studied at Friburg and Basil. He preached successively at Mentz, Stras- burg, Borin ; and returning to Strasburg, there died in 1552. He published many works,—Middleton, vol. i. 291. HEEL. As heels are the lowest parts of the body, Christ's heel bruised by Satan is his humble manhood, and his people who are subject to him, Gen. 3: 15. To have the heels bare, denotes shame, contempt, captivity, or dis- tress, Jer. 13:22. To liſt up the heel, or kick, is to render evil for good to a superior, as a beast when it strikes its master. So Judas acted in betraying our Lord, Ps. 41: 8 John 13: 18. Men are taken by the heels in a snare, when they suddenly fall into some calamity, from which they cannot free themselves, Job. 18; 19.—Bronn. 77 H E L H. D. L. [ 610 | HEGIRAH; an Arabic word, signifying flight, and specially used to mark the ſlight of Mohammed from Mec- ga to Medina. As from that event, which took place A. D. 622, the Mohammedans date their computations, the term is employed to denote their era or period.—Hend. Buck. HEIDELBERG CATECHISM; a work of great cele- brity in the history of the Reformation. Frederic III., elector of the palatinate, belonging to the Calvinistic church, caused it to be written, for the purpose of having an uniform rule of faith. The principal contributors were Ursinus, professor of theology at Heidelberg, and Olevi- anus, minister and public teacher at the same place. The catechism was first published in 1563, under the title, “Catechism, or Short System of Christian Faith, as it is taught in the Churches and Schools in the Palatinate.” It has been translated into many languages.—Hend. Buck. HEIFER; a young cow, used in sacrifice at the tem- ple, Num. 19: 1–10. Moses and Aaron were instructed to deliver the divine command to the children of Israel that they should procure “a red heifer, without spot,” that is, one that was entirely red, without one spot of any other color; “ſree from blemish, and on which the yoke had never yet come,” that is, which had never yet been em- ployed in ploughing the ground or in any other work; for, according to the common sense of all mankind, those ani- mals which had been made to serve other uses, became unfit to be offered to God,—a sentiment which we find in Homer and other heathen writors. The animal was to be delivered to the priest, who was to lead her forth out of the camp, and there to slay her; the priest was then to take of the blood with his finger, and sprinkle it seven times before the tabernacle, and afterwards to burn the carcass : then to take cedar wood and hyssop, and scarlet wood, and cast them into the flames. The ashes were to be gathered up, and preserved in a scCure and clean place, for the use of the congregation, by the sprinkling of which ashes in water, it became a water of separation, by means of which a typical or ceremonial purification for siń was eſſected, Heb. 9: 13.- IWatson. HEIR ; a person who succeeds by right of inheritance to an estate, properly, &c. But the principles of heirship in the East diſſer from those among us; so that children do not always wait till their parents are dead, before they receive their portions. Iſence, when Christ is called “heir of all things,” it does not imply the death of any former possessor of all things; and when saints are called heirs of the promise, of righteousness, of the kingdom, of the world, of God, “joint heirs” with Christ, it implies merely participants in such or such advantages, but no decease of any party in possession would be understood by those to whom these passages were addressed ; though among ourselves there is no actual heirship till the parent, or proprietor, is departed. (See ADOPTION ; BIRTHRIGHT ; INIIERITANCE.)—Calmet. HELBON, or HEBAII; (Judg. 1: 31) a city of Syria famous ſor its wines, (Ezek. 27: 18.) and supposed to be the present Haleb, or as called in Europe, Aleppo. It is situated, according to Russell, who has given a very full description of it, in lat. 36 deg. 11 min. 25 sec. north ; lon- gitude, 37 deg. 9 min. east; about one hundred and eighty railes north of Damascus, and about eighty inland from the coast of the Mediterranean sea. In 1822, Aleppo was visited by a dreadful earthquake, by which it was almost entirely destroyed.—Calmet. HELIOPOLIS. (See ON.) TIE ſ, L. Four distinct words in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, Sheol, Hades, Tartaros, and Gehenna, are in our common version translated Hell. The two first sig- miſy, like the Hindoo Padalon, or Palala, the Egyptian A menti, and the Latin Pluto, Orcus, and Inſernits, the world of departed souls in general; without any distinc- tion, in ordinary cases, between the good and the bad, the happy or the miserable. (See HADEs.) But the two last are more specific in their character, and strictly sig- nify, (as our English word Hell does now, in the language of theology,) the place of divine punishment after death. As all religions have supposed a future state of existence after this life, so all have their hell, or place of torment, in which the wicked are to be punished. Ancient and modern heathens, the Jews, and the Mahometans, we find believe in a future state of retribution; it is not, there- fore, a sentiment peculiar to Christianity, We have already shown under the word Hades, that neither Sheol nor Hades usually denote Hell in the strict sense, but the regions of the dead in general ; including both Paradise and Gehenna, the world of bliss, and the world of woe. To denote this latter, the New Testament writers make use of the Greek word Gehenna, which iſ: compounded of two Hebrew words, Ge Hinnom, that is, “The Valley of Hinnom,” a place near Jerusalem, in which children were cruelly sacrificed by fire to Moloch, the idol of the Ammonites, 2 Chron. 33: 6. This place was also called Tophet, (2 Kings 23: 10.) alluding, as is suppos- ed, to the noise of drums, (toph signifying a drum,) there raised to drown the cries of helpless infants. (See Ge- IIENNA.) As in process of time this place came to be con- sidered an emblem of Hell, or the place of torment re- served for the punishment of the wicked in a future state, (see Dr. Campbell's sixth Dissertation;) the name Tophet came gradually to be used in this sense, and at length to be confined to it. In this sense, also, the word Gehenna, a synonymous term, is always to be understood in the New Testament, where it occurs twelve times; always in addressing Jews, to whom the analogical sense was easily intelligible, Matt. 5: 22, 29, 30. 10: 28, 18; 9. 23:15, 33. Mark 9: 43, 45, 47. Luke 12: 5. James 3: 6. Mr. Balfour, oſ Charlestown, in an “Inquiry into the scriptural import of Sheol, Hades, &c.” has undertaken to set aside the received meaning of Gehenna. He strenu- ously denies that it has the signification of the place of fu- ture punishment. This position is more bold than wise; since his arguments and expositions in support of it are ſounded in a total misapprehension of the context of the New Testament, of the philosophy and laws of language, and in the most serious perversion of the Scriptures. See Campbell's Dissertations; Spirit of the Pilgrims, 1828; Bal- four’s Inquiry and Essays ; Hudson's Reply ; Whitman’s Jetters; but especially Cooke's Examination of the Writings of Rev. Walter Balſour. There have been many curious and useless conjectures respecting the location of Hell. But, as Dr. Doddridge ob- serves, we must here confess our ignorance; and shall be much better employed in studying how we may avoid this place of horror, than in laboring to discover where it is. Of the nature of this punishment we may form some idea from the expressions made use of in Scripture. It is call- ed a place of torment, (Luke 16:21.) the bottomless pit, Rev. 20:3–6.) a prison, (1 Pet. 3:19.) darkness, (Matt. : 12, Jud. 13.) fire, º 13:42, 50.) the worm that never dies, (Mark 9: 44, 48.) the second death, (Rev. 21: 8.) the wrath of God, Rom. 2: 5. It has been debated whether there will be a material fire in Hell. On the affir- mative side it is observed, that fire and brimstone are represented as ingredients in the torment of the wick- ed, Rev. 14: 10, 11. 20:10. That as the body is to be raised, and the whole man to be condemned, it is rea- sonable to believe there will be some corporeal punish- ment provided, and, therefore, probably material fire. On the negative side it is alleged, that the terms above men- tioned are metaphorical, and signify no more than the vio- lence of raging desire or acute pain; and that the Divine Being can sufficiently punish the wicked, by immediately acting on their minds, or even by delivering them up to their guilty passions and the stings of their own consciences. According to several passages, it seems there will be different degrees of punishment in Hell, Luke 12:47. Rom. 2: 12. Matt. 10:20, 21. Matt. 12:25, 32. Heb. 10:28, 29. God will regard the measure of men's works. - As to its duration, it has been alleged that it cannot be eternal, because there is no proportion between tempora, y crimes and eternal punishments; that the word everlast- ing is not to be taken in its utmost extent; and that it sig- nifies no more than a long time, or a time whose precise boundary is unknown. But in answer to this it is observ- ed, that the same word is used, and that sometimes in the very same place, to express the eternity of the happiness of the righteous, and the eternity of the misery of the wick- ed; and that there is no reason to believe that the words express two such different ideas, as standing in the same connexion. (See AION, and AIonios.) Desides, it is not º.º. H E L H E N [ 611 J true, it is observed, that temporary crimes do not deserve eternal punishment, because the length of punishment is never measured by the time occupied in the commission of crimes, and because the infinite majesty of an offended God and the endless future existence of man, justly ex- pose the sinner to an endless punishment; and that hereby God windicates his injured majesty, and glorifies his jus- tice. (See articles DestructionisTs, and UNIVERSALISTs.) Berry St. Lec. vol. ii. p. 559, 562; Danes on Hell, ser. x.; Whiston on ditto ; Snyinden, Drexelius, Saurin, and Ednyards on ditto ; Tillotson's Sermons, ser, 25; Fuller's Works ; Dnight's Theology.—Hend. Buck; Watson. HELL, CHRIST's DescenT INTo. That Christ locally descended into hell, is a doctrine believed not only by the papists, but by many among the reformed. The text chiefly brought ſorward in support of this doctrine, is 1 Pet. 3:19 –“By which he went and preached to the spi- rits in prison.” Dut it evidently appears, 1. That the “Spirit” there mentioned was not Christ's human soul, but the Holy Spirit, (by which he was quickened, and raised from the dead;) and by the inspiration of which, granted to Noah, he preached to those notorious sinners who are now in the prison of hell for their disobedience. See a similar form of expression, in Ephes. 2: 17 : “And came and preached peace,” &c. where it is certain that the per- sonal presence of Christ is not intended. 2. Christ, when on the cross, promised the penitent thief his presence that day in paradise; and accordingly, when he died, he com- mitted his soul into his heavenly Father's hand : in hea- ven, therefore, and not in hell, we are to seek the sepa- rate spirit of our Redeemer in this period, Luke 23:43, 46. That his soul was in Hades, or the unseen world, is how- ever admitted; for this state includes both heaven and hell. 3. Had our Lord descended to preach to the damn- ed, there is no supposable reason why the unbelievers . in Noah's time only should be mentioned rather than those of Sodom, and the unhappy multitudes that died in sin, Ps. 16:10. Acts 2:21, 31. (See HADEs.) Bishop Pear- son and Dr. Barron, on the Creed ; Edwards' Hist. of Re- demption, notes, pp. 351, 377; Ridgley's Body of Div. p. 308, 3d ed.: Doddridge and Guise on 1 Pet. 3:19; Camp- bell's Dissertations; Stuart's Exegetical Essays.-Hend. Buck. HELLENISTS; a term occurring in the Greek text of the New Testament, and which, in the English version, is rendered Grecians, Acts 6: 1. The authors of the Vul- gate version render it like ours, Gracci ; but the Messieurs Du Port Royal, more accurately, Juifs Grecs, Greek or Grecian Jews, it being the Jews who spoke Greek that are here treated of, and are hereby distinguished from the Jews called Hebren's—that is, who spoke the Hebrew tongue of that time. The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, were those who lived in Egypt, and other parts where the Greek tongue pre- vailed. . These Hellenists first settled in Egypt about six hundred years before Christ. Their number was increas- ed by the numerous colonies of Jews planted there by Alexander the Great, B. C. 336, and still later by Ptolemy Lagus. Under the reign of Augustus, they amounted to nearly a million. The mixture of the Jewish and Egyp- tian national characters, and the influence of the Greek language and philosophy, which were adopted by these Jews, laid the foundation of a new epoch of Graeco-Jewish literature, which, from its prevailing character, received the name of the Hellenistic. The systems of Pythagoras and Plato were strangely combined with those Oriental phantasies, which had been reduced to a system in Egypt, and with which the mystical doctrines of the Gnostics were imbued. The most noted of the Jewish Hellenistic philosophers was Philo of Alexandria; and the principal of the learned labors of the Alexandrian Jews was the Greek translation of the Old Testament. The Hellenists, (Acts 6: 1, 11. 19:20.) are properly distinguished from the Hellenes, or Greeks, mentioned John 12: 20, who were Greeks by birth and nation, and yet proselytes to the Jewish religion. The term Hellenists is also given to those who main- tained the classical purity of the New Testament Greek. Their opponents were called Hebraists.-Hend. Buck. HELMET; a piece of defensive armor for the head. (See ARMs, and ARMOR.)—Calmet. HEMERO-BAPTISTS; a sect among the ancient Jews, thus called from their washing and bathing every day, in all scasons; and performing this custom with the greatest Solemnity, as a religious rite necessary to salvation. Epiphanius, who mentions this as the fourth heresy among the Jews, observes, that in other points these here. tics had much the same opinion as the scribes and Phari- sees; only that they denied the resurrection of the dead, in common with the Sadducees, and retained a few other of the improprieties of these last. (See CHRISTIANs of ST. John.)—Hend. Buck. HEMLOCK, (rush and rash :) Deut.29: 18. 32: 32. Ps. 69: 21. Jer. 8: 14. 9:15. 23: 15. Lam. 3. 5, 19. Hos. 10: 4. Amos 6: 12. In the two latter places our transla- tors have rendered the word hemlock, in the others, gall. Hiller supposes it the centaureum, described by Pliny ; but Celsius shows it to be the hemlock. It is evident, from: Deut. 29: 18, that some herb or plant is meant of a ma- lignant or nauseous kind, being there joined with norm- nood, and in the margin of our Bibles explained to be “a poisonful herb.” In like manner see Jer. 8: 14. 9:15, and 23: 15. In Hosea 10: 4, the comparison is to a bitter herb, which, growing among grain, overpowers the useful vegetable, and substitutes a pernicious weed. The pro- phet appears to mean a vegetable which should appear wholesome, and resemble those known to be salutary, as judgment, when just, properly is ; but experience would demonstrate its malignity, as unjust judgment is. when enforced. Hemlock is poisonous, and water-hem- lock especially; yet either of these may be mistaken, and some of their parts, the root particularly, may deceive but too fatally.—Watson. - HEMMENWAY, (Moses, D. D.,) minister of Wells, Maine, was born in Framingham, and graduated at Har- vard college, in 1755; was ordained Aug. 8, 1759; and died April 5, 1811, aged about seventy-five, having been a minister fifty-one years. Dr. Hemmenway was a faithful preacher, and a learn- ed theologian. His controversies were conducted with fairness and candor. He published seven sermons on the obligation of the unregenerate to strive for eternal life, 1767; a pamphlet on the same subject, against Dr. Hop- kins, pp. 127, 1772; remarks on Hopkins' answer, pp. 166, 1774; at the election, 1784; discourse concerning the church, 1792; at the ordination of M. Calef, 1795. Green- leaf’s Sketches, ap. 4—9.—Allen. - HEN, (ornis ;) 2 Esdras 1:30. Matt. 23: 37. Luke 13: 34. The aſſection of the hen to her brood is so strong as to have become proverbial. There is a beautiful Greek epigram in the Anthologia, which affords a very fine illus- tration of the affection of this bird in another view. It has been thus translated:— “Beneath her fostering wing the hen defends Her darling offspring, while the Snow descends; And through the winter’s day unmoved defies The chilling fleeces and inclement skies; Till vanquish’d by the cold and piercing blast, True to her charge, she perishes at last.” Plutarch, in his book De Philostorgić, represents this pa- rental attachment and care in a very pleasing manner:- “Do we not daily observe with what care the hen protects her chickens; giving some shelter under her wings, sup- porting others upon her back, calling them around her, and picking out their food; and if any animal approaches that terrifies them, driving it away with a courage and strength truly wonderful.”—Watson. HENA ; an idol, (2 Kings 18:34.) thought to be the Anais of the Persians; or the deity Nanaea, Venus, the star of Venus, or Lucifer.—Watson. HENOTICON, (Gr. uniting into one ;) a famous edict or decree of the Greek emperor Zeno, issued in the year 482, with a view to reconcile all the different parties in religiou to the profession of one faith. It is generally agreed that Peter, the false patriarch of Alexandria, and Acacius, pa triarch of Constantinople, were the authors of this decree. and that their design was to compliment the emperor with the right of prescribing regulations in matters of faith. Zeno was caught by their flattery, and the Henoticon was drawn up. It soon appeared that the emperor, by this de- Crce, arrogated to himself the right of being head of the H E N H E N [ 612 ) church, and that it covertly favored the Eutychian here- tics, who approved the council of Chalcedon. Accordingly, pope Simplicius condemned it in the year 483, and cited Acacius, who had been the chief promoter of it, to appear before him at Rome. But it was not till the year 518, that it was entirely suppressed, when, in the reign of Jus- tinian, and the pontificate of Hormisdas, the name of Zeno was struck out of the diptyebs, or sacred registers, of such deceased persons for whom particular prayers were offered up.–Hend. Buck. HENRICIANS ; a sect so called from Henry, its foun- der, who, though a monk and hermit, undertook to reform the superstition and vices of the clergy. For this purpose he left Lausanne, in Switzerland, and removing from dif- ferent places, at length settled at Thoulouse, in the year 1147, and there exercised his ministerial function; till, being overcome by the opposition of Bernard, abbot of Clairval, and condemned by pope Eugenius III. at a coun- cil assembled at Rheims, he was committed to a close pri- son, in 1148, where he soon ended his days. This re- former rejected the baptism of infants, severely censured the corrupt manners of the clergy, treated the festivals and ceremonies of the church with the utmost contempt, and held private assemblies ſor inculcating his peculiar doctrines.—Hend. Buck. HENRY, (PHILIP, A. M.) was born at Whitehall, Eng. August 24, 1631. Mr. Philip Henry's mother was a very pious woman, and took great pains to bring up her chil- dren in the fear of the Lord : but of her, in early life, he was deprived. The celebrated Dr. Busby became his tu- tor, and under him he became eminent for his attainments in the learned languages. To him he was much attached, as from him he received the kindest attention. When Mr. Henry was ejected from the establishment, the doctor meeting him, said, “Who made you a non-conformist?” “You, Sir,” replied he. “I made you a non-conform- ist?” “Yes, Sir ; you taught me those principles which forbade me to violate my conscience.” While at West- minster school, in compliance with the request of his fa- ther, he was allowed to attend the ministry of Mr. Mar- shall, who then preached in Westminster, at seven o’clock in the morning, and under whose ministration he derived his first serious impressions. From that establishment he removed to Christ church, Oxford, where he was soon after called to yield to the parliamentary visitation, which he did in these words :—“I submit to the power of the parliament, in the present visitation, as far as I may with a safe conscience and without purjury.” Dr. Owen, when vice-chancellor, noticed the college exercises of young Henry with high approbation. Some of his Latin verses were among the poems which the university pub- lished in the year 1654, on the peace with Holland. But when he aſterwards visited Oxford, he inserted in his book, “A tear dropped over my university sins.” On leaving college, he first settled at Worthenbury, in Flintshire, where he was ordained by Presbyters, and la- bored with so much ardor and piety, that through all the surrounding country he was known by the name of hea- venly Henry. There he married Miss Catharine Mat- thews, of Broad Oak. She was heiress to a good estate, which promoted the temporal comfort of her husband, and enabled him not only to preach the gospel, but also to re- lieve many ministers in the day of persecution, while the • personal excellencies of his wife were with him a constant theme of praise to God. By her he had two sons, John and Matthew, and four daughters: John died young, but his son Matthew, whose praise is in all the churches, was his father's biographer, and records, with interesting and instructive minuteness, the beautiful order of religion which was established in his paternal abode. . At the restoration, Mr. Philip Henry was first deprived, by his enemies, of his useful sphere of labor, and aſter- wards entirely expelled from the establishment by the act of uniformity. He says, “Our sins have made Bartholo- mew-day, in the year 1662, the saddest day for England since the death of Edward the Sixth, but even this for good.” By the operation of the conventicle and five-mile acts, he was driven from his house, and compelled to seek the retirements of seclusion or imprisonment, ſor safety. In the year 1687, when king James promulgated his celebrated declaration for liberty of conscience, Mr. Henry immediately availed himself of it. . He now fitted up an out-building of his own, and held constant worship there, according to the forms used by dissenters, and with great zeal and piety. He also preached with the same ardo, around the country on every day, riding, after having de- livered one sermon, six or eight miles to preach another; and the next day repeating the same laborious exercise. The joy which he felt in this opportunity for labor, the success which attended his efforts, and the happy settle- ment of all his children, crowned his latter end with glad- ness. But his labors hastened his rest ; for when writing to a ſriend, who anxiously inquired after his health, he says, “I am always habitually weary, and expect no oth- er till I lie down in the bed of spices.” After.preaching One Lord’s day, with his usual vivacity and energy, he was seized with a fatal sickness. He expired June 24, 1696, exclaiming, “O death, where is thy sting 3’’ His “Sayings,” which constitute a chapter in his biography, resemble those of Holy Writ. (See his Life by his Son.)— Jones' Chris. Biog. - - HENRY, (MATTHEw,) author of the celebrated “Com- mentary,” bearing his name, was born on the 18th of Oc- tober, 1662, at Broad Oak, in Flintshire. He was the son of the celebrated Philip Henry. Matthew, like many oth- er eminent persons, was a child of infirm health, and early displayed a mind too vigorous and active for the frame which it inspired. At the early age of ten years he was deeply affected by convictions of the evil of sin, in conse- quence of hearing his father preach on Ps. 51: 7.— “Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean ; wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.” When he was thirteen years of age, his diary indicates decided piety. That the child of Philip Henry should early love to imitate preach- ing, and wish to be a minister, is not surprising; but of those who observed his puerile essays, some wondered at the wisdom and gravity which they displayed, and many expressed their fears lest he should be too forward; but the father replied, “Let him go on : he fears God, and designs well; and I hope God will keep him and bless him.” - . After having been at the seminary of Mr. Thomas Doolittle, young Henry was induced, by the influence of friends, to remove to Gray’s Inn, in order to study the law. But, true to his original purpose, keeping his eye on the advancement of Christianity as his polar star, he quickly returned to the work of the ministry. His first public ser- vices were at his father’s residence, where he received the most pleasing testimonies of his usefulness. Being after- wards invited to spend a few days with a friend at Nant- wich, in Cheshire, he preached on the words of Job, “With God is terrible majesty,” which produced the most striking and delightful effects. He was now invited to Chester, where he preached at the house of Mr. Hen- thorne, a sugar-baker, which laid the foundation of the church of which he was many years the faithful and be- loved pastor. But having been called back to London, in 1687, he found that the king, James II., was issuing out licences to empower non-conformists to preach. This led him to prepare seriously for his future office; and, in a private paper, entitled “Serious Self. Examination before Ordination,” he expresses his determination to be zealous and faithful in the discharge of his ministerial duties. By the dissenters, he was ordained with great privacy, on the 9th of May, 1687. Mr. Henry was well received at Chester, and was successful in raising a large congre- gation. Of his ministry, it may be truly said, that, like the apostle, he was in labors more abundant; for his con- stant work, on the Lord’s day, was to pray six times in public, to expound twice, and preach twice. His two pub- lic services seem to have been fully equal to three in the present day. He went through the whole Bible, by way of exposition, more than once. The list of subjects on which he preached is in print, and displays a comprehen- sive mind, anxious to declare the whole counsel of God; but, in his private notes, he says, “I find myself most in my element when preaching Christ, and him crucified; for the more I think and speak of him, the more I love him.” * - - Eager to seize every opportunity of usefulness, he dili H E IN H E N | 613 J gently visited the prisoners in the castle of Chester, where his benevolent compassion and zeal introduced him to some very affecting scenes. But he never confined his labors to Chester, for he was the life of the dissenting com- munion through all that country; and constantly preach- ed in the adjoining towns and villages every week. After having refused several invitations from churches in Lon- don, he at length consented to leave Chester, in order to take the pastoral charge of a congregation at Hackney, first collected by Dr. Bates. He has left on record his reasons for quitting the first scene of his labors, where he had preached nearly five-and-twenty years, where he had three hundred and fifty communicants, and probably a thousand hearers; a people of whom he said, with a heavy heart at parting, “They love me too well.” He commenced the 18th day of May, in the year 1712, his pastoral care at Hackney, expounding the first chapter of Genesis in the morning; and in the afternoon, the first of Matthew, as if beginning life anew. That he removed to the vicinity of London to enjoy, not ease, but labor, was evident; for his unexhausted zeal blazed forth with greater ardor, to fill his new and enlarged sphere. He devised additional modes of usefulness; preaching not only at Hackney, but in London also, early and late on the same Sabbath. He often preached lectures every evening in the week, and sometimes two or three on the same day; so that his biographer says, “If ever any mi- nister, in our days, erred in excess of labors, he was the person.” But one of the principal motives which led him to London, was to be able to print the remaining volumes of his “Exposition.” He now drew near to the goal for which he panted. Having alleviated the pains of separation from his friends at Chester, by promising to visit them every year, he made his last journey to them in the month of June, 1714. On his return, he was taken ill at Nantwich, where he said to his friend Mr. Illidge, You have begn used to take notice of the sayings of dying men ; this is mine : that a life spent in the service of God, and communion with him, is the most plea- sant life that any one can live in this norld. On the 22d of June, 1714, he expired, in the fifty-second year of his age. The death of Henry was universally lamented ; even those who loved not the communion to which he belong- ed, owned that it had lost its brightest ornament. He has left behind him, in his works, a library of divinity, which supersedes all eulogium on his character. His mind was hot, indeed, formed for metaphysical abstraction, or ele- gant sublimity; nor was his pen celebrated for those splendid ornaments which feast the fancy, nor those vig- orous strokes which thrill through the soul; but he pos- sessed a peculiar faculty, which may be called a religious naïveté, which introduced well-known sentiments in an enchanting air of novel simplicity, while his style abound- ed with antitheses, which Attic taste would sometimes refuse, but which human nature will ever feel and admire. The mere plans of his sermons and expositions contain more vivid, lucid instruction, and less deserve the name of skeletons, than the finished discourses of many other divines. Life of M. Henry; Jones' Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck. - HENRY, (PATRICK,) an American orator and states- man, was born in Virginia, in 1736, and, after receiving a common school education, and spending some time in trade and agriculture, commenced the practice of the law, after only six weeks of preparatory study. After several years of poverty, with the incumbrance of a family, he first rose to distinction in managing the popular cause in the controversy between the legislature and the clergy, touching the stipend which was claimed by the latter. In 1765, he was elected member of the house of burgesses, with express reference to an opposition to the British stamp act. In this assembly he obtained the honor of being the first to commence the opposition to the measures of the British government, which terminated in the revo- lution. He was one of the delegates sent by Virginia to the first general congress of the colonies, in 1774, and in that body distinguished himself by his boldness and elo- quence. In 1776, he was appointed the first governor of the commonwealth, and to this office was repeatedly re- elected. In 1794, he retired from the bar, and died in 1799. Without extensive information upon legal or political topics, Patrick Henry was a natural orator of the highest order, possessing great powers of imagination, sarcasm, and humor, united with great force and energy of man- ner, and a deep knowledge of human nature. - His principles of liberty and regard to Christianity, led him to deplore the practice of slavery. On this subject, in a letter written in 1773, he inquires, “Is it not amaz- ing, that at a time when the rights of humanity are defined and understood with precision, in a country above all others fond of liberty; that in such an age, and such a country we find men, professing a religion the most humane, mild, gentle, and generous, adopting a princi. ple as repugnant to humanity as it is inconsistent with the Bible, and destructive to liberty —Would any one be- lieve, that I am master of slaves of my own purchase ? I am drawn along by the general inconvenience of liv ing here without them. I will not—I cannot justify it.” He was not a member of any church. He said to a friend, just before his death, who found him reading the Bible, “Here is a book worth more than all the other books that were ever printed; yet it is my misfortune never to have found time to read it, with the proper atten- tion and feeling, till lately. I trust in the mercy of hea- ven, that it is not yet too late.” Mr. Wirt's very inter- esting life of Henry was published, 3d ed. 8vo. 1818- Davenport ; Allen. HENRY, (Thomas CHARLTON, D. D.,) author of the Letters to an Anxious Inquirer, was born in Philadelphia, Sept. 22, 1790. He was the eldest son of Alexander Hen- ry, Esq. president of the Am. Sunday School Union, who originally intended him for enlarged mercantile pursuits, on which account he went through an unusually extended course of literature. Immediately after his graduation at Middlebury college, in Aug. 1814, the most tempting and splendid prospects of affluence and distinction, invited his entrance on a secular career; but having felt the power of renewing grace while at college, he conferred not with flesh and blood, but cordially embraced the laborious and self-denying duties of the Christian ministry. He went through his theological course at Princeton, N.J., and in 1816, entered on his great work with such rare endow- ments and polished eloquence, as attracted uncommon at- tention. In Nov. 1818, he became pastor of the Presby- terian church in Columbia, S. C., where he labored faithfully for five years, with great success. In Jan. 1824, he accepted the invitation of the second Presbyterian church in Charleston. In this new and more ample field, his full soul was poured forth into his work, and a rich harvest of Souls was gathered home to God. His health becoming impaired, he visited Europe, in 1826, and after spending six months in Great Britain and France, returned in the fall of the same year with re. newed vigor and zeal to his pastoral duties. At the same time, he began to devote himself with inconceivable ardor to laborious study and composition, with a view to extend his ministerial usefulness. But, alas, on the 1st of Oc- tober, of the next year, he was seized with the yellow fever, and in four days fell a victim to its ravages, at the age of thirty-seven ; leaving his beloved family and flock to mourn the loss, of such a husband, father, and pastor, as few ever had to lose. Dr. Henry possessed as to person, mannets, mind, voice, look and action, the attributes of a finished orator. In classical and theological learning he had few equais, of his own age and country. To a critical acquaintance with the ancient languages, he added a correct knowledge of several modern ones. Especially with the original Scriptures, and the writings of the Fathers, he was quite familiar. But the crowning excellence of his character. was his entire self-consecration to the blessed Redeemer, and his deep experience of the power of religion. This it was which made him a rich blessing in life, and so richly blessed in death. His last hours afford one of the most beautiful scenes in the history of Christianity. On the evening of his seizure, he said to a friend, “I know not what the Lord intends, but iſ my ſºork is done, H E R . H. E. R. ſ 614 I shall be glad to go home;” and then repeated the fol. lowing lines : - - “Sweet to rejoice in lively hope, That, when my change shall come, Angels shall hover round my bed, And waft my spirit home.” “And can you leave me,” said Mrs. Henry, “ and the dear little children, and the church, in God's hands?”— “Yes,” he replied, “I know he can provide for you all, and I can rely on his promises and grace. I can leave you all—my work is done.” Having expressed his will, as to the disposal of his affairs, he requested that he might be left alone with his wife. Afterwards he called for his children, spoke to them affectionately, and gave them his last embrace. He then said, “I shall soon know more of eternity than I now do. ETERNITY 1 THERE is My ExALT- ED, GLORIOUs, HoME Oh, how vain, how little, how tri- fling, does every thing appear in the light of a nearing eternity.” “You have chosen,” it was said, “the good part.” “Oh I have won it,” he replied; “I have not the shadow of a doubt, or a fear, upon my mind. I have not a wish, desire, hope, or thought on earth; they are all above; nothing can turn my thoughts.” Some time after he exclaimed, “Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly, come now, come immediately, this moment, just as suits thy holy will.” Observing the grief of his wife, he said, “Is that right, my dear, is that right? we shall soon meet in heaven.” “I hope so,” she replied. “Hope so,” he an- swered, “we must, we shall—how could it be otherwise.” He afterwards remarked, “God has been very merciful in sparing me so long, and making me an instrument of good. We have often conversed together about heaven; I shall know and love you there.” He concluded a short, —but comprehensive, and ſervent prayer, by saying very emphatically, “for the Tedeemer’s sake; for the Redeem- er's—Amen.” In his last moments, being asked, “Do you find that gloom in death which some apprehend?” he replied, though with difficulty from the shortness of his breathing, “A sweet falling of the soul in Jesus. Oh what mercy what mercy —I don’t understand it !” A friend addressing him near the close of this scene of tri- umphant grace, when apparently lost to all earthly sounds, he exclaimed, “Oh you interrupted me; I had a beau- tiful train of thought then.” In a little while after, that thinking mind, which thus asserted its indestructibleness, by continuing its functions active and vigorous in the very juncture of separation from the body, went rejoicing from this stage of trial, to commingle with pure spirits beſore the throne of God. He died at the South, the same year with Dr. Payson at the North. Dr. Henry's published works are, An Inquiry into the Consistency of Popular Amusements with a Profession of Christianity; Letters to an Anxious Inquirer; and Moral Etchings.—Memoir preſized to his Letters. HERACLEONITES ; a sect of Christians, the followers of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnostic divinity, and maintained that the world was not the immediate produc- tion of the Son of God, but that he was only the occasional cause of its being created by the demiurgus. The Hera- cleonites denied the authority of the prophecies of the Old Testament; maintained that they were mere random sounds in the air; and that John the Baptist was the only true voice that directed to the Messiah.—Hend. Buck. IIERBERT, (Edward,) lord of Cherbury, was born, in 1581, at Montgomery castle; was sent at the early age of twelve years to University college, Oxford; was made a knight of the Bath soon after the accession of James I. ; travelled on the continent in 1608, and attracted much at- tention by his manners and accomplishments; served in the Netherlands in 1610 and 1614, and displayed consum- mate bravery ; was twice sent ambassador to France, where he distinguished himself by resenting the insolence of the worthless ſavorite de Luynes ; was made an Irish peer, in 1625, and, soon aſter, an English baron; espous: ed the parliamentary cause during the civil wars; and died in 1648. Herbert was one of the most chivalrous characters of his time, with considerable talents, and some vanity. He was a deist, and was one of the first who re- duced deism into a system. His principles are expounded in his works De Veritate, and De Religione Laici, which he believed God miraculously bid him publish. Lord Herbert also wrote his own Memoirs; a Liſe of Henry VIII.; and a Treatise on the Religion of the Heathens.— Davenport. HERBERT, (GEORGE,) brother to lord Herbert of Cher. bury, was born April 3, 1593, and received a religious education under the eye and care of his prudent mother. His lovely behavior, even in childhood, with the evident marks of genius and piety, endeared him to all that knew him. He entered Cambridge at sixteen, and the same year composed a volume of poems, which he terms his first fruits unto God, and which he published partly, as he writes to his mother, “to reprove the vanity of those many love-poems that are daily writ and consecrated to Venus, and to bewail that so few are writ that look to- wards God and heaven.” - In the year 1619, he was made orator of the university, and a letter of thanks which he wrote in that capacity to James I. excited the monarch's attention, who declared him to be the jewel of that university, and gave him a sin- ecure of one hundred and twenty pounds per annum. He became intimate with the great Bacon, Wotton, Andrews, and Donne, was much caressed by the most eminent nobili- ty, and it was supposed would be made secretary of state. The death of his two principal friends, the duke of Rich- mond, and the marquis of Hamilton, followed by that of king James, frustrated these expectations, and Mr. Herbert determined to devote his fine powers to a holier employ- ment. . No sooner was this determination known, than his court friends endeavored to dissuade him from it, urg- ing among other things that the office of a clergyman was too mean, too much below his high birth and abili- ties, to which he replied, “It has been formerly judged that the domestic servants of the King of heaven, should be of the moblest families on earth ; and though the in- iquity of the late times has made clergymen meanly valu- ed, and the sacred name of priest contemptible, yet I will labor to make it honorable, by consecrating all my learn- ing, and all my poor abilities to advance the glory of that God who gave them; knowing that I can never do too much for him who hath done so much for me, as to make me a CIRISTIAN. And I will labor to be like my Savior, by making humility lovely in the eyes of all men, and by fol. lowing the merciful and meek example of my dear Jesus.” Aſter much preparation of heart, he was accordingly ordained, and in 1626, was made prebend of Layton church, in the diocese of Lincoln. In 1630, he was trans- ferred to the living of Bemerton near Salisbury. Here he wrote, “I now look back upon my aspiring thoughts, and think myself more happy than if I had attained what I so ambitiously thirsted for. I can now behold the court with an impartial eye, and see plainly that it is made up of frauds, and titles, and flattery, and other such empty, im- aginary pleasures; but in God and his service is a fulness of all joy, and pleasure, and no satiety; and I will now use all my endeavors to bring my relations and depend- ants to a love and reliance on him, who never fails those who trust him.”—“I know the ways of learning; I know what nature does willingly, and what, when it is ſorced by fire; I know the ways of honor, and when glory in- clines the Soul to noble expressions; I know the court; I know the ways of pleasure, of love, of wit, of music, and upon what terms I declined all these for the service of my Master Jesus.” Here he faithfully, humbly, and success- fully labored in his Master’s work till his happy death, in 1635, at the age of ſorty-two. His poems entitled “The Temple,” and his “Priest to the Temple, or the Country Parson's Character and Rules of Holy Life,” are still admired for their beautiful and holy simplicity. His works have been published in one voi- ume.—Middleton, vol. iii. 48. - . HERDER, (John Godfrey,) a German divine, philoso- pher, and writer, was born, in 1744, of poor parents, at Mohrungen, in Prussia; was educated for the church, became court preacher, ecclesiastical counsellor, and vice president of the consistory to the duke of Saxe Weimar; and died, beloved and venerated by all who knew him, in 1803. At the moment when he expired he was writing a hymn to the Deity, and the pen was ſound on the unſ- nished line. Though a model of virtue and piety, to H E R H E R [ 615 J whom Germany is deeply indebted for valuable works in almost every branch of literature and taste, as well as theology, yet he often exclaimed, in moments of melan- choly reflection, “O, my profitless life!” His beautiful work on the Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry is well known and highly valued. “In many respects,” says Degerando, “Herder is the Fenelon of Germany, and of the re- formed religion.” His works, philological, philosophical, and poetical, form forty-five volumes, octavo.—Davenport. HERESIARCH; one who introduces or founds any particular heresy: a leader of any body of heretics.- FIend. Buck. HERESY; a term borrowed from the Greek word hai- resis, which, in its primary signification, implies a choice or election, whether of good or evil. It seems to have been principally applied to what we would call moral choice, or the adoption of one opinion in preference to another. Philosophy was in Greece the great object which divided the opinions and judgments of men; and hence the term havesis, (heresy,) being most frequently applied to the adoption of this or that particular dogma, came by an easy transition to signify the sect or school in which that dogma was maintained. Thus, though the heresy of the acade- my, or of Epicurus, would sound strange to our ears, and though the expression was not common with the early Greek writers, yet in later times it became familiar, and we find Cicero speaking of the heresy to which Cato be- longed, when he described him as a perfect Stoic. The Hellenistic Jews made use of the same term to express the leading sects which divided their countrymen. Thus Josephus speaks of the three heresies of the Pharisees, Sad- ducees, and Essenes; and since he was himself a Phari- see, he could only have used the term as equivalent to sect or party. Luke also, in the Acts of the Apostles, (5:17. 15: 5.) speaks of the heresy of the Pharisees and Saddu- cees; and we learn from the same book, (24: 5, 14.) that the Christians were called by the Jews the heresy of the Nazarenes. With this opprobrious addition, the term was undoubtedly used as one of insult and contempt; and the Jews were more likely than the Greeks to speak reproach- fully of those who differed from them, particularly in mat- ters of religion. The three Jewish sects already men- tioned were of long standing, and none of them were con- sidered to be at variance with the national creed ; but the Christians differed from all of them ; and in every sense of the word, whether ancient or modern, they formed a distinct heresy. - The apostles would be likely to use the term with a mixture of Jewish and Gentile feelings; but there was one obvious reason why they should employ it in a new sense, and why at length it should acquire a signification invari- ably expressive of reproach. The Jews, as we have seen, allowed of three, or perhaps more, heresies among their countrymen. In Greece, opinions were much more di- vided, and twelve different sects have been enumerated, which, by divisions and subdivisions, might be multi- plied into many more. The shades of difference between these diverging sects were often extremely small; and there were many bonds of union, which kept them toge- ther, as members of the same family, or links of the same chain. In addition to which we must remember, that these differences were not always or necessarily connected with r2.igion. Persons might dispute concerning the summitm bonum, and yet they might worship, or at least profess to worship, the same God. . But the doctrine of the gospel was distinct, uncompromising, and of such a nature that a person must believe the whole of it, and to the very let- ter, or he could not be admitted to be a Christian. There is one body, and one Spirit, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, &c.; (Eph. 4: 4, 5.) which words, if rightly understood, evi- dently mean, that the faith of the gospel is one and undi- vided. Hence arose the distinction between orthodox and heterodox. He who believed the gospel, as the apostles preached it, was orthodox ; he who did not so believe it, was heterodox. He embraced an opinion,--it mattered not whether his own, or that of another, but he made it his own choice, and in the strict Sense of the term he was an heretic. It was no longer necessary to qualify the term by the addition of the sect or party.which he chose : he was not a true Christian, and therefore he was an heretic. It was in this sense that it was applied by the early fa- thers. If a man admitted a part, or even the whole of Christianity, and added to it something of his own ; or if he rejected the whole of it, he was equally designated as an heretic. Thus, by degrees, it came to be restricted to those who professed Christianity, but professed it errone- ously; and in later times, the doctrine of the Trinity, as defined by the council of Nice, was almost the only test which decided the orthodoxy or the heresy of a Christian. Differences upon minor points were then described by the milder term of schism ; and the distinction seems to have been made, that unity of faith might be maintained, though schism existed; but if the unity of faith was violated, the violator of it was an heretic : a distinction which appears hardly to have been observed in the apostolic age; and Paul has been thought to use the terra heresy, where later writers would have spoken of schisms. (See HAERETICO CoMBUREND.o.) Ency. Brit. ; Dr. Foster and Stebbins on Heresy; Hallett's Discourses, vol. iii. No. 9. p. 358, 408; Dr. Campbell's Prel. Diss. to the Gospels; Dr. Burton on the Heresies of the Apostolic Age, p. 8.-Hend. Buck. HERETIC ; a general name ſor all such persons under any religion, but especially the Christian, as profess, or teach opinions contrary to the established faith, or to what is made the standard of orthodoxy. (See the preceding article, and Lardner's History of the Heretics of the first two Centuries.)—Hend. Buck. HERMIAS, a disciple mentioned Rom. 16:14, was, ac- cording to several of the ancients, and many learned mo- dern interpreters, the same as Hermas, whose works are said to be still extant; but this is doubtful.—Calmet. HERMENIGILDUS; a Gothic prince of the sixth cen- tury, the eldest son of Leovigildus, king of the Goths in Spain. He was originally an Arian, but, by means of his wife Ingonda, became a convert to the orthodox faith. His father, enraged at the change, stripped him of the com- mand of Seville, and threatened him with death. The prince put himself and the city in the posture of defence; on which his exasperated father commenced a severe per- secution against the orthodox, and did all in his power to detach them from his son, who in vain sought assistance from Rome and Constantinople. Being driven, after a siege of twelve months, from Seville to Asseto, he was compelled to surrender, and depending on a promise of pardon, threw himself at his father's feet. ... The king, however, loaded him with chains, and finding him inflexi- ble in his opposition to Arianism, in a fit of rage ordered his guards to cut him in pieces, which was done, April 13, A. D. 586.—Fox, p. 78. HERMENEUTICS, (from the Greek hermēneuo, to inter- pret;) the science or theory of interpretation, comprising and exhibiting the principles and rules according to which the meaning of an author may be judiciously and accurate- ly ascertained. It consists of two parts: the theoretical, which includes the general principles which respect the meaning of words and the kinds of them ; and the pre- ceptive, which embraces the rules founded on these princi- ples, by which we are to be guided in our philological in- quiries, and all our attempts to investigate the meaning of any writer. Sacred hermeneutics comprise the principles and rules of this science as made to bear on the interpre- tation of the holy Scriptures. (See BIBLICAL INTERPRETA- TION.)—Hend. Buck. HERMES ; a Christian deacon and martyr, of the º century, under Diocletian. (See PHILIP of HERA, CLEA. HERMIANI; a sect in the second century, so called from their leader Hermias. One of their distinguishing tenets was, that God is corporeal; another, that Jesus Christ did not ascend into heaven with his body, but left it in the sun.—Hend. Buck. HERMIT; a person who retires into solitude for the purpose of devotion. Who were the first hermits cannot easily be known; though Paul, surnamed the Hermit, is generally reckoned the first. The persecutions of Decius and Valerian were supposed to have occasioned their first rise. See Natural History of Enthusiasm.—Hend. Buck. HERMOGENIANS ; a sect of ancient heretics, deno- minated from their leader Hermogenes, who lived towards the close of the second century. Hermogenes established H E R H E R [ 616 matter as his first principle; and regarding matter as the fountain of all evil, he mantained, that the world, and every thing contained in it, as also the souls of men and other spirits, were formed by the Deity from an uncreated and eternal mass of corrupt matter. The opinions of Her- mogenes with regard to the origin of the world, and the nature of the soul, were warmly opposed by Tertullian. (See GNoSTIcs.)—Hend. Buck. HERMON ; a celebrated mountain in the Holy Land, often spoken of in Scripture. It was in the northern boundary of the country, beyond Jordan, and in the terri- tories which originally belonged to Og, king of Bashan, Josh, 12: 5. 13:5. The Psalmist connects Tabor and Hermon together, upon more than one occasion; (Ps. 89: 12. 133: 3.) from which it may be inferred that they lay contiguous to each other. This is agreeable to the ac- count that is given us by travellers. Mr. Maundrell, in his journey from Aleppo, says that in three hours and a half from the river Kishon, he came to a small brook, near which was an old village and a good kane, called Legune; not far from which his company took up their quarters for the night, and from whence they had an extensive pros- pect of the plain of Esdraelon. At about six or seven hours' distance eastward, stood, within view, Nazareth, and the two mountains Tabor and Hermon. He adds, that they were sufficiently instructed by experience what the holy Psalmist means by the dew of Hermon; their tents being as wet with it as if it had rained all night, Ps. 133: 3.— Watson. -- HERNHUTERS. (See MoRAvi ANs.) HEROD, surnamed the Great; king of the Jews, second son of Antipater the Idumean, born B. C. 71. At the age of twenty-five he was made by his father governor of Ga- lilee, and distinguished himself by the suppression of a band of robbers, with the execution of their leader, Heze- kiah, and several of his comrades. In the civil war be- tween the republican and Caesarian parties, Herod joined Cassius, and was made governor of Coelo-Syria; and when Mark Antony arrived victorious in Syria, Herod and his brother found means to ingratiate themselves with him, and were appointed as tetrarchs in Judea ; but in a short time an invasion of Antigonus, who was aided by the Jews, obliged Herod to make his escape from Jerusa- lem, and retire first to Idumea, and then to Egypt. He at length arrived at Rome, and obtained the crown of Judea upon occasion of a diſſerence between the two branches of the Asmodean family. Having met with this unex- pected success, he returned without delay to Judea, and in about three years got possession of the whole country. Antigonus was taken prisoner and put to death, which opened the way to Herod’s quiet possession of the kingdom. His first cares were to replenish his coffers, and to repress the faction still attached to the Asmodean race, and which regarded him as a usurper. He was guilty of many ex- tortions and cruelties in the pursuit of these objects. 2. In the war between Antony and Octavius, Herod raised an army for the purpose of joining the former; but he was obliged first to engage Malchus, king of Arabia, whom he defeated and obliged to sue for peace. After the battle of Actium, his great object was to make terms with Octavius the conqueror; and, as a preliminary step, he put to death Hyrcanus, the only surviving male of the Asmodeans; and, having secured his family, he embarked for Rhodes, where Augustus at that time was. He appeared before the master of the Roman world in all the regal ornaments excepting his diadem, and related the faithful services he had performed for his benefactor, Antony, adding, that he was ready to transfer the same gratitude to a new patron, from whom he should hold his crown and kingdom. Au- gustus was struck with the magnanimity of the defence, and replaced the diadem on the head of Herod, who re- mained the most favored of the tributary sovereigns. When the emperor afterwards travelled through Syria, in his way to and from Egypt, he was entertained with the utmost magnificence by Herod; in recompense for which he restored to him all his revenues and dominions, and even considerably augmented them. His good fortune as a prince, however, was poisoned by domestic broils, and especially by the insuperable aversion of his wife Mariam- ne, whom at length he brought to trial, convicted, and executed. She submitted to her ſate with all the intrepi. dity of innocence, and was sufficiently avenged by the re- morse of her husband, who seems never after to have enjoyed a tranquil hour. At times he would fly from the sight of men, and on his return from solitude, which was ill suited to a mund conscious of the most ferocious deeds, he became more brutal than ever, and in fits of fury spared neither foes nor friends. - 3. At length he recovered some portion of self-possession, and employed himself in projects of regal magnificence. Besides building Sebaste and Cesarea, and many fortress- es, he erected at Jerusalem a stately theatre and amphi- theatre, in which he celebrated games in honor of Augus- tus, to the great displeasure of the zealous Jews, who dis- covered an idolatrous profanation in the theatrical orna- ments and spectacles. Nothing, it is said, gave them so much offence as some trophies which he had set round his theatre in honor of Augustus, and in commemoration of his victories, but which the Jews regarded as images de- voted to the purposes of idol worship. For this and other acts of the king a most serious conspiracy was formed against him, which he, fortunately for himself, discovered; and he exercised the most brutal revenge on all the parties concerned in it. - 4. To acquire popularity among the Jews, and to exhi- bit an attachment to their religion, he undertook the vast enterprise of rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem, which he finished in a noble style of magnificence in about a year and a half, although it received splendor by new additions for more than ſorty years. During the progress of this work he visited Rome, and brought back his sons, who had attained to man’s estate. These at length conspired against their father's person and government, and were tried, convicted, and executed. Notwithstanding the exe- cution of his sons, he was still a slave to conspiracies from his other near relations. In the thirty-third year of his reign, our SAVIOR was born. This event was followed, according to the gospel of St. Matthew, by the massacre of the children at Bethle- hem. About this time, Antipater, returning from Rome, was arrested by his father's orders, charged with treasona- ble practices, and was found guilty of conspiring against the life of the king. This and other calamities, joined to a guilty conscience, preying upon a broken constitution, threw the wretched monarch into a mortal disease, which was doubtless a just judgment of heaven on the many foul enormities and impieties of which he had been guilty. His disorder was attended with the most loathsome cir- cumstances that can be imagined. A premature report of his death caused a tumult in Jerusalem, excited by the zealots, who were impatient to demolish a golden eagle which he had placed over the gate of the temple. The perpetrators of this rash act were seized, and, by order of the dying king, put to death. He also caused his son An- tipater to be slain in prison, and his remains to be treated with every species of ignominy. He bequeathed his kingdom to his son Archelaus, with tetrarchies to his two other sons. - Herod, on his dying bed, planned a scheme of horri- ble cruelty, which was to take place at the instant of his own death. He had summoned the chief persons among the Jews to Jericho, and caused them to be shut up in the hippodrome, or circus, and gave strict orders to his sister Salome to have them all massacred as soon as he should have drawn his last breath; “for this,” said he, “will provide mourners for my funeral all over the land, and make the Jews in every family lament my death, who would otherwise exhibit no signs of concern.” Salome and her husband, Alexas, chose rather to break their oath extorted by the tyrant, than be implicated in so cruel a deed; and accordingly, as soon as Herod was dead, they opened the doors of the circus, and permitted every one to return to his own home. Herod died in the sixty-eighth year of his age. His memory has been consigned to me- rited detestation, while his great talents, and the active enterprise of his reign, have placed him high in the rank of sovereigns.—Watson. - HEROD ANTIPAS. (See ANTIPAs.) - HERODIANS ; a sect among the Jews, at the time of our Savior, Matt. 22: 16. Mark 3: 6. The critics and H E R H E R [617 ) commentators are very much divided with regard to the Herodians. St. Jerome, in his dialogue against the Luci- ſerians, takes the name to have been given to such as owned Herod for the Messiah; and Tertullian and Epi- hanius are of the same opinion. But the same Jerome, in his comment on Matthew, treats this opinion as ridicu- lous; and maintains that the Pharisees gave this appella- tion, by way of ridicule, to Herod's soldiers, who paid tribute to the Romans; agreeable to which the Syrian interpreters render the word by the domestics of Herod, i. e. “his courtiers.” M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap- ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion : the name Herodian he imagines to have been given to such as adhered to Herod's party and interest, and were for pre- serving the government in his family, about which were great divisions among the Jews. F. Hardouin will have the Herodians and Sadducees to have been the same. Dr. Prideaux is of opinion that they derived their name from Herod the Great; and that they were distinguished from the other Jews by their concurrence with Herod’s scheme for subjecting himself and his dominions to the Romans, and likewise by complying with many of their heathen usages and customs. This symbolizing with idolatry upon views of interest and worldly policy, was probably that lea- ven of Herod, against which our Savior cautioned his dis- ciples. It is further probable that they were chiefly of the sect of the Sadducees: because the leaven of Herod is also denominated the leaven of the Sadducees.—Hend. Buck. HERODIAS; daughter of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandaughter of Herod the Great. Her first hus- band was her uncle Philip, by whom she had Salome; but he falling into disgrace, and being obliged to live in pri- vate, she left him, and married his brother Herod, tetrarch of Galilee, who offered her a palace and a crown. As John the Baptist censured this incestuous marriage, (Matt. 14: 3. Mark 6: 17.) Antipas ordered him to be imprisoned. Some time afterwards, Herodias suggested to her dancing daughter, Salome, to ask John the Baptist's head, which she procured. (See ANTIPAs.) Mortified to see her hus- band tetrarch only, while her brother Agrippa, whom she had known in a state of indigence, was honored with the title of king, Herodias persuaded Antipas to visit Rome, and procure from the emperor Caius the royal title. Agrippa, however, sent letters to the emperor, informing him that Herod had arms in his arsenals for seventy thou- sand men, and by this means procured his banishment to Lyons. Herodias, who accompanied her husband, fol- lowed him in the calamity she had brought upon him.— Calmet. HERON, (anaph, Lev. 11; 19. Deut. 14: 18.) This word has been variously understood. Some have rendered it § i i * 3 & 5, ºn == * §§§ § N N Wº A$3. ſ sº ź w ſº º N i...,R. '': Y §§ y\\ §§§ § '/4} \\ \\ 2- 4'NN º º \\ § - sº wº \\\º § §§ º ſ §§N WN \\ N: W.W |\\\\". the kite, others the woodcock, others the curlew, some the peacock, others the parrot, and others the crane. ... The root, anap, signifies to breathe short through the nostrils, to snuff, as in anger; hence to be angry; and it is supposed that the word is sufficiently descriptive of the heron, from 1ts very irritable disposition. Bochart, however, thinks it the mountain falcon; the same that the Greeks call ano- paia, mentioned by Homer; and this bears a strong re- semblance to the Hebrew name.—Watson. HERRING, (THoMAs,) archbishop of Canterbury, an eminent prelate, was born, in 1693, at Walsoken, in Nor- folk, of which his father was rector; studied at Cam- bridge; and, after having possessed various livings, was raised, in 1737, to the see of Bangor, whence, in 1743, he was translated to York. After the defeat of the king's troops at Preston Pans, in 1745, the archbishop exerted himself in his diocese with so much patriotism and zeal, that he repressed the disaffected, inspirited the desponding, and procured, at a county meeting, a subscription of forty thousand pounds, towards the defence of the country. In 1747, he was removed to the see of Canterbury; and he died at Croydon, in 1756. Herring was a man of learn- ing, piety, and tolerant principles. Dr. Jortin, who knew him well, tells us, that he had piety without superstition, and moderation without meanness; an open and liberal way of thinking, and a constant attachment to the cause of sober and rational liberty, both civil and religious; that he was a prelate of uncommon virtues, a man of extraor- dinary accomplishments, a candid divine, a polite scholar, a warm lover of his country, one whose memory can never cease to be revered. In short, “he was,” says the earl of Corke, “what a bishop ought to be ; and is, I doubt not, where all bishops ought to be.” His Sermons and Letters were published after his death.-Biog. Brit. and Monthly Review, vols. 28. and 57.-Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. HERVEY, (JAMEs, M. A.,) the distinguished author of “Meditations,” bearing his name, was born at Harding- stone, near Northamton, February 26, 1713. His father was a clergyman, then residing at Collingtree; and Mr. Hervey received from him, and his excellent mother, his early education. At the age of eighteen he was sent to the university of Oxford; and there, becoming acquainted with the distinguished John Wesley, he devoted himself with great zeal to various studies, and became seriously impressed with the importance of religion. For some years afterwards he felt a peculiar attachment to the doc- trinal sentiments of Mr. Wesley; but subsequently con- ceiving such sentiments to be erroneous, he attached him- self to the Calvinists. At the age of twenty-two, his father appointed him to the situation of curate of Weston Favel, and he discharged the duties of his office with piety and integrity. In a few years he was curate at Biddeford, and several other places in the west of England; and, during that time, he wrote his celebrated “Meditations and Contemplations,” which he published in 1746, and which have been universally read, and very generally admired. In 1750, on the death of his father, he succeeded to the livings of Weston and Collingtree, and he devoted most of his time in attention to the duties of his profession. In 1753, he published “Remarks on Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the Study and Use of History, so far as they relate to the History of the Old Testament, &c.; in a Letter to a Lady of Quali- ty;” and a recommendatory Preface to Burnham's Pious *Memorials. In 1755, he published his “Theron and As- pasio,” which is regarded as decidedly the best effort of his genius; but it was attacked by Mr. Robert Sandeman, of Edinburgh, with extraordinary ability, on the nature of justifying faith, and other points connected with it, in a work, entitled, “Letters on Theron and Aspasio,” two vo- lumes. (See SANDEMAN.). This attack threw Mr. Hervey into the arms of Mr. W. Cudworth, a dissenting minister in London, in whom he found a powerful coadjutor; but Mr. Hervey does not appear to have understood Cud- worth’s system, which, in some important points, was very different from his own, though they were agreed in making appropriation essential to the nature of true faith. The health of Mr. Hervey was generally imperfect, and for many years he was the subject of affliction; till, at length, on December the 25th, 1758, his labors were ter- minated by death, and his spirit, emancipated from the burdens of mortality, was conducted to regions of purity and peace. Mr. Hervey's writings have had an extensive circula- tion; for many years the press could with difficulty supply the demand for them. Yet his style has been severely censured by Dr. Blair, and others, for its turgid qualities. 78 * HE X H E y ſ 618 J Of his character, however, there is little difference of opi- nion. He was eminently pious, though not deeply learn- ed; habitually spiritually minded; zealous for the doc- trines of divine grace; animated with ardent love to the Savior; and his humility, meekness, submission to the will of God, and patience under his afflicting hand, exem- lº, the Christian character, and adorned his profession. is writings were collected and published after his death, in six volumes, octavo and duodecimo, and have often been reprinted in both sizes. See Ryland's Life of Her- vey ; Letters of Hervey, and Life preſized.—Jones' Chris. Biog. - ÉÉSHBON ; a celebrated city of the Ammonites, twenty miles east of Jordan, Josh. 13: 17. It was given to Reu- ben; but was afterwards transferred to Gad, and then to the Levites. It had been conquered from the Moabites, by Sihom, and was taken by the Israelites a little before the death of Moscs. After the ten tribes were transplanted into the country beyond Jordan, the Moabites recovered it. Pliny and Jerome assign it to Arabia. Solomon speaks of the pool of Heshbon, Cant, 7:4. The town still subsists under its ancient name, and is situated, according to Burckhardt, on a hill.— Calmet. HESYCASTS, or QUIETISTs; certain eastern monks, so called from the Greek word hesuchazö, which signifies to be quiet. Their distinguishing tenet was that of the Messalians, who maintained that, abandoning all labor, we should give ourselves wholly to religious exercises, especially to contemplation. They appeared about Con- stantinople in the year 1340; and because they fixed their eyes upon their belly, while engaged in prayer, regarding the navel as the seat of the soul, they were likewise called Omphalopsychi or Umbilici. They were joined by Gregory Palamas, archbishop of Thessalonica, who was attacked by the monk Barlaam, and the order was condemned in a synod held at Constantinople, in the year 1342.—H. Buck. HESYCHIUS, a lexicographer, appears to have been a native of Alexandria; but whether he existed in the fourth or the sixth century is doubtful. He compiled a lexicon, which is considered as one of the most valuable treasures of the Greek language.—Davenport. HETERODOX, (thinking othernise ;) something contra- ry to the faith...or doctrine established in what has been ac- counted the true church. (See ORTHODox.)—Hend. Buck. HETEROUSII, HETERousiaNs, (of other essence ;) a sect or branch of Arians, the followers of Aëtius, and from him denominated Aëtians. (See AETIANs.) , They were called the Heterousii, because they held, not that the Son of God was of a substance like, or similar to, that of the Father, which was the doctrine of another branch of Ari- ans, thence called Homoousians, Homoousii; but that he was of another substance different from that of the Father.—Watson. HETH, father of the Hittites, was eldest son of Canaan, and dwelt south of the promised land, at or near Hebron. Ephron, or Hebron, was of the race of Heth; and that city, in Abraham's time, was peopled by the children of Heth. Some think there was a city called Heth ; but we find no traces of it in Scripture.—Calmet. HEXAPLA ; a Bible disposed in six columns, contain- ing the text, and divers versions thereof, compiled and published by Origen, with a view to secure the sacred text iſ om future corruptions, and to correct those that had been already introduced. Eusebius relates that Origen, aſter his return from Rome under Caracalla, applied himself to learn Hebrew, and began to collect the several versions that had been made of the sacred writings, and of these to compose his Tetrapla and Hexapla; others, however, will not allow him to have begun till the time of Alexander, aſter he had retired into Palestine, about the year 213. To conceive what this Hexapla was, it must be observed, that, besides the translation of the Sacred writings, called the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Philadelphus, above 280 years before Christ, the Scripture had been since translated into Greek by other interpreters. The first of these versions, or (reckoning the Septuagint) the se- cond, was that of Aquila, a proselyte Jew, the first edi- tion of which he published in the 12th year of the emperor Adrian, or about the year of Christ 128; the third was hat of Symmachus, published, as is commonly supposed, under Marcus Aurelius, but as some say, under Septimius Severus, about the year 200; the fourth was that of Theo- dotian, prior to that of Symmachus, under Commodus, or about the year 175. These Greek versions, says Dr. Ken- nicott, were made by the Jews from their corrupted copies of the Hebrew, and were designed to stand in the place of the Seventy, against which they were prejudiced, because it seemed to ſavor the Christians. The fifth was found at Jericho, in the reign of Caracalla, about the year 217; and the sixth was discovered at Nicopolis, in the reign of Alexander Severus, about the year 228; lastly, Origen himself recovered part of a seventh, containing only the Psalms. Now, Origen, who had held frequent disputations with the Jews in Egypt and Palestine, observing that they always objected to those passages of Scripture quoted against them, appealed to the Hebrew text, the better to vindicate those passages, and confound the Jews, by show- ing that the Seventy had given the sense of the Hebrew ; or rather to show, by a number of different versions, what the real sense of the Hebrew was, undertook to reduce all these several versions into a body, along with the Hebrew text, so as they might be easily confronted, and afford a mutual light to each other. He made the Hebrew text his standard; and allowing that corruptions might have happened, and that the old Hebrew copies might and did read diſſerently, he contented himself with marking such words or sentences as were not in his Hebrew text, nor the later Greek versions, and adding such words or sentences as were omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an asterisk to the additions, and an obelisk to the others. In order to this, he made choice of eight columns; in the first he made the Hebrew text, in Hebrew characters; in the second, the same text in Greek characters; the rest were filled with the several versions above mentioned; all the columns answering verse for verse, and phrase for phrase ; and in the Psalms there was a minth column for the seventh ver- sion. This work Origen called Hexapla, or work of six columns, as only regarding the first six Greek versions. Epiphanius, taking in likewise the two columns of the text, calls the work Octapla, as consisting of eight columns. This celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines con- sisted of sixty large volumes, perished long ago; probably with the library at Cesarea, where it was preserved in the year 653; though several of the ancient writers have pre- served us pieces thereof, particularly Chrysostom on the Psalms, Phileponus in his Hexameron, &c. Some modern writers have earnestly endeavored to collect fragments of the Hexapla, particularly Flaminius, Nobilius, Drusius, and F. Montfaucon, in two ſolio volumes, printed at Paris, in 1713. An edition was also published by Bahrdt, in two volumes octavo, which is convenient for reference.— FIend. Buck. HEYLIN, (PETER,) a divine, was born, in 1600, at Durſord, in Oxfordshire; was educated at Hart Hall and Magdalen college, Oxford; obtained various livings and clerical offices through the patronage of Laud, from which he was expelled by the republicans; was the editor of the Mercurius Aulicus, the royalist paper; recovered his pre- ferments at the restoration ; and died in 1662. Among his works are, Lives of Laud, and of Charles I. ; Histories of the Presbyterians, and of the Reformation of the Church of England; and a Help to English History.—Davenport. HEYWOOD, (OLIVER,) an eminent minister among the non-conformists of the seventeenth century, was born in March, 1629, at Little Lever, in the parish of Bolton, Lam- cashire. Soon after leaving the university, he began to preach occasionally in his own neighborhood, and received an invitation to Coley chapel, in the parish of Halifax, which he accepted, and on the 23d of June, 1652, he was solemnly invested with the pastoral office. This was the period of Oliver Cromwell's protectorate, and it was a most trying time to many of the fearers of God, and to Mr. Hey- wood among the rest. He, however, continued his minis- terial functions for about ten years, and kept his station amidst the turbulence of those distracted times. The pru- dence of *Mr. Heywood led him studiously to avoid, as much as possible, all meddling with the political disputes which were agitated in his day; but he was involved with the rest of his brethren in the act of uniformity, passed in August, 1662, and ejected from his living. In 1664, a Í 619 ) H I E .* sº & writ was issued for his apprehension as an excommuni- cated person, but he evaded his pursuers, and ſound safety in the bosoma of his friends. During this trying period he was reduced to great straits and difficulties to provide for his family, consisting of a wife and several children, the means of subsistence; but he who feeds the ravens, and clothes the lilies of the field, wonderfully interposed for them, and sent them relief from unexpected quarters. It would carry us much too far into detail to trace the history of this good man, in his sufferings for conscience' sake, the privations and hardships to which he was exposed, to the period of his death, which took place on the 4th of May, 1702, in the seventy-third year of his age. He was the author of numerous detached publications, which have recently been carefully collected and reprinted, with a memoir of his life, in five volumes, octavo, by the Rev. Mr. Wint, master of a dissenting academy at Bradford, in Yorkshire.—Jones' Chris. Biog. - HEZEKIAH, the virtuous king of Judah, was the son of Ahaz, and born in the year of the world 3251. At the age of five-and-twenty he succeeded his father in the go- verhment of the kingdom of Judah, and reigned twenty- nine years in Jerusalem, namely, ſrom the year of the world 3277 to 3306, 2 Kings 18: 1,2. 2 Chron. 29: 1. His reign is distinguished by the glorious reformation from Idolatry—the rapid progress of public improvements—the overthrow of the Assyrian power in Judea—Hezekiah's miraculous recovery from sickness—his weakness when left of God to his own heart—and the prophetic declara- tion of its fatal consequences in the Babylonish captivity. Hezekiah bowed submissively to the will of God, and acknowledged the divine goodness towards him, in ordain- ing peace and truth to continue during the remainder of his reign, 2 Chron. 32: 31. He accordingly passed the latter years of his life in tranquillity, and contributed greatly to the prosperity of his people and kingdom. He died in the year of the world 3306, leaving behind him a son, Manasseh, who succeeded him in the throne : a son every way unworthy of such a father.—Watson. HIACOOMES, the first Indian in New England who was converted to Christianity, and a minister at Martha’s Vineyard, lived upon this island when a few English fa- milies first settled there, in 1642. Under the instruction of Thomas Mayhew, he eagerly received the truths of the gospel. Having learned to read, he in 1645 began to teach his brethren the Christian doctrines, and he did not labor in vain. A number of them were soon impressed with a sense of their guilt in living as they had lived, and sought for pardon from him who is the propitiation for the sins of the world. - The Sachems and pawaws, or priests, did not observe this progress of Christianity with indifference. While the latter threatened to destroy all the praying Indians with witch- craft, their menaces were particularly directed against Hiacoomes; but he said to them, “I believe in God, and put my trust in him, and therefore all the pawaws can do me no hurt.” In 1650, when he lost a young child, the ſuneral was performed in the English manner. The mourners did not discolor their faces, nor deposit any utensils or goods in the grave, nor howl over the dead. After the death of Mr. Mayhew, in 1657, he continued his benevolent labors, though he greatly lamented the loss of that good man, by whom he had been enlightened in the knowledge of the truth, and whose instructions gave him the power of instructing others. August 22, 1670, an Indian church was regularly formed on Martha’s Vineyard, and Hiacoomes and Tackanash were ordained its pastor and teacher by Eliot and Cotton. Hiacoomes survived his colleague, and died about the year 1690, aged near eighty. In his last sickness he expressed the hopes of a Christian, and gave exhortations to those around; and at his death he without doubt entered into that rest, from which many of the learned and refined, who love not the Lord Jesus Christ, will be excluded. Mayhen’s Indian Conv.; Ma- ther's Magnalia, iii. 199–Allen. IHICKS, (ELIAs,) a Quaker, died at Jericho, Long Island, February 27, 1830, aged eighty-one. His wiſe, Jemima, with whom he had lived in harmony fifty-eight years, died in 1829. In the last years of his life he was the cause, by some new doctrines of a Socinian cast, which he advanced, of a great discord and division among the Friends.-- Allen. - . HIDDEKEL. (See EDEN.) - a s HIDE; (1.) To cover, to keep secret: so God hides his commandments, when he shows not their meaning, Ps. 119:19. To hide his righteousness in our heart, is sin- fully to neglect the due publishing and declaring of it, Ps. 40: 10. (2.) To lay up : so saints hide God's word in their heart when they lay it up in their memories, judgments, consciences, and affections, that it may influence and re- gulate their whole exercise in heart and life, Ps. 119: 11. (3.) To protect. God hides his people in his pavilion, in the secret of his presence, and under the shadow of his wings; and is their hiding-place when, in the exercise of his perfections, he gives them the most safe and refresh- ing protection from danger and hurt, Ps. 27: 3, and 32: 7. Jesus Christ is a hiding-place; under the covert of his right- eousness are we secured from the vengeance of God : and by his providence, power, and love, are we secured from the danger of sin, Satan, and the world, Isa. 32: 2. God hides himself, hides his face, when he ſorbears kindly to show his ſavor in his word, ordinances and providence, Ps. 89: 46. Whatever is secret, hard to be known, or found, is called hid or hidden : Saints are God’s hidden ones; their state and happy privileges are unknown to the world, and they are protected of God, Ps. 83: 3. The gospel and Christ are a hidden treasure, and hidden nºisdom, unknown to natural men, Matt. 13:44. 1 Cor. 2: 7.—Bromm. HIEL, of Bethel, rebuilt Jericho, notwithstanding the predictive curse of Joshua against the person who should attempt it, and of which he experienced the effects, by losing his eldest son Abiram, while laying the foundations, and his youngest son Segub, when hanging up the gates. See ABIRAM ; and JERICHO.)—Calmet. HIERACITES; heretics in the third century, so called from their leader, Hierax, a philosopher of Egypt, who taught that Melchisedec was the Holy Ghost, denied the resurrection, and condemned marriage.—Hend. Buck. HIERAPOLIS; a city of Phrygia, not far from Colosse and Laodicea, Colos. 4: 13. “Hierapolis, (now called by the Turks Pambuck-Kulasi, or the Cotton Toner, by reason of the white cliffs lying thereabouts,) a city of the greater Phrygia, lies under a high hill to the north, having to the southward of it a fair and large plain about five miles over, almost directly opposite to Laodicea, the river J.ycus running between, but nearer the latter; now utterly for- saken and desolate, but whose ruins are so glorious and magnificent, that they strike one with horror at the first view of them, and with admiration too; such walls, and arches, and pillars of so vast a height, and so curiously wrought, being still to be found there, that one may well judge, that when it stood, it was one of the most glorious cities not only in the East, but of the world. The nume- rousness of the temples there erected in the times of idola- try with so much art and cost, might sufficiently confirm the title of the holy city, which it at first derived from the hot waters flowing from several springs, to which they ascribed a divine healing virtue, and which made the city so famous ; and for this cause Apollo, whom both Greeks and Romans adored as the god of medicine, had his vota- ries and altars here, and was very probably their chief deity. Several tombs still remain ; some of them almost entire, very stately and glorious, as if it had been accounted a kind of sacrilege to injure the dead, and upon that account they had abstained from defacing their monuments; en- tire stones of a great length and height, some covered with stone shaped into the form of a cube, others ridge-wise. On the 14th in the morning, we set forward for Colosse, where within an hour and a half we arrived.” Trave's by T. Smith, B. D. 1678.—Calmet. HIERARCHY ; an ecclesiastical establishment, or a church governed by priests, from hiera, (sacred,) and ar- ché, (government.) Though elders, called presbyters and bishops, stood at the head of the primitive churches, yet their constitution was democratic, each of the members having a share in all the concerns of the association, and voting in the election of office-bearers, the admission of new members, and the expulsion of oſſenders. Soon, however, the government was transferred into the hands of the officers, or, more properly speaking, was assumed H I G. [ 620 J by them ; and, in the second century, some of their num- ber, arrogating to themselves exclusively the title of bi- shops, acquired a superiority over the other presbyters, though these, and, in many cases, all the members of the churches, retained some share in the government. The bishops residing in the capitals of provinces soon acquired a superiority over the provincial bishops, and were called metropolitans. They, in their turn, became subject to a still higher order, termed patriarchs; and thus a complete aris- tocratic constitution was formed, which continues in the Greek church to this day; but in the Latin it was speedily transformed into a monarchy, centring in the person of the pope. Besides thus designating the internal government of the church, the term hierarchy is sometimes used to denote the dominion of the church over the state. In the first centuries the church had no connexion with the state, and was for the most part persecuted by it. After its amalga- mation with it, under Constantine the Great, it obtained protection, but was dependent on the temporal ruler, who asserted the right of convoking general councils, and no- minating the metropolitans, and otherwise frequently inter- fered in the internal affairs of the church. It was the same in the Gothic, Lombard, and Frankish states. The hierarchical power, however, was incessantly at work; Gregory VII, especially, exerted himself to enforce its claims. It was greatly promoted by the crusades; and thus, from the end of the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century, the hierarchical influence was rendered predominant. The church became an institution elevated above the state, and stood, in public opinion, above all secular princes. The papal tiara was the sun; the impe- rial crown the moon. From the fourteenth century the hierarchy began gradually to decline; it was shaken al- most to its foundations by the attacks of the reſormers; and the remains of its principles, as still existing in the different Protestant establishments, as well as in the Ro- man, are daily becoming more and more weakened by the influence of public opinion, and a firm determination, on the part of the people, to obtain the full enjoyment of those civil and religious rights, which have been arrogant- ly and wantonly wrested from them. The word is also used in reference to the subordination some suppose there is among the angels; but whether they are to be considered as having a government or hie- rarchy among themselves, so that one is superior in office and dignity to others; or whether they have a kind of dominion over one another; or whether some are made partakers of privileges others are deprived of, cannot be determined, since Scripture is silent as to this matter, Col. 1: 16, &c.—Hend. Buck. HIERONYMITES, or JEROMITEs ; hermits of the order of St. Jerome, established in 1373, which wears a white habit with a black scapulary. In the Netherlands, and in Spain, where it was devoted to a contemplative life, and possessed among other convents the splendid one of St. Laurence, in the Escurial, the sepulchre of the kings, this order became one of the most opulent and considerable. In Sicily, the West Indies, and Spanish America, it pos- sesses convents.—Hend. Buck. IIIGGAION signifies meditation, and imports that what is said deserves to be carefully and frequently thought up- on, Ps, 9: 16.-Brown. HIGGINSON, (FRANCIS,) first minister of Salem, Mas- sachusetts, after receiving his cducation at Emanuel col- lege, in Cambridge, became the minister of a church at Leicester, in England. While his popular talents filled his church with attentive hearers, such was the divine bless- ing upon his labors, that a deep attention to religious sub- jects was excited among his people. Becoming at length a conscientious non-conformist to the rites of the English church, some of which he thought not only were unsup- ported by Scripture, but corrupted the purity of Christian worship and discipline, he was excluded from the parish church, and became obnoxious to the high commission court. One day two messengers came to his house, and with loud knocks cried out, “Where is Mr. Higginson 1 We must speak with Mr. Higginson P’ His wife ran to his chamber and entreated him to conceal himselſ; but he replied, that he should acquicsce in the will of God. He went down, and as the messengers entered the hall they presented him with some papers, saying in a rough man- ner, “Sir, we came from London, and our business is to. convey you to London, as you may see by those papers.” “I thought so,” exclaimed Mrs. Higginson, weeping; but a woman’s tears could have but little effect upon hard- hearted pursuivants. Mr. Higginson opened the packet to read the form of his arrest, but, instead of an order from bishop Laud for his seizure, he found a copy of the charter of Massachusetts, and letters from the governor and company, inviting him to embark with them for New England. The sudden transition of feeling from despon- dence to joy, may be better imagined than described. Having sought advice and implored the divine direc- tion, he resolved to accept the invitation. In his farewell sermon, preached before a vast assembly, he declared his persuasion, that England would be chastised by war, and that Leicester would have more than an ordinary share of sufferings. It was not long before his prediction was veri- fied. It is not meant, that he claimed the power of ſore- telling future events; but he could reason with considera- ble accuracy from cause to effect, knowing that iniquity is generally followed by its punishment; and he lived in an age, when it was usual for ministers to speak with more confidence, and authority, and efficacy, than at pre- sent. He sailed from Gravesend, April 25, 1629, accom- panied by Mr. Skelton, whose principles accorded with his own. When he came to the land's end, he called his chil- dren and the other passengers on deck to take the last view of their native country; and he now exclaimed, “Fare- well England, farewell the church of God in England, and all the Christian friends there. We do not go to Ame- rica as separatists from the church of England, though we cannot but separate from its corruptions.” He then concluded with a ſervent prayer for the king, church, and state in England. He arrived at Cape Ann, June 27, 1629, and having spent the next day there, which was Sunday, on the 29th he entered the harbor of Salem. Ju- ly the 20th was observed as a day of fasting by the ap- pointment of governor Endicott, and the church then made choice of Mr. Higginson to be their teacher, and Mr. Skel- ton their pastor. Thus auspicious was the commencement of the settle- ment of Naumkeak, or Salem ; but the scene was soon changed. During the first winter about one hundred per- sons died, and Mr. Higginson was soon seized with a bec- tic, which terminated his days in August, 1630, aged forty- two. In his last sickness he was reminded of his benevo- lent exertions in the service of the Lord Jesus Christ. To consoling suggestions of this kind he replied, “I have been an unprofitable servant, and all my desire is to win Christ, and be ſound in him, not having my own righteous- ness.” Magnalia, i. 18, 19; iii. 70–75; Collect. Hist. Soc. i. 117–124; vi. 231, 242—244; ix. 2, 3.—Allen. HIGH CHURCHMEN ; a term first given to the non- jurors, who refused to acknowledge William III. as their lawful king, and who had very proud notions of church power; but it is now commonly used in a more extensive signification, and is applied to all those who, though far from being non-jurors, yet form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the authority and jurisdiction of the church. It has generally been found that, both in the Episcopal and Presbyterian establishments, those who have been most violent in their efforts to uphold and vindicate hie- rarchical power, and the exclusive claims of the church, have been the most indifferent to the interests of evange. lical truth, and the practice of Scriptural piety; but within these few years many of those who are in repute as the advocates of gospel-doctrine, have gradually been con- tracting in their liberality, and assuming an air and tone of high churchmanship, approximating to those of the party who regard them as a kind of half dissenters or schismatics.—Hend. Buck. HIGH MASS, is that mass which is read before the high altar on Sundays, feast days, and particular occa-. sions, such as the celebration of a victory, &c. (See MAss.)—Hend. Buck. HIGH PLACES, (bamoth.) The prophets reproach the Israelites for nothing with more zeal than for worshipping upon the high places. The destroying of these high places H I L H IN [ 621 J is a commendation given only to few princes in Scripture; and many, though zealous ſor the observance of the law, had not courage to prevent the people from Sacrificing upon these eminences. Before the temple was built, the high places were not absolutely contrary to the law, pro- vided God only was there adored, and not idols. They seem to have been tolerated under the judges; and Samuel offered sacrifices in several places where the ark was not present. Even in David's time they sacrificed to the Lord at Shiloh, Jerusalem, and Gibeon. But after the temple was built at Jerusalem, and the ark had a fixed settlement, it was no longer allowed to sacrifice out of Jerusalem. The high places were much frequented in the kingdom of Israel. The people sometimes went upon those mountains which had been sanctified by the presence of patriarchs and prophets, and by appearances of God, to worship the true God there. This worship was lawful, except as to its being exercised where the Lord had not chosen. But they frequently adored idols upon these hills, and committed a thousand abominations in groves, and caves, and tents; and hence arose the zeal of pious kings and prophets to suppress the high places.—Watson. HILDERSHAM, (ARTHUR,) a Puritan divine, was born at Stechworth, Cambridgeshire, October 6, 1563, of an honorable family. He was brought up a papist; but while at Cambridge university avowed himself a Protestant, and was in consequence cast off by his father. The earl of Huntingdon, a distant kinsman, on hearing of the circum- stance, became his patron, and carried him through the university, where he gained great esteem and love by his uncommon piety, learning, ingenuousness and affability, and was chosen divine of Trinity hall. In 1587, he was settled as preacher at Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire, where (though often persecuted, and forced to change his dwelling) he lived for the most part of forty-three years, with great success in his ministry, and love and reverence of all sorts. He suffered for conscience' sake in 1598, 1605, 1611, 1612, 1616, and 1630, being repeatedly silenc- ed, deprived, censured, and fined to the amount of two thousand pounds. This was the result of the high com- mission court in the time of James I. and Charles I. He died March 4, 1631, aged sixty-eight. His last words were in reference to 1 Tim. 3: 5, addressing himself to his son, “O son, son, that care of \be flock is the main thing.” His character was rich in Christian excellence. His unwearied delight was to do good. He was a close stu- dent, frequent in ejaculations, and fervent in prayer. His published works were widely lead, and highly esteemed, especially by Dr. Preston, and the celebrated John Cotton. They consist of one hundred ald eight lectures on John IV. ; eight sermons on Ps. XXXV. ; one hundred and fifty- two sermons on Ps. LI., and a Treatise on the Doctrine of the Lord's Supper.—Middleton, vol. iii. p. 25. HILL, (GEORGE, D. D.,) a divine of the church of Scot- land, was born at St. Andrews, in 1748. He was educat- ed in his native place, where he obtained the Greek pro- fessorship of St. Salvador's college, and that of divinity in succession. He subsequently became principal of St. Mary’s, chaplain to the king for Scotland, and fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He first appeared as an author in a volume of sermons, London, 1795. In 1803 was published an octavo volume, entitled “Theological In- stitutes,” by the Rev. George Hill, D. D.; and in 1812, “Lectures on portions of the Old Testament, illustrative of the Jewish History,” one volume, octavo. But his greatest work, and that by which he will live in the recol- lection of posterity, is his “Lectures in Divinity,” deliver- ed to the students, while principal of St. Mary's college, St. Andrews. These lectures were given to the public, in 1821, in three volumes, octavo, with a short preface by lis son. The plan is sufficiently comprehensive, and the execution everywhere discovers the hand of a master. Dr. Hill's doctrinal sentiments were in strict consonance with the standards of the church of Scotland; that is, they corresponded with those of Calvin and Knox. A second edition of this valuable work was published in 1825. Gent's. Mag, and Watt's Bib. Brit. ; Pref. to Author's Lec- tures.—Jones' Chris. Biog. HILL, (Rowland, M. A.;) author of the Village Dia- logues. Few men have been more known and honored among Christians of the presentage than Rowland Hill, the Whitfield of his time. Few, in any age, have had so long a ministry, or so fruitful in conversions to God. He was born at Hawkstone, in 1744, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. While at Eton he embraced the views of the Calvinistic Methodists, and at Cambridge, before entering into holy orders, he preached in the prison and in private houses; he also preached in the tabernacle and chapel of Whitfield, in London. In imitation of his illustrious pa- tron and pattern, he, soon after entering into orders, be- gan to lift up his voice in a wider sphere of labor—to roclaim the gospel to listening crowds in barns, meeting- #. and when they were too small, or too distant, or not to be procured, in streets and fields, by the highways and hedges. In 1783, he laid the foundation of Surry chapel, in the Blackfriar's road, London, in the duties of which he afterwards spent about the half of each year, employing the rest of the time in provincial excursions. He died in 1833, aged eighty-nine, after a ministry of seventy years. - Mr. Hill was a wonderful, and, with all his eccentrici- ties, an excellent man. His manner only was eccentric, and occasionally facetious; but this never appeared in the subject-matter of his preaching. The propensity to be hu- morous exceedingly decreased with growing years and ex- perience. A thousand things too of this kind reported of him were false or exaggerated, to point a story or to raise a laugh. His real improprieties were only such as he was led into by the peculiarity of his genius, and his ardent desire to attract and strike, in order that he might save, the neglected multitudes of the lower orders. Never was there, says Mr. Jay, a preacher who more entirely adhered to the determination to “know nothing save Jesus Christ and him crucified.” He was never higher or lower in his sentiments. Truths were always duly balanced in his mind; and his heart was established with grace. He always blended together doctrine, expe- rience, and practice. He fell into no errors. He embrac- ed no whims. He made no new discoveries in religion. He never supposed any were to be made. He never pre- tended to speak with new tongues: and was never found neglecting his work, to break open the seals and blow the trumpets of the Apocalypse.—Jay's Sermon on Sensibility to the Fall of Eminence ; Ency. Amer. ; Christian Gazette, May, 1834. - HILLEL, surnamed Hassaken ; a famous Jewish rab- bi, who lived a little beſore the time of Christ. He was born at Babylon, B.C. 112, and was the disciple of Sham- mai. At the age of forty he went to Jerusalem, where he applied himself to the study of the law, and, at the age of fourscore, was made head of the sanhedrim. Of all their ancient doctors, he is unanimously regarded as the most learned in the Jewish laws and traditions. Differing in opinion from his master Shammai, their disciples engaged in the quarrel, and several persons were killed on both sides. By the Jews, Hillel is extolled to the skies, and is said to have educated upwards of a thousand pupils in the knowledge of the law, among whom were thirty who were worthy that the Spirit of God should have rested on them as he did on Moses; thirty who, like Joshua, were worthy to stop the Sun in his course; and twenty little inferior to the first, and superior to the second. Rabbi Hillel was one of the compilers of the Talmud, and was the grand- father of Gamaliel, Paul’s teacher.—Hend. Buck. HIN ; a Hebrew measure containing half a seah, or the sixth part of a bath: one gallon and two pints. The hin was a liquid measure; as of oil, (Exod. 30. Ezek. 45: 46.) or of wine, Exod. 29. Lev. 23. The prophet Ezekiel was commanded to drink an allowance of water to the quantity of the sixth part of a hin, that is, one pint, nine teen thousand six hundred and seventy-two sol: ) inches.— Calmet. HIND, (aileh ; Gen. 49: 21. 2 Sam. 22: 34. Job 39: 1. Ps. 18:33. 29: 9. Prov. 5; 19. Cant. 2: 7. 3: 5. Jer. 14: 5. Hab. 3. 19.) the mate or female of the stag. It is a lovely creature, and of an elegant shape. It is noted for its swiftness and the Sureness of its step as it jumps among the rocks. David and Habakkuk both allude to this cha. racter of the hind : “The Lord maketh my feet like hind's feet, and causeth me to stand on the high places,” Ps. 18. H I N H I N | 622 | 33. Hab. 3:19. The circumstance of their standing on the high places or mountains is applied to these animals by Xenophon. Our translators make Jacob, prophesying of the tribe of Naphtali, say, “Naphtali is a hind let loose : he giveth goodly words,” Gen. 49: 21. There is a difficul- ty and incoherence here, which the learned Bochart re- moves by altering a little the punctuation of the original; and it then reads, “Naphtali is a spreading tree, shooting forth beautiful branches.” This, indeed, renders the simile uniform; but another critic has remarked, that “the allu- sion to a tree seems to be purposely reserved by the vene- rable patriarch for his son Joseph, who is compared to the boughs of a tree; and the repetition of the idea in refer- ence to Naphtali is every way unlikely. For these rea- sons he proposes to read the passage, “Naphtali is a deer roaming at liberty : he shooteth forth spreading branches,” or “majestic antlers.” Here the distinction of imagery is preserved, and the fecundity of the tribe and the fertility of their lot intimated. In our version of Ps. 29: 9, we read, “The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve, and discovereth the forests.” Mr. Merrick, in an inge- nious note on the place, attempts to justify the rendering ; but bishop Lowth, in his “Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews,” observes that this agrees very little with . the rest of the imagery, either in nature or dignity; and that he does not feel himself persuaded, even by the rea- sonings of the learned Bochart on this subject: whereas the oak, struck with lightning, admirably agrees with the context. The Syriac seems, for ailveh, hinds, to have read alveh, oaks, or rather, perhaps, terebinths. The passage may be thus versified:— “IIark 1 his voice in thunder breaks, And the lofty mountain quakes; Mighty trees the tempests tear, And lay the spreading forests bare ''' Walson ; Harris ; Carpenter ; Abbott. HINDOOISM, or BRAIIMINISM. “The Hindoo religion, in one ſorm or other, (says Mr. Ward, the missionary,) it is highly probable, is professed by more than half the hu- man race : the doctrines of the Wedu, it is well known, are acknowledged all over India; the religion of Boodh, a Hindoo incarnation, prevails throughout the Burman empire, Siam, Ceylon, &c. Lamäism, spread throughout Tartary, may also be traced to a Hindoo origin; and if, as is conjectured, the Fo of the Chinese be the Boodh of India, then it will be evident; that far more than half the population of the norld remain under the influence of the grº taught in the Védu.” (See BUDDnists; Fo, &c. Mr. Maurice, in his elaborate work, entitled, “A Histo- ry of the Antiquities of India,” (6 vols. 8vo.) traced the origin of the Hindoo nation, and developed their religious system. The following in perfect sketch of the religion of Hindostan, is chiefly taken from that author, He supposes that the first migration of mankind took place before the confusion of tongues at Babel, from the region of Ararat, where the ark rested. By the time the earth became sufficiently dry, either Noah himself, or some descendant of Shem, gradually led on the first journey to the western frontiers of India; that this increasing colony flourished for a long succession of ages in primitive hap- piness and innocence; practised the purest rites of the atriarchal religion, without images and temples, till at ength the descendants of Ham invaded and conquered India, and corrupted their ancient religion. According to the Hindoo theology, Brahme, the great Being, is the supreme, eternal, uncreated God. Brama, the first created being, by whom he made and governs the world, is the prince of the beneficent spirits. He is as- sisted by Veeshnu, the great preserver of men, who, nine several times, appeared upon earth, and under a human form, for the most beneficent purposes. Veeshnu is often styled Creeshna, the Indian Apollo, and in his character greatly resembles the Mithra of Persia. This prince of benevolent Dewtas, (or demons,) has for a coadjutor Ma- hadeo, or Seeva, the destroying power of God. And this threefold divinity, armed with the terrors of almighty power, pursue through the whole extent of creation the rebellious Dewlas, headed by Mahasoor, the great malig- nant spirit who seduced them, and dart upon their flying bands the fiery shafts of divine vengeance. According to Sir William Jones, the supreme goû Brahme, in his triple form, is the only self-existent divinity *::::: ºf: §º.º.º.º. jºsº.º.º. sº. º * → ~~ º wº arº º * : * * *- ***º-sº acknowledged by the philosophical Hindoos. When they consider the divine power as exerted in giving existence to that which existed not before, they call the deity Brahme. When they view him in the light of destroyer, or rather changer of forms, he is called Mahadeo, Seeva, and by various other names. When they consider him as the preserver of created things, they give him the name of Veeshnu ; for since the power of preserving creation by a Superintending providence belongs eminently to the god- head, they hold that power to exist transcendently in the preserving member of the triad, whom they suppose to be always everywhere; not in substance, but in spirit and energy. Following the leading ideas of Sir William Jones, Mr. Maurice asserts, that there is a perpetual recurrence of the Sacred triad in the Asiatic mythology; that the doc- trine of a trinity was promulgated in India, in the geeta, fifteen hundred years before the birth of Plato ; for of that remote date are the Elephanta cavern, of which we pre- s &; §: §§ º-cººl i. £º º * º º º gº? il. º º ºr. al * } 2 º' ... ſºyºº. . . . . Sºſſº" ºf sº º #% ºf jº. Nºll ºftº: * : ºš 24 #!" -> { º º ſº º º, M ºth º lº # iº º º .. º . º º †† * s } sº º §§§ jºiº # §§ º l º a rºº º § º jºgº. ſººn ſº -- §§ . º - #: 2 §§§ | º: †. º º sº.º.ºgg; - sº : ºt)\\\\\ºlº 2 º §º.º.º.: sº jºi. # º §: # ºù § ; º - * *, *, *, *, * * * §§§º 97 º' †: §§ §§ º & - - §: º $º. º & * § 3. º ; º # º: º º Šº. º º : º 6 ºš º º B º º §º ºr ºš :#fff; º §º *** *. º tº: º; º ºśāº ſº iſºft º º º | N. : : º § º } sº §§ ºft lºſºft Hºlli j § #####||\º. ! § É# º: § | § º § º ºf: jā; #; tº lºº §::::::::. tººlºº ºfºllº-ºº: º * || 3 || || 8 |*TX. º #º. *...º.º. gº ãºğ § . ºw §§§ §§ º: §§§§ º §: §§ §§ º §§ wººgºşºa sent an engraving, and the Indian history of Mahabharat, in which a triad of deity is alluded to and designated. Hence he supposes that the doctrine of a trinity was de- livered from the ancient patriarchs, and diffused over the East during the migration and dispersion of their Hebrew posterity. * - - But to return to Hindooism, we are told the nine incar- nations of Veeshnu, represent the deity descending in a human shape to accomplish certain awful and important H I N H IN [ 623 J events, as in the instance of the three first ; to confound blaspheming vice, to subvert gigantic tyranny, and to avenge oppressed innocence, as in the five following; or finally, as in the ninth, to abolish human sacrifices. The Hindoo system teaches the existence of good and evil genii, or, in the language of Hindostan, debtas, denºtas, or devitas. These are represented as eternally conflicting together; and the incessant conflict which subsisted be- tween them, filled creation with uproar, and all its subor- dinate classes with dismay. The doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, is universally believed in India, from which country it is supposed to have originated many centuries before the birth of Plato, and was first promulgated in the geeta of Uyasa, the Plato of India. This doctrine teaches that degenerate spirits, fallen from their original rectitude, migrate through various spheres, in the bodies of different animals. The Hindoos suppose that there are fourteen bobuns, or spheres; seven below, and seven above the earth. The spheres above the earth are gradually ascending. The highest is the residence of Brama and his particular fa- vorites. After the soul transmigrates through various animal mansions, it ascends up the great sideral ladder of seven gates, and through the revolving spheres, which are called in India the bobuns of purification. It is the invariable belief of the Bramins, that man is a ſallen creature. Their doctrine of the transmigration of the soul is built upon this foundation. The professed de- sign of the metempsychosis was to restore the fallen Soul to its pristine state of perfection and blessedness. The Hindoos represent the deity as punishing only to reform his creatures. Nature itself exhibits one vast field of pur- gatory for the classes of existence. Their sacred writings represent the whole universe as an ample and august theatre for the probationary exertion of millions of beings, who are supposed to be so many spirits degraded from the high honors of angelical distinction, and condemned to as- cend, through various gradations of toil and suffering, to that exalted sphere of perſection and happiness which they enjoyed before their defection. It is supposed that Pythagoras derived his doctrine of transmigration from the Indian Bramins; for in the Insti- tutes of Menu, said to be compiled many centuries before Pythagoras was born, there is a long chapter on transmi- gration and final beatitude. It is there asserted, that so far as vital souls, addicted to sensuality, indulge them- selves in forbidden pleasures, even to the same degree shall the acuteness of their senses be raised in their future bodies, that they may suffer analogous pain. This doctrine, so universally prevalent in Asia, that man is a fallen creature, gave birth to the persuasion, that by severe sufferings, and a long series of probationary discipline, the soul might be restored to its primitive puri- ty. Hence, oblations the most costly, and sacrifices the most sanguinary, in the hope of propitiating the angry powers, forever loaded the altars of the pagan deities. They had even sacrifices denominated those of regenera- tion, and those sacrifices were always profusely stained with blood. The Hindoos suppose that the vicious are consigned to perpetual punishment in the animation of successive ani- mal fºrms, till, at the stated period, another renovation of the four jugs, or grand astronomical periods, shall com- mence upon the dissolution of the present. Then they are called to begin anew the probationary journey of souls, and all will be finally happy. The destruction of the existing world by fire is another tenet of the Brahmins. Besides their various and frequent ablutions, and the daily offerings of rice, fruits, and ghee, at the pagodas, the Hindoos have a grand annual sacrifice, not very unlike that of the scape-goat among the Hebrews, only that it is a horse, and not a goat, which they offer with great cere- mony. The temples, or pagodas, for divine worship in India, are magnificent; and their religious rites are pompous and splendid. Since the Hindoos admit that the deity oc- casionally assumes an elementary form, without defiling his purity, they make various idols to assist their imagi. Fºº mºre y_º ºrrºr ºr º, ſº * #li #ſº £7% # #: ##|Nº|| º º º #|: º when they offer up their prayers to the invisible eity. From the same conviction of human depravity, and the necessity of atonement, arises the practice of voluntary al º . - vº Nºv. } w sº- ºf 2%, ſº º º º ºf * * - ºtöS : 7- Żxºzº § iß º # w º tº N NYF . 2 fººt 2-32/23%2 º % M Wººs ºğ. &^*.*.*, º Nº sºsº F. fill |- º º ºf? º §º-º: *** 3: | s §§§ 3- : | | º iſſ ſº - E #. torture which Mr. Swartz, one of the Malabarian missionaries, who was instrumental in converting two thousand persons to the Christian reli- gion, relates, that a certain man on the Malabar coast had inquired of various devotees and priests how he might make atonement; and at last he was directed to drive iron spikes, sufficiently blunted, through his sandals; and on these spikes he was to place his naked feet, and walk about four hundred and eighty miles. If, through loss of blood, or weakness of body, he was necessitated to halt, he was obliged to wait for healing and strength. He un- dertook his journey; and while he halted under a large shady tree, where the gospel was sometimes preached, one of the missionaries came and preached in his hearing from these words: “The blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth from all sin.” While he was preaching, the man rose up, threw off his torturing sandals, and cried out aloud, This is nhat H IN H IN [ 624 1 I mant ; and he became a living witness of the truth of that passage of Scripture, which had such a happy ef. fect upon his mind. See Baptist Annual Register for 1794. Mr. Ward, one of the Baptist missionaries at Serampore, has published an elaborate work on “the Religion, Histo- ry, and Literature of the Hindoos,” which it would be un- pardonable not to notice; and we shall avail ourselves of a summary of their principles, as given in his “Farewell Letters, on returning to India.” We have already mentioned, under the term Castes, the va- rious tribes into which the nation is divided. As to the num- ber of their gods, it is stated by Mr. Ward at three hundred and thirty millions; and their representative idols are diver- sified into almost every form the imagination could suggest: some highly ridiculous, ſº the monkey gods,) and others grossly obscene, as the Lingu, the Phallus of Hindostan. This is worshipped by the women to promote fruitfulness. I(artikeya, the god of war, is represented as riding on a peacock, with six faces and twelve arms, and presents a A -- º º Øsº § ºs--- ==E: ---. ==- -sº º Aſ º 'º -º-º-º-E- --~~~-" 3.3 * * * - * rºººººººººººººº 3×3 5:=E §§§ | ºr §§ tº: § ź º:=3 ºš §§§ É *-* = º >º ºº: doos portray their deities. - Their sects were numerously diversified, but the follow- ing three are stated as the principal:— 1. The Soivus, the worshippers of Shivu, who is repre- D - ...a...:** * im. { * * * * * > *-*. }% º | - º [. º | | - |† lººk Shivu and his wife Doorga. sented as a white man, with five faces and four arms, riding on a bull. In one hand he holds an axe to destroy the wicked; in a second, a deer, alluding to one said to have fled from sacrifice, and taken refuge under his pro- tection, &c. He resembles the Greek Bacchus, both in his form, and the obscenity of his rites. 2. The Voisnuvus, or worshippers of Vishnu, who is drawn as a black man with four arms, sitting on a mon- ster called Gurooru. He bears in his hands the sacred shell, the chukru, the lotus, and a club. Vishnu is called the preserver, and though without temples, has the great- est number of worshippers. 3. The Shaktus, or worshippers of Doorga, the wife of Shi- vu, who is represented as a yellow female, with arms, (hold- ing weapons,) and sitting on a bier. She is the Minerva of India, and her festivals are numerously attended. The Brahmins are chiefly worshippers of Shivu and Doorga. Beside these, there are two other sects of some celebrity. 1. The Sourus, or worshippers of Sooryu, or the sun ; and, 2. The Ganuputyus, or worshippers of Guneshu, a fat, short, red man, with four arms and an elephant's head, sitting on a rat; a very popular and common idol. But these are merely images to amuse the vulgar : the Brahmins have a secret doctrine, as well as the Greek phi- losophers; and that doctrine, according to Mr. Ward, is a specious atheism :— - “Three of the six schools of philosophy once famou in India, were atheistical. The doctrines of these atheists were established, for a considerable period, in India; and they are still taught in the Boodhist system which prevails throughout China, Japan, the Burman empire, Siam, Cey- lon, &c. What an awful thought, that three hundred millions of the human race are, to this hour, under a sys- tem of avowed atheism 1 (See BUDHISM.) “A view of the speculations of the Hindoo theists, or Brahminism, will unfold a system little better, I presume, than atheism. - “These philosophers, of whom Vedras, the compiler of the Védu, was one of the most distinguished, taught that every thing we can see, or form any conception of, is to be referred to one or the other of these two principles: it is either spirit or matter; since, besides these, nothing else exists: that all spirit is God; that God exists, without at- tributes, in a state of eternal repose, intangible, unconnect- ed with any forms of matter. A state of profound sleep, in which the individual has no mental exercise whatever, and the state of the unruffled ocean, are alluded to by this philo- sopher as emblems of the state and blessedness of spirit. Speculations, like these, making known a being without at- tributes, and having no connexion with creatures, is surely nothing better than pure atheism ; nor is the practical sys- tem ſounded on these theories an atom better than the theory. “These philosophers further teach, that the spirit in man is individuated deity ; that, in this connexion with matter, spirit is degraded and imprisoned; that the great and only business of man on earth is to seek emancipation, and re- turn to the blessed source from which he (that is, spirit; for I, thou, and he, are referable only to spirit) has been severed. (See PANTHEISM.) “The mode of obtaining emancipation, is by the practice of the ceremonies denominated jogue, all which ceremo- nies are connected with bodily austerities, having for their. object the annihilation of all conscious connexion with the body, and with material things. Deliverance from the influ- ence of the body, and all material things, will leave spirit, even while in the body, in a state of divine tranquillity, resembling that of God; (ſor the passions alone are the sources of pain;) and will fit the individuated spirit for re- union to God; for the passions are the sources of life and death, and confine the individuated spirit to a continued course of transmigration, and rivet its union to matter. “And now comes a long list of these jogees, exhibited to us as practising these austerities, which are intended to extinguish all attachments, all desires, all cherished union between the spirit and the body, and between the spirit and the material existences with which it is surrounded. We see these jogees retiring to forests, renouncing all com- munion with other beings, living in solitude and silence, in- flicting on the body the most shocking austerities, and in- creasing them as the body is able to bear them, till the poor wretches sink under the experiment.” g & This, however, is still not the worst part of Hindooism : |}}, > : tº) aſſº // S. W. * º % º s º iº Vºlºſ/wº -ºsimº Z % ºw ... Yº ſº º, º' §º imº SQº \l. C º º i G tº º eº cºs º C i; S. º º ºº: i º º Gº º º º \ ºVºº - s - º tº i. º % ſº \ ºšº')\ºmſ: * N. Sº º \ººlſ | & Sö 8 §§§ tº cºº § W | | 36 §§ y . §§º. | | * º: . Sºsº wº 3. º º, tºº # & O >=º | Saº **-ºs * , N. § 3. ſº ºš §§ | Wº ºº §§ : º % Zºº W | * * º // * . . . . . * . . . tº a . '' ... . ." - N a s w 2 ºnly º º º H I N H IN 625 | the following is a sketch of its farther cruelties, from the same pen as the above:- “One tribe puts to death its female offspring ! A few were saved by the benevolent efforts of colonel Walker, when in India ; but, since his return, the very families among whom the horrible practice had ceased, have again returned to the work of murder; not one survives. In and around Benares, inſanticide is practised to a horrible extent. “Instigated by the demon of superstition, many mo- thers, in fulfilment of a vow entered into for the purpose of procuring the blessing of children, drown their first- born When the child is two or three years old, the mo- ther takes it to the river, encourages it to enter, as though about to bathe it, but suffers it to pass into the midst of the current, when she abandons it, and stands an inactive spectator, beholding the struggles, and hearing the screams, of her perishing inſant At Saugur island, formerly, mothers were seen casting their living offspring among a humber of alligators, and standing to gaze on these mon- sters quarrelling for their prey; beholding the writhing infant in the jaws of the successful animal, and standing motionless while it was breaking the bones, and sucking the blood, of the poor innocent ' What must be that su- perstition, which can thus transform a being, whose distin- guishing quality is tenderness, into a monster, more unnatu- ral than the tiger prowling through the forests for its prey ! “The Hindoo writings encourage persons, afflicted with §§ SSW : §§ *.*.* * º, N. § º ºšº º º º º º - Sºº t", º-º-º: sº ºś §§ - § 3. Sº º º: 'Yº. %:... .º | &: º of the car of Juggernaut, or into some sacred river, or in- to a fire prepared ſor the purpose; promising such self. murderers, that they shall rise to birth again in a healthful body; whereas, by dying a natural death, they would be liable to have the disease perpetuated in the next and suc- ceeding births. Multitudes of lepers, and other children of Sorrow, perish annually in these prescribed modes. Mr. W. Carey was one morning informed that some peo- ple had dug a deep hole in the earth, not far from his own house, and had begun to kindle a fire at the bottom. He immediately proceeded to the spot, and saw a poor leper, who had been deprived of the use of his limbs by the disease, roll himself over and over, till at last he fell into the flames. Smarting with agony, his screams became most dreadful. He called upon his family, who surround- ed the pit, and entreated them to deliver him from the flames, . But he called in vain. His own sister, seeing him lift his hands to the side, and make a dreadful effort to escape, pushed him back again; when (these relations still coolly gazing upon the sufferer) he perished, enduring indescribable agonies. - “Human sacrifices are enjoined in the sacred books, and made a part of the Hindoo superstitions in very early times. They describe the rites to be observed at the sacri- fice of a man; and declare the degree of merit attached to such a sacrifice, compared with the oſtering of a goat, a buffalo, &c. The Hindoos speak of an instrument used in times not very remote, by which, with the jerk of his foot, a man, lying prostrate before an image, might cut off his own head. An English officer assured a friend of mine, that he saw a Hindoo sacrifice himself in a boat in the Ganges: laying his head over the side of the boat, with a scimitar he aimed a dreadful blow at his own neck; and though he failed to sever the head from the body, he fell senseless into the river, and perished “Human sacrifices, not very different from these, are still very common, especially at Allahabad. While the late Dr. Robinson, of Calcutta, resided at that place, twelve men were immolated at once, as sixteen females had been. Earthen pans were fastened to a stick tied to the waist. As long as these pans remained empty, they kept the men afloat; but each man with a cup continued filling the pans from the river; and, as soon as filled, they dragged the victim to the bottom. “But the most horrible of all the immolations among the Hindoos, is the burning alive of widows; between eight and nine hundred, in the presidency of Bengal alone, every year! This is the official statement, signed by the English magistrates. How many in the presidencies of Madras and Boºmbay ? And then how many more, where the British power does not extend ? Where shall we find any thing like this in all the annals of time 2 Let us sup- pose, that in each of the other presidencies four hundréd each year are immolated, and five hundred in all the other parts of India; and then we have the awful spectacle of two thousand widows burnt or buried alive annually, in India : Search every human record, and bring forward every thing that has ever been practised by the scalping Indian, the cannibals in the South seas, &c., and all is civilization and the most refined benevolence, compared with this.” Among other happy fruits of missionary labors in India, may be mentioned the recent abolition of this last horrid cus- tom, by the British government. The public honor of sup, pressing the suttees, as they are termed, belongs to lord Ben tick, governor-general of British India. It took place in 1831. But the burying alive of widows manifests, if that º Sa - were possible, a still º ... < *-*. more abominable state of feeling 7() H IT H O B towards women, than even burning them alive, as the ſº of burying is more deliberate—more diabolical. n this kind of sacrifice; the children and relations dig the grave. This horrid practice, we believe, is not yet abolished. Ward's Farenwell Letters, nos. vi. and vii.; jº Hindoos, vol. i. book i., vol. ii. book vii.—Wil- 20.772S. HINNOM, (WALLEY OF;) called also Tophet, and by the Greeks (or rather Grecian Jews) Gehenna; a small valley on the south-east of Jerusalem, at the foot of mount Zion, where the Canaanites, and afterwards the Israelites, sacrificed their children to the idol Moloch, by making them “pass through the fire,” or burning them. (See GEHENNA, and HELL.)—Watson. * HIPPOLITUS; a Christian bishop of Cappadocia, who suffered martyrdom in the persecution under Maximinus, A.D. 235. He was tied to a wild horse, and dragged through fields, stony places, bushes, &c. till he expired.—Foz, 25. HIRAMI; a king of Tyre, distinguished in profane au- thors for his magnificence, and for adorning the city of Tyre. When David was acknowledged king by Israel, Hiram sent ambassadors with artificers, and cedar, to build his palace. He also sent ambassadors to Solomon, to congratulate him on his accession to the crown; and subsequently supplied him with timber, stones, and labor- ers for building the temple. These two princes lived in mutual friendship for many years. It is said that in Jo- sephus’ time, their letters, with certain riddles, which they proposed one to the other, were extant.—Calmet. HIRELING. Moses requires that the hireling should be paid as soon as his work is over: “The wages of him that is hired shall not abide with thee all night unto the morning,” Lev. 19:19. An hireling's days, or year, is a kind of proverb, signifying a full year, without abating any thing of it: “His days are like the days of an hire- ling;” (Job 7: 1.) the days of man are like those of an hireling; as nothing is deducted from them, so nothing, likewise, is added to them. And again : “Till he shall accomplish as an hireling his day;” (Job 14: 6.) to the time of death, which he waits for as the hireling for the end of the day. The following passage from Morier's Travels in Persia, illustrates one of our Lord’s parables :—“The most conspi- cuous building in Hamadan is the Mesjid Jumah, a large mosque now falling into decay, and before it a maidan or square, which serves as a market-place. Here we ob- served, every morning before the Sun rose, that a nume- rous band of peasants were collected with spades in their hands, waiting, as they informed us, to be hired for the day to work in the surrounding fields. This custom, which I have never seen in any other part of Asia, forcibly struck me as a most happy illustration of our Savior’s para- ble of the laborers in the vineyard, in Matt. 20; particu- larly when, passing by the same place late in the day, we still found others standing idle, and remembered his words, ‘Why stand ye here all the day idle 2' as most applicable to their situation; for, in putting the very same question to them, they answered us, ‘Because no man hath hired us.’”— Watson. HISS, usually expresses insult and contempt : “All they, who shall see the destruction of this temple, shall be astonished and shall hiss, and say, How comes it that the Lord hath thus treated this city ?” 1 Kings 9: 8. Job 27: 23. Jer. 19: 8. 49: 17. 51: 13. Lam. 2: 15, 16. Ezek. 28: 36. Zeph. 2: 15. • To call any one with hissing, is a mark of power and authority, Isa. 5: 26. 7: 18. Theodoret and Cyril of Alex- andria, writing on Isaiah, remark, that in Syria and Pales- tine, those who looked after bees drew them out of their hives, carried them into the fields, and brought them back again with the sound of a flute, and the noise of hissing. Zechariah, (10: 8.) speaking of the return from Babylon, says, that the Lord will gather the house of Judah, as it were, with a hiss, and bring them back into their own country; which shows the ease and authority with which he would perform that great work.-Calmet. History, EccLESIASTICAL. (See EccLESIASTICAI. His- TURY. HITCHIN, (Edward, B. D.,) an excellent minister and so. lid divine, of London, was born 1726, of pious parents,whose care of his education was early blessed to lead his soul to God. His fine understanding was early devoted to the Christian ministry. He was a dissenter of most catholic and unbigoted spirit. He was settled as an assistant to Mr. Richard Rawlin, to whom, as well as to the flock of their common charge, he was highly acceptable. He was chosen successor to Mr. Andrews, and continued with the congregation till his death, in 1774, in the forty-eighth year of his age. It was pleasing to witness the cheerful resignation, and firm trust which he manifested in his last sickness, while committing his family to the care of a covenant God, and desiring to depart and be with Christ. —Middleton, vol. iv. p. 466. g HITTITES; the descendants of Heth, Gen. 15: 20. (See HETH.) - HIVITES; a people descended from Canaan, Gen. 10: 17. They are also mentioned, Deut. 2:23. The inhabi- tants of Shechem, and the Gibeonites, were Hivites, Josh. 11:19. Gen. 34: 2. Mr. Bryant supposes the Hivites to be the same as the Ophites, or ancient worshippers of the sum under the figure of a serpent ; which was, in all pro- bability, the deity worshipped at Baal-Hermon.—Watson. HOADLEY, (BENJAMIN, D. D.,) an eminent prelate, dis- tinguished equally for learning, liberality, piety, and useful- ness, was born, in 1676, at Westerham, in Kent; was educated partly by his father, and partly at Catharine hall, Cambridge; was for some years lecturer of St. Mildred’s ; and, in 1704, was made rector of St. Peter le Poor, Broad street. He soon distinguished himself as a champion of freedom, in his controversy with Calamy and Atterbury; and the commons addressed the queen to promote him, but, as may be supposed, no favor was dispensed to him by a tory government. The accession of George I., how- ever, brightened his prospects. In 1715 he was raised to the see of Bangor; whence he was translated to Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester, in 1720, 1723, and 1734. He died in 1761. It was in 1717 that he preached the cele- brated sermon which drove the high church party almost to madness, and gave rise to the Bangorian controversy, His works form three ſolio volumes. (See BANGoRIAN Con- TRoversy.)—Jones' Chris. Biog. , Davenport. - HOBAB; son of Jethro, and brother-in-law of Moses. The inspired legislator prevailed upon him to accompany Israel when departing from mount Sinai for the promised land, Num, 10: 29. Some think that the Kenites, who dwelt south of Judah, were the descendants of Hobab, Judg. 1: 16. 1 Sam. 15: 6.-Calmet. HOBAH, (Gen. 14: 15.) is thought by Calmet to be Abila, in the valley between Libanus and Antilibanus, Mr. Taylor takes it for the present Habaya, west of Da- mascus. It is, probably, some hollow, between mountains, which effectually secludes those who occupy it.—Calmet. HOBART, (John HENRY, D. D.,) was born in Philadel. phia, on the 14th of September, 1775. He was educated at the college in Princeton, New Jersey, and was noted in early life for his industry and proficiency in his studies On leaving this institution he was engaged a short time in mercantile pursuits, was subsequently a tutor at Nas- sau hall, and after two years service in this capacity, he determined upon the study of theology. In 1798, he was admitted into orders, and was first settled in the two churches at Perkiomen, near Philadelphia, but soon after accepted a call to Christ church, New Brunswick. In about a year he removed from this place to become an as- sistant minister of the largest spiritual cure in the country, comprising three associated congregations in the city of New York. In 1811, he was elected assistant bishop, and in 1816, became diocesan of New York; and in performing the severe duties of the office, his labors were indefatiga. ble. From 1818 to 1823, he was employed in editing the American edition of D'Oyley and Mant's Bible, with notes. In September, 1823, the state of his health required a visit to Europe, where he remained about two years. He died in 1830. He was incessantly active in performing his religious offices, and made several valuable compila- tions for the use of the church.—Davenport. HOBBES, (THoMAs,) a celebrated philosopher, was born, in 1588, at Malmesbury, in Wiltshire, and was educated at Magdalen hall, Oxford. In 1608, he became tutor to lord Hardwick, who was subsequently earl of Devonshire; * H O H H O L 627 T 1679. nnd, after their return from travelling, he resided in the family for many years, during which period he translated Thucydides, and made a Latin version of some of lord Bacon's works. In 1640 he retired to Paris, to avoid be- ing involved in the contest which was about to take place in his country. It was during this voluntary exile that he produced his celebrated works, De Cive; Human Nature; De Corpore Politico; and the still more famous and ob- noxious Leviathan. About 1652 he returned to England, and in 1654 published a Letter on Liberty and Necessity, which led to a controversy with bishop Bramhall. He now again resided in the Devonshire family, and continu- ed to do so for the remainder of his days. Charles II. gave him a pension of one hundred pounds a-year. Among his later works are, Decameron Physiologicum ; a Dia- logue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Com- mon Law; Behemoth, or a History of the Civil Wars; and translations of the Iliad and Odyssey. He died in The charge of atheism, which has been urged against him, is undoubtedly groundless; but it seems to require no small share of hardihood to maintain, that his doctrines, religious and political, do not lead to consequen- ces of the most pernicious nature.—Davenport. HOFFMANIANS, or HoFFMANISTs; those that espous- ed the sentiments of Daniel Hoffman, professor of theology in the university of Helmstadt, who, in 1598, distinguish- ed himself by his opposition to the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. They appear to have been Lutheran dis- senters; nor is it unlikely that they imbibed the dread of philosophical inquiry, lest it should lead them to that ra- tional theology (so called) which reasons away the great principles of the Reformation. There seems no doubt, but these Hoffmanians, by all that we can learn, were offended by some alterations in the established liturgy, in- tended to gratify the Socinian party; such as, in baptism, the omission of the words, “renouncing the devil,” &c. Their being called Pietists and Enthusiasts, looks the same way; and it is not unlikely, that observing how much these philosophical divines leaned towards Socini- anism, might lead them to abjure all philosophical inquiries. See Philanthropic Gazette, 1819, pp. 237–8; and see HAR- Monists above, p. 598.-Williams. HOHENLOHE, (Prince;) the eighteenth son of Charles Albert, the crown prince of Austria, who was disqualified for taking the reins of government by mental derange- ment. At the wish of his mother, he determined to study for the clerical profession, and an ex-Jesuit was his first instructer. He studied in Vienna and Berne, and finished his studies at Ellwangen, under the care of his uncle, the suffragan bishop, and was ordained deacon by the chapter of Olmutz. At this time he was ſond of conversing with such as believed in wonders; and after visiting Rome, where he lived in a Jesuits’ college, he returned to Germa- my, where he was considered by his colleagues as devoted to the interests of Jesuitism, and the inveterate enemy of knowledge. In 1820 he wrote a pamphlet, dedicated to the emperors Francis and Alexander, and the king of Prussia, in which he attempts to prove that none but a true Christian, by which he means a Roman Catholic, can be a faithful sub- ject of government. Having become acquainted with a Baden peasant, Martin Michel, who for several years had the repute of working miraculous cures, he was persuaded by this pretended thaumaturgist, that, being a priest, it would be much easier for him to perform miracles | The experiment was made. The princess Matilda, of Schwart- zenberg, who had been grievously afflicted with a distor- tion of the spine, from which she had been partially cured by a skilful physician, was called on by the priest and the peasant to walk, and she succeeded. He now tried his powers alone, and multitudes flocked to him for cures. Many were in fact benefited ; many believed that they were ; but many went away in despair, because they could not believe. His attempts in the hos- pitals of Würtzburg and Bamberg failed, and the police were ordered not to allow him to try his experiments, ex- cept in their presence. A prince of Hildburghausen call- ed in his aid; but his suffering eyes soon became worse in consequence of his exchanging the use of medicine for faith in the miraculous energies of Hohenlohe. In 1821 he laid a statement of his miracles before the pope, the answer to which is not known; only it is rumored that his Holiness expressed much doubt respecting them, and hints were received from Rome, that the process should no lon- ger be called the morking of miracles, but priestly prayers for healing. Since then he has pretended to cure persons at a distance, and cases have been published of cures perform ed, in one instance at Marseilles, and in another in Ireland, and several others, by appointing an hour in which the individuals should unite their prayers with his. Much has been done by Mr. Hornthal, an officer of Bamberg, towards checking the progress of this delusion. The prince is a person of fine exterior, gentle manners, a most insinuating voice, and good pulpit talents.-Hend. Buck. HOLD. To take hold of God and his covenant is to em- brace him as given in the gospel, and by faith to plead big promises and relations, Isa. 64: 7, and 56: 4. Christiaza hold forth the nord of life ; they, by practising it in their lives, give light and instruction to others, Phil. 2: 16. Not holding of Christ the head, is neglecting to draw gracious influence from him, and to yield due subjection to him ; and admitting saints and angels as mediators in his stead, Col. 2: 18.-Bronyn. HOLINESS; devotedness to the great end, of being and doing good; hence, consequentially, freedom from sin, or the conformity of the heart to God. It does not consist in knowledge, talents, nor outward ceremonies of religion, but hath its seat in the heart, and is the effect of the love of God shed abroad in the heart by the Holy Spirit, Eph. 2:8, 10. John 3: 5. Rom. 5: 5. 6: 22. It is the essence of happiness and the basis of true dignity, Prov. 3: 17. 4:8. It will manifest itself by the propriety of our conversation, regularity of our temper, and uniformity of our lives. It is a principle progressive in its operation, (Prov. 4: 18.) and absolutely essential to the enjoyment of God here and hereafter, Heb. 12: 14. (See SANCTIFICATION; WoRKs.)— IHend. Buck. - HOLINESS OF GOD, is the purity and rectitude of his character, or the consecration of all his high attributes to promote the highest good of the universe. It is an essential attribute of God, and the glory, lustre, and harmony of all his other perfections, Ps. 27:4. Exod. 15: 11. He could not be God without it, Deut. 32: 4. It is infinite and un- bounded ; it cannot be increased or diminished. Immutable and invariable, Mal. 3: 6. God is originally holy; he is so of and in himself, and the author and promoter of all holi- ness among his creatures. The holiness of God is visible by his norks; he made all things holy, Gen. 1: 31. By his providences, all which are to promote holiness in the end, Heb. 12; 10. By his grace, which influences the sub- jects of it to be holy, Tit. 2: 10, 12. By his nord, which commands it, 1 Pet. 1: 15. By his ordinances, which he hath appointed for that end, Jer. 44; 4, 5. By the punish- ment of sin in the death of Christ, (Isa. 53.) and by the eter- mal punishment of it in wicked men, Matt. 25, last verse. See ATTRIBUTEs.)—Hend. Buck. - - HOLLAND, (THOMAs, D. D.) This excellent man was born in Shropshire, 1539, and graduated at Exeter college, Oxford, (where he received his education,) with great ap- plause. But he valued knowledge only as the nutriment and instrument of piety. In process of time he was cho- sen master of his college, and afterward Regius professor of divinity. He was esteemed and admired in this station for every kind of attainment, divine and human, and his ſame extended to foreign universities. Like the eloquent Apollos, he was mighty in the Scriptures; like the illumi- nated Paul, he was faithful in explaining them. His example answered to his doctrine; he lived himself what he preached to others. Such was his zeal for the reformed religion, that whenever he left his college on a journey, he used to call the society together, and commend them to the love of God and the abhorrence of popery. Nor was this perpetual caution at that time unnecessary Thus ſor twenty years he filled his high office with hono. and usefulness. And as age and death drew near, his ardor increased for the presence and enjoyment of God, His soul was framed for heaven, and could find no rest till it came there. All the comforts he found on earth resulted from heaven, or related to it. In the solemn moments of dissolution. he often prayed, “Come, O come, Lord H O L li O L . I & I Jesus, thou morning star! Come, Lord Jesus; I desire to be dissolved, and to be with thee.” He died in 1612, aged seventy-three.——Middleton, vol. ii. 372. - HOLDEN, (SAMUEL,) a benevolent Christian, died in London, in 1740. Mr. Holden was at the head of the dissenters in England, and at the head of the bank of ICngland. Such was his benevolence and regard to reli- gion, that he sent to Dr. Colman, of Boston, thirty-nine sets of Baxter's Practical Works, in four massy folios, to be distributed among the churches of Massachusetts. The amount of these charities for promoting the gospel and other useful purposes, was four thousand eight hundred and forty-seven pounds. After his death his widow and daughters gave, in the same liberal and benevolent spirit, five thousand five hundred and eighty-five pounds. Holden chapel for the college at Cambridge was built by their donation. - Mr. Holden was a man of unfeigned piety. He says in a letter, “I hope my treasure is in heaven, and would to God my heart were more there. Abstract from God and futurity, I would not accept of an etermity here in any given circumstances whatever,” Colman's Serm.—Allen. HOLLEY, (HoRACE, LL.D.,) a distinguished pulpit orator, and president of Transylvania university, Ken- tucky, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut, February 13, 1781; was graduated at Yale college in 1803; in 1805 was ordained as the minister of Greenfield hill, Fairfield, and in 1809, installed the minister of Hollis street, Boston. ..In 1818, he became the president of the university of Kentucky, in Texington ; but his Unitarian views giving offence, he was induced to resign his office in 1827. On his voyage to New York, he died of the yellow fever, July 31, 1827, aged forty-six He published a discourse on the death of Col. James Morrison, 1823. Interesting Memoirs of his Life were written by his widow.—Allen. HOLLIS, (THOMAs,) of London, a most liberal benc- factor of Harvard college, was born in 1659, of pious parents. At the age of twenty he became pious, and having embraced the principles of the Baptists, was bap- tized in 1679. He died in February, 1731, aged about seventy-two. Mr. Hollis was for many years an eminent merchant, and, while success attended his exertions, it pleased God to incline him also to charitable and benevolent deeds in proportion to his wealth. He founded two professorships in Harvard college, the professorship of divinity and mathe- matics. He also presented a valuable apparatus for mathematical and philosophical experiments, and at differ- ent times augmented the library with many valuable books. In 1727, the net produce of his donation, exclusive of gifts not vendible, amounted to four thousand nine hundred pounds, the interest of which he directed to be appropriated to the support of the two professors, to the treasurer of the college, and to ten poor students in divinity of suitable qualifications, The liberality of Mr. Hollis flowed from a Christian heart. He says in a letter, after speaking of some of his eſſorts to do good, “I think not hereby to be justified. My rejoicing is in Christ, my God and Savior.” He also ascribes all his virtues and hopes “to rich, free, and sove- rcign, electing love.” Being a Calvinist in his sentiments, he required his pro- fessor of divinity to be “of sound or orthodox principles.” Still he was not governed by a sectarian spirit; he did not require the preference of his own denomination, the Bap- tist; but the professorship was open to every one, who, in his view, embraced the important and fundamental doc- trines of the gospel, Calman's and Wigglesworth's Sermons, Greenmood's Discourse, and Rudd's Poem on his Death ; Me- moirs of T. Hollis, i. 1; ii. 598—601; Morse's true Reasons, 6-c.; Holmes ; Backus ; Benedict ; Ivimey.—Allen. HOLLIS, (THOMAS,) nephew of the above, born in London, in 1720, was in his principles a dissenter and a warm advocate for liberty. He was a man of large for. tune, and devoted above half of it to charitable purposes. He presented to the library of Harvard college, works to the value of fourteen hundred pounds sterling. He died in 1774.—Bavenport. HOLMES, (OBADIAH.) This noble sufferer for con- science' sake was born in Preston Lancashire, (Eng.) in 1606, of highly respectable parents, from whom he re- ceived a good education. He became pious at an early age, and came to America in 1639. He was a member of the Congregational church first at Salem, and then at Rehoboth, about eleven years; when he became a Bap- tist, and on joining the church in Newport, in 1650, like Roger Williams, was excommunicated from that at Sa- lem. In 1651, in company with Messrs. Clark and Cran- dal, he was arrested at Lynn, on a charge of heresy, for denying infant baptism, and sent to prison in Boston. The sentence of the court on these worthy men was, that they should pay, Mr. Crandal five, Mr. Clark twenty, and Mr. Holmes thirty pounds, or be publicly whipped. All declined paying the fine, but Mr. Clark’s friends paid his fine without his consent, and Mr. Crandal was re- leased on his promise of appearing at the next court. On Mr. Holmes the sentence was executed with such seve- rity, (thirty strokes with a three-corded whip,) “that for many days,” governor Jenks remarks, “he could take no rest, but as he lay upon his knees and elbows, not being able to suffer any part of his body to touch the bed where- on he lay.” - Nothing can be more touching than his own simple narrative of the whole transaction, as preserved by Bene- dict, or more honorable to his Christian character. On hearing his sentence pronounced, the good man said, “I bless God I am counted worthy to suffer for the name of Jesus.” While in private, sceking strength of God, he was strongly tempted with this thought, “Remember thy selſ, thy birth, breeding, and friends; thy wife, children, name, and credit;” but, he adds, “as this was sudden, so there came in sweetly from the Lord as sudden an an- swer: ‘Tis for my Lord ; I must not deny him before the sons of men, (ſor that were to set men above him,) but rather lose all, yea, wife, children, and mine own liſe also.’” And at the place of execution, his supports were such as to illustrate the source of the astonishing fortitude of the early martyrs. “It pleased the Lord,” he observes, “to come in, and so to fill my heart and tongue as a ves- sel full, that with an audible voice I broke forth, praying unto the Lord not to lay this sin to their charge ; and telling the people that now I found he did not fail me, and therefore now I should trust him forever who ſailed me not ; for in truth as the strokes fell on me, I had such a spiritual manifestation of God’s presence as I never had, nor felt, nor can with fleshly tongue express, and the outward pain was now so removed from me that in a manner I felt it not. I told the magistrates, You have struck me as with roses. I pray God, (who hath made it easy to me,) that it may not be laid to your charge.” On his recovery and return home, he observes, “the brethren of our town and Providence, having taken pains to meet me four miles in the woods, we there rejoiced together in the Lord.” - When Mr. Clark went to England, in 1652, Mr. Holmes was invested with the pastoral office of the first Baptist church in Newport, which he filled thirty years, till his death in 1682, at the age of seventy-six. He left eight children, and his descendants in 1790 were estimated at five thousand. At the same ratio, the second centenary of his sufferings, 1851, will find eighty thousand descend- ants of this venerable patriarch spread abroad in the United States.—Allen ; Parmer ; Benedict, vol. i. 496, and 364–376. - HOLOCAUST, formed from holos, “whole,” and kaid, “I consume with fire;” a kind of sacrifice, wherein the whole burnt-offering was burnt or consumed by ſire, as an acknowledgment that God, the Creator, Preserver, and Lord of all, was worthy of all honor and worship, and as a token of men's giving themselves entirely up to him. It is called in Scripture a burnt-offering. Sacrifices of this sort are often mentioned by the heathens as well as Jews. They appear to have been in use long before the institution of the other Jewish sacrifices by the law of Moses, Job 1: 5. 42:8. Gen. 22: 13. 8:20. On this account, the Jews, who would not allow the Gentiles to offer on their altar any other sacrifices peculiarly enjoined by the law of Moses, admitted them by the Jewish priests to offer holocausts, because these were a sort of sacrifice prior to the law, and common to all na: H O L [ 629 J H O M . & tions, During their subjection to the Romans, it was no uncommon thing for those Gentiles to offer sacrifices to the God of Israel at Jerusalem. Holocausts were deemed by the Jews the most excellent of all their sacrifices. (See SACRIFICE.)--Plend. Buck. HOLY ; set apart from a common to a special use; de- voted to God. (See Holiness.) ; HOLY ALLIANCE ; a misnomer used for—1. A con- federation formed by Heldo, vice-chancellor of the empe- ror, in the year 1538, to counteract the privileges derived by the Protestants from the league of Smalcald, and sup- port and further the Catholic faith. It was acceded to by the archbishops of Metz and Sälzburg, by William and Lewis, dukes of Bavaria, George, duke of Saxony, and J·ric and Henry, dukes of Brunswick. It was to have remained a profound secret, but the rumor of it soon got abroad, and the Protestants were greatly alarmed ; it was feared that their rights and liberties would be suppressed; and they concerted how to raise a sufficient force to defend themselves. But the convention of Frankfort, in 1539, allayed their fears, and effectually prevented the evils that had been apprehended. 2. Holy ALLIANCE ; the league entered into by the em- peror Alexander of Russia, the emperor Francis of Aus- tria, and Frederic William king of Prussia, after the de- ſeat of Napoleon in 1815, consisting of a declaration signed by them personally, that, in accordance with the precepts of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the principles of justice, charity, and peace, should be the basis of the in- ternal administration of their empires, and of their inter- national relations; and that the happiness and religious welfare of their subjects should be the great objects they should ever keep in view. It originated with Alexander, who, it is said, imagined that it would introduce a new era of Christian government; but whatever may have been the original intentions, it soon became, in the hands of the wily Metternich, an instrument for the support of tyranny and oppression, and laid the foundation of the congressional system of politics, which, while it professes to have for its object the support of legitimacy, is a horrid conspiracy against the rights and privileges of the sub- jcct.—Hend. Buck. HOLY DAY; a day set apart by the church for the commemoration of some saint, or some remarkable par- ticular in the life of Christ. It has been a question agi- tated by divines, whether it be proper to appoint or keep any holy days, (the Sabbath excepted.) The advocates for holy days suppose that they have a tendency to im- press the minds of the people with a greater sense of re- ligion ; that if the acquisitions and victories of men be celebrated with the highest joy, how much more those events which relate to the salvation of man, such as the birth, death, and resurrection of Christ, &c. On the other side it is observed, that if holy days had been necessary under the present dispensation, Jesus Christ would have ordained something respecting them, whereas he was si- lent about them; that it is bringing us again into that bondage to ceremonial laws from which Christ freed us; that it is a tacit reflection on the head of the church in not appointing them ; that such days, on the whole, are more pernicious than useful to society, as they open a door for indolence and profaneness; yea, that Scripture speaks against such days, Gal. 4: 9–11. Cave's Prim. Christ. ; Nelson's Fasts and Feasts ; Robinson’s History and Mystery of Good Friday, and Lectures on Non-conformity; A Country Vicar's Sermon on Christmas Day, 1753; Bronm's Nat. and Rev. Rel. p. 535; Neal's Hist. of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 116, qu.—Hend. Buck. HOLY GHOST; the third person in the Trinity, the comforter of the church of Christ. (See PRocession.) I. The Holy Ghost is a real and distinct person in the Godhead. 1. Personal powers of rational understanding and will are ascribed to him, 1 Cor. 2: 10, 11, 12: 11. Eph. 4; 3. 2. He is joined with the other two divine per- sons, as the object of divine worship and fountain of bless- ings, Matt. 28:19. 2 Cor. 13: 14. 3. In the Greek, a masculine article or epithet is joined to his name, Pneuma, which is naturally of the neuter gender, John 14: 26. 15:26, 16: 13. Eph. 1: 13. 4. He appeared under the emblem of a dove, and cº cloven tongues of fire, Matt. 3. Acts 2. 5. Personal offices of an intercessor, belong to him, Rom. 8:26. 6. He is represented as performing a multitude of personal acts, -as teaching, speaking, wit nessing, &c., Mark 13: 11. Acts 20:23. Rom. 8: 15, 16. 1 Cor. 6: 19. Acts 15:28. 16: 6, 7, &c. &c. . . . II. It is no less evident that the Holy Ghost is a divine person, equal in power and glory with the Father and Son. 1. Names proper only to the Most High God are ascribed to him; as Jehovah, Acts 28: 25, with Is. 6.9, and Hebrews 3: 7, 9, with Exod. 17: 7. Jer. 31: 31, 34. Heb. 10: 15, 16. God, Acts 5: 3, 4. Lord, 2 Cor. 3: 17, 19. “ The Lord, the Spirit.” 2. Attributes proper only to the Most High God are ascribed to him ; as omnis' cience, 1 Cor. 2: 10, 11. Is. 40: 13, 14. Omnipresence, Ps. 139: 7. Eph. 2: 17, 18. Rom. 8:26, 27. Omnipo- tence, Luke 1; 35. Eternity, Heb. 9: 14. 3. Diviae works are evidently ascribed to him, Gen. 2: 2. Job 26: 13. Ps. 32: 6. 104; 30. 4. Worship, proper only to Goi, is required and ascribed to him, Is. 6:3. Acts 28: 25. Rom. 9: 1. Rev. 1; 4. 2 Cor. 13: 14. Matt. 28. 19. III. The agency or work of the Holy Ghost is divided by some into extraordinary and ordinary. . The former by immediate inspiration, making men prophets; the lat- ter by his regenerating and sanctifying influences, making men saints. It is only the latter which is now to be ex- pected. This is more particularly displayed in—1. Con- viction of sin, John 16: 8, 9. 2. Conversion, 1 Cor. 12. 2: 10, 12. Eph. 1: 17, 18. John 3: 5, 6. 3. Sanctification, 2 Thess. 2: 13. 1 Cor. 6: 11. Rom. 15: 16. 4. Consola- tion, John 14: 16, 26. 5. Direction, John 14: 17. Ron). 8: 14. 6. Confirmation, Rom. 8: 16, 26. 1 John 2: 24. Eph. 1: 13, 14. º As to the gift of the Holy Spirit, though bestowed in an- swer to our prayers, it is not expected. 1. To inform us im- mediately, as by a whisper, when either awake or asleep, that we are the children of God ; or in any other way than by enabling us to exercise repentance and faith and love to God and our neighbor. 2. We are not to suppose that he reveals any thing contrary to the written word, or more than is contained in it, or through any other me dium. 3. We are not so led by, or operated upon by the Spirit, as to neglect the means of grace. 4. The Holy Spirit is not promised nor given to render us infallible. 5. Nor is the Holy Spirit given in order that we may do any thing, which was not before our duty. See TRINITY; and Scott's Four Sermons on Repentance, the Evil of Sin, JLove to God, and the Promise of the Holy Spirit, pp. 86– 89; Hawker’s Sermons on the Holy Ghost ; Pearson on the Creed, eighth article; Dr. Onven on the Spirit ; Hurrion’s Sixteen Sermons on the Spirit ; Wardlan’s Lectures ; He- ber's Bampton Lectures; Hinton on the Holy Spirit; Robert Hall on the Work of the Spirit; Wardlan, on Prayer.— TWatson ; Jones ; Hend. Buck. HOLY WATER ; in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, water which has been consecrated by prayer, exorcism, and other ceremonies, for the purpose of sprink- ling the faithful, and things used in the church. It is placed, in vases, at the doors of churches, and also within them at certain places, from which the Catholics sprinkle themselves before prayer. Holy water is also often found in their chambers, and is used before prayer, particularly before going to bed. The Romanists consider it an eſ- fectual exorcism. In Rome, animals are also sprinkled, on a certain feast, with holy water, to keep them healthy and thriving. The same thing is done at Moscow, where there is a particular church, to which the horses are au- nually driven on purpose. It does not appear that vessels were placed at the doors of churches, for washing the hands, till the fourth century, or that the water was bless- ed or consecrated till the sixth.—Hend. Buck. HOMER, the same as the CoR, a Hebrew measure of ten baths, or six hundred and five pints, our measure, Isa. 5: 10. It is about seventy-six gallons. (See CoR.) HOMILETICS; the technical term for the art of preaching; or rather of composing sermons. (See SER- Mons.) Dr. Porter's Lectures on Homiletics. HOMILY, (Gr. homilia;) a sermon or discourse upon some point of religion delivered in a plain manner, so as to be easily understood by the common people. The Greek, says M. Fleury, significs a familiar discourse, like the Latin H O N H O P * [ 630 J sermo, and discourses delivered in the church took these de- nominations, to intimate that they were not harangues, or matters of ostentation and flourish, like those of profane Orators, but familiar and useful discourses, as of a master to his disciples, or a father to his children. All the homilies of the Greek and Latin fathers are composed by bishops. The practice of compiling homilies which were to be committed to memory, and recited by ignorantor indolent priests, commenced towards the close of the eighth cen- tury; when Charlemagne ordered Paul the deacon, and Alcuin, to form homilies or discourses upon the gospels and epistles from the ancient doctors of the church. This gave rise to that famous collection entitled the “Homilia- rium of Charlemagne ;” and which, being followed as a model by many productions of the same kind, composed by private persons, from a principle of pious zeal, con- tributed much (says Mosheim) to nourish the indolence and to perpetuate the ignorance of a worthless clergy. There are still extant several fine homilies composed by thc ancient fathers, particularly St. Chrysostom and St. Gregory. The “Clementine Homilies” are forgeries. “Homilies of the church of England,” are those which were composed at the Reformation, to be read in churches, in order to supply the defect of sermons. See the quarto edition of the Homilies, with notes, by a divine of the church of England.—Hend. Buck. HOMOIOUSIANS; a branch of the high Arians, who maintained that the nature of the Son, though not the same, was very similar to that of the Father. (See ARI. ANs.)— Williams. HOMOOUSIANS, or HoMousiasts, was, on the other hand, a name applied to the Athanasians, who held the Son to be homoousias, or consubstantial, with the Father. (See ATHANASIANs.)—Williams. *. HONESTY, is that principle which makes a person preſer his promise or duty to his passion or interest. (See JUSTICE.) —Hend. Buck. - * - HONEY, was formerly very plentiful in Palestine; and hence frequent expressions of Scripture, which import that that country was a land flowing with milk and honey. Moses says, that the Lord brought his people into a land whose rocks drop oil, and whose stones produce honey, Deut. 32: 13. See also Psal. 81: 16. Modern travellers observe, that it is still very common there, and that the inhabitants mix it in all their sauces. Torskal says, the caravans of Mecca bring honey ſrom Arabia to Cairo; and often in the woods in Arabia has he seen honey flow- ing. It would seem that this flowing honey is bee-honey, which may illustrate the story of Jonathan, 1 Sam. 14: 27. John the Baptist, too, ſed on wild honey, Matt. 3: 4. There is, however, a vegetable honey that is, very plen- tiful in the East. Burckhardt, speaking of the produc- tions of the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, says, one of the most interesting productions of this place is the Bey- rouk honey, or as the Arabs call it, Assal Beyrouk. It was described to him as a juice dropping from the leaves and twigs of a tree called gharrab, of the size of an olive tree, with leaves like those of the poplar, but somewhat broader. The honey collects upon the leaves like dew, and is gathered from them, or ſrom the ground under the tree, which is often found completely covered with it. It is very sweet when fresh, but turns sour after being kept for two days. The Arabs eat it with butter; they also put it into their gruel, and use it in rubbing their water- skins, for the purpose of excluding the air. Travels in Syria, p. 392. . Children were fed with milk, cream, and honey, (Isa. 7: 15.) which was the sweetest substance in use beſore sugar was manufactured. The following extracts will give a different idea of this mixture from that generally entertained;—D’Arvieux, (p. 205.) speaking of the Arabs, says, “One of their chief breakſasts is cream, or fresh bul- ter, MixED IN A Mess OF HONEY : these do not seem to suit very well together, but experience teaches that this is no bad mixture, nor disagreeable in its taste, if one is ever so little accustomed to it.” “Honey and milk are under thy tongue,” says the spouse, Cant. 4: 11. Perhaps this mixture was not merely a refreshment, but an elegant re- freshment; which heightens the inference from the pre- dictions of Isaiah, and the description of Zophar, who speak of its abundance; and it increases the respect paid to David, by his faithful and loyal subjects at Mahanaim. —Calmet. - HONOR; a testimony of esteem or submission, express- ed by words and an exterior behavior, by which we make known the veneration and respect we entertain for any one, on account of his dignity or merit. The word is also used in general for the esteem due to virtue, glory, repu- tation, and probity; as also, for an exactness in perform- ing whatever we have promised ; and in this last sense we use the term, a man of honor. It is also applied to two different kinds of virtue; bravery in men, and chastity in women. In every situation of life, religion only forms the true honor and happiness of man. “It cannot,” as one observes, “arise from riches, dignity of rank or office, nor from what are often called splendid actions of heroes, or civil accomplishments; these may be found among men of no real integrity, and may create considerable fame ; but a distinction must be made between ſame and true honor. The ſormer is a loud and noisy applause ; the latter is a more silent and internal homage. Fame floats on the breath of the multitude; honor rests on the judgment of the thinking. In order, then, to discern where true honor lies, we must not look to airy adventi- tious circumstance, not to any single sparkling quality, but to the whole of what forms a man; in a word, we must look to the soul. It will discover itself by a mind superior to ſear, to selfish interest, and corruption ; by an ardent love to the Supreme Being, and by a principle of uniform rectitude. It will make us neither afraid nor ashamed to discharge our duty, as it relates both to God and man. It will influence us to be magnanimous with- out being proud; humble without being mean ; just with- out being harsh ; simple in our manners, but manly in our feelings. This honor, thus formed by religion, or the love of God, is more independent, and more complete, than what can be acquired by any other means. It is productive of higher felicity, and will be commensurate with eternity itself; while that honor, so called, which arises from any other principle, will resemble the feeble and twinkling flame of a taper, which is often clouded by the smoke it sends forth, but is always wasting, and soon dies totally away.” Barrow’s Works, vol. i. ser. 4; Blair's Sermons, vol. iii. ser, 1 ; Watts's Sermons, ser. 30, vol. ii.; JRyland's Comt., vol. i. p. 343; Jortin's Sermons, vol. iii ser. 6; Thatcher’s Sermons.—Hend. Buck. HOODS ; another name for turbans, which see, Isa, 3: 23, - HOOKER, (Rich ARD,) an eminent divine, of the church of England, was born, in 1553, at Heavitree, near Exeter; and, under the patronage of bishop Jewel, was educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, where he was distin- guished for his piety and exemplary conduct. An unhap- py marriage, which he contracted before he was thirty, with a scold who had neither beauty, money, nor man- ners, lost him his college fellowship, and was a fertile source of annoyance to him. In 1585, he was made mas- ter of the Temple; but, weary of disputes with the aſter- moon lecturer, a violent Presbyterian, and longing for yu- ral retirement, he relinquished this preferm ent, and ob- tained the rectory of Bishop's Bourne, in ICent, at which he resided till his decease, in 1600. His great work is the treatise on Ecclesiastical Polity; of which pope Cle ment VIII. said, “there are in it such seeds of eternity as will continue till the last fire shall devour all learning.”--- Davenport. HOOPER, (John,) an English bishop and martyr, was a native of Somersetshire, born in 1495; was educated at Merton college, Oxford; and, having embraced the re- formed faith, was made bishop of Gloucester and Worces- ter by Edward VI. In the reign of the sanguinary Mary he was brought to the stake. He firmly refused the oſ- fered pardon, and though, the wood being green, he suſ. fered for nearly an hour the severest torments, his lower parts being consumed, and one of his hands dropping off before he expired, he manifested unshaken fortitude. He died in 1555. Hooper wrote some sermons and contro- versial pieces.—Davenport. - HOPE, is the desire of some good, attended with the possibility, at least, of obtaining it; and is enlivened with > H O P H. O. P [ 631 J joy, greater or less, according to the probability there is of possessing the object of our hope. Scarce any passion seems to be more natural to man than hope, and, consi- dering the many troubles he is encompassed with, none is more necessary; for life, void of all hope, would be a heavy and spiritless thing, very little desirable, perhaps hardly to be borne ; whereas hope infuses strength, into the mind, and, by so doing, lessens the burdens of life. If our condition be not the best in the world, yet we hope it will be better, and this helps us to support it with pa. tience. The hope of the Christian is an expectation of all necessary good both in time and eternity, founded on the promises, relations, and perfections of God, and on the offices, righteousness, and intercession of Christ. It is a compound of desire, expectation, patience, and joy, Rom. 8: 21. 25. It may be considered, 1. As pure, (1 John 3: 2, 3.) as it is resident in that heart which is cleansed from sin. 2. As good, (2 Thess. 2. 16, in distinction from the hope of the hypocrite) as deriving its origin, from God, and centering in him. 3. It is called lively, (1 Pet. 1: 3.) as it proceeds from spiritual life, and renders one active and lively in good works. 4. It is courageous, (Rom. 5: 5. 1 Thess. 5: 8.) because it excites fortitude in all the troubles of life, and yields support in the hour of death, Prov. 14:32. 5. Sure, (Heb. 6: 19.) because it will not disappoint us, and is fixed on a sure foundation. 6. Jay- ful, (Rom. 5: 2.) as it produces the greatest felicity in the anticipation of complete deliverance from all evil. Grove's Moral Phil., vol. i. p. 381; Gill's Body of Div. p. 82. Vol. iii.; No. 471, Spect. ; Jay's Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 2.-Hend. Buck. HOPHNI, and PHINEHAS, sons of Eli, the high- priest, were sons of Belial ; that is, wicked and dissolute persons, 1 Sam. 2: 12. They knew not the Lord, nor per- formed the functions of their ministry, as they ought, but disgraced their office by the most odious rapacity and im- purity. The Lord threatened them and their father by the young prophet Samuel, (1 Sam. 3: 11, 12.) and soon afterwards Hophni and Phinehas were slain in battle by the Philistines, together with thirty thousand men of srael. (See ELI.)—Calmet. HOPHRAH. (See APRIes.) IIOPKINS, (EzekiEI, D. D.,) bishop of Londonderry, the son of an English clergyman, of Standford, in Devon- shire, was born in 1663. His father got him admitted into the choir of Magdalen college, Oxford, of which soci- ety he afterwards became chaplain. Being presented to the rectory of St. Mary Woolnoth, in the city of London, the bishop of that diocess made some difficulty of insti- tuting him, on account of his opinions, which leaned to- wards Presbyterianism. This circumstance, and the breaking out of the plague, induced him to remove to Ex- eter; where, forming an acquaintance with the family of lord Robartes, afterwards earl of Truro, he married Ara- minta, a daughter of that nobleman; and, on the appoint- ment of his father-in-law to the lord lieutenancy of Ire- land, accompanied him to his seat of government. Before his patron’s recall, he had already obtained the deanery of Raphoe; and, in 1671, the new lord lieutenant, the earl of Berkley, raised him, on the strong personal recommen- dation of his predecessor, to the bishopric of the same diocess. In this see he continued ten years, when he was translated to that of Londonderry. On the city’s being besieged in 1688, he came to London, and the following year was made minister of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, and continued so till his death, in June, 1690. Three editions of his works, among which are “Expositions of the Deca- logue and the Lord's Prayer,” besides Sermons, &c. have been printed in folio, quarto, and octavo. He was a pious and learned prelate, of excellent doctrinal sentiments, richly impregnated with evangelical. truth ; and his elaborate “Discourse on the Vanity of the World” should be read by every one who would form a just esti- mate of human life. An edition of his works was pub- lished a few years ago, in four volumes, octavo, to which was prefixed a Memoir, by the Rev. Josiah Pratt—Jones' Chris. Biog. - HOPKINSIANS, so called from the Rev. Samuel Hop- kins, D. D., an American divine, who, in his sermons and tracts, has made several additions to the sentiments first ad- opposes God’s true character. vanced by the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, late president of New Jersey college. Dr. Hopkins was born at Water. bury, in Connecticut, 1721, and graduated at Yale college, in 1741. Soon after, he engaged in theological studies, at Northampton, Massachusetts, under the superintend. ence of Jonathan Edwards, and, in 1743, was ordained at Housatonic, now Great Barrington, Massachusetts, where he continued till he removed to Newport, Rhode Island, in consequence of the diminution of his congregation, and his want of support. When he had resided some time in this place, the people became dissatisfied with his senti- ments, and resolved, at a meeting, to intimate to him their disinclination to his continuance among them. On the ensuing Sabbath, he preached his farewell discourse, which was so interesting and impressive, that they be sought him to remain, which he did till his death, in 1803. He was a pious and zealous man, of considerable talents, and almost incredible powers of application. He is said to have been sometimes engaged during eighteen hours in his studies. His doctrinal views are contained in his “System of Divinity,” published in a second edition at Boston, in 1811, in two vols. 8vo. The following is a summary of the distinguishing ten- ets of the Hopkinsians, together with a few of the reasons they bring forward in support of their sentiments. I. That all true virtue, or real holiness, consists in dis- interested benevolence. The object of benevolence is uni- versal being, including God, and all intelligent creatures. It wishes and seeks the good of every individual, So far as is consistent with the greatest good of the whole, which is comprised in the glory of God and the perſection and happiness of his kingdom. The law of God is the stand- ard of all moral rectitude or holiness. This is reduced into love to God, and our neighbor as ourselves; and universal good-will comprehends all the love to God, our neighbor, and ourselves, required in the divine law, and therefore must be the whole of holy obedience. Let any serious person think what are the particular branches of true piety; when he has viewed each one by itself, he will find that disinterested friendly affection is its distin- guishing characteristic. For instance, all the holiness in pious fear, which distinguishes it from the fear of the wicked, consists in love. Again ; holy gratitude is no- thing but good-will to God and our neighbor, in which we ourselves are included ; and correspondent affection, excited by a view of the good-will and kindness of God. Universal good-will also implies the whole of the duty we owe to our neighbor, for justice, truth, and faithfulness, are comprised in universal benevolence; so are temperance and chastity. For an undue indulgence of our appetites and passions is contrary to benevolence, as tending to hurt ourselves or others; and so opposite to the general good, and the divine command, in which all the crime of Such in- dulgence consists. In short, all virtue is nothing but bene- volence acted out in its proper nature and perfection ; or love to God and our neighbor, made perfect in all its gen- uine exercises and expressions. II. That all sin consists in selfishness. By this is meant an interested, selfish affection, by which a person sets himself up as supreme, and the only object of regard : and nothing is good or lovely in his view, unless suited to promote his own private interest. This self-love is, in its whole nature, and every degree of it, enmity against God; it is not subject to the law of God, and is the only affec- tion that can oppose it. It is the foundation of all spiritual blindness, and therefore the source of all the open idolatry in the heathen world, and false religion under the light of the gospel; all this is agreeable to that self-love which Under the influence of this principle, men depart from truth ; it being itself the great- est practical lie in nature, as it sets up that which is comparatively nothing above universal existence. Self- love is the source of all profaneness and impiety in the world, and of all pride and ambition among men, which is nothing but selfishness, acted out in this particular way. This is the foundation of all covetousness and sensuality, as it blinds people's eyes, contracts their hearts, and sinks them down, so that they look upon earthly enjoyments as the greatest good. This is the source of all falsehood, in- justice, and oppression, as it excites mankind by undue H O P H O R. [ 632 ) unethods to invade the property of others. Self-lu we pro- duces all the violent passions—envy, wrath, clamor, and evil speaking : and every thing contrary to the divine law is briefly comprehended in this fruitful source of all ini- quity—Supreme self-love. - III. That there are no promises of regenerating grace made to the doings of the unregenerate. For as far as men act from self-love, they act from a bad end ; for those who have no true love to God, really do no duty when they attend on the externals of religion. And as the un- regenerate act from a selfish principle, they do nothing which is commanded : their impenitent doings are wholly opposed to repentance and conversion ; thereſore not im- plied in the command to repent, &c. : So far from this, they are altogether disobedient to the command. Hence it appears that there are no promises of salvation to the doings of the unregenerate. IV. That the impotency of sinners, with respect to be. lieving in Christ, is not natural, but moral; for it is a plain dictate of common sense, that natural impossibility excludes all blame. But an unwilling mind is universally considered as a crime, and not as an excuse, and is the very thing wherein our wickedness consists. That the im- potence of the sinner is owing to a disaffection of heart, is evident from the promises of the gospel. When any ob- ject of good is proposed and promised to us upon asking, it clearly evinces that there can be no impotence in us with respect to obtaining it, beside the disapprobation of the will ; and that inability, which consists in disinclina- tion, never renders any thing improperly the subject of precept or command. W. That, in order to faith in Christ, a sinner must ap- prove in his heart of the divine conduct, even though God should cast him off forever; which, however, meither im- plies love of misery, nor hatred of happiness. For if the law is good, death is due to those who have broken it. 'The Judge of all the earth cannot but do right. It would bring ever'ststing reproach upon his government to spare us r. ..sidered merely as in ourselves. When this is felt in our hearts, and not till then, we shall be prepared to look to the free grace of God, through the redemption which is in Christ, and to exercise faith in his blood, who is set forth to be a propitiation to declare God’s righteous- ness, that he might be just, and yet be the justifier of him who believeth in Jesus. WI. That the infinitely wise and holy God has exerted his omnipotent power in such a manner as he purposed should be ſollowed with the existence and entrance of moral evil into the system. For it must be admitted on all hands, that God has a perſect knowledge, foresight, and view of all possible existences and events. If that system and scene of operation, in which moral evil should never have existed, was actually preferred in the divine mind, certainly the Deity is infinitely disappointed in the issue of his own operations. Nothing can be more dis- honorable to God than to inmagine that the system which is actually formed by the divine hand, and which was made for his pleasure and glory, is yet not the fruit of wise contrivance and design. VII. That the introduction of sin is, upon the whole, for the general good. For the wisdom and power of the Deity are displayed in carrying on designs of the greatest good ; and the existence of moral evil has undoubtedly occasioned a more full, perfect, and glorious discovery of the infinite perſections of the divine nature than could otherwise have been made to the view of creatures. Iſ the extensive manifestation of the pure and holy nature of God, and his infinite aversion to sin, and all his inhe- rent perſections, in their genuine fruits and effects, is cither itself the greatest good, or necessarily contains it, it must necessarily follow that the introduction of sin is for the greatest good. VIII. That repentance is before faith in Christ. By this is not intended, that repentance is before a specula- tive belief of the being and perfections of God, and of the person and character of Christ; but only that true repen- tance is previous to a saving faith in Christ, in which the believer is united to Christ, and entitled to the benefits of his mediation and atonement. That repentance is before faith in this sense, appears ſtom several considerations. 1. As repentance and faith º different objects, so they are distinct exercises of the heart; and therefore one not only may, but must be prior to the other. 2. There may be genuine repentance of sin without faith in Christ, but there cannot be true faith in Christ without repentance of sin; and since repentance is necessary in order to faith in Christ, it must necessarily be prior to faith in Christ. 3. John the Baptist, Christ and his apostles, taught that repentance is before faith. John cried, “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand;” intimating, that true re- pentance was necessary in order to embrace the gospel of the kingdom. Christ commanded, “Repent ye, and be. lieve the gospel.” And Paul preached “repentance to. ward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ.” IX. That though men became sinners by Adam, accord- ing to a divine constitution, yet they have, and are accountable for no sins but personal; for, 1. Adam's act, in eating the forbidden fruit, was not the act of his pos. terity : therefore they did not sin at the same time he did. 2. The sinfulness of that act could not be transferred to them afterwards, because the sinfulness of an act can no more be transferred from one person to another than an act itself. 3. Therefore Adam's act, in eating the forbid- den fruit, was not the cause, but only the occasion of his posterity’s being sinners. God was pleased to make a constitution, that, if Adam remained holy through his state of trial, his posterity should in consequence be holy also : but if he sinned, his posterity should in consequence be sinners likewise. Adam sinned, and now God brings his posterity into the world sinners. By Adam's sin we are become sinners, not for it; his sin being only the occasion, not the cause of our committing sins. X. That though believers are justified through Christ's righteousness, yet his righteousness is not transferred to them. . For, 1. Personal righteousness can no more be transferred from one person to another, than personal sin. 2. If Christ's personal righteousness were transferred to believers, they would be as perfectly holy as Christ; and so stand in no need of forgiveness. 3. But believers are not conscious of having Christ's personal righteousness, but feel and bewail much indwelling sin and corruption. 4. The Scripture represents believers as receiving only the benefits of Christ’s righteousness in justification, or their being pardoned and accepted for Christ’s righteous- ness' sake, and this is the proper Scripture notion of im- putation. Jonathan's righteousness was imputed to Me- phibosheth when David showed kindness to him for his father Jonathan’s sake. -- The Hopkinsians warmly contend for the doctrine of the divine decrees, that of particular election, total depra- vity, the special influences of the Spirit of God in regene- ration, justification by faith alone, the final perseverance of the saints, and the consistency between entire freedom and absolute dependence; and therefore claim it as their just due, since the world will make distinctions, to be called Hopkinsian Calvinists. Adam's View of Religions; Hopkins on Holiness ; Edwards on the Will, p. 234, 282; Fäwards on Virtue ; West's Essay on Moral Agency, p. 170, 181; Spring's Nature of Duty, 23; Moral Disquisitions, p. 40.-Hend. Buck. HOR ; a mountain in Arabia Petraea, on the conſines of Idumea, and probably the same with mount Seir. One particular mountain of this tract, however, seems to be particularly intended in Scripture. Here Aaron died and was buried, in the ſortieth year after the departure from Egypt, Deut. 33: 50. Num. 20: 26. 27: 13. A small building is shown in mount Hor, which is said to be the tomb of Aaron. It is a white building, surmounted by a cupola, and having a descent of several steps into a cham- ber excavated in a rock.-Calmet. - IIORITES; an ancient people, who dwelt in the moun- tains of Seir, Gen. 14: 6. They had princes, and were powerful before Esau conquered their country. The Ho- rites and the Edomites seem aſterwards to have composed but one people, Deut. 2: 1. 23: 2. Judg. 5; 4.—Calmet. HIORN ; an eminence or angle, a corner or rising, Isa. 5: 1. By horns of the altar of burnt-offerings, many un- derstand the angles of that altar; but there were also horns or eminences at these angles, Exod. 27, 2. 30: 2. (See ALTAR.) As the ancients frequently used horns to ; ſ: : 3. § E; . º- s É - # É | &::$35 §§§ & * 3. º § S- d * º § - S º ## §§§ºã s l 9. | º %2. . & éº ſº. d §º.2. º. ºº S; §§ }~ *: Gº º º a 4&ºe=} ºs-Mºś ºšSN º º º * ….: ######r. | º | ºš Äſſä ºr a rh ºf ſº §§ O Çi𠺚 ſº º § | ºlº: tº º Sºº ºffºliºſ: §§§ ºº:: ºr-º- - ºgºs - sº: *ś º R 3 * º 's R. i. , º: -*.º-º ** * * Hºſſºs Pºº-ºº:32-32 * } sº Sºº's ſ s i i i Rºs24w ; : - H. O. R. H. O. R. [ 633 ] .# nold liquors, vessels containing oil, and perſumes, are often so called, whether made of horn or not, 1 Sam. 16: 1. 1 Kings 1: 39. “Horns” also signify, by a natural metaphor, rays of \ight; the face of Moses was encompassed with horns, that is, it was radiant, or, as it were, horns of light issued from it. This illustrates the true sense of Heb. 3: 4. The principal defence and strength of many animals are in their horns; and hence the horn is often a symbol of power. The Lord exalted the horn of David, and the horn of his people; he breaketh the horn of the ungodly; he cutteth off the horn of Moab; he cutteth off, in his fierce anger, all the horn of Israel. He promises to make the horn of Israel to bud forth; to re-establish its honor, and restore its vigor. ICingdoms and great powers are also described by the symbol of horns, 1 Mac. 7: 46. In Dan. 7, 8, horns represent the power of the Persians, of the Greeks, of Syria, and of Egypt. The prophet de- scribes these animals as having many horns, one of which grew from another. In 1 Mac. 9:1, the wings of an army are called its horns.—Calmet. HORNE, (GEORGE, D. D.,) a pious and learned pre- late, was born, in 1730, at Otham, in Kent, and was edu- @ \ tº ~. cated at Maidstone grammar-school, and at University college, Oxford. He took orders in 1753, and his grace- ful elocution and excellent style rendered him a popular preacher. He was successively president of Magdalen college, chaplain to the king, vice-chancellor of the uni- versity, and dean of Canterbury. In 1790, he was raised to the see of Norwich, which, however, he held less than two years: he dying in January, 1792. In early life he was a strenuous Hutchinsonian, and attacked the system of Newton with a violence which he subsequently regret- ted. Of his numerous works the principal is, a Commen- tary on the Book of Psalms, on the composition of which he bestowed nearly twenty years. He was a prelate of no inconsiderable learning, and uni- versally respected for his excellent qualities as a man and a Christian. His writings, which are invariably charac- terized by their pious and evangelical tendency, have been held in high repute, and as deservedly esteemed by the friends of piety and virtue. They were published in six volumes, octavo, London, 1795, with a life of the author prefixed, by the Rev. W. Jones, of Nayland. Aikin's Gen. Biog.—Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. HORNET; a kind of large wasp, which has a power- ful sting. The Lord drove out the Canaanites before Israel by means of this insect, Deut. 7:20. Josh. 24; 12. (See FLY.) For an illustration of the manner in which this might be effected, it should be remarked, that the Israelites, in the sandy wilderness, would escape this crea- ture.—Calmet. HORROR ; a passion excited by an object which causes a high degree of fear and detestation. It is a com- pound of wonder and fear. Sometimes it has a mixture of pleasure, from which, if predominant, it is denominat- ed a pleasing horror. Such a horror seizes us at the view of vast and hanging precipices, a tempestuous ocean, or wild and solitary places. This passion is the original of superstition, as a wise and well-tempered awe is of re- ligion. Horror and terror seem almost to be synony- mous; but the former refers more to what disgusts; the letter to that which alarms us.-IHend. Buck, HORROX, (JEREMIAH,) a young and religious astrono- mer, was born, about lº at Toxteth, near Liverpool; was educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge; and died prematurely, to the great loss of science, in 1640–1, aged twenty-one. Horrox was the first who observed the transit of Venus over the solar disk; and he formed a theory of lunar motion, which Newton did not disdain to adopt. He is the author of Venus in Sole visu; and of astronomical papers, which were published by Dr. Wallis, under the title of Opera Posthuma-Davenport. HORSE, (mum.) Horses were very rare among the Hebrews in the early ages. The patriarchs had none ; and after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, God expressly forbade their ruler to procure them —“He shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses; forasmuch as the Lord hath said, 'Ye shall hence- forth return no more that way,” Deut. 17: 16. As horses appear to have been generally furnished by Egypt, God prohibits these, 1. Lest there should be such commerce with Egypt as might lead to idolatry. 2. Lest the people might depend on a well-appointed cavalry, as a means of security, and so cease from trusting in the promised aid and protection of Jehovah. 3. That they might not be tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry, and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous nations, and thus cease, in process of time, to be that dis- tinct and separate people which God intended they should be, and without which the prophecies relative to the Mes- siah could not be known to have their due and full ac- complishment. -- In the time of the judges we find horses and war cha- riots among the Canaanites, but still the Israelites had none; and hence they were generally too timid to venture down into the plains, confining their conquests to the mountainous parts of the country. David's enemies brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the field; and in the book of Psalms the horse commonly appears only on the side of the enemies of the people of God, 2 Sam. S: 4. Solomon, having married a daughter of Pharaoh, procured a breed of horses from Egypt; and so greatly did he multiply them, that he had four hundred stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve thousand horse- men, 1 Kings 4: 26. 2 Chron. 9:25. It seems that the Egyptian horses were in high repute, and were much used in war. When the Israelites were disposed to place too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry, the prophet remonstrated in these terms:—“The Egyptians are men, and not God; and their horses are flesh, not spirit,” Isaiah 31: 3. Josiah took away the horses which the kings of Judah, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun, 2 Kings 23: 11. This luminary was worshipped over all the East, and was represented as riding in a chariot, drawn by the most beautiful and swiſtest horses in the world, and per- forming every day his journey from east to west, to en. lighten the earth. In Persia, and among the Massageta, horses were sacrificed to the Sun, (Herodot, lib. i. cap. 55. Ovid. Fast. Iib. viii. Xenoph. Cyropaed. lib. viii.) It is thought that those which Josiah removed from the court of the temple, were appointed for a similar purpose. — Tſ'atson ; Calmet. HORSE-LEECH, (olušeh ;) from a root which signi- fies to adhere, stick close, or hang fast, Prov. 30: 15. A sort of worm that lives in the water, of a black or brown color, which fattens upon the flesh, and does not quit it till it is entirely full of blood. Solomon says, “The horse-leech hath two daughters, Give, give.” This is so apt an em. blem of an insatiable rapacity and avarice, that it has been generally used by different writers to express it. Thus Plautus makes one say, speaking of the determina- tion to get money, “I will turn myself into a horse-leech, and suck out their blood ;” and Cicero, in one of his let- ters to Atticus, calls the common people of Rome horse- leeches of the treasury. Solomon, having mentioned those that devoured the property of the poor as the worst of all the generations which he had specified, proceeds to state the insatiable cupidity with which they prosecuted their schemes of rapine and plunder. As the horse-leech had two daughters, cruelty and thirst of blood, which can- not be satisfied, so the oppressor of the poor has two dis- positions, rapacity and avarice, which never say they H O S H O S | 634 J have enough, but continually demand additional gratifi- cations.—Calmet. - HORSLEY, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) a celebrated prelate and mathematician, was born in 1733; was educated at Westminster, and Trinity college, Cambridge ; and be- came curate to his father. After having held the livings of Albury, Newington, Thorley, and South Weald, the archdeaconry of St. Alban's, and prebends of St. Paul's and of Gloucester, he was raised, in 1788, to the see of St. David's, whence, in 1793, he was removed to Roches- ter, and, in 1802, to St. Asaph. For a part of this prefer- ment he was indebted to his controversy with Dr. Priestly, on the subject of the divinity of Christ; his tracts relating to which he collected and published in an 8vo volume. While he was thus rising in the church, he was not neg- lectful of science. In 1769, he printed an edition of Apol- lonius, and in 1775, an edition of Newton's works, in five 4to volumes. From 1773 till the election of Sir Joseph Banks, he was secretary of the Royal society ; when, deeming the dignity of the society lessened by the choice of a man who was ignorant of the higher sciences, he re- signed his office. Bishop Horsley died at Brighton, in 1806. He was a very eloquent preacher, and perform- ed all his episcopal duties in an admirable manner. Besides the works already mentioned, he produced many others, biblical, theological, classical, and scientific. He was the author of “Critical Disquisitions on the Eighteenth Chapter of Isaiah,” 4to ; “Hosea, a new Translation, with Notes,” 4to ; a “Translation of the Psalms,” 2 vols.; “Biblical Criticisms,” 4 vols. 8vo; Ser- mons; Charges; elementary Treatises on the Mathematics, on the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages ; and papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Nichol's Lil. ..Anec. Dr. Horsley has been, not inaptly, described as the last of the race of episcopal giants of the Warburtonian school. He was a man of an original and powerful mind, of very extensive learning, and profoundly versed in the article of ecclesiastical history, of which he gave ample evidence in his controversy with Dr. Priestly, while archdeacon of St. Alban's. Even Gibbon says, “his spear pierced the So- cinian's shield. His sermons and critical disquisitions fre- quently display a rich fund of theological acumen, and of Successful illustration of the sacred writings; but his tem- per did not exhibit much of the meekness and gentleness of his divine Master; and he was too fond of meddling in po- litical discussions, for which he did not escape the censure of Mr. Pitt. Jones' Chris. Biog.—Davenport ; Hend. Buck. HOSAI; a prophet or seer, in the time of Manasseh, king of Judah, 2 Chron. 33: 19, margin. The Jews are of opinion, that Hosai and Isaiah are the same person ; the LXX take Hosai in a general sense for prophets and seers: the Syriac calls him Hanan ; the Arabic Saphan. —Calmet. HOSANNA ; “Save, I beseech thee,” or, “Give sal- vation ;” a well-known Jewish form of blessing, Matt. 21: 9, 15. Mark 11:9, 10. John 12: 13.—Watson. HOSEA ; son of Beeri, the first of the minor prophets. He is generally considered as a native and inhabitant of the kingdom of Israel, and is supposed to have begun to prophecy about B. C. 800. He exercised his office sixty years; but it is not known at what periods his different prophecies now remaining were delivered. Most of them are dirécted against the people of Israel, whom he re- proves and threatens for their idolatry and wickedness, and exhorts to repentance, with the greatest earnestness, as the only means of averting the evils impending over their country. The principal predictions contained in this book, are the captivity and dispersion of the kingdom of Israel; the deliverance of Judah from Sennacherib ; the present state of the Jews; their future restoration, and union with the Gentiles in the kingdom of the Messiah ; the call of our Savior out of Egypt, and his resurrection on the third day. The style of Hosea is peculiarly ob- scure ; it is sententious, concise, and abrupt ; the transi- tions of persons are sudden; and the connexive and ad- versative particles are frequently omitted. The prophe- cies are in one continued series, without any distinction as to the times when they were delivered, or the different subjects to which they relate. Thev are not so clear and detailed, as the predictions of those prophets who lived in succeeding ages. When, however, we have surmounted these difficulties, we shall see abundant reason to admire the force and energy with which this prophet writes, and the boldness of the figures and similitudes which he uses. As the circumstances recorded in the third chapter ap- pear sufficiently strange to us, it may be worth while to add Baron du Tott’s account of marriages by Capin 5– which agrees with the relations of other travellers into the East: “There is another kind of marriage, which, stipulating the return to be made, fixes likenoise the time when the divorce is to take place. This contract is called Capin ; and, properly speaking, is only an agreement made between the parties to live together, for such a price, during such a time.” (Pre- liminary Discourse, p. 23.) It is scarcely possible to ex- pect more direct illustration of the prophet's conduct than this extract affords. We learn from it that this contract is a regular form of marriage, and that it is so regarded, generally, in the East; consequently, such a connexion and agreement could give no scandal, in the days of Ho- sea, though it would not be justifiable under Christian manners. It may easily be imagined that this kind of marriage was liable to be abused; and that it was glanc- ed at, and included, in our Lord’s prohibition of hasty divorces, need not be doubted.—Watson ; Calmet. HOSPINIAN, (RALPH,) a learned Swiss writer, who did eminent service to the Protestant cause, was born at Altorſ, in 1547, and studied at Zurich, Marpurg, and Heidelberg. He was settled in the ministry, in 1568, at Zurich, obtained the freedom of the city, and was made provisor of the Abbey school, in 1571. It was here he un- dertook his great work, a History of the Errors of Popery, to which he was led by accidentally hearing the landlord of a country ale-house express the silly idea that the mo- nastic life came immediately from paradise. He publish- ed it in six parts, folio, from 1587 to 1602, enlarging each succeeding edition, and adding confutations of Bellarmine, Baronius, and Gretser. He published besides several works, the most important being a History of the Jesuits, from their origin to 1619, in which he fully exposes the abominable maxims and intrigues of the Order. These works gave him the very highest reputation. In 1623, his powers of intellect began to ſail, and in 1626, he rested from his labor, at the age of seventy-nine.—Middleton, vol. ii. 443. . HOSPITALITY; kindness exercised in the entertain- ment of strangers. This virtue, we find, is explicitly commanded by, and makes a part of the morality of the New Testament. Indeed, that religion which breathes nothing but charity, and whose tendency is to expand the heart, and call forth the benevolent exertions of mankind, must evidently embrace the practice. If it be asked, of whom is this required 2 it is answered, that the principle is required of all, though the duty itself can only be practised by those whose circumstances will admit of it. Dr. Stennet, in his discourse on this subject, (Domestic Duties, ser. 10.) justly observes, that hospitality is a species of charity to which every one is not compe- tent. But the temper from which it proceeds, I mean a humane, generous, benevolent temper, that ought to pre- vail in every breast. Some are miserably poor, and it is not to be expected that their doors should be thrown open to entertain strangers ; yet the cottage of the peasant may exhibit noble specimens of hospitality. Here dis- tress has often met with pity, and the persecuted an asy- lum. Nor is there a man who has a house to sleep in, but may be benevolent to strangers. But there are per- sons of certain characters and stations who are more especially obliged to it; as, particularly, magistrates and others in civil offices, who would forfeit the esteem of the public, and greatly injure their usefulness, were they not to observe the rites of hospitality. Ministers also, and such Christians as are qualified by their particular offices in the church, and their affluent circumstances, may be eminently useful in this way. The two grand virtues which ought to be studied by every one, in order that he may have it in his power to be hospitable, are industry and economy. But it may be asked 2 or 'n, to whom is this duty to be practised? to strangers: but here it is * H O U H O U | 635 ) necessary to observe, that the term strangers hath two acceptations. It is to be understood of travellers, or per- sons who come from a distance, and with whom we have little or no acquaintance; and more generally of all who are not of our house,_strangers, as opposed to domestics. Hospitality is especially to be practised to the poor; they who have no houses of their own, or possess few of the conveniences of life, should occasionally be invited to our houses, and refreshed at our tables, Luke 14: 13, 14. Hospitality also may be practised to those who are of the same character and of the same community with our- selves. As to the various offices of hospitality, and the manner in which they should be rendered, it must be observed, that the entertainments should be plentiful, frugal, and cordial, Gen. 18: 6, 8. John 12:3. Luke 15:17. º ſº The obligations to this duty arise from the fitness and # reasonableness of it; it brings its own reward, Acts 20: 35. It is expressly commanded by God, Lev. 25:35, 38. Luke 16; 19. 14: 13, 14. Rom. 12. Heb. 13: 1, 2. 1 Pet. Hº 4:9. We have many striking examples of hospitality on ; divine record: Abraham, Gen. 18: 1,8. Lot, Gen. 19: 1, 3. Job. 31: 17, 22. hospitable man mentioned in Judges, 19:16, 21. The primitive Christians, Acts 2:45, 46. Aquila, Acts 18: 26. Lastly, what should have a powerful effect on our minds, is the consideration of divine hospitality. God is good to all, and his tender mercies are over all his works. His sun shines and his rain falls on the evil as well as the good. His very enemies share of his bounty. He gives liberally to all men, and upbraids not ; but especially we should remember the exceeding riches of his grace, in his kindness towards us through Christ Jesus. Let us lay all these considerations together, and then ask our- selves whether we can find it in our hearts to be selfish, parsimonious, and inhospitable.—Hend. Buck. HOST, (from the Latin hostia, in the church of Rome, a victim or sacrifice ;) a name given to the elements used in the eucharist, or rather to the consecrated waſer, which they pretend to offer up every day, as a new host or sacri- fice for the sins of mankind. They pay adoration to the host upon a false presumption that the elements are no longer bread and wine, but transubstantiated into the real body and blood of Christ. (See TRANSUBSTANTIATION.) Pope Gregory IX. first decreed a bell to be rung, as a sig- nal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host. The vessel wherein the hosts are kept is called the cibory, being a large kind of covered chalice.— Hend. Buck. HOSTAGE ; a person delivered into the hand of ano- ther as the security for the performance of some engage- ment. Conquered kings or nations often gave hostages ſor the payment of their tribute, or continuance of sub- jection, 2 Kings 14: 14.—Bronyn. HOTTENTOTS; the native inhabitants of South Afri- ca, who are gross pagans, having no idea of a Supreme Being, though they pay a superstitious regard to evil de- mons. Their only object of worship worthy of mention, is a peculiar insect, called the Mantis, or walking-leaf, from its resemblance to the leaf of a tree in the path-way. The Hottentots call it “the Child of Heaven;” and, when it alights on any person, consider it as a celestial visitant, and a token of great good fortune.—Williams. HOURS. (See Day; DIAL; and WATCH.) HOUSE ; a place of residence. The purpose of a house being for dwelling, and that of tents being the same, they are called by one name (beth) in the Hebrew. On the same principle, the tabernacle of God, though only a tent, is sometimes called the temple; that is, the resi- dence of God. The general method of building, in the East, seems to have continued the same, from the earliest ages, without the least alteration or improvement. Large doors, Spa- cious chambers, marble pavements, cloistered courts, with fountains sometimes playing in the midst, are certainly conveniences very well adapted to the circumstances of the climate, where the summer heats are generally so in- tense The jealousy likewise of the people is less apt to Shūnamite, 2 Kings 4: 8, 10. Thé ||º David, ; 2 Sam. 6: 19. Obadiah, 1 Kings 18: 4. Nehemiah, Neh. |}|. 5: 17, 18. Martha, Luke 10: 38. Mary, Matt. 26: 6, 13. || || Priscilla and ºft Lydia, Acts 16: 15, &c. &c. be alarmed, whilst all the windows open into their respec. tive courts, if we except a latticed window or balcony which sometimes looks—into the streets. The streets of the cities, the better to shade them from the sun, are usually narrow, with sometimes a range of shops on each side. If from these we enter into one of the principal houses, we shall first pass through a porch or gateway, with benches on each side, where the master of the family receives visits and despatches business; few persons, not even the nearest relations, having a further admission, except upon extraordinary occasions. From hence we are received into the court, or quadrangle, which … : : J. ºf §: º' ºr º * * * . º ºE. i : º|g--º -º: º º C-sº ſº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º- * º - Édº * r * * º º.* º ‘. . ºf 6- | - --- t # § -. § . - lying open to the weather, is, according to the ability of the owner, paved with marble, or such materials as will immediately carry off the water into the common sewers. There is something very analagous betwixt this open space in these buildings, and the Impluvium, or Cava AEdi- wm, of the Romans; both of them being alike exposed to the weather, and giving light to the house. For the accommodation of the guests, the pavement is covered with mats or carpets; and as it is secured against all interruption from the street, is well adapted to public entertainments. It is called, says Dr. Shaw, the middle of the house, and literally answers to the (to meson) “the midst” of the evangelist, into which the man afflicted with the palsy was let down through the ceiling, with his couch, before Jesus, Luke 5: 19. Hence, he conjectures that our Lord was at this time instructing the people in the court of one of these houses; and it is by no means improbable, that the quadrangle was to him and his apostles a favorite situation, while they were engaged in disclosing the mysteries of redemption. To defend the company from the scorching sun-beams, or “windy storm and tempest,” an awning or canopy was expanded upon ropes from one side of the parapet wall to the other, which might be unfolded or folded at pleasure. This is the covering which was removed on the occasion above referred to ; though our translation conveys a different idea. The court is for the most part surrounded with a cloister, over which, when the house has a number of stories, a gallery is erected of the same dimensions with the cloister, having a balustrade, or else a piece of carved or latticed work, going round about, to prevent people from falling from it into the court. The doors of the inclosure round the house are made very small; but the doors of the houses very large, for the purpose of admitting a copious stream of fresh air into their apartments. The windows which look into the street are very high and narrow, and defended by lattice work; as they are only intended to allow the cloistered inmate a peep of what is passing without, while he remains concealed behind the casement. This kind of window the ancient Hebrews called arubah, which is the same term that they used to express those small openings through which pigeons passed into the cavities of the rocks, or into those buildings which were raised for their reception. Irwin describes the windows in Upper Egypt as having the same form and dimensions; and says expressly, that one of the windows of the house in which they lodged, and through which they looked into the street, more re. sembled a pigeon-hole than any thing else. But the Sacred writers mention another kind of window, which Hou H. O. W. [ 636 | was large and airy ; it was called halūn, and was large enough to admit a person of mature age being cast out of it; a punishment which that profligate woman Jezebel suffered by the command of Jehu, the authorized exter- minator of her family. These large windows admit the light and the breeze into spacious apartments of the same length with the court, but which seldom or never commu- nicate with one another. - In the houses of the fashionable and the gay, the lower part of the walls is adorned with rich hangings of velvet or damask, tinged with the liveliest colors, suspended on hooks, or taken down at pleasure, Esther 1: 6. The up- per part of the walls is adorned with the most ingenious wreathings and devices, in stucco and fret-work. The ceiling is generally of wainscot, painted with great art, or else thrown into a variety of pannels with gilded mould- ings. In the days of Jeremiah the prophet, when the profusion and luxury of all ranks in Judea were at their height, their chambers were ceiled with fragrant and costly wood, and painted with the richest colors, Jer, 22: 14. The floors of these splendid apartments were laid with painted tiles, or slabs of the most beautiful marble, Plaster of terrace is often used for the same purpose; and the floor is always covered with carpets, which are for the most part of the richest materials. . . Upon these carpets, a range of narrow beds, or mat- tresses, is often placed along the sides of the wall, with velvet or damask bolsters, for the greater ease and con- venience of the company. To these luxurious indul- gences the prophets occasionally seem to allude, Ezek. 13: 18. Amos 6: 4. At one end of each chamber is a little gallery, raised three or ſour feet above the floor, with a balustrade in front, to which they go up by a few steps. Here they place their beds; a situation frequently alluded to in the Holy Scriptures, Gen. 49: 4. 2 Kings 1: 4, 16. PS. 132: 3. The roof of the house is always flat, and often com- posed of branches of wood laid across rude beams; and, to defend it from the injuries of the weather, to which it is peculiarly exposed in the rainy season, it is covered with a strong terrace of plaster. It is surrounded by a wall breast high, which forms the partition with the con- tiguous houses, and prevents one from falling into the street on the one side, or into the court on the other, 2 Kings 1:2. This answers to the battlements which Moses commanded the people of Israel to make for the roof of their houses, ſor the same reason, Deut. 22:8. “When thou buildest a new house, then thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any man fall from thence,” Deut. 22:8. Instead of the parapet wall, Some terraces are guarded, like the galleries, with balustrades only, or latticed work. In Judea, the inhabitants sleep upon the tops of their houses during the heats of summer, in arbors made of the branches of trees, or in tents of rushes. When Dr. Pococke was at Tiberias in Galilee, he was entertained by the sheik's steward, and with his company. Supped upon the top of the house for coolness, according to their cus- tom, and lodged there likewise, in a sort of closet of about eight feet square, formed of wicker work, plastered round towards the bottom, but without any door, each person having his cell. In like manner, the Persians take refuge during the day in subterraneous chambers, and pass the might on the flat roofs of their houses. The houses of the poorer class of people in the East are very bad constructions, consisting of mud walls, reeds and rushes; whence they become apt comparisons to the fragility of human life. Niebuhr describes and represents an Arabian hut, in Yemen, composed of stakes, and plastered with clay. To such a one Job seems to allude, (chap. 4: 19.) “God putteth no confidence in his angels; how much less in them who dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust; who are crushed by a moth striking against them P' He compares the human body and constitution to one of these tenements of clay, by reason of its speedy dissolution under any one accident of the many to which it is exposed. How uncer- tain is health, strength, favor a breeze of wind too strong, a shower of rain too heavy, often produces disor- dºrs which demolish the tenement, The expression, “to dig through houses,” occurs, Job 24; 16. “Thieves,” says Mr. Ward, “in Bengal very fre. quently dig through the mud walls, and under the clay floors of houses, and, entering umperceived, plunder them while the inhabitants are asleep.” - - Our Lord's parable of the foolish man who built his house on the sand, derives illustration from the following passage in Ward's valuable “View of the Hindoos.” * The fishermen in Bengal build their huts in the dry season on the beds of sand, from which the river has retired. When the rains set in, which they often do very suddenly, accompanied by violent north-west winds, the water pours down in torrents from the mountains. In one night multitudes of these huts are frequently swept away, and the place where they stood is the next morning undiscoverable.” – Heaven is considered as the house of God: (John 14: 2.) “In my Father's house are many mansions;” where we observe a remarkable implication—mansions are great, noble, hereditary dwellings, among men, abounding with conveniences, &c.—“My Father’s house—his ordinary residence—contains many of what the sons of men esteem capital residences—mansions.” 2. House is taken for household, or family : “The Lord plagued Pharaoh and his house,” Gen. 12; 17. “What is my house, that thou hast brought me hitherto P2 Sam. 7: 18. So Joseph was of the house of David, (Luke 1:27. 2: 4.) but more especially he was of his royal lineage, or family; and, as we conceive, in the direct line or eldest branch of the family; so that he was next of kin to the throne, if the government had still continued in possession of the descendants of David. House is taken for kindred; it is a Christian's duty to provide first for those of his own house, (1 Tim. 5: 8.) his family, his relatives.—Calmet ; Waison. HOUSEHOLD. (See House.) HOWARD, (John,) the celebrated philanthropist, was born, in 1726, at Hackney, and was bound apprentice to a grocer by his guardians; but, being possessed of a for- tune, he purchased his indentures, and made two tours on the continent; one of them for the purpose of viewing the ruins of Lisbon. Having lost his first wife, who was much older than himself, and whom he married out of gratitude for her attention during sickness, he made a second choice in 1758. For several years he resided on his estate at Cardington, near Bedford, occupied in edu- cating his son, and in executing plans to render comforta- ble the situation of his tenants and laborers. Nor was his kindness limited to worldly benefits; it extended to eter- nity; watching over their morals, and inculcating the principles of vital Christianity in their hearts; in short, he was a universal blessing. He had already obtained experimentally some knowledge of a prison, having been captured on his return to Lisbon, and confined in France; but his appointment, in 1773, to the office of high sheriff of Bedſord, induced him to look more narrowly into the subject, with the hope of ameliorating the condition of the captive. Here, then, commenced that philanthropical ca- reer which closed but with his life. Not only were all the prisons of his own country repeatedly visited, but, in several journeys, he examined minutely those of the con- tinent, “to remember (as Mr. Burke beautifully expresses it) the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and to compare and collate the distresses of all men in all countries.” His glorious course was termi- nated, by fever, at Cherson, in Russia, January 20, 1790 º * H O W I 637 ) The numanity and the benevolence of a man, who, at the expense of thirty thousand pounds, travelled between fifty and sixty thousand miles, enduring the fatigues, and dangers, and changes of heat and cold, rain and Snow, is indeed above all praise. Yet it was unstained by pride. The love of Christ which ruled his heart in life, led him to request that no other inscription might be put on his grave than this : “Christ is my hope.” He wrote the State of the Prisons in England and . Wales; and an Account of the principal Lazarettos in Europe, See his Life, by J. B. Bronn, Esq., of the Inner Temple.—Davenport; Jones' Chris. Biog. HOWE, sº A. M.,) was born at Loughorough, in the year 1630. His father was minister of that place, who, having lost his benefice for strong attachment to the Puritans, settled in Lancashire. There his son acquired his classical knowledge, and was sent early to Cambridge. After continuing some years in that university, and taking his first degree, he removed to Oxford; where he made considerable progress in literature, obtained the degree of master of arts, and was then elected fellow of Magdalen college, Oxford. Soon after taking his second degree, he was ordained by Mr. Herle, of Winwick, assisted by the ministers of the chapels in this very extensive parish. The field of ministerial labor, to which he afterwards re- moved, was Great Torrington, in Devon; and his eminent services were crowned with considerable success. Busi- ness calling him to London, he had the curiosity to go to the chapel at Whitehall. Cromwell observing him, thought that he saw something extraordinary in him, and after hearing him two or three times, insisted that Mr. Howe should come to Whitehall, and be his domestic chaplain. With very great reluctance he was compelled to gratify a man who would have his own way; as Howe felt that it did not appear disinterested so to act. Such, however, really was his disinterestedness, that once, when he was applying for a favor, the Protector said, “Mr. Howe, you often come to me in behalf of others, but you never have asked one benefit for your own family: how comes it that you do not rather seek to advance their interest ?” He was a man of unalterable fidelity, and nothing could move him from the path of duty. After Cromwell's death, he continued about three months in the service of his son Richard, and then returned to his old people at Torring- ton, and labored among them till the act of uniformity passed. Soon after the restoration, he was unjustly accused of having uttered something seditious, if not treasonable, in his sermon ; but by the testimony of more than twenty of his most judicious hearers, he was cleared from the malicious charge. Nothing, however, could free him from the effects of the Bartholomew act; and he retired from the station of a parish minister to be a si- lenced non-conformist. He was now compelled to steal opportunities of useful- ness, and to preach the gospel in secret. For several years he was an itinerant preacher in the habitations of his friends. Seeing no prospect of extensive usefulness at home, he accepted an offer from lord Mazarene, to be his chaplain; and in the year 1671, went over with his fa- mily to Ireland. The mansion of his patron was in the neighborhood of Antrim. There Mr. Howe statedly offi- ciated in the church of that city, and was admitted into the churches in the neighboring towns. From this situation he was, in the year 1675, called to be pastor of a church, formed of persons who had belonged to his congregation; and he returned to London to exer- cise the office of the ministry. For ten years he labored with extraordinary acceptance in the service of his people, among whom were not a few eminently distinguished, not only for their piety, but their talents, their education, and their respectability in social life. , * In the year 1685, he complied with an invitation from lord Wharton, to travel with him to the continent; and after visiting many foreign parts, as it was still unsafe for him to return to England, he took up his residence at Utrecht, and continued there some time, greatly respected by all ranks of people, preaching statedly at his own house, and frequently in the English church. In the year 1687, when king James afforded to the dissenters in Eng- land more enlarged toleration, Mr. Howe returned with pleasure to his flock, and took the benefit of the indul. gence. After the revolution, Mr. Howe continued to labor among his people in Silver street, who are said to have been a society peculiarly select. He took an active part in every thing relating to the concerns of religion; and ever appeared the powerful advocate of truth, of piety, of moderation, and liberality. In every part of his conduct, his entire devotedness to the service of God shone forth ; and in the end, he exhibited the resemblance of the sun in a summer evening, setting in mildness of glory. He died on the 2d of April, 1705, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. Mr. Howe's person was the index of his mind. He was above the common size; there was a dignity in his coun. tenance, and something unusually great and venerable in his whole deportment. His talents were of the highest order. His application to study was close and unremit- ting; and his faculties were roused with their utmost energies, in order to attain every branch of knowledge which could conduce to improve, and aid the researches and pursuits of a divine. Unfeigned and exalted piety filled the soul of John Howe: the great end of his life was to please God, and to advance his glory ; and it would not be easy to find a man equal to him in universal benevolence, and in that purity and humility which adorn the Christian character. He had his sentiments as to lesser points in religion, and as to church government; he acted according to his own judgment, and would be guided by no other man’s opinion. But his soul appears to have been filled with the great things of Christianity, and with them alone. His works, in the estimation of the public, have deserved a high place in the theological library. They have lately been collected into eight octavo volumes, and published, in both the demy and royal size, with his Life prefixed ; also in one royal octavo volume.—Jones' Chris. Biog. HUGUENOTS; a term of uncertain origin, which was given, by way of contempt to the French Protestants. Though Francis I. used every effort to prevent the princi- ples of the Reformation from spreading in France, and persecuted the Calvinists, by whom they were most zea- lously propagated, yet they took root, in the same propor- tion as they were attempted to be suppressed. The perse- cutions of such as professed them, were frequently most cruel and bloody; owing to the cupidity of certain parties at court, who thought to enrich themselves by seizing on the estates of the heretics. Under Francis II. the Hugue- nots were made a hand-ball to gratify e political intrigues of the day. They were dreadſully harassed by the princes of the house of Guise, through whose influence a chamber of parliament was established, called the burning chamber, the duty of which was to convict and burn heretics. Still they suffered in a most exemplary manner; and would not have thought of a rebellion, had they not been encouraged to it, in 1560, by a prince of the blood, Louis of Condé, to whom they leagued themselves, having previously consulted lawyers and theologians, both in France and Germany, as to the legality of such a measure. In pursuance of their plan, it was determined, that on an appointed day, a certain number of Calvinists should appear before the king at Blois, to present a petition for the free exercise of their religion; and in case this request was denied, as it was foreseen it would be, a chosen band of armed Protestants were to make themselves masters of the city at Blois, seize the Guises, and compel the king to name the prince of Condé regent of the realm. The plot, however, was betrayed, and most of the armed conspira- tors were executed or imprisoned. The contest between the two parties became yet more violent, in the reign of Charles IX., but, from motives of policy, the Protestants were allowed the privilege of toleration, chiefly owing to the influence of the queen mother; but her instability and intrigues, at last, only rendered their case the more deplo- rable, and produced the horrible St. Bartholomew massa- cre, in 1572. (See BARTHOLOMew’s DAY.) After many struggles, they had their civil rights secured to them under Henry IV., by the edict of Nantes, in 1598, which gave them equal claims with the Catholics to all offices and dignities, and left them in possession of the fortresses which had been ceded to them. In the reign of Louis H U M H U N [ 638 J XIII, they were again molested, again took to arms, but were again worsted, and ultimately obliged to surrender all their strong holds. They were now left at the mercy of the monarch; but were not disturbed till Louis XIV., led on by his conſessor and Madame de Maintenon, was induced to persecute them, with a view to bring them back to the true church. In 1681, he deprived them of most of their civil rights, and sent large bodies of dra- goons into the provinces to compel them to renounce their principles. Though the frontiers were vigilantly guarded, upwards of five hundred thousand Huguenots made their escape to Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and England. Supposing them either to be extirpated or con- verted to Catholicism, Louis revoked the edict of Nantes in 1685. Since that time, at which there were still half a million of them in France, they have alternately enjoyed repose, and been the subjects of alarm and persecution. In 1746, they ventured to appear publicly in Languedoc and Dauphiny ; and as the principles of toleration and general liberty matured, they gradually recovered their place in society, till at last the revolution placed them on the same footing with their fellow-citizens. The troubles, attended with bloodshed, which occurred at Nismes, soon after the restoration, were merely accidental, and were suppressed by the judicious measures of government.— Hend. Buck. HUMANITARIANS ; those who believe in the simple humanity of Christ, or that he was nothing more than a mere man, born according to the usual course of nature, and who lived and died according to the ordinary circumstances of mankind. (See SocINIANs.)—Hend. Buck. HUMANITY; the exercise of the social and benevo- lent virtues; a fellow-feeling for the distresses of another. It is properly called humanity, because there is little or nothing of it in brutes. The social affections are con- ceived by all to be more refined than the selfish. Sym- pathy and humanity are universally esteemed the finest temper of mind; and for that reason the prevalence of the social affections in the progress of society is held to be a refinement of our nature. Kaime's El, of Crit., p. 104, vol. i. ; Robinson's Sermon on Christianity' a System of Hu- manity; Pratt's Poem on Humanity.—Hend. Buck. HUMANITY OF CHRIST, is his possessing a true human body, and a true human soul, and which he as- sumed for the purpose of rendering his mediation effectual to our salvation. (See Jesus CHRIST.)—Hend. Buck. HUMANITY, (SNFUL ;) a term recently introduced by Mr. Irving, late of the Scotch church, London, in reference to the human nature of our Lord; respecting which he maintains, in opposition to the express statements of Scripture, that it possessed sinful properties, dispositions, and inclinations, till the period of his resurrection ; when, having condemned sin in his flesh, he entered into glory in flesh free from sin, and consequently ſree from death and corruption.—Hend. Buck. HUMILIATION OF CHRIST, is that state of mean- ness and distress to which he voluntarily descended for the purpose of executing his mediatorial work. This appears, 1. In his birth. He was born of a noman—a sinful woman ; though he was without sin, Gal. 4: 4. A poor woman, Luke 2: 7, 24. In a poor country village, John 1: 46. In a stable, an abject place. Of a nature subject to infirmities, (Heb. 2: 9.) hunger, thirst, weari- ness, pain, &c. 2. In his circumstances:–laid in a man- ger when he was born ; lived in obscurity for a long time; probably worked at the trade of a carpenter; had not a place where to lay his head; and was oppressed with po- verty while he went about preaching the gospel. 3. It appeared in his reputation —he was loaded with the most abusive railing and calumny; (Is, 53.) the most false ac- cusations; (Matt. 26:59, 67.) and the most ignominious ridicule ; Ps. 22:6. Matt. 22: 68. John 7: 35. 4. In his soul he was often tempted; (Matt. 4: 1, &c. Heb. 2: 17, 18. 1: 15.) grieved with the reproaches cast on himself, and with the sins and miseries of others; (Heb. 12; 3. Matt. 11:19. John 11:35.) was burdened with the hidings of his Father's face, and the fears and impressions of his wrath, Ps. 22: 1. Luke 22:43. Heb. 5: 7. 5. In his death ; —scourged, crowned with thorns, received gall and vine- God and good men. gar to drink, and was crucified between two thieves, Luke 23. John 19. Mark 15: 24, 25. 6. In his burial:—not only was he born in another man's house, but he was buried in another man's tomb; for he had no tomb of his own, or family vault to be interred in, Isa. 53: 10, &c. Matt. 13: 46. The humiliation of Christ was necessary, 1. To exe- cute the purpose of God, and covenant engagements of Christ, Acts 2: 23, 24. Ps. 40; 6, 7, 8, 2. To fulfil the manifold types and predictions of the Old Testament. 3. To satisfy the broken law of God, and procure eternal re- demption for us, Is. 53. Heb. 9:12, 15. 4. To leave us an unspotted pattern of holiness and patience under suffering. Tillotson's Sermons ; Gill's Body of Divinity, p. 66. vol. ii.; Brown's Natural and Revealed Religion, p. 357; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, qu. 48; Maclaurin's Sermons; Works of Robert Hall, vol. iii.-Hend. Buck. - HUMILITY; a lovely disposition of mind, wherein a person has a low opinion of himself in comparison with It is a branch of internal worship, or of experimental religion and godliness. It is the effect of divine grace operating on the soul, and always charac- terizes the true Christian. The heathen philosophers were so little acquainted with this virtue, that they had no name for it: what they meant by the word we use, was mean- ness and baseness of mind. To consider this grace a little more particularly, it may be observed, 1. That humility does not oblige a man to wrong the truth or himself, by entertaining a meaner or worse opinion of himself than he deserves. 2. Nor does it oblige a man, right or wrong, to give every body else the preference to himself. A wise man cannot believe him- self inferior to the ignorant multitude ; nor the virtuous man that he is not so good as those whose lives are vi- cious. 3. Nor does it oblige a man to treat himself with contempt in his words or actions: it looks more like affec- tation than humility, when a man says such things in his own dispraise as others know, or he himself believes, to be false; and it is plain, also, that this is often done merely as a bait to catch the praises of others. Humility consists, 1. In not attributing to ourselves any excellence or good which we have not. 2. In not over- rating any thing we do. 3. In not taking an immoderate delight in ourselves. 4. In not assuming more of the praise of a quality or action than belongs to us. 5. In an inward sense of our many imperfections and sins. 6. In ascribing all we have and are to the grace of God. True humility will express itself, 1. By the modesty of our appearance. The humble man will consider his age, abilities, character, function, &c., and act accordingly. 2. By the modesty of our pursuits. We shall not aim at any thing above our strength, but prefer a good to a great name. 3. It will express itself by the modesty of our conversation and behavior: we shall not be loquacious, obstinate, forward, envious, discontented, or ambitious. The advantages of humility are numerous: 1. It is well- pleasing to God, 1 Pet. 3: 4. 2. It has great influence on us in the performance of all other duties, praying, hearing, converse, &c. 3. It indicates that more grace shall be given, James 4:6. Ps. 25: 9. 4. It preserves the soul in great tranquillity and contentment, Ps. 69: 32, 33. 5. It makes us patient and resigned under aſſlictions, Job 1: 22. 6. It enables us to exercise moderation in every thing. To obtain this exce.cnt spirit, we should remember, 1. The example of Christ, Phil. 2: 6, 7, 8. 2. That heaven is a place of humility, Rev. 5: 8. 3. That our sins are numerous, and deserve the greatest punishment, Lam. 3: 39. 4. That humility is the way to honor, Prov. 16: 18. 5. That the greatest promises of good are made to the humble, Isa. 57: 15. 56; 2. 1 Pet. 5: 5. Ps. 147: 6. Matt. 5: 5. Grove's Mor, Phil., vol. ii. p. 286; Evans' Christian Temper, vol. i. ser. 1; Walts on Humility; Baarter’s Chris- tian Directory, vol. i. p. 496; Hale's Cont., p. 110; Gill’s Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 151; Walker's Sermons, iv. ser. 3; Divight's Theology; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall. —Hend. Buck. HUNGER. Spiritual desire after Jesus and his right. eousness is called hunger; how it pains men till the bless. ings desired are obtained Matt. 5: 6. Luke 1: 53. Such as feed on Christ never hunger nor thirst j finding enough in him, they never desire any thing else as the chieſ portion * H U N H U N [ 639 J of their soul, John 5: 35. A man's strength is hunger-bitten when it decays for want of food, Job 18: 12.-Bronn. HUNTER, (HENRY, D. D.;) an eloquent Presbyterian divine, born at Culross, in Perthshire, in 1741. At the age of thirteen he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where his literary acquirements were such, that when but seventeen he became tutor to a gentleman who was aſ- terwards one of the lords of the session. death of his father having prevented him from retaining that situation, he next accepted one of the same descrip- tion in the family of lord Dundonald, at Culross Abbey. In 1764, he obtained a license to preach, and in 1766, was ordained minister of South Leith. In 1771, he removed to London, to become pastor to the Scottish congregation at London Wall; and about the same time, he was admit- ted to the degree of doctor in divinity by the university of Edinburgh. His most popular literary production, the “Sacred Biography,” a series of discourses on the lives of the most eminent persons mentioned in the Bible, was commenced in 1783, and was subsequently extended to seven volumes, octavo. During the progress of this work, Dr. Hunter became a convert to the physiognomical sys- tem of Lavater, and in 1787 he made a visit to Switzer- land, for the purpose of procuring intelligence from the author, preparatory to an English translation of his works, which he executed and published, with splendid graphic illustrations, by Mr. Thomas Holloway, the engraver. In 1790, he was chosen secretary to the corresponding board of the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the Highlands of Scotland. In 1795, he published “Sermons preached on various Occasions,” to which were subjoined Illustrative Memoirs and Anecdotes; and in 1798, ap- peared his “Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity,” in conjunction with those of the Rev. John Fell. He died at Bristol hot wells, October 27, 1802. Besides his original literary performances, he translated from the French, Euler's Letters on Natural Philosophy, two volumes; St. Pierre's Studies of Nature, four vo- lumes; a volume of Saurin's Sermons, additional to those translated by Mr. Robinson ; Sonnini's Travels, two vo- lumes; and Castera's Memoirs of Catharine the Second of Russia, two volumes. Two volumes of his Sermons, &c., with a biographical memoir, were published posthu- mously. Aikin's Gen. Biog.—Jones' Chris. Biog. HUNTING. Hunting is a kind of apprenticeship to war, and an imitation of the hazards and occurrences of the chase. Nimrod was a mighty hunter (persecutor) before God, Gen. 10:9. He was a warrior, a conqueror, a tyrant, who subdued free people, and who put to death those who would not submit to his dominion. The pro- phets sometimes depict war under the idea of hunting: “I will send for many hunters,” says Jeremiah, “and they shall hunt them from every mountain, and from every hill, and out of the holes of the rocks,” ch. 16: 16. He speaks of the Chaldeans or Persians, who hunted or subdued the Jews, and held them under their dominion.—Calmet. HUNTINGDON, (Countess of,) the founder of the de- nomination of Christians bearing her name, was the daughter of Washington, earl of Ferrers, and was born August 24, 1707. When very young, her mind was im- pressed with the importance of religion, and she frequently retired to her chamber to supplicate the favor and blessing of God. At the age of twenty-one she was married to Theophilus, earl of Huntingdon, and was thus connected with a family distinguished alike for piety and respecta- bility. She attended on the ministry of the celebrated George Whitfield; and although lord Huntingdon enter- tained different opinions, he did not oppose such attend- ance, deeming the rights of conscience as sacred and una- lienable. To Mr. Whitfield she was particularly attached, and warmly supported the erection of chapels, and the diffusion of those principles and opinions which he pro- ſessed and inculcated. Lady Huntingdon, after the death of lord Huntingdon, devoted a great part of her large property to the building of chapels in London and throughout Wales; and for the supply of which she first confined herself to the ministers of the established church, as her preachers, many of whom accepted her invitation, and labored in the places which she had opened ; but finding that the ministers, who be- The illness and fore labored for her, were unequal to the task, she deter. mined on erecting a college in South Wales, for the pur. pose of providing, successively, able and pious teachers. That college, and an accompanying chapel, in the parish of Talgarth, in Brecknockshire, was erected in the year 1768. From that seminary many students emanated, not indeed celebrated for their learning, but many of them for their piety and devotedness to God. They were itine. rant—moved from congregation to congregation, in an established rotation; and she alone maintained a corre- spondence with them, by which she regulated and provided a constant supply. - In 1769, she erected a chapel at Tunbridge Wells; and a large building at Spa-fields, London, called the Pantheon, which had been erected for the entertainment of parties of pleasure, especially on the Sabbath day, she purchased for religious worship, and it was first opened in the year 1777. In that chapel, the Rev. Herbert Jones and Wil- liam Taylor officiated as clergymen; and as some altera- tions had been made by the countess in the liturgy, al- though the Episcopalian mode of worship was used, a suit was instituted against them, by the minister of the parish of Clerkenwell, in the consistorial court of the bishop of London. That court determined, that if they proceeded in preaching there any longer, they should be expelled from the church. The threatened expulsion did not inti- midate them ; and they, with several other clergymen, seceded from the establishment, and put themselves under the protection of the toleration act. Those clergymen drew up, and subscribed the Confession of Faith, which was afterwards signed by all the ministers of her la- dyship's connexion, and by candidates for ordination. The first six were ordained at Spa-fields chapel, in 1783. Some years afterwards, she purchased another large place in Whitechapel, which had been intended for a theatre, but which, with a few alterations, she converted into a place of worship, and which is now called Sion chapel, The companions of lady Huntingdon, for many years, were Miss Scutt and lady Ann Erskine, who co-operated with her for several years in all her exertions. Notwith- standing the prodigious efforts of this lady, she lived to the age of eighty-four, and died at her house in Spa-fields, on June 17, 1791 : her body was buried in the family vault, at Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire. The semi- nary in Wales ceased at her death, the lease being just expired ; but a new college has heen erected at Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, in which a number of students are yearly educated. The temper of lady Huntingdon was warm and sanguine; her predilections and prejudices were too hastily adopted, and she therefore frequently formed con- clusions not correspondent with truth and wisdom. Not- withstanding such failings, she was distinguished for a fervent zeal to propagate the gospel of Jesus Christ; and multitudes have, doubtless, through her instrumentality, been converted.—Hend. Buck. HUNTINGDON, (WILLIAM, S. S., Sinner Saved ;) a no- torious Antinomian preacher, in London, towards the end of the eighteenth century. He was the son of a farmer’s laborer in Kent, and passed the early part of his life in menial service, and in the occupation of a coal-heaver. Having been reclaimed from dissipated and irreligious courses, he became a zealous preacher; and, though a man of little education, he possessed considerable natural talent, and soon succeeded in drawing together a large body of followers; to whom, in the most familiar and popular, but ſrequently in the most absurd, eccentric, and unwarrantable manner, he expounded the Scrip- tures; crying down all other ministers as unsound in the faith, and exalting his own system as the paragon of gos- pel divinity. Travelling throughout the country, he col- lected disciples wherever he went; and there still exist a considerable number of chapels, especially in Sussex, in which his Antinomian tenets continue to be taught. After having lost his first wife by death, Mr. Huntingdon mar- ried the wealthy relict of Sir James Saunderson, a London alderman, and passed the latter part of his life in affluence, His publications are very numerous, and some of them contain curious details relative to his personal history and experience.—Hend. Buck. HUNTINGTON, (Joseph, D.D.,) minister of Coventry, [ 640 ) H U S Connecticut, was graduated at Yale college, in 1762, and died in the year 1795. He is well known as the author of a work, entitled, “Calvinism Improved, or the Gospel il- lustrated as a System of real Grace, issuing in the Salva- tion of all Men,” which was published, after his death, in 1796. It was answered, in the same year, by Dr. Strong. Setting out with the grand error of an absolute decree of sin, and the consequent denial of human responsibleness, Dr. Huntington ſounds his argument for universal salva- tion on another error in regard to the atonement of Christ, which, he thought, included the endurance of all the pu- nishment threatened the sinner, and thus a satisfaction of the law, so that all sinful men are released from its curse. Hence he says, by a wild perversion of the plain language of Scripture, that sinners, “in their surety, vicar, or substi- tute, i.e. in Christ, the Head of every man, go away into 3rlasting punishment, in a true gospel sense. In him they suffer infinite punishment, i.e. he suffers for them, in their room and stead.” By another strange perversion, revolt- ing to common sense, he represents that in the day of judgment, not men of all nations, but “characters shall be separated one from another, as a shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats.” “The character of sinners was always at God’s left hand, and always will be.” In the resurrection, he maintains that our sins will arise, “in the holy voice of the law,” and that this will be the only resur- tection to condemnation and everlasting shame and con- tempt, while all men will arise to everlasting life. It is by such strange departure from Scripture and common sense, that error is built up and miserable men are de- luded.—Allen. HUNTINGTON, (Joshua,) minister of Boston, son of the excellent Gen. Huntington, of New London, (Conn.,) was born January 31, 1786, and graduated at Yale college, in 1804. During a revival, in 1802, he became pious. He was ordained colleague with Dr. Eckley, May 18, 1808, and on his return from a journey for his health to Canada, died at Groton, September 11, 1819, aged thirty-three. He was a very faithful and useful minister, and an humble, disinterested, excellent Christian. When, in his sickness, told that he was about to meet his father, he replied, “Yes; it will be a glorious meeting.” He published Me- moirs of the Life of Abigail Waters, 1817. Panoplist, xvi. 529–535.-Allen. - HUNTINGTON, (SUSAN,) wife of the preceding, the daughter of Achilles Mansfield, minister of Rillingworth, Connecticut, was born January 27, 1791. At the age of sixteen she made a profession of religion. She was mar- ried May 18, 1809. After surviving her husband ſour years, she died in Boston, December 4, 1823, aged thirty- two. Her four surviving children have become partakers of the same grace, in which their parents rejoiced. Mrs. Huntington was a very intelligent and remarkably pious woman. She wrote a letter to a friend recovered from sickness, which is tract No. 88 of the American Tractsociety, and the story of Little Lucy. Her Memoirs by B. B. Wisner, with an introductory essay and poem by James Montgomery, were published, third edition, 1829, containing her letters, journal, and some picces of poetry. Five editions have been published in Scotland. —Allen. HUR, son of Caleb, of Esron, and, according to Jose- phus, husband of Miriam, sister of Moses. We know but few particulars concerning his life; but by the little which Scripture relates, we see that Moses had a great affection for him, Exod. 17: 10. 24: 14.—Calmet. HURD, (Richard, D. D.,) an eminent prelate and wri- ter, the son of a farmer, was born, in 1720, at Congreve, in Staffordshire; was cducated at Emanuel college, Cam- bridge; and, after having been rector of Hurcaston, preacher of Lincoln's Inn, and archdeacon of Gloucester, was raised, in 1767, to the bishopric of Litchfield and Coventry, and, soon after, was appointed preceptor to the prince of Wales and duke of York. In 1781, he was translated to Worcester, and in 1783, he declined the see of Canterbury. He died in 1808. Among his works are, Sermons; Commentaries on Horace's Art of Poetry; Di- alogues; and Letters on Chivalry and Romance. He was the bosom friend of Warburton; and his friendship for that eminent man (which has been censured as of somewhat too subservient a nature) led him to attack Dr. Jortin in a pamphlet. He also wrote a biographical sketch of Warburton, edited an edition of his writings, and published a volume of his Correspondence.—Daven- port. - X- - HUSBAND, (DUTIEs of.) (See MARRIAGE STATE.) HUSBANDMAN ; one whose profession and labor is to cultivate the earth; to dress it, to render it fertile, and generally to manage it. This is the most noble as well as the most ancient of all professions; it was begun by Adam, resumed by Noah, and has been always the most comfortable state of human life. (See AGRICULTURE.) God is compared to a husbandman ; (John 15: 1, 1 Cor. 3: 9.) and the simile of land carefully cultivated, or of a vineyard carefully dressed, is often used in the sacred Writings.-Calmet, - - HUSBANDRY. º AGRICULTURE.) HUSHAI, the Archite, David's friend, 2 Sam. 15:32, &c. Hushai, by defeating the counsel of Ahithophel, and gaining time for David, to whom he sent advices, was the cause of Ahithophel’s suicide, and of Absalom's miscar- riage, ch. 16: 16–19. 18: 5, &c.—Calmet. e HUSKS, (keratia ; siliqua, ;) shells, as of peas or beans. The prodigal son, oppressed by want, and pinched by hun- ger, desired to feed on the husks given to the hogs, Luke 15: 16. The most learned interpreters are of opinion, that the Greek word signifies carob-beans, the fruit of a tree of the same name. There was a sort of wine or liquor much used in Syria drawn from it, and the lees of it were given to the hogs. The Greeks and Latins both name carob-beans Ceratia ; and Pliny, as well as the Vulgate, calls them Siliqua. This fruit is common in Palestine, Greece, Italy, Provence, and Barbary: it is suffered to ripen and grow dry on the tree; the poor eat it, and cattle are fattened with it. The tree is of a middle size, full of branches, and abounding with round leaves, an inch or two in diameter. The blossoms are little red clusters, with abundance of yellowish stalks. The fruits are flat pods, from half a foot to fourteen inches long, and an inch and a half broad; they are brown at the top, sometimes crooked, composed of two husks, separated by membranes into several cells, and containing flat seeds, something like those of cassia. The substance of these husks is filled with a sweetish, honey-like kind of juice, not unlike that of the pith of cassia. In all probability its crooked figure occasioned its being called in Greek Keratia, which signifies little horns.—Calmet. - - HUSS, (Jolin,) the celebrated Bohemian reformer, was born near Prague, in Bohemia, about the year 1376, at a village called Hussinez, upon the borders of the Black forest. His parents were not affluent, but his father paid great attention to his education, which he improved by his strong mental capacities, and by close application to his studies in the university of Prague, where he obtained the degree of bachelor of arts in 1393, master of arts in 1395, and bachelor in divinity in 1408. During the course of his university honors, he obtained also a benefice. John Mulheym, a person of large fortune in Prague, erected a chapel, which he called Bethlehem; and, having amply endowed it, appointed Huss as minister. Huss was at this time a Catholic. The opinions of Wickliffe, though then extending, had not reached Bohemia. Hav- ing, about the year 1382, perused, through the medium of a young Bohemian nobleman, the writings of Wick- liffe, his mind was greatly impressed by them ; and he would call him an angel sent from heaven to enlighten mankind. He would mention, among his friends, his meeting with the works of that reformer, as the most ſor- tunate circumstance of his life. From this time, both in the schools and in the pulpit, he would inveigh with great warmth against ecclesiastical abuses; point out the bad government of the church, and the bad lives of the cler- gy; and lament the state of the people who were under the government of the one, and the influence of the other. The state of religion in Bohemia was, indeed, at that time, very low; it was the subject of barter, and the clergy were most corrupt; Huss, therefore, attracted not only notice, but attention. The followers of Huss became nu- merous; many members of the university followed him. The works of Wickliſſe were translated into the Sclavo- * H U S [ 641 } nian tongue, and read with great attention in every part of Bohemia; and as soon as pope Alexander V. was seat- ed in the chair, observing the diffusion of Protestant prin- ciples and writings, he issued a bull, directed to the arch- bishop of Prague, ordering him to collect the writings of Wickliffe, and to apprehend and imprison his followers. By virtue of that bull, the archbishop condemned the writings of Wickliffe, proceeded against ſour doctors who had not delivered up their copies of his writings, and pro- hibited them from again preaching. Pope John XXIII. soon after followed it up by the excommunications of Huss and his followers. -- This treatment had no tendency to lessen the popularity of Huss. His sufferings increased his influence; and multitudes of all ranks, either impelled by gratitude or by compassion, hastened to enlist themselves in his cause. Thus supported, he did not despond; and, although he was prohibited from preaching, he continued to discharge every other branch of the pastoral office; and, among other plans adopted by him, he gave out questions, which he encouraged the people to discuss in private, and to come to him with their difficulties. Thus disappointed and chagrined in his attempts to suppress the reſormed, the new archbishop convened a council of doctors, who drew up and published some articles against Huss and his adherents. But to them he wrote a spirited and judi- cious reply. Soon after this performance, Huss published another piece against the usurpations of the court of Rome; and to this the archbishop and council replied. I3ut with writing alone they were dissatisfied, and there- fore applied to the pope for assistance, who merely re- commended the subject to the king of Bohemia. The letters which Huss wrote at this time are very numerous. He justified Wickliffe's book on the Trinity, and defended the character of that reformer against a charge brought by a man of the name of Stokes, and others, who accused him of disobedience. He also wrote many discourses against the peculiar doctrines of the Catholic church. About this time Peter of Dresden was obliged to fly from Saxony, and seek a refuge at Prague, where he encour- aged a priest of St. Michael's chapel to preach up the esta- blishment of the communion under the species of wine. IHuss embraced these sentiments, for which he was exposed to persecution; but eventually the Hussites were permitted to continue their sermons, and their sentiments became general. In 1412, Huss left his retirement, and returned to Prague. Pope John XXIII. at this time pub- lished his bulls against the king of Naples, ordering a crusade against him, and granting indulgences to all who engaged in that war. Huss declaimed against such bulls, crusades, and indulgences. The populace espoused the opinions of Huss : the magistrates imprisoned and perse- cuted them, and a massacre ensued; but through the whole affair he displayed a true Christian spirit. Imme- diately after that melancholy affair, Huss retired to his native place, where he lived protected by the principal persons of the country. Thither some of the most emi- ment men of every country resorted, to obtain his direc- tions, his assistance, and his advice. During his retreat at Hussinez, he spent much of his time in writing. There he wrote his treatise “Upon the Church;” his paper en- titled “The Six Errors,” levelled against indulgences, simony, excommunication, &c. These treatises were much opposed, and Huss deſended them. Huss, soon after, once more returned to Prague, and engaged in oth- er controversies. At Constance, at this time, the famous council was held, at which it was determined, that a re- formation was necessary; and pope John was deposed and imprisoned. . But against Huss and his followers, it also directed its thunderbolts. . Wickliffe was now dead; but they reviled his memory, burnt his books, and even ordered his bones to be dug up and consumed to ashes. To Constance Huss travelled, there determined to defend his principles, and support the cause of truth, . On his journey he was received with acclamations, and in three weeks arrived at that place. He was nominally examin- ed before the pope and the cardinals; and, after remain- ing there some time, he was one day suddenly seized by a party of guards, in the gallery of the council, although ..he pope had assured him of liberty and protection. At such perfidy the assembly was surprised; and the pope, confounded and alarmed, could only say that it was the . act of the cardinals. In a lonely monastery on the banks of the Rhine, be longing to the Franciscans, who, as an order, were bitterly opposed to him, Huss was now confined. Yet even there he composed some interesting tracts, among which was one entitled, “A Comment upon the Commandments;” another, “Upon the Lord's Prayer;” a third, “On the Knowledge and Love of God;” and a fourth, “On the Three great Enemies of Mankind.” For a long time Huss remained in prison. Catholics of more liberal prin- ciples interceded for his acquittal, but in vain. Many sessions elapsed prior to the exhibition of articles against him ; but on the 5th and 6th of June, 1415, after a pre- vious examination, he was tried for maintaining the doc- trines afterwards professed in the Reformed church, and was advised to abjure his books and recant. But he mag- nanimously refused : and on the 7th of July, the coun- cil censured him for being obstinate and incorrigible, and ordered “that he should be degraded from the priesthood, his books publicly burnt, and himself delivered to the se- cular power.” That sentence he heard without emotion. He immediately prayed for the pardon of his enemies. The bishops appointed by the council stripped him of his priestly garments, and put a mitre of paper on his head, on which devils were painted, with this inscription: “A Ringleader of Heretics.” The bishops delivered him to the emperor, and he delivered him to the duke of Bavaria. His books were burnt at the gate of the church, and he was led to the suburbs to be burnt alive. Prior to his ex- ecution, he made a solemn, public appeal to God, from the judgment of the pope and council, which was ſervent and energetic. He was then surrounded with fagots, his mind all the while composed and happy. The flames were then applied to the fagots; when the martyr sang a hymn, with so loud and cheerful a voice, that he was dis- tinctly heard through all the noise of the combustibles and of the multitude. At last he uttered, “Jesus Christ, thou Son of the living God, have mercy upon me!” and he was consumed; after which, his ashes were carefully collected and cast into the Rhine. Huss was a true eccle- siastic, and a real Christian. Gentle and condescending to the opinions of others, this amiable pattern of virtue was strict only in his principles. His great contest was with vice. His piety was calm, rational, and manly; his ſortitude was undaunted. “From his infancy,” said the university of Prague, “he was of such excellent mo- rals, that during his stay here, we may venture to chal- lenge any one to produce a single fault against him.” His writings were simple, pious, aſſectionate, and intelli gent. Luther said he was the most rational expounder of Scripture he ever met with.—Hend. Buck. HUSSITES ; the followers of John Huss. RITEs.) HUTCHESON, (Dr. FRANCIS,) a Christian divine, philo- sopher and writer, was born, in 1694, in the north of Ire- land ; studied at the university of Glasgow; and, after having ſor many years kept an academy at Dublin, was invited, in 1729, to Glasgow, to fill the chair of professor of philosophy; a situation which he held till his decease, in 1747. He is the author of an Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Virtue; a Treatise on the Passions; and a System of Moral Philosophy. Hutcheson is an elegant writer; his metaphysics are of the school of Shaftes- bury. . According to professor Dugald Stuart, his fame rests on the taste that his works and lectures contributed to diffuse for analytical discussion in Scotland, which led to the production of some of the most valuable writ- ings of the eighteenth century. Biog. Brit, and Sten- art's Life of Dr. Adam Smith-Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. HUTCHINSONIANS ; the followers of John Hutchin- son, who was born in Yorkshire, in 1674. In the early part of his life he served the duke of Somerset in the capacity of steward ; and in the course of his travels from place to place employed himself in collecting fossils. We are told that the large and noble collection bequeathed by Dr. Woodward to the university of Cambridge was actually (See TABO- 81 H U T H Y A. [ 642 made by him, and even unfairly obtained from him. In 1724, he published the first part of his curious book, call- ed “Moses' Principia,” in which he ridiculed Dr. Wood- ward’s Natural History of the Earth, and exploded the doctrine of gravitation established in Newton's Principia. In 1727, he published a second part of “Moses’ Princi- pia,” containing the principles of the Scripture philosophy. From this time to his death he published a volume every year or two, which, with the manuscripts he left behind, were published in 1748, in twelve volumes 8vo. On the Monday before his death, Dr. Mead urged him to be bled; saying, pleasantly, “I will soon send you to Moses,” meaning his studies; but Mr. Hutchinson, taking it in the literal sense, answered in a muttering tone, “I believe, doctor, you will;” and was so displeased, that he dis- missed him for another physician; but he died in a few days after, August 28, 1737. - It appears to be a leading sentiment of his disciples, that all our ideas of divinity are formed from the ideas in nature; that nature is a standing picture, and Scripture an application of the several parts of the picture, to draw out to us thé great things of God, in order to reform our mental conceptions. To prove this point, they allege, that the Scriptures declare the invisible things of God from the formation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things which are made ; even his eternal power and Godhead, Rom. 1: 20. The heavens must declare God’s righteousness and truth in the congregation of the Saints, Ps. 89: 5. And, in short, the whole system of na- ture, in one voice of analogy, declares and gives us ideas of his glory, and shows us his handy, work. We cannot have any ideas of invisible things till they are pointed out to us by revelation : and as we cannot know them imme- diately, such as they are in themselves, after the manner in which we know sensible objects, they must be commu- nicated to us by the mediation of such things as we al- ready comprehend. For this reason the Scripture is found to have a language of its own, which does not consist of words, but of signs or figures taken from visible things : in consequence of which the world which we now see be- comes a sort of commentary on the mind of God, and ex- plains the world in which we believe. The doctrines of the Christian faith are attested by the whole natural world: they are recorded in a language which has never been confounded ; they are written in a text which shall never be corrupted. The Hutchinsonians maintain that the great mystery of the Trinity is conveyed to our understandings by ideas of sense ; and that the created substance of the air, or heaven, in its threefold agency of fire, light, and spirit, is the enigma of the one essence or one Jehovah in three persons. The unity of essence is exhibited by its unity of substance; the trinity of conditions, fire, light, and spirit. Thus the one substance of the air, or heaven in its three conditions, shows the unity in trinity; and its three conditions in or of one substance, the trinity in uni- ty. For (says this denomination) if we consult the writ- ings of the Old and New Testament, we shall find the persons of the Deity represented under the names and characters of the three material agents, fire, light, and spirit, and their actions expressed by the actions of these their emblems. The Father is called a consuming fire; and his judicial proceedings are spoken of in words which de- note the several actions of fire : Jehovah is a consuming fire; our God is a consuming fire, Deut. 4: 24. Heb. 12:29. The Son has the name of light, and his purifying actions and offices are described by words which denote the actions and offices of light. He is the true light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world, John 1:9. Mal. 4: 2. The Comforter has the name of Spirit; and his animating and Sustaining offices are described by words, for the actions and offices of the material spirit. His actions in the spiritual economy are agreeable to his type in the natural econo- my ; such as inspiring, impelling, driving, leading, Matt. 2: 1. The philosophic system of the Hutchinsonians is derived from their views of the Hebrew Scriptures. It rests on these suppositions:–1. That the Hebrew lan- guage was formed under divine inspiration, either all at once, or at different times, as occasion required ; and that the Divine Being had a view, in constructing it, to the va- rious revelations which he in all succeeding times should make in that language : consequently, that its words must be the most proper and determinate to convey such truths as the Deity, during the Old Testament dispensation, thought fit to make known to the sons of men. Farther than this : that the inspired penmen of those ages at least were under the guidance of heaven in the choice of words for recording what was revealed to them ; therefore that the Old Testament, if the language be rightly under- stood, is the most determinate in its meaning of any other book under heaven.—2. That whatever is recorded in the Old Testament is strictly and literally true, allow- ing only for a few common figures of rhetoric ; that noth- ing contrary to truth is accommodated to vulgar apprehen- S1OIAS. In proof of this the Hutchinsonians argue in this man- ner:—The primary and ultimate design of revelation is indeed to teach men divinity; but in subserviency to that, geography, history, and chronology, are occasionally in- troduced; all which are allowed to be just and authentic. There are also innumerable References to things of nature, and descriptions of them. If, then, the former are just, and to be depended on, for the same reason the latter ought to be esteemed philosophically true. Farther: they think it not unworthy of God, that he should make it a secondary end of his revelation to unfold the secrets of his works; as the primary was to make known the mys- teries of his nature, and the designs of his grace, that men might thereby be led to admire and adore the wisdom and goodness which the great Author of the universe has displayed throughout all his works. And as our minds are often referred to natural things for ideas of spiritual truths, it is of great importance, in order to conceive aright of divine matters, that our ideas of the natural things referred to be strictly just and true. Mr. Hutchinson imagined he found that the Hebrew Scriptures had some capital words, which he thought had not been duly considered and understood; and which, he has endeavored to prove, contain in their radical meaning the greatest and most comfortable truths. The cherubim he explains to be a hieroglyphic of divine construction, or a sacréd image, to describe, as far as figures could go, the humanity united to Deity: and so he treats of several other words of similar import. From all which he con- cluded, that the rites and ceremonies of the Jewish dis- pensation were so many delineations of Christ, in what he was to be, to do, and to suffer; that the early Jews knew them to be types of his actions and sufferings; and, by performing them as such, were so far Christians both in faith and practice. The Hutchinsonians, how fanciful soever many of their views of philosophy, and how utterly untenable their sys- tem of Hebrew philology, have, for the most part, been men of devout minds, zealous in the cause of Christiani- ty, and untainted with heterodox opinions, which have so often divided the church of Christ. The names of Ro- maine, bishop Horne, Parkhurst, and others of this de- nomination, will be long esteemed, both for the piety they possessed, and the good they have been the instruments of promoting amongst mankind. Should the reader wish to know more of the philosophical and theological opinions of Mr. Hutchinson, he may consult a work, entitled “An Abstract of the Works of John Hutchinson, Esq., Edin- burgh, 1753.” See also Jones' Life of Bishop Horne, se- cond edition. ; Jones' Works ; Spearman's Inquiry, pp. 260, 273.—Hend. Buck. - HYACINTH. By this word we understand, (1) a pre- cious stone; (2.) a sort of flower; and, (3.) a particular color. The flower hyacinth is not spoken of in Scripture, but the color and the stone of this name are. The spouse compares her beloved's hands to gold rings set with hya- cinth; (Cant. 5: 14.) [Eng. Tr, beryl;] and John (Rev. 21: 20.) says, that the eleventh foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem is of a hyacinth. There are four sorts of hya- cinths. The first is something of the color of a ruby; the second is of a gilded yellow ; the third Cf a citron yellow ; the fourth the color of a granite. The Hebrew of Canticles, instead of hyacinth, reads the stone of Tar- shish, mentioned also in Exod. 28:20. [Eng. Tr. beryl.] We do not certainly know what stone it is, but interpreters º H Y M H Y P [ 643 J generally explain it of the chrysolite; or the yellow topaz of modern travellers. Of the hyacinth color—according to the most learned interpreters, an azure blue, or very deep purple, like a violet color—Moses often speaks. It was dyed with the blood of a shell-fish, in Latin, murex, in Hebrew, chilson. —Calmet. * ~. HYDE, (Thomas, D. D.,) an eminent orientalist, was born, in 1636, at Billingsley, in Shropshire, and studied at King's college, Oxford. Before he was eighteen he as- sisted Walton in the Polyglot Bible. He was successively Hebrew reader, keeper of the Bodleian library, prebendary of Salisbury, archdeacon of Gloucester, and Arabic and Hebrew professor. He died in 1703. Of his numerous learned works the principal is, a History of the Religion of the Ancient'Persians.—Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. HYAENA; a wild beast. The Hebrew, Lev. 11:16, and Job 30: 29, &c. reads, “the daughter of the hiena,” *- º j ~ º --> - tº ~ 1.2 × . . . .º.º. 2 --~ º: Ezº-Eº -, - . . . . * *** - 22. * --> 35:5Eº 2 × 2/Z 2/23 ==#3 sºlº ///jºſº, ºffº % - ɺf ſºft||| ## * ºft º . . . " . . . . . . . ." ſº, ſº AM = 7. ) %* - * ºr . Z. 3% . & É % tº = . . . . . #. É ‘. beth-haiana; Eng. Tr. “owl,”) instead of struthio, as the ulgate. The same in several other places of the Hebrew, where it is generally translated struthio, the ostrich ; though it is not clear that this is its true signification. (See Os- TRICH.) The animal known to us as the hyaena, is a quadruped almost as large as a wolf; whose hair is rough, and its skin spotted or streaked. It has no length of neck, but is forced to turn itself quite round, when it would look behind. It is very cruel and voracious; drags dead bodies out of their graves, and devours them : instead of teeth, has one continued bone in the jaw. It is said to imitate the voice of a man, and by this it often deceives travellers. Hyaenas were formerly produced at Rome in the public games, and they are represented on ancient medals.— Calmet. * . HYMENAEUS, was probably a citizen of Ephesus, converted by some of the early discourses of Paul. He fell afterwards into the heresy which denied the resurrec- tion of the body, and said it was already accomplished, 2 Tim. 2: 17. Augustine thinks, that the error of such opin- ions consisted in saying, there was no resurrection be- side that of the soul, which by faith, profession, and bap- tism is revived from sin to grace. Paul informs Timo- thy, that he had excommunicated Hymenaeus, and given him over to Satan, 1 Tim. 1: 20. Two years afterwards Hymenaeus engaged with Philetus in some new error, 2 Tim. 2: 17. We know nothing of the end of Hymenaeus. —Calmet. HYMN; a song, or ode, composed in honor of God. The Jewish hymns were accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, to assist the voices of the Levites and people. The word is used as synonymous with can- ticle, song, or psalm, which the Hebrews scarcely distin- guish, having no particular term for a hymn, as distinct from a psalm or canticle. St. Paul requires Christians to edify themselves and one another with “psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs.”. St. Matthew says, that Christ, having supped, sung a hymn, and went out. It is supposed he recited the hymns or psalms which the Jews were used to sing after the passover; which they called the Ha al that is, the Hallelujah Psalms.-Watson. IIYPERBOLE. Hyperbolic language is among the loftiest flights of poetic composition—of unrestrained ima- gination; and it prevails principally among those who are in the habit of associating combinations of fanciful image- ry; or those who, being well acquainted with the ideas drawn from natural things, which it means to convey, readily admit such exalted phraseology, because they un- derstand its import, and the intention of the author who employs it. On the contrary, those who have little or no acquaintance with the natural ideas meant to be conveyed by hyperbolical extravagances, are always surprised, and sometimes shocked, when they meet with them in works where simple truth is the object of the reader's researches Hyperbolic expressions are but rare in Scripture, though figurative or poetic expressions are abundant; rare as they are, however, they have been severely commented or by infidels, and have occasionally embarrassed believers. There is certainly some force in the reflection, “What would infidels have said, had it pleased God to have chosen eastern Asia, instead of western Asia, for the seat of revelation? What would they have thought of the most correct truth, had it happened, under the influence of such locality, to have been arrayed in the hyperbolic attire of that country?” - It is hoped that the style of the following extracts may moderate the surprise of some at certain poetic phrases which occur in Holy Writ. They are transcribed from the Asiatic Researches. “Gospaat, king of the world, possessed matchless good fortune: he was lord of two brides, the earth and her wealth. When his innumerable army marched, the heavens were so filled with the dust of their feet, that the birds of the air could rest upon it.” “At Mood- goghreree, where is encamped his victorious army; across whose river a bridge of boats is constructed for a road, which is mistaken for a chain of mountains; where im- mense herds of elephants, like thick black clouds, so darken the face of day, the people think it the season of the rains; whither the princes of the north send so many troops of horse, that the dust of their hoofs spreads dark- ness on all sides; whither resort so many mighty chiefs of Iumbodweep to pay their respects, that the earth sinks beneath the weight of their attendants.”—After this, how flat and low is the fulsome boast of the haughty Senna- cherib 2 Kings 19: 24. - By making western Asia the seat of revelation, a medi- um is obtained between European frigidity, as Asiatics would think it, and Asiatic hyperbole, as Europeans would think it ; so that the Asiatic may find some simi- larity to his own metaphorical manner, and Suited to ex- cite His attention; while the European, who professes to be charmed with the simplicity of truth, may find in Scrip- ture abundance of that simplicity, most happily adapted to His more sober judgment, his more correct and better regulated taste.—Calmet. HYPOCRISY, is a seeming or professing to be what in truth and reality we are not. It consists in assuming a character which we are conscious does not belong to us, and by which we intentionally impose upon the judgment and opinion of mankind concerning us. The name is borrowed from the Greek tongue, in which it primarily signifies the profession of a stage-player, which is to ex- press in speech, habit, and action, not his own person and manners, but his whom he undertakes to represent. And so it is ; for the very essence of hypocrisy lies in apt imi- tation and deceit; in acting the part of a member of Christ without any saving grace. The hypocrite is a double per- son; he has one person, which is natural; another, which is artificial: the first he keeps to himself; the other he uts on as he doth his clothes, to make his appearance in efore men. It was ingeniously said by Basil, “that the hypocrite has not put off the old man, but put on the new upon it.” Hypocrites have been divided into four sorts:–1. The norldly hypocrite, who makes a profession of religion, and pretends to be religious, merely from worldly considera- tions, Matt. 23: 5–2. The legal hypocrite, who relin- quishes his vicious practices, in order thereby to merit heaven, while at the same time he has no real love to God, Rom, 10: 3.−3. The evangelical hypocrite, whose religion is nothing more than a bare conviction of sin; I B I \ I C O [ 644 J who rejoices under the idea that Christ died for him, and yet has no desire to live a holy life, Matt. 13:20. 2 Pet. 2: 20–4. The enthusiastic hypocrite, who has an imaginary sight of his sin, and of Christ; talks of remarkable im- pulses and high feelings; and thinks himself very wise and good while he lives in the most scandalous practices, Matt, 13: 39. 2 Cor. 11: 14. Crook on Hypocrisy ; Decoet- legon's Sermon on Ps. 51: 6; Grove's Moral Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 253; South's Sermon on Job 8: 13, vol. x, ; #º: Relig. Delin. p. 166; R. Walker's Sermons.—Hend. Buck. HYPOSTASIS; a term literally signifying substance or subsistence, or that which is put and stands under ano- ther thing, and supports it, being its base, ground, or foundation. Thus faith is the substantial foundation of things hoped for, Heb. 11: 1. The word is Greek, huposta- sis, compounded of hupo, under, and istEmi, I stand, I exist, q. d. subsistentia. It hence likewise signifies confidence, stability, firmness, 2 Cor. 9:4. It is also used for person, IHeb. 1: 3. Thus we hold that there is but one nature or essence in God, but three hypostases or persons. The word has occasioned great dissensions in the ancient church, first among the Greeks, and afterwards among the Latins; but an end was put to them by a synod held at Alexandria, about the year 362, at which Athanasius assisted ; from which time the Latins made no great scruple of saying three hypostases, nor the Greeks of three persons. The hypostatical union is the union of the hu- man nature of Christ with the divine: constituting two na- tures in one person, and not two persons in one nature, as the Nestorians believe. (See Jesus CHRIST.)—Hend. Buck. . - - - HYPSISTARII; the same as CoelicoLAs, which see. HYSSOP, is an herb generally known, and often men- tioned in Scripture. It was commonly used in purifica- tions as a sprinkler. God commanded the Hebrews, when they came out of Egypt, to take a bunch of hyssop, to dip it in the blood of the paschal lamb, and sprinkle the lintel and the two side-posts of the door-way with it. Sometimes they added a little scarlet wool to it, as in the purification of le- pers. Hyssop is mentioned as one of the smallest of herbs, 1 Kings 4: 33. It is of a bitter taste, and grows on the mountains near Jerusalem. The hys- sop of John 19:29 is probably what is called a reed, or cane, in Mark 15: Etſ 36. Matt. 27:48; or else this hyssop was like a spong imbued with the drink; it was perhaps a handful gathered of the nearest herbs to the spot, which might be mostly hyssop. Hasselquist says, there grows out of Jerusalem, near the fountain of Siloam, a very minute moss; and he asks, “Is not this the hyssop 3 It is at least as diminutive as the cedar is tall and majestic.” Letter, Sept. 22, 1751. —Calmet. - I. S- I, is often used emphatically in Scripture. When it relates to God, it is expressive of his dignity; (Ps. 81: 14.) his power; (Gen. 17:1.) his self-existence and un- changeableness; (Exod. 3: 14.) or the certainty of his promises and threatenings, Exod. 6: 2. Numb. 14:35. When used with reference to men it expresses their pride; (Isa. 47: 8.) or the certainty of what they say; (Gal. 5: 2. Phil. 3:19.) and their readiness to perform their duty, Mic. 3: 8. Matt. 21: 30.-Bromwn. . IBERIANS ; a denomination of Eastern Christians, who derive their name from Iberia, a province of Asia, now called Georgia : hence they are also called Georgians. Their tenets are nearly the same with those of the Greek church; which see.—Hend. Buck. - IBEX; a wild goat. (See GoA.T.) IBIS, (Heb. Jamshuph ; Eng. Trans. owl;) an unclean bird, common in Egypt, Lev. 11: 17. Strabo describes it --- º, "Sº :*… : R tº %:º - W. • *N* \\ * § º W º §i)\\\\\\ § \\ º A: t §§ ; ! º §-- ; § §Sº i. § § §§ 22.2% Żºł &:- as being hke a stork; some are black, and others white. The Egyptians worshipped them because they devour the serpents, which otherwise would overrun the country. It was a capital crime to kill an ibis, though inadvertently. Cambyses, king of Persia, being acquainted with this, placed some of them before his army, while he besieged Damietta. The Egyptians, not daring to shoot against . them, suffered the town to be taken. Mr. Taylor is of opinion that the yanshuph is not the ancient ibis, but the ardea ibis, described by Hasselquist. (See EGYPT.)— Calmet. - - ICHABOD; son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, the high-priest. He was born at the moment when his mother heard the fatal news of the ark being taken; whence he obtained his name—“nhere is the glory?” 1 Sam. 4: 19– 21.—Calmet. -- ICHTHUS, (a fish ;) a word found on many seals, rings, lamps, urns, and tombstones, belonging to the ear- liest Christian times. Each character forms an initial letter in the following Greek words: Iesous Christos Theou Uios Söter ; i. e. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Savior. The picture of a fish is sometimes engraved on similar objects, bearing doubtless the same mystical meaning. By whom, on what occasion, and for what particular pur- pose, this symbol was introduced, has never been deter- mined.—Hend. Buck. ICONIUM ; formerly the chief city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor. It is situated about a hundred and twenty miles inland from the Mediterranean, on the lake Trogilis. Mr. Kinneir says, Iconium, the capital of Lycaonia, is men- tioned by Xenophon, and afterwards by Cicero and Strabo. It is represented as enjoying a fine climate, and pleasantly situated among gardens and meadows; while it is nearly surrounded, at some distance, with mountains which rise to the regions of perpetual snow. Here St. Paul miracu- lously escaped with his life, Acts 14. The church planted at this place by St. Paul (Acts 13.) A. D. 45, and visited by him again A. D. 51, continued to flourish, until, by the persecutions of the Saracens, and afterwards of the Sel- jukian Turks, who made it the capital of one of their sul- tanies, it was nearly extinguished. But some Christians of the Greek and Armenian churches, with a Greek arch- bishop, are yet found in the suburbs of this city, who are not permitted to reside within the walls. Iconium is now called Cogni, and is still a considerable city; being the capital of the extensive province of Cara- mania, as it was formerly of Lycaonia, and the seat of a Turkish beglerberg, or viceroy. It is the place of chief * I D L I D O [ 645 J strength and importance in the central parts of Asiatic Turkey, being surrounded by a strong wall of four miles in circumference; but, as is the case with most Eastern cities, much of the inclosed space is waste. The modern city has an imposing appearance from the number and size of its mosques, colleges, and other public buildings; but these stately edifices are crumbling into ruins, whilst the houses of the inhabitants consist of a mixture of small huts built of sun-dried bricks, and wretched hovels thatched with reeds. The city contains about eighty thousand in- habitants, principally Turks, with only a small proportion of Christians.—Watson. ICONOCLASTES, image-breakers ; or IconoMACHI, image-opposers, were names given to those who rejected the use of images in churches, and, on certain occasions, vented their zeal in destroying them. The word is Greek, formed from eikön, an image, and klastein, to break. The great opposition to images began under Bardanes, a Greek emperor, in the beginning of the eighth century; and was revived again, a few years after, under Leo the Isaurian, who issued an edict against image-worship, which occa- sioned a civil war in the islands of the Archipelago, and aſterwards in Italy; the Roman pontiffs and Greek coun- & e ... 10 6 For laying violent hands on a clergyman . 10 6 And so on. The terms in which the retailers of indulgences describ. ed their benefits, and the necessity of purchasing them, were so extravagant, they they appear almost incredible. If any man, said they, purchase letters of indulgence, his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. The souls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indul- gences are purchased, as soon as the money tinkles in the chest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and as- cend into heaven. That the efficacy of indulgences was So great, that the most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would be remitted and expiated by them, and the person be freed both from punishment and guilt. That this was the un- speakable gift of God, in order to reconcile man to him- self. That the cross erected by the preachers of indulgen- ces was equally efficacious with the cross of Christ itself. “Lo,” said they, “the heavens are open : if you enter not now, when will you enter? For twelve pence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory; and are I N F I N F [656 | you so ungrateful that you will not rescue the soul of your parent from torment? If you had but one coat, you ought to strip yourself instantly and sell it, in order to purchase such benefit,” &c. It was this great abuse of indulgences that contributed not a little to the reformation of religion in Germany, where Martin Luther began first to declaim against the preachers of indulgences, and, afterwards against indulgences themselves. Since that time the popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power; although it is said they still carry on a great trade with them to the Indies, where they are purchased at two rials a piece, and sometimes more. We are told, also, that a gentleman not long since being at Naples, in order that he might be fully ascertained respecting indulgences, went to the office, and for two sequins purchased a plenary re- mission of all sins for himself, and any two other persons of his friends or relations, whose names he was empow- ered to insert. Harveis' Church Hist, vol. iii. p. 147; Smith's Errors of the Church of Rome ; Watson's Theol. Tracts, v. p. 274; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., vol. i. p. 594, 4to. Bncy. Amer.—Hend. Buck. INDUSTRY ; diligence; constant application of the mind, or exercise of the body. (See DILIGENCE, and IDLR- Ness.)—Hend. Buck. . INDWELLING SCHEME ; a scheme which derives its name from that passage in Col. 2: 9: “In him dwell- eth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily;” which, accord- ing to some, asserts the doctrine of Christ's consisting of two beings; one the self-existent Creator, and the other a creature, made into one person by an ineffable union and indivelling, which renders the same attributes and honors equally applicable to both. (See PRE-EXISTENCE.), Dr. Onven's Glory of Christ, pp. 368, 369, London ed., 1679; a Sermon entitled, The true Christ of God above the false Christ of men, Ipswich, 1799; Watts' Glory of Christ, p. 6—203; Adams' Vien, of Religions, p. 267-Hend. Buck. INFALLIBILITY; the quality of not being able to be deceived or mistaken. The infallibility of the church of Rome has been one of the great controversies between the Protestants and papists. By this infallibility, it is understood, that she cannot at any time cease to be orthodox in her doctrine, or fall into any pernicious errors; but that she is constituted, by divine authority, the judge of all controversies of re- ligion, and that all Christians are obliged to acquiesce in her decisions. This is the chain which keeps its mem- bers fast bound to its eommunion ; the charm which re- tains them within its magic circle ; the opiate which lays asleep all their doubts and difficulties: it is likewise the magnet which attracts the desultory and unstable in other persuasions within the sphere of popery; the foundation of its whole superstructure, the cement of all its parts, and its fence and fortress against all inroads and attacks. Under the idea of this infallibility, the church of Rome claims, 1. To determine what books are and what are mot canonical, and to oblige all Christians to receive or reject them accordingly. 2. To communicate authority to the Scripture; or, in other words, that the Scripture, (quoad nos,) as to us, receives its authority from her. 3. To as- sign and fix the sense of Scripture, which all Christians are submissively to receive. 4. To decree as necessary to salvation whatever she judges so, although not contain- ed in Scripture. 5. To decide all controversies respecting matters of faith. These are the claims to which the Cnurch of Rome pretends, but which we shall not here attempt to refute, because any man with the Bible in his hand, and a little common sense, will easily see that they are all founded upon ignorance, Superstition, and error. It is not a little remarkable, however, that the Roman Catholics themselves are much divided as to the seat of this infallibility, and which, indeed, may be considered as a satisfactory proof that no such privilege exists in the church. For is it consistent with reason to think that God would have imparted so extraordinary a gift to pre- vent errors and dissensions in the church, and yet have left an additional cause of error and dissension, viz. the uncertainty of the place of its abode 7 No, surely.—Some place this infallibility in the pope or bishop of Rome; some in a general council ; others in neither pope nor council separately, but in both conjointly; whilst others * are said to place it in the church diffusive, or in all churches throughout the world. But that it could not be deposited in the pope, is evident, for many popes have been heretics, and on that account censured and deposed, and therefore could not have been infallible. That it could not be placed in a general council, is as evident; for ge- neral councils have actually erred. Neither could it be placed in the pope and council conjointly; for two falli- bles could not make one infallible, any more than two ciphers could make an integer. To say that it is lodged in the church universal or diffusive, is equally as errone- ous; for this would be useless and insignificant, because it could never be exercised. The whole church could not meet to make decrees, or to choose representatives, or to deliver their sentiments on any question started ; and, less than all would not be the whole church, and so could not claim that privilege. - The most general opinion, however, it is said, is that of its being seated in a pope and general council. The advocates for this opinion consider the pope as the vicar of Christ, head of the church, and centre of unity; and therefore conclude that his concurrence with and approba- tion of the decrees of a general council are necessary, and sufficient to afford it an indispensable sanction and plenary authority. A general council they regard as the church representative, and suppose that nothing can be wanting to ascertain the truth of any controversial point, when the pretended head of the church and its members, assembled in their supposed representatives, mutually concur and coincide in judicial definitions and decrees, but that infallibility attends their coalition and conjunction in all their determinations. - Every impartial person who considers this subject with the least degree of attention, must clearly perceive that neither any individual nor body of Christians have any ground, from reason or Scripture, for pretending to infal- libility. It is evidently the attribute of the Supreme Being alone, which we have all the foundation imaginable to conclude he has not communicated to any mortal, or as- sociations of mortals. The human being who challenges infallibility, seems to imitate the pride and presumption of Lucifer, when he said, “I will ascend, and will be like the Most High.” A claim to it was unheard of in the primitive and purest ages of the church; but became, after that period, the arrogant pretension of papal ambi- tion. History plainly informs us that the bishops of Rome, on the declension of the western Roman empire, began to put in their claim of being the supreme and infallible heads of the Christian church, which they at length esta- blished by their deep policy and unremitting efforts; by the concurrence of fortunate circumstances; by the ad- vantages which they reaped from the necessities of some princes, and the superstition of others; and by the general and excessive credulity of the people. However, when they had grossly abused this absurd pretension, and com- mitted various acts of injustice, tyranny, and cruelty; when the blind veneration for the papal dignity had been greatly diminished by the long and scandalous schism oc- casioned by contending popes; when these had been for a considerable time roaming about Europe, fawning on princes, squeezing their adherents, and cursing their ri- vals; and when the councils of Constance and Basil had challenged and exercised the right of deposing and electing the bishops of Rome, then their pretensions to infallibility were called in question, and the world discovered that councils were a jurisdiction superior to that of the tow- ering pontiffs. Then, it was that this infallibility was transferred by many divines from popes to general coun- cils; and the opinion of the Superior authority of a council above that of a pope spread vastly, especially, under the profligate pontificate of Alexander W.I., and the martial one of Julius II. The popes were thought by numbers to be too unworthy possessors of so rich a jewel ; at the same time it appeared to be of too great a value, and of too ex- tensive consequence, to be parted with entirely. It was, therefore, by the major part of the Roman church, depo- sited with, or made the property of general councils, either solely or conjointly with the pope. See Smith's Errors of the Church of Rome detected ; and a list of writers under article Pope Ry,–Hend. Buck. - I N F I N F INFANT BAPTISM. (See BAPTISM.) INFANT COMMUNION; the admission of infants to the ordinance of the Lord's supper. It has been debated by some, whether or not infants should be admitted to this ordinance. One of the greatest advocates for this practice was Mr. Pierce. He pleads the use of it even unto this day among the Greeks, and in the Bohemian churches till near the time of the Reformation; but especially from the custom of the ancient churches, as it appears from many passages in Photius, Augustin, and Cyprian. But Dr. Doddridge observes, that Mr. Pierce's proof from the more ancient fathers is very defective. His arguments from Scripture chiefly depend upon this general medium; that Christians succeeding to the Jews as God's people, and being grafted upon that stock, their infants have a right to all the privileges of which they are capable, till forfeit- ed by some immoralities; and consequently have a right to partake of this ordinance, as the Jewish children had to eat of the passover, and other sacrifices: besides this, he pleads those texts which speak of the Lord's supper as received by all Christians. The most obvious answer to all this, is that which is taken from the incapacity of infants to examine them- selves, and discern the Lord’s body; but he answers that this precept is only given to persons capable of un- derstanding and complying with it, as those which require faith in order to baptism are interpreted by the Paedo-bap- tists. As for his argument from the Jewish children eat- ing the sacrifice, it is to be considered that this was not required as circumcision was ; the males were not neces- sarily brought to the temple till they were twelve years old, (Luke 2:42.) and the sacrifices they ate of were chiefly peace-offerings, which became the common food to all that were clean in the family, and were not looked upon as acts of devotion to such a degree as our eucharist is: though, indeed, they were a token of their acknowledging the divinity of that God to whom they had been offered; (1 Cor. 10: 18.) and even the passover was a commemo- ration of a temporal deliverance; nor is there any reason to believe that its reference to the Messiah was generally understood by the Jews. . On the whole, it is certain there would be more danger of a contempt arising to the Lord’s supper from the ad- mission of infants, and of confusion and trouble to other communicants; so that not being required in Scripture, it is much the best to omit it. When children are grown up to a capacity of behaving decently, they may soon be in- structed in the nature and design of the ordinance; and if they appear to understand it, and behave for some com- petent time of trial in a manner suitable to that profession, it would probably be advisable to admit them to commu- nion, though very young; which, by the way, might be a good security against many of the snares to which youth are exposed. Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 207; Pierce's Es- say on the Eucharist, p. 76, &c.; Witsius on Cov. b. 4. c. 17. § 30, 32; J. Frid. Mayer, Diss. de Eucharistia Infan- tum ; Zornius, Hist. Eucharist. Infantum, p. 18; Theol. and Bib. Mag. January and April, 1806.-Hend. Buck. INFANTS, SALVATION of. “Warious opinions,” says an acute writer, “concerning the future state of in- fants have been adopted. Some think, all dying in infan- cy are annihilated; for, say they, infants, being incapable of moral good or evil, are not proper objects of reward or punishment. Others think that they share a fate simi- lar to adults; a part saved and a part perish. Others affirm all are saved because all are immortal, and all are innocent. Others, perplexed with these divers sentiments, think best to leave the subject untouched;—cold comfort to parents who bury their families in infancy . The most probable opinion seems to be that they are all saved, * through the merits of the Mediator, with an everlasting salvation. This has nothing in it contrary to the perfec- tions of God, or to any declaration of the Holy Scriptures; and it is highly agreeable to all those passages which affirm where sin hath abounded, grace hath much more abounded. On these principles, the death of Christ saves more than the fall of Adam lost.” If the reader be desi- rous of examining the subject, we refer him to p. 415, v. ii. Robinson's Claude ; Gillard and Williams' Essay on In- fant Salvation ; An attempt to elucidate Rom, 5: 12, by an anonymous writer; Watts' Ruin and Recovery, pp. 324, 327; Edwards on Original Sin, pp. 431, 434; Doddridge's Lect lect. 168; Ridgley's Body of Div. v. i. p. 330–336, Harris and Russell on the Salvation of Infants.-Hend. Buck. INFIDELS, or upbelievers in divine revelation, and consequently in Christianity, may be divided into two great classes—Atheists and Deists, which see. INFIDELITY; absolute want of faith in God, or the disbelief of the truths of revelation, and the great princi- ples of religion. If we inquire into the source of infidelity, we shall find it is not in ordinary cases the result of sober inquiry, close investigation, or full conviction; but it is rather, as one observes, “the slow production of a careless and irreligious life, operating together with pre- judices and erroneous conceptions concerning the nature of the leading doctrines of Christianity. It may, there. fore, be laid down as an axiom, that “infidelity is, in gene- ral, a disease of the heart more than of the understanding;’ for we always find that infidelity increases in proportion as the general morals decline.” - ...” - As to its progress, it has ever been from bad to worse. Lord Herbert did not, indeed, so much impugn the doc- trine or the morality of the Scriptures, as to attempt to su- persede their necessity, by endeavoring to show that the great principles of the unity of God, a moral government, and a future world, are taught with sufficient clearness by the light of nature. Bolingbroke, and others of his successors, advanced much farther, and attempted to in- validate the proofs of the moral character of the Deity, and consequently all expectation of rewards and punish- ments, leaving the Supreme Being no other perfections than those which belong to a first cause, or Almighty con- triver. After him, at a considerable distance, followed Hume, the most subtle of all, who boldly aimed to intro- duce an universal scepticism, and to pour a more than Egyptian darkness into the whole region of morals. Since his time, meaner writers have sprung up in abundance, and infidelity has allured multitudes to its standard ; the young and superficial, by its dexterous sophistry; the vain, by the literary fame of a few of its champions; and the profligate, by the licentiousness of its principles. If we consider the nature and effects of inſidelity, we shall find that it subverts the whole ſoundation of morals; it tends directly to the destruction of a taste for moral ex- cellence, and promotes the growth of those vices which are the most hostile to social happiness, especially vanity, ferocity, and unbridled sensuality. Facts have recently come to light in this country, illustrating its connexion with licentiousness, of a most astounding character. Still it is destined to be banished from the earth. Its inconsistency with reason ; its incongruity with the na- ture of man; its cloudy and obscure prospects; its un- satisfying nature; its opposition to the dictates of con- science; its pernicious tendency to eſſace every just principle from the breast of man, and to lead the way to every species of vice and immorality, show that it can- not flourish, but must finally fall. See Hall's admirable Ser. on Modern Infidelity; Fuller's Gospel of Christ its on Witness ; Bishop Watson's Apology for the Bible ; Wilber- force's Practical Viend, $ 3. ch. 7; Bp. Horne's Letters on Infidelity; Ill’Ilvaine's Lectures ; Christian Watchman, 1833–4. and books under articles ATHEISTs and Deists. —Hend. Buck. - INFIRMITY, applied to the mind, denotes frailty, weakness. It has been a question what may properly be denominated sins of infirmity. 1. Nothing, it is said, can be excused under that name which at the time of its commission is known to be a sin. –2. Nothing can be called a sin of infirmity which is contrary to the express letter of any of the command- ments.-3. Nothing will admit of a just and sufficient excuse upon the account of infirmity, which a man before- hand considers and deliberates with himself, whether it be a sin or not. A sin of infirmity is, 1. Such a failing as proceeds from excusable ignorances—2. Or unavoidable surprise.-3. Or want of courage and strength, Rom. 15: 1. By infirmity also we understand the corruptions that are still left in the heart, (notwithstanding a person may be sanctified in part,) and which sometimes break out. These may be permitted to humble us; to animate our vi. 83 I N F I N G I 0581 gilence; perhaps that newly-convinced sinners might not be discouraged by a sight of such perfection they might despair of ever attaining to ; to keep us prayerful and de- pendent; to prevent those honors which some would be ready to give to human nature rather than to God; and, lastly, to excite in us a continual desire for heaven. Let us be cautious and watchful, however, against sin in all its forms : for it argues a deplorable state of mind when men love to practise sin, and then lay it upon constitution, the infirmity of nature, the decree of God, the influence of Satan, and thus attempt to excuse themselves by say- ing they could not avoid it. Clarke's Serm., ser. 12. vol. IX. ; Maclaurin and Massillon’s Serm.—Hend. Bucks S INFINITE ; without bounds or limits. Many have ob- lected to the common opinion that sin is an infinite evil, but without sufficient grounds, since every sin is commit- ted against a God of infinite excellence, in violation of in- finite obligations, and in its natural results leads to the perpetuation of innumerable, inconceivable, and intermi- nable miseries. Objectors usually confound the finite act with the infinite evil—the metaphysical or physical quan- tity, with the moral quality; which is an absurdity found- ºld on a double sophism.—Hend. Buck. INFINITY OF GOD. Infinity is taken in two senses entirely different, i. e. in a positive and a negative one. Positive infinity is a quality being perfect in itself, or capa- ble of receiving no addition. Negative is the quality of being boundless, unlimited, or endless. That God is in- finite is evident; for, as Doddridge observes, 1. If he be limited, it must either be by himself, or by another; but no wise being would abridge himself, and there could be no other being to limit God.—2. Infinity follows from self. existence; for a necessity that is not universal must de- pend on some external cause, which a self-existent Being does not.—3. Creation is so great an act of power, that we can imagine nothing impossible to that Being who has performed it, but must therefore ascribe to him infinite power.—4. It is more honorable to the Divine Being to conceive of him as infinite than finite.—5. The Scriptures represent all his attributes as infinite. His understanding is infinite, Psal. 147: 5. His knowledge and wisdom, Rom. 11: 33. His power, Rom. 1: 20. Heb. 11: 3. His goodness, Psal. 16: 2. His purity, holiness, and justice, Job 4: 17, 18. Isa. 6: 2, 3.−6. His omnipotence and eter- nity prove his infinity; for were he not infinite, he would he bounded by space and by time, which he is not.—Dod- dridge's Lect., lect. 49; Watts' Ontology, ch. 17; Locke on Underst, vol. i. ch. 17; Hone's Works, vol. i. pp. 63, 64, 67; Saurin's Sermons.—Hend. Ruck. INFLUENCE, DIVINE ; a term made use of to de- note the operations of the Divine Being upon the mind. This doctrine of divine influence has been much called in question of late; but we may ask, 1. What doctrine can be more reasonable 2 “The operations which the pow- er of God carries on in the natural world are no less mys- terious than those which the Spirit performs in the moral world. If men, by their counsels and suggestions, can in- fluence the minds of one another, must not divine sugges- tion produce a much greater effect? Surely the Father of Spirits, by a thousand ways, has access to the spirits he has made, so as to give them what determination, or impart to them what assistance he thinks proper, without injuring their frame or disturbing their rational powers.” We may observe, 2. Nothing can be more scriptural. Eminent men from the patriarchal age down to St. John, the latest writer, believed in this doctrine, and ascribed 1heir religious feelings to this source. Our Lord strongly and repeatedly inculcated this truth; and that he did not mean miraculous, but moral influences of the Spirit, is evident, John 3: 3. Matt. 7:22, 23. John 6:44, 46; see also John 12:32, 40. Rom. 8: 9. 1 Cor. 2: 14. And we may add, 3. Nothing can be more necessary, if we consider the natural depravity of the heart, and the insufficiency of all human means to render ourselves either holy or happy without a supernatural power. See Williams' His- toric Defence of Experimental Religion ; Williams' Answer to Belsham, let. 13; Hurrion's Sermons on the Spirit; Omen, Hall, and Hinton on the Spirit; Dnight's Theology; and es- pecially Letters on the Christian Religion, by Olinthus Gregory, J. L. D. and Natural IIistory of Enthusiasm.—Hend. Buck. ING ATHERING, (The FEAST of,) after all the friºts of fields and vineyards were gathered in, was the same with the feast of tabernacles, Exod. 23: 16.—Bronn. INGHAM, (BENJAMIN, Esq.,) was born at Ossett, York, June 11, 1712. He received a liberal education, first at Bat- ley school, and afterwards at Queen's college, Oxford, where, in 1733, he became acquainted with Messrs. Charles and John Wesley, the founders of Methodism, and, for a time, was somewhat attached to them, partly from witnessing their exemplary moral conduct and zeal to do good, and partly from a spirit of sympathy which he felt towards them, on hearing them ridiculed and reproached for what, he thought, merited commendation. Mr. Ingham, in 1735, received episcopal ordination. He received a pressing in- vitation from Mr. John Wesley to accompany him across the Atlantic, which he accepted, and they embarked for Georgia, in October, 1735. He remained in Georgia about two years, visited Carolina and Pennsylvania, and then returned to England, where, on his arrival, he began to preach, in the established church, the doctrines of the gos- pel, according to the best light he then had into them. Numbers flocked to hear him ; the clergy became jealous, and took the alarm, and in about two years, he found him- self entirely excluded from their pulpits, which drove him into the fields, where he often had large congregations. When the schism took place between Messrs. Whitfield and Wesley, Mr. Ingham stood aloof from both, and was inclined rather to unite with the Moravians, who about this period began to form their establishment at Fulneck, near Leeds. i In 1741, Mr. Ingham married lady Margaret Hastings, sister to the earl of Huntingdon; on which he removed his residence from Ossett to Abberford, where he continu- ed to reside till his death. After forming this connexion, he was so far from relaxing in his exertions to preach the gospel, that he greatly extended the sphere of his opera- tions, and, in process of time, may be said to have evan- gelized all the surrounding country. Ministers rose up to co-operate with him ; many societies were collected; and, though amidst much opposition from the high church party, the cause went forward, and “the little one became a thou- sand.” About the year 1760, Mr. Ingham, having pe- rused Mr. Glas' Testimony of the King of Martyrs, and obtained much information from it, concerning the mature of Christ’s kingdom, the order of gospel churches, and its peculiar laws, precepts, and institutions, together with his friends resolved on constituting their churches on the same model. Two years afterwards, he published his “Treatise on the Faith and Hope of the Gospel,” in which these important subjects are discussed with much simpli- city and regard to the New Testament. Mr. Ingham died in the year 1772. The churches formerly in connexion with Mr. Ingham, and commonly known by the appella- tion of Inghamites, have lately united with the second class of Scotch Independents, known by the name of Dale- ites, after the late Mr. David Dale, of Glasgow, who was an elder among them. Mr. Ingham's character and con- duct were highly exemplary, and in all respects becoming' the gospel of Christ; and at his death he left behind him “a good name,” which is better than precious ointment. See New Evang. Mag. 1819; Jones' Chris. Biog.--Hend. Puck. INGHAMITES. (See the preceding Article.) INGLIS, (HENRY DAVID, Esq.,) was born 1757, proba- bly in the city of Edinburgh. Young Inglis, having re- ceived the rudiments of education, and discovering unu- sual quickness of parts, was destined by his father for the bar ; but at the age of seventeen, his mind became awa- kened to the concerns of eternity, in consequence of a sermon which he heard, preached by his honored relative, Dr. John Erskine; and, aſter a time, he resolved upon ex- changing the profession of the law for the ministry of the gospel of peace, having his views at that moment directed, probably by Dr. Erskine, to a station in the church of Scotland. His design, however, in this respect, was frus- trated, in consequence of the light which, in a little time, poured into his mind, respecting the nature of Christ's kingdom, as not of this norld ; and, in 1777, he was bap- tized by the late Mr. M'Lean, and added to the church under his pastoral care. In the year 1784, he became 3::::::: *z, *. 1N I one of its elders or pastors, in conjunction with Messrs. M'Lean and Bradwood, and a first-rate preacher of the gospel. His labors in this respect, were not confined to the church under his charge; but he went out “into the highways and hedges,” explored the streets and lanes of the city; and wherever the Lord opened a door for him, he was ready to testify the gospel of the grace of God, and show unto perishing sinners the way of salvation. And in this way his labors were crowned with wonderful suc- cess; many, by his means, were made acquainted with the saving truth; the church greatly increased, and he had the satisfaction of seeing numerous seals to his ministry. . From the time that Mr. Inglis abandoned all thoughts of being a clergyman of the establishment, he resumed the study and practice of the law; and, in the year 1794, he was admitted advocate, and took his seat at the bar, where he continued to plead as a barrister for ten or twelve years, with considerable repute : his powers of elocution, combined with a clear understanding, and the most inflexible integrity, procured him considerable busi- ness. But, about the close of the year 1805, his health began visibly to decline; and on the twelfth of May, 1806, he was removed from the scene of his labors and suffer- ings, at the age of forty-nine, to the great grief of the church, and a large circle of friends, to whom he was much endeared by his amiable deportment, his unostenta- tious manners, and by his learning, piety, and zeal for the cause of the Redeemer. His friends published, in 1812, an octavo volume, entitled “Letters, Sermons, and Tracts, on various important Subjects, by the late Henry David Inglis, Esq., to which is prefixed an Account of the Author.”—Jones' Chris. Biog. INGRATITUDE; the vice of being insensible to fa- vors received, without any endeavor to acknowledge and repay them. It is sometimes applied to the act of returning evil for good. Ingratitude, it is said, is no passion : for the God of nature has appointed no motion of the spirits whereby it might be excited ; it is, therefore, a mere vice, arising from pride, stupidity, or narrowness of soul.—Hend. Buck. INHERITANCE ; a portion which appertains to ano- ther, after some particular event. As the principles of inheritance differ in the East, from those which are esta- blished among ourselves, it is necessary to notice them particularly. The reader will observe, that there is no need of the death of the parent in these countries, as there is among us, before the children possessed their inheri- tance. (See HEIR.) Among the Hindoos, the rights of inheritance are laid down with great precision, and with the strictest attention to the natural claim of the inheritor in the several degrees of affinity. A man is considered but as tenant for life in his own property; and, as all opportunity of distributing his effects by will, after his death, is precluded, hardly any mention is made of such kind of bequest. By these ordi- nances also, he is hindered from dispossessing his children of his property in favor of aliens, and from making a blind and partial allotment in behalf of a favorite child, to the prejudice of the rest; by which the weakness of pa- rental affection, or of a misguided mind in its dotage, is admirably remedied. These laws strongly elucidate the story of the prodigal son in the Scriptures, since it appears from hence to have been an immemorial custom in the East for sons to demand their portion of inheritance during their father's lifetime, and that the parent, how- ever aware of the dissipated inclinations of his child, could not legally refuse to comply with the application.— Calmet. INIQUITY. This word means not only sin, but by a metonomy, the punishment of sin, and the expiation of it: “Aaron will bear the iniquities of the people;” he will atone for them, Exod, 28:38. The Lord “visits the ini- quities of the fathers upon the children ;” (Exod. 20: 5.) he sometimes causes visible effects of his wrath to fall on the chuldren of criminal parents. - “To bear iniquity,” is to endure the punishment of it, . to be obliged to expiate it. The priests bear the iniquity of the people; that is, they are charged with the expiation of it, Exod. 28:38. Lev. 10:17–Calmet. [ 659 INJURY; a violation of the rights of another. Some, I NK says Grove, distinguish between injustitia and injuria. Injustice is opposed to justice in general, whether negative or positive; an injury, to negative justice alone. (See Justice.) An injury is, wilfully doing to another what ought not to be done. This is injustice, too, but not the whole idea of it; for it is injustice, also, to refuse or ne- glect doing what ought to be done. An injury must be wilfully committed; whereas it is enough to make a thing unjust, that it happens through a culpable negli- gence. 1. We may injure a person in his soul, by misleading his judgment; by corrupting the imagination; perverting the will, and wounding the soul with grief. Persecutors who succeed in their compulsive measures, though they cannot alter the real sentiments by external violence, yet sometimes injure the soul by making the man a hypocrite. 2. We may injure another in his body, by homicide, murder, preventing life, dismembering the body; by wounds, blows, slavery, and imprisonment, or any unjust restraint upon its liberty : by robbing it of its chastity, or prejudicing its health. 3. We may injure another in his name and character, by our own false and rash judgments of him ; by false witness; by charging a man to his face with a crime which either we ourselves have forged, or which we know to have been forged by some other person. ; by detraction or backbiting; by reproach, or exposing another for some natural imbecility either in body or mind; or for some calamity into which he is fallen, or some miscarriage of which he has been guilty; by innuendos, or indirect accu- sations that are not true. Now if we consider the value of character, the resentment which the injurious person has of such treatment when it comes to his own turn to suffer it, the consequence of a man's losing his good name, and finally, the difficulty of making reparation, we must at once see the injustice of lessening another’s good character. There are these two considerations which should sometimes restrain us from speaking the whole truth of our neighbor, when it is to his disadvantage :— (1.) That he may possibly live to see his folly, and re- pent and grow better.—(2.) Admitting that we speak the truth, yet it is a thousand to one but, when it is handed about for some time, it will contract a deal of falsehood. 4. We may injure a person in his relations and depen- dencies. In his servants, by corrupting them ; in his children, by drawing them into evil courses; in his wife, by sowing strife, or attempting to alienate her affections. 5. We may be guilty of injuring º in his worldly goods or possessions. (1.) By doing him a mischief, without any advantage to ourselves, through envy and malice.—(2.) By taking what is another's, which is theft. See Grove's Mor. Phil. ch. 8. p. 2; Watts' Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 33; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 42.—Hend. Buck. INJURIES, (FoRGIVENEss of.) (See Forgiveness.) INJUSTICE. (See INJURY.) INK. The ink of the ancients was not so fluid as ours. Demosthenes reproaches AEschines with laboring in the grinding of ink, as painters do in the grinding of their colors. The substance also found in an ink-stand at Herculaneum, looks like a thick oil or paint, with which the manuscripts there have been written in a relievo visi- ble in the letters, when you hold a leaf to the light in a horizontal direction. Such vitriolic ink as has been used on the old parchment manuscripts would have corroded the delicate leaves of the papyrus, as it has done the skins of the most ancient manuscripts of Virgil and Terence, in the Vatican library; the letters are sunk into the parch- ment, and some have eaten quite through it, in conse- quence of the corrosive acid of the vitriolic ink, with which they were written.—Watson. INKHORN. The modern inhabitants of Egypt appear to make use of ink in their sealing, as well as the Arabs of the desert, who may be supposed not to have such conve. niences as those that live in such a place as Egypt; for Dr. Pococke says, that “they make the impression of their name with their seal, generally of cornelian, which they wear on their finger, and which is blacked when they have occasion to seal with it.” This may serve to show us, that there is a closer connexion between the I N N IN Q te [ 660 ) vision of John, (Rev.7: 2.) and that of Ezekiel, (chap. 9: 2.) than commentators appear to have apprehended. They must be joined, we imagine, to have a complete view of either. John saw an angel with the seal of the living God, and therewith multitudes were sealed in their fore- heads ; but, to understand nihat sort of mark was made there, you must have recourse to the inkhorn of Ezekiel. On the other hand, Ezekiel saw a person with an inkhorn, who was to mark the servants of God on their foreheads, that is, with ink; but how the ink was to be applied is not expressed; nor was there any need that it should be, if in those times ink was applied with a seal; a seal being in the one case plainly supposed; as in the Apocalypse, the mention of a seal made it needless to take any notice of any inkhorn by his side. (See GIRDLE.)—Calmet. INN. The inns or caravansaries of the East, in which travellers are accommodated, are not all alike, some being -** º: * v- - gº º º a §§§ſº º: º # º º Sº ſº º tº ############: simply places of rest, by the side of a fountain, if possible, and at a proper distance on the road. Many of these places are nothing more than naked walls ; others have an attendant, who subsists either by some charitable doma- tion, or the benevolence of passengers; others are more considerable establishments, where families reside, and take care of them, and furnish the necessary provisions. “Caravansaries,” says Campbell, “were originally intended for, and are now pretty generally applied to, the accommo- dation of Strangers and travellers, though, like every good institution, sometimes perverted to the purposes of private emolument, or public job. They are built at proper dis- tances through the roads of the Turkish dominions, and aſſord to the indigent or weary traveller an asylum from the inclemency of the weather; are in general built of the most solid and durable materials, have commonly one story above the ground floor, the lower of which is arched, and serves for warehouses to store goods, for lodgings, and for stables, while the upper is used merely for lodg- ings; besides which they are always accommodated with a ſountain, and have cooks' shops and other conveniences to supply the wants of lodgers. In Aleppo, the caravan- saries are almost exclusively occupied by merchants, to whom they are, like other houses, rented.” The Orientals, says Volney, “contrive their equipage in the most simple and portable form. The baggage of a man who wishes to be completely provided, consists in a carpet, a mattress, a blanket, two sauce-pans with lids contained within each other, two dishes, two plates, and a coffee-pot, all of cop- per, well tinned ; a small wooden box for salt and pepper, a round leathern table, which he suspends from the saddle of his horse, small leathern bottles or bags ſor oil, melted butter, water and brandy ; if the traveller be a Christian, a tinder-box, a cup of cocoa-nut, some rice, dried raisins, dates, Cyprus cheese, and, above all, coffee-berries, with a roaster and wooden mortar to pound them.” The Scrip- tures use two words to express a caravansary, in both instances translated inn : katalumati, (Luke 2: 7.) “the place of untying,” that is, of beasts for rest : pandocheion, (Luke 10: 34.) “a receptacle open to all comers.”— Calmet ; Watson. - INNOCENT ; INNoceNºe. The signification of these words is well known. The Hebrews considered innocence as consisting chiefly in an exemption from external faults committed contrary to the law; hence they often join in- nocent with hands, Gen. 37:22, Ps. 24; 4. 26:6. “I will wash my hands in innocency.” And, (Ps. 73: 13.) “Then have I cleansed my heart in vain, and washed my hands in innocency.” Josephus admits of no other sins than those actions which are put in execution. Sins in thought, in his account, are not punished by God. To be innocent, is used sometimes for being exempt from punishment. “I will not treat you as one innocent;” (Jer, 46: 28.) lite- rally, I will not make thee innocent.—Calmet. INQUISITION ; in the church of Rome, a tribunal, in several Roman Catholic countries, erected by the popes for the examination and punishment of heretics. Its first objects and victims were more especially the Waldenses. This court was founded in the twelfth century, under the patronage of pope. Innocent, who issued out orders to ex- cite the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics, to search into their number and quality, and to transmit a faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inquisitors, and gave birth to this ſormidable tribunal, called the inquisition. That nothing might be wanting to render this spiritual court formidable and tremendous, the Roman pontiffs persuaded the European princes, and more especially the emperor Frederick II. and Louis IX., king of France, not only to enact the most barbarous laws against heretics, and to commit to the flames, by the mi- nistry of public justice, those who were pronounced such by the inquisitors, but also to maintain the inquisitors in their office, and grant them their protection in the most open and and solemn manner. The edicts to this purpose issued out by Frederick II. are well known ; edicts suffi- cient to have excited the greatest horror, and which ren- dered the most illustrious piety and virtue incapable of saving from the most cruel death such as had the misfor- tune to be disagreeable to the inquisitors. These abomi- nable laws were not, however, sufficient to restrain the just indignation of the people against those inhuman judges, whose barbarity was accompanied with supersti- tion and arrogance, with a spirit of suspicion and perfidy, nay, even with temerity and imprudence. Accordingly, they were insulted by the multitude in many places, were driven in an ignominious manner out of some cities, and were put to death in others: and Conrad, of Marpurg, the first German inquisitor who derived his commission from Gregory IX., was one of the many victims that were sacrificed on this occasion to the vengeance of the public, which his incredible barbarities had raised to a dreadſul degree of vehemence and fury. This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of heresy, Judaism, Mahometanism, Sodomy, and polygamy ; and the people stand in so much fear of it, that parents deliver up their children, husbands their wives, and masters their servants, to its officers, without daring in the least to murmur. The prisoners are kept for a long time, till they themselves turn their own accusers, and declare the cause of their imprisonment, for which they are neither told their crime, nor confronted with witnesses. As soon as they are imprisoned, their friends go into mourning, and speak of them as dead, not daring to solicit their pardon, lest they should be brought in as accomplices. . When there is no shadow of proof against the pretended crimi- mal, he is discharged, after suffering the most cruel tor- tures, a tedious and dreadful imprisonment, and the loss of the greatest part of his effects. The sentence against prisoners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary solemnity. In Portugal they erect a theatre capable of holding three thousand persons, in which they place a rich altar, and raise seats on each side, in the form of an amphitheatre. There the prisoners are placed, and over against them is a high chair, whither they are called one by one to hear their doom from one of the inquisitors. These unhappy persons know what they are to suffer by the clothes they wear that day: those who appear in their own clothes are discharged on paying a fine; those who have a santo benito, or strait yellow coat without sleeves, charged with St. Andrew's cross, have their lives, but for- feit all their effects; those who have the resemblance of flames made cf red serge sewed upon their santo benito, :* -, - :::... . . . , º, IN S without any cross, are pardoned, but threatened to be burnt if ever they relapse; but those who, besides those flames, have on their santo benito their own picture sur- rounded with devils, are condemned to expire in the §º. É º | º } º ; #º Tº sº: ë - * -ºº-ºº-ºº-ººrºº: Tºº *Sº- * - ) . A tº "... ." . . . . . . .” , sº * * - * . . . . . * * flames. We have here given a representation of the procession of inquisitors and the condemned. For the conclusion of this horrid scene, see Act of FAITH. The Inquisition was put down by Napoleon in 1808; though restored at Rome over the clergy by Pius VII. In 1826, it condemned to death Casehiur, a pupil of the Pro- paganda, who was appointed patriarch of Memphis, but not accepted by the viceroy of Egypt. His crime is un- known; but the pope commuted his punishment into imprisonment for life. Works on the Inquisition have been published by Baker, Limborch, Geddes, Lavalle, Llo- rente, and Puigblanch. The Records of the Inquisition, from the original manuscripts taken from the inquisitorial palace at Barcelona, when it was stormed in 1819, were º: at Boston, (Mass.) in 1828. In Spain alone near alf a million have suffered as its victims.—Hend. Buck. INSPIRATION ; divine dictation; the communication by the Holy Spirit of certain supernatural ideas and emotions to the human soul; or any supernatural influ- ence of God upon the mind of a rational creature, where- by he is raised to a degree of information or excellence, to which he could not, or would not, in fact, have attained in his present circumstances in a natural way. By the Inspiration of the Scriptures we are to understand, that the sacred writers composed their works under so plenary and immediate an influence of the Holy Spirit, that God may be said to speak by those writers to men, and not merely that they spoke to men in the name of God, and by his authority. There is a considerable difference be- tween the two propositions. Each supposes an authentic revelation from God; but the former secures the Scrip- tures from all error, both as to the subjects spoken, and the manner of expressing them. This too is the doctrine taught in the Scriptures themselves, Heb. 1: 1. 4: 12, 13. Acts 4: 24–28. 28: 25. * It is generally allowed that the Scriptures were written. by divine inspiration. That they claim this, in every va- riety of form, implied and express, is certain. See for example, 2 Tim. 3:16, 17. John 10:35. 5: 39, 46. Rom. 3. 1, 2, 2 Sam. 23: 2. Acts 1: 16. 3: 21. 26:22. Ps. 119: 1 / 1. Luke 16: 29–31. 1 Pet. 1: 10–12. Acts 11: 14. Rom. 3: 4. Prov. 30: 5, 6. Rev. 22: 18, 19. John 17: 17. Rom. 2: 12. John 12:47, º: 1 Cor. 4: 3, 4. Luke 10: 10– 16. 12:47, 48. Phil. 3: 15. 1 John 4: 1–6, Isa. 8: 20. Acts 17: 10, 11. Gal. 1: 11, 12. Eph. 3: 3–5. 1 Cor. 2: 10–16. 1 Thes. 2: 13. 4:8. 5: 27. The celestial ideas in them; the spirituality and elevation of their design; the majesty and simplicity of their style; the candor, disinter- estedness, and uprightness of the penmen; the harmonious agreement of their various parts; their wonderful efficacy on the consciences and character of mankind; their asto- nishing preservation; the multitude of miracles wrought in confirmation of the doctrines they contain, and the exact fulfilment of all their predictions up to this hour, sufficiently prove this. The inspiration of the Old Testament Scriptures is so expressly attested by our Lord and his apostles, that among those who receive their authority the only question relates to the inspiration of the New Testament. It is tº true we do not find the claim to inspiration formally ad. . vanced in the Four Gospels. This omission has sometimes been stated by those superficial critics, whose prejudices serve to account for their haste, as an objection against the existence of inspiration. But if we attend to the reason of the omission, we shall perceive that it is only an in- stance of that delicate propriety which pervades all the New Testament. The gospels are the records of the great facts which vouch the truth of Christianity. These facts are to be received upon the testimony of men who had been eye-witnesses of theº. The founda- tion of Christian faith being laid in an assent to these facts, it would have been preposterous to have introduced in support of them that influence of the Spirit which pre- served the minds of the apostles from error. For there can be no proof of the inspiration of the apostles unless the truth of the facts be previously admitted. The apos- tles therefore bring forward the evidence of Christianity in its natural order, when they speak in the gospels as the companions and eye-witnesses of Jesus, claiming that credit which is due to honest men who had the best op- portunities of knowing what they declared. But aſter the respect which their character and conduct procured to their testimony, and the visible confirmation which it re- ceived from heaven by miracles, &c. had established the truth of the facts they testified, no room was left to doubt of their inspiration. Without it they were indeed credible witnesses of facts, but without it they were not qualified to execute the higher office of apostles, Luke 24: 49. And therefore whenever the circumstances of the church re- quired the execution of that office, we find the claim which had been conveyed to them by the promise of their Mas- ter, (John 14–17. Acts 1–2.) and which is implied in the apostolical character, asserted in their history and writings. They uniformly demanded from all who had received the faith of Christ, submission to the doctrines and commandments of his apostles, as the inspired mes- sengers of heaven, 1 John 4:6. 1 Cor. 14:37.1 Thess. 4:8. It has been disputed, however, whether this inspiration is, in the most absolute sense, plenary or entire. . As this is a subject of importance, and ought to be carefully stu- died by every Christian, in order that he may render a reason of the hope that is in him, we shall here subjoin the remarks of an able writer, who, though he may differ from some others, as to the terms made use of, yet we are persuaded his arguments will be found weighty and pow- erful. They express also the latest and best views. “There are many things in the Scriptures, which the writers might have known, and probably did know, by ordinary means. As persons possessed of memory, judg- ment, and other intellectual faculties which are common to men, they were able to relate certain events in which they had been personally concerned, and to make, such occasional reflections as were suggested by particular subjects and occurrences. In these cases no Supernatural influence was necessary to invigorate their minds; it was only necessary that they should be infallibly preserved from error. It is with respect to such passages of Scrip- ture alone, as did not exceed the natural ability of the writers to compose, that I would admit the notion of su- perintendence, if it should be admitted at all, Perhaps this word, though of established use and almost undisputed authority, should be entirely laid aside, as insufficient to express even the lowest degree of inspiration. In the passages of Scripture which we are now considering, I conceive the writers to have been not merely superin- tended, that they might commit no error, but likewise to have been moved or excited by the Holy Ghost to record particular events, and set down particular observations: he passages written in consequence of the direction and under the care of the Divine Spirit, may be said, in an inferior sense, to be inspired; whereas if the men had written them at the suggestion of their own spirit, they would not have possessed any more authority, though they had been free from error, than those parts of profane writ ings which are agreeable to truth. - 2. “There are other parts of the Scriptures in which the faculties of the writers were supernaturally invigo- rated and elevated. It is impossible for us, and perhaps it was not possible for the inspired person himself, to Ge. i N S I N S [ 662 j - termine where mature ended, and inspiration began. It is enough to know, that there are many parts of Scripture in which, though the unassisted mind might have proceeded some steps, a divine impulse was necessary to enable it to advance. I think, for example, that the evangelists could not have written the history of Christ if they had not en- joyed miraculous aid. Two of them, Matthew and John, accompanied our Savior during the space of three years. and a half. At the close of this period, or rather several years after it, when they wrote their gospels, we may be certain that théº had forgotten many of his discourses and miracles; that they recollected others indistinctly; and that they would have been in danger of producing an inaccurate and unfair account, by confounding one thing with another. Besides, from so large a mass of particu- 1ars, men of uncultivated minds, who were not in the habit of distinguishing and classifying, could not have made a proper selection; nor would persons unskilled in the art of composition have been able to express them- selves in such terms as should insure a faithful represen- tation of doctrines and facts, and with such dignity as the nature of the subject required. A divine influence, there- fore, must have been exerted on their minds, by which their memories and judgments were strengthened, and they were enabled to relate the doctrines and miracles of their Master, in a manner the best fitted to impress the readers of their histories. The promise of the Holy Ghost to bring to their remembrance all things whatso- ever Christ had said to them, proves that, in writing their histories, their mental powers were endowed, by his agen- cy, with more than usual vigor, John 14:16–26. 16:12–15. “Further, it must be allowed that in several passages of Scripture there is found such elevation of thought and of style, as clearly shows that the powers of the writers were raised above their ordinary pitch. If a person of moderate talents should give as elevated a description of the majesty and attributes of God, or reason as profoundly on the mysterious doctrines of religion, as a man of the most exalted genius and extensive learning, we could not fail to be convinced that he was supernaturally assisted; and the conviction would be still stronger, if his composi- tion should far transcend the highest efforts of the human mind. Some of the sacred writers were taken from the lowest ranks of life; and yet sentiments so dignified, and representations of divine things so grand and majestic, occur in their writings, that the noblest flights of human genius, when compared with them, appear cold and insipid. 3. “It is manifest, with respect to many passages of Scripture, that the subjects of which they treat must have been directly revealed to the writers. They could not have been known by any natural means, nor was the knowledge of them attainable by a simple elevation of the faculties. With the faculties of an angel we could not discover the purposes of the divine mind. This degree of inspiration we attribute to those who were empowered to reveal heavenly mysteries, ‘which eye had not seen, and ear had not heard ;’ to those who were sent with particular messages from God to his people, and to those who were employed to predict future events. The plan of redemption being an effect of the sovereign counsels of heaven, it could not have been known but by a communication from the Father of Lights, 1 Cor. 2:6–16. “This kind of inspiration has been called the inspiration of suggestion. It is needless to dispute about a word; but suggestion seeming to express an operation on the mind, by which ideas are excited in it, is of too limited signification to denote the various modes in which the prophets and apostles were made acquainted with su- pernatural truths. God revealed himself to them not only by suggestion, but by dreams, visions, voices, and the ministry of angels. This degree of inspiration, in strict propriety of speech, should be called revelation; a word preferable to suggestion, because it is expressive of all the ways in which God communicated new ideas to the minds of his servants. It is a word, too, chosen by the Holy Ghost himself, to signify the discovery of truths formerly unknown to the apostles. The last book of the New Testament, which is a collection of prophecies, is called the Revelation of Jesus Christ. Paul says, that he received the gospel by revelation; that ‘ by revelation the mystery was made known to him, which in other ages was not made known unto the sons of men, as it was then revealed unto his holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit;’ and, in another place, having observed that ‘eye had not seen, nor ear heard, neither had entered into the heart of man the things which God had prepared for them that love him,” he adds, “But God hath revealed them unto us by his Spirit,' Rev. 1: 1. Gal. 1: 12. Eph. 3: 5. 1 Cor. 2: 9, 10. - * - “I have not names to designate the other two kinds of inspiration, The names used by Doddridge, and others, superintendence, elevation, and suggestion, do not convey the ideas stated in the three preceding particulars, and are liable to other objections, besides those which have been mentioned. This account of the inspiration of the Scrip- tures has, I think, these two recommendations: that there is no part of Scripture which does not fall under one or other of the foregoing heads; and that the different de- grees of the agency of the Divine Spirit on the minds of the different writers are carefully discriminated.” Some men have adopted very strange and dangerous notions respecting the inspiration of the Scriptures. Dr. Priestley denies that they were written by a particular divine inspiration; and asserts that the writers, though men of the greatest probity, were fallible, and have-actually com- mitted mistakes in their narrations and their reasonings. But Dr. Priestley and his followers find it necessary to weaken and set aside the authority of the Scriptures, as they have adopted a system of religion from which all the distinguishing doctrines of revelation are excluded. Others consider the Scriptures as inspired in those places where they profess to deliver the word of God; but in other places, especially in the historical parts, they ascribe to them only the same authority which is due to the writ- ings of well-informed and upright men. But as this dis- tinction is perfectly arbitrary, having no foundation in any thing said by the sacred writers themselves, so it is liable to very material objections. It represents our Lord and his apostles, when they speak of the Old Testament, as having attested, without any exception or limitation, a number of books as divinely inspired, while some of them were partly, and some were almost entirely, human com- positions: it supposes the writers of both Testaments to have profanely mixed their own productions with the dic- tates of the Spirit, and to have passed the unhallowed compound on the world as genuine. In fact, by denying that they were constantly under infallible guidance, it leaves us utterly at a loss to know when we should or should not believe them. If they could blend their own stories with the revelations made to them, how can I be certain that they have not, on some occasions, published, in the name of God, sentiments of their own, to which they were desirous to gain credit and authority? Who will assure me of their perfect fidelity in drawing a line of dis- tinction between the divine and the human parts of their writings 2 The denial of the plenary inspiration of the Scripture tends to unsettle the foundations of our faith, involves us in doubt and perplexity, and leaves us no other method of ascertaining how much we should believe, but by an appeal to reason. But when reason is invested with the authority of a judge, not only is revelation dis honored, and its Author insulted, but the end for which it was given is completely defeated. A question of very great importance demands cur attention, while we are endeavoring to settle, with preci- sion, the notion of the inspiration of the Scriptures: it relates to the words in which the sacred writers have ex- pressed their ideas. Some think, that in the choice of words they were left to their own discretion, and that the language is human, though the matter be divine ; while others believe, that in their expressions, as well as in their sentiments, they were under the infallible direction of the Spirit. The last opinion has been supported by the following reasoning:— - 2. ' “Every man, who hath attended to the operations of his own mind, knows that we think in words, or that, when we form a train or combination of ideas, we clothe them with words; and that the ideas which are not thus clothed, are indistinct and conſused. Let a man try to think upon any subject, moral or religious, without the aid of lan | 663 | I N 3 guage, and he will either experience a total cessation of tnought, or, as this seems impossible, at least while we are awake, he will feel himself constrained, notwithstand- ing his utmost endeavors, to have recourse to words as the instrument of his mental operations. As a great part of the Scriptures was suggested or revealed to the writers; as the thoughts or sentiments, which were perſectly new to them, were conveyed into their minds by the Spirit, it is plain that they must have been accompanied with words proper to express them; and, consequently, that the words were dictated by the same influences on the mind which communicated the ideas. The ideas could not have come without the words, because without them they could not have been conceived. A notion of the form and qualities of a material object may be produced by subjecting it to our senses; but there is no conceivable method of making us acquainted with new abstract truths, or with things which do not lie within the sphere of sensation, but by conveying to the mind, in some way or other, the words significant of them. In all those passages of Scripture, therefore, which were written by revelation, it is manifest that the words were inspired; and this is still more evi- dent with respect to those passages which the writers themselves did not understand. No man could write an intelligible discourse on a subject which he does not un- derstand, unless he were furnished with the words as well as the sentiments: and that the penmen of the Scriptures did not always understand what they wrote, might be safely inferred from the comparative darkness of the dis- pensation under which some of them lived; and is inti- mated by Peter, when he says, that the prophets ‘in- quired and searched diligently what, and what manner of time the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify, when it testified beforehand the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow,’ 1 Pet. 1: 10, 11. “In other passages of Scripture, those not excepted in which the writers relate such things as had fallen within the compass of their own knowledge, we shall be disposed to believe that the words are inspired, if we calmly and seriously weigh the following considerations. If Christ promised to his disciples, that, when they were brought before kings and governors for his sake, ‘it should be given them in that same hour what they should speak, and that the spirit of their Father should speak in them,' (Matt. 10: 19, 20. Luke 12: 11, 12.)—a promise which cannot be reasonably understood to signify less than that both words and sentiments should be dictated to them,-- it is fully as credible that they should be assisted in the same manner when they wrote, especially as the record was to last through all ages, and to be a rule of faith to all the nations of the earth. Paul affirms, that he and the other apostles spoke ‘not in the words which man’s wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost taught ;’ (1 Cor. 2: 13.) and this general assertion may be applied to their writings as well as to their sermons. Besides, every person who hath reflected upon the subject, is aware of the importance of a proper selection of words in ex- ressing our sentiments; and knows how easy it is for a needless or unskilful person, not only to injure the beauty and weaken the efficacy of a discourse by the impropriety of his language, but, by substituting one word for another, to which it seems to be equivalent, to alter the meaning, and perhaps render it totally different. If, then, the sacred writers had not been directed in the choice of words, how could we have been assured that those which they have chosen were the most proper ? Is it not possible, nay, is it not certain, that they would have sometimes expressed themselves inaccurately, and, as many of them were illiterate, by consequence, would have obscured and mis- represented the truth? In this case, how could our faith have securely rested on their testimony ? Would not the suspicion of error in their writings have rendered it ne- cessary, before we received them, to try them by the stan- dard of reason? and would not the authority and the de- sign of revelation have thus been overthrown 2 We must conclude, therefore, that the words of Scripture are from God, as well as the matter; or we shall charge him with a want of wisdom in transmitting his truths through a channel by which they might have been, and most pro- bably have been polluted. “To the inspiration of the words, the differ?txe it të e . style of the sacred writers seems to be an objection; te- cause if the Holy Ghost were the author of the words, the style might be expected to be uniformly the same. But in answer to this objection it may be observed, that the Divine Spirit, whose operations are various, might act differently on different persons, according to the natural turn of their minds. He might enable one man, for instance, to write more sublimely than another, because he was naturally of a more exalted genius than the other, and the subject as- signed to him demanded more elevated language : or he might produce a difference in the style of the same man, by raising, at one time, his faculties above their ordinary state, and by leaving them, at another, to act according to their native energy, under his inspection and control. We should not suppose that inspiration, even in its higher de- grees, deprived those who were the subjects of it of the use of their faculties. They were, indeed, the organs of the Spirit; but they were conscious, intelligent organs. They were dependent, but distinct agents; and the operation. of their mental powers, though elevated and directed by superior influence, was analogous to their ordinary mode of procedure. It is easy, therefore, to conceive that the style of the writers of the Scriptures should differ, just as it would have differed if they had not been inspired. A perfect uniformity of style could not have taken place, un- less they had been all inspired in the same degree, and by inspiration their faculties had been completely suspended, so that divine truths were conveyed by them in the same passive manner in which a pipe affords a passage to wa- ter, or a trumpet to the breath.” A more serious objection to plenary verbal inspiration is founded on the indisputable fact, that there are nume- rous passages of Scripture containing a repetition or new representation of what is found in other passages, between which there are many verbal discrepancies, though it be expressly stated before each, that the Lord made the com- munications in these nords. It is sufficient, however, to say that the Holy Spirit, the Author of all wisdom, should here be allowed the same latitude in the use of language, universally allowed to men in like cases. As the words were spoken only once, it is obvious they could not be communicated exactly under both the forms in which they now appear, and therefore the words now exhibited in the original text are not, in every respect, though to every useful purpose, the identical words spoken on the occasion. See Dick's Essay on the Inspiration of the Scriptures ; Hanker on Plenary Inspiration ; Appendiz to the third volume of Doddridge's Expositor; Calamy and Bennett on Inspiration ; Dr. Stennett on the Authority and Use of Scripture ; Parry's Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration of the Apostles; : Bronn's Natural and Revealed Religion, p. 78; Onven on Hebrens, Macknight on the Epistles; Haldane's Evidence of Divine Revelation ; Dwight's Theology; Fuller’s Works ; Scott's Essays on Important Subjects ; Christian Ob- server; Spirit of the Pilgrims; but especially Dr. Woods on Inspiration ; and articles CHRISTIANITY and ScFIPTURE, in this work.-Jones ; Watson ; Hend. Buck. INSTINCT; that power which acts on and impels any creature to any particular manner of conduct, not by a view of the beneficial consequences, but merely from a strong impulse, supposed necessary in its effects, and to be given them to supply the place of reason.—Hend. Buck, INSTITUTE ; INSTITUTION ; an established customa or law; a precept, maxim, or principle. Institutions may be considered as positive, moral, and human, 1. Those are called positive institutions or precepts which are not founded upon any reasons known to those to whom they are given, or discoverable by them, but which are observed merely because some superior has commanded them. 2. Moral are those, the reasons of which we see, and the du- ties of which arise out of the nature of the case itself, prior to external command. 3. Human, are generally applied to those inventions of men, or means of honoring God, which are not appointed by him, and which are numerous in the church of Rome, and too many of them in Protes. tant churches, Butler's Analogy, p.214; Doddridge's Lec. tures, lect, 158; Robinson's Claude, 217, vol. i., and 258, Vol. ii.; Burrough's two Diss, on Positive Institutions; Bp. Hoadley's Plain Account, p. 3–Hend. Buck. I N T I N T | C64 | INSTITUTION ; an act in the church of England, by which a clergyman is approved as a fit person for a living, and is preparatory to his induction into it. The former renders him complete as to spiritual rights: the latter gives him a right to the temporalities. by the bishop on the occasion are, “I institute you rector of such a church, with cure of souls, and receive your care and mine.”—Hend. Buck. - INSTRUMENT. The second causes whereby God exe- cutes his works of mercy or judgment are his instruments, Isa. 41: 15. Sword, famine, pestilence, and diseases, are his instruments of death, Ps. 7: 13. The evil instruments of the churl are the sinful methods which he uses to in- crease his wealth, Isa. 32: 7. Men's bodies or members, are instruments of righteousness or unrighteousness; are, as it were, tools by which they work the one or the other in outward acts, Rom. 6: 13.−Bronn. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC; music produced by in- struments, in contradistinction from vocal music. (See MUSIC.)—Hend. Buck. INTANGLE ; to bring into trouble or danger, that one can hardly escape. The Hebrews were intangled at the Red Sea, the sea being before them, the Egyptians behind them, and rocks on each side of them, Exod. 14: 3. The Jews thought to intangle Christ in his talk, by decoy- ing him to speak something criminal, and which he could not excuse or defend, Matt. 22: 15. The Jews were intan- gled with the enslaving yoke of ceremonies; so fully ac- customed to it, as neither to be able or willing to free themselves from it, Gal. 5: 1. Men are intangled by their Justs when so inveigled and fixed in a course of sin that they neither will nor can leave it, 2 Pet. 2: 20. Men are intangled in the affairs of this life when their care of, and labor therein, distract and captivate their minds, 2 Tim. 2: 4.—Bromwn. - INTEGRITY; purity of mind, free from any undue bias or principle, Prov. 11: 3. Many hold, that a certain artful Sagacity, founded upon knowledge of the world, is the best conductor of every one who would be a successful adventurer in life, and that a strict attention to integrity would lead them into danger and distress. But in answer to this, it is justly observed, 1. That the guidance of inte- grity is the safest under which we can be placed; that the road in which it leads us is, upon the whole, the freest from dangers, Prov. 3: 21, &c. 2. It is unquestionably the most honorable; for integrity is the foundation of all that is high in character among mankind, Prov. 4: 8. 3. It is the most conducive to felicity, Phil. 4: 6, 7. Prov. 3: 17. 4. Such a character can look forward to eternity without dismay, Rom. 2: 7.—Hend. Buck. INTEMPERANCE; excess in eating or drinking. This is the general idea of it; but we may observe, that what- ever indulgence undermines the health, impairs the senses, inflames the passions, clouds and sullies the reason, per- verts the judgment, enslaves the will, or in any way disor- ders or debilitates the faculties, may be ranked under this vice. (See TEMPERANCE.)—Hend. Buck; Bap. Repos. 1834. INTERCESSION OF CHRIST; his interposing for sin- ners by virtue of the satisfaction he made to divine justice. 1. As to the fact itself, it is evident, from many places of Scripture, that Christ pleads with God in favor of his people, Rom. 8:34. Heb. 7:25. 1 John 2: 1. 2. As to the manner of it: the appearance of the high-priest among the Jews, in the presence of God, on the day of atonement, when he offered before him the blood of the sin-offering, is at large referred to by St. Paul, as illustrating the in- tercession of Christ, Heb. 9; 11, 14, 22, 26. 10: 13, 21. Christ appears before God with his own body; but whe- ther he intercedes vocally or not cannot be known, though it is most probable that he does not; however, it is certain that he does not intercede in like manner as when on earth, with prostration of body, cries and tears, which would be quite inconsistent with his state of exaltation and glory; nor as supplicating an angry judge, for peace is made by the blood of the cross; nor as litigating a point in a court of judicature: but his intercession is carried on by showing himself as having done, as their surety, all that law and justice could require, by representing his blood and sacrifice as the ground of his people's acceptance with the Father, Rev. 5; 6. John 17:24, 3, The end of The words used Christ's intercession is not to remind the Divine Being of any thing whéh he would otherwise forget, nor to per- suade him to any thing which he is not disposed to do; but it may serve to illustrate the holiness and majesty of the Father, and the wisdom and grace of the Son; not to say that it may have other unknown uses with respect to the inhabitants of the invisible world. He is represented, also, as offering up the prayers and praises of his people, which become acceptable to God through him, Rev. 8: 3, 4. Heb. 13: 15. 1 Pet. 2: 5. He there pleads for the con- version of his unconverted ones; and for the consolation, preservation, and glorification of his people, John 17. 1 John 2: 1, 2. - - 4. Of the properties of Christ's intercession, we may ob- serve, 1. That it is authoritative. He intercedes not with- out right, John 17; 24. Ps. 2:8. 2. Wise: he understands the nature of his work, and the wants of his people, John 2: 25. 3. Righteous; for it is founded upon justice and truth, 1 John 3: 5. Heb. 7: 26. 4. Compassionate, Heb. 2: 17, 5: 8. Is. 63: 9. 5. He is the sole advocate, 1 Tim. 2: 5. 6. It is perpetual, Heb. 7:25. 7. Efficacious, 1 John 2: 1, 2. John 11:42. . 5. The use we should make of Christ's intercession is this:–1. We may learn the wonderful love of God to man, Rom. 5: 10. 2. The durability and safety of the church, Luke 22: 31, 32. Is. 17: 24. 3. The ground we have for comfort, Heb. 9: 24. Rom. 8:34. 4. It should excite us. to offer up prayers to God, as they are acceptable through him, Rev. 8: 3, 4. (See Advocate.) Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 1109; Flavel's Works, vol. i. p. 72; Doddridge's Lectures, vol. ii. p. 294, octavo; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 126, octavo edit. ; Bronn's Natural and Revealed Religion, p. 348; Berry Street Lectures, no. 18; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, qu. 55; Dwight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. INTERDICT; an ecclesiastical censure, by which the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine service in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This censure has been frequently executed in France, Italy, and Germany; and, in the year 1170, pope Alexander III. put all England under an interdict, forbidding the clergy to perform any part of divine service, except baptizing infants, taking confessions, and giving absolution to dying penitents; but this censure being liable to ill consequences, of promoting libertinism and a neglect of religion, the succeeding popes have very seldom made use of it. There was also an in- terdict of persons, who were deprived of the benefit of at- tending on divine service. Particular persons were also anciently interdicted of fire and water, which signifies a ba- nishment for some particular offence: by this censure, no person was permitted to receive them, or allow them fire or water; and being thus wholly deprived of the two ne- cessary elements of life, they were, doubtless, under a kind of civil death.—Hend. Buck. - INTEREST IN CHRIST; a term often made use of in the religious world, and implies an actual participation in the blessings of salvation. In one sense, every human being has an interest in the mediation of our Redeemer, forasmuch as it is only through that mediation that his etermal well-being can be secured, and eternal blessedness is thus proclaimed to all; but it is not till a sinner receives the divine testimony respecting the way of salvation, that he becomes possessed of a real personal interest in Christ. —Hend. Buck. INTERIM; the name of a formulary, or confession of faith, obtruded upon the Protestants, after the death of Lu- ther, by the emperor Charles V., when he had defeated their forces. It was so called, because it was only to take place in the interim, till a general council should decide all the points in question between the Protestants and Ca- tholics. The occasion of it was this:—The emperor had made choice of three divines, viz. Julius Phlug, bishop of Naumberg; Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon; and John Agricola, preacher to the elector of Brandenburgh; who drew up a project, consisting of twenty-six articles, concerning the points of religion in dispute between the Catholics and Protestants. The controverted points were, the state of Adam before and aſter his fall; the redemp- tion of mankind by Jesus Christ; the justification of sin- ners; charity and good works; the confidence we ought to have in God; that our sins are remitted; the church ſ 665 | I R. E. and its true marks, its power, its authority, and ministers; the pope and bishops; the Sacraments; the mass; the commemoration of saints; their intercession, and prayers for the dead. . , -º . The emperor sent this project to the pope for his appro: bation, which he refused: whereupon Charles W. published the imperial constitution, called the “Interim,” wherein he declared, that “it was his will, that all his Catholic domi- mions should, for the future, inviolably observe the cus- toms, statutes, and ordinances of the universal church; and that those who had separated themselves from it, should either reunite themselves to it, or at least conform to this constitution; and that all should quietly expect the decisions of the general council.” This ordinance was published in the diet of Augsburgh, May 15, 1548; but this device neither pleased the pope nor the Protes- tants: the Lutheran preachers openly declared they would not receive it, alleging that it re-established popery: some chose rather to quit their chairs and livings than to sub- scribe it; nor would the duke of Saxony receive it. Cal- vin and several others wrote against it. On the other side, the emperor was so severe against those who refused to accept it, that he disfranchised the cities of Magdeburg and Constance for their opposition.—Hend. Buck. INTERMEDIATE STATE; a term made use of to denote the state of the soul between death and the resur- rection. From the Scriptures speaking frequently of the dead as sleeping in their graves, many have supposed that the Soul sleeps till the resurrection, i. e. is in a state of en- tire insensibility. But against this opinion, and that the soul, after death, enters immediately into a state of reward or punishment, the following passages seem to be conclusive: Matt. 17: 3. Luke 23:42. 2 Cor. 5: 6. Phil. 1: 21. Luke 16:22, 23. Rev. 6: 9. See HADEs ; RESURRECTION ; SouL.; and FUTURE STATE ; Campbell's Dissertations; Bishop Lan’s Appendiz to his Theory of Religion ; Search's Light of Na- ture Pursued; Bennet's Olam Haneshamoth, or Vien, of the Intermediate State; Archibald Campbell's Vien, of the Mid- dle State ; Archdeacon Blackburne's Historical View of the Controversy concerning an Intermediate State, and the sepa. rate Existence of the Soul between Death and the general Resurrection ; in which last the reader will find a large account of the writings on this subject, from the beginning of the Reformation to almost the present time. See also Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 219; Watts' World to Come; Fuller's Letters on the Socinian Controversy ; Divight's Theo- logy; Watson's Theological Institutes ; Stuart's Essays ; Balfour's Essays, and Cooke's Examination.—Hend. Buck. INTERNUNTIUS; the messenger or representative of the pope, sent to small foreign courts and republics. The papal ambassador sent to emperors and kings is called nuntius.—Hend. Buck. INTERPRETATION. (See BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION.) INTERPRETING OF TONGUES; a gift bestowed on the apostles and primitive Christians, so that in a mixed assembly, consisting of persons of different nations, 1ſ one spoke in a language understood by one part, ano- ther could repeat and translate what he said into the dif- ferent languages understood by others, 1 Cor. 12: 10. 14: 5, 6, 13.—Hend. Buck. INTOLERANCE, is a word chiefly used in reference to those persons, churches, or societies, who do not allow men to think for themselves, but impose on them articles, creeds, ceremonies, &c. of their own devising. (See To- LERATION.) --- Nothing is more abhorrent from the genius of the Christian religion than an intolerant spirit, or an intole- rant church. “It has inspired its votaries with a savage ſerocity; has plunged the fatal dagger into innocent blood; depopulated towns and kingdoms; overthrown states and empires, and brought down the righteous vengeance of heaven upon a guilty world. The pretence of superior knowledge, sanctity, and authority for its support, is the disgrace of reason, the grief of wisdomn, and the paroxysm of folly. To fetter the conscience, is injustice; to insnare it, is an act of sacrilege; but to torture it by an attempt to force its feelings, is horrible intolerance; it is the most abandoned violation of all the maxims of religion and mo- rality. Jesus Christ formed a kingdom ºy spiritual: the apostles exercised only a spiritual authority under the tion. direction of Jesus Christ; particular churches were united only by faith and love; in all civil affairs they submitted to civil magistracy; and in religious concerns they were governed by the reasoning, advice, and exhortations of their own officers: their censures were only honest re- proofs; and their excommunications were only declara- tions that such offenders, being incorrigible, were no longer accounted members of their communities.” Let it ever be remembered, therefore, that no man or men have any authority whatever from Christ over the consciences of others, or to persecute the persons of any whose religious principles agree not with their own. See Lonell's Sermons; Robinson's Claude, vol. ii. p. 227, 229; Saurin's Sermons, vol. iii. preface; Locke on Government and Toleration ; Memoir of Roger Williams.—Hend. Buck. INTREPIDITY; a disposition of mind unaffected with fear at the approach of danger. Resolution eitherbanishes fear or surmounts it, and is firm on all occasions. Courage is impatient to attack, undertakes boldly, and is not less- ened by difficulty. Valor acts with vigor, gives no way to resistance, but pursues an enterprise in spite of opposi- Bravery knows no fear; it runs nobly into danger, and prefers honor to life itself. Intrepidity encounters the greatest perils with the utmost coolness, and dares even present death. (See CourAGE. ForTITUDE.)—Hend. Buck. INTROIBO; part of the fifth verse of the forty-second Psalm, with which the Catholic priest, at the foot of the altar, after having made the sign of the cross, begins the mass; on which the servitor answers with the rest of the verse. The whole psalm is then recited alternately by the priest and the servitor. In masses for the dead, and during passion-week, the psalm is not pronounced.—Hend. Buck. INVESTITURE, in ecclesiastical policy, is the act of conſerring any benefice on another. It was customary for princes to make investiture of ecclesiastical benefices, by delivering to the person they had chosen a pastoral staff and a ring. The account of this ceremony may be seen at large in Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, cent. xi. part il. chap. 2.—Hend. Buck. INVISIBLES; a name of distinction given to the disci- ples of Osiander, Flaccius Illyricus, Swenkfeld, &c., be- cause they denied the perpetual visibility of the church.- JHend. Buck. INVOCATION ; a calling upon God in prayer. It is generally considered as the first part of that necessary duty, and includes, 1. A making mention of one or more of the names or titles of God, indicative of the object to whom we pray. 2. A declaration of our desire and design to worship him. And, 3. A desire of his assistance and acceptance, under a sense of our own unworthiness. In the church of Rome, invocation also signifies adora- tion of, and prayers to, the saints. The council of Trent expressly teaches, that the saints who reign with Jesus Christ are employed as the intercessors of men, and offer up their prayers to God, and condemn those who maintain the contrary doctrine. The Protestants censure and re- ject this opinion, as contrary to Scripture; deny the truth of the fact; and think it highly unreasonable to suppose that a limited, finite being should be in a manner omnipre- sent, and, at one and the same time, hear and attend to the prayers that are offered up to him in England, China, and Peru; and from hence infer, that, if the saints cannot hear their request, it is inconsistent with common sense to address any kind of prayer to them.—Hend. Buck. IONIC PHILOSOPHY ; the doctrine of Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece, who taught philosophy at Miletus, in Ionia. He taught that water was the origin of all things; which doctrine he probably derived from a tradition of the Mosaic chaos. He taught the doctrine of a Supreme Being, who is sometimes represented by him as the soul of the world, and the Source of all motion and intelligence. He invented several mathematical proposi- tions, which were aſterwards adopted by Euclid, and had sufficient skill in astronomy to foretel an eclipse. His doctrines were, however, superseded by those of Plato and Aristotle, and sunk into obscurity, until, in the close of the sixteenth century, it was revived by Claude Berigard, of Spain. Enfield's Philosophy, vol. i. book ii. ch. 3; vol. ii. p. 422–Williams. - IRENAEUS; bishop of Lyons, in France, one of the best - 84 IS A I S A. [ 666 | Christian writers of the second century. He was a Greek by birth, and probably born of Christian parents. He was in early life a disciple of the venerable Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, by whom he was sent to preach the gospel among the Gauls. His labors were remarkably useful. He employed his pen against the internal and domestic enemies of the church, by attacking the monstrous errors adopted by some classes of professed Christians. His five Books against Heresies are yet preserved in a Latin trans- lation, through the barbarity of which, though excessive, it is easy to discern the eloquence and erudition that reign throughout the original. Only the first book is yet ex- tant in the original Greek-Mosheim. * IRON, (bremel,) occurs first in Gen. 4:22, and afterwards frequently; and the Chaldee prenel in Dan. 2:33, 41, and elsewhere often in that book; Greek sideros, Rev. 18: 12, and the adjectives, Acts 12:10. Rev. 2: 27, 9: 9. 12: 5. 19:15; a well-known and very serviceable metal. The knowledge of working it was very ancient, as appears from Gen. 4: 22. We do not, however, find that Moses made use of iron in the fabric of the tabernacle in the wil- derness, or Solomon in any part of the temple at Jeru- salem. Yet, from the manner in which the Jewish legis- lator speaks of iron, the metal, it appears, must have been in use in Egypt before his time. He celebrates the great hardness of it; (Lev. 26:19. Deut. 28:23, 48.) takes no- tice that the bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was of iron; (Deut. 3: 11.) he speaks of mines of iron; (Deut. 8:9.) and he compares the severity of the servitude of the Isra- elites in Egypt to the heat of a furnace for melting iron, Deut. 4; 20. We find, also, that swords, (Num. 35: 16.j axes, (Deut. 19: 5.) and tools for cutting stones, (Deut. 27. 5.) were made of iron. By the “northern iron,” (Jer. 15: 12.) we may probably understand the hardened iron, called in Greek chalups, from the Chalybes, a people bordering on the Euxine sea, and consequently lying on the north of Judea, by whom the art of tempering steel is said to have been discovered. Strabo speaks of this people by the name of Chalybes, but aſterwards Chaldaei; and mentions their iron mines. These, however, were a different people from the Chalde- ans, who were united with the Babylonians.—Watson. ISAAC, the son of Abraham and Sarah, was born in the year of the world 2108. His name, which signifies laughter, was given him by his mother, because when it was told her by an angel that she should have a son, and that at a time of life when, according to the course of na- ture, she was past child-bearing, she privately laughed, Gen. 18: 10–12. And when the child was born she said, “God hath made me to laugh, so that all that hear will laugh with me,” Gen. 21: 6. The life of Isaac, for the first seventy-five years of it, is so blended with that of his illustrious father, that the principal incidents of it have been already noticed under the article ABRAHAM. His birth was attended with some extraordinary circum- stances: it was the subject of various promises and pro- phecies; an event most ardently desired by his parents, and yet purposely delayed by divine providence till they were both advanced in years, no doubt for the trial of their faith, and that Isaac might more evidently appear to be the gift of God, and “the child of promise.” At an early period of life he was the object of the profane con- 1empt of Ishmael, the son of the bond-woman, by whom he was persecuted; and as in the circumstances attending his birth there was something typical of the birth of Abra- ham's greater Son, the Messiah, the promised Seed ; so, in the latter instance, we contemplate in him a resemblance of real Christians, who, as Isaac was, are “the children of promise,” invested with all the immunities and blessings of the new covenant; but, as them, “he that was born after the flesh persecuted him that was born aſter the Spirit, even so it is now,” Gal. 4:29. (See Esau, and JAcop.)— Watson. ISAIAH. Though fifth in the order of time, the writ- ings of the prophet Isaiah are placed first in order of the prophetical books, principally on account of the sublimity and importance of his predictions, and partly also because the book which bears his name is larger than all the twelv minor prophets put together. - 1. Concerning his family and descent, nothing certain has been recorded, except what he himself tells us, (Isa. 1: 1.) namely, that he was the son of Amos, and dis- charged the prophetic office “in the days of Uzziah, Jo- tham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah,” who succes- sively flourished between A. M. 3194 and 3305. There is a current tradition that he was of the blood-royal; and some writers have affirmed that his father Amoz or Amos was the son of Joash, and consequently brother of Uzziah, king of Judah. He must have exercised the office of a prophet during a long period of time; for the lowest com- putation, beginning from the year in which Uzziah died, when he is by some supposed to have received his first appointment to that office, to the reign of Manasseh, brings it to sixty-one years. But the tradition of the Jews, which has been adopted by most Christian commentators, that he was put to death by Manasseh, is very uncertain; and Aben Ezra, one of the most celebrated Jewish writers, is rather of opinion that he died before the decease of Heze- kiah; which bishop Lowth thinks most probable. Of his wife and two sons, we have notices in Isa. 8: 1–3. The name of Isaiah, as Vitringa has remarked, after several preceding commentators, is in some measure descriptive of his high character, since it signifies the Salvation of Je- hovah; and was given with singular propriety to him, who foretold the advent of the Messiah, through whom “all flesh shall see the salvation of God,” Isa. 40: 5. Luke 3: 6. Acts 4: 12. Isaiah was contemporary with the pro- phets Amos, Hosea, Joel, and Micah. . . 2. Besides the volume of prophecies, which we are now to consider, it appears from 2 Chron. 26:22, that Isaiah wrote an account of “the acts of Uzziah,” king of Judah: this has perished with some other writings of the prophets, which, as probably not written by inspiration, were never admitted into the canon of Scripture. There are also two apocryphal books ascribed to him, namely, the Ascension of Isaiah, and the Apocalypse of Isaiah ; but these are evidently forgeries of a later date, and the Apocalypse has long since perished. . 3. Isaiah is uniformly spoken of in the Scriptures as a prophet of the highest dignity. Bishop Lowth calls him the prince of all the prophets, and pronounces the whole of his book to be poetical, with the exception of a few de- tached passages. The scope of Isaiah’s predictions is threefold, namely, 1. To detect, reprove, aggravate, and condemn, the sins of the Jewish people especially, and also the iniquities of the ten tribes of Israel, and the abo- minations of many gentile nations and countries; de- nouncing the severest judgments against all sorts and de- grees of persons, whether Jews or Gentiles. 2. To invite persons of every rank and condition, both Jews and Gen- tiles, to repentance and reſormation, by numerous promises of pardon and mercy. It is worthy of remark, that no such promises are intermingled with the denunciations of divine vengeance against Babylon, although they occur in the threatenings against every other people. , (See BABY- LoN.) 3. To comfort all the truly pious, in the midst of all the calamities and judgments denounced against the wicked, with prophetic promises of the true Messiah, which seem almost to anticipate the gospel history, so clearly do they foreshow the divine character of Christ. 4. Isaiah has, with singular propriety, been denominated the evangelical prophet, on account of the number and variety of his prophecies concerning the advent and cha: racter, the ministry and preaching, the sufferings and death, and the extensive, permanent kingdom of the Mes: siah. So cxplicit and determinate are his predictions, as well as so numerous, that he seems to speak rather of things past than of events yet future; and he may rather be called an evangelist than a prophet. No one, indeed, can be at a loss in applying them to the mission and cha- racter of Jesus Christ, and to the events which are cited in his history by the writers of the New Testament. This prophet, says bishop Lowth, abounds in such transcendent excellencies, that he may be properly, said to afford the most perfect model of prophetic poetry. He is at once elegant and sublime, forcible and ornamented; he unites energy with copiousness, and dignity with variety. In his sentiments there is uncommon elevation and majesty; in his imagery, the utmost propriety, elegance, dignity, and diversity ; in his language, uncommon beauty and ener- Is H • IT A. [ 667 J 'gy; and, notwithstanding the obscurity of his subjects, a surprising degree of clearness and simplicity. To these we may add, that there is such sweetness in the poetical composition of his sentences, whether it proceed from art or genius, that, if the Hebrew poetry at present is pos- sessed of any remains of its native grace and harmony, we shall chiefly find them in the writings of Isaiah : so that the saying of Ezekiel may most justly be applied to this prophet:- - “Thou art the confirmed exemplar of measures, Full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty.” Ezekiel 28: 12. * Isaiah also greatly excels in all the graces of method, order, connexion, and arrangement: though in asserting this we must not forget the nature of the prophetic im- pulse, which bears away the mind with irresistible vio- lence, and frequently in rapid transitions from near to re- mote objects, from human to divine. We must likewise be careful in remarking the limits of particular predic- tions, since, as in our version, they are often improperly connected, without any marks of discrimination; which injudicious arrangement, on some occasions, creates al- most insuperable difficulties—Watson. ISBRANIKI ; a denomination which appeared in Rus- sia about the year 1662, and assumed this name, which signifies the multitude of the elect. But they were called by their adversaries Raskolniki, or the seditious faction. They professed a rigorous zeal for the letter of the Holy Scriptures. They maintained that there is no subordina- tion of rank among the faithful, and that a Christian may kill himself for the love of Christ.—Hend. Buck. ISHBOSHETH, or Ishba AL; son of Saul, and also his successor. Abner, Saul’s kinsman and general, so ma- naged, that Ishbosheth was acknowledged king at Maha- maim by the greater part of Israel, while David reigned at Hebron over Judah. He was forty-four years of age when he began to reign, and he reigned two years peace- ably; after which he had skirmishes, with loss, against David, 2 Sam. 2: 8, &c. With this prince terminated the royal family of Saul, B. C. 1048–Calmet. ISHMAEL, son of Abraham and Hagar, was born A. M. 2094. The angel of the Lord appeared to Hagar in the wilderness, when she fled from her mistress, and bade her return, adding, “Thou shalt bring forth a son, and call his name Ishmael, “the Lord hath hearkened ;’ because the Lord hath heard thee in thy affliction. He shall be a fierce, savage man, whose hand shall be against all men, and the hands of all men against him.” Hagar returned therefore to Abraham’s house, and had a son, whom she named Ishmael. (See HAGAR.) Fourteen years after this the Lord visited Sarah, and Isaac being born to Abraham, Ishmael, who till then had been consi- dered as the sole heir, saw his hope disappointed, and was filled with envy and hatred against his younger brother. Five or six years afterwards, Ishmael by his persecuting spirit displeased Sarah, who prevailed on Abraham to expel him and his mother. Hagar, with Ishmael, wan- dered in the wilderness of Beersheba, and when reduced to great distress, a voice from heaven said, “Fear not, Hagar, the Lord hath heard the child's voice. I will make him the father of a great people.” They abode in the wilderness of Paran, where Ishmael became expert in archery, and his mother married him to an Egyptian WOIO a.ſ.l. beel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hader or Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, Kedemah. He had likewise a daughter, named Mahalath or Bashemath, (Gen. 36: 3.) who married Esau, Gen. 28:9. Prom the twelve sons of Ishmael are derived the twelve tribes of the Arabians, still subsisting; and Jerome says that in his time they called the districts of Arabia by the names of their several tribes. The descendants of Ishmael inhabited from Havilah to Shur; and are usually mentioned in history under the general name of Arabians and Ishmaelites. Since the seventh century, they have almost all embraced the reli- gion of Mahomet. Ishmael died in the presence of all his brethren, (Gen. 25: 18.) as the Vulgate renders; or, ac- cording to another translation, his inheritance lay opposite to that of all his brethren. See Gen. 16: 12, The year of his death is not known. (See ARABIA)—Calmet. He had twelve sons; viz. Nabajoth, Kedar, Ad- ISHMAELITES, or IsMALIANs. (See Assassins.) ISHTOB; a country situated at the northern extremity of the mountains of Gilead, towards mount Libanus, 2 Sam. 10: 6. wº ToB.)—Watson. - ISLAMISMt; the orthodox religion of the followers of Mohammed. (See MoHAMMEDANISM.). The word signifies an entire submission or devotion to the will of another, and especially of God, and thence the security, peace, and prosperity which those who thus submit themselves enjoy The profession of faith in the unity of God, and the divine apostleship of Mohammed, is called aslama : and every one who makes such a profession, receives the name of Moslem, i.e., one who has entirely embraced the true faith, and surrendered himself to the will of God. The plural of this would be Muslim ; but the dual number, Muslimani, being commonly substituted for the singular by the Per- sians and Turks, the word Mussulman, or Musselman, has in these, as well as in the European languages, nearly superseded the shorter and more correct term.—H. Buck. ISLANDS; ISLEs. Considerable errors in sacred geo- graphy have arisen from taking the word rendered islands, for a spot surrounded by water. • It rather imports a settle- ment, or PLANTATION ; that is to say, a colony or establish- ment, as distinct from an open, unappropriated region. Thus we should understand Gen. 10: 5: “By these were the settlements of the Gentiles divided in their lands.” The sacred writer evidently had enumerated countries, which were not isles in any sense whatever. So Job 22:30: “He (God) shall deliver the island of the inno . cent,” i.e. settlement, or establishment. Isa. 42: 15: “I will make the rivers islands;” rather settlements of human population. In these places, and many others, the true idea of the Hebrew word is establishments, or colonies, understood to be at some distance from others of a similar nature. The oases of Africa, which are small districts comprising wells, verdure, and population, surrounded by immense deserts of sand, are called islands, in Arabic, to this day; and no doubt but such were so called by the Hebrews, notwithstanding that they had no stream of wa- ter within many days’ journey around them. (See JA. PHETH.)—Calmet. ISRAEL, (who prevails with God ;) a name given to Jacob, after having wrestled with him at Mahanaim, or Penuel, Gen. 32: 1, 2, and 28, 29, 30. Hosea 12: 3. (See JAcoB.) By the name Israel is sometimes understood the person of Jacob ; sometimes the people of Israel, the race of Jacob ; and sometimes the kingdom of Israel, or the ten tribes, as distinct from the kingdom of Judah. —Calmet. ISRAELITES. (See Jews.) . - ISSACHAR, the fifth son of Jacob and Leah, was born about B. C. 1749. He had four sons, Tola, Phuvah, Job, and Shimron, Gen. 46: 13. We know nothing particu- lar of his life. Jacob, blessing him, said, “Issachar is a strong ass, couching down between two burdens. And he saw that rest was good, and the land that it was plea- sant, and bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a ser- vant unto tribute.” The Chaldee translates it in a quite contrary sense: “He shall subdue provinces, and make those tributary to him, who shall remain in his land.” The tribe of Issachar had its portion among the best parts of the land of Canaan, along the great plain, or valley of Jezreel, with the half-tribe of Manasseh to the south, Zebu- lun to the north, the Mediterranean sea west, and Jordan, with the south point of the sea of Tiberias, east. (See CA. NAAN.)—Calmet. ? - ISSUE. The issues from death, that is, all the means of escape from sin or misery, and all the persons redeemed, belong to the Lord, Ps. 68: 20. Out of the heart are the issues of life ; the holy thoughts and good works of men demonstrate spiritual life to be in their heart, and prepare them for eternal life, Prov 4: 23.—Bronn. ITALA. (See ANCIENT BIBLE VERSION, under the arti cle BIBLE, No. 10.) ITALY ; a Lâtin word, which some derive from Vitulus or Vitula, because this country abounded in calves and heifers; but others, from a king called Italus. We know not the ancient name of Italy in the Hebrew language Jerome has sometimes rendered chittim, Italy; (Numb. 24. 24. Ezek. 27:6.) and in Isa, 65:19. he translates thubal Italy, though, according to others, the Tibarenians are J A B J A B [ 668 | here meant. In the sacred books written in Greek, there is no ambiguity in the word Italy; it signifies that country of which Rome is the capital. (See Rome.) The Italian band mentioned in Acts 10: 1. is thought by Calmet to have been a cohort, named from Italica, a city in Spain, built by Scipio, A. U. C. 654, at the begin- ning of a peace with the Carthaginians. Appian (de Bello Hisp.) inſorms us that Scipio collected his wounded soldiers into one city, which, from Italy, he named Italica. —Calmet. - ITHAMAR ; Aaron's fourth son, who, with his descend- ants, exercised the functions of common priests only, till the high-priesthood passed into his family in the person of Eli. The successors of Eli, of the family of Ithamar, were Ahitub, Ahiah, Ahimelech, and Abiathar, whom Solomon deposed, 1 Kings 2: 27.-Calmet. ITINERANT PREACHERS; those who are not settled over any particular congregation, but go from place to place for the purpose of preaching to and instructing the ignorant. A great deal has been said against persons of this description; and it must be acknowledged, that there would not be so much "necessity for them, were every minister to do his duty. But the sad declension of morals in many places, the awful ignorance that prevails as to God and real religion, the little or no exertion of those who are the guides of the people; “villages made up of a train of idle, profligate, and miserable poor, and where the barbarous rhymes in their church-yards inform us that they are all either gone or going to heaven;” these things, with a variety of others, form a sufficient reason for every able and benevolent person to step forward, and to do all that he can to enlighten the minds, lessen the miseries, and promote the welfare of his fellow-creatures. “Notwithstanding the prejudices of mankind, and the indiscretions of some individuals, an itinerant teacher is one of the most honorable and useful characters that can be found upon earth ; and there needs no other proof than the experience of the church in all ages, that, when this work is done properly and with perseverance, it forms the grand method of spreading wide, and rendering efficacious religious knowledge; for great reformations and revivals of religion have uniformly been thus effected ; and it is especially sanctioned by the example of Christ and his apostles, and recommended as the divine method of spread- ing the gospel through the nations of the earth, itinerant preaching having almost always preceded and made way for the solid ministry of regular pastors. But it is a work which requires peculiar talents and dispositions, and a peculiar call in God's providence; and is not rashly and hastily to be ventured upon by every novice who has learned to speak about the gospel, and has more zeal than knowledge, prudence, humility, or experience. An un- blemished character, a disinterested spirit, an exemplary deadness to the world, unaffected humility, deep acquaint- ance with the human heart, and preparation for endur- ing the cross not only with boldness, but with meekness, patience, and sweetness of temper, are indispensably necessary for such a service.” Hall's Works.--Hend. Buck. ITUREA ; a province of Syria or Arabia, beyond Jor- dan, east of the Batanea, and south of Trachonitis. Luke 3:1, speaks of Iturea; and 1 Chron. 5:19. of the Itureans, or of Jethur, who was one of the sons of Ishmael, and’ gave name to Iturea. In Gen. 25: 15, and in 1 Chron. 1: 31, Iturea is included in Arabia Petraea. Early in his reign Aristobulus made war with the Itureans, sub- dued the greater part of them, and obliged them to em. brace Judaism, as Hircanus his father had some years before obliged the Idumeans to do. He gave them their choice, either to be circumcised and embrace the Jewish religion, or to leave the country. They chose the former. Philip, one of Herod's sons, was tetrarch of Iturea, when John the Baptist entered on his ministry, Luke 3: 1- Calmet. - IVORY: (Heb. schenhabim, from schen, a tooth, and hahini, elephants; Greek, elephantinos, Rev. 18: 12.) The first time that ivory is mentioned in Scripture is in the reign of Solomon. If the forty-fifth Psalm was written before the Canticles, and before Solomon had constructed his royal and magnificent throne, then that contains the first men- tion of this commodity. It is spoken of as used in decorat- ing those boxes of perfume, whose odors were employed to exhilarate the king's spirits. It is probable that Solo- mon, who traded to India, first brought thence elephants and ivory to Judea, 1 Kings 10:23. 2 Chron 9: 21. It seems that Solomon had a throne decorated with ivory, and inlaid with gold; the beauty of these materials reliev- ing the splendor, and heightening the lustre of each other, 1 Kings 10: 18. Cabinets and wardrobes were ornamented with ivory, by what is called marquetry, Ps. 45: 8. Quale per artem. Inclusttºm buro anat Oricia terebintho I,wcet ebur. VIRGIL. “So shines a gem, illustrious to behold, On some fair virgin’s neck, enchased in gold: So the surrounding ebon’s darker hue • Improves the polish'divory to the view", - ITT. These were named “houses of ivory,” probably be. cause made in the form of a house, or palace ; as the silver naoi of Diana, mentioned Acts 19: 24, were in the form of her temple at Ephesus; and as we have now ivory models of the Chinese pagodas, or temples. In this sense we may understand what is said of the ivory house which Ahab made, 1 Kings 22: 39. As to dwelling- houses, the most we can suppose in regard to them is, that they might have ornaments of ivory, as they some- times have of gold, silver, or other precious materials, in such abundance as to derive an appellation from the arti- cle of their decoration; as the emperor Nero's palace, mentioned by Suetonius, was named aurea, or “golden,” because lita auro, “overlaid with gold.” This method of ornamenting buildings, or apartments, was very ancient among the Greeks. Homer mentions ivory as employed in the palace of Menelaus, at Lacedaemon:— “Above, beneath, around the palace, shines The sumless treasure of exhausted mines; The spoils of elephants the roof inlay, And studded amber darts a golden ray.” - Odyss. iv. 72. Pope. Bacchylides, cited by Athenaeus, says, that, in the island of Ceos, one of the Cyclades, the houses of the great men “glister with gold and ivory.” Harris' Nat. His-Watson. J. JABAL; son of Lamech and Adáh, father of those who lodge under tents, and of shepherds ; (Gen. 4:20.) that is, the first distinguished example of that class of men, who, like the Arab Bedoweens, live under tents, and are shep- herds. (See FATHER.)—Calmet. JABBOK; a small river rising in the mountains of Gilead, which falls into the Jordan on the east, below the sea of Tiberias. Near the ford of this brook the angel wrestled with Jacob, Gen. 32: 22. Mr. Buckingham thus describes it : “The banks of this stream are so thickly wooded with oleander and plane- trees, wild olives, and wild almonds in blossom, with many ſlowers, the names of which were unknown to us; with tall and waving reeds, at least fifteen feet in height; that we could not perceive the water through them from above, though the presence of these luxuriant borders marked the winding of its course, and the murmur of its flow, echoing through its long, deep channel, was to be heard distinctly from afar. The river, where we crossed it at this point, was not more than ten yards wide, but it was deeper than the Jordan, and nearly as rapid ; so that we had some difficulty in fording it. As it ran in a rocky bed, its waters were clear, and we found their taste agreea. ble.” It is now called El Zerka.— Watson. JABESH, or JABESH-GILEAD ; the name of a city in the half-tribe of Manasseh, east of Jordan. Naash, king 1 A c J A C [ 669 J of the Ammonites, besieged it, 1 Sam. 11: 1, &c. The inhabitants were friendly to Saul and his family, 1 Sam. 31: 11, 12.—Watson. - JABIN ; king of Hazor, in the northern part of Canaan, Josh. 11:1, &c. Discomfited at the conquests of Joshua, who had subdued the south of Canaan, he formed with other kings in the northern part along the Jordan, and the Mediterranean, and in the mountains, a league offensive and defensive. With their troops they rendezvoused at the waters of Merom, but Joshua attacked them suddenly, defeated them, and pursued them to great Zidon, and the valley of Mizpeh. He lamed their horses, burnt their chariots, took Hazor, and killed Jabin, about A. M. 2555. —2. Another king of Hazor, who oppressed the Israelites twenty years, from A. M. 2699 to 2719, Judg. 4: 2, &c. Sisera, his general, was defeated by Barak at the foot of mount Tabor; and the Israelites were delivered.—Calmet. JABNEH, or JABNIA; a city of the Philistines, thirty miles east of Jerusalem, (2 Chron. 26:6.) called Jamnia, (1 Mac. 4: 15.) and Jamneia, chap. 5: 58. 2 Mac. 12:8. Its situation may be gathered from the passage last cited, as being not far from Jaffa or Joppa. The following is Dr. Wittman’s account of it : “Yebna is a village about twelve miles distant from Jaffa; in a fine open plain, surrounded by hills and covered with herbage. A rivulet formed by the rains supplies water. It is conjectured that the rock Etam, where Samson was surprised by the Philistines, was not far from Yebma. North-east of Yebna is a lofty hill, from which is an extensive and pleasing view of Ramla, distant about five miles. On sloping hills of easy ascent, by which the plains are bordered, Yebna, Ekron, Asdod, and Ashkalon, were in sight.” Comp. 2 Chron. 26: 6.-Calmet. JACHIN, (stability ;) the name of a brass pillar placed at the porch of Solomon's temple. (See BoAz.)—Calmet. JACINTH. This precious gem, which is mentioned in Rev. 21: 20, where it is called in the Greek text hyacinth, as it also is in Pliny, is now thought to be the amethyst of the moderns. The amethysts of the ancients are now called garnets. There seems to be no reason for doubt- ing the propriety of rendering the Hebrew ahalmah, and the Greek amethystos, by amethyst. Pliny says the reason assigned for its name is, that though it approaches to the color of wine, it falls short of it and stops at a violet color. Others think it is called amethyst, because its color resem- bles wine mixed with water; and in this view, also, it derives its name from a, negative, and methy, nine. The Oriental amethyst or jacinth is an extremely rare gem. If. heated, it loses its color and becomes transparent, in which state it is hardly distinguishable from the diamond. — Harris. JACOB; the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah. Jt was observed, that at his birth he held his brother Esau’s heel; and for this reason was called Jacob, (Gen. 25:26.) which signifies “he supplanted.” Jacob was of a meek and peaceable temper, and loved a quiet, pastoral life ; whereas Esau was of a fierce and turbulent nature, and was fond of hunting. Isaac had a particular fondness for Esau; but Rebekah was more attached to Jacob. The manner in which Jacob purchased his brother's birthright for a mass of pottage, and supplanted him by obtaining Isaac’s blessing, is already referred to in the article Es AU. * The events of the interesting and chequered life of Jacob are so plainly and consecutively narrated by Moses, that they are familiar to all; but upon some of them a few remarks may be useful. 1. As to the purchase of the birthright, Jacob appears to have been innocent, so far as any guile on his part or real necessity from hunger on the part of Esau is involved in the question; but his obtaining the ratification of this by the blessing of Isaac, though agreeable, indeed, to the purpose of God, that the elder should serve the younger, •was blamable as to the means employed. Indeed all the parties were more or less culpable; Isaac, for endeavor. ing to set aside the oracle which had been pronounced in favor of his younger son ; but of which he might have an ºbscure conception; Esau, for wishing to deprive his !ºrother of the blessing which he had himself relinquished; and Rebekah and Jacob, for securing it by fraudulent means, not trusting wholly in the Lord. That their princi- pal object, however, was the spiritual part of the blessing, and not the temporal, was shown by the event. For Jacob afterwards reverenced Esau, as his elder brother, and insisted on Esau’s accepting a present from his hand, in token of submission, Gen. 33: 3–15. Esau also appears to have possessed himself of his father's property during Jacob's long exile. But though the intention of Rebekah and Jacob might have been free from worldly or mercenary motives, they ought not to have done evil that good might come. And they were both severely punished in this life for their fraud, which destroyed the peace of the family, and planted a mortal enmity in the breast of Esau against his brother, Gen. 27: 36–41. And there can be little doubt of his intention of executing his threat, when he came to meet him on his return, with such an armed force as strongly alarmed Jacob's fears, had not God in answer to Jacob’s wrestling prayer changed the spirit of Esau into mildness, so that “he ran to meet Jacob, and fell on his neck, and they wept,” Gen. 33: 4. Rebekah, also, was deprived of the society of her darling son, whom “she sent away for one year,” as she fondly imagined, “until his brother's fury should turn away,” (Gen. 27: 42—44.) but whom she saw no more ; for she died during his long exile of twenty years, though Isaac survived, Gen. 35: 27. Thus was “she pierced through with many sorrows.” 2. Jacob, also, had abundant reason subsequently to say, “Few and evil have been the days of the years of my pilgrimage,” Gen. 47: 9. At the period of his flight how forcible would have been the question—By nohom shall Jacob arise 2 Amos 7: 5. Though he had the consolation of having the blessing of Abraham voluntarily renewed to him by his father, before he was forced to fly from his brother's fury, (Gen. 28: 1–4.) and had the satisfaction of obeying his parents in going to Padan-aram, or Charran, in quest of a wife of his own kindred, (Gen. 28; 7.) yet he set out on a long and perilous journey of six hundred miles and upwards, through barren and inhospitable regions, unattended and unprovided, like a pilgrim, in- deed, with only his staff in his hand, Gen. 32: 10. And though he was supported with the assurance of the divine protection, and the renewal of the blessing of Abraham by God himself, in his remarkable vision at Bethel, and solemnly devoted himself to his service, wishing only for food and raiment, and vowing to profess the worship of God, and pay tithe unto him, should he return back in peace, (Gen. 28: 10–22.) yet he was forced to engage in a tedious and thankless servitude of seven years, at first for Rachel, with Laban, who retaliated upon him the imposition he had practised on his own father, and substi- tuted Leah, whom he hated, for Rachel, whom he loved ; and thereby compelled him to serve seven years more; and changed his wages several times during the remain- der of his whole servitude of twenty years ; in the course of which, as he pathetically complained, “the drought consumed him by day, and the frost by night, and the sleep departed from his eyes,” in watching Laban's flocks; (Gen. 31:40.) and at last he was forced to steal away, and was only protected from Laban’s vengeance, as afterwards from Esau's, by divine interposition. Add to these his domestic troubles and misfortunes; the impatience of his favorite wife, “Give me children, or I die;” her death in bearing her second son, Benjamin; the rape of his daughter Dinah ; the perfidy and cruelty of her bro- thers, Simeon and Levi, to the Shechemites; the misbeha- vior of Reuben ; the supposed death of Joseph, his ſavorite and most deserving son :-these were, all together, sufficient to have brought down his grey hairs with sorrow to the grave, had he not been divinely supported and encouraged throughout the whole of his pilgrimage. For the circumstances which led Jacob into Egypt, (Gen. 47: 1–10.) see Joseph. Jacob spent the remainder of his days in tranquillity and prosperity, enjoying the society of his beloved child seventeen years. The close of his life was a happy calm, after a stormy voyage. 3. Of all the predictions which he pronounced with his ex- piring breath, (Gen. 49.) the most remarkable and the most interesting is that relating to Judah: “The sceptre shall not . j A C J AM | 670 ) depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come ; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be,” Gen. 49: 10. One grand personage was in the mind of the patriarch, as it had been in the contem- plation of his predecessors, even the illustrious Deliverer who should arise in after ages to redeem his people, and bring salvation to the human race. (See SHILOH.) Here, them, in this prediction and its fulfilment, we have a glori- ous proof not only of the piety and faith of Jacob, but of the veracity of Scripture, and the truth of our religion, Gen. 50: 1–11. See Calmet.—Watson. JACOBITES; a sect of Christians in Syria and Mesopo- tamia; so called, either from Jacob, a Syrian, who lived in the reign of the emperor Mauritius, or from one Jacob, a monk, who flourished in the year 550. -. The Jacobites are of two sects, some following the rites of the Latin church, and others continuing separated from the church of Rome. There is also a division among the latter, who have two rival patriarchs, and consist of about thirty or forty thousand families, living in Syria. and Mesopotamia. As to their belief, they hold but one nature in Jesus Christ. (See HYPost Asis, and Mono- PHYSITEs.) With respect to purgatory, and prayers for the dead, they are of the same opinion with the Greeks and other Eastern Christians. They consecrate unleavened bread at the eucharist, and are against confession, believ- ing that it is not of divine institution. They also practise circumcision before baptism. (See NESTORIANs.) The name of Jacobites is also applied to the adherents of James II., particularly to the non-jurors who separated from the high Episcopal church, simply because they would not take the oath of allegiance to the new king, and who in their public services prayed for the Stuart family. They were most numerous in Scotland, but were very much lessened by the defeat of the Pretender, in 1745, and at his death, in 1788, they began to pray for George III.-Hend. Buck. JACOB'S WELL; a fountain near Sychar or Shechem, Gen. 38. John 4:6. “The principal object of veneration here is Jacob's well, over which a church was formerly crected. This is situated at a small distance from the town, in the road to Jerusalem, and has been visited by pilgrims of all ages, but particularly since the Christian era, as the place where our Savior revealed himself to the woman of Samaria. The spot is so distinctly marked by the evangelist, and so little liable to uncertainty, from the circumstance of the well itself, and the features of the country, that, if no tradition existed for its identity, the site of it could hardly be mistaken. Perhaps no Christian scholar ever attentively read the fourth chapter of St. John without being struck with the numerous internal evidences of truth which crowd upon the mind in its perusal. With- in so small a compass it is impossible to find in other writings so many sources of reflection and of interest. Independently of its importance as a theological document, it concentrates so much information, that a volume might be filled with the illustration it reflects on the history of the Jews, and on the geography of their country. All that can be gathered on these subjects from Josephus seems but as a comment to illustrate this chapter. The Journey of our Lord from Judea into Galilee; the cause of it ; his passage througn the territory of Samaria; his approach to the metropolis of this country; its name ; his arrival at the Amorite field, which terminates the narrow valley of Sichem ; the ancient custom of halting at a well; the female employment of drawing water; the disciples sent into the city for food, by which its situation out of the town is obviously implied; the question of the woman referring to existing prejudices which separated the Jews from the Samaritans; the depth of the well; the Oriental allusion contained in the expression, ‘living mater ;’ the history of the well, and the customs thereby illustrated ; the worship upon mount Gerizim; all these occur within the space of twenty verses: and if to these be added, what has already been referred to in the remainder of the same chapter, we shall perhaps consider it as a record which, in the words of him who sent it, “we MAY LIFT UP our Eyes, AND Look Upon, for IT is white ALREADY To HARVEST.’” Dr. E. D. Clarke, p. 517.—Calmet. JACOMB, (Thoxias, D. D.,) an English divine, of great learning and piety, was born in 1622, studied at Oxford and Cambridge, and was settled at Ludgate parish, London, in 1647; where he continued till ejected for non- conformity, in 1662. He was received as chaplain into the house of the countess dowager of Exeter, where he labored faithfully, and with great usefulness, until his death, in 1687, aged sixty-five. - - His complaint was a cancer; but through his long and painful sickness he was a model of Christian patience and resignation; with comfort reviewing his course, and with joy expecting his crown from Christ his Savior, “who was made unto him of God, wisdom and righteousness, and Sanctification and redemption.” Once indeed he said to a friend, while longing to be above, “Death flies from me; I make no haste to my Father's house. I lie here, but get no ground for heaven or earth.” It being said, “Yes, in your preparations for heaven,” he replied, “O yes, there I sensibly get ground, I bless God. It will not be long before we meet in heaven, never to part more; but to be with Christ is best of all.” * His works consist of a Commentary on Rom. VIII.; a Treatise of Holy Dedication ; Life and Death of Mr. William Whitaker; and several occasional Sermons,— Middleton, vol. iv. p. 3. JAEL, or JAHEL, wife of Heber the Kenite, killed Sise- ra, general of the Canaanitish army, Judg. 4: 17, 21. Why this woman violated the sacred rites of hospitality, by murdering her guest, does not appear. Mr. Taylor suggests as probable, (1.) That Jael had herself felt the severity of the late oppression of Israel by Sisera; (2.) That she was actuated by motives of patriotism, and of gratitude toward Israel; (3.) That the general character of Sisera might be so atrocious, that at any rate his death was desirable. We find a similar proceeding in the case of Judith.—Calmet. - JAH ; one of the names of God; which is combined with many Hebrew words; as Adonijah, Halleluiah, Ma- lachia –God is my Lord, praise the Lord, the Lord is my king, &c. (See JEHOVAH.)—Calmet. JAIR, of Manasseh, possessed the whole country of Ar- gob beyond Jordan, to the borders of Geshur and Maacha- thi, Judg. 10: 3. He succeeded Tola in the government of Israel, and was succeeded by Jephthah. His govern- ment continued twenty-two years, from A. M. 2795 to 2817. Comp. Num. 32:41. Deut. 3: 14. Josh. 13:30. 1 Kings 4: 13. 1 Chron. 2: 22. ~~~~ - 2. JAIR ; the eighth month of the Hebrew civil year, and the second of the sacred year. It corresponded partly to March and April.—Calmet. JAIRUS ; chief of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose only daughter, an interesting girl of twelve, falling dange- rously sick, was healed by Jesus, Mark 5: 22–Calmet. JAMBRES. (See JANNEs.) - JAMES, (Gr. Jakóbos;) of the same import as Jacob. James, surnamed the Greater, or the Elder, to distinguish him from James the Younger, was brother to John the evangelist, and son to Zebedee and Salome, Matt, 4:21. He was of Bethsaida, in Galilee, with his brother John, a fisherman, and left all to follow Christ, Mark 1: 18, 19. They were witnesses of our Lord’s transfiguration, Matt, 17: 2. When certain Samaritans refused to admit Jesus Christ, James and John wished leave to pray for fire from heaven to consume them, Luke 9: 54. Some days after the resurrection of our Savior, James and John went to fish in the sea of Tiberias, where they saw Jesus. They were present at the ascension of our Lord. St. James is said to have preached to all the dispersed tribes of Israel; but for this there is only report. His martyrdom is relat- ed, Acts 12: 1, 2, about A. D. 42, or 44, for the date is not well ascertained. Herod Agrippa, king of the Jews, and grandson of Herod the Great, caused him to be seized and executed at Jerusalem. Clemens Alexandrinus inſorms us, that he who brought St. James before the judges, was so much affected with his constancy in confessing Jesus Christ, that he also declared himself a Christian, and was con- demned, as well as the apostle, to be beheaded. (See Bo- ANERGEs.) º - - - 2. JAMES THE Less, surnamed the brother of our Lord, (Gal. 1: 19.) was the son of Cleophas, otherwise called Alpheus, and Mary, sister to the blessed virgin; conse J A M J A N [ 671 quently, he was cousin-german to Jesus Christ. He was surnamed the Just, on account of the admirable holiness and purity of his life. He is said to have been a priest, and to have observed the laws of the Nazarites from his birth. Our Savior appeared to James the Less, eight days after his resurrection, 1 Cor. 15: 7. He was at Jerusalem, and was considered as a pillar of the church, when St. Paul first came thither after his conversion, (Gal. 1: 19.) A. D. 37. In the council of Jerusalem, held in the year 51, St. James gave his vote last; and the result of the council was principally formed from what St. James said, who, though he observed the ceremonies of the law, and was careful that others should observe them, was of opi- nion, that such a yoke was not to be imposed on the faith- ful converted from among the heathens, Acts 15: 13, &c. About A. D. 63, it is said James was commanded by the Jews to proclaim from one of the galleries of the temple, - that Jesus of Nazareth was not the Messiah; instead of which he proclaimed him to be the Son of God, and Judge of the world. For this he was thrown from the bat- tlement, and while praying for his murderers, was stoned to death. James the Less was a person of great prudence and discretion, and was highly esteemed by the apostles and other Christians. Such, indeed, was his general reputa- tion for piety and virtue, that, (as we learn from Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome,) Josephus thought, and declared it to be the common opinion, that the sufferings of the Jews, and the destruction of their city and temple, were owing to the anger of God, excited by the murder of James. This must be considered as a strong and remarkable testi- mony to the character of this apostle, as it is given by a person who did not believe that Jesus was the Christ. The passages of Josephus, referred to by those fathers up- on this subject, are not found in his works now extant. 3. JAMEs, GENERAL EPISTLE OF. Clement of Rome and Hermas allude to this epistle; and it is quoted by Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius, Jerome, Chrysostom, Augustine, and many other fathers. But though the antiquity of this epistle had been always undisputed, some ſew formerly doubted its right to be admitted into the canon. Eusebius says, that in his time it was generally, though not univer- sally, received as canonical, and publicly read in most, but not in all, churches; and Estius affirms, that after the fourth century, no church or ecclesiastical writer is found who ever doubted its authenticity; but that, on the contra- ry, it is included in all subsequent catalogues of canonical Scripture, whether published by councils, churches, or in- dividuals. It had, indeed, been the uniform tradition of the church, that this epistle was written by James thre Just; but it was not universally admitted, till after the fourth century, that James the Just was the same as James the Less, one of the twelve apostles; that point being ascer- tained, the canonical authority of this epistle was no lon- ger doubted. It has always been considered as a circumstance very much in favor of this epistle, that it is found in the Syriac version, which was made as early as the end of the first century, and for the particular use of converted Jews, the very description of persons to whom it was originally addressed. Hence we infer, that it was from the first ac- knowledged by those for whose instruction it was intended; and “I think,” says Dr. Doddridge, “it can hardly be doubted but they were better judges of the question of its authenticity than the Gentiles, to whom it was not written; among whom, therefore, it was not likely to be propagated so early ; and who at first might be prejudiced against it, because it was inscribed to the Jews.” The immediate design of this epistle was to animate the Jewish Christians to support with fortitude and patience any sufferings to which they might be exposed, and to en- force the genuine doctrine and practice of the gospel, in opposition to the errors and vices which then prevailed among them. - St. James begins by showing the benefits of trials and afflictions, and by assuring the Jewish Chris- tians that God would listen to their sincere prayers for as- sistance and support: he reminds them of their being the distinguished objects of divine favor, and exhorts them to practical religion; to a just and impartial regard for the poor, and to ar, uniform obedience to all the commands of God, without any distinction or exception; he shows the inefficacy of faith without works, that is, unless followed by moral duties; he inculcates the necessity of a strict go- vernment of the tongue, and cautions them against censo. riousness, strife, malevolence, pride, indulgence of their sensual passions, and rash judgment; he denounces threats against those who make an improper use of riches; he intimates the approaching destruction of Jerusalem; and concludes with exhortations to patience, devotion, and a solicitous concern for the salvation of others. ... •. This epistle is written with great perspicuity and energy, and it contains an excellent summary of those practical duties and moral virtues which are required of Christians. Although the author wrote to the Jews dispersed through- out the world, yet the state of his native land passed more immediately before his eyes. Its final overthrow was ap- proaching; and oppressions, factions, and violent scenes troubled all ranks, and involved some professing Christians in suffering, others in guilt, James 5: 8, 9.—Watson. JAMES, (THOMAs,) a learned English critic and divine, was born 1571, and educated at Oxford. In 1602, he was designated first keeper of the public library in that univer- sity, to which were soon added some other preferments. In 1620 he resigned his place as keeper, and devoted him- self more intensely to study. In 1624, he thus writes to archbishop Usher: “I have of late given myself wholly to the reading of manuscripts, and in them I find so many and so pregnant testimonies either fully for our religion, or against the papists, that it is to be wondered at.” He had published more than twenty learned works, and had commenced the collation of all the manuscripts of the fathers in all the libraries of England, in order to detect the forgeries of the popish editions, when he was arrested by death, in August, 1629. No man exceeded him in in- defatigable industry.—Middleton, vol. ii. p. 486. JANEWAY, (John.) This very pious and extraordinary young man was born at Lylly, Hertford, in 1633, of reli- gious parents, to whom he gave early hopes of much com- fort, by his mental superiority. He entered Cambridge at seventeen, and at eighteen it pleased God to bring his soul to the Savior, in part by means of Baxter's Saint's Rest. He now looked upon human learning as useless, if not fixed below Christ, and pursued for Christ; without whom it can only augment the soul’s capacity for guilt and misery. His zeal now glowed for the salvation of souls, especially of those nearly related to him. Secret prayer now became his element, his joy, and his strength, and his great instru ment of success. On leaving college, his father being dead, he went to live in the family of Dr. Cox, where his health sunk under his studies and labors; and he finished his short course in June, 1657, aged twenty-four. His ly- ing bed was a scene of triumph. “I am going,” said lue, “to him whom I love above life. I charge you all, do not pray for my life any more. You do me wrong if you do. Oh that glory, that unspeakable glory that I behold. My heart is full.”—Middleton, vol. iii. p. 362. JANNES and JAMBRES; the two chief magicians who resisted Moses, in Egypt, by pretending to perform similar wonders, 2 Tim. 3: 8. The paraphrast Jonathan, on Num. 23:22, says they were the two sons of Balaºm, who accompanied him to Balak, king of Moab. They are called by several names, in several translations. Artapa- nus affirms, that Pharaoh sent for magicians, from Upper Egypt, to oppose Moses; and Ambrosiaster or Hilary the Deacon says they were brothers. Numenius, cited by Aristobulus, says, “Jannes and Jambres were sacred scribes of the Egyptians, who excelled in magic, at the time when the Jews were driven out of Egypt. These were the only persons whom the Egyptians found capable of opposing Moses, who was a man whose prayers to God were very powerful. These two men, Jannes and Jam- bres, were alone able to frustrate the calamities which Moses brought upon the Egyptians.” The Mussulmen have several particulars to the same purpose. Their recital supposes, that the magicians wrought no miracle, but only played conjuring tricks, in which they endeavored to impose upon the eyes of spec- tators. Moses, however, expresses himself as if Pharaoh’s magicians operated the same effects as himself; so that Pharaoh and his whole court were persuaded, that the J A P J A S ( 672 ) power of their magicians was equal to that of Moses, till those magicians themselves were constrained to acknow- ledge, This is the finger of God! Exod, 8: 18, 19. (See PLAGUES OF EGYPT.)—Calmet. JANSENISTS; a denomination of Roman Catholics in France, which was formed in the year 1640. They follow the opinions of Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, from whose writings the following propositions are said to have been extracted:—1. That there are divine precepts which good men, notwithstanding their desire to observe them, are, nevertheless, absolutely unable to obey; nor has God given them that measure of grace which is essentially necessary to render them capable of such obedience. 2. That no person in this corrupt state of nature, can resist the influ- emce of divine grace, when it operates upon the mind. 3. That, in order to render human actions capable of merit or demerit, it is not requisite that they be exempt from necessity; but that they be free from constraint. 4. That the Semi-Pelagians err greatly, in maintaining that the human will is endowed with the power either of obeying or resisting the aids and influences of preventing grace. 5. That whoever affirms that Jesus Christ made expiation, by his sufferings and death, for the sins of all mankind, is a Semi-Pelagian. Of these propositions, pope Innocent Y. condemned the first four as heretical, and the last as rash and impious. But he did this without asserting that these were the doctrines of Jansenius, or even naming him ; which did not satisfy his adversaries, nor silence him. The next pope, however, Alexander VII., was more particular, and determined the said propositions to be the doctrines of Jansenius; which excited no small trouble in the Gallican church. This denomination was also distinguished from many of the Roman Catholics, by their maintaining that the Holy Scriptures and public liturgies should be given to the peo- ple in their mother tongue; and they consider it as a mat- ter of importance to inculcate upon all Christians, that true piety does not consist in the performance of external devotions, but in inward holiness and divine love. As to Jansenius, it must be confessed that he was more diligent in the search of truth, than courageous in its de- fence. It is said that he read through the whole of St. Augustine’s works ten, and some parts thirty, times. From these he made a number of excerpta, which he col- lected in his book called “Augustinus.” This he had not the courage to publish; but it was printed after his death, and from it his enemies, the Jesuits, extracted the propo- sitions above named ; but the correctness and fidelity of their extracts may be justly questioned. Jansenius him- self, undoubtedly, held the opinions of Calvin on uncondi- tional election, though he seems to have been reserved in avowing them. The Jansenists of Port Royal may be denominated the evangelical party of the Catholic church : among their number were the famous Father Quesnel, Pierre Nicole, Pascal, De Sacy, Duguet, and Arnauld; the last of whom is styled by Boileau, “the most learned mortal that ever lived.” They consecrated all their great powers to the service of the cross; and for their attachment to the grand article of the Protestant Reformation,-justification by faith, with other capital doctrines, they suffered the loss of all things. The Jesuits, their implacable enemies, mever ceased until they prevailed upon their sovereign, Louis XIV., to destroy the abbey of Port Royal, and ba- nish its inhabitants. It must be confessed, however, that all the Jansenists were not like the eminent men whom we have just mentioned; and even these were tinged with en- thusiasm and superstition. Some of them even pretended to work miracles, by which their cause was greatly injur- ed.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. JAPHETH, the son of Noah, who is commonly named the third in order of Noah's sons, was born in the five hundredth year of that patriarch; (Gen. 5:32.) but Moses (Gen. 10: 21.) says expressly he was the oldest of Noah's sons, according to our translation, and those of the Septua- gint and Symmachus. Abraham was named the first of Terah's sons, “not from primogeniture, but from pre- eminence,” as the father of the faithful, and the illustrious ancestor of the Israelites, and of the Jews, whose “seed was Christ,” according to the flesh; with whose history the Old Testament properly commences: “Now these are the generations of Terah,” &c.; (Gen, 11. 27.) all the pre- ceding parts of Genesis being only introductory to this. By the same analogy, Shem, the second son of Noah, is placed first of his three sons, (Gen. 5:32.) and Japheth, “the eldest,” last. Compare Gen. 10: 21. 11; 20. Thus Isaac is put before Ishmael, though fourteen years young- er, 1 Chron. 1: 28. And Solomon, the eldest, is reckoned the last of Bathsheba's children, 1 Chron. 3: 5. Japheth signifies enlargement; and how wonderfully did Providence enlarge the boundaries of Japheth ! His pos- terity diverged eastwards and westwards; from the origi- nal settlement in Armenia, through the whole extent of Asia, north of the great range of Taurus, distinguished by the general names of Tartary and Siberia, as far as the Eastern Ocean; and in process of time, by an easy pas- Sage across Behring's straits, the entire continent of Ame- rica; and they spread in the opposite direction, throughout , the whole of Europe, to the Atlantic ocean; thus literally encompassing the earth, within the precincts of the northern temperate zone. While the enterprising and warlike genius of this hardy hunter-race frequently led them to encroach on the settlements, and to dwell in “the tents of Shem,” whose pastoral occupations rendered them more inactive, peaceable, and unwarlike; as when the Scythians invaded Media, and overran western Asia southwards, as far as Egypt, in the days of Cyaxares; and when the Greeks, and afterwards the Romans, subdued the Assyri- ans, Medes, and Persians, in the East, and the Scythians and Jews in the South, as foretold by the Assyrian pro- phet, Balaam :— . . “And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, And shall aſílict the Assyrians, and afflict the Hebrews; But he [the invader] shall perish himself at last.” Num. 24; 24. Chittim here denotes the southern coasts of Europe, bordering on the Mediterranean sea, called the “isles of the Gentiles,” Gen. 10: 5. And, in later times, the Tar- tars in the East have repeatedly invaded and subdued the Hindoos and Chinese; while the warlike and enterprising genius of the British isles has spread their colonies, their arms, their arts, and their language, and, in some mea- sure, their religion, from the rising to the setting sun. (See DIVISION OF THE EARTH.) Japheth was known, by profane authors, under the name of Japetus. The poets make him father of heaven and earth. The Greeks believed that Japheth was the father of their race, and acknowledged nothing more ancient than him. Hence the phrase, Old as Japetus.-Watson. JAR. (See JAIR...) JAREB; (Hos. 5: 13. 10:6.) the name of a king, or more probably of an idol, for it was common among the heathen to call their idols kings.-Calmet. JASHER, (Book of ;) a modern apocryphal work, in- tended to impose on the credulous and ignorant, to sap the credit of the books of Moses, and to blacken the character of Moses himself. It pretends to be a translation of the ancient record, mentioned Josh. 10: 13, and 2 Sam. 1: 18, but is one of the most clumsy and impudent forgeries that ever were attempted to be palmed on the public. It was first published by Jacob Ilive, a printer, in 1751, in quarto, who worked it off secretly by night, at a private press.- FIend. Buck. & JASON, a high-priest of the Jews, and brother of Onias III., was a man of unbounded ambition, who scrupled not to divest his brother of the high-priesthood, in order to seize that dignity himself, sacrilegiously purchasing it of Antiochus Epiphanes. Jason did all he could to abolish the worship of God in Jerusalem, and to prevail with the very priests to adopt the religion of the Greeks. He is to be considered as the cause of all the calamities which be- fel the Jews under Antiochus. He died at Lacedaemon, a city in alliance with the Jews, to which he had fled from Aretas, or Menelaus; and his body remained without bu- rial, the greatest indignity that could be offered to him. 2. Paul’s kinsman, and his host at Thessalonica, (Rom. 16:21.) hazarded his liſe to preserve him during a sedition in that city, Acts 17: 7.—Calmet. - JASPER ; (Heb. jaspeh, Exod. 28. 20, 39: 13, and Ezek. 28, 13. Gr. iaspis, Rev. 4- 3, and 21:11, 18, 19.) *. J E H J E H sis | The Greek and Latin name, jaspis, as well as the English jasper, is plainly derived from the Hebrew, and leaves lit- tle room to doubt what species of gem is meant by the original word. The jasper is usually defined, a hard stone, of a bright, beautiful, green color; sometimes cloud- ed with white, and spotted with red or yellow.—Watson. JAVAN, or Ion, (for the Hebrew word, differently point- ed, forms both names,) was the fourth son of Japheth, and the father of all those nations which were included under the name of Grecians, or Ionians, as they were in- variably called in the East. (See Division of the EARTH, and GREECE.)—Watson. - JAVELIN. (See ARMs, MILITARY.) JEALOUSY, is that particular uneasiness which arises from the fear that some rival may robus of the affection of one whom we greatly love, or suspicion that he has al- ready done it. The first sort of jealousy is inseparable from love, before it is in possession of its object; the latter is unjust, generally mischievous, and always troublesome. God's tender love towards his church is sometimes call- ed jealousy. Paul says to the Corinthians, that he is jea- lous over them with a godly jealousy, that he might pre- sent them as a chaste virgin to Christ. The word, how- ever, is frequently used to express the vindictive acts of dishonored love. Thus the Psalmist, (79: 5.) representing the church as smarting under divine judgments, occasion- ed by her infidelity to God, says, “How long, Lord, shall thy jealousy burn like fire P’ See also 1 Cor. 10; 22. WATERs of JeALousy.—There is something very striking in the solemn process prescribed in Num. 5: 11–31, for the detection and punishment of a woman who had excited her husband's jealousy, without affording him the ordinary means of proving her infidelity. (See ADULTERY.)—Hend. Buck ; Calmet. JEARIM, (mount;) Josh. 15: 10; a boundary of the in- heritance of Judah. It was a woody mountain, on which the city of Balah, or Kirjath-jearim, was situated.—Calmet. JEBUS; the son of Canaan, (Gen. 10: 16.) and father of the people of Palestine called Jebusites. Their dwell- ing was in Jerusalem and round about, in the mountains. This people were very warlike, and held Jerusalem till David’s time, Josh. 15: 65. 2 Sam. 5: 6, &c.—Watson. JEDUTHUN; a Levite of Merari's family; and one of the four great masters of music belonging to the tem- ple, 1 Chron. 16:41. He is the same as Ethan ; and some of the psalms are said to have been composed by him, as Psalm 89, entitled, “Of Ethan the Ezrahite;” also 39, 62, and 77, under the name of Jeduthun. There are some psalms with the name of Jeduthun affixed to them, which seem to have been composed during, or after, the captivity. These were probably composed, or sung, by his descend- ants, or class.—Calmet. - JEGAR-SHADUTHA; (the heap of witness, Gên. 31:47, &c.) The term is Chaldee, and it is usually thought to prove that the Chaldee language was different from the Hebrew. It might be so; but, we should remember that Jacob gave two names to this place, “Galeed, and Miz- pah.” Might not Laban do the same 3 varying the term, as Mizpah differs from Galeed; for it does not appear that Laban when speaking afterwards uses the Chaldee words, Jegar shadutha; but the Hebrew words which Jacob used, “this (gal) heap be witness, and this (mizpeh)-pillar be witness.” So that in these instances he certainly retained his Hebrew. (See Stones.)—Calmet. - - JEHOAHAZ, otherwise SHALLUM ; the son of Josiah, king of Judah, Jer. 22: 11. Jehoahaz was made king in his room, though he was not Josiah’s eldest son, 2 Kings 23: 30–32. He was in all probability thought fitter than any of his brethren to make head against the king of Egypt. He reigned, however, only three months in Jeru- salem, B. C. 609.-Watson. JEHOIACHIN ; king of Judah, otherwise called Co- niah, (Jer. 22: 24.) and Jeconiah, 1 Chron. 3: 17. He as- cended the throne, and reigned only three months. It seems he was born about the time of the first Babylonish captivi- ty, A.M. 3398, when Jehoiakim, or Eliakim, his father, was carried to Babylon. Jehoiakim returned from Babylon, and reigned till A. M. 3405, when he was killed by the Chaldeans, in the eleventh year of his reign; and was suc- ceeded by this Jehoiachin, w; reigned alone three months tion with his father. and ten days; but he reigned about ten years in conjunc- - Thus 2 Kings 24: 8, is reconciled with 2 Chron. 36:9. In the former of these passages, he is said to have been eighteen when he began to reign, and in Chronicles only eight; that is, he was only eight when he began to reign with his father, and eighteen when he began to reign alone. The words of the prophet Jeremiah, (22; 30.) are not to be taken in the strictest sense; since he was the father of Salathiel and others, 1 Chron. 3: 17, 18. Matt. 1: 12. It signifies that he should have no heir to his throne; as proved to be the fact.—Watson. JEHOIADA, by Josephus called Joadus, succeeded Aza- riah in the high-priesthood. In 1 Chron. 6: 9, 10, Johanan and Azariah seemed to be confounded with Jehoiada and Zechariah. This excellent high-priest, with his wife Jeho- shabeath, rescued Joash, son of Joram, king of Judah, when but one year old, from the murderous violence of Athaliah, and concealed him in the temple. After seven years, he set him on the throne of David, 2 Kings 11; 12, and 2 Chron. 23, 24. (See ATHALIAH, and JoASH.) While Jehoiada lived, and Joash followed his advice, every thing happily succeeded. The high-priest formed a design of repairing the temple, and collected considerable sums in the cities of Judah; but the Levites did not acquit them- selves of their commission with diligence till after the king was of age, and the prince and the high-priest united their authority in promoting the design, 2 Kings 12, and 2 Chron. 24: 5, &c. He died B. C. 834, aged one hundred and thirty.—Calmet. JEHOIAKIM, or ELIAKIM, brother and successor of Je- hoahaz, king of Judah, was made king by Necho, king of Egypt, at his return from an expedition against Carche- mish, (2 Kings 23: 34–36.) B. C. 609. In 2 Chron. 36: 6, according to the Hebrew, it is said, that Nebuchadnezzar bound Jehoiakim in chains to carry him to Babylon ; and Daniel relates, that the Lord deliver- ed Jehoiakim into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar; that that prince carried to Babylon a great part of the vessels belonging to the house of God, with some captives, among whom were Daniel and his companions; but he does not say that Jehoiakim was carried there. The books of Kings and Chronicles inform us, that Jehoiakim reigned eleven years at Jerusalem, 2 Kings 23: 36. 2 Chron. 36: 5. Jeremiah says, that Nebuchadnezzar retook Charche- mish from Necho, king of Egypt, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim ; and elsewhere, that the first year of Nebu- chadnezzar agreed with the fourth of Jehoiakim. All these chronological marks evince, that Nebuchadnezzar did not come into Judea till A. M. 3399, which is the fourth year of Jehoiakim ; that Jehoiakim was not carried into Babylon, but put in chains in order to be removed thither, yet afterwards was set at liberty, and left at Jeru- salem; and lastly, that Jehoiakim was four years subject to Necho, before he became tributary to Nebuchadnezzar. After a vile and turbulent reign of eleven years, Jehoia- kim was taken, slain, and thrown into the common sewer, B. C. 599, as Jeremiah had predicted, Jer. 22: 18, 19. 26: 23.—Calmet. JEHORAMI, son and successor of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, (2 Kings 8: 16.) was born A. M. 3080, and asso- ciated with his father in the kingdom, A. M. 3112. He reigned alone after the death of Jehoshaphat, and died, according to Usher, B. C. 885. His queen, Athaliah, daughter of Omri, engaged him in idolatry, and other sins, which produced calamities throughout his reign. Jehoram, being settled in the kingdom, began his career with the murder of all his brothers, whom Jehoshaphat had remov- ed from public business, and placed in the fortified cities of Judah. To punish his impiety, the Lord permitted the Edomites who had been subject to the kings of Judah to revolt, 2 Kings 8:20, 21. 2 Chron. 21: 8, 9. He died and was buried in Jerusalem, but not in a royal Sepulchre, E. C. 885.-Calmet. JEHOSHAPHAT, son of Asa, a pious and illustrious king of Judah, ascended the throne when aged thirty-five, and reigned twenty-five years. He prevailed against Baa- sha, king of Israel; and placed garrisons in the cities of Judah and Ephraim, which had been conquered by his father. He demolished the high places and groves, and God was with him, because he was faithful. In the third *x J E H J E H ºn year of his reign he sent officers, with priests and Levites, throughout Judah, with the book of the law, to instruct the people, and God blessed his zeal. He was feared by all his neighbors; and the Philistines and Arabians were tributaries to him. He built several houses in Judah in the form of towers, and fortified several cities. He gene- rally kept an army, or more probably an enrolled militia, of a million of men, without reckoning the troops in his strong holds. Scripture, however, reproaches Jehoshaphat on account of his alliance with the idolatrous Ahab, king of Israel, 1 Kings 22:44. 2 Chron. 18; 35. 19: 1, &c. Jehoshaphat repaired his fault by the regulations and good order which he aſterwards established in his dominions, both as to civil and religious affairs ; by appointing honest and able judges, by regulating the discipline of the priests and Le- vites, and by enjoining them to perform punctually their duty. After this, God gave him in answer to his prayers a complete triumph over the Moabites, Ammonites, and Meonians, people of Arabia Petraea. - Some time aſterwards, Jehoshaphat, repeating his error, agreed with Ahaziah, the idolatrous king of Israel, jointly to equip a fleet in the port of Ezion-gaber, on the Red Sea, in order to go to Tarshish, (ver. 35, 36.) and was punished by the loss of his fleet. He died, after reigning twenty- five years, and was buried in the royal Sepulchre, B. C. 889, 2 Chron. 21: 1, &c. 1 Kings 22:42.—Calmet. JEHOSHAPHAT, (WALLEY of.) This valley is a deep and narrow glen, which runs from north to South, between the mount of Olives and mount Moriah; the brook Cedron flowing through the middle of it, which is dry the greatest part of the year, but has a current of a red color, aſter storms, or in rainy seasons. z The prophet Joel (3: 2, 12.) says, “The Lord will ga- ther all nations in the valley of Jehoshaphat, and will lead with them there.” Some maintain that the ancient Hebrews had named no particular place the valley of Je- hoshaphat; but that Joel intended generally the place where God would judge the nations, and will appear at the last judgment in the brightness of his majesty. Jehosha- phal, in Hebrew, signifies “the judgment of God.”. It is very probable that the valley of Jehoshaphat, that is, of God’s judgment, is symbolical, as well as the valley of slaughter, in the same chapter. From this passage, how- ever, the Jews and many Christians have been of opinion, that the last judgment will be solemnized in the valley of Jehoshaphat.—Calmet ; Watson. JEHOVAH, (SELF-ExistENT;) the awful and incommuni- cable name of the Divine Essence. It seems to be a com- pound of JAH, the Essence, and HAWAH, existing ; that is, always existing ; whence the word ETERNAL appears best to express its import. It is well rendered, “He who is, and who was, and who is to come,” (Rev. 1: 4, 11: 17.) that is, as the schoolmen speak, ETERNAL, both a parte ante, and a parte post. Compare John 8: 58. That this name was known to the heathens, as the God of the Hebrews, there can be no doubt. Sanchoniathon writes it Jebo ; Diodorus the Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Origen, write it Jao ; Epiphanius, Theodoret, and the Samaritans, Jabe, Javé. The Latins hence took their Jovis Pater. The Egyptians also seem to have some acquaint- ance with its sublime meaning, for on the temple of Isis was the following inscription, evidently borrowed from it : “I am whatever is, was, and will be, and no mortal has ever raised my veil.” - According to Exod. 6: 2, 3, God never revealed himself by this peculiar and glorious name before the time of Mo- ses; though Moses himselſ employs it in narrating the history of patriarchs. The Jews, after their captivity in Babylon, out of an excessive and superstitious respect for this name, left oſſ to pronounce it, and thus lost the true pronunciation. The Septuagint generally renders it Kurios, “the Lord.” Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius, testify that in their time the Jews left the name of Jehovah written in their co- pies in Samaritan characters, instead of writing it in the common Chaldee or Hebrew characters; which shows their veneration for this holy name; and the fear they were under, lest strangers who were not unacquainted with the Chaldee letters and language, should discover and misap. ply it. Josephus calls this Tetragrammaton, or four-letter. ed name, (Heb. JHWH,) the shuddering name of God. The Jewish cabalists have refined much on the name Jehovah. The letters which compose it they affirm to abound with mysteries. He who pronounces it shakes heaven and earth, and inspires the very angels with terror. A sovereign authority resides in it; it governs the world; is the fountain of graces and blessings; the channel through which God's mercies are conveyed to men. It would be waste of time and patience to repeat all that has been said on this INcomMUNICABLE NAME. It may not be amiss, however, to remind the reader, 1. That al- though it signifies the state of being, yet it forms no verb. 2. It never assumes a plural form. 3. It does not admit an article, or take an affix. 4. Neither is it placed in a state of construction with other words ; though other words may be in construction with it. It is usually marked in Jewish books, where it must be alluded to, by an abbreviation, (Jod.) It is also abbre- viated in the term JAH, which, the reader will observe, enters into the formation of many Hebrew appellations. (See JAII.) In our version it is printed LORD, in large capitals. As applied to Christ, it becomes a decisive tes- timony to his divine nature, Ps. 97, and 103. Jer. 23: 5, 6, and 33: 15, 16. Mal. 3: 1. Isa. 40: 3–11.—Hend. Buck; Calmet ; Watson ; Jones ; Robinson's Bib. Repos., 1833, 1834. - JEHOVAH JIREH ; (Jehovah mill provide ; or, perhaps, shall be seen.) Abraham used this expression in allusion to the question of Isaac, (Gen. 22: 8.) touching the victim for sacrifice, and gave this name to a place, (Gen. 22: 14.) in such a manner that in after ages, (at the time when Ezra revised the copy,) it became usual to say, “In this moun- tain Jehovah shall provide; this is where we expect his appearance.” When we consider the building of the tem- ple of Solomon nearly adjacent, (if not on the very spot,) where “the Lord had chosen to put his name;” (Deut. 12: 5. 1 Kings 14:21. 2 Chron. 12:13.) and also the crucifixion of Jesus, at, or near, perhaps on, this very spot, we cannot but think that such titles not only commemorated past facts, but predicted future expectations.—Calmet. JEHOVAH NISSI; (Jehovah my banner.) Among the most perplexing passages of Scripture, is Exod. 17: 15, 16: “And Moses built an altar—rather, consecrated a piece of ground for a sacriſicatory—and called its name, JEHow AH NIssI: the Lord exalteth me ; or, Jehovah my banner—or streamer—or signal; [or, perhaps, “To Jehovah of liſting up;” i.e. he to whom I liſted up my hands, in prayer against Amalek.] And he said, Because the Lord hath snorn war with Amalek—so our translation; but the He- brew is, “Because of the HAND upon—above—or against the throne of Jehovah, war against Amalek.” Either of these renderings, implies two memorials of the vengeance to be taken on Amalek: (1.) The writing in the book of the law, which the king was to copy out for his personal study, mentioned in the preceding verse; (2.) A conse. crated trophy, or elevation of some kind, to commemorate the battle fought under Moses, and to prefigure the future punishment of Amalek-Calmet. - JEHOVAH SHALOMI; (Jehovah of peace ;) a name giv- en by Gideon to an altar which he built in a place where an angel of Jehovah had appeared to him, and saluted him by saying, “Peace be to thee,” Judg. 6: 24. Probably the name may be taken, (1.) To Jehovah of peace. that is, taking peace for general welfare; to the Divine Pro- tector; (2.) As the words are usually rendered—Jehovah shall send peace; that is, we expect prosperity under the auspices of Jehovah. The phrase appears to have become, in after ages, a kind of proverb, as probably was the case with all those remarkable titles, which are come down to us. What else has been their preservation, when so many thousand other titles have perished 2–Calmet. JEHOVAH SHAMMAH; (Jehovah is there ; or, the re- sidence of Jehovah ;) a name given by Ezekiel to a future holy city, which he describes in the close of his prophecy, chap. 48:35, margin.—Calmet. - JEHOVAH TZIDEKENU; (Jehovah our righteousness, Jer. 23: 6. 33: 16, margin.) In the first of these passages we read of a branch, a king, called the Lord our righteous- mess; in the second passage we read, “This is the name J E N J E P [ 676. I * wherewith she [Jerusalem] shall be called, the Lord our righteousness.” Now the impropriety of calling a female, she, by the name of the Lord, masculine, is apparent; and the words “is the name” are supplied by our translators; but the word “name” is in the original in the former passage; where the words are, “and this his name is, which they shall call him, Jehovah our righteousness:” but in the lat- ter passage the words are, literally, “and this is he that shall call her, Jehovah our righteousness.”—Calmet. JEHOZADAK; son and successor of Seraiah, high- priest of the Jews, (1 Chron. 6: 14, 15. Ezra 3: 2.) though it does not appear that he ever exercised the sacred func- tions.—Calmet. - JEHU, the son of Jehoshaphat, and grandson of Nim- shi, captain of the troops of Joram, the king of Israel, was appointed by God to reign over Israel, and to avenge the sins committed by the house of Ahab, 1 [ings 19: 16. His history may be found in full in the books of Kings. Yet, though Jehu had been the instrument in the hand of God for taking vengeance on the profane house of Ahab, we find him accused in Scripture of not entirely forsaking the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin in worshipping the golden calves, 2 Kings 10: 29, 31. It appears also that, in executing the divine indigmation on the wicked house of Ahab, he was actuated more by the spirit of ambition and animosity than the fear of God, or a regard to the purity of his wor- ship. And thus it is that God, in the course of his provi- dence, makes use of tyrants and wicked men, as his in- struments to execute his righteous judgments in the earth. After a reign of eight-and-twenty years over Israel, Jehu died, and was succeeded by his son, Jehoahaz ; but his reign was embittered by the war which Hazael, king of Syria, long waged against him, 2 Kings 10: 32-—36. His four descendants who succeeded him in the throne were Jehoahaz, Joash, Jeroboam II., and Zechariah. 2. JEHU, the prophet, son of Hanani, was sent by God to Baasha, king of Israel, to predict punishment for his misdeeds, 1 ICings 16:1, 4. The Vulgate adds that Baa- sha, incensed at this message, put Jchu to death; but the Hebrew says, “Jehu having declared to Baasha what the Lord had pronounced against him, and that the Lord would treat his house as he had treated the house of Jero- boam ; for this he slew him ;” leaving it doubtful whether Baasha slew Jehu, or the Lord slew Baasha. What renders the latter more credible, is, that about thirty years after the death of Baasha, we find Jehu, son of Hanani, again sent by God to Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 2 Chron. 19: 1, &c. Some think there were two persons named Jehu, sons of Ha- mani; but Calmet is of opinion that in the passage above quoted, the death of Baasha, not that of Jehu, is intimated. It is said in chap. 20: 34, that the rest of the acts of Jehoshaphat first and last, are written in the book of Jehu, son of Hanani, who is mentioned in the book of the Rings of Israel; whence it appears that the prophets em- ployed themselves in recording the transactions of their times, and that what Jehu had written of this kind, was thought worthy to be inserted in the memoirs, in which the several events in every prince's reign were registered. — Watson ; Calmet. JENNINGS, (DAVID, D.D.,) a learned dissenting divine, was the son of an ejected minister, and born at Kibworth, in Leicestershire, in 1691. He was respectably educated in London; and, in 1714, entered on the sacred ministry. After some time he succeeded to the pastoral office in the Independent congregation, meeting in Old Gravel lane, Wapping. In 1743, he became a trustee of the charities of Mr. William Coward, and one of his lecturers at Little St. Helen's, and in the following year theological tutor at the academy founded by that gentleman. He now pub- lished several works of merit for the use of the students, particularly an “Introduction to the Use of the Globes and Orrery, and also, the Application of Astronomy to Chronology,” &c. octavo, 1747; “An Appeal to Reason and Common Sense for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures;” “An Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals,” octavo ; and “A Treatise on Jewish Antiquities, with a Dissertation on the Hebrew Language,” two volumes, octavo, which has been deservedly esteemed, and still maintains its reputation as one of the best works in our language on the subject. Dr. Jennings died on the 16th of September, 1762. Be sides the pieces already mentioned, he was the author of “Sermons to Young Persons,” 1743, and a number of single sermons on particular occasions, especially one “On Preaching Christ,” which has been often reprinted. —Jones' Chris. Biog. JFNYNS, (SoAME, Esq.,) a celebrated English writer, was born in London, in 1704. He was the only son of Sir Roger Jenyns, of Bottisham. At St. John's college, Cambridge, his genius appeared in juvenile essays and poetical effusions, many of which were published in Dods- ley's collection. He was elected member of parliament for Cambridge in 1741, and, being repeatedly re-elected, continued to sit in parliament till 1780. In 1775, he was appointed one of the lords of trade, which post he held till the board was abolished, in 1780. - For a considerable part of his life Mr. Jenyns was an avowed infidel, and is said to have 'sat down to read the Scriptures with a view to expose their spurious claims; but in the course of examination his mind was so over- powered with the evidence of their divine origin and au- thority, that he published the result in a small volume, entitled, “A View of the Internal Evidences of the Chris- tian Religion,” London, 1776; a book which has been extensively read, and which has produced no little contro- versy. Mr. Jenyn's works were collected and published in ſour volumes, octavo, London, 1790, with a Memoir of the author prefixed. He died at London, the 18th of De- cember, 1787. t The intellectual powers of Mr. Jenyns were of a supe- rior order; and Mr. Burke pronounced his style to be that of the purest English, the simplest, and most aboriginal language, the least tinctured with foreign impregnation. Life by Cole, prefixed to his Works.-Jones' Chris. Biog. JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, was the son of Gilead by a concubine, Judg. 11: 1, 2. Though early rejected by his brethren, he was subsequently called by the people to lead them in battle against the Ammonites, who had invaded Israel. At this time the Spirit of the Lord came upon him, and he made his celebrated vow to the Lord, that if he delivered the Ammonites into his hand, whatever came forth out of the doors of his house to meet him when he returned should be the Lord’s ; it is also added in our English version, “and I will offer it up for a burnt-offering,” Judg. 11: 31. The battle terminated aus- piciously ſor Jephthah ; the Ammonites were defeated, and the Israelites ravaged their country. But on return- ing towards his own house, his daughter, an only child, came out to meet her father with timbrels and dances, ac- companied by a chorus of virgins, to celebrate his victory. On seeing her, Jephthah rent his clothes, and said, “Alas, my daughter! thou hast brought me very low ; for I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and cannot go back,” Judg. 11: 34–39. - t 2, Jephthah's Wow. It is scarcely necessary to mention, that almost from the days of Jephthah to the present time, it has been a subject of warm contest among the critics and commentators, whether the judge of Israel really sa- crificed his daughter, or only devoted her to a state of ce- libacy. Among those who contend ſor the former opinion, may be particularly mentioned the very learned professor Michaëlis, who insists most peremptorily that the words, “did with her as he had vowed,” cannot mean any thing else but that her father put her to death, and burnt her body as a burnt-offering. On this point, however, the following remarks of Dr. Hales are of great weight :— When Jephthah went forth to battle against the Ammo- nites, “he vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, if thou wilt surely give the children of Ammon into my hand, then it shall be, that whatsoever cometh out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, shall either be the Lord's, or I will offer it up for a burnt-offering,” Judg. 11:30, 31. Ac- cording to this rendering of the conjunctions, (vaus,) in the last clause, either, or, (which is justified by the Hebrew idiom, the paucity of connecting particles in that language making it necessary that this conjunction should often be understood disjunctively,) the vow consisted of two parts: 1. That what person soever met him should be the Lord's, or be dedicated to his service. 2. That what beast soever J E P J E R. I 676 | met him, if clean, should be offered up for a burnt-offer- ing unto the Lord. This rendering, and this interpreta- tion, is warranted by the Levitical law about vows. The weder, or vony, in general, included either persons, beasts, or things, dedicated to the Lord for pious uses; which, if it was a simple vow, was redeemable at certain prices, if the person repented of his vow, and wished to commute it for money, according to the age and sex of the person, Lev. 27: 1–8. This was a wise regulation to remedy rash vows. But if the vow was accompanied with cherem, de- votement, it was irredeemable, as in the following cases: —“Notwithstanding, no devotement which a man shall devote unto the Lord, [either] of man, or of beast, or of land of his own property, shall be sold or redeemed. Every thing devoted is most holy unto the Lord,” Lev. 27:28. Here the three vaus in the original should neces- sarily be rendered disjunctively, or ; as the last actually is in our public translation, because there are three distinct subjects of devotement, to be applied to distinct uses; the man, to be dedicated to the service of the Lord, as Samu- el by his mother, Hannah; (1 Sam. 1: 11.) the cattle, if clean, such as oxen, sheep, goats, turtle-doves, or pigeons, to be sacrificed ; and if unclean, as camels, horses, asses, to be employed for carrying burdens in the service of the tabernacle or temple; and the lands, to be sacred proper- ty. This law, therefore, expressly applied, in its first branch, to Jephthah’s case, who had devoted his daughter to the Lord, or opened his mouth unto the Lord, and there- fore could not go back ; as he declared in his grief at see- ing his daughter, and his only child, coming to meet him with timbrels and dances. She was, therefore, necessarily devoted, but with her own consent, to perpetu- al virginity, in the service of the tabernacle, Judg. 11:36, 37. And such service was customary; for in the division of the spoils taken in the first Midianite war, of the whole number of captive virgins, “the Lord's tribute was thirty- two persons,” Num. 31:35–40. This instance appears to be decisive of the nature of her devotement. Her fa- ther's extreme grief on this occasion, and her requisition of a respite of two months to bewail her virginity, are both perfectly natural: having no other issue, he could only look forward to the extinction of his name or family; and a state of celibacy, which is reproachful among wo. men every where, was peculiarly so among the Israelites; and was therefore no ordinary sacrifice on her part, who, though she generously gave up, could not but regret the loss of becoming “a mother in Israel.” “And he did with her according to his vow which he had vowed, and she knew no man,” or remained a virgin all her life, Judg. 11: 34–49. Dr. Hales adds, “The other case of devotement, (Lev. 27:27.) is utterly irrelative to Jephthah's vow, which did not regard a foreign enemy, or a domestic transgressor, devoted to destruction, but, on the contrary, was a vow of thanksgiving, and therefore properly came under the for- mer case. And that Jephthah could not possibly have sa- crificed his daughter, according to the vulgar opinion, founded on incorrect translation, may appear from the following considerations:—1. The sacrifice of children to Moloch was an abomination to the Lord, of which, in numberless passages, he expresses his detestation; and it was prohibited by an express law, under pain of death, as “a defilement of God’s sanctuary, and a profanation of his holy name,” Lev. 20: 2, 3. Such a sacrifice, there- fore, unto the Lord himself, must be a still higher abomi- nation. And there is no precedent of any such under the law, in the Old Testament. 2. The case of Isaac, before the law, is irrelevant ; for Isaac was not sacrificed ; and it was only proposed for a trial of Abraham's faith. 3. No father, merely by his own authority, could put an of. fending, much less an innocent, child to death, upon any account, without the sentence of the magistrates, (Deut. 21: 18–21.) and the consent of the people, as in Jona- than's case. 4. The Mischma, or traditional law of the Jews, is pointedly against it –“ If a Jew should devote his son or daughter, his man or maid servant, who are Hebrews, the devotement would be void ; because no man can devote what is not his own, or of whose life he has not the absolute disposal.” - These arguments appear to be decisive against the sa- crifice ; and that Jephthah could not even have devoted his daughter to celibacy against her will, is evident from the history, and from the high estimation in which she was always held by the daughters of Israel, for her filia) - duty, and her hapless fate, which they celebrated by a regular anniversary commemoration four days in the year, Judg. 11:40. We may, however, remark, that, if it could be clearly established that Jephthah actually immolated his daughter, there is not the least evidence that his con- duct was sanctioned by God. Jephthah was manifestly like Samson, an instrument of God’s power, rather than an example of his grace.—Watson; Calmet ; Jones. JERAHMEEL; a district in the south of Judah, pos- sessed by the descendants of Jerahmeel, son of Hezron, 1 Sam. 27: 10. 30: 29. David told Achish that he invaded the country of Jerahmeel, while he was ravaging the ter- ritories of the Amalekites, Geshurites, and Jezrites.— Calmet. w - JEREMIAH. This amiable, but afflicted prophet, was of the sacerdotal race. ANATIIOTH, his native place, was only three miles north of Jerusalem. Some have supposed his father to have been that Hilkiah the high- priest, by whom the book of the law was found in the temple in the reign of Josiah : but for this there is no oth. er ground than his having borne the same name. - Jeremiah appears to have been very young when he was called to the exercise of the prophetical office, from which he modestly endeavored to excuse himself by plead- ing his youth and incapacity; but being overruled by the divine authority, he set himself to discharge the duties of his function with unremitted diligence and fidelity during a period of at least forty-two years, reckoned from the thir- teenth year of Josiah’s reign. In the course of his minis- try he met with great difficulties and opposition from his countrymen of all degrees, whose persecution and ill usage sometimes wrought so far upon his mind, as to draw from him expressions, in the bitterness of his soul, which many have thought hard to reconcile with his re- ligious principles; but which, when duly considered, may be found to demand our pity for his unremitted suffer- ings, rather than our censure for any want of piety and reverence towards God. He was, in truth, a man of un- blemished piety and conscientious integrity; a warm lover of his country, whose misery he pathetically de- plores; and so affectionately attached to his countrymen, notwithstanding their injurious treatment of him, that he chose rather to abide with them, and undergo all hard- ships in their company, than separately to enjoy a state of ease and plenty, which the favor of the king of Baby- lon would have secured to him. At length, after the de- struction of Jerusalem, being carried with the remnant of the Jews into Egypt, whither upon the murder of Geda- liah, whom the Chaldeans had leſt governor in Judea, they had resolved to retire, though contrary to his advice, he there continued warmly to remonstrate against their idolatrous practices, foretelling the consequences that would inevitably follow. But his freedom and zeal are said to have cost him his life ; for the Jews at Tahpan- hes, according to tradition, took such offence at him that they stoned him to death. Their wickedness, however, did not long pass without its reward; for, in a few years aſter, they were miserably destroyed by the Babylonian armies which invaded Egypt, according to the prophet’s prediction, Jer. 44; 27, 28. 2. The idolatrous apostasy, and other criminal enor- mities of the people of Judah, and the severe judgments which God was prepared to inflict upon them, but not without a distant prospect of ſuture restoration and de- liverance, are the principal subject matters of the prophe cies of Jeremiah ; excepting only the forty-fifth chapter, which relates personally to Baruch, and the six succeed- ing chapters, which respect the fortunes of some particu- lar heathen nations. It is observable, however, that though many of these prophecies have their particular dates annexed to them, and other dates may be tolerably well conjectured from certain internal marks and circum- stances, there appears much disorder in the arrangement, not easy to be accounted for on any principle of regular design, but probably the result of some accident or other, which has disturbed the original crder. The best arrange. J E R. J E R I 677 ment of the chapters appears to be according to the list which will ...'..."; the different reigns in which the prophecies were delivered were most probably as follows: the first twelve chapters seem to contain all the prophe- cies delivered in the reign of the good king Josiah. Dur- ing the short reign of Shallum, or Jehoahaz, his second son, who succeeded him, Jeremiah does not appear to have had any revelation. Jehoiakim, the eldest son of Josiah, succeeded. The prophecies of this reign are con- tinued on from the thirteenth to the twentieth chapter in- clusively; to which we must add the twenty-second, twenty-third, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth, thirty-fifth, and thirty-sixth chapters, together with the forty-fifth, forty- sixth, forty-seventh, and most probably the ſorty-eighth, and as far as the thirty-fourth verse of the forty-ninth chapter. Jeconiah, the son of Jehoiakim, succeeded. We read of no prophecy that Jeremiah actually delivered in this king's reign ; but the fate of Jeconiah, his being car- ried into captivity, and continuing an exile till the time of his death, were foretold early in his father's reign, as may be particularly seen in the twenty-second chapter. The last king of Judah was Zedekiah, the youngest son of Josiah. The prophecies delivered in his reign are con- tained in the twenty-first and twenty-fourth chapters, the twenty-seventh to the thirty-fourth, and the thirty-seventh to the thirty-ninth inclusively, together with the last six verses of the ſorty-ninth chapter, and the fiftieth and fifty- first chapters, concerning the fall of Babylon. The siege of Jerusalem, in the reign of Zedekiah, and the capture of the city, are circumstantially related in the fifty-second chapter; and a particular account of the subsequent transactions is given in the ſortieth to the forty-fourth inclusively. The arrangement of the chapters, alluded to above, is here subjoined : 1–20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 35, 36, 45, 24, 29, 31, 27, 28, 21, 34, 37, 32, 33, 38, 39, from the fifteenth to the eighteenth verse, 39, from the first to the fourteenth verse, 40–44, 46, and so on. - 3. The prophecies of Jeremiah, of which the circum- stantial accomplishment is often specified in the Old and New Testament, are of a very distinguished and illustri- ous character. He foretold the fate of Zedekiah, (Jer. 34: 2–5. 2 Chron. 36: 11—21. 2 Kings 25: 5. Jer. 52: 11.) the Babylonish captivity, the precise time of its duration, and the return of the Jews. He describes the destruction of Babylon, and the downfall of many nations, Jer. 25: 12. 9:26. 25: 19–25. 42: 10–18. 46., and the follow- ing chapters, in predictions, of which the gradual and successive completion kept up the confidence of the Jews for the accomplishment of those prophecies, which he de- livered relative to the Messiah and his period, Jer. 23: 5, 6. 30: 9. 31: 15. 32: 14–18. 33:9–26. He foreshow- ed the miraculous conception of Christ, (Jer. 31. 22.) the virtue of his atonement, the spiritual character of his cove- nant, and the inward efficacy of his laws, Jer. 31:31–36. 33:8. The reputation of Jeremiah had spread among foreign nations, and his prophecies were deservedly cele- brated in other countries. Many heathen writers also have undesignedly borne testimony to the truth and ac- curacy of his prophetic and historical descriptions. 4. As to the style of Jeremiah, says bishop Lowth, this prophet is by no means wanting eithe) in elegance or sub- limity, although, generally speaking, inferior to Isaiah in both. His thoughts, indeed, are somewhat less elevated, and he is commonly more large and diffuse in his senten- ces; but the reason of this may be, that he is mostly taken up with the gentler passions of grief and pity, for the expression of which he has a peculiar talent. This is most evident in the Lamentations, where those passions altogether predominate; but it is often visible also in his Prophecies, in the former part of the book more especially, which is principally poetical; the middle parts are chiefly historical; but the last part, consisting of six chapters, is entirely poetical, and contains several oracles distinctly marked, in which this prophet falls very little short of the lofty style of Isaiah. - Jeremiah survived to behold the sad accomplishment of all his darkest predictions. He witnessed all the hor- rors of the famine, and, when that had done its work, the triumph of the enemy. He saw the strong holds of the city cast down, the palace of Solomon, the temple of God, with all its courts, its roofs of cedar and of gold, levelled to the earth, or committed to the flames; the sacred ves. sels, the ark of the covenant itselſ, with the cherubim, pillaged by profane hands. What were the feelings of a patriotic and religious Jew at this tremendous crisis, he has left on record in his unrivalled elegies, Never did city suffer a more miserable fate, never was ruined city law ented in language so exquisitely pathetic. Jesusá 'em is, as it were, personified, and bewailed with the pas- sionate sorrow of private and domestic attachment; while the more general pictures of the ſamine, the common mi- sery of every rank, and age, and sex, all the desolation, the carnage, the violation, the dragging away into captivi-, ty, the remembrance of former glories, of the gorgeous ceremonies and the glad festivals, the awſul sense of the divine wrath heightening the present calamities, are suc- cessively drawn with all the life and reality of an eye- witness. They combine the truth of history with the deepest pathos of poetry. (See LAMENTATIONs.)—Watson. JERICHO was a city of Benjamin, about twenty miles north-east ſrom Jerusalem, and six from the Jordan, Josh. 18: 21. Moses calls it the city of palm-trees, Deut. 34: 3. Josephus says, that in the territory of this city were not only many palm-trees, but also the balsam-tree. (See BALsAM TREE.) The valley of Jericho was watered by a rivulet which had been formerly salt and bitter, but was sweetened by the prophet Elisha, 2 Kings 2: 19. Jericho was the first city in Canaan taken by Joshua, 2: 1, 2, &c. It being devoted by God, they set fire to the city, and con- secrated all the gold, silver, and brass. Then Joshua said, “ Cursed be the man before the Lord who shall re- build Jericho.” About five hundred and thirty years af. ter this, Hiel, of Bethel, undertook to rebuild it; but he lost his eldest son, Abiram, at laying the foundations, and his youngest son, Segub, when he hung up the gates. However, we are not to imagine that there was no city of Jericho till the time of Hiel. There was a city of palm- trees, probably the same as Jericho, under the judges, Judges 3: 13. David’s ambassadors, who had been in- sulted by the Ammonites, resided at Jericho till their beards were grown, 2 Sam. 10:4. There was, therefore, a city of Jericho which stood in the neighborhood of the original Jericho. These two places are distinguished by Josephus. After Hiel of Bethel had rebuilt old Jericho, no one scrupled to dwell there. In the days of Christ it was the second city in Judea. It had a circus and an amphitheatre, and in the beautiful palace he had here erect- ed Herod died. Our Savior also wrought miracles at Je- richo. .The modern village of Jericho is described by Mr. Buckingham as a settlement of about fifty dwellings, all very mean in their appearance, and fenced in front with thorny bushes, while a barrier of the same kind, the most effectual that could be raised against mounted Arabs, en- circles the town. A fine brook flows by it, which empties itself into the Jordan ; the nearest point of that river is about three miles distant. The grounds in the immediate vicinity of the village, being fertilized by this stream, bear crops of dourra, Indian corn, rice, and onions. The population is entirely Mahometan, and is governed by a sheik; their habits are those of Bedouins, and robbery and plunder form their chief and most gainful occupa- tion. According to Pococke, the mountains around this place are the highest in all Judea ; and he is probably correct; they form part of a chain extending from Scythopolis in- to Idumea. The hills nearest to Jerusalem consist, ac- cording to Hasselquist, of a very hard limestone; and different sorts of plants are found on them, in particular the myrtle, the carob-tree, and the turpentine-tree; but further towards Jericho they are bare and barren, the hard limestone giving way to a looser kind, sometimes white and sometimes greyish, with interjacent layers of a red- dish micaceous stone, sarum purum micaceum. The vales contain good red mould, which would amply reward the husbandman's toil, though now bare and uncultivated, and full of pebbles. Nothing can be more savage than the present aspect of these wild and gloomy solitudes, through which runs the very road where is laid the scene of that exquisite J E R J. E. R. | 678 ) pārable, the good Samaritan ; and from that time to the present, it has been the haunt of the most desperate ban- ditti, being one of the most dangerous in Palestine. Some- times the track leads along the edges of cliffs and preci- pices, which threaten destruction on the slightest false step; at other times it winds through craggy passes, over- shadowed by projecting or perpendicular rocks. At one place the road has been cut through the very apex of a hill, the rocks overhanging it on either side. Here, in 1820, an English traveller, Sir Frederic Henniker, was attacked by the Arabs with fire-arms, who stripped him naked, and left him severely wounded :-‘‘It was past mid-day, and burning hot,” says Sir Frederic ; “I bled profusely; and two vultures, whose business it is to con- sume corpses, were hovering over me. I should scarcely have had strength to resist, had they chosen to attack me.” Here, pillage, wounds, and death would be accompanied with double terror, from the frightful aspect of every thing around. Here the unfeeling act of passing by a fellow- creature in distress, as the priest and Levite are said to have done, strikes one with horror, as an act almost more than inhuman. And here, too, the compassion of the good Samaritan is doubly virtuous, from the purity of the motive which must have led to it, in a spot where no eyes were fixed on him to draw forth the performance of any duty, and from the bravery which was necessary to admit of a man’s exposing himself, by such delay, to the risk of a similar fate to that from which he was endeavoring to rescue his fellow-creature.—Watson ; Calmet. JEROBOAM, the son of Nebat, was born at Zereda, in the tribe of Ephraim, 1 Kings 11: 26. He is stigmatized in Scripture, as “he who made Israel to sin,” by institut- ing the idolatrous worship of the golden calves at Dan and Bethel, 1 Kings 12: 26–33. He seems to have been a bold, unprincipled, and enterprising man, with much of the address of a deep politician about him ; qualities which probably pointed him out to king Solomon as a proper person to be intrusted with the obnoxious com- mission of levying certain taxes throughout the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, 1 Kings 11: 14–39. Whether it were that the promises made by Ahijah prompted Jero- boam to aim at taking their accomplishment into his own hands, and, with a view to that, began to solicit the sub- jects of Solomon to revolt; or whether the bare informa- tion of what had passed between the prophet and Jerobo- am, excited his fear and jealousy, it appears evident that the aged monarch took the alarm, and attempted to ap- prehend Jeroboam, who, getting notice of what was in- tended him, made a precipitate retreat into Egypt, where he remained till the death of Solomon. He then return- ed, and found that Rehoboam, who had succeeded his ſa- ther Solomon in the throne of David, had already excited the disgust of ten of the tribes by some arbitrary proceed- ings, in consequence of which they had withdrawn their allegiance from the new monarch. These tribes no soon- er heard of his return than they invited him to appear among them in a general assembly, in which they elected him to be king over Israel. Jeroboam fixed his residence at Shechem, and there fortified himself; he also rebuilt Penuel, a city beyond Jordan, putting it into a state of defence, in order to keep the tribes quiet which were on that side Jordan, 1 Rings 12: 1–25. Dut Jeroboam soon forgot the duty which he owed to God, who had given him the kingdom ; and thought of nothing but how to maintain himself in the possession of it, though he discarded the worship of the true God. The first suggestion of his unbelieving heart was, that if the tribes over whom he reigned were to go up to Jerusalem to sacrifice and keep the annual festivals, they would be under continual temptations to return to the house of Da- vid. To counteract this, he caused two golden calves to be made as objects of religious worship, one of which he placed at Dan, and the other at Bethel, the two extremi- ties of his dominions; and caused a proclamation to be made throughout all his territories, that in future none of his subjects should go up to Jerusalem to worship; and, directing them to the two calves which had been recently elected, he cried out, “Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of Egypt 1" He also caused idolatrous temples to be built, and priests to be ordained of the low- that place. est of the people, who were neither of the family of Aaron nor of the tribe of Levi, 1 IXings 12:26–33. Notwith. standing the manifest indication of the displeasure of Heaven, (1 Kings 13:.1—10.) it failed of recovering Jero- boam from his impious procedure. He continued to en- courage his subjects in idolatry, by appointing priests of the high places, and engaging them in such worship as was contrary to the divine law. This was the sin of Je- roboam’s family, and it was the cause of its utter extir- pation. Aſter a reign of two-and-twenty years, Jeroboam died, and Nadab, his son, succeeded for a moment to the crown, 1 Kings 13:33, 34. , 14: 1–20. 2. JEROBOAM, the second of that name, was the son of Jehoash, king of Israel. He succeeded to his father's royal dignity, A. M. 31.79, and reigned forty-one years. Though much addicted to the idolatrous practices of the son of Nebat, yet the Lord was pleased so far to prosper his reign, that by his means, according to the predictions of the prophet Jonah, the kingdom of the ten tribes was restored from a state of great decay, into which it had fal- len, and was even raised to a pitch of extraordinary splen- dor. The prophets Amos and Hosea, as well as Jonah, lived during this reign.— Watson. f JEROME, one of the most learned and productive authors of the early Latin church, was born about 331, in Dalmatia, of wealthy parents, educated with care in lite- rary studies, and made familiar with the Roman and Greek classics, under the grammarian Donatus, at Rome. He did not escape the contaminating licentiousness of the capital, but his feelings were excited by the catacombs and tombs of the martyrs, and becoming inclined towards the Christian faith, he became acquainted with several of its preachers in Gaul, and on the Rhine, and was baptized before his fortieth year at Rome. - Having formed a high idea of the ascetic life, he retir- ed in 374 into the deserts of Chalcis, where for four years he practised the severest mortifications, and applied him- selſ to the most laborious studies. He now obtained or- dination as presbyter of Antioch ; went soon aſter to en- joy the instruction of Gregory Nazianzen at Constantino- ple; and at length proceeded to Rome, where his public exposition of the Scriptures procured him great favor, especially among the ladies; some of whom, matrons of rank in the fashionable world, together with their daugh- ters, complied with his exhortations, and became nuns. Marcella and Paula are celebrated for the epistles which he wrote to them; and the latter accompanicſ him to Pa- lestine in 386, where he founded a convent at Bethlehem, with her funds, and in her society, and where he died in A. D. 420. - His biblical labors are highly valuable. His Latin ver- sion of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew is the foundation of the Vulgate, and his commentaries contain much useful matter. He was the only one of the fathers who seems to have thoroughly studied the Hebrew, which he did, with the assistance of learned rabbins in Palestine. He engaged much in controversy, on which occasions he frequently displayed great acerbity. He had neither the philosophical genius nor the scriptural views of his celc- brated contemporary Augustinc; but he possessed a more extensive knowledge of the languages, and a glowing and lively imagination, which gave attractions to his style, and rendered him the most distinguished writer of his time.—Hend. Buck. - JEROME, (of Prague,) the celebrated lay-reformer, was born at Prague, about the year 1370. Very little is extant relative to the early part of his liſe ; but he was very ca- ger in the pursuit of knowledge, and spent his youth in the universities of Prague, Paris, Heidelburg, Cologne, and Oxford. At the latter university, he became acquaint- ed with the works of Wickliffe; translated them into his native language ; professed himself, on his return to Prague, to be an open favorer of him, and attached hitn- selſ to the reſormed in Bohemia, over whom Huss presid. ed. Before the council of Constance, Jerome was cited on the 17th of April, 1415, when Huss was confined at On his arrival, he found that he could not render any assistance to Huss, and therefore thought it prudent to retire; and on behalf of Huss, he wrote to the emperor. At Kirsaw, Jerome was seized by an officer of j E. R. J E R [ 679 ) the duke of Sullybach, who immediately wroſe to the Council conóērning him, and they directed him to send his prisoner to Constance. On his arrival at that place, he was immediately brought before the council, accused of his attachment to Protestant principles, and was remand- ed from the assembly into a dungeon. As he was there sitting, ruminating on his approaching fate, he heard a voice calling out in these words : “Fear not, Jerome, to die in the cause of that truth which, during thy life, thou hast defended.” It was the voice of Madderwitz, who had contributed to the comfort of Huss; but, in conse- quence of it, Jerome was conveyed to a strong tower, and exposed to torture and want. This suffering brought on him a dangerous illness, and attempts were then made to induce him to retract his principles; but he remained immovable. Unhappily, however, for his subsequent peace of mind, he was at length induced to retract, and acknowledged the errors of Wickliffe and Huss; assented to the condemnation of the latter; and declared himself a firm believer in the church of Rome. But the conscience of Jerome would not allow him to suffer that retraction to remain ; and he accord- ingly recanted, and demanded a second trial. Accordingly, in the month of May, 1416, Jerome was again called before the council, and charged with his ad- herence to the errors of Wickliffe ; his having had a pic- ture of him in his chamber; his denial of transubstantia- tion ; with other matters of a similar description. On these articles he answered with equal spirit. the whole oration he manifested an amazing strength of memory. His voice was sweet, distinct, and full. Firm and, intrepid, he stood before the council; collected in himself, and not only despising, but seeming even desi- rous of death. His speech did not, however, excite pity; and he was de- livered over to the civil power for martyrdom. When sur- rounded by blazing ſagots, he cried out, “Oh, Lord God, have mercy upon me!” and a little aſterwards, “Thou knowest how I have loved thy truth.” With cheerful countenance he met his fate; and observing the execu- tioner about to set fire to the wood behind his back, he cried out, “Bring thy torch hither : perform thy office be- fore my face. Had I feared death, I might have avoided it.” As the wood began to blaze, he sang a hymn, which the violence of the flames did not interrupt. Jerome was, unquestionably, an excellent man. His Christianity must have been sincere thus to have support- ed him ; and the uniform tenor of his aged and virtuous liſe corroborated the truth of that opinion. His temper was mild and affable, and the relations of life he support- ed with great piety and benevolence. He was a light set upon a hill; and though for a few moments it was ob- scured and darkened, yet it again burst forth, and con- tinued to shine with splendor and advantage. See Life of Jerome ; Gilpin's Lives of the Reformers ; and a Letter from Poggio of Florence to Leonard Arctin. Jones' Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck. JERUBBAAL. (See GIDEoN.) JERUEL ; a wilderness west of the Dead sea, and south of Judah, where Jehoshaphat obtained a great vic- tory over the Ammonites, Moabites, &c. It was called the valley of Berachah, or blessing ; and lay between Ingaddi and Tekoah, 2 Chron. 20: 26.-Calmet. JERUSALEM ; (the abode of peace ; corrupted in the Greek, Hierosolyma, the sacred Solyma ;) the celebrated capi- tal of Palestine, originally the royal residence of Mel- chisedec, then the possession of the Jebusites, and ulti- mately the sacred metropolis of the Hebrews, situated on the boundary line of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. As Jerusalem was the centre of the true worship, (Ps. 122: 4) and the place where God did in a peculiar manner dwell, first in the tabernacle, (2 Sam. 6: 7, 12. 1 Chron. 15: 1, 16: 1. Ps. 132: 13. 135: 2.) and afterwards in the temple, (1 Kings 6: 13.) so it is used figuratively to denote the church, or the celestial society, to which all that believe, both Jews and Gentiles, are come, and in which they are initiated, Gal. 4: 56. Heb. 12:22. Rev. 3: 12. 21: 2, 10. Jerusalem was situated in a stony and barren soil, and was about sixty furlongs in length, according to Strabo. The territory and places adjacent were well, watered, Through . having the ſountains of Gihon and Siloam, and the brook Cedron, at the foot of its walls; and, besides these, there were the waters of Ethan, which Pilate had conveyed through aqueducts into the city. The ancient city of Je- rusalem or Jebus, which David took from the Jebusites, was not very large. It was seated upon a mountain southward of the temple. The opposite mountain, situa. ted to the north, is Sion, where David built a new city, which he called the city of David, wherein was the royal palace, and the temple of the Lord. The temple was built upon mount Morial, which was one of the little hills belonging to mount Sion. Through the reigns of David and Solomon, Jerusalem was the metropolis of the whole Jewish kingdom, and continued to increase in wealth and splendor. It was re- sorted to at the festivals by the whole population of the country; and the power and commercial spirit of Solo mon, improving the advantages acquired by his father David, centred in it most of the eastern trade, both by sea, through the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber, and over land, by the way of Tadmor or Palmyra. Or, at least, though Jerusalem might not have been made a depôt of merchandise, the quantity of precious metals flowing in- to it by direct importation, and by duties imposed on goods passing to the ports of the Mediterranean, and in other directions, was unbounded. Some idea of the prodi- gious wealth of Jerusalem at this time may be formed, by stating, that the quantity of gold left by David for the use of the temple amounted to twenty-one million six hun- dred thousand pounds sterling, besides three million one hundred and fifty thousand pounds in silver; and Solo- mon obtained three million two hundred and forty thou- sand pounds in gold by one voyage to Ophir, while silver was so abundant, “that it was not any thing accounted of.” These were the days of Jerusalem's glory. Univer- sal peace, unmeasured wealth, the wisdom and clemency of the prince, and the worship of the true God, marked Jerusalem, above every city, as enjoying the presence and . the especial favor of the Almighty. But these days were not to last long : intestine divis- ions and foreign wars, wicked and tyrannical princes, and last of all, the crime most offensive to Heaven, and the one least to be expected amongst so favored a people, led to a series of calamities, through the long period of nine hundred years, with which no other city or nation can furnish a parallel. After the death of Solomon, ten of the twelve tribes revolted from his successor Rehoboam, and, under Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, established a separate kingdom : so that Jerusalem, no longer the capital of the whole empire, and its temple frequented only by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, must have experienced a mournful declension. Four years after this, the city and temple were taken and plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt, 1 ICings 14:26, 27. 2 Chron. 12: 2–9. One hun- dred and forty-five years after, under Amaziah, they sus- tained the same fate from Joash, king of Israel, 2 Kings 14. 2 Chron. 25. One hundred and sixty years from this period, the city was again taken, by Esarhaddon, king of Assyria; and Manasseh, the king, carried a pri- soner to Babylon, 2 Chron. 33. Within the space of sixty-six years more, it was taken by Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, whom Josiah, king of Judah, had opposed in his expedition to Carchemish; and who, in consequence, was killed at the battle of Megiddo, and his son Eliakim placed on the throne in his stead by Necho, who changed his name to Jehoiakim, and imposed a heavy tribute up- on him, having sent his elder brother, Jehoahaz, who had been proclaimed king at Jerusalem, a prisoner to Egypt, where he died, 2 Kings 23. 2 Chron. 35. Jerusalem was three times besieged and taken by Ne- buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, within a very few years. The first, in the reign of the last-mentioned king, Jehoia- kim, who was sent a prisoner to Babylon, and the vessels of the temple transported to the same city, 2 Chron. 36. The second, in that of his son Jehoiachin; when all the treasures of the palace and the temple, and the remainder of the vessels of the latter which had been hidden or spar. ed in the first capture, were carried away or destroyed and the best of the inhabitants, with the king, led into captivity, 2 Kings 24, 2 Chron. 36. And the third, in the J E R J E R [ 680 ) reign of Zedekiah, the successor of Jehoiachin ; in whose ninth year the most formidable siege which this ill-fated city ever sustained, except that of Titus, was commenced. It continued two years; during a great part of which the inhabitants suffered all the horrors of famine : when, on the ninth day of the fourth month, in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, which answers to July, in the year B. C. 588, the garrison, with the king, endeavored to make their escape from the city, but were pursued and defeated by the Chaldeans in the plains of Jericho; Zedekiah taken prisoner; his sons killed before his face at Riblah, whi- ther he was taken to the king of Babylon; and he him- self, after his eyes were put out, was bound with fetters of brass, and carried prisoner to Babylon, where he died: thus fulfilling the prophecy of Ezekiel, which declared that he should be carried to Babylon, but should not see the place, though he should die there, Ezek. 12: 13. In the following month, the Chaldean army, under their general, Nebuzaradan, entered the city, took away every thing that was valuable, and then burnt and utterly destroyed it, with is temple and walls, and left the whole razed to the ground. The entire population of the city and country, with the exception of a few husbandmen, were then carri- ed captive to Babylon. During seventy years, the city and temple lay in ruins : when those Jews who chose to take immediate advantage of the proclamation of Cyrus, under the conduct of Zerub- babel, returned to Jerusalem, and began to build the tem- ple ; all the vessels of gold and silver belonging to which, that had been taken away by Nebuchadnezzar, being re- stored by Cyrus. Their work, however, did not proceed far without opposition; for in the reign of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, who in Scripture is called Ahasuerus, the Samaritans presented a petition to that monarch to put a stop to the building, Ezra 4: 6. Cambyses appears to have been too busily engaged in his Egyptian expedition to pay any attention to this malicious request. His succes- sor, Smerdis the Magian, however, who in Scripture is called Artaxerxes, to whom a similar petition was sent, representing the Jews as a ſactious and dangerous peo- ple, listened to it, and, in the true spirit of a usurper, issued a decree putting a stop to the further building of the temple, (Ezra 4: 7, &c.) which, in consequence, re- mained in an unfinished state till the second year, accord- ing to the Jewish, and third, according to the Babylonian and Persian account, of Darius Hystaspes, who is called simply Darius in Scripture. To him also a representation hostile to the Jews was made by their inveterate enemies, the Samaritans; but this noble prince refused to listen to it, and having searched the rolls of the kingdom, and found in the palace at Achmetha the decree of Cyrus, issu- ed a similar one, which reached Jerusalem in the subse- quent year, and even ordered these very Samaritans to assist the Jews in their work; so that it was completed in the sixth year of the same reign, Ezra 4: 24. 5: 6: 1–15. But the city and walls remained in a ruinous condition un- til the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, the Artaxerxes Longi- manus of profane history; by whom Nehemiah was sent to Jerusalem, with a power granted to him to rebuild them. Accordingly, under the direction of this zealous servant of God, the walls were speedily raised, but not without the accustomed opposition on the part of the Sa- maritans; who despairing of the success of an application to the court of Persia, openly attacked the Jews with art.ns. But the building, notwithstanding, went steadily on ; the men working with an implement of work in one hand, and a weapon of war in the other; and the wall, with incredible labor, was finished in fifty-two days, in the year B. C. 445; after which, the city itself was gradu- ally rebuilt, Neh. 2, 4, 6. From this time Jerusalem re- mained attached to the Persian empire, but under the lo- cal jurisdiction of the high-priests, until the subversion of that empire by Alexander, fourteen years after. (See ALEXANDER.) - At the death of Alexander, and the partition of his em- i. by his generals, Jerusalem, with Judea, fell to the ings of Syria. But in the frequent wars which followed between the kings of Syria and those of Egypt, called by Daniel, the kings of the north and south, it belonged some- times to one and sometimes to the other; an unsettled and unhappy state, highly ſavorable to disorder and corrup- tion; the high-priesthood was openly sold to the highest bidder; and numbers of the Jews deserted their religion for the idolatries of the Greeks. At length, in the year B. C. 170, Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, enraged at hearing that the Jews had rejoiced at a false report of his death, plundered Jerusalem, and killed eighty thou- sand men. Not more than two years afterwards, this cruel tyrant, who had seized every opportunity to exercise his barbarity on the Jews, sent Apollonius with an army to Jerusalem ; who pulled down the walls, grievously op- pressed the people, and built a citadel on a rock adjoining the temple, which commanded that building, and had the effect of completely overawing the seditious. Having thus reduced this unfortunate city into entire submission, and rendered resistance useless, the next step of Antio- chus was to abolish the Jewish religion altogether, by publishing an edict which commanded all the people of his dominions to conform to the religion of the Greeks: in consequence of which, the service of the temple ceased, and a statue of Jupiter Olympus was set up on the altar. But this extremity of ignominy and oppression led, as might have been expected, to rebellion; and those Jews who still held their insulted religion in reverence, fled to the mountains, with Mattathias and Judas Maccabaeus ; the latter of whom, after the death of Mattathias, who, with his followers and successors, are known by the name of Maccabees, waged successful war with the Syrians; defeated Apollonius, Nicanor, and Lysias, generals of An- tiochus; obtained possession of Jerusalem, purified the temple, and restored the service, after three years' defile- ment by the gentile idolatries. º: ANTIochus.) From this time, during several succeeding Maccabaean rulers, who were at once high-priests and sovereigns of the Jews, but without the title of king, Jerusalem was able to preserve itself from Syrian violence. It was, however, twice besieged, first by Antiochus Eupator, in the year 163, and afterwards by Antiochus Sidetes, in the year B. C. 134. But the Jews had caused themselves to be sufficiently respected to obtain conditions of peace on both occasions, and to save their city; till, at length, Hyr- canus, in the year 130 B.C., shook off the Syrian yoke, and reigned, after this event, twenty-one years in inde- pendence and prosperity. His successor, Judas, made an important change in the Jewish government, by taking the title of king, which dignity was enjoyed by his suc- cessors forty-seven years; when a dispute having arisen between Hyrcanus II. and his brother Aristobulus, and the latter having overcome the former, and made himself king, was, in his turn, conquered by the Romans under Pompey, by whom the city and temple were taken, Aris- tobulus made prisoner, and Hyrcanus created high-priest and prince of the Jews, but without the title of king. By this event Judea was reduced to the condition of a Ro- man province, in the year 63 B. C. Nor did Jerusalem long after enjoy the dignity of a metropolis, that honor being transferred to Caesarea. Julius Caesar, having de- feated Pompey, continued Hyrcanus in the high-priest- hood, but bestowed the government of Judea upon Anti- pater, an Idumean by birth, but a Jewish proselyte, and father of Herod the Great. For the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, see Jews. Jerusalem lay in ruins about forty-seven years, when the emperor ZElius Adrian began to build it anew, and erected a heathen temple, which he dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus. (See AELIA CAPITOLINA.) In this state Je- rusalem continued, under the name of Ælia, and inhabit- ed more by Christians and pagans than by Jews, till the time of the emperor Constantine, styled the Great; who, about the year 323, having made Christianity the religion of the empire, began to improve it, adorned it with many new edifices and churches, and restored its ancient name. About thirty-five years afterwards, Julian, named the Apostate, not from any love he bore the Jews, but out of hatred to the Christians, whose faith he had abjured, and with the avowed design of defeating the prophecies, which had declared that the temple should not be rebuilt, wrote to the Jews, inviting them to their city, and promising to restore their temple and nation. He accordingly employ. ed great numbers of workmen to clear the foundations; + $ ſºs $ |× < •） Q. --> £ !！! → ſae © ► ± © 3 Ź :） $ �� • • . O Þ3 łº Þ % Sacred Cubits ºr..……！！！！！！！-- -----….. :） -------…-.…–.…. - . . . . ……..….….…… ' , 'aeae-№-№-2，± （~~~~ ！！！！！！！s-№ºr№ae, ĶĒĶĒĒĒĖĘĘĢĒģgg！ §§§ğ???-?{{#¡¿; ?? --:) *（--* Qae- ...'. Tº º ſº w # §: º º \,\! | % §§§ ** t º r w • •, , ， ”«* 3 èxĂ. {§.*„№é. ???N§§$№. * : »№， º ſae -}}„ iſ , ! §§ģ ！ „, , ， ）$$:-） ）. ¿ae. Nº.- 。,。、（*&-） ŠĶĒĻŠ}}cae Ķerg &=a^ was rºggdeaģğ`ºĶī ~| № « v`--~~~~ ·Ñ$.:.....Ē]#[§§-- 4% º}ºrbuntainºtºſËíʧ§- · · · ·，≤） * §§§） ） ）; •••• 7： *• _>{,}\，, §§§ęņu （šķeſſº“;Ēģ\ė § © ® ° § → · 7 ·Sº º§§ …? Nº??}, \， [...（???Ačėlę,na $. §§§ §. Potteří Fieſ ' ，``，``,~ · 3：a,r Jaegwºroſzxºº; &Ł ł}étátůňorº ! 2. № №ĒĻŅĶ}}>ī£žğžÃ¡iuoģà ſº • ! W§}\，}yº…&· §§::|-Nw] * ！ÈN WÈ"，Yaeyaſſo- ***}}Tornò •řſtizan_ （*（SN 3. '§ºw, y;&*）?（.*, '（.*.* （).$5 ſ |ſae*W22°; « + » Na săŠº- sº'^įºrurentin•fr• ', ĶķĻļŅŅ^ ...，???,，，，,，，,-3）; "（.*）/&p ^1, * !z qwer ·§ųnegrº ,ſi …º----: .……”5°„ ， ， ，S… ***-¿?ì）)）Tºwn::Cºstern - �p1 9£< 1 º-¿?.$. （） （3）}} ??¿o șwº ... ：-）“ – ,·¿zelenųºſ， --★ý,Vīt ¿T a№sgiànálı * ŠğQ\\ & ' ' } ） ） → * * · *. - - --&œof the &și *,\!' , !}`-`• , •|-}?ñºY}s-ſºrășteryo， Elias©%%%%%%vae ---->----*… :（.. º.. -"* . –y ~~~~º. \ ,, * *… . Sº Philip|×}}????TD*y ``* • •%-Ucàrrn caelºaktikº&.Aº. •• • • •*…* <^：„№thicºpſy'&.• S3*on waent* House orJoſephļºſȚ~ ·yÀ Tºwer ºf Bºdar o ae Sr ）: R 2”∞ √° · · · · ·«-a · • • •uxºrnzucht fleſh runn * --~ ;Zaeth.*?cn . ſºț = • • G) . †. LAN o of Mo Ri AH·s·r·ſae （, * * * * * * * ** £AV8/180/\/S op， JEÆRUSAÁLÆ Æ/přirºvºg šįsºg（$*** T7irrºrino Jºſex.ro//;brºč， *§§} BY TIA Q * ST.VAR 1.） NG-X ·Yaeſtuu ATA~a // °•： ~~~, ,…"&Š šķș**$$$ --· ）. № №ſſae -: ~~~~========>№t-，-，-，-- ~~~~ -±，±， ±E！！！！！--~--~--~~~~======:±±^^ ！№Ē№！！ ±F！=±±EF−−−）， ±（√（Tszº-~~~№№F （№F！№.5 ' ! ~ ~=?=~=?=~~~~ ！ ！ ！ № №T-T_T=-- ~~~~№Ě （Ť … :~~.?（.*¿¿ №Ē！！！！！！！！№º！！！！！！$±！！！！！！！！！！！！&& - ”. Tº§ 3: ***-*', '）;---（„№aºaei！！！，，，，，，，，，，，，，^_º^ * * · *·' , , ， º º· *A*， * ： «…*..*..*ſae ！•№.* №ºº ：: ，|-• • •، ----∞）~~z：،•. . . … ¿）;* * *， º*，， ，• • •~--~ v=--~~~~ ~~~~==========------ J. E. R. JER [ 681 lls a #fire bursting from the earth, soon put a stop ºut pa . . . . * * * * * & * tº , a tº their prºceeding. This miraculous interposition of Providençã is attested by many credible witnesses and históri d;in particular, by Ammianus Marcellinus, &l, heathen, and friend of Julian ; Zemuch David, a Jew; Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Ambrose Ruffinus, Theodoret, Sozomen, and Socrates, who wrote his account within fifty years after the transaction, and while many eye-wit- nesses of it were still living. So stubborn, indeed, is the proof of this miracle, that even Gibbon, who strives to in- validate it, is obliged to acknowledge the general fact. Jerusalem continued in nearly the same condition till the beginning of the seventh century, when it was taken and plundered by the celebrated Chosroes, king of Persia, by whom many thousands of the Christian inhabitants were killed, or sold for slaves. The Persians, however, did not hold it long, as they were soon after entirely de- ſeated by the emperor Heraclius, who rescued Jerusalem, and restored it, not to the unhappy Jews, who were for- bidden to come within three miles of it, but to the Chris- tians. A worse calamity was, however, speedily to be- fall this ill-fated city. The Mohammedan imposture arose about this time; and the ſanatics who had adopted its creed carried their arms and their religion with unpre- cedented rapidity over the greater part of the East. The caliph Omar, the third from Mohammed, invested the city, which, after once more suffering the horrors of a pro- tracted siege, surrendered on terms of capitulation in the year 637; and has ever since, with the exception of the short period that it was occupied by the crusaders, been trodden under foot by the followers of the false prophet. 2. The accounts of modern Jerusalem by travellers are very numerous. Mr. Conder, in his “Palestine,” has abridged them with judgment. Dr. Clarke was ſortunate in catching his first view of Jerusalem under the illusion of a brilliant evening sunshine; but his description is decidedly overcharged. Mr. Buckingham, Mr. Brown, Mr. Jolliffe, Sir F. Henniker, and almost every other modern traveller, confirm the darker representation of Chateaubriand and Dr. Richardson. The following is a very spirited sketch of modern Je- rusalem, from the pen of Mr. Buckingham. * “Reposing beneath the shade of an olive-tree upon the brow of this hill, (the mount of Olives,) we enjoyed from mênce a fine prospect of Jerusalem on the opposite one. This city occupies an irregular square, of about two miles and a half in circumference. Its shortest apparent side, is that which faces the east, and in this is the supposed gate of the ancient temple, now closed up, and the small projecting stone on which Mohammed is to sit when the world is to be assembled to judgment in the vale below. The southern side is exceedingly irregular, taking quite a zigzag direction ; the south-west extreme being termina- ted by the mosque built over the supposed sepulchre of David, on the summit of mount Zion. The form and exact direction of the western and southern walls are not distinctly seen from hence; but every part of this appears to be a modern work, and executed at the same time. The walls are flanked at irregular distances by square towers, and have battlements running all around on their summits, with loop-holes ſor arrows or musquetry close to the top. The walls appear to be about fifty feet in height, but are not surrounded by a ditch. The northern wall runs over slightly declining ground ; the eastern brow runs straight along the brow of mount Moriah, with the deep valley of Jehoshaphat below ; the southern wall runs over the summit of the hill assumed as mount Zion, with the vale of Hinnom at its feet; and the western wall runs along on more level ground, near the summit of the high and stony mountains over which we had first approached the town. ... As the city is thus seated on the brow of one large hill, divided by name into several smaller hills, and the whole of these slope gently down towards the east; this view, from the mount of Olives, a position of greater height than that on which the highest Bart of the city stands, commands nearly the whole of it at On CC. - “On the north, it is bounded by a level and apparently fertile space, now covered with olive-trees, particularly near the north-east angle. º the south, the steep side of mount Zion, and the valley of Hinnom, both show patches of cultivation and little garden inclosures. On the west, the sterile summits of the hills there barely liſt their outlines above the dwellings. And, on the east, the deep valley of Jehoshaphat, now at our feet, has some partial spots relieved by trees, though as forbidding in its general aspect as the vale of death could ever be desired to be, by those who have chosen it for the place of their interment. . . . “Within the walls of the city are seen crowded dwell- ings, remarkable in no respect, except being terraced by flat roofs, and generally built of stone. On the south are some gardens and vineyards, with the long red mosque of Al Sakhara, having two tiers of windows, a sloping roof, and a dark dome at one end, and the mosque of Zion and the sepulchre of David in the same quarter. On the west is seen the high square, castle, and palace of the same monarch, near the Bethlehem gate. In the centre rise the two cupolas, of unequal ſorm and size; the one blue, and the other white, covering the church of the Holy Sepul- chre. Around, in different directions, are seen the mina- rets of eight or ten mosques, amid an assemblage of about two thousand dwellings. And on the east is seated the great mosque of Al Harrem, or, as called by Christians, the mosque of Solomon, from being supposed, with that of Al Sakhara near it, to occupy the site of the ancient temple of that splendid and luxurious king.” Travels in Palestine, &c. p. 203–205, 4to. Chateaubriand’s description is very striking and graphi- cal. After citing the language of the prophet Jeremiah, in his lamentations on the desolation of the ancient city, as accurately portraying its present state, (Lam. 1: 1–6. 2: 1–9, 15.) he thus proceeds :— “When seen from the mount of Olives, on the other side of the valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem presents an inclined plane, descending from west to east. An embat- tled wall, fortified with towers and a Gothic castle, en- compasses the city all round; excluding, however, part of mount Zion, which it formerly inclosed. In the wes- tern quarter, and in the centre of the city, the houses stand very close ; but, in the eastern part, along the brook Cedron, you perceive vacant spaces ; among the rest, that which surrounds the mosque erected on the ruins of the temple, and the nearly deserted spot where once stood the castle of Antonia, and the second palace of IIerod. The houses of Jerusalem are heavy square masses, very low, without chimneys or windows : they have flat terra- ces or domes on the top, and look like prisons or sepul- chres. The whole would appear to the eye one uninter- rupted level, did not the steeples of the churches, the mi- marets of the mosques, the summits of a few cypresses, and the clumps of nopals, break the uniformity of the plan. On beholding these stone buildings, encompassed by a stony country, you are ready to inquire if they are not the confused monuments of a cemetery in the midst of a desert. “Enter the city, but nothing will you there find to make amends for the dulness of its exterior. You lose your- self among narrow, unpaved streets, here going up hill, there down, from the inequality of the ground; and you walk among clouds of dust or loose stones. Canvass stretched from house to house increases the gloom of this labyrinth. Bazaars, roofed over, and fraught with infec- tion, completely exclude the light from the desolate city. A few paltry shops expose nothing but wretchedness to view ; and even these are frequently shut, from appre- hension of the passage of a cadi. Not a creature is to be seen in the streets, not a creature at the gates, except now and then a peasant gliding through the gloom, concealing under his garments the fruits of his labor, lest he should be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldier. Aside, in a corner, the Arab butcher is slaughtering some animal suspended by the legs from a wall in ruins: from his haggard and ferocious look, and his bloody hands, you would suppose that he had been cutting the throat of a fellow-creature, rather than killing a lamb. The only noise heard from time to time in the city is the galloping of the steed of the desert: it is the janissary who brings the head of the Bedouin, or who returns from plundering the unhappy Fellah, * * J E R J E R [ 682 ) * Amid this extraordinary desolation, you must pause a moment to contemplate two circumstances still more ex- traordinary. Among the ruins of Jerusalem, two classes of independent people find in their religion sufficient forti- tude to enable them to surmount such complicated horrors and wretchedness. Here reside communities of Chris- tian monks, whom nothing can compel to forsake the tomb of Christ; neither plunder, nor personal ill-treat- ment, nor menaces of death itself. Night and day they chant their hymns around the holy sepulchre. Driven by the cudgel and the sabre, women, children, flocks, and herds, seek refuge in the cloisters of these recluses. What prevents the armed oppressor from pursuing his prey, and overthrowing such feeble ramparts? The charity of the monks : they deprive themselves of the last resources of life to ransom their suppliants. Cast your eyes be- tween the temple and mount Zion; behold another petty tribe cut off from the rest of the inhabitants of this city. The particular objects of every species of degradation, these people bow their heads without murmuring; they endure every kind of insult without demanding justice; they sink beneath repeated blows without sighing; if their head be required, they present it to the scimitar. On the death of any member of this proscribed community, his companion goes at night, and inters him by stealth in the valley of Jehoshaphat, in the shadow of Solomon's tem- ple. Enter the abodes of these people, you will find them, amid the most abject wretchedness, instructing their chil- dren to read a mysterious book, which they in their turn will teach their offspring to read. What they did five thousand years ago, these people still continue to do. Se- venteen times have they witnessed the destruction of Je- rusalem, yet nothing can discourage them, nothing can prevent them from turning their faces towards Zion. To see the Jews scattered over the whole world, according to the word of God, must doubtless excite surprise. But to be struck with supernatural astonishment, you must view them at Jerusalem ; you must behold these rightful mas- ters of Judea living as slaves and strangers in their own country; you must behold them expecting, under all op- pressions, a king who is to deliver them. Crushed by the cross that condemns them, skulking near the temple, of which not one stone is left upon another, they continue in their deplorable infatuation. The Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, are swept from the earth; and a petty tribe, whose origin preceded that of those great nations, still exists unmixed among the ruins of its native land.” To the same effect are the remarks of Dr. Richardson : “The heart of this wonderful people, in whatever clime they roam, still turns to it as the city of their promised rest. They take pleasure in her ruins, and would kiss the very dust for her sake. Jesusalem is the centre around which the exiled sons of Judah build, in imagination, the mansions of their future greatness. In whatever part of the world he may live, the heart's desire of a Jew is to be buried in Jerusalem. Thither they return from Spain and Portugal, from Egypt and Barbary, and other coun- tries among which they have been scattered: and when, after all their longings, and all their struggles up the steeps of life, we see them poor, and blind, and naked, in the streets of their once happy Zion, he must have a cold heart that can remain untouched by their sufferings, with- out uttering a prayer that God would have mercy on the darkness of Judah; and that the day-star of Bethlehem might arise in their hearts.” “Jerusalem,” remarks Sir Frederic Henniker, “is call- ed, even by Mohammedans, the Blessed City, (El Gootz, El Koudes.) The streets of it, however, are narrow and de- serted, the houses dirty and ragged, the shops few and forsaken ; and throughout the whole there is not one symp. tom of either commerce, comfort, or happiness. The best view of it is from the mount of Olives: it commands the exact shape and nearly every particular; namely, the church of the holy sepulchre, the Armenian convent, the mosque of Omar, St. Stephen's gate, the round-topped houses, and the barren vacancies of the city. Without the walls are a Turkish burial-ground, the tomb of Da- vid, a small grove near the tombs of the kings, and all the rest is a surface of rock, on which are a few number. ed trees '' The Jerusalem of sacred history is, in fact, no more. Not a vestige remains of the capital of David and Solo- mon; not a monument of Jewish timesis standing. . The very course of the walls is changed, and the boundaries of the ancient city are become doubtful. (See CALVARY.) “A few gardens,” says Dr. Richardson, “still remain on the sloping base of mount Zion, watered from the pool of Siloam ; the gardens of Gethsemane are still in a sort of ruined cultivation; the fences are broken down, and the olive-trees decaying, as if the hand that dressed and fed them were withdrawn; the mount of Olives still retains a languishing verdure, and nourishes a few of those trees from which it derives its name; but all round about Jeru- salem the general aspect is blighted and barren ; the grass is withered ; the bare rock looks through the scanty sward ; and the grain itself, like the staring progeny of famine, seems in doubt whether to come to maturity, or die in the ear. The vine that was brought from Egypt is cut off from the midst of the land; the vineyards are wasted ; the hedges are taken away; and the graves of the ancient dead are open and tenantless.” 3. On the accomplishment of prophecy in the condition in which this celebrated city has lain for ages, Keith well remarks :-It formed the theme of prophecy from the death-bed of Jacob ; and, as the seat of the government of the children of Judah, the sceptre departed not from it till the Messiah appeared, on the expiration of seventeen hundred years after the death of the patriarch, and till the period of its desolation, prophesied of by Daniel, had ar- rived. It was to be trodden dowr of the Gentiles, till the time of the Gentiles should be fulfilled. The time of the Gentiles is not yet fulfilled, azid Jerusalem is still trodden down of the Gentiles. The Jews have often attempted to recover it : no distance of space or of time can separate it from their affections - they perform their devotions with their faces towards it, as if it were the object of their wor- ship as well as of their love ; and, although their desire to return be so strong, indelible, and innate, that every Jew, in every generation, counts himself an exile, yet they have never been able to rebuild their temple, nor to recover Jerusalem from the hands of the Gentiles. But greater power than that of a proscribed and exiled race has been added to their own, in attempting to frus- trate the counsel that professed to be of God. Julian, the emperor of the Romans, not only permitted but invited the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple ; and promised to re-establish them in their paternal city. By that single act, more than by all his writings, he might have destroyed the credibility of the gospel, and restored his beloved but deserted paganism. The zeal of the Jews was equal to his own ; and the work was begun by lay- ing again the foundations of the temple. It was never accomplished, and the prophecy stands fulfilled. But even if the attempt sf Julian had never been made, the truth of the prophecy itself is unassailable. The Jews have never been reinstated in Judea. Jerusalem has ever been trodden down of the Gentiles. The edict of Adrian was renewed by the successors of Julian ; and no Jews could approach unto Jerusalem but by bribery or by stealth. It was a spot unlawful for them to touch. In the cru- sades, all the power of Europe was employed to rescue Jerusalem from the heathens, but equally in vain. It has been trodden down for nearly eighteen centuries by its successive masters; by Romans, Grecians, Persians, Sara- cens, Mamelukes, Turks, Christians, and again by the worst of rulers, the Arabs and the Turks. - And could any thing be more improbable to have hap. pened, or more impossible to have been foreseen by man, than that any people should be banished from their own capital and country, and remain expelled and expatriated for nearly eighteen hundred years? Did the same ſate ever befall any nation, though no prophecy existed respect- ing it ! Is there any doctrine in Scripture so hard to be believed as was this single fact at the period of its predic- tion ?. And even with the example of the Jews before us, is it likely, or is it credible, or who can foretel, that the present inhabitants of any country upon earth shall be banished into all nations, retain their distinctive charac. ter, meet with an unparalleled fate, continue a people, without a government and without a country, and remain J E S J E s [ 683 J for an indefinite period, exceeding seventeen hundred years, till the ſulfilment of a prescribed event which has yet to be accomplished 2 Must not the knowledge of such iruths be derived from that prescience alone which scans alike the will and the ways of mortals, the actions of fu- ture nations, and the history of the latest generations? —Hend. Buck; Watson. - - JERUSADEM, THE New. The city of Jerusalem, like Gehenna, Paradise, &c., furnishes a metaphorical appli- cation of its name, in an exalted and spiritual sense. The first hint of this in the New Testament, occurs in Gal. 4: 25, where the apostle refers to the formation of the He. brew nation into a church state, by the giving of the law from Sinai; under which terrific and slavish dispensa- tion, the “Jerusalem that now is,” he says, “ continues; but the Jerusalem above is free, which is the mother of us all,” believing Gentiles as well as Jews; (perhaps pan- ton meter, the Universal Mother.) The name seems to denote the formation of all man- kind, as it were, (not of a single nation,) into the church of God, beginning at Jerusalem; though properly origi- nating in heaven, the seat of the celestial Jerusalem, the mansion of complete and uninterrupted tranquillity. The metaphor is resumed and enlarged by the writer of the Revelation; who describes a new Jerusalem, after the destruction of the former city by Titus : (Rev. 3: 12.) “The city of my God, the new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven, from my God.” Also, (ch. 21.) “And I saw a new heaven, and a new earth : for the first hea- ven and the first earth were passed away; and I saw the holy city, new Jerusalem,” ver. 1. This he describes at large, (ver. 10, et seq.) in a strain of Oriental metaphor, that can only agree to the celestial state : similar allu- sions to certain parts of its decorations are found, Isa. 54: 11. . This celestial city, called the holy city, and the great city, had no temple, nor other peculiarities of the Jewish service; and the whole description of it, the dimensions, the parts, and the properties of it, are magnificent in the highest degree. The new Jerusalem on earth should be carefully distinguished from the new Jerusalem in heaven, in explaiming this book.-Calmet. JESHIMON ; probably the same as Hesmona, Ase- mona, Esem, Esemon, and Esemona ; a city in the wil- derness of Maon, belonging to Simeon; in the south of Palestine, or Arabia Petraea, 1 Sam. 23: 24.—Calmet. JESHURUN ; a name given to the collective political body of Israelites. Some derive the word from jeshar, just, or righteous, and so make it to signify, that though, in general, and on the whole, they were a righteous people, yet they were not without great faults. Cocceius, how- ever, derives the word from shur, which signifies to see, be- hold, or discover ; from whence, in the future tense, plural, comes jeshru, which, with the addition of nun paragogi- cum, makes Jeshurun ; that is, “the people who had the vision of God.” This makes the name of Jeshurun to be properly applied to Israel, not only when Moses is called their king, but when they are upbraided with their rebel- lion against God; since the peculiar manifestation which God had made of himself to them, was a great aggrava- tion of their ingratitude and rebellion.—Watson. JESSE. (SEE DAVID, and RUTH..) JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, one of the most celebrated monastic orders of the Romish church, was founded in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola. (See Ig- NATIUS Loyol,A.) . He produced a plan of its constitution and laws, which he affirmed to have been suggested by the immediate inspiration of heaven, and applied to the Roman pontiff, Paul III., for the sanction of his authority to confirm the institution. At a time when the papal au- thority had received so severe a shock from the progress of the Reſormation, and was still exposed to the most powerful attacks in every quarter, this was an offer too tempting to be resisted. The reigning pontiff, though naturally cautious, and though scarcely capable, without the spirit of prophecy, of foreseeing all the advantages to be derived from the services of this nascent order, yet clearly perceiving the benefit of multiplying the number of his devoted servants, instantly confirmed by his bull the institution of the Jesuits, granted the most ample privileges to the members of the Society, and appointed Loyola to be the first general of the order. The recent revival of this subtle and dangerous order, together with its widely diffused and increasing influence in the United States, makes it desirable to give as full a view of its character and history, as our work will admit. It was, indeed, a fundamental maxim with the Jesuits, from their first institution, not to publish the rules of their order: these they kept concealed as an impenetrable mys- tery. They never communicated them to strangers, nor even to the greater part of their own members; they re- ſused to produce them when required by courts of jus- tice; and by a strange solecism in policy, the civil power in different countries authorized or connived at the esta- blishment of an order of men, whose constitution and laws were concealed with a solicitude which alone was a good reason for having excluded them. During the prose- cutions, however, which have been carried on against them in Portugal and France, the Jesuits have been so inconsiderate as to produce the mysterious volumes of their institute, the Monita Secreta, copious extracts from which may be seen in the British Review for 1815. By the aid of these authentic records, the principles of their government may be delineated, and the sources of their power investigated, with a degree of certainty and pre- cision which, previous to that event, it was impossible to attain. r 1. Constitution of the Order.—The simple and primary object of the society, says a writer in the Edinburgh En- cyclopædia, was to establish a spiritual dominion over the minds of men, of which the pope should appear as the Ostensible head, while the real power should reside with themselves. To accomplish this object, the whole consti- tution and policy of the order were singularly adapted, and exhibited various peculiarities which distinguished it from all other monastic orders. The immediate design of every other religious society was to separate its mem- bers from the world; that of the Jesuits, to render them masters of the world. The inmate of the convent devoted himself to work out his own salvation by extraordinary acts of devotion and self-denial; the follower of Loyola considered himself as plunging into all the bustle of secu- lar affairs, to maintain the interests of the Romish church. The monk was a retired devotee of heaven; the Jesuit a chosen soldier of the pope. That the members of the new order might have full leisure for this active service, they were exempted from the usual functions of other monks. They were not required to spend their time in the long ceremonial offices and numberless mummeries of the Romish worship. They attended no processions, and practised no austerities. They neither chanted nor prayed. “They cannot sing,” said their enemies; “for birds of prey never do.” They were sent forth to watch every transaction of the world which might appear te affect the interests of religion, and were especially enjoin ed to study the dispositions and cultivate the friendship of persons in the higher ranks. Nothing could be ima. gined more open and liberal than the external aspect of the institution, yet nothing could be more strict and secret than its internal organization. Loyola, influenced, per haps, by the notions of implicit obedience which he had derived from his military profession, resolved that the government of the Jesuits should be absolutely monarchi- cal. A general, chosen for life by deputies from the seve- ral provinces, possessed supreme and independent power, extending to every person, and applying to every case. Every member of the order, the instant that he entered its pale, surrendered all freedom of thought and action ; and every personal feeling was superseded by the interests of that body to which he had attached himself. He went wherever he was ordered; he performed whatever he was commanded; he suffered whatever he was enjoined ; he became a mere passive instrument, incapable of resistance. The gradation of ranks was only a gradation in slavery; and so perfect a despotism over a large body of men, dis- persed over the face of the earth, was never before realized. 2. Policy of the Order.—The maxims of policy adopted by this celebrated society were, like its constitution, re- markable for their union of laxity and rigor. Nothing could divert them from their original object ; and no J E S J E S [ 684 ) means were ever scrupled which promised to aid its ac- complishment. They were in no degree shackled by preju- dice, superstition, or real religion. Expediency, in its most simple and licentious form, was the basis of their morals, and their principles and practices were uniformly accommodated to the circumstances in which they were placed; and even their bigotry, obdurate as it was, never appears to have interfered with their interests. The para- mount and characteristic principle of the order, from which none of its members ever, Swerved, was simply this, that its interests were to be promoted by all possible means, at all possible expense. In order to acquire more easily an ascendency over persons of rank and power, they propagated a system of the most relaxed morality, which accommodated itself to the passions of men, justi- fied their vices, tolerated their imperfections, and author- ized almost every action which the most audacious or crafty politician would wish to perpetrate. To persons of stricter principles they studied to recommend themselves by the purity of their lives, and sometimes by the aus- terity of their doctrines. While sufficiently compliant in the treatment of immoral practices, they were generally rigidly severe in exacting a strict orthodoxy in opinions. “They are a sort of people,” said the abbé Boileau, “who lengthen the creed and shorten the decalogue.” They adopted the same spirit of accommodation in their missionary undertakings; and their Christianity, chame- leon-like, readily assumed the color of every religion where it happened to be introduced. They freely permit- ted their converts to retain a full proportion of the old su- erstitions, and suppressed, without hesitation, any point in the new faith which was likely to bear hard on their prejudices or propensities. They proceeded to still great- er lengths; and, besides suppressing the truths of reve- lation, devised the most absurd falsehoods, to be used for attracting disciples, or even to be taught as parts of Chris- tianity. One of them in India produced a pedigree to prove his own descent from Brama ; and another in Ame- rica assured a native chief that Christ had been a valiant and victorious warrior, who, in the space of three years, had scalped an incredible number of men, women, and children. It was, in fact, their own authority, not the au- thority of true religion, which they wished to establish; and Christianity was generally as little known, when they quitted the foreign scenes of their labors, as when they en- tered them. 3. Progress of the Order.—These detestable objects and principles, however, were long an impenetrable secret: and the professed intention of the new order was to pro- mote, with unequalled and unfettered zeal, the salvation of mankind. Its progress, nevertheless, was at first re- markably slow. Charles W., who is suppósed, with his usual sagacity, to have discerned its dangerous tendency, rather checked than encouraged its advancement; and the universities of France resisted its introduction into that kingdom. Thus, roused by obstacles, and obliged to find resources within themselves, the Jesuits brought all their talents and devices into action. They applied them- selves to every useful function and curious art; and nei- ther neglected nor despised any mode, however humble, of gaining employment or reputation. The satirist’s de- scription of the Greeks in Rome has been aptly chosen to describe their indefatigable and universal industry – Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes, Augur, schoºnobates, medicus, magus.; omnia movit Graeculus. Juvenal, lib. iii. 76. “A Protean tribe, one knows not what to call, Which shifts to every form, and shines in all: Grammarian, painter, augur, rhetorician, Rope-dancer, conjuror, fiddler, and physician,— All trades his own, your hungry Greekling counts.” Gifford. They labored with the greatest assiduity to qualify them- selves as the instructers of youth; and succeeded, at length, in supplanting their opponents in every Catholic kingdom. ... They aimed, in the next place, to become the spiritual directors of the higher ranks ; and soon esta- blished themselves in most of the courts which were at- tached to the papal faith, not only as the confessors, but frequently also as the guides and ministers, of superstitious princes. The governors of the society, pursuing one uni- form system, with unwearied perseverance, became en- tirely successful; and, in the space of half a century, had in a wonderful degree extended the reputation, the num- ber, and influence of the order. When Loyola, in 1540, petitioned the pope to authorize the institution of the Je- suits, he had only ten disciples; but in 1608 the number amounted to ten thousand five hundred and eighty-one. Be- fore the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had ob- tained the chief direction of the education of youth in every Catholic country in Europe, and had become the confessors of almost all its noblest monarchs. In spite of their vow of poverty, their wealth increased with their power; and they soon rivalled, in the extent and value of their possessions, the most opulent monastic fraterni- ties. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, they obtained from the court of Madrid the grant of the large and fertile province of Paraguay, which stretches across the Southern continent of America, from the moun- tains of Potosi to the banks of the river La Plata; and, after every deduction which can reasonably be made from their own accounts of their establishment, enough will remain to excite the astonishment and applause of man- kind. . They found the inhabitants in the first stage of so- ciety, ignorant of the arts of life, and unacquainted with the first principles of subordination. They applied them- selves to instruct and civilize these savage tribes. They commenced their labors by collecting about fifty families of wandering Indians, whom they converted and settled in a small township. They taught them to build houses, to cultivate the ground, and to rear tame animals; train. ed them to arts and manufactures, and brought them to relish the blessings of security and order. By a wise and humane policy, they gradually attracted new subjects and converts ; till at last they formed a powerful and well-or- ganized state of three hundred thousand families. But even in this meritorious effort of the Jesuits for the good of mankind, the genius and spirit of their order was discernible : they plainly aimed at establishing in Pa. raguay an independent empire, subject to the society alone, and which, by the superior excellence of its consti. tution and police, could scarcely have failed to extend its dominion over all the southern continent of America. With this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Por- tuguese in the adjacent settlements from acquiring any dangerous inſluence over the people within the limits of the province subject to the society, the Jesuits endeavored to inspire the Indians with hatred and contempt of these nations; they cut off all intercourse between their sub- jects and the Spanish or Portuguese settlements. When they were obliged to admit any person in a public charac- ter from the neighboring governments, they did not per- mit him to have any conversation with their subjects; and no Indian was allowed even to enter the house where these strangers resided, unless in the presence of a Jesuit. In order to render any communication between them as difficult as possible, they industriously avoided giving the Indians any knowledge of the Spanish, or of any other European language ; but encouraged the different tribes which they had civilized to acquire a certain dialect of the Indian tongue, and labored to make that the universal language throughout their dominions. As all these pre- cautions, without military force, would have been insuſ. ficient to have rendered their empire secure and perma- ment, they instructed their subjects in the European art of war, and formed them into bodies completely armed and well disciplined. Even Henry IV., either dreading their power, or pleased with the exculpation of his licentious habits, which he found in their flexible system of morality, became their patron, and selected one of their number as his confessor. They were favored by Louis XIII. and his minister Riche- lieu, on account of their literary exertions; but it was in the succeeding reign of Louis XIV., that they reached the summit of their prosperity. The fathers La Chaise and Le Teltier were successively confessors to the lºing; and did not fail to employ their influence for the interest of their order: but the latter carried on his projects with so blind and fiery a zeal, that one of the Jesuits is reported to have said of him, “He drives at such a rate, that he will overturn us all.” The Jansenists were peculiarly the J E S J E S | 685 J objects of his machinations, and he rested not till he had accomplished the destruction of their celebrated college and convent at Port Royal. . .4. Gradual overthron of the Order.—Before the fall, how- ever, of the Port Royal seminary, a shaft from its bow had reached the heart of its proud oppressor. The “Pro- vincial Letters of Pascal” had been published, in which the quibbling morality and unintelligible metaphysics of the Jesuits were exposed in a strain of inimitable humor, and a style of unrivalled elegance. The impression which they produced was wide and deep, and gradually sapped the foundation of public opinion, on which the power of the order had hitherto rested. Voltaire afterwards directed against them all the powers of his ridicule, and finished the piece which Pascal had sketched. Their power was brought to a very low ebb, when the war of 1756 broke out, which occasioned the famous lawsuit that led to their final overthrow. * • In the mean time, the king of Portugal was assas- sinated; and Carvalho, the minister, who detested the Jesuits, found means to load them with the odium of the crime. Malagrida, and a few more of these fathers, were charged with advising and absolving the assassins; and, having been found guilty, were condemned to the stake. The rest were banished with every brand of infamy, and even treated with the most iniquitous cruelty. On the sixth of August, 1762, their institute was condemned by the parliament of France, as contrary to the laws of the State, to the obedience due to the sovereign, and to the welfare of the kingdom. The order was dissolved, and their effects alienated. But in certain quarters, where the provincial parliaments had not decided against them, Je- suits still subsisted; and a royal edict was aſterwards promulgated, which formally abolished the society in France, but permitted its members to reside within the kingdom under certain restrictions. - - * In Spain, where they conceived their establishment to be perfectly secure, they experienced an overthrow equally complete, and much more unexpected. At midnight, March 31, 1767, large bodies of military surrounded the six colleges of the Jesuits in Madrid, forced the gates, se- cured the bells, collected the fathers in the refectory, and read to them the king's order for their instant transporta- tion. They were immediately put into carriages previously placed at proper stations; and were on their way to Car- thagena before the inhabitants of the city had any intelli- gence of the transaction. Three days afterwards, the same measures were adopted with regard to every other college of the order in the kingdom; and, ships having been provided at the different sea-ports, they were all em- barked for the ecclesiastical states in Italy. All their pro- perty was confiscated, and a small pension assigned to each individual as long as he should reside in a place ap- pointed, and satisfy the Spanish court as to his peaceable demeanor. All correspondence with the Jesuits was pro- hibited, and the strictest silence on the subject of their expulsion was enjoined under penalties of high treason. A similar seizure and deportation took place in the Indies, and an immense property was acquired by the govern- ment. The example of the king of Spain was immediately followed by Ferdinand VI., of Naples, and soon after by the prince of Parma. They had been expelled from Eng- land in 1604; from Venice in 1606; and from Portugal in 1759, upon the charge of having instigated the families of Tavora and D'Aveiro to assassinate king Joseph I. Frederic the Great, of Prussia, was the only monarch who showed a disposition to afford them protection ; but in 1773 the order was entirely suppressed by pope Clement XIV., who is supposed afterwards to have fallen a victim to their vengeance, . 5. Recent revival of the Order.—In 1801 the society was restored in Russia by the emperor Paul ; and in 1804, by king Ferdinand, in Sardinia. In August, 1814, a bull was issued by pope Pius VII., restoring the order to all their former privileges, and calling upon all Catholic princes to afford them protection and encouragement. This act of their revival is expressed in all the solemnity of papal au- thority; and even affirmed to be above the recall or revi- slon of any judge, with whatever power he may be clothed; but to every enlightened mind it cannot fail to appear as a measure altogether incapable of justification, from any thing either in the history of Jesuitism, or in the character of the present times. - 6. Incidental benefits of the Order.—It would be in vain to deny that many considerable advantages were derived by mankind from the labors of the Jesuits. Their ardor 1n the study of ancient literature, and their labors in the instruction of youth, greatly contributed to the progress of polite learning. They have produced a greater number of ingenious authors than all the other religious fraterni. ties talken together; and though there never was known among their order one person who could be said to possess an enlarged philosophical mind, they can boast of many eminent masters in the separate branches of science, many distinguished mathematicians, antiquarians, critics, and even some orators of high reputation. They were it, general, also, as individuals, superior in decency, and even purity of manners, to any other class of regular clergy in the church of Rome. But all these benefits by no means counterbalanced the pernicious effects of their influence and intrigues on the best interests of so- clety. 7. Essential Evils of the Order.—The essential principles of the institution, namely, that their order is to be main- tained at the expense of society at large, and that the end sanctifies the means, are utterly incompatible with the welfare of any community of men. Their system of lax and pliant morality, justifying every vice, and authorizing every atrocity, has left deep and lasting ravages on the face of the moral world. Their zeal to extend the juris- diction of the court of Rome over every civil government, gave currency to tenets respecting the duty of opposing princes who were hostile to the Catholic faith, which shook the basis of all political allegiance, and loosened the obli- gations of every human law. Their indefatigable indus- try, and countless artifices in resisting the progress of the reformed religion, perpetuated the most pernicious errors of popery, and postponed the triumph of tolerant and Christian principles. Whence, then, it may well be asked, whence the recent restoration ? What long-latent proof has been discovered of the excellence, or even the expedi- ence, of such an institution ? The sentence of their aboli- tion was passed by the senates, and monarchs, and states- men, and divines, of all religions, and of almost every civilized country in the world. Almost every land has been stained and torn by their crimes; and almost every land bears on its public records the most solemn protests against their existence. The evils of Jesuitism arise not from the violation of the principles of the order; on the contrary, they are the natural and necessary fruits of the system; they are confined to no age, place, or person ; they follow, like the tail of the comet, the same disastrous course with the luminary itself; and, in consequence, not this or that nation, but humanity, is startled at the re-ap, pearance of this common enemy of man. The number of Jesuits at present in Europe and America amounts to several thousand. Their general resides at Rome. In Italy, including Sicily, there are Seven hundred, who possess eighteen colleges for the in- struction of youth. The number in France is not exactly known. The Society, it has been said, is a sword, of which the hilt is at Rome! But if the hilt be there, the blade is everywhere, and that with so fine an edge as to make itself felt before it can be seen. Edin. Brit. Enc. and Enc. Am. ; Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ; Harleian Misc., vol. v. p. 566; Broughton's Dict. ; Pascal's Provincial Letters, Am. ed.: Works of Robert Hall; New York Evangelist, for 1831; British Review.— Watson ; Hend. Buck. JESUS CHRIST; the Son of God, the Messiah, and Sa- vior of the world; the first and principal object of the pro- phecies; prefigured and promised in the Old Testament; expected and desired by the patriarchs; the hope of the Gentiles ; the glory, salvation, and consolation of Chris- tians. The name Jesus, or, as the Hebrews pronounce it, Jehoshua, or Joshua, signifies, he who shall save. No one ever bore this name with so much justice, nor so perfectly ſulfilled the signification of it, as Jesus Christ, who saves even from sin and hell, and hath merited heaven for us by the price of his blood. It is not necessary here to narrate the history of our Savior's life, which can nowhere be * * J E s J E S | 686 read with advantage except in the writings of the four evangelists; but there are several general views which re- quire to be noticed under this article. I. Jesus of Nazareth was the Christ or Messiah pro- mised under the Old Testament. That he professed him- self to be that Messiah to whom all the prophets gave witness, and who was, in fact, at the time of his appear- ing, expected by the Jews; and that he was received un- der that character by his disciples, and by all Christians ever since, is certain. And if the Old Testament Scrip- tures afford sufficiently definite marks by which the long- announced Christ should be infallibly known at his advent, and these presignations are found realized in our Lord, then is the truth of his pretensions established. From the books of the Old Testament we learn that the Messiah was to authenticate his claim by miracles ; and in those predactions respecting him, so many circumstances are re- corded, that they could meet only in one person; and so, if they are accomplished in him, they leave no room for doubt, as far as the evidence of prophecy is deemed con- clusive. As to MIRACLES, we refer to that article ; here only observing, that if the miraculous works wrought by Christ were really done, they prove his mission, because, from their nature, and having been wrought to confirm his claim to be the Messiah, they necessarily imply a di- wine attestation. With respect to PROPHEcy, the principles under which its evidence must be regarded as conclusive will be given under that head; and here therefore it will only be necessary to show the completion of the prophe- cies of the Sacred books of the Jews relative to the Mes- siah in one person, and that person the Founder of the Christian religion. - The time of the Messiah's appearance in the world, as predicted in the Old Testament, is defined, says Keith, by a number of concurring circumstances, which fix it to the very date of the advent of Christ, Gen. 49: 10. Mal. 3: 1. Hag. 2: 7. Dan. 9: 24, 25. Isa. 40: 3–11. The plainest inference may be drawn from these prophecies. All of them, while, in every respect, they presuppose the most perfect knowledge of futurity; while they were unques. tionably delivered and publicly known for ages previous to the time to which they referred ; and while they refer to different contingent and unconnected events, utterly un- determinable and inconceivable by all human sagacity; accord in perfect unison to a single precise period where all their different lines terminate at once,—the very fulness of time when Jesus appeared. A king then reigned over the Jews in their own land; they were governed by their own laws; and the council of their nation exercised its authority and power. Before that period, the other tribes were extinct or dispersed among the nations. Judah alone remained, and the last sceptre in Israel had not then departed from it. Every stone of the temple was then unmoved; it was the admiration of the Romans, and might have stood for ages. But in a short space, all these concurring testimonies to the time of the advent of the Messiah passed away. During the very year, the twelfth of his age, in which Christ first publicly appeared in the temple, Archelaus the king was dethroned and banished ; Coponius was appointed procurator; and the kingdom of Judea, the last remnant of the greatness of Israel, was debased into a part of the province of Syria. The scep- tre was smitten from the tribe of Judah; the crown fell from their heads; their glory departed; and, soon after the death of Christ, of their temple one stone was not left upon another; their commonwealth itself became as com- plete a ruin, and was broken in pieces; and they have ever since been scattered throughout the world, a name but not a nation. After the lapse of nearly four hundred years posterior to the time of Malachi, another prophet appeared who was the herald of the Messiah. And the testimony of Josephus confirms the account given in Scripture of John the Baptist. Every mark that denoted the time of the coming of the Messiah was erased soon after the crucifixion of Christ, and could never afterwards be renewed. And with respect to the prophecies of Da- niel, it is remarkable, at this remote period, how little dis- crepancy of opinion has existed among the most learned men, as to the space from the time of the passing out of the edict to rebuild Jerusalem, after the Babylonish cap- tivity, to the commencement of the Christian era, and the subsequent events foretold in the prophecy. ...?" --- The predictions contained in the Old Testament respect- ing both the family out of which the Messiah was to arise, and the place of his birth, are almost as circumstantial, and are equally applicable to Christ, as those which refer to the time of his appearance. He was to be an Israelite, of the tribe of Judah, of the family of David, and of the town of Bethlehem. That all these predictions were ſul- filled in Jesus Christ; that he was of that country, tribe, and family, of the house and lineage of David, and born in Bethlehem, we have the fullest evidence in the testimo- ny of all the evangelists; in two distinct accounts of the genealogies, by natural and legal succession, which, ace cording to the custom of the Jews, were carefully pre- served ; in the acquiescence of the enemies of Christ in the truth of the fact, against which there is not a single surmise in history; and in the appeal made by some of the earliest Christian writers to the unquestionable testi- mony of the records of the census, taken at the very time of our Savior’s birth by order of Caesar. Here, indeed, it is impossible not to be struck with the exact fulfilment of prophecies which are apparently contradictory and ir- reconcilable, and with the manner in which they were providentially accomplished. The spot of Christ's nativi- ty was distant from the place of the abode of his parents, and the region in which he began his ministry was remote from the place of his birth; and another prophecy respect- ing him was in this manner verified : “In the land of Ze- bulun and Naphtali, by the way of the sea beyond Jordan, in Galilee of the nations, the people that walked in dark- ness have seen a great light; they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined,” Isaiah 9: 1, 2. Matt. 4: 16. Thus, the time at which the predicted Messiah was to appear; the nation, the tribe, and the family from which he was to be descended ; and the place of his birth, no populous city, but of itself an inconsiderable place,—were all clearly foretold ; and as clearly refer to Jesus Christ; and all meet their comple- tion in him. But the facts of his life, and the features of his charac- ter, are also drawn with a precision that cannot be misun- derstood. The obscurity, the meanness, and the poverty of his external condition are represented, Isa. 53: 2. 49: 7. His riding in humble triumph into Jerusalem; his be- ing betrayed for thirty pieces of silver, and Scourged, and buffeted, and spit upon ; the piercing of his hands and of his feet; the last offered draught of vinegar and gall; the parting of his raiment, and casting lots upon his vesture; the manner of his death and of his burial, and his rising again without seeing corruption, were all expressly pre- dicted, and all these predictions were literally ſulfilled, Zech. 9: 9. 11: 12. Isaiah 1: 6. Psalm 22: 16. 69: 21. 22: 18. Isaiah 53: 9. Psalm 16:10. Iſ all these prophe- cies admit of any application to the events of the life of any individual, it can only be to that of the Author of Christianity. And what other religion can produce a sin- gle fact which was actually foretold of its founder ? The death of Christ was as unparalleled as his life; and the prophecies are as minutely descriptive of his suffer- ings as of his virtues. Not only did the paschal lamb, which was to be killed every year in all the families of Israel, which was to be taken out of the flock, to be with out blernish, to be eaten with bitter herbs, to have its blood sprinkled, and to be kept whole that not a bone of it should be broken ; not only did the offering up of Isaac, and the lifting up of the brazen serpent in the wilderness, by looking upon which the people were healed, and many ritual observances of the Jews, prefigure the manner of Christ’s death, and the sacrifice which was to be made for sin; but many express declarations abound in the prophe- cies, that Christ was indeed to suffer. But Isaiah, who describes, with eloquence worthy of a prophet, the glories of the kingdom that was to come, characterizes, with the accuracy of an historian, the humiliation, the trials, and the agonies which were to precede the triumphs of the Redeemer of a world; and the history of Christ forms, to the very letter, the commentary and the completion of his every prediction. In a single passage, (Isaiah 52: 13, &c. 53.) the connexion of which is uninterrupted, its J E S J E S [687 ) antiquity indisputable, and its application, obvious, the sufferings of the servant of God (who, under that same denomination, is previously described as he who was to be the light of the Gentiles, the salvation of God to the ends of the earth, and the elect of God in whom his soul delighted, Isaiah 42: 10. 49: 6.) are so minutely foretold, that no illustration is requisite to show that they testify of Jesus. The whole of this prophecy thus refers to the Messiah. It describes both his debasement and his digni- ty; his rejection by the Jews; his humility, his affliction, and his agony; his magnanimity and his charity ; how his words were disbelieved; how his state was lowly; how his sorrow was severe; how he opened not his mouth but to make intercession for the transgressors. In diame- trical opposition to every dispensation of Providence which is registered in the records of the Jews, it represents spot- hess innocence suffering by the appointment of Heaven; death as the issue of perfect obedience; God's righteous servant as forsaken of him ; and one who was perfectly immaculate bearing the chastisement of many guilty; fprinkling many nations from their iniquity, by virtue of his sacrifice ; justifying many by his knowledge; and di- viding a portion with the great and the spoil with the strong, because he hath poured out his soul in death. This prophecy, therefore, simply as a prediction prior to ſhe event, renders, the very unbelief of the Jews an evi- dence against them, converts the scandal of the cross into an argument in favor of Christianity, and presents us with an epitome of the truth, a miniature of the gospel in some of its most striking features. The simple exposition of it sufficed at once for the conversion of the eunuch of Ethio- pia. To these prophecies may, in fact, be added all those which relate to his spiritual kingdom, or the circumstances of the promulgation, the opposition, and the triumphs of his religion; the accomplishment of which equally proves the divine mission of its Author, and points him out as that great personage with whom they stand inseparably connected. e II. But if Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah, in that character his Deity also is necessarily involved, because the Messiah is surrounded with attributes of divinity in the Old Testament ; and our Lord himself as certainly lays claim to those attributes as to the office of “the Christ.” The divinity of Jesus Christ seems evident, if we con- sider, 1. The language of the New Testament, and com- pare it with the state of the pagan world at the time of its publication. If Jesus Christ were not God, the writers of the New Testament discovered great injudiciousness in the choice of their words, and adopted a very incautious and dangerous style. The whole world, except the small kingdom of Judea, worshipped idols at the time of Jesus Christ's appearance. Jesus Christ; the evangelists, who wrote his history; and the apostles, who wrote epistles to various classes of men, proposed to destroy idolatry, and to establish the worship of one only living and true God. To effect this purpose, it was absolutely necessary for these founders of Christianity to avoid confusion and ob- scurity of language, and to express their ideas in a cool and cautious style. The least expression that would tend to deify a creature, or countenance idolatry, would have been a source of the greatest error. Hence Paul and Bar- nabas rent their clothes at the very idea of the multitude's conſounding the creature with the Creator, Acts 14. The writers of the New Testament knew that, in speaking of Jesus Christ, extraordinary caution was necessary; yet, when we take up the New Testament, we find such ex- pressions as these : “The word was God,” John 1: 1. “God was manifest in the flesh,” 1 Tim. 3: 16. “God with us,” Matt. 1:23. The Jews “crucified the Lord of glory,” 1 Cor. 2:8. “Jesus Christ is Lord of all,” Acts 10: 36. “Christ is over all, God blessed for ever,” Rom. 9: 5. These are a few of many propositions, which the New Testament writers lay down relative to Jesus Christ. If the writers intended to affirm the divinity of Jesus Christ, these are words of truth and soberness; if not, the lan- guage is incautious and unwarrantable; and to address it to men prone to idolatry, for the purpose of destroying idolatry, is a strong presumption against their inspiration. It is remarkable, also, that the richest words in the Greek language are made use of to describe Jesus Christ. This language, which is very copious, would have afforded lower terms to express an inferior nature; but it could have afforded none higher to express the nature of the Su- preme God. It is worthy of observation, too, that these writers addressed their writings, not to philosophers and scholars, but to the common people, and consequently used words in their plain, popular signification. The com- mon people, it seems, understood the words in our sense of them; for in the Diocletian persecution, when the Ro- man soldiers burnt a Phrygian city inhabited by Chris- tians, men, women, and children submitted to their fate, “calling upon Christ, the God over all.” 2. Compare the style of the New Testament with the state of the Jews at the time of its publication. In the time of Jesus Christ, the Jews were zealous defenders of the unity of God, and of that idea of his perfections which the Scriptures excited. Jesus Christ and his apostles pro- fessed the highest regard for the Jewish Scriptures; yet the writers of the New Testament described Jesus Christ by the very names and titles by which the writers of the Old Testament had described the Supreme God. Com- pare Exod. 3: 14, with John 8: 58. Is. 44; 6, with Rev. 1: 11, 17. Deut. 10: 17, with Rev. 17: 14. Ps. 24: 10, with 1 Cor. 2:8. Hos. 1: 7, with Luke 2: 11. Dan. 5: 23, with 1 Cor. 15:47. 1 Chron. 29: 11, with Col. 2: 10. If they who described Jesus Christ to the Jews by these sacred names and titles intended to convey an idea of his deity, the description is just and the application safe; but if they intended to describe a mere man, they were surely of all men the most preposterous. They chose a method of re- commending Jesus to the Jews the most likely to alarm and enrage them. Whatever they meant, the Jews un- derstood them in our sense, and took Jesus for a blasphe- mer, John 10: 33. 3. Compare the perfections which are ascribed to Jesus Christ in the Scriptures, with those which are ascribed to God. Jesus Christ declares, “All things that the Father hath are mine;” (John 16:15.) a very dangerous proposi- tion, if he were not God. The writers of revelation as- cribe to him the same perfections which they ascribe to God. Compare Jer. 10: 10, with Is. 9: 6. Exod. 15: 13, with Heb. 1:8. Jer. 32: 19, with Is. 9: 6. Ps. 102: 24, 27, with Heb. 13: 8. Jer. 23:24, with Eph. 1: 20, 23. 1 Sam. 2: 5, with John 14:30. If Jesus Christ be God, the as- cription of the perfections of God to him is proper: if he be not, the apostles are chargeable with weakness or wick- edness, and either would destroy their claim to inspiration. 4. Consider the works that are ascribed to Jesus Christ, and compare them with the claims of Jehovah. ... Is crea- tion a work of God? “By Jesus Christ were all things created,” Col. 1: 16. Is preservation a work of God? “Jesus Christ upholds all things by the word of his pow- er,” Heb. 1: 3. Is the mission of the prophets a work of God? Jesus Christ is the Lord God of the holy prophets; and it was the spirit of Christ which testified to them be. forehand the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow, Neh. 9:30. Rev. 22: 6, 16. 1 Pet. 1: 11. Is the salvation of sinners a work of God? Christ is the Savior of all that believe, John 4: 42. Heb. 5: 9. Is the forgive- ness of sin a work of God? The Son of man hath power to forgive sins, Matt. 9: 6. The same might be said of the illumination of the mind ; the sanctification of the heart; the resurrection of the dead; the judging of the world; the glorification of the righteous; the eternal pu- nishment of the wicked; all which works, in one part of Scripture, are ascribed to God; and all which, in another part of Scripture, are ascribed to Jesus Christ. Now, if Jesus Christ be not God, into what contradictions these writers must fall ! They contradict one another: they contradict themselves. Either Jesus Christ is God, or their conduct is unaccountable. 5. Consider that divine worship which the Scriptures claim for Jesus Christ. It is a command of God, “Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve,” Matt. 4: 20. Yet the Scriptures command “all the angels of God to worship Christ,” Heb. 1: 6. Twenty times, in the New Testament, grace, mercy, and peace, are implored of Christ, together with the Father. Bap- tism is an act of worship performed in his name, Matt. J E S J E S [ 688 | 28; 19. Swearing is an act of worship : a solemn appeal in important cases to the omniscient God; and this appeal is made to Christ, Rom. 9:1. The committing of the soul to God at death is a sacred act of worship : in the perform- ance of this act, Stephen died, saying, Lord Jesus, re- ceive my spirit, Acts 7: 59. The whole host of heaven worship him that sitteth upon the throne, and the Lamb forever and ever, Rev. 5: 13, 14. .* 6. Observe the application of Old Testament passages which belong to Jehovah, to Jesus in the New Testament, and try whether you can acquit the writers of the New Tes- tament of misrepresentation, on supposition that Jesus is not God. Paul says, “We shall all stand before the judg- ment-seat of Christ.” That we shall all be judged, we al- low; but how do you prove that Christ shall be our judge 2 Because, adds the apostle, it is written, “As I live, saith the Ilord, every knee shall bow to me, and every tongue shall confess to God,” Rom. 14: 10, 11, with Isa. 45: 20, &2. What sort of reasoning is this? How does this ap- p.) to Christ, if Christ be not God? And how dare a man quote one of the most guarded passages in the Old Testa- ment for such a purpose? John the Baptist is he who was spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying, Prepare ye the way, Matt. 3:1, 3. Isaiah saith, Prepare ye the way of he Lord; make straight a highway for our God, Isa. 40: 3, &c. But what has John the Baptist to do with all this description if Jesus Christ be only a messenger of Jeho- vah, and mot Jehovah himself? for Isaiah saith, Prepare ye the way of Jehovah. Compare also Zech. 12: 10, with John 19:34, 37. Isa. 6, with John 12: 39. Isa. 8: 13, 14, with 1 Pet. 2: 8. Allow Jesus Christ to be God, and all hese applications are proper. If we deny it, the New Testament, we must own, is one of the most unaccounta- Ole compositions in the world, calculated to make easy .hings hard to be understood. 7. Examine whether events have justified that notion of Christianity which the prophets gave their countrymen of it, if Jesus Christ be not God. The calling of the Gen- tiles from the worship of idols to the worship of the one living and true God is one event, which, the prophets said, ti, coming of the Messiah should bring to pass. If Jesus Christ be God, the event answers the prophecy; if not, the event is not come to pass, for Christians in general worship Jesus, which is idolatry, if he be not God, Isa. 2, 3, and 4. Zeph. 1: 11. Zech. 14:9. The primitive Chris- tians certainly worshipped him as God. Pliny, who was appointed governor of the province of Bithynia by the emperor Trajan, in the year 103, examined and punished several Christians for their non-conformity to the esta- blished religion of the empire. In a letter to the emperor, giving an account of his conduct, he declares, “they af. firmed the whole of their guilt, or their error, was, that they met on a certain stated day, before it was light, and. addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ as to some God.” Thus Pliny meant to inform the emperor that Christians worshipped Christ. Justin Martyr, who liv- ed about 150 years aſter Christ, asserts, that the Christians worshipped the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. Besides his testimony there are numberless passages in the fathers that attest the truth in question; especially in Tertullian, Hippolitus, Felix, &c. Mahomet, who lived in the sixth century, considers Christians in the light of infidels and idolaters throughout the Koran ; and, indeed, had not Christians worshipped Christ, he could have had no shadow of a pretence to reform their religion, and to bring them back to the worship of one God. That the far greater part of Christians have continued to worship Jesus will not be doubted; now if Christ be not God, then the Chris- tians have been guilty of idolatry; and if they have been guilty of idolatry, then it must appear remarkable that the apostles, who ſoretold the corruptions of Christianity, (2 Tim. 3.) should never have foreseen nor warned us against worshipping Christ. In no part of the Scripture is there the least intimation of Christians falling into idolatry in this respect. Surely if this had been an error which was to be so universally prevalent, those Scriptures which are able to make us wise unto salvation, would have left us warning on so important a topic. Lastly, consider what numberless passages of Scripture have no sense, or a very absurd one, if Jesus Christ be a mere man. See Rom, I: 3. 1 Tim. 3. 16. John 14: 9. 17: 5. Phil. 2: 6. Ps. 110: 1, 4. 1 Tim. 1: 2. Acts 22: 12, and 9: 17. III. But though Jesus Christ in his original nature be divine, yet for our salves, and for our salvation, he took upon him human nature; this is, therefore, called his hu- manity. Marcion, Apelles, Valentinus, and many other heretics, denied Christ's humanity, as some have done since. But that Christ had a true human body, and not a mere human shape, or a body that was not real flesh, is very evident from the sacred Scriptures, Isa. 7: 12. Luke 24:39, Heb. 2: 14. Luke 1:42. Phil. 2: 7, 8. John 1: 14. Besides, he ate, drank, slept, walked, worked, and was weary. He groaned, bled, and died upon the cross. It was necessary that he should thus be human, in order to fulfil the divine designs and prophecies respecting the shedding of his blood for our salvation, which could not have been done had he not possessed a real body. It is also as evident that he assumed our whole nature, Soul as well as body. If he had not, he could not have been ca- pable of that sore amazement and sorrow unto death, and all those other acts of grieving, feeling, rejoicing, &c. as- cribed to him. It was not, however, our sinful nature he assumed, but the likeness of it, (Rom. 8: 2.) for he was without sin, and did no iniquity. His human nature must not be conſounded with his divine ; for though there be an union of natures in Christ, yet there is not a mixture or confusion of them or their properties. His humanity is not changed into his deity, nor his deity into humanity; but the two natures are distinct in one person. How this union exists is above our comprehension; and, indeed, if we cannot explain how our own bodies and souls are united, it is not to be supposed we can explain this astonishing mystery of God manifest in the ſlesh. (See MEDIATOR.) The doctrine of the union of divine and human perfec- tions in the person of Christ, derives further confirmation from the consideration, that in no sound sense without ad- mitting it, can the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- ments be interpreted, so as to make their very different and often apparently contradictory statements respecting him harmonize. How, for instance, is it that he is array- ed in the attributes of divinity, and yet is capable of be- ing raised to a kingdom and glory 2—that he is addressed, “Thy throne, O God, is forever and ever,” and yet that it should follow “God, even thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy fellows?”—that he should be God, and yet, by a human birth, “God with us?”—that he should say, “I and my Father are one,” and, “My Father is greater than I ?”—that he is supreme, and yet a servant 2 that he is equal and yet subordinate 2 —that he, a man, should require and receive worship and trust?—that he should be greater than angels, and yet “ made lower than the angels 7”—that he should be “made flesh,” and yet be the Creator of all things?—that he should raise himself from the dead, and yet be raised by the power of the Father ? These and many other declarations respecting him, all accord with the Orthodox view of his person; and are intelligible so far as they state the facts respecting him; but are wholly beyond the power of interpretation into any rational meaning on any theory which denies to him a real humanity on the one hand, or a real and personal divinity on the other. So powerfully, in fact, has this been felt, that, in order to evade the ſorce of the testimony of Scripture, the most licentious criticisms have been resorted to by the deniers of his divinity; such as would not certainly have been tolerated by scholars in the case of an attempt to inter- pret any other ancient writing. - IV. We now proceed to the character of Jesus Christ, which, while it affords us the most pleasing subject for meditation, exhibits to us an example not only of the most binding authority, but of the most perfect and delightful kind. 1. “Here,” as an elegant writer observes, “every grace that can recommend religion, and every virtue that can adorn humanity, are so blended as to excite our admira- tion and engage our love. In abstaining from licentious pleasures, he was equally free from ostentatious singulari- ty and churlish sullenness. When he complied with the established ceremonies of his countrymen, that compliance was not accompanied by any marks of bigotry or supersti J E S J E T [ 689 J tion; when he º their rooted prepossessions, his op- position was perfectly exempt from the captious petulance of a controversialist, and the undistinguishing zeal of an innovator. His courage was active in encountering the dangers to which he was exposed, and passive under the aggravated calamities which the malice of his foes heaped upon him ; his fortitude was remote from every appear- ance of rashness, and his patience was equally exempt from abject pusillanimity: he was firm without obstinacy, and humble without meanness. Though possessed of the most unbounded power, we behold him living continually in a state of voluntary humiliation and poverty: we see him daily exposed to almost every species of want and distress; afflicted without a comforter, persecuted without a protector, and wandering about, according to his own pathetic complaint, because “he had not where to lay his head.” Though regardless of the pleasures, and some- times destitute of the comforts of life, he never provokes our disgust by the sourness of the misanthrope, or our contempt by the inactivity of the recluse. His attention to the welfare of mankind was evidenced not only by his salutary injunctions, but by his readiness to embrace eve- ry opportunity of relieving their distress and administer- ing to their wants. In every period and circumstance of his life, we behold dignity and elevation blended with love and pity; something which, though it awakens our admi- ration, yet attracts our confidence: We see power; but it is power which is rather our security than our dread; a power softened with tenderness, and soothing while it awes. With all the gentleness of a meek and lowly mind, we behold an heroic firmness which no terrors could re- strain. In the private scenes of life, and in the public occupations of his ministry, whether the object of admi- ration or ridicule, of love or of persecution, whether wel- comed with hosannas, or insulted with anathemas, we still see him pursuing, with unwearied constancy, the same end, and preserving the same integrity of life and man- ners.” White's Sermons, ser. 5. 2. Considering him as our great MoRAL TEACHER, we must be struck with the greatest admiration. As Dr. Pa- ley observes, “he preferred solid to popular virtues: a character which is commonly despised, to a character universally extolled ; he placed, on our licentious vices, the check in the right place, viz., upon the thoughts: he collected human duty into two well-devised rules; he re- peated these rules, and laid great stress upon them, and thereby fixed the sentiments of his followers: he excluded all regard to reputation in our devotion and alms; and, by parity of reason, in our other virtues: his instructions were delivered in a form calculated for impression ; they were illustrated by parables, the choice and structure of which would have been admired in any composition whatever : he was free from the usual symptoms of en- thusiasm, heat, and vehemence in devotion, austerity in institutions, and a wild particularity in the description of a future state: he was free, also, from the depravities of his age and country, without superstition among the most superstitious of men; yet not decrying positive distinc- tions or external observances, but soberly recalling them to the principle of their establishment, and to their place in the scale of human duties: there was nothing of so- phistry or trifling, though amidst teachers remarkable for nothing so much as frivolous subtilties and quibbling ex: positions: he was candid and liberal in his judgment of the rest of mankind, although belonging to a people who affected a separate claim to divine favor, and, in conse- quence of that opinion, prone to uncharitableness, partia- lity and restriction : in his religion there was no scheme of building up a hierarchy, or of ministering to the views of human governments: in a word, there was everything so grand in doctrine, and so delightful in manner, that the people might well exclaim, ‘Surely never man spake like this iman '''' 3. As our exalted FRIEND and PATTERN, says arch- bishop Newcome, “he sets an example of the most per- fect piety to God, and of the most extensive benevolence and the most tender compassion to men. He does not merely exhibit a life of strict justice, but of overflowing benignity. His temperance has not the dark shades of austerity : his meekness does not degenerate into apathy; law of Moses. his humility is signal, amidst a splendor of qualities more than human ; his fortitude is eminent and exemplary in enduring the most formidable external evils, and the sharpest actual sufferings. His patience is invincible; his resignation entire and absolute. Truth and sincerity shine throughout his whole conduct. Though of heavenly descent, he shows obedience and affection to his earthly parents; he approves, loves, and attaches himself to amiable qualities in the human race; he respects autho- rity, religious and civil ; and he evidences regard for his country by promoting its most essential good in a painful ministry dedicated to its service, by deploring its calami- ties, and by laying down his life for its benefit. Every one of his eminent virtues is regulated by consummate prudence; and he both wins the love of his friends, and extorts the approbation and wonder of his enemies. Never was a character at the same time so commanding and natural, so resplendent and pleasing, so amiable and ve- nerable. There is a peculiar contrast in it between an awful greatness, dignity, and majesty, and the most con- ciliating loveliness, tenderness, and softness. He now converses with prophets, lawgivers, and angels; and the next instant he meekly endures the dulness of his disciples, and the blasphemies and rage of the multitude. He now calls himself greater than Solomon; one who can command legions of angels; and giver of life to whomsoever he pleaseth ; the Son of God, and who shall sit on his gloricus throne to judge the world: at other times we find him embracing young children ; not lifting up his voice in the streets, nor quenching the smoking flax ; calling his disciples, not servants, but friends and brethren, and comforting them with an exuberant and parental affection. Let us pause an instant, and fill our minds with the idea of one who knew all things, heavenly and earthly; searched and laid open the inmost recesses of the heart; rectified every pre- judice, and removed every mistake of a moral and reli- gious kind; by a word exercised a sovereignty over all nature, penetrated the hidden events of futurity, gave pro- mises of admission into a happy immortality, had the keys of life and death, claimed an union with the Father; and yet was pious, mild, gentle, humble, affable, social, benevolent, friendly, and affectionate. Such a character is fairer than the morning star. Each separate virtue is made stronger by opposition and contrast ; and the union of so many virtues forms a brightness which fitly repre- sents the glory of that God “who inhabiteth light inacces- sible.” Such a character must have been a real One. There is something so extraordinary, so perfect, and so godlike in it, that it could not have been thus supported throughout by the utmost stretch of human art, much less by men confessedly unlearned and obscure.” . A great deal has been written concerning the form, stature, and beauty of Jesus Christ. Some have asserted, that he was in form the noblest of all the sons of men. Others have maintained, that there was no beauty nor any graces in his outward appearance. This difference in opinion shows that no certain tradition was handed down on this subject. The truth probably is, that all which was majestic and attractive in the person of our Lord, was in the expression of the countenance, the full influence of which was displayed chiefly in his confidential intercourse with his disciples; whilst his general appearance present- ed no striking peculiarity to the common observer. See Robinson's Plea for the Divinity of Christ, from which many of the above remarks are taken; Bishop Bull's Judgment of the Catholic Church ; Abbadie, Waterland, Harvker, and Hey, on the Divinity of Christ; Slackhouse, Wright, and D'Oyley's Lives of Christ ; Dr. Jamieson's Wien of the Doc- trine of Scripture, and the Primitive Faith concerning the Deity of Christ; Onsen on the Glory of Christ's Person ; IIurrion's Christ Crucified ; Dnight's Theology : J. P. Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah ; TVardlan's Discourses; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall; Bish Newcome's Observations on our Lord's Conduct ; and Paley's Evidences of Christianity.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. JETHRO, priest, or prince, of Midian, (for the Hebrew, cohen, signifies a prince as well as a priest;) the father-in- lt is believed that he was a priest of the true God, and maintained the true religion, being descend- ed from Midian, son of Abraham and Keturah, Moses J E W J E W ſ 690 J {oes not conceal his alliance with Jethro’s family, but in- vites him to offer sacrifices to the Lord, on his arrival in the camp of Israel, as one who adored the same God, Ex. 18: 11, 12. Some assert that he had four names, Jethro, Raguel, Hobab, and Ceni. Others, that Jethro and Ra- guel were the same person; that Hobab was son of Jethro, and brother of Zipporah; and that Ceni is a com- mon name, signifying the country of the Kenites, inhabited by the posterity of Hobab, south of the promised land. The Hebrew chothen, which Jerome translates kinsman, is used in Numb. 10: 29. and Ex. 18: 1, 27, to denote the relation between Moses, and Hobab; in Numbers, howe- ver, Hobab is called son of Raguel, whence others are of opinion that Raguel was the father of Jethro, and Jethro the father of Hobab. On the other side, Raguel gives Zipporah to Moses, Ex. 2: 18. The signification of the Hebrew chothen not being fixed, it is impossible to deter- mine this question with certainty.— Calmet. JEW, (THE wandering ;) a fictitious person, who, ac- cording to popular tradition, was, a Jew that drove our Savior away with curses, when, oppressed with the weight of his cross, he wished to rest on a stone before his house. The calm reply of Jesus was, “Thou shalt wander on the earth till I return.” The astounded Jew did not come to himself till the crowd had passed, and the streets were empty; since which time, driven by fear and remorse, he has been obliged to wander from place to place, and has never yet been able to find a grave. Numerous Jews have been suspected and even persecuted as the unhappy wanderer: and doubtless the fable has been realized by many thousands of that hapless race; but it was most likely invented to characterize their condition from the time of the destruction of Jerusalem to the present period, and their rejection of the Savior as the cause of their wanderings. See Croly’s “Salathiel.”—Hend. Buck. JEWS; a name derived from the patriarch Judah, and given to the descendants of Abraham by his eldest son, Isaac. We shall here present as comprehensive a view of this singular people as we can. - 1. Jews, HISTORY OF THE.—As the reader of this article may be supposed familiar with their history as recorded in Scripture, we shall pass over here all that preceded the Babylonish captivity, under Nebuchadnezzar. It was then the kingdom of Judah, as well as Israel, was ruined, A. M. 3416, about three hundred and eighty-eight years after its division from that of the ten tribes. In the seven- tieth year of the begun captivity, the Jews, according to the edict of Cyrus, king of Persia, who had overturned the empire of Chaldea, returned to their own country. (See NEHEMIAH; EzRA.) After their return they rebuilt the temple and city of Jerusalem, put away their strange wives, and renewed their covenant with God. Wast num- bers of them, who had agreeable settlements, remained in Babylon. About A. M. 3490, or 3546, they escaped the ruin design- ed them by Haman. About 3653, Darius Ochus, king of Persia, ravaged part of Judea, and carried off a great many prisoners. When Alexander was in Canaan, about 3670, he confirmed to them all their privileges; and, hav- ing built Alexandria, he settled vast numbers of them there. About fourteen years after, Ptolemy Lagus, the Greek king of Egypt, ravaged Judea, and carried one hundred thousand prisoners to Egypt, but used them kindly, and assigned them many places of trust. About eight years after, he transported another multitude of Jews to Egypt, and gave them considerable privileges. About the same time, Seleucus Nicator, having built about thirty new cities in Asia, settled in them as many Jews as he could ; and Ptolemy Philadelphus, of Egypt, about 3720, bought the freedom of all the Jew slaves in Egypt. Antiochus Epiphanes, about 3834, enraged with them for rejoicing at the report of his death, and for the peculiar form of their worship, in his return from Egypt, forced his way into Jerusalem, and murdered forty thou- sand of them ; and about two years after he ordered his troops to pillage the cities of Judea, and murder the men, and sell the women and children for slaves. Multitudes were killed, and ten thousand prisoners carried off: the temple was dedicated to Olympius, an idol of Greece, and the Jews exposed to the basest treatment. Mattathi. us, the priest, with his sons, chiefly Judas, Jonathan and Simon, who were called Maccabees, bravely fought for their religion and liberties. Judas, who succeeded his fa- ther about 3840, gave Nicanor and the king's troops a ter- rible defeat, regained the temple, and dedicated it anew, restored the daily worship, and repaired Jerusalem, which was almost in a ruinous heap. After his death, Jonathan and Simon, his brethren, successively succeeded him ; and both wisely and bravely promoted the welfare of the church and state. Simon was succeeded by his son Hircanus, who subdued Idumea, and reduced the Samaritans. In 3899 he was succeeded by his son Janneus, who reduced the Philistines, the country of Moab, Ammon, Gilead, and part of Arabia. Under these three reigns alone the Jew- ish nation was independent after the captivity. After the death of the widow of Janneus, who governed nine years, the nation was almost ruined with civil broils. In 3939, Aristobulus invited the Romans to assist him against Hircanus, his elder brother. The country was quickly reduced, and Jerusalem taken by force; and Pompey, and a number of his officers, pushed their way into the sanc- tuary, if not into the holy of holies, to view the furniture thereof. Nine years after, Crassus, the Roman general, pillaged the temple of its valuables. After Judea had for more than thirty years been a scene of ravage and blood, and twenty-four of which it had been oppressed by Herod the Great, Herod got himself installed in the kingdom. Twenty years before our Savior's birth, he, with the Jews' consent, began to build the temple. . About this time the Jews had hopes of the Messiah; and about A. M. 4000, Christ actually came, whom Herod (insti- gated by the fear of losing his throne) sought to murder. The Jews, however, a few excepted, rejected the Messiah, and put him to death. The sceptre was now wholly de- parted from Judah; and Judea, about twenty-seven years before, reduced to a province. At the destruction of Jeru: salem about eleven hundred thousand Jews perished, and since that disastrous event they have been scattered, con- temned, persecuted, and enslaved among all nations, not mixed with any in the common manner, but have re- mained as a body distinct by themselves. 2. JEws, CALAMITIEs of.-All history cannot furnish us with a parallel to the calamities and miseries of the Jews— rapine and murder, famine and pestilence, within ; fire and sword, and all the terrors of war, without. Our Savior wept at the foresight of these calamities; and it is almost. impossible for persons of any humanity to read the account without being affected. The predictions concerning them were remarkable, and the calamities that came upon them were the greatest the world ever saw, Deut. 28, 29. Matt. 24. Now, what heinous sin was it that could be the cause of such heavy judgments? Can any other be assigned than what the Scripture assigns 2 (1 Thess. 2: 15, 16.) “They both killed the Lord Jesus and their own prophets, and persecuted the apostles, and so filled up their sins, and wrath came upon them to the uttermost.” It is hardly possible to consider the nature and extent of their suffer- ings, and not conclude the Jews' own imprecation to be singularly fulfilled upon them, Matt, 27:25: “His blood be on us and our children.” At Cesarea twenty thousand of the Jews were killed by the Syrians in their mutual broils. At Damascus ten thousand unarmed Jews were killed; and at Bethshan the heathen inhabitants caused their Jewish neighbors to assist them against their bre- thren, and then murdered thirteen thousand of these inha- bitants. At Alexandria the Jews murdered multitudes of the heathens, and were murdered in their turn to about fifty thousand. The Romans under Vespasian invaded the country, and took the cities of Galilee, Chorazin, Bethsaida, Capernaum, &c., where Christ had been espe- cially rejected, and murdered numbers of the inhabitants. At Jerusalem the scene was most wretched of all. At the passover, when there might be two or three millions of people in the city, the Romans surrounded it with troops, trenches, and walls, that none might escape. The three different factions within, murdered one another. Titus, one of the most merciful generals that ever breathed, did all in his power to persuade them to an advantageous sur- render, but they scorned every proposal. The multitudes of unburied-carcasses corrupted the air, and oroduced a J E W J E W [ 691 J pestilence. The people fed on one another; and even la- dies, it is said, broiled their sucking infants, and ate them. After a siege of six months, the city was taken. They murdered almost every Jew they met with. Titus was bent to save the temple, but could not : there were six thousand Jews, who had taken shelter in it, all burnt or murdered. The outcries of the Jews, when they saw it, were most dreadful: the whole city, except three towers and a small part of the wall, was razed to the ground, and the foundations of the temple and other places were ploughed up. Soon after the forts of Herodian and Ma- cheron were taken, the garrison of Massada murdered themselves rather than surrender. . At Jerusalem alone, it is said one million one hundred thousand perished by sword, famine, and pestilence. In other places we hear of two hundred and fifty thousand that were cut off, be- sides vast numbers sent into Egypt to labor as slaves. About fifty years after, the Jews murdered about five hundred thousand of the Roman subjects, ſor which they were severely punished by Trajan. About 130, one Bar- chocab pretended that he was the Messiah, and raised a Jewish army of two hundred thousand, who murdered all the heathens and Christians who came in their way; but he was defeated by Adrian’s forces. In this war, it is said, about sixty thousand Jews were slain, and perished. Adrian built a city on mount Calvary, and erected a mar- ble statue of swine over the gate that led to Bethlehem. No Jew was allowed to enter the city, or to look to it at a distance, under pain of death. In 360 they began to re- build their city and temple; but a terrible earthquake and flames of fire issuing from the earth, killed the workmen, and scattered their materials. Nor till the seventh cen- tury durst they so much as creep over the rubbish to bewail it, without bribing the guards. In the third, fourth, and fifth centuries, there were many of them furi- ously harassed and murdered. In the sixth century, twenty thousand of them were slain, and as many taken and sold for slaves. In 602 they were severely punished for their horrible massacre of the Christians at Antioch. In Spain, in 700, they were ordered to be enslaved. In the eighth and ninth centuries they were greatly derided and abused: in some places they were made to wear lea- thern girdles, and ride without stirrups on asses and mules. In France and Spain they were much insulted. In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, their miseries rather in- creased: they were greatly persecuted in Egypt. Besides what they suffered in the East by the Turkish war and cru- sades, it is shocking to think what multitudes of them the eight crusades murdered in Germany, Hungary, Lesser Asia, and elsewhere. In France, multitudes were burnt. In England, in 1020, they were banished; and at the coro- nation of Richard I., the mob fell upon them and murdered a great many of them. About one thousand five hundred of them were burnt in the palace in the city of York, which they set fire to themselves, after killing their wives and children. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries their condition was no better. In Egypt, Canaan, and Syria, the crusaders still harassed them. Provoked with their mad running after pretended Messiahs, Khalif Nasser scarcely left any of them alive in his dominions of Meso- potamia. In Persia, the Tartars murdered them in multi- tudes. In Spain, Ferdinand persecuted them furiously. About 1249, the terrible massacre of them at Toledo forced many to murder themselves, or change their religion. About 1253, many were murdered, and others banished from France; but in 1275 recalled. In 1320 and 1330 the crusades of the fanatic shepherds, who wasted the south of France, massacred them ; besides fifteen hundred that were murdered on another occasion. In 1358 they were totally banished from France, since which few of them have entered that country. In 1291 king Edward expelled them from England, to the number of one hundred and sixty thousand. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seven- teenth centuries, their misery continued. In Persia they have been terribly used: from 1663 to 1666, the murder of them was so universal, that but a few escaped to Tur- key. In Portugal and Spain they have been miserably handled. About 1392, six or eight hundred thousand were banished from Spain; some were drowned in their pass- age to Africa; some died by hard usage; and many of their carcasses lay in the fields till the wild beasts de. voured them. In Germany they have endured many hardships. They have been banished from Bohemia, Ba- varia, Cologne, Nuremburg, Augsburg, and Vienna : they have been terribly massacred in Moravia, and plundered in Bonn and Bamberg. Except in Portugal and Spain. their present condition is generally tolerable. In Holland, Poland, and at Frankfort and Hambergh, they have their liberty. They have repeatedly, but in vain, attempted to obtain a naturalization in England, and other nations among whom they are scattered. 3. Jews, PRESERVATION OF.—“The preservation of the Jews,” says Basnage, “in the midst of the miseries which they have undergone during seventeen hundred years, is the greatest prodigy that can be imagined. Religions de- pend on temporal prosperity; they triumph under the protection of a conqueror; they languish and sink with sinking monarchies. Paganism, which once covered the earth, is extinct, The Christian church, glorious in its martyrs, yet was considerably diminished by the persecu- cutions to which it was exposed; nor was it easy to repair the breaches in it, made by those acts of violence. But here we behold a church hated and persecuted for seven- teen hundred years, and yet sustaining itself, and widely extended. Kings have often employed the severity of edicts and the hand of executioners to ruin it. The sedi- tious multitudes, by murders and massacres, have com- mitted outrages against it still more violent and tragical. -Princes and people, pagans, Mohammedans, Christians, disagreeing in so many things, have united in the design of exterminating it, and have not been able to succeed. The bush of Moses, surrounded with flames, ever burns, and is never consumed. The Jews have been expelled, in different times, from every part of the world, which hath only served to spread them in all regions. From age to age they have been exposed to misery and persecu- tion; yet still they subsist, in spite of the ignominy and the hatred which hath pursued them in all places, whilst the greatest monarchies are fallen, and nothing remains of them besides the name. “The judgments which God has exercised upon this people are terrible, extending to the men, the religion, and the very land in which they dwelt. The ceremonies essen- tial to their religion can no more be observed: the ritual law, which cast a splendor on the national worship, and struck the pagans so much, that they sent their presents and their victims to Jerusalem, is absolutely fallen, for they have no temple, no altar, no sacrifices. Their land itself seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse. Pagans, Christians, Mohammedans, in a word, almost all nations, have by turns seized and held Jerusalem. To the Jew only hath God refused the possession of this small tract of ground, so supremely necessary for him, since he ought to worship on this mountain. A Jewish writer hath aſ: firmed, that it is long since any Jew has been seen settled near Jerusalem : scarcely can they purchase there six feet of land for a burying-place. ! “In all this there is no exaggeration : I am only point- ing out known facts; and, far from having the least de- sign to raise an odium against the nation from its miseries, I conclude that it ought to be looked upon as one of those prodigies which we admire without comprehending: since, in spite of evils so durable, and a patience so long exer cised, it is preserved by a particular providence. . The Jew ought to be weary of expecting a Messiah, who so unkindly disappoints his vain hopes; and the Christian ought to have his attention and his regard excited towards men whom God preserves for so great a length of time, under calamities which would have been the total ruin of any other people.” 4. Jews, MoDERN, NUMBER AND DISPERSION OF.—They are looked upon to be as numerous at present as they were formerly in the land of Canaan. Some have rated them at three millions, and others more than double that num- ber. Their dispersion is a remarkable particular in this eople. They swarm all over the East, and are settled, it is said, in the remotest parts of China. The Turkish em- pire abounds with them. There are more of them at Con- stantinople and Salonichi than in any other place : they are spread through most of the nations of Europe and J E W J. E. W. | 692 | Africa, and many families of them are established in the West Indies; not to mention whole nations in middle Asia, and some discovered in the inner parts of America, if we may give any credit to their own writers. Their be. ing always in rebellions (as Addison observes) while they had the holy temple in view, has excited most nations to banish them. Besides, the whole people are now a race of such merchants as are wanderers by profession; and at the same time are in most, if not in all places, incapable of either lands or offices, that might engage them to make any part of the world their home. In addition to this, we may consider what providential reasons may be assigned for their numbers and dispersion. Their firm adherence to their religion, and being dispersed all over the earth, has furnished every age and every nation with the strong- est arguments for the Christian faith; not only as these very particulars are foretold of them, but as they them- selves are the depositaries of these and all other prophecies which tend to their own confusion, and the establishment of Christianity. Their number furnishes us with a suffi- cient cloud of witnesses that attest the truth of the Bible, and their dispersion spreads these witnesses through all parts of the world. 5. JEws, MODERN, SENTIMENTs of.-A summary of the Jewish creed was drawn up by Moses Maimonides, other- wise called the Great Rambam, (i. e. Rabbi. Moses Ben Maimon,) an Egyptian rabbi of the eleventh century, which is still acknowledged as their confession of faith. It consists of thirteen articles, and reads as follows:— I, I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, blessed be his name ! is the governor and creator of all the crea- tures, and that it is he who made, maketh, and will make all things. II. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, bless- ed be his name ! is one, and that no unity is like his, and he alone, our God, was, is, and shall be. III. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, blessed be his name ! is incorporeal; that he is not to be comprehended by those faculties which comprehend corpo- real objects; and that there is no resemblance to him whatever. IV. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, blessed be his name ! is the first and the last. W. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, blessed be his name ! is alone worthy of adoration; and that none besides him is worthy of adoration. VI. I believe, with a perfect faith, that all the oracles of the prophets are true. VII. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the prophecies of Moses, our master, on whom be peace, are true; and that he is the father of all the wise men who were before him, and who came after him. VIII. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the whole law of commandments which we now have in our hands, was given to Moses, our master, on whom be peace. e IX. I believe, with a perſect faith, that this law will not be changed, and that there will not be any other law from the Creator, blessed be his name ! X. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, bless- ed be his name knows all the actions of the children of men, and all their thoughts; as it is said—“Who frameth all their hearts; who understandeth all their actions.” XI. I believe, with a perſect faith, that the Creator, blessed be his name ! will recompense good to him who observeth his commandments, and that he will punish him that transgresseth them. XII. I believe, with a perfect faith, in the advent of the Messiah, and though he should tarry, yet I will patiently wait for him every day till he come. XIII. I believe, with a perſect faith, that there will be a revivification of the dead, at the period when it shall please the Creator, blessed be his name ! and let his re- membrance be exalted forever and ever ! . The modern Jews still adhere as closely to the Mosaic dispensation, as their dispersed and despised condition will permit them. Their service consists chiefly in reading the law in their synagogues, together with a variety of pray- ers. They use no sacrifices since the destruction of the temple. They repeat blessings and particular praises to God, not only in their prayers, but on all accidental occa- *. reside. sions, and in almost all their actions. They go to prayers three times a day in their synagogues. Their sermons are not made in Hebrew, which few of them now perfectly understand, but in the language of the country where they They are forbidden all vain swearing, and pro- nouncing any of the names of God without necessity. They abstain from meats prohibited by the Levitical law; for which reason, whatever they eat must be dressed by Jews, and after a manner peculiar to themselves. As soon as a child can speak, they teach him to read the Bible in the original Hebrew, but without understanding the meaning of the words. In general they observe the same ceremonies which were practised by their ancestors in the celebration of the passover. They acknowledge a twofold law of God, a written and an unwritten one; the former is contained in the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses; the latter, they pretend, was delivered by God to Moses, and handed down from him by oral tradition, and now to be received as of equal authority with the former. They as- sert the perpetuity of their law, together with its perfection. They deny the accomplishment of the prophecies in the person of Christ; alleging that the Messiah is not yet come, and that he will make his appearance with the greatest worldly pomp and grandeur, subduing all nations before him, and subjecting them to the house of Judah. Since the prophets have predicted his mean condition and sufferings, they confidently talk of two Messiahs ; one Ben-Ephraim, whom they grant to be a person of a mean and aftlicted condition in this world; and the other, Ben- David, who shall be a victorious and powerful prince. The Jews pray for the souls of the dead, because they suppose there is a paradise for the Souls of good men, where they enjoy glory in the presence of God. They believe that the souls of the wicked are tormented in hell with fire and other punishments; that some are con- demned to be punished in this manner forever, while others continue only for a limited time; and this they call purgatory, which is not different from hell in respect of the place, but of the duration. They suppose no Jew, un- less guilty of heresy, or certain crimes specified by the rabbins, shall continue in purgatory above a twelvemonth; and that there are but few who suffer eternal punishment. Almost all the modern Jews are Pharisees, and are as much attached to tradition as their ancestors were ; and assert, that whoever rejects the oral law deserves death. Hence they entertain an implacable hatred to the JKara- ites, who adhere to the text of Moses, rejecting the rabbin- istical interpretation. (See KARAITEs.) There are still some of the Sadducees in Africa, and in several other places; but they are few in number—at least there are but very few who declare openly for these opi- In 10IlS. There are to this day some remains of the ancient sect of the Samaritans, who are zealous for the law of Moses, but are despised by the Jews, because they receive only the Pentateuch, and observe different ceremonies ſrom theirs. They declare they are no Sadducees, but acknow- ledge the spirituality and immortality of the soul. There are numbers of this sect at Gaza, Damascus, Grand Cairo, and in some other places of the East; but especially at Si- chem, now called Naplouse, which is risen out of the ruins of the ancient Samaria, where they sacrificed not many years ago, having a place for this pºrpose on mount Gerizim. David Levi, a learned Jew, who in 1796 published “Dis. sertations on the Prophecies of the Old Testament,” ob- serves, in that work, that deism and infidelity have made such large strides in the world, that they have at length reached even to the Jewish nation; many of whom are at this time so greatly infected with scepticism by reading Bolingbroke, Hume, Voltaire, &c., that they scarcely be- lieve in a revelation, much less have they any hope in their future restoration. - - - 6. Jews, RESTORATION OF.—From the declarations of Scripture we have reason to suppose the Jews shall be called to a participation of the blessings of the gospel, (Rom. 11. 2 Cor. 3: 16. Hos. 1: 11.) and some suppose shall return to their own land, Hos. 3: 5. Is. 65: 17, &c. Ezek, 36. As to the time, some think about 1866 or 2016; but this, pèrhaps, is not so easy to determine altogether J E Z J O B [ 693 ] though it is probable it will not be beſore the fall of Anti- christ and the Ottoman empire. Let us, however, avoid putting stumbling-blocks in their way. . If we attempt any thing for their conversion, let it be with peace and love. Let us, says one, propose Christianity to them, as Christ proposed it to them. Let us lay before them their own prophecies. Let us show them their accomplishment in Jesus. Let us applaud their hatred of idolatry. Let us show them the morality of Jesus in our lives and tempers. Let us never abridge their civil liberty, nor ever try to force their consciences. Josephus’ History of the Jens ; Spectator, no. 495, vol. iv.; Levi's Ceremonies of the Jennish Religion; Buxtorf de Synagoga Judaica; Spencer de Legi- bus, Heb. Rit. ; Newton on Proph. ; Warburton's Address to the Jen's, in the Dedication of the second volume of his Lega- tion ; Sermons preached to the Jen's at Berry Street, by Dr. IIanweis and others; Basnage's and Ockley's Histories of the Jens ; Shan's Philosophy of Judaism; Hartley on Man, vol. Jortin's Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iii. p. 427, 447; Dr. H. Jackson's Works, vol. i. p. 153; Neal's History of the Jews; Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii.; Fuller's Sermon on the Messiah ; H. Adams' and Milman's Life of S. C. F. Frey; Jewish Expositor.—Hend. Buck. JEWELL, (John,) a learned English writer and bishop, was born, in 1522, at Buden, in the county of Devon, and educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of bachelor of arts in 1540, became a noted tutor, and was soon after chosen lecturer in rhetoric in his college. He had early imbibed the principles of the Reformation, and inculcated them upon his pupils, though it was done privately till the accession of king Edward the Sixth, which took place in 1546, when he made a public declaration of his faith, and entered into a close friendship with Peter Martyr. On the accession of queen Mary, in 1553, he was one of the first to feel the rage of the storm then raised against the Refor- mation; he was obliged to ſly; and, after encountering many difficulties, arrived at Frankfort, in the second year of queen Mary's reign, where he made a public recanta- tion of his forced subscription to the popish doctrines. He then went to Strasburg, and afterwards to Zurich, where he resided with Peter Martyr. He returned to England in 1558, after the death of queen Mary, and in the follow- ing year was consecrated bishop of Salisbury. Two years afterwards he published his famous “Apologia pro Eccle- sia Anglicana.” But his watchful and laborious manner of life impaired his health, and brought him quickly to the grave. He died at Monkton Farley, the 22d of September, 1571, in the fiftieth year of his age. º He was a prelate of great learning, piety, and modera- tion; irreproachable in his private life; extremely gene- rous and charitable to the poor, to whom, it is said, his doors stood always open. He was of a pleasant and affa- ble temper, modest, meek, and temperate, and a great master of his passions. His memory was naturally strong and retentive, but he is said to have greatly improved it by art, insomuch that marvellous things are related of it by his biographers. * He wrote, besides his Apology for the Church of Eng- land, “A View of a seditious Bull sent into England by pope Pius W. in 1569;” “A Treatise on the Holy Scrip- tures;” “An Exposition of the Two Epistles to the Thes- salonians;” “A Treatise on the Sacrament;” besides several Sermons and controversial treatises. His works were collected and published in one folio volume, London, 1609. Brit. Biog.—Jones' Chris. Biog. JEWELS; valuables, whether for store, or for appa- rel. This word does not mean jewellery works, gems, &c. but whatever is stored up in consequence of its supe- rior estimation. God calls his people jewels; (Mal. 3: 17.) the lips of knowledge are a jewel, Prov. 20: 15.—Calmet. JEZEBEL ; dāughter of Ethbaal, king of the Zidonians, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel, 1 Kings 16: 31. This princess introduced into the kingdom of Samaria the pub- lic worship of Baal, Astarte, and other Phoenician deities, which the Lord had expressly forbidden; and with this impious worship, a general prevalence of those abomina- tions which had formerly incensed God against the Cana- anites, to their utter extirpation. Jezebel was so zealous, that she fed at her own table ſour hundred prophets be- longing to the goddess Astarte; and her husband Ahab, in like manner, kept four hundred of Baal's prophets, as ministers of his false gods. The name of Jezebel is used proverbially, Rev. 2:20. (See JEHU.)—Watson. JEZIRAH; a cabalistic term, denoting the third world, or the world of thinking substances. It is also the nam of a book on cabalistic theology, containing six chapters, and treating of the world, of motion, of time, and of the soul. It is extremely obscure; every thing in it is ex pressed in numbers and letters. It is mentioned in the Mishna, and therefore must have existed before the Tal- mud.—Hend. Buck. JEZREEL; a royal city of the kings of Israel, who sometimes resided here as well as at Samaría. Ahab, in particular, is known to have made this his residence; near to whose palace was the vineyard of the unfortunate Naboth. The name of Jezreel was by the Greeks mould- ed into that of Esdraela; which is described by Eusebius and Jerome, in the fourth century, as a considerable town. In like manner, the valley of Jezreel obtained the name of the valley or plain of Esdraelon. (See ESDRAELON.)— Watson. - JOAB, was the son of Zeruiah, David's sister, and bro- ther to Abishai and Asahel. He was one of the most valiant soldiers and greatest generals in David's time; but he was also cruel, revengeful, and imperious. He performed great services for David, to whose interes's he was always firm, and was commander-in-chief of his troops, when David was king of Judah only. His b-story is related in the second book of Samuel and the first book of Kings. (See DAVID ; ABNER ; and AMASA.)—Watson. JOACHIMITES; the disciples of Joachim, abbot of Flora, in Calabria. Joachim was a Cistercian monk, and a great pretender to inspiration. He relates of himself, that, being very young, he went to Jerusalem in the dress of a hermit to visit the holy places; and that, while he was in prayer to God in the church of that city, God communi- cated to him, by infusion, the knowledge of divine mys. teries, and of the Holy Scriptures. He wrote against Lombard, the master of the sentences, who had main- tained that there was but one essence in God, though there were three persons; and he pretended, that, since there were three persons, there must be three essences. This dispute was in the year 1195. Joachim’s writings were condemned by the fourth Lateran council. IIis followers, the Joachimites, were particularly fond of certain ternaries. The Father, they said, operaſed from the beginning until the coming of the Son; the Son from that time to theirs, viz. the year 1260; and the Holy Spi- rit then took it up, and was to operate in his turn. They likewise divided every thing relating to men, drastrine, and manner of living, into three classes, according to the three persons of the Trinity. The first ternary was that of men ; of whom, the first class was that of Imarried men, which had lasted during the whole period of the Fa- ther; the second was that of clerks, which lasted during the time of the Son; and the last was that of monks, wherein was to be an uncommon effusion of grace by the Holy Spirit. The second ternary was that of doctrine, viz. the Old Testament, the New, and the everlasting Gospel: the first they ascribed to the Father, the second to the Son, and the third to the Holy Spirit. A third ternary consisted in the manner of living; viz. under the Father, men lived according to the flesh; under the Son, they lived accord- ing to the flesh and the spirit; and under the Holy Ghost, they were to live according to the spirit only.—Hend. Buck. JOANNA, wife of Chuza, Herod's steward, (Luke 8: 3.) was one of those women who followed our Savior, and assisted him with their property. Luke observes, that these women had been delivered by Christ from evil spirits; or cured of diseases. Perhaps Joanna was not a widow. It was customary among the Jews, for men who dedicated themselves to preaching, to accept services from women of piety, who attended them, without any scandal.—Calinet. JOASH; son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, 2 Kings 11. (See JehoidA, and JEHOSHEBA.)—Watson. JOB; a patriarch celebrated for his patience, and the constancy of his piety and virtue, 1. His reality—That Job was a real, and not a fictitious, character, may be inferred from the manner in which he J O B J O B [694 j is mentioned in the Scriptures, Ezek. 14: 14. James 5: 11. But, besides the authority of the inspired writers, we have the strongest. internal evidence, from the book itself, that Job was a real person; for it expressly speci- fies the names of persons, places, facts, and other circum- stancés usually related in true histories. Thus, we have the name, country, piety, wealth, &c., of Job described ; (Job 1.) the names, number, and acts of his children are mentioned; the conduct of his wife is recorded as a fact; (2.) his friends, their names, countries, and discourses with him in his afflictions are minutely delineated, (Job 2. 11, &c.) Further : no reasonable doubt can be entertain- ed respecting the real existence of Job, when we consider that it is proved by the concurrent testimony of all Eastern tradition : he is mentioned by the author of the book of Tobit, who lived during the Assyrian captivity; he is also repeatedly mentioned by Arabian writers as a real cha- racter. The whole of his history, with many fabulous additions, was known among the Syrians and Chaldeans; and many of the noblest families among the Arabs are distinguished by his name, and boast of being descended from him. 2. Date of the History.—The following are the principal circumstances from which the era of Job may be collected and ascertained:–1. The Usserian or Bible chronology dates the trial of Job about the year 1520 before the Chris- tian era, twenty-nine years before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt; and that the book was composed before that event, is evident from its total silence respect- ing the miracles which accompanied the exode; such as the passage of the Red sea, the destruction of the Egyp- tians, the manna in the desert, &c.; all of which happened in the vicinity of Job's country, and were so apposite in the debate concerning the ways of Providence, that some notice could not but have been taken of them, if they had been coeval with the poem of Job. 2. That it was com- posed before Abraham's migration to Canaan, may also be inferred from its silence respecting the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the other cities of the plain, which were still nearer to Idumea, where the scene is laid. 3. The length of Job’s life places him in the patriarchal times. He survived his trial one hundred and forty years, Job 42: 16.) and was probably not younger at that time; or we read that his seven sons were all grown up, and had been settled in their own houses for a considerable time, Job 1: 4, 5. He speaks of the sins of his youth, É. 13: 26.) and of the prosperity of his youth ; and yet liphaz addresses him as a novice : “With us are both the gray-headed and very aged men, much elder than thy father,” Job 15: 10. 4. That he did not live at an earlier period, may be collected from an incidental observation of Bildad, who refers Job to their forefathers for instruc- tion in wisdom :— “Inquire, I pray thee, of the former age, And prepare thyself to the search of their fathers:” assigning as a reason the comparative shortness of human life, and consequent ignorance of the present generation :- “For we are but of yesterday, and know nothing; Because our days upon earth are a shadow.” Job 8: 8, 9. But the fathers of the former age, or grandfathers of the present, were the contemporaries of Peleg and Joktan, in the fifth generation aſter the deluge, and they might easily have learned wisdom from the fountain-head by convers- ing with Shem, or perhaps with Noah himself; whereas, in the seventh generation, the standard of human life was reduced to about two hundred years, which was a shadow compared with the longevity of Noah and his sons. 5. The general air of antiquity which pervades the manners recorded in the poem, is a further evidence of its remote date. The manners and customs, indeed, critically cor- respond with that early period. Thus, Job speaks of the most ancient kind of writing, by sculpture; (Job 19: 24.) his riches also are reckoned by his cattle, Job 42:12. Fur. ther : Job acted as high-priest in his family, according to the patriarchal usage; (Gen. 8:20.) for the institution of an established priesthood does not appear to have taken place anywhere until the time of Abraham. Melchizedec, king of Salem, was a priest of the primitive order; (Gen. 14: 18.) such also was Jethro, the . of Moses, in the vici- that time. * nity of Idumea, Exod. 18: 12. The first regular priesthood was probably instituted in Egypt, where Joseph was married to the daughter of the priest of On, Gen. 41: 45. 6. The slavish homage of prostration to princes and great men, which prevailed in Egypt, Persia, and the East in general, and which still subsists there, was unknown in Arabia at Though Job was one of the greatest men of all the East, we do not find any such adoration paid to him by his contemporaries, in the zenith of his prosperity, among the marks of respect so minutely described in the twenty-ninth chapter. With this description correspond the manners and conduct of the genuine Arabs of the present day, a majestic race, who were never conquered, and who have retained their primitive customs, features, and character, with scarcely any alteration. 7. The allu. sion made by Job to that species of idolatry alone, which by general consent is admitted to have been the most an- cient, namely, Zabianism, or the worship of the sun and moon, and also to the exertion of the judicial authority against it, (Job 31, 26–28.) is an additional and most complete proof of the high antiquity of the poem, as well as a decisive mark of the patriarchal age. 8. A further evidence of the remote antiquity of this book is the lan- guage of Job and his friends; who, being all Idumeans, or at least Arabians of the adjacent country, yet conversed in Hebrew. This carries us up to an age so early as that in which all the posterity of Abraham, Israelites, Idume- ans, and Arabians, yet continued to speak one common language, and had not branched into different dialects. 3. Its Locality.—The country in which the scene of this poem is laid, is stated (Job 1: 1.) to be the land of Uz, which by some geographers has been placed in Sandy, and by others in Stony, Arabia. Bochart strenuously ad- vocated the former opinion, in which he has been power- fully supported by Spanheim, Calmet, Carpzov, Heideg- ger, and some later writers; Michaëlis and Ilgen place the scene in the valley of Damascus; but bishops Iowth and Magee, Dr. Hales, Dr. Good, and some later critics and philologists, have shown that the scene is laid in Edom, or Idumea. In effect, nothing is clearer than that the history of an inhabitant of Idumea is the subject of the poem which bears the name of Job, and that all the persons introduced into it, were Idumeans, dwelling in Idumea, in other, words, Edomite Arabs. These charac- ters are, Job himself, of the land of Uz; Eliphaz, of Te. man, a district of as much repute as Uz, and which, it appears from the joint testimony of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos, and Obadiah, (Jer. 49: 7, 20. Ezek. 25: 13. Amos 1: 11, 12. Obadiah 8: 9.) formed a principal part of Idu. mea ; Bildad, of Shuah, who is always mentioned in con- junction with Sheba and Dedan, the first of whom was probably named after one of the brothers of Joktan or Kahtan, and the two last from two of his sons, all of them being uniformly placed in the vicinity of Idumea; (Gen. 25: 2, 3. Jer, 49: 8.). Zophar, of Naama, a city importing pleasantness, which is also stated by Joshua (15:21, 41.) to have been situate in Idumea, and to have lain in a Southern direction towards its coast, on the shores of the Red Sea; and Elihu, of Buz, which, as the name of a place, occurs only once in sacred writ, (Jer. 25: 23.) but is there mentioned in conjunction with Teman and Dedan; and hence necessarily, like them, a border city upon Už or Idumea. Allowing this chorography to be correct, (and such, upon a fair review of facts, we may conclude it to be,) there is no difficulty in conceiving that hordes of no- madic Chaldeans, as well as Sabeans, a people addicted to rapine, and roving about at immense distances for the Sake of plunder, should have occasionally infested the de- fenceless country of Idumea, and roved from the Euphra- tes even to Egypt. - 4. Its Author.—The different parts of the book of Job are so closely connected together, that they cannot be de- tached from each other. Hence it is evident, that the poem is the composition of a single author; but who that was, is a question concerning which the learned are very much divided in their sentiments. Moses, Elihu, Job; Solomon; Isaiah, an anonymous writer in the reign of Manasseh, Ezekiel, and Ezra, have all been contended for. The arguments already adduced respecting the age of Job, prove that it could not be either of the latter por. J O E J O H. ſ 695 J sons. But, independently of the characters of antiquity already referred to, and which place the book of Job very many centuries before the time of Moses, the total absence of every the slightest allusion to the manners, customs, ceremonies, or history of the Israelites, is a direct evidence that the great legislator of the Hebrews was not, and could not have been, the author. Upon the whole, then, we have sufficient ground to conclude that this book was not the production of Moses, but of some earlier age. Bishop Lowth favors the opinion of Schultens, Peters, and others, which is adopted by bishop Tomline and Dr. Hales, who suppose Job himself, or some contemporary, to have been the author of this poem ; and there seems to be no good reason for supposing that it was not written by Job himself. It appears, indeed, highly probable that Job, who, it appears, was also an inspired prophet, was the writer of his own story, 42: 1. * * The original work was probably more ancient than the time of Moses, and seems to have been written in the old Hebrew, or perhaps the Arabic. Our present copy is evi- dently altered in its style, so as to have transfused into it a Hebrew phraseology, resembling that in the age of Solo- mon, to the writings of which author the style bears a great resemblance. This idea, for which we are indebted to Dr. J. P. Smith, meets the difficulty that has been urged from the style of the book, against its antiquity, and unites the discordant opinions that have been entertained on the subject. 5. Its contents, style, &c.—The book of Job contains the history of a man equally distinguished for purity and up- rightness of character, and for honors, wealth, and domes- tic felicity, whom God permitted, for the trial of his faith, to be suddenly deprived of all his numerous blessings, and to be at once plunged into the deepest affliction, and most accumulated distress. His trial is unspeakably aggrava- ted by the false judgments of his three friends. It gives an account of his eminent piety, patience, and resignation under the pressure of these severe calamities, of their hum- bling and puriſying effects upon him, and of his subse- quent elevation to a degree of prosperity and happiness, still greater than that which he had before enjoyed. How long the sufferings of Job continued, we are not informed; but it is said, that after God turned his captivity, and blessed him a second time, he lived one hundred and forty years, Job 42: 16. Through the whole work we discover religious instruction shining forth amidst the venerable simplicity of ancient manners. It everywhere abounds with the noblest sentiments of piety, uttered with the spi- rit of inspired conviction. It is a work unrivalled for the magnificence of its lan- guage, and for the beautiful and sublime images which it presents. In the wonderful speech of the Deity, (Job 38, 39.) every line delineates his attributes, every sentence opens a picture of some grand object in creation, charac- terized by its most striking features. Add to this, that its prophetic parts reflect much light on the economy of God's moral government, revealing the consoling truth, that in this transitory state of discipline, it is whom the Lord lov- eth he chasteneth ; and every admirer of sacred antiquity, every inquirer after religious instruction, will seriously re- joice that the sublime wish of Job 19:23, is realized to a more effectual and unforeseen accomplishment; that while the memorable records of antiquity have mouldered from the rock, the prophetic assurance and sen- timents of Job are graven in Scriptures that no time shall alter, no changes shall efface. The best translation of this book is that of Mr. Noyes. The best analysis by far, of its arguments, is that of Dr. Good. See Horne's In- troduction ; Magee on Atonement, Notes ; Memoir, Transla- tion, and Notes, of Dr. Good.—Calmet ; Jones; Watson. JOEL; the second of the twelve lesser prophets. It is impossible to ascertain the age in which he lived, but it seems most probable that he was contemporary with Ho- sea. No particulars of his life or death are certainly known. His prophecies are confined to the kingdom of Judah. He inveighs against the sins and impieties of the people, and threatens them with divine vengeance; he ex- horts to repentance, fasting, and prayer; and promises the favor of God to those who should be obedient. The principal predictions contained in this book are the Chal- dean invasion, under the figurative representation of 's custs; the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus; the bless. ings of the gospel dispensation ; the conversion and re- storation of the Jews to their own land; the overthrow of the enemies of God; and the glorious state of the Christian church in the end of the world. The style of Joel is perspicuous and elegant, and his descriptions are remarkably animated and poetical.—Watson ; Horne. JOGEES, or Joguls. (See Yogees.) JOHANAN ; high-priest, son of Azariah the high-priest, and father of another Azariah, 1 Chron. 6:9, 10. Some be- lieve him to be Jehoiada, the father of Zechariah, in the reign of Joash, king of Judah, 2 Chron. 24: 11, &c.—Calmet. JOHN HIRCANUS; son of Simon Maccabaeus, and high-priest of the Jews. He made himself master of all Judea, Samaria, Galilee, and many frontier towns; so that he was one of the most powerful princes of his time. At home, however, he was troubled by the Pharisees, who envied his exaltation, and at length their mutual ill-will broke out into open enmity. John forbade the observance of such ceremonies as were founded on tradition only; and he enforced his orders by penalties on the contuma- cious. He is said to have built the castle of Baris, on the mount of the temple; which became the palace of the Asmonean princes; and where the pontifical vestments were kept. After having been high-priest twenty-ning years, John died, B. C. 107. Josephus says he was en- dowed with the spirit of prophecy, Antiq. lib. xiii. 17, 18, xviii. 6. 2 Mac. 3: 11, et al.—Calmet. º JOHN THE BAPTIST, (qui immergit,) the greatest of prophets, and the forerunner of the Messiah, was the son of Zechariah and Elisabeth, and born about six months be- ſore the Savior, Luke 1: 5–15. - Of the early part of his life, we have but little informa-. tion. It is only observed, “that he grew and waxed strong in the Spirit, and was in the deserts till the day of This showing unto Israel,” ver. 80. Though consecrated from the womb to the ministerial office, John did not enter upon it in the heat of youth, but after several years spent in solitude, and a course of self-denial. He had gained the conquest of his own passions, and was mortified to the temptations of the world, before he went forth to preach repentance to others. Divine knowledge is not to be acquired in the busy scenes of life, amidst the noise of folly, the clamor of parties, the confusion of opinions, and the allurements of vice. In the world we may learn much of what is generally admired; but if we would gain spiritual wisdom, obtain the mastery of our passions, and an habitual love of holiness, we must, at least occasionally, retire from the world, to commune with our own hearts, and be still. The prophetical descriptions of the Baptist in the Old Testament are various and striking. That by Isaiah is direct and unequivocal, ch. 40: 3. The voice which was thus sounded in the prophet's ears before it was really heard upon the earth, was that of the Baptist, who, at a proper season, was sent to dispose the hearts of men for the reception of the Savior. Malachi has the following prediction: “Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord. And he shall turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the hearts of the children to the fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse,” ch. 4: 5. That this was meant of the Bap- tist, we have the testimony of our Lord himself, who de- clared, “For all the prophets and the law prophesied until John. And if ye will receive it, this is Elias who was to come,” Matt. 11: 14. The appearance and manners of the Baptist, when he first came out into the world, excited general attention. His clothing was of camel's hair, bound around him with a leathern girdle, and his food consisted of locusts and wild honey, Matt. 3: 4. The message which he declared was authoritative: “Repent ye, for the kingdom of hea- ven is at hand;” and the impression produced by his faith- ful reproofs and admonitions was powerful and extensive, and in a great number of instances lasting. Most of the first followers of our Lord appear to have been awakened to seriousness and religious inquiry by John's ministry. His first station for preaching and baptizing was at Ba. J O HI J O H. | 696 J thabara, on the river Jordan. (See Jordan; BETHABARA; JUDEA ; WILDERNEss.) He afterwards went up the river to Enon, (See ENON.) His character was so eminent, that many of the Jews thought him to be the Messiah ; but he plainly declared that he was not that exalted personage. Nevertheless, he was at first unacquainted with the person of Jesus Christ; only the Holy Ghost had told him that he on whom he should see the Holy Spirit descend and rest was the Messiah. When Jesus Christ presented himself to re- ceive baptism from him, the sign was vouchsaſed; and from that time he bore his testimony to Jesus, as the Christ. A beautiful feature in John’s character is the lowly spirit which on every occasion he manifested. Great popularity is dangerous to the most sanctified minds. But in what a critical situation was the Baptist placed, when followed by men of all ranks, sects, and parties: his fame echoed far and near, and “all men mused in their hearts concerning him, whether he was the Christ!” John 1: 19 —28, and 3:23–36. Let every minister of Christ imi- tate John in turning the public attention from himself to the Savior. (See the article BAPTISM.) Herod Antipas, having married his brother Philip's wife while Philip was still living, occasioned great scan- dal. John the Baptist, with his usual liberty and vigor, reproved Herod to his face; and told him that it was not lawful for him to have his brother's wife, while his bro- ther was yet alive. Herod, incensed at this freedom, or- dered him into custody, in the castle of Machoerus; where he ultimately put him to death. (See ANTIPAs.) Thus (A. D. 32.) fell this honored prophet, a martyr to ministe- rial faithfulness. Other prophets testified of Christ; he pointed to him as already come. Others saw him afar off; he beheld the advancing glories of his ministry eclipsing his own, and rejoiced to “decrease” whilst his Master “increased.” His ministry stands as a type of the true character of evangelical repentanee: it goes be- " fore Christ and prepares his way; it is humbling, but not despairing ; for it points to “the Lamb of God which taketh away the sins of the world.” The Jews had such an opinion of this prophet's sanctity, that they ascribed the overthrow of Herod's army, which he had sent against his father-in-law Aretas, to the just judgment of God for putting John the Baptist to death. The death of John was sharp, but momentary; and though sudden, it did not find him unprepared. From the darkness and confinement of a prison, he passed to the liberty and light of heaven ; and while malice was grati- fied with a sight of his head, and his body was carried by a few friends in silence to the grave, his immortal spirit repaired to a court, where no Herod desires to have his brother's wife; where no Herodias thirsts after the blood of a prophet; where he who hath labored with sincerity and diligence in the work of reformation is sure to be well received; where holiness, zeal, and constancy, “are crowned, and receive palms from the Son of God, whom they confessed in the world.” Bishop Horne's Liſe of John the Baptist; Robinson's History of Baptism.—Jones; Watson. J JOHN, (ST., CHRISTIANs of.) (See CHRISTIANs of ST. OHN. JOHN, (THE EvangeIIST,) was a native of Bethsaida, in Galilee, son of Zebedee and Salome, by profession a fisherman. Some have thought that he was a disciple of John the Baptist before he attended Jesus Christ. He was brother to James the Greater. It is believed that St. John was the youngest of the apostles. Tillemont is of opinion that he was twenty-five or twenty-six years of age when he began to follow Jesus. Our Savior had a par- ticular friendship for him ; and he describes himself by the name of “that disciple whom Jesus loved.” St. John was one of the four apostles to whom our Lord delivered his predictions relative to the destruction of Jerusalem, and the approaching calamities of the Jewish nation, Mark 13: 3. St. Peter, St. James, and St. John were cho- Sen to accompany our Savior on several occasions, when the other apostles were not permitted to be present. When Christ restored the daughter of Jairus to life, (Mark 5: 37. Luke 8: 51.) when he was transfigured on the mount, (Matt. 17: 1, 2. Mark 9: 2. Luke 9: 28.) and when he endured his agony in the garden, (Matt. 26:36, 37. Mark 14:32, 33,) St. Peter, St. James, and St. John were his only attendants. That St. John was treated by Christ with greater familiarity than the other apostles, is evident from St. Peter's desiring him to ask Christ who should be- tray him, when he himself did not dare to propose the question, John 13:24. He seems to have been the only apostle present at the crucifixion, and to him Jesus, just as he was expiring upon the cross, gave the strongest proof of his confidence and regard, by consigning to him the care of his mother, John 19:26, 27. As St. John had been witness to the death of our Savior, by seeing the blood and water issue from his side, which a soldier had pierced, (John 19:34, 35.) so he was one of the first made acquainted with his resurrection. Without any he- sitation, he believed this great event, though “as yet he knew not the Scripture, that Christ was to rise from the dead,” John 20: 9. He was also one of those to whom our Savior appeared at the sea of Galilee; and he was afterwards, with the other ten apostles, a witness of his ascension into heaven, Mark 16:19. Luke 24: 51. St. John continued to preach the gospel for some time at Je- rusalem : he was imprisoned by the sanhedrim, first with Peter only, (Acts 4: 1, &c.) and afterwards with the other apostles, Acts 5: 17, 18. Some time after this second re- lease, he and St. Peter were sent by the other apostles to the Samaritans, whom Philip the deacon had converted to the gospel, that through them they might receive the Holy Ghost, Acts 8: 14, 15. St. John informs us, in his Itevelation, that he was banished to Patmos, an island in the AEgean sea, Rev. 1:9. This banishment is men- tioned by many of the early ecclesiastical writers; all of whom, except Epiphanius in the fourth century, agree in attributing it to Domitian. Sir Isaac Newton was of opin- ion that John was banished to Patmos in the time of Nero ; but even the authority of this great man is not of suffi- cient weight against the unanimous voice of antiquity. Dr. Lardner has examined and answered his arguments with equal candor and learning. It is not known at what time John went into Asia Mi- nor. Lardner thought that it was about the year 66. It is certain that he lived in Asia Minor the latter part of his life, and principally at Ephesus. He planted churches at Smyrna, Pergamos, and many other places; and, by his activity and success in propagating the gospel, he is supposed to have incurred the displeasure of Domitian. Irenaeus, speaking of the vision which he had in Patmos, says, “It is not very long ago that it was seen, being but a little before our time, at the latter end of Domitian's reign.” An opinion has prevailed, that he was, by order of Domi- tian, thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, and came out unhurt; but this account rests almost entirely on the authority of Tertullian, and seems to deserve little credit. On the succession of Nerva to the empire, in the year 96, John returned to Ephesus, where he died at an ad- vanced age, in the third year of Trajan's reign, A. D. 100. 2. The genuineness of St. John's gospel has always been unanimously admitted by the Christian church. It is universally agreed that St. John published his gospel in Asia; and that, when he wrote it, he had seen the other three gospels. It is, therefore, not only valuable in itself, but also a tacit confirmation of the other three ; with none of which it disagrees in any material point. The time of its publication is placed by some rather before, and by others considerably after, the destruction of Jerusalem. If we accede to the opinion of those who contend for the year 97, this late date, exclusive of the authorities which support it, seems favored by the contents and design of the gospel itself. The immediate design of St. John in writing his gospel, as we are assured by Irenaeus, Jerome, and others, was to refute the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and other heretics, whose tenets, though they branched out into a variety of subjects, all originated from erroneous opinions concerning the person of Christ, and the creation of the world. These points had been scarcely touched upon by the other evangelists; though they had faithfully recorded all the leading facts of our Savior's life, and his admirable precepts for the regulation of our conduct. St. John, therefore, undertook, perhaps at the request of the true believers in Asia, to write what Clement of Alexan- dria called a spiritual gospel; and, accordingly, we find in J O H. J O H [ 697 it more of doctrine, and less of historical narrative, than in any of the others. It is also to be remembered, that this book, which contains so much additional information re- lative to the doctrines of Christianity, and which may be considered as a standard of faith for all ages, was written by that apostle who is known to have enjoyed, in a greater degree than the rest, the affection and confidence of the divine Author of our religion ; and to whom was given a special revelation concerning the state of the Christian church in all succeeding generations. His object in writing, as stated by himself, (John 20: 31.) is threefold; to prove, 1. That Jesus is the promised Messiah; 2. That his person is truly divine; and, 3. That eternal life may be obtained by faith in his name. The first fourteen verses of the first chapter lay down the same propositions at large; and the selection of facts, testimony, and evidence throughout the whole book, is made to bear with admirable skill and irresistible force on their illustra- tion and establishment. 3. We have three epistles by this apostle. Some critics have thought that all these epistles were written during St. John's exile in Patmos; the first, to the Ephesian church; the others to individuals; and that they were sent along with the gospel, which the apostle is supposed also to have written in Patmos. Thus Hug observes, in his “Introduction :”—Iſ St. John sent his gospel, to the continent, an epistle to the community was requisite, com- mending and dedicating it to them. Other evangelists, who deposited their works in the place of their residence, personally superintended them, and delivered them per- sonally; consequently they did not require a written do- cument to accompany them. An epistle was therefore requisite, and, as we have abundantly proved the first of John's epistles to be inseparable from the gospel, its con- tents demonstrate it to be an accompanying Writing, and a dedication of the gospel. It went consequently to Ephesus. We can particularly corroborate this by the . following observation: John, in the Apocalypse, has in- dividually distinguished each of the Christian communi- ties, which lay the nearest within his circle and his super- intendence, by criteria, taken from their faults or their virtues. The church at Ephesus he there, describes by the following traits: It was thronged with men who arro- gated to themselves the ministry and apostolical authority, and were impostors. But in particular he feelingly re- proaches it because its “first love was cooled.” The cir- cumstance of impostors and false teachers happens in more churches. But decreasing love is an exclusive cri- terion and failing, which the apostle reprimands in no other community. According to his judgment, want of love was the characteristic fault of the Ephesians: but this epistle is from beginning to the end occupied with ad- monitions to love, with recommendations of its value, with corrections of those who are guilty of this fault, 1 John 2: 5, 9–11, 15. 3: 1, 11, 12, 14–18, 23. 4: 7–10, 12, 16–21. 5: 1–3, Must not we therefore declare, if we compare the opinion of the apostle respecting the Ephesians with this epistle, that, from its peculiar tenor, it is not so strikingly adapted to any community in the first instance as to this 2 The second epistle is directed to a matron, who is not named, but only designated by the honorable mention, “the elect lady.” The two chief positions, which are discussed in the first epistle, constitute the contents of this brief address. He again alludes to the words of our Sa- vior, “a new commandment,” &c., as in 1 John 2: 7, and recommends love, which is manifested by observance of the commandments. After this he warns her against false teachers, who deny that Jesus entered into the world as the Christ, or Messiah, and forbids an intercourse with them. At the end, he hopes soon to see her himself, and complains of the want of writing materials. The whole is a short syllabus of the first epistle, or it is the first in a renewed form. The words also are the same. It is still full of the former epistle; nor are they separated from each other as to time. The matron appears before his mind in the circumstances and dangers of the Society, in instructing and admonishing which he had just been em- ployed. If we may judge from local circumstances, she also lived at Ephesus. But as for the author, his residence was in none of the Ionian or Asiatic cities, where the want of writing materials is not conceivable : he was still therefore in the place of his exile. The other circum- stances noticed in it, are probably the following: The sons of the elect lady had visited John, 2 John 4. The sister of this matron wishing to show to him an equal respect and sympathy in his fate, sent her sons likewise to visit the apostle. Whilst the latter were with the apostle, there was an opportunity of sending to the continent, (2 John 13.) namely, of despatching the two epistles and the gospel. The third epistle is written to Caius. The author con- soles himself with the hope, as in the former epistle, of soon coming himself, 3 John 14. He still experiences the same want of writing materials, 3 John 13. Conse- quently, he was still living in the same miserable place : also, if we may judge from his hopes, the time was not very different. The residence of Caius is determined by the following criteria : The most general of them is the danger of being pnisled by false teachers, 3 John 3, 4. That which leads us nearer to the point, is the circum- stance of John sometimes sending messages thither, and receiving accounts from thence; (3 John 5–8.) that he sup- poses his opinions to be so well known and acknowledged in this society, that he could appeal to them, as judges re- specting them; (3 John 12.) and that, finally, he had many particular friends among them, 3 John 15. The whole of this is applicable to a considerable place, where the apostle had resided for a long time ; and in the second epoch of his life, it is particularly applicable to Ephesus. He had lately written to the community, of which Caius was a member, “I wrote to the church,” 3 John 9. If this is to be referred to the first epistle, (for we are not aware of any other to a community,) then certainly Ephesus is the place to which the third epistle was also directed, and was the place where Caius resided. From hence, the rest con- tains its own explanation. John had sent his first epistle thither; it was the accompanying writing to the gospel, and with it he also sent the gospel. Who was better qualified to promulgate the gospel among the believers than Caius, especially if it was to be published at Ephesus? The above view is ingenious, and in its leading parts satisfactory; but the argument from the apostle's supposed want of “writing materials” is founded upon a very forced construction of the texts. There seems, however, no rea- son to doubt of the close connexion, in point of time, be- tween the epistles and the gospel; and, that being remem- bered, the train of thought in the mind of the apostle sufficiently explains the peculiar character of the latter. —Watson ; Horne's lintroduction. JOHN MARK. (See MARK.) JOHN A LASCO, a Polish reformer, was born of a noble family in Poland, and received a learned and ac- complished education. He also travelled to extend his knowledge; and his distinguished abilities, learning, and eloquence, gained him access to several crowned heads, and made him acceptable everywhere. It seems that while visiting Switzerland, divine grace first visited his heart, and not only visited, but fixed its abode within him. Zuinglius was the instrument of this important change, who also prevailed on him to study divinity. Leaving Zurich he returned to his own country, and was appointed provost of Gnesma, and bishop of Vesprim, in Hungary; but these popish appointments he declined, and left Po- land again in 1540. He became pastor at Embden, in Friesland, in 1542. The following year he was engaged by Anne, countess dowager of Oldenburg, in East Fries- land, to introduce and establish the reformed religion in that territory. In 1549, he was invited by Cranmer into England, to assist the Reformation, and here many privileges were con- ferred on him and his friends. He however was dissatis- fied with the English ritual, and wrote against it. Not- withstanding this, Edward VI. highly honored him, and so arranged religious affairs, “that every stranger, who was not protected by John a Lasco, became amenable to the English governors.”. After Edward's death, a Lasco fled to Denmark, where he was refused shelter, because a Zuinglian in regard to the sacrament, and he therefore landed in Embden. In 1555, he went to Frankfort, and in 1560, returned to Poland, where he died, greatly es: - - 88 J O II J O N [ 698 * teemed. He left a number of writings behind him.— Middleton, vol. i. p. 492. JOHNSON, (SAMUEL, LL.D.,) the English moralist, and one of the greatest literary characters of the eighteenth cen- tury, was the son of a bookseller; was born, in 1709, at Litchfield; and completed his education at Pembroke col- lege, Oxford. After having been usher at Market Bos- worth school, and having married Mrs. Porter, the widow of a mercer, and vainly endeavored to establish an acade- my at Edial, he settled in the metropolis, in 1737. In the following year he published his London, a satire, which established his poetical reputation, and was praised by Pope. For some years his subsistence was chiefly derived from supplying biographical and miscellaneous articles, including the debates in parliament, to the Gentleman's Magazine. His Life of Savage appeared in 1744. From 1747 to 1755, he was engaged on his English dictionary. In the interval, however, he gave to the world the Vanity of Human Wishes; the Rambler; and the tragedy of Irene. These labors, however, were more productive of ſame than of profit. He was still obliged to toil to pro- vide for the passing day, and thus necessity called into ex- istence the Idler, Rasselas, and various productions of less consequence. At length, in 1762, a pensión of three hun- dred pounds was granted to him by the crown ; and, in 1765, a large increase was made to his comforts by his be- coming intimate with the family of Mr. Thrale. In the course of the last twenty years of his life he produced his political pamphlets; an edition of Shakspeare; a Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland ; and the Lives of the Poets. He died December 13, 1784. The powerful and lofty mind of Johnson was capable of scorning the ridicule, and defying the opposition of wits and worldlings to religious seriousness. And yet the na- ture of his social life was unſavorable to a deep and sim- ple consideration of Christian truth, and the cultivation of Christian sentiments; and the very ascendency by which he intimidated and silenced impiety contributed to the injury. His writings contain more explicit and so- lemn references to the grand purpose of human life, to a future judgment, and to eternity, than almost any other of our elegant moralists has had the piety or the courage to make. Yet it was not till the closing scene of life, that his views became perfectly evangelical, and his Christian character received its full development. It was truly an instructive scene. It was then that on a deliberate review of life he said, “I have written like a philosopher, but I have not lived like one;” adding with evident agony of spirit, the affecting exclamation, “Shall I, who have been a teacher of others, be myself a casta- way ?” His sun did not however set in this cloud. He at length obtained comfort where alone true comfort could be obtained, in the sacrifice and mediation of Jesus Christ. Hamkins ; Bosnell ; Wilkes' Chris. Essays.—Davenport. JOHNSON, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) president of Iing's col- lege, New York, was a native of Connecticut, and was graduated at Yale college. He studied divinity, became an Episcopalian, and in 1722, went to England to obtain ordination. In 1754, he was chosen president of the col- lege just established at New York, and filled the office with much credit until 1763, when he resigned and re- turned to Stratford to resume his pastoral duties. He died in 1772, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. He was the author of Some controversial works, and of a Hebrew and an English grammar.—Davenport. JOHNSONIANS ; the followers of Mr. John Johnson, many years Baptist minister at Liverpool, in the last cen. tury, of whose followers there are still several congregations in different parts of England. He denied that faith was a duty, or even action of the soul, and defined it “an active principle” conferred by grace; and denied also the duty of ministers to exhort the unconverted, or preach amy mo. ral duties whatever. - w Though Mr. Johnson entertained high supralapsarian notions on the divine decrees, he admitted the universality of the death of Christ. On the doctrine of the trimity, his followers are said to have embraced the indwelling scheme, with Calvinistic views of justification and the atonement. Johnson's Faith of God's Elect ; Brine's Mistakes of Mr. Johnson, 1745.— PWilliams. . . JOIN. To be joined to the Lord is to be spiritually espoused to his Son, and solemnly devoted to his service, 1 Cor. 6: 17. Jer. 1: 5. To be joined to idols is to be firmly intent on worshipping them, Hos. 4: 17.—Bromwn. JOINTS, are, (1.) The uniting of bones in an animal body, Dan. 5: 6. (2.) The uniting parts of a harness, 2 Chron. 18; 33. The joints and bands which unite Christ's mystical body are his Spirit, ordinances, and influences, and their mutual relation to him and to one another, and their graces of faith and love fixed on him, and in him loving one another, Col. 2: 19, Eph. 4: 16. The joints and marrow of men's hearts are their secret dispositions, which the searching word of God, with no small pain to them, shows and affects them with, Heb. 4: 12.—Bronn. - JOKSHAN, second son of Abraham and ICeturah, (Gen. 25: 2.) is thought to have peopled part of Arabia, and to be the person whom the Arabians call Cahtan, and acknowledge as the head of their nation. He dwelt in part of Arabia Félix, and part of Arabia. Deserta. This Moses expressly mentions, Gen. 25. 6. Jokshan’s sons were Sheba and Dedan, who dwelt in the same country ver. 3. (See Division of THE EARTH.)—Calmet. - JOKTAN ; the eldest son of Eber, who had for his por- tion all the land which lies “from Mesha as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the east,” or Kedem, Gen. 10:25. Mesha, Calmet takes to be the place where Masias was situated, in Mesopotamia, and Sephar the country of the Sepharvaim, or Sepharrenians, or Sapiores, or Serapares; for these all denote the same, that is, a people, which, ac- cording to Herodotus, were placed between the Colchians and the Medes. Now this was in the provinces which Moses commonly describes by the name of Kedem, or the East. We find traces in this country of the names of Joktan's sons; which is a further confirmation of this opi- nion. These sons were Almohad, Shaleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal, Abimeel, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab, Gen. 10:26, &c.—Calmet. JOKTHEEL, (obedience to the Lord;) a place previously called Selah, which Amaziah, king of Judah, took from the Edomites, and which is supposed to have been the city of Petra, the celebrated capital of the Nabathai, in Arabia Petraea, by the Syrians called Rekem, 2 Kings 14: 7. There are two places, however, which dispute this ho- nor; Kerck, a town two days’ journey south of Syault, the see of a Greek bishop, who resides at Jerusalem ; and Wady-Mousa, a city which is situated in a deep valley at the foot of mount Hor, and where Burckhardt and more recent travellers describe the remains of a magnificent and extensive city. The latter is no doubt the Petra described by Strabo and Pliny.—Calmet. JONADAB, son of Rechab, and head of the Rechabites, lived in the time of Jehu, king of Israel. He is thought to have added to the ancient austerity of the Rechabites, that of abstinence from wine; and to have introduced the non-cultivation of their lands, 2 Kings 10:15, 16.—Calmet. JONAH, son of Amittai, the fifth of the minor prophets, was born at Gath-hepher, in Galilee. He is generally considered as the most ancient of the prophets, and is supposed to have lived B. C. 840. The book of Jonah is chiefly narrative. Upon the repentance of the Ninevites under his preach- ing, God deferred the execution of his judgment till the increase of their iniquities made them ripe for destruction, about a hundred and fifty years afterwards. The last chapter gives an account of the murmuring of Jonah at this instance of divine mercy, and of the gentle and conde. J O N J O N [609 ) scending manner in which it pleased God to reprove the prophet for his unjust complaint. The style of Jonah is simple and perspicuous;, and his prayer, in the second chapter, is strongly descriptive of the feelings of a pious mind under a severe trial of faith. Our Savior mentions Jonah in the gospel, Matt. 12:41. Luke 11: 32. (See NINEven, and GourD.)—Watson. JONAS, (Justus.) This famous German divine was born at Northausen, in Thuringia, June 5, 1493, where his father was chief magistrate. He first studied law, but after- wards applied himself to theology, when the light of the gos- pel dawned upon him. He united in one person the charac- ters of a most able divine and learned civilian ; and as the state of religion at that time was unavoidably connected with human politics, he became a very necessary man to the Protestants in being a skilful politician. He assisted JLuther and Melancthon in the assembly at Marpurg, in 1529, and was aſterwards with Melancthon at the famous diet of Augsburg, in which he was a principal negotiator. In 1521, he was made pastor, principal, and professor at Wittenberg. He aided the Reformation greatly in Mis- nia, Thuringia, and also Saxony. After the death of Lu- ther, being placed over the church in Eisfield, he there ended his days in much peace and comfort, October 9, 1555, in his sixty-third year. His loss was widely and deeply regretted. Jonas was one of the moderate reformers. His motives in receding as little as possible from the church of Rome might be good, but the result of this course in the Lutheran church has not demonstrated its wisdom. He wrote in defence of the marriage of priests; upon the study of divi- nity; Notes on the Acts; with some other treatises; and translated several of Luther’s works into Latin-Mid- dleton, vol. i. p. 373. JONATHAN ; the son of Saul, a prince of an excellent disposition, and in all varieties of fortune a sincere and steady friend to David. Jonathan gave signal proofs of courage and conduct upon all occasions that offered, during the wars between his father and the Philistines. The death of Jonathan was lamented by David, in one of the noblest and most pathetic odes ever uttered by genius con- secrated by pious friendship. See 1 Sam. 13: 16, &c. 14: 1, 2, &c.—Watson. - JONES, (JEREMIAII,) a learned English Dissenting mi- nister, was born, as is supposed, of parents in opulent cir- cumstances, in the north of England, in 1693. He was educated by the Rev. Samuel Jones, of Tewkesbury, who was also the tutor of Chandler, Butler, Secker, and many other distinguished divines. After finishing his education he became minister of a congregation of Protestant Dis- senters near Nailsworth, in Gloucestershire, where he also kept an academy. He died in 1724, at the early age of thirty-one. His works are, a “Vindication of the former Part of the Gospel by Matthew, from Mr. Whiston’s Charge of Dislocation, &c.” Also a “New and full Method of settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament,” in three volumes, octavo. These works, which are highly and deservedly esteemed by the learned, have been lately republished by the conductors of the Clarendon press, of Oxford, Gentlemen's Magazine, vol. xxiii.; Monthly Ma- gazine, April, 1803–Jones' Chris. Biog. JONES, (GRIFFITH,) called the Welsh Apostle, was born at Kilredin, in the county of Carmarthen, in 1684, of a re- ligious and reputable family. A thirst for learning, joined with a quickness of genius, engaged him in an early and successful application to study. From his youth he was inclined to religious seriousness, which ripening into un- feigned piety, he devoted himself to the weighty responsi- bilities of the Christian ministry, and was ordained by bishop Bull, September 19, 1708. He was made rector of Llandowror by his friend Sir John Philips, who was capable of appreciating the worth of his learning and Christian character. - Here he soon developed all the best qualities of a man of God and a most eloquent and evangelical preacher. Christ was all to him ; and it was his greatest delight to publish and exalt the unsearchable riches of his Redeem- er's righteousness. A sacred pathos distinguished his address. He spoke naturally, for he spoke feelingly. Every thing he uttered bore that stamp of sincerity, which art may mimic, but cannot reach. Great was the power of the Divine Spirit that attended his preaching, both at home and abroad. Nor was he less blessed in his pastoral conversations, and various plans of doing good. By means of his circulating Welsh free-schools more than a hundred and fifty thousand poor people were taught to read, and thirty thousand copies of the Welsh Bible circu- lated among them, besides other useful religious books. His humility gave lustre to all these labors of love.— On his dying bed, he said, “I must bear witness to the goodness of God! Oh! how wonderful is the love of God to me ! Blessed be God, his comforts fill my soul!” He died April, 1761, aged seventy-seven. At his funeral, multitudes of poor and disconsolate people testified their grief in the most affecting manner for the loss of so good a man, in whom were united the judicious divine, the emi- ment preacher, the loving pastor, and the faithful friend, who had labored among them forty-five years. It may be truly said of him, that few lives were more heavenly and useful, and few deaths more triumphant. He left behind him twelve or thirteen volumes, chiefly written for the benefit of the pious poor, which he had printed and distributed by thousands.-Middleton, vol. iv. p. 333. JONES, (TIIoMAs, M. A.,) chaplain of St. Savior’s, Southwark, was born in 1729, and educated at Queen's college, Cambridge. This excellent man was called to stand forth in support of the truths of the gospel, at a period, when those truths seemed to have little impression among the members of the established church to which he bclonged. An evangelic minister was hardly to be ſound in its pale. It might truly be said of them, Apparent rari nantes in gurgite caste. The pulpit then sounded with morality, deduced from the principles of nature, and the fitness of things, with no rela- tion to Christ or the Holy Spirit; and in consequence the streets resounded with heathen immorality. Flowery lan- guage was heard in the church and loose language out of it. Only one pulpit of the establishment, in or about the great metropolis, it is said, and that only on a Sunday or Thursday afternoon during term-time, was accessible for the pure doctrines of the gospel. Mr. Jones was endowed with great gifts and great grace; and he needed both for the work to which l’rovi- dence called him. His sweetness of natural temper, great as it was, would never have supported him under the numberless insults he met with, had it not been strength- ened, as well as adorned, by a sublimer influence. He lived by faith in the Son of God. Various were the me: thods prompted by his love and zeal, besides the stated duties of his office, to win souls to the Savior; and when opposed in one direction, his warm heart was sure to find out another. His health at length gave way under these manifold labors, at the early age of thirty-three ; but his death-bed was triumphant. Once, after praying, “Lord, secure a soul thou hast died to save,” he added joyfully, “He will, he will: I have part here; I shall have all soon ſ”—Middleton, vol. iv. p. 380. JONES, §º a divine, who was a strenuous champion of the Hutchinsonian philosophy, was born, in 1726, at Lowick, in Northamptonshire; was educated at the Charter house, and at University college, Oxford; and died in 1800, perpetual curate of Nayland, and rector of Paston and Hollingbourne. His theological and philoso- phical works form twelve octavo volumes. Among them are, The Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity; Physiological Disquisitions; The Scholar Armed ; Memoirs of Bishop Horne; and Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Scriptures.—Davenport. JóNES, (Sir WiLLIAM,) an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer, the son of an excellent mathematician, was born, in 1746, in London. Mr. Jones, his father, survived the birth of his son William but three years: his family was respectable, and his character was excellent. The care of the education of William now devolved upon his mother, who, in many respects, was eminently qualified for the task: she had, by mature, a strong understanding, which was improved by conversation and instruction. In the plan adopted by Mrs. Jones for the instruction of her son she proposed to reject the severity of discipline, and J O P J O R [ 700 ) to lead his mind insensibly to knowledge and exertion, by exciting his curiosity, and directing it to useful objects. William greatly distinguished himself, at Harrow, and at Jniversity college, Oxford; and, in 1765, became tutor to lord Althorpe, now earl of Spencer, with whom he travel- led on the continent. In 1770, he was admitted into the Inner Temple; in 1776 he was made a commissioner of bankrupt; in 1783 he was knighted, and appointed judge of the supreme court of judicature in Bengal. One of his early acts in India was the establishment, at Calcutta, of an institution on the plan of the Royal Society, of which he was chosen the first president. Another was, to take vigorous measures for procuring a digest of the Hin- doo and Mohammedan laws. After a life of great use- fulness, he died, at Calcutta, in 1794. His poems, translations, philological essays, and other works, form twelve volumes. In his command of lan- guages he had few rivals; he being more or less ac- quainted with no fewer than twenty-eight. His poems are always elegant, often animated, and their versification is mellifluous. His learning was extensive ; his legal knowledge was profound; and he was an enlightened and zealous champion of constitutional principles. Above all, Sir William Jones was a Christian. To de- votional exercises he was habitually attentive. He knew the duty of resignation to the will of his Maker, and of dependence on the merits of a Redeemer; and these sen- timents were expressed in a short prayer, which he com- posed during an indisposition, in September, 1784, and which is here inserted, to show the habit of his mind. “O thou Bestower of all good l if it please thee to conti- muc my easy tasks in this life, grant me strength to per- form them as a faithſul servant; but if thy wisdom hath willed to end them by this thy visitation, admit me, not weighing my unworthiness, but through thy mercy de- clared in Christ, into thy heavenly mansions, that I may continually advance in happiness, by advancing in true knowledge and awful love of thee. Thy will be done ſ” Learning, that wantons in irreligion, may, like the Si- rius of Homer, ſlash its strong light upon us; but though brilliant, it is baleful, and while it dazzles, makes us tremble for our safety. The belief of Sir William Jones in divine revelation is openly and distinctly declared in his works; but the above unostentatious effusion of sequester- cd adoration, whilst it proves the sincerity of his convic- tion, gives an additional weight to his avowed opinions. “I have,” says he, “carefully and regularly perused the Holy Scriptures, and am of opinion, that the volume, independently of its divine origin, contains more sublimi- ty, purer morality, more important history, and finer strains of eloquence, than can be collected from all other books, in whatever language they may have been writ- ten.” Noble testimony, from a competent judge This sketch of the life and character of Sir William Jones would be imperfect did we not say, that few such luminaries have ever enlightened the world; and that, distinguished as he was for learning, wisdom, taste, and imagination, he was yet more distinguished for his sincere piety. See Life of Sir William Jones, by Lord Teignmouth.— Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. JOPPA; called also Japho in the Old Testament, which is still preserved in its modern name of Jaffa or Yafah ; a sea-port of Palestine, situated on an eminence in a sandy soil, about forty-five miles north-west of Jerusalem. Joppa was anciently the port to Jerusalem. Its traditional his- tory stretches far back into the twilight of time. Pliny assigns it a date anterior to the deluge! Here all the materials sent from Tyre for the building of Solomon's temple were brought and landed : it was, indeed, the only port in Judea, though rocky and dangerous. It possesses still, in times of peace, a considerable commerce with the places in its vicinity; and is well inhabited, chiefly by Arabs. This was the place of landing of the western pil- grims; and here the promised pardons commenced during the Crusades. , The present town of Jaffa is seated on a promontory jutting out into the sea, rising to the height of about one hundred and fifty feet above its level, and offering on all sides picturesque and varied prospects. Towards the west is extended the open sea; towards the south spread fertile plains, reaching as far as Gaza; towards the north, as far as. Carmel, the flowery meads of Sharon present themselves; and to the east, the hills of Ephraim and Judah raise their towering heads. The town is walled round on the south and east, towards the land, and partially so on the north and west, towards the sea.—Josephus, Ant, iii. c. 9. S. 2; Calmet ; Watson. • JORDAN ; the largest and most celebrated stream in Palestine. It is much larger, according to Dr. Shaw, than all the brooks and streams of the Holy Land united toge- ther; and, excepting the Nile, is by far the most conside- rable river either of the coast of Syria or of Barbary. He computed it to be about thirty yards broad, and found it nine feet deep at the brink. This river, which divides the country into two unequal parts, has been commonly said to issue from two foun- tains, or to be formed by the junction of two rivulets, the Jor and the Dan ; but the assertion seems to be destitute of any solid foundation. Leaving the cave of Panion, it crosses the bogs and fens of the lake Semichonitis; and after a course of fifteen miles, passes under the city of Julias, the ancient Bethsaida ; then expands into a beau- tiful sheet of water, named the lake of Gennesareth ; and, after flowing a long way through the desert, empties itself into the lake Asphaltites, or the Dead sea. As the cave Panion lies at the foot of mount Lebanon, in the north- ern extremity of Canaan, and the lake Asphaltites extends to the southern extremity, the river Jordan pursues its course through the whole extent of the country from north to south. It is evident, also, ſrom the history of Josephus, that a wilderness or desert of considerable extent stretched along the river Jordan in the times of the New Testament; which was undoubtedly the wilderness mentioned by the evangelists, where John the Baptist came preaching and baptizing. The author of “Letters from Palestine” states, that the stream when it enters the lake Asphaltites is deep and rapid, rolling a considerable volume of waters; the width appears from two to three hundred feet, and the current is so violent, that a Greek servant belonging to the author, who attempted to cross it, though strong, ac- tive, and an excellent swimmer, found the undertaking impracticable. It may be said to have two banks, of which the inner marks the ordinary height of the stream ; and the outer, its ancient elevation during the rainy season, or the melt- ing of the snows on the summits of Lebanon. In the days of Joshua, and, it is probable, for many ages after his time, the harvest was one of the seasons when the Jordan overflowed his banks, Josh. 3: 15. This happens in the first month of the Jewish year, which corresponds with March, 1 Chron. 12:15. But in modern times, whe- ther the rapidity of the current has worn the channel deeper than formerly, or whether its waters have taken some other direction, the river seems to have forgotten his ancient greatness. When Maundrell visited Jordan, on the thirtieth of March, the proper time for these inunda- tions, it ran at least two yards below the brink of its chan- nel. After having descended the outer bank, he went about a furlong upon the level strand, before he came to the immediate bank of the river. This inner bank was so thickly covered with bushes and trees, among which he observed the tamarisk, the willow, and the oleander, that he could see no water till he had made his way through them. In this entangled thicket, so conveniently, planted near the cooling stream, and remote from the habitations of men, several kinds of wild beasts were accustomed to re- pose, till the swelling of the river drove them from their retreats. This circumstance gave occasion to that beau- tiful allusion of the prophet: “He shall come up like a lion, from the swelling of Jordan, against the habitation of the strong,” Jer, 49:19. The figure is highly poetical and striking. It is not easy to present a more terrible image to the mind, than a lion roused from his den by the roar of the swelling river, and chaſed and irritated by its rapid and successive encroachments on his chosen haunts, till, forced to quit his last retreat, he ascends to the higher grounds and the open country, and turns the fierceness of his rage against the helpless sheep-cots, or the unsuspect. ing villages. A destroyer equally fierce, and cruel, and J O S J U S 701 * irresistible, the devoted Edomites were to find in Nebu- chadnezzar and his armies. . The rapidity and depth of the river, which are admitted by every traveller, although the volume of water seems now to be much diminished, illustrate those parts of Scrip- ture which mention the fords and passages of Jordan. It no longer, indeed, rolls down into the Salt Sea. So majestic a stream as in the days of Joshua ; yet its ordinary depth is still about ten or twelve feet, so that it cannot even at pre- sent be passed but at certain places, Judg. 3; 28. 12; 6. The regular passages over the Jordan were, (1.) Jacob's bridge, between the lakes Semechon and Gennesareth, said to be the place where Jacob met his brother Esau, and where he wrestled with an angel.—(2.) A bridge at Chammath, at the issue of the river from the lake of Gen- nesareth.-(3.) A ferry at Beth-abara, 2 Sam. 19:18. 2 Rings 2:8. John 1: 28.—(4.) It is probable that there was another at Bethshan, or Scythopolis. The difficulty, felt by Mr. Maundrell, will be completely removed, by supposing, that it does not, like the Nile, overflow every year, but, like the Euphrates, only in some particular years; but when it does, it is in the time of harvest. Even the Nile, however, sometimes (though rarely) fails; and it may be so with the Jordan. If it did not in ancient times annually overflow its banks, the majesty of God in dividing its waters to make way for Joshua and the armies of Israel, was certainly the more. striking to the Canaanites; who, when they looked upon themselves as defended in an extraordinary manner by the casual swelling of the river, its breadth and rapidity being both so extremely increased, yet, found it in these circumstances part asunder, and leave a way on dry land for the people of Jehovah. & - The phrase “beyond Jordan,” in the early books of Mo- ses and in Joshua, means the west of the river; but sub- sequently, that is, when the Hebrews had taken possession of the country, the term has the opposite meaning, de- noting the country east of the river. The Talmudists say, that “the waters of the Jordan are not fit to sprinkle the unclean, because they are mixed waters;” meaning, mixed with the waters of other rivers and brooks, which empty themselves into it. The reader will compare with this the opinion of Naaman the Syrian, (2 Kings 5: 11, 12.) who probably had received the same notion. Perhaps, too, this their inferiority was well un- derstood, and not forgotten by the prophet of Israel. Ro- binson on Baptism.—Watson; Calmet ; Robinson's Bible Dic. JORTIN, (Dr. JoHN,) an eminent theologian and scho- lar, and the son of a French refugee, was born; in 1698, in London; was educated at the Charter house, and Je- sus college, Oxford; and held, successively, the livings of Swavesey, St. Dunstan's in the East, and Kensington, He was also a prebendary of St. Paul's, and archdeacon of London. He died, at Kensington, in 1770, as much beloved for his private virtues as admired for his piety, learning, abilities, liberality of mind, and contempt of sub- serviency. Among his works are, Discourses concerning the Truth of the Christian Religion; Lusus Poetici; a Life of Erasmus; Remarks on Ecclesiastical History; Sermons; and Six Dissertations on different subjects. His “Remarks on Ecclesiastical History” is a work uni- versally allowed to be curious, interesting, and impartial; full of manly sense, acuteness, and profound erudition. Few will be found whose names stand higher in the esteem of the judicious than Dr. Jortin’s-Davenport ; Jones' Chris, Biog. JOSEPH; son of Jacob and Rachel, and brother to Ben- jamin, Gen. 30: 22, 24. The history of Joseph is so fully and consecutively given by Moses, that it is not necessary to abridge so familiar an account. In place of this, the following beautiful argument by Mr. Blunt for the vera- city of the account, drawn from the identity of Joseph's character, will be read with pleasure. “I have already found an argument for the veracity of Moses in the identity of Jacob's character; I now find ano- ther in the identity of that of Joseph. There is one qua- lity, as it has been often observed, though with a different view from mine, which runs like a thread through his whole history—his affection for his father, Israel loved him, we read, more than all his children; he was the child of his age; his mother died whilst he was yet young, and a double care of him consequently devolved upon his surviving parent. He made him a coat of many co- lors; he kept him at home when his other sons were sent to feed the flocks. When the bloody garment was brought in, Jacob, in his affection for him, that same affection which, on a subsequent occasion, when it was told him that after all Joseph was alive, made him as slow to be: lieve the good tidings as he was now quick to apprehend the sad ; in this his affection for him, I say, Jacob at once concluded the worst, and “he rent his clothes and put sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his son many days, and all his daughters rose up to comfort him ; but he refused to be comforted, and he said, For I will go down into the grave unto my son mourning.’ “Now, what were the feelings in Joseph which responded to these ? When the sons of Jacob went down to Egypt, and Joseph knew them, though they knew not him; #. they, it may be remarked, were of an age not to be greatly changed by the lapse of years, and were still sustaining the character in which Joseph had always seen them ; whilst he himself had meanwhile grown out of the strip- ling into the man, and from a shepherd-boy was become the ruler of a kingdom ; when his brethren thus came be- fore him, his question was, ‘Is your father yet alive º' Gen. 43: 7. They went down a second time, and again the question was, ‘Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake, is he yet alive º’ More he could not venture to ask, whilst he was yet in his disguise. By a stratagem he now detains Benjamin, leaving the others, if they would, to go their way. But Judah came near unto him, and entreated him for his brother, telling him how that he had been surety to his father to bring him back; how that his father was an old man, and that this was the child of his old age, and that he loved him ; how it would come to pass that if he should not see the lad with him he would die, and his gray hairs be brought with sorrow to the grave; for ‘how shall I go to my father, and the lad be not with me, lest, ‘peradventure, I see the evil that shall come on my father?' Here, without knowing it, he had struck the string that was the tenderest of all. Jo- seph’s firmness forsook him at this repeated mention of his father, and in terms so touching : he could not refrain himself any longer; and, causing every man to go out, he made himself known to his brethren. . Then, even in the paroxysm which came on him, (for he wept aloud, so that the Egyptians heard,) still his first words uttered from the fulness of his heart were, ‘Doth my father yet live º’ He now bids them hasten and bring the old man down, bearing to him tokens of his love and tidings of his glory. He goes to meet him ; he presents himself unto him, and falls on his neck, and weeps on his neck a good while; he provides for him and his household out of the ſat of the land; he sets him before Pharaoh. By and by he hears that he is sick, and hastens to visit him; he re- ceives his blessing; watches his death-bed ; embalms his body; mourns for him threescore and ten days; and then carries him, as he had desired, into Canaan to bury him, taking with him, as an escort to do him honor, ‘all the elders of Israel, and all the servants of Pharaoh, and all his house, and the house of his brethren, chariots and horsemen, a very great company.’ How natural was it now for his brethren to think that the tie by which alone they could imagine Joseph to be held to them was dis- solved; that any respect he might have felt or feigned for them must have been buried in the cave of Machpelah, and that he would now requite to them the evil they had done ! “And they sent a messenger unto Joseph, saying, Thy father did command before he died, saying, So shall ye say unto Joseph, Forgive, I pray thee now, the trespass of thy brethren, and their sin; for they did unto thee evil.” And then they add of themselves, as if well aware of the surest road to their brother's heart, “Forgive, we pray thee, the trespass of the servants of the God of thy father? In every thing the father's name is still put foremost : it is his memory which they count upon as their shield and buckler. * “It is not the singular beauty of these scenes, or the moral lesson they teach, excellent as it is, with which I am now concerned, but simuly the perſect artless consis. J O S J O S | 702 tency which prevails through them all. It is not the con- stancy with which the son's strong affection for his father had lived through an interval of twenty years' absence, and, what is more, through the temptation of sudden pro- motion to the highest estate; it is not the noble-minded frankness with which he still acknowledges his kindred, and makes way for them, “shepherds' as they were, to the throne of Pharaoh himself; it is not the simplicity and singleness of heart which allow him to give all the first- born of Egypt, men over whom he bore absolute rule, an opportunity of observing his own comparatively humble origin, by leading them in attendance upon his father's corpse to the valleys of Canaan and the modest cradle of his race; it is not, in a word, the grace, but the identity, of Joseph's character, the light in which it is exhibited by himself, and the light in which it is regarded by his brethren, to which I now point as stamping it with marks of reality not to be gainsayed.” * Some writers have considered Joseph as a type of Christ; and it requires not much ingenuity to find out some resemblances, as his being hated by his brethren, sold for money, plunged into deep affliction, and then raised to power and honor, &c.; but as we have no inti- mation in any part of Scripture that Joseph was consti- tuted a figure of our Lord, and that this was one design of recording his history at length, all such applications want authority, and cannot safely be indulged. The ac- count seems rather to have been left for its moral uses, and that it should afford, by its inimitable simplicity and truth to nature, a point of irresistible internal evidence of the truth of the Mosaic narrative. 2. Joseph, the pious husband of Mary, and reputed fa- ther of Jesus, was the son of Jacob and grandson of Mat- than, Matt. 1: 15, 16, 19. 13:55. - It is probable that Joseph died before Christ entered upon his public ministry; for upon any other supposition we are at a loss to account for the reason why Mary, the mother of Jesus, is frequently mentioned in the evangelic narrative, while no allusion is made to Joseph; and, above all, why the dying Savior should recommend his mother to the care of the beloved disciple John, if her husband had been then living, John 19: 25–27. 3. Josepit of ARIMATHEA ; a Jewish senator, and a be- liever in the divine mission of Jesus Christ, John 19: 38. St. Luke calls him a counsellor, and also informs us that he was a good and just man, who did not give his consent to the crucifixion of Christ, Luke 23: 50, 51. And though unable to restrain the Sanhedrim from their wicked pur- poses, he went to Pilate by night, and solicited from him the body of Jesus, and laid it in his own new and unoccu- pied tomb, Matt. 27: 57–60. John 19:38–42. – Watson. JOSEPHIUS, (FLAvius ;) born thirty-seven years after Christ, at Jerusalem, of the sect of the Pharisees, and, for a long time, the governor of Galilee. He afterwards ob- tained the command of the Jewish army, and supported with skill, courage, and resolution, a siege of seven weeks, in the fortified town of Jotapha, where he was attacked by Vespasian and Titus. The town was betrayed to the ene- my; forty thousand of the inhabitants were cut to pieces, and twelve hundred made prisoners. Josephus was dis- covered in a cave in which he had concealed himself, and was given up to the Roman general, who was about to send him to Nero, when, as it is related, he predicted that Vespasian would one day enjoy the imperial dignity, and thereupon obtained both freedom and favor. This induced him, when he went with Titus to Jerusalem, to advise his countrymen to submission. After the conquest of Jerusalem, he went with Titus to Rome, and wrote his “History of the Jewish War,” of which he had been an eye-witness, in seven books, both in the Hebrew and Greek languages—a work which re- sembles the writings of Livy more than any other history. His “Jewish Antiquities,” in twenty books, is likewise an excellent work. It contains the history of the Jews, from the earliest times till near the end of the reign pf Nero. His two books on the “Antiquity of the Jewish People” contain valuable extracts from old historians, and are written against Appion, an Alexandrian grammarian, and a declared enemy of the Jews. The best edition of his works is that of Havercamp, Amsterdam, 1729, in two volumes, ſolio, Greek and Latin. The last edition, by Oberther, Leipsic, 1781–5, is in octavo.—Hend. Buck. JOSHUA, the heroic son of Nun. He was of the tribe of Ephraim, and born A. M. 2460. He devoted himself to the service of Moses, and in Scripture he is commonly called the servant of Moses, Exod. 24; 13. , 33: 11. Deut. 1:38, &c. His first name was Hosea, or Oshea ; Hoseah signifying Savior; Jehoshua, the salvation of Jehovah, or Jehovah will save. . - - - Joshua succeeded Moses in the government of Israel, about the year of the world 2553, and died at Timnath- serah, in the hundred and tenth year of his age, A. M. 2570. - - - His piety, courage, and disinterested integrity are conspicuous throughout his whole history; and, exclusive of the inspiration which enlightened his mind and writings, he derived divine inſormation, sometimes by immediate revelation from God, (Josh. 3: 7. 5: 13–15.) at others, from the sanctuary, through the medium of Eleazer, the high-priest, the son of Aaron, who, having on the breast- plate, presented himself before the mercy-seat, on which the Shechinah, or visible symbol of the divine presence, rested, and there consulted Jehovah by the Urim and Thum- mim, to which an answer was returned by an audible voice. 2. The Book of Joshu A continues the sacred history from the period of the death of Moses to that of the death of Joshua and of Eleazer; a space of about thirty years. It contains an account of the conquest and division of the land of Canaan, the renewal of the covenant with the Israelites, and the death of Joshua. There are two pas- sages in this book which show that it was written by a person contemporary with the events it records, Josh. 5: 1. 6: 25. - Upon the miracle wrought at the word of Joshua, record- ed in Josh. 10: 12–14, much has been written. Objec- tors have urged that the language of Joshua, in corres pondence with which the miracle is said to have occurred, is not in accordance with the ascertained economy of the universe; and that if even this objection could be disposed of, an unanswerable one against the fatt would remain, because such an occurrence must have involved the whole system in a common ruin. To these objections it has been replied, (1.) That the Hebrew general expressed himself in popular language, as, indeed, he was compelled to do, unless he would have incurred the charge of insanity; and, (2.) That the miracle consisted in an extraordinary refraction of the solar and lunar rays, and did not imply any cessation of the motion of the heavenly bodies. Though there is not a perfect agreement among the learned concerning the author of this book, yet by ſar the most general opinion is, that it was written by Joshua himself; and, indeed, in the last chapter it is said that “Joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of God;” which expression seems to imply that he subjoined this history to that written by Moses. The last five verses, giving an account of the death of Joshua, were added by one of his successors; probably by Eleazer, Phinehas, or Samuel.— JWatson ; Calmet. JOSIAH, king of Judah, deserves particular mention on account of his wisdom and picty, and some memora- ble events that occurred in the course of his reign. He succeeded to the throne, upon the assassinaiion of his father Amon, at the age of eight years, B. C. 610; and at a period when idolatry and wickedness, encouraged by his father's proſligate example, very generally prevailed. Josiah, who manifested the inſluence of pious and virtuous principles at a very early age, began in his sixteenth year to project the reformation of the kingdom, and to adopt means for restoring the worship of the true God. At the age of twenty years he vigorously pursued the execution of the plans which he had meditated. He began with abolishing idolatry, first at Jerusalem, and then through different parts of the kingdom ; destroying the altars which had been erected, and the idols which had been the objects of veneration and worship. He then proceeded, in his twenty-sixth year, to a complete restoration of the worship of God, and the regular service of the temple. Whilst he was prosecuting this pious work, and repairing the temple, which had been long neglected, and which had sunk into J O Y | 703 ] a stafe of dilapidation, the book of the law, which had been concealed in the temple, was happily discovered. This was, probably, a copy of the Pentateuch, which had been lodged there for security by some pious priest in the reign of Ahaz or Manasseh. Josiah, desirous of avert- ing from himself and the kingdom threatened judgments, determined to adhere to the directions of the law, in the business of reformation which he had undertaken; and to observe the festivals enjoined by Moses, which had been shamefully neglected. ... • But, in pursuing his laudable plans of reformation, he was resisted by the inveterate habits of the Israelites; so that his zealous and persevering efforts were ineffectual. Their degeneracy was so invincible, that the Almighty Sovereign was provoked to inflict upon them those calami- ties which were denounced by the prophet Zephaniah. Josiah was slain at Megiddo, in the thirty-ninth year of his age, B. C. 609. His death was greatly lamented by all his subjects; and an elegy was written on the occasion by the prophet Jeremiah, which is not now extant, 2 Kings 22, 23. 2 Chron. 34, 35.—Watson. JOT; a shortened form of the Greek letter Iota, and the Hebrew Yod or Jod. It is the smallest letter in each of these alphabets, and is therefore used emphatically to denote the smallest part, or least particle. This also is its meaning in English, Matt. 5: 18. Robinson's Bib. Dict. JOTBATHAH; an encampment of Israel, in the wilderness, between Gidgad and Ebronah, (Numb. 33: 34.) which Mr. Taylor takes to be the same as the graves of lust ; Ie-taabatha, signifying a heap of lust.—Calmet. JOURNEY. A day's journey is reckoned about sixteen or twenty miles. To this distance around the Hebrew camp were the quails scattered for food for the people, Numb. 11: 31. Shaw computes the eleven days’ journey from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea to be about one hundred and ten miles, Deut. 1:2. A Sabbath day's journey is reckoned by the Hebrews at about seven furlongs, or one mile and three quarters; (Matt. 24:20.) and it is said that if any Jew travelled above this from the city on the Sabbath he was beaten ; but it is probable they were allowed to travel as far to the synagogue as was neccessary, Acts. 1: 12. 2 Kings 4: 23. The Hebrews seem to have had fifty-two journeys or marches from Rameses to Gilgal, Numb. 33. — Brown. JOY; a delight of the mind, arising from the considera- tion of a present or assured approaching possession of a future good. When it is moderate, it is called gladness; when raised on a sudden to the highest degree, it is then exultation or transport ; when we limit our desires by our possessions, it is contentment; when our desires are raised high, and yet accomplished, this is called satisfaction ; when our joy is derived from some comical occasion or amusement, it is mirth ; if it arise from considerable opposi- tion that is vanquished in the pursuit of the good we de- sire, it is then called triumph ; when joy has so long possessed the mind that it is settled into a temper, we call it cheerfulness; when we rejoice upon the account of any good which others obtain, it may be called sympathy, or congratulation. This is natural joy; but there is, 2. A moral joy, which is a self-approbation, or that which arises from the per- formiance of any good actions; this is called peace, or screnity of conscience : if the action be honorable, and the joy rise high, it may be called glory. 3. There is also a spiritual joy, which the Scripture calls a “fruit of the Spirit,” (Gal. 5: 22.) “the joy of faith,” (Phil. 1:25.) and “the rejoicing of hope,” Heb. 3: 6. The objects of it are, 1. God himself, Ps. 43: 4. Is. 61: 10, 2. Christ, Phil. 3: 3. 1 Pet. 1:8. 3. The promises, Ps. 119: 162. 4. The administration of the gospel, and gospel ordinances, Ps. 89: 15. , 5. The prosperity of the interest of Christ, Acts. 15: 3. Rev. 11: 15, 17. 6. The happi- ness of a future state, Rom. 5: 2. Matt, 25: 21. The nature and properties of this joy : 1. It is or should be constant, Thil. 4: 4. 2. It is unknown to the men of the world, 1 Cor. 2: 14. 3. It is unspeakable, 1 Pet. 1:8. 4. It is permanent, John 16:22. Watts on Pass., sect. 11; Gill's Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 111, 8vo. edit.; Grove's Mor, Phil., vol. i. p. 356; Dwight's Theology.-IIend, Buck died, about A. D. 406. JOVINIANISTS; the followers of Jovinian, an Italian monk, who, towards the end of the fourth century, accord- ing to Dr. Mosheim, wrote against the growing supersti- tions of the age, which was enough to gain him a place in Augustine's list of heretics, and to procure him persecution both from church and state. The emperor Honorius cru- elly ordered him, and his accomplices, to be whipped with scourges armed with lead, and then to be banished to different islands; himself to the isle of Boas, where he The church of Rome charges upon these good people several heresies, for which there appears no good foundation; “to which they added,” says Jerome, “this shocking doctrine, that a virgin is no better than a married woman Mosheim’s E. H. vol. i. p. 388, 389 ; Hieronymus, epist. 50.—Williams. jūfīţă ; a public festivity. Among the Jews, it denotes every fiftieth year; being that following the revo- lution of seven weeks of years; at which time all the slaves were made free, and all lands reverted to their ancient owners. The jubilees were not regarded after the Babylonish captivity. The political design of the law of the jubilee was to prevent the too great oppression of the poor, as well as their being liable to perpetual slavery. By this means the rich were preventcd from accumulating lands for perpetuity, and a kind of equality was preserved through all the families of Israel. The distinction of tribes was also preserved, in respect both to their families and possessions; that they might be able, when there was occasion, on the jubilee year, to prove their right to the inheritance of their ancestors. Thus, also, it would be known with certainty of what tribe or family the Messiah sprung. It served, also, like the Olympiads of the Greeks, and the Lustra of the Romans, for the readier computation of time. The jubilee has also been supposed to be typical of the gospel state and dispensation, described by Is. 61: 1, 2, in reference to this period, as “the acceptable year of the Lord.” The word jubilee, in a more modern sense, denotes a grand church solemnity or ceremony celebrated at Rome, in which the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all sin- ners; at least, to as many as visit the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome. The jubilee was first esta- blished by Boniface VII., in 1300, which was only to return every hundred years; but the first celebration brought in such store of wealth, that Clement VI., in 1343, reduced it to the period of fifty years. Urban VI., in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-five years, that being the age of our Savior; and Paul II. and Sixtus IV., in 1475, brought it down to every twenty-five, that every person might have the benefit of it once in his life. Bo- niſace IX. granted the privilege of holding jubilees to several princes and monasteries : for instance, to the monks of Canterbury, who had a jubilee every fifty years; when people flocked from all parts, to visit the tomb of Thomas-a-Becket. Afterwards, jubilees became more fre- quent : there is generally one at the inauguration of a new pope; and he grants them as often as the church or him- self have occasion for them. To be entitled to the privi. leges of the jubilee, the bull enjoins fasting, alms, and prayers. It gives the priests a full power to absolve in all cases, even those otherwise reserved to the pope; to make commutations of vows, &c.; in which it differs from a plenary indulgence. During the time of jubilee, all other indulgences are suspended.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. JUDAH ; the son of Jacob and Leah, who was born in Mesopotamia, Gen. 29: 35. It was he who advised his brethren to sell Joseph to the Ishmaelite merchants, rather than stain their hands with his blood, Gen. 37:26. There is little said of his life, and the little that is recorded does not raise him high in our estimation. In the last pro- phetic blessing pronounced on him by his father Jacob, (Gen. 49: 8, 9.) there is a promise of the regal power; and that it should not depart from his family before the coming of the Messiah. The whole southern part of Palestine fell to Judah’s lot; but the tribes of Simeon and Dam possessed many cities which at first were given to Judah. This tribe was so numerous, that at the departure out of Egypt it contained seventy-four thousand six hun- dred men capable of bearing arms, Numb. 1:26, 27. The crown passed from the tribe of Benjamin, of which Saul J U D J U D [ 704 ) and his sons were, to that of Judah, which was David’s tribe, and the tribe of the kings, his successors, until the Babylonish captivity.—Watson. JUDAISING CHRISTIANS ; those who attempted to mingle Judaism and Christianity together. This was done to some extent in the apostles' days, which gave occasion to the council recorded in the fifteenth of the Acts, But the origin of the sect of this name, is placed under the reign of Adrian; for when this emperor had at length razed Jerusalem, entirely destroyed its very foundations, and enacted laws of the severest kind against the whole body of the Jewish people, the greatest part of the Chris- tians who lived in Palestine, to prevent their being con- founded with the Jews, abandoned entirely the Mosaic rites, and chose a bishop, namely, Mark, a foreigner by nation, and an alien from the commonwealth of Israel. Those who were strongly attached to the Mosaic rites separated from their brethren, and founded at Pera, a country of Palestine, and in the neighboring parts, particu- lar assemblies, in which the law of Moses maintained its primitive dignity, authority, and lustre. The body of judaising Christians, which set Moses and Christ upon an equal footing in point of authority, were afterwards divid- ed into two sects, extremely different both in their rites and opinions, and distinguished by the names of NAZA- RENEs and EBIONites; which see.—Hend. Buck. JUDAISM; the religious doctrines and rites of the Jews, the descendants of Abraham. The religion of the ancestors of the Jews, before the time of Moses, from Abraham downward, consisted in the worship of the one living and true God, under whose immediate direction they were ; in the hope of a Redeemer; in a firm reliance on his promises under all difficulties and dangers; and in a thankful acknowledgment for all his blessings and de- liverances. In that early age, we read of altars, pillars, and monuments raised, and sacrifices offered to God. They used circumcision as a seal of the govenant which God had made with Abraham. As to the mode and circumstances of divine worship, they were much at liber- ty till the time of Moses; but that legislator, by the di- lection and appointment of God himself, prescribed an instituted form of religion, and regulated ceremonies, feasts, days, priests, and sacrifices, with the utmost exact- ness. Ancient Judaism, compared with all religions except the Christian, was distinguished for its superior purity and spirituality; and the whole Mosaic ritual was of a typical nature. (See HEBREws.), Judaism was but a temporary dispensation, and was to give way, at least the ceremonial part of it, at the coming of the Messiah. The principal sects among the Jews were the Pharisees, who placed religion in external ceremony; the Sadducees, who were remarkable for their incredulity; and the Es- senes, who were distinguished for their austere sanctity. At present, the Jews have two sects; the Karaites, who admit no rule of religion but the law of Moses ; and the Rabbinists, who add to the law the traditions of the Talmud. See those articles, and books recommended under article Jews, in this work.-Hend. Buck. JUDAS GAULANITIS, or the Gaulanite, opposed the enrolment of the people made by Cyrenius in Judea ; (see CyRENIUs;) and raised a very great rebellion, pretending that the Jews, being free, ought to acknowledge no do- minion besides that of God. His followers chose rather to suffer extreme torments than to call any power on earth lord Dr master. The same Judas is named Judas the Galilean, (Acts 5:37.) because he was a native of the city of Gamala, in the Gaulanitis, which was comprised in Galilee. Calmet believes that the Herodians were the followers of Judas.—Calmet. JUDAS ISCARIOT, or, as he is usually called, the Trai- tor, and betrayer of our Lord. “The treachery of Judas Iscariot,” says Dr. Hales, “his remorse, and suicide, are occurrences altogether so strange and extraordinary, that the motives by which he was ac- tuated require to be developed, as far as may be done, where the evangelists are, in a great measure, silent con- cerning them, from the circumstances of the history itself, and from the feelings of human nature. Judas, the lead- ing trait in whose character was covetousness, was proba- bly induced to follow Jesus at first with a view to the riches, honors, and other temporal advantages, which he, in common with the rest, expected the Messiah's friends would enjoy. The astonishing miracles he saw him per- form left no room to doubt of the reality of his Master's pretensions, who had, indeed, himself in private actually accepted the title from his apostles; and Judas must have been much disappointed when Jesus repeatedly refused the proffered royalty from the people in Galilee, after the miracle of feeding the five thousand, and again after his public procession to Jerusalem. He might naturally have grown impatient under the delay, and dissatisfied also with Jesus, for openly discouraging all ambitious views among his disciples ; and, therefore, he might have devised the scheme of delivering him up to the Sanhedrim, or great council of the nation, (composed of the chief priests, scribes, and elders,) in order to compel him to avow him- selſ openly as the Messiah before them; and to work such miracles, or to give them the sign which they so often re- quired, as would convince and induce them to elect him in due form, and by that means enable him to reward his followers. Even the rebukes of Jesus for his covetous- ness, and the detection of his treacherous scheme, although they unquestionably offended Judas, might only serve to stimulate him to the speedier execution of his plot, during the feast of the passover, while the great concourse of the Jews, from all parts assembled, might powerfully support the sanhedrim and their Messiah against the Romans. The success of this measure, though against his Master's will, would be likely to procure him pardon, and even to recommend him to favor afterwards. Such might have been the plausible suggestions by which Satan tempted him to the commission of this crime. “But when Judas, who attended the whole trial, saw that it turned out quite contrary to his expectations, that Jesus was capitally convicted by the council as a false Christ and false prophet, notwithstanding he had openly avow- ed himself; and that he wrought no miracle, either for their conviction or for his own deliverance, as Judas well knew he could, even from the circumstance of heal- ing Malchus, after he was apprehended; when he further reflected, like Peter, on his master's merciful forewarnings of his treachery, and mild and gentle rebuke at the com- mission of it; he was seized with remorse, and offered to return the paltry bribe of thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and elders instantly on the spot, saying, “I sinned in delivering up innocent blood;’ and expected that on this they would have desisted from the prosecution. But they were obstinate, and not only would not relent, but threw the whole load of guilt upon him, refusing to take their own share; for they said, ‘What is that to us? see thou to that ;’ thus, according to the aphorism, loving the treason, but hating the traitor, after he had served their wicked turn. Stung to the quick at their refusal to take back the money, while they condemned himself, he went to the temple, cast down the whole sum in the treasury, or place for receiving the offerings of the people; and, after he had thus returned the wages of iniquity, he retir- ed to some lonely place, not far, perhaps, from the scene of Peter's repentance; and, in the frenzy of despair, and at the instigation of the devil, hanged himself; crowning with suicide the murder of his master and his friend; re- jecting his compassionate Savior, and plunging his own soul into perdition . In another place it is said that, “fall- ing headlong, he burst asunder, and all his bowels gushed out,’ Acts 1: 18. Both these accounts might be true: he might first have hanged himself from some tree on the edge of a precipice; and, the rope or branch breaking, he might be dashed to pieces by the fall.” It will, however, be recollected, that the only key which the evangelic narrative affords, is, Judas’ covetousness; which passion was, in him, a growing one. It was this which destroyed whatever of honest intention he might at first have in following Jesus; and when fully under its influence he would be blinded by it to all but the glittering object of the reward of iniquity. In such a mind there could be no true faith, and no love; what wonder then, when avarice was in him a ruling and unrestrained pas- sion, that he should betray his Lord? Still it may be ad- mitted that the knowledge which Judas had of our Lord's miraculous power, might lead him the more readily to put J U D J U D [ 705 ) him into the hands of the chief priests. He might sup- pose that he would deliver himself out of their hands; -and thus Judas attempted to play a double villany, against Christ and against his employers. It has been disputed whether Judas was present at the Lord's supper; but there is really no ground to suppose it. He went out during the paschal supper, but the eucharist was not instituted till after the paschal supper had been concluded; and the last action of that supper was what gave opportunity to the institution of the new rite. To suppose that Jesus would give to Judas the sacramental cup in token of his blood “shed for the remission of sins”— of sins which Judas had traitorously committed, or which he designed traitorously to commit, is to trifle with this most solemn of subjects. Some of the fathers seem to speak favorably of Judas’ repentance; others justly think it defective and unprofita- ble, since it only led him to despair. Origen and Theophy- lact, writing on Matthew, say, that Judas, seeing his master was condemned, and that he could not obtain pardon from him in this life, made haste to get the start of him, and wait for him in the other world, in order to beg mercy of him there ! Some in our day seem to adopt this Origenian fancy, in the very face of the Scriptures which affirm that he was “the son of perdition,” and “went to his own place,” and that “it had been good for him that he had not been born.” The original term employed is not the one used to designate true evangelical repentance. See Campbell's Sixth Dissertation.— Watson ; Calmet. JUDAS, or JUDE, surnamed Barsabas, was sent from Jerusalem, with Paul and Barnabas, to the church at An- tioch, to report the resolution of the apostles at Jerusalem, concerning the non-observance of the law by the Gentiles, (Acts 15:22, 23.) A. D. 54. Some think, that this Judas was the brother of Joseph, surnamed also Barsabas, who was proposed, with Matthias, to fill up the place of the traitor Judas, Acts 1:23. Luke says that Judas Barsabas was a prophet, and one of the chief among the brethren; and it is also believed that he was one of the seventy disci- ples.—Calmet. JUDE, (EpistLE of ;) a canonical book of the New Testament, written against the heretics, who, by their im- pious doctrines and disorderly lives, corrupted the ſaith and good morals of Christians. The author of this epis- tle, called Judas, and also Thaddeus and Lebbeus, was one of the twelve apostles; he was the Son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less, and one of those who were called our Lord's brethren. We are not informed when, or how, he was called to be an apostle; but it has been conjectured, that, before his vocation to the apostleship, he was an husbandman, that he was married, and that he had children. The only account we have of him in par- ticular, is that which occurs in John 14:21–23. It is not unreasonable to suppose that, after having received, in common with other apostles, extraordinary gifts at the Pentecost, he preached the gospel for some time in several parts of the land of Israel, and wrought miracles in the name of Christ. And, as his life seems to have been pro- longed, it is probable that he afterwards left Judea, and went abroad preaching the gospel to Jews and Gentiles in other countries. Some have said that he preached in Ara- bia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia; and that he suffered martyrdom in the last-mentioned country. But we have no account of his travels upon which we can rely; and it may be questioned whether he was a martyr. In the early ages of Christianity, several rejected the epistle of St. Jude, supposing the apocryphal books of Enoch, and the ascension of Moses, are quoted in it. Ne vertheless, it is to be found in all the ancient catalogues of the sacred writings; and Clement of Alexandria, Ter tulliam, and Origen quote it as written by Jude, and reck- on it among the books of sacred Scripture. In the time of Eusebius it was generally received. As to the objec tions that have been urged against its authority, Dr. Lardner suggests, that there is no necessity for supposing that St. Jude quoted a book called Enoch, or Enoch’s pro- pnecies; and even allowing that he did quote it, he gives it no authority; it was no canonical book of the Jews; and if such a book existed among the Jews, it was apo- cryphal, and yet there might be in it some right things, S - Instead of referring to a book called the “Assumption or Ascension of Moses,” which probably was a forgery much later than his time, it is much more credible that St. Jude refers to the vision in Zech. 3:1–3. It has been the opi- nion of several writers, and, among others, of Hammond and Benson, that St. Jude addressed his epistle to the Jewish Christians; but Dr. Lardner inſers, from the words of the inscription of the epistle, (verses 1, 3.) that it was designed for the use of all in general who had embraced the Christian religion. The last-mentioned author sup- poses that this epistle was written A. D. 64, 65, or 66.- Calmet ; Watson. - JUDEA ; a province of Asia, successively called Ca- naan, Palestine, the Land of Promise, the Land of Israel, and Judea, after the Jews returned from the Babylonish captivity; because then the tribe of Judah was the princi- pal; the territories belonging to the other tribes being pos- sessed by the Samaritans, Idumeans, Arabians, and Phi- listines. (See CANAAN.) The Jews, when returned from the captivity, settled about Jerusalem, and in Judah, from whence they spread over the whole country. Judea may be considered as divided into four parts: (1.) The western district, Palestine, inhabited by the Phi- listines; on the east of this, (2.) The mountainous dis- trict, called the hill country, (Josh. 21:11. Luke 1: 39.) which the rabbins affect to call the king's mountain; whether, because on the northern part of this ridge Jeru- salem is situated, or for any other reason, is not known. East of these mountains was, (3.) The wilderness of Ju- dea, along the shore of the Dead sea; § The valleys, &c. west of Jerusalem, towards the Mediterranean. Ju- dea no doubt derived its name from Judah, which tribe was settled in the south of the land, and maintained its kingdom after the northern tribes had been expatriated. This circumstance, together with that of Judah being prin- cipally peopled with the Israelites, after the return from the captivity, and being first settled, on account of the temple being established in it, accounts for the general name of Jews being given to the Hebrew nation. Judea was one of the principal divisions of the Holy Land in the days of Christ: it included from the Mediterranean sea west, to the Dead sea east, and was bounded north by Samaria, and south by Edom, or the Desert. It is ex tremely mountainous in some parts, as from Hebron tr. Jerusalem. West of these mountains is the principal ex tent of country; but this has many hills. East of them, running along the course of the Jordan, is THE WILDERNEss of Jude A. Here John Baptist firs taught, (Matt. 3: 1.) and Christ was tempted; probably towards the north of it, not far from Jericho. Some parts of it were not absolutely barren or uninhabited; of other parts the following descriptions are, we believe, very accu- rate. Dr. Carlyle, who visited the monastery of St. Saba, which stands in this wilderness, says, “The valley of St. Saba is an immense chasm in a rifted mountain of marble. It is not only destitute of trees, but of every other species of vegetation ; and its sole inhabitants, except the wretch- ed monks in the convent, are eagles, tigers, and wild Arabs.” Chateaubriand says, “I doubt whether any convent can be situated in a more dreary and desolate spot than the monastery of St. Saba. As we advanced, the aspect of the mountains continued the same ; that is, white, dusty, without shade, without tree, without herbage, without moss.” Mr. Buckingham, who visited the same part in 1816, says, “As we proceeded to the northward, we had on our left a lofty peak of the-range of hills which border the plain of the Jordan on the west, and ended in this di- rection the mountains of Judea. This peak is considered to be that to which Jesus was transported by the devil dur- ing his fast of forty days in the wilderness: ‘after which he was an hungered.” Nothing can be more forbidding than the aspect of these hills; not a blade of verdure is to be seen over all their surface, and not the sound of any living being is to be heard throughout all their ex'ent.” A most appropriate scene for the temptation of the $on of God, where he is said to have dwelt with the wild becsrº, and where also “the angels ministerel unto hir, ' There are several medals of Judety ex'ant repre- senting a woman (the daughter ºf Zion) sitting urder a J U D • . - J U 1) | 706 ** equal to that of kings. archontes among the Athenians, and dictators among the palm-tree, in a mournful attitude; and having around her a heap of arms, shields, &c. on which she is seated. The inscription is, JUDEA CAPTA. S. C. - This may remind us of the captives in Babylon, who “sat down and wept.” “But what is more remarkable,” says Mr. Addison, “we find Judea represented as a wo- man in sorrow, sitting on the ground, in a passage of the prophet which foretells the very captivity recorded on these medals.” See Isa. 3: 26. 47: 1. – Watson, Calmet. JUDGES, (shophetim,) governed the Israelites from Jo- shua to Saul. The Carthaginians, a colony of the Tyrians, had likewise governors, whom they called Suffetes, or So- phetim, with authority like those of the Hebrews, almost Some are of opinion, that the Romans, were similar to the judges among the Hebrews. Grotius compares the government of the Hebrews under the judges, to that of Gaul, Germany, and Britain, before the Romans changed it. This office was not hereditary among the Israelites; they were no more than God’s vice- gerents. When the Hebrews desired a king, God said to Samuel, “They have not rejected thee, but they have re- jected me, that I should not reign over them,” 1 Sam. 8: 7. See also Judg. 8:23, - Salian remarks seven points wherein they differed from kings: 1. They were not hereditary. 2. They had no absolute power of life and death, but only according to the laws, and dependently upon them. 3. They never un- dertook war at their own pleasure, but only when they were commanded by God, or called to it by the people. 4. They exacted no tribute. 5. They did not succeed each other immediately, but aſter the death of one there was frequently an interval of several years before a successor was appointed. 6. They did not use the ensigns of sove- reignty, the Sceptre or diadem. 7. They had no authority to make any laws, but were only to take care of the ob- servance of those of Moses. Godwin, in his “Moses and Aaron,” compares them to the Roman dictators, who were appointed only on extraordinary emergencies, as in case of war abroad, or conspiracies at home, and whose power, while they continued in office, was great, and even abso- lute. Thus the Hebrew judges seem to have been appoint- ed only in cases of national trouble and danger. This was the case particularly with respect to Othniel, Ehud, and Gideon. The power of the judges, while in office, was very great: nor does it seem to have been limited to a certain time, like that of the Roman dictators, which continued for half a year; nevertheless, it is reasonable to suppose, that, when they had performed the business for which they were appointed, they retired to a private life. This Godwin infers from Gideon's refusing to take upon him the perpetual government of Israel, as being incon- sistent with the theocracy. (See Gover NMENT, &e.) Besides these superior judges, every city in the com- monwealth had its elders, who formed a court of judica- ture, with a power of determining lesser matters in their respective districts. (See JUSTICE, ADMINISTRATION OF.)— Calmet ; IWatson. . JUDGES, (THE Book of,) is by some ascribed to Phine- has, by others to Ezra, or to Hezekiah, and by others to Samuel, or to all the judges, who wrote each the histo- ry of his time and judicature. But it appears to be the work of one author, who lived after the time of the judges; and he is generally thought to be Samuel, for the follow. ing reasons:—(1.) The author lived at a time when the Jebusites were masters of Jerusalem, and consequently before David, Judg. 1: 21. (2.) It appears that the He- brew commonwealth was then governed by kings, since the author observes, in several places, that at such a time there was no king in Israel. There are considerable difficulties, however, against this opinion, as Judg. 18:30, 31. “And the children of Dan made Jonathan and his sons priests in the tribe of Dan, until the day of the captivity of the land. And they set them up Micah’s graven image, which he made, all the time that the house of God was in Shiloh.” Now, the tabernacle or house of God was not at Shiloh till about the time of Samuel's first appearance as a prophet; for then it was brought from Shiloh and carried to the camp, where it was taken by the Philistines and aſter this time it was sent back to Kirjath-jearim, 1 Sam. 4: 4, 5, &c. 6; 21. As to the captivity of the tribe of Dan, it call searcely, one would think, be understood of any other than that un- der Tiglath-pilesler, many hundred years after Samuel, and consequently he could not write this book; unless it be supposed that this ſº has been added since, per- haps under the inspire hand of Ezra camer. JUDGE ; to try and determine a cause, Exod. 18: 13. Christ does not judge according to the seeing of the eye, or hearing of the ear; that is, does not esteem persons or things, or give sentence merely according to outward ap- pearances, Isa. 11: 3. Saints judge the norld—judge an- gels; they now condemn the wickedness of the world, by their holy profession and practice; at the last day, they shall assent to the sentences of damnation pronounced against wicked angels and men, 1 Cor. 6: 2. The Saints are judged according to men in the flesh, and live according to God in the spirit, when they are outwardly corrected for their sins, or persecuted by wicked men, and yet inwardly live a life of fellowship with God, 1 Pet. 4: 6. Men be- come judges of evil thoughts when, in a partial manner, they prefer one person to another, Jam. 2; 4.—Bronn. JUDGING, (RASII;) the act of carelessly, precipitately, wantonly, or maliciously censuring others. This is an evil which abounds too much among almost all classes of men. “Not contented with being in the right ourselves, we must find all others in the wrong. We claim an exclusive possession of goodness and wis- dom; and from approving warmly of those who join us, we proceed to condemn, with much acrimony, not only the principles, but the characters of those from whom we differ. We rashly extend to every individual the severe opinion which we have unwarrantably conceived of a whole body. This man is of a party whose principles we reckon slavish ; and therefore his whole sentiments are corrupted. That man belongs to a religious sect, which we are accustomed to deem bigoted, and therefore he is incapable of any generous and liberal thought. Another is connected with a sect, which we have been taught to account relaxed, and therefore he can have no sanctity.” We should do well to consider, 1. That this practice of rash judging is absolutely forbidden in the sacred Scrip- tures, Matt. 7: 1-2. We thereby authorize others to re- quite us in the same kind.—3. It often evidences our pride, envy, and bigotry.—4. It argues a want of charity, the distinguishing feature of the Christian religion.—5. They who are most ſorward in censuring others are often most defective themselves. Barrow’s Works, vol. i. Ser. 20; Blair's Ser, vol. ii. ser. 10; Saurin's Sér., vol. v. ser. 4. (See Evil, Speaking.)—Hend. Buck. JUDGMENT, is that act of the mind whereby one thing is affirmed or denied of another; or that power of the soul which passes sentence on things proposed to its examination, and determines what is right or wrong ; and thus it approves or disapproves of an action, or an object considered as true or false, fit or unfit, good or evil. Dr. Watts gives us the following directions to assist us in judging right. 1. We should examine all our old opi- mions afresh, and inquire what was the ground of them, and whether our assent were built on just evidence; and then we should cast off all those judgments which were formed heretofore without due examination. 2. All our ideas of objects concerning which we pass judgment, should be clear, distinct, complete, comprehensive, exten- sive, and orderly. 3. When we have obtained as clear ideas as we can, both of the subject and predicate of a proposition, then we must compare those ideas of the subject and predicate together with the utmost attention, and observe how far they agree, and wherein they differ. 4. We must search for evidence of truth with diligence and honesty, and be heartily ready to receive evidence, whether for the agreement or disagreement of ideas. 5. We must suspend our judgment, and neither aſſirm nor deny until this evidence appear. 6. We must judge of every proposition by those proper and peculiar means or mediums whereby the evidence of it is to be obtained, whether it be sense, consciousness, intelligence, reason, or testimony. 7. It is very useful to have some general principles of truth settled in the mind, whose evidence is great and obvious, that they may be always ready at hand J U D J U D | 707 to assist us in judging of the great varicly of things which occur. 8. Let the degrees of our assent to every proposition bear an exactPºiº to the different degrees of evidence. 9. We should keep our minds always open to receive truth, and never set limits to our own improvements. Watts' Logic, ch. iv. p. 231; Locke on the Understanding, vol. i. pp. 222, 256; vol. ii. pp. 271,278; Hedge and Duncan's Logic; Reid on the Intellectual Ponvers, p. 497, &c.; Gam- bier on Moral Evidence; Upham's Philosophy.—Hend. Buck. JUDGMENT, (Day of,) is that important period which shall terminate the present dispensation of grace towards the fallen race of Adam, put an end to time, and introduce the eternal destinies of men and angels, Acts 16: 31. 1 Cor. 15: 24–26. 1 Thess. 4: 14–17. Matt. 25: 31–46. It is in reference to this solemn period that the apostle Peter says, “The heavens and the earth which now exist are by the word of God reserved in store unto fire, against the day of judgment, and perdition of un- godly men,” 2 Pet. 3: 7. (See PETER, Epistles of.) Some commentators understand this prophecy as a pre- diction of the destruction of Jerusalem. In support of their interpretation, they appeal to the ancient Jewish pro- phecies, where, as they contend, the revolutions in the political state of empires and nations are foretold in the same forms of expression with those introduced in Peter's prediction. The following are the prophecies to which they appeal:—Isaiah 34: 4, where the destruction of Idumea is foretold under the figures of dissolving the host of heaven, and of rolling the heaven together as a scroll, and of the falling down of all their host as the leaf falleth off from the vine. Ezek. 32: 7, where the destruction of Egypt is described by the figures of covering the heaven, and making the stars thereof dark ; and of covering the sun with a cloud, and of hindering the moon from giving her light. In Joel 2: 10, the invasion of Judea by foreign armies is thus foretold : “The earth shall qual:e before them ; the heavens shall tremble; the sun and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining.” And in verses 30, 31, the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans is thus predicted: “I will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord come.” God, threatening the Jews, is introduced saying, “In that day I will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day,” Amos 8: 9. The overthrow of Judaism and heathemism is thus foretold : “Yet once and I will shake the heavens and the earth, and the sea and the dry land,” Haggai 2:6. Lastly : Our Lord, in his prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, has the fol- lowing expressions: “After the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of heaven shall be shaken,” Matt. 24; 29. Now it is remarkable that, in these prophecies, none of the prophets have spoken, as Peter has done, of the entire destruction of this mundane system, nor of the de- struction of any part thereof. They mention only the rolling of the heavens together as a scroll, the obscuring of the light of the sun and of the moon, the shaking of the heavens and the earth, and the fallipg down of the stars: whereas Peter speaks of the utter destruction of all the parts of this mundame system by fire. This difference aſfords room for believing that the events foretold by the prophets are different in their nature from those foretold by the apostle; and that they are to be figuratively understood, while those predicted by the apostle are to be understood literally. To this conclusion, like- wise, the phraseology of the prophets, compared with that of the apostle, evidently leads: for the prophetic phraseology, literally interpreted, exhibits impossibilities; such as the rolling of the heavens together as a Scroll; the turning of the moon into blood, and the falling down of the stars from heaven as the leaf of a tree. Not so the apostolic phraseology : for the burning of the heavens, or atmosphere, and its passing away with a great noise; and the burning of the earth and the works thereon, together with the burning and melting of the elements, that is, the constituent parts of which this terraqueous globe is com- f posed; are all things possible, and thereſore may be ſite rally understood; while the things mentioned by the pro phets can only be taken figuratively. This, however, is not all. There are things in the apostle's prophecy which show that he intended it to be taken literally. As, 1. He begins with an account of the perishing of the old world, to demonstrate against the scoffers the possibility of the perishing of the present heavens and earth. But that example would not have suited his purpose, unless, by the burning of the present heavens and earth, he had meant the destruction of the material fabric. Wherefore, the opposition stated in this prophecy between the perish- ing of the old world by water, and the perishing of the present world by fire, shows that the latter is to be as real -a destruction of the material fabric as the former was. 2. The circumstance of the present heavens and earth being treasured up and kept, ever since the first deluge, from all after deluges, in order to their being destroyed by fire at the day of judgment, shows, we think, that the apostle is speaking of a real, and not of a metaphorical, destruction of the heavens and earth. 3. This appears, likewise, from the apostle's foretchlihg that, after the pre: sent heavens and earth are burned, new heavens and a new earth are to appear, in which the righteous are forever to dwell. 4. The time fixed by the apostle for the burning of the heavens and the earth, namely, the day of judg. ment, and punishment of ungodly men, shows that the apostle is speaking, not of the destruction of a single city or nation during the subsistence of the world, but of the earth itself, with all the wicked who have dwelt thereon. These circumstances persuade us that this prophecy, as well as the one recorded in 2 Thess. 1:9, is not to be in- terpreted metaphorically of the destruction of Jerusalem; but should be understood literally of the general judg. ment, and of the destruction of our mundane system. I. The proofs of a general judgment are these :- 1. The justice of God requires it; for it is evident that this attribute is not clearly displayed in the dis. pensation of things in the present state, 2 Thess. 1: 6, 7. Luke 14: 26. 2. The accusations of natural conscience are testimonies in favor of this belief, Rom. 2: 1–15. Dan. 5: 5, 6. Acts 24; 25. 3. It may be concluded, from the relation men stand in to God, as creatures to a Creator. He has a right to give them a law, and to make them accountable for the breach of it, Rom. 14: 12. 4. The resurrection of Christ is a certain proof of it. See Acts 17: 31. Rom. 14:9. 5. The Scrip- ture, in a variety of places, sets it beyond all doubt, Jude 14, 15. 2 Cor. 5: 10. Matt. 25. Rom. 14: 10, 11. 2 Thess. 1:7, 10. 1 Thess. 4: 16, 17. Rom. 2: 1–16. 3:16. Acts 24:25. II. As to the Judge :—the Bible declares that God will judge the world by Jesus Christ, Acts 17: 31. The triune God will be the Judge, as to original authority, power, and right of judgment; but, according to the economy settled between the three divine persons, the work is as- signed to the Son, (Rom. 14:9, 10.) who will appear in his human nature; (John 5:27. Acts 17:31.) with great power and glory; (1 Thess. 4: 16, 17.) visible to every eye; (Rev. 1: 7.) penetrating every heart; (1 Cor. 4: 5. Rom. 2: 16.) with full authority over all; (Matt. 28: 18.) and acting with strict justice, 2 Tim, 4:8. As for the concern of others in the judgment, angels will be no otherwise concerned than as attendants, gathering the elect, raising the dead, &c., but not as advising or judg- ing. Saints are said to judge the world, not as co-judges with Christ, but as approvers of his sentence, and as their . holy lives and conversations will rise up in judgment against their wicked neighbors. III. As to the beings that will be judged ; these will be men and devils. The righteous, probably, will be tried first, as represented in Matt. 25. They will be raised first, though not a thousand years before the rest, as Dr. Gill supposes; since the resurrection of all the bodies of the saints is spoken of as in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump, in order to their meeting the Lord in the air, and being with him, not on earth, but forever in heaven, 1 Cor. 15:52. 1 Thess. 4: 16, 17. Here we may take notice of a question which is proposed by some, viz. Whether the sins of God's people shall be published in the great day, though it is certain they J U D J U D [ 708 shall not be alleged against them to their condemnation? The oiections urged against this are of little weight. . It seems indispensable that the sins of believers, though for- given, should be made manifest, that so the glory of that grace which has pardoned them may appear more illus- trious, and their obligation to God for this farther en- hanced. 2. The justice of the proceedings of that day requires it, since it is presumed and known by the whole world that they were prone to sin, as well as others; and, before conversion, as great sinners as any, and after it their sins had a peculiar aggravation. Therefore, why should they not be made public, as a glory due to the justice and holiness of God, whose nature is opposite to all sin 3 And, 3. This is necessary, because their sins are often connected with those of others. Since God, by recording the sins of his saints in Scrip- ture, has perpetuated the knowledge thereof; and if it is to their honor that the sims there mentioned were repented of, as well as forgiven, why may it not be supposed that the sins of believers shall be made known in the great day? And, Lastly, this alone seems agreeable to those expressions of every word, every work, and every secret thing, being brought into judgment, whether it be good or whether it be bad, 2 Cor. 4: 10, 11. 1 Cor. 4: 1–5. As to the wicked, they also shall be judged, and all their thoughts, words, and deeds be brought into judg- ment, Eccl. 12: 14. The fallen angels, also, are said to be reserved unto the judgment of the great day, Jude 6. They shall then receive their final sentence, and be shut up in the prison of hell, Rev. 20: 10. Matt. 8:29. IV. As to the rule of judgment —we are informed the books will be opened, Rev. 20: 12. 1. The book of di- vine omniscience, (Mal. 3: 5.) or remembrance, Mal. 3: 16. 2. The book of conscience, Rom. 1: 15. 3. The book of Providence, Rom. 2: 4, 5, 4. The book of Re- velation, law, and gospel, John 12:48. Rom. 2: 16. 2: 12. 5. The book of Life, in which the names of the justified are enrolled, Luke 10: 20. Rev. 3: 5. 20: 12, 15. V. As to the time of judgment:–the soul will be either happy or miserable immediately aſter death, but the ge- neral judgment will not be till after the resurrection, Heb. 6: 2. 9: 27, 2 Tim. 4: 1. There is a day appointed, (Acts 17:31.) but it is unknown to men, 2 Thes. 2: 1–14. VI. As to the place :-this is of no consequence, when compared with the state in which we shall appear. And as the Scriptures represent it as certain; (lºccl. 11:9.) universal; (2 Cor. 5: 11.) righteous; (Rom. 2: 5.) deci- sive; (1 Cor. 15: 52.) and eternal as to its consequences; (Heb. 5: 2.) let us be concerned for the welfare of our immortal interests, ſlee to the refuge set before us, ium- prove our precious time, depend on the merits of the l{e- deemer, and adhere to the dictates of the divine word, that we may be ſound of him in peace, 2 Pet. 3: 14. “It is appointed unto men once to die, and aſter this the judgment.” These two events are inseparably linked together in the divine decree, and they reciprocally reflect importance on each other. Death is, indeed, the terror of our nature. Men may contrive to keep it from their thoughts, but they cannot think of it without fearful ap- prehensions of its consequences. It was justly to be dreaded by man in his state of innocence; and to the un- renewed man it ever was, and ever will be, a just object of abhorrence. The gospel of Jesus Christ, which has brought life and immortality to light, is the only sovereign antidote against this universal evil. To the believer in Christ, its rough aspect is smoothed, and its terrors cease to be alarming. To him it is the messenger of peace; its sting is plucked out ; its dark valley is the road to perfect bliss and life immortal. To him, “to live is Christ, and to die is gain,” Phil. 1: 21. To die ' Speaking properly, he cannot die, John 6: 47–58. 8: 51. 11; 26. Rey. 2: 11. He has already died in Christ, and with him : his “liſe is hid with Christ in God,” Rom. 6:8. Col. 3: 3. With this conquest of the fear of death is nearly allied another glorious privilege resulting from union with the Redegmer; that, when he shall appear, we may have con- ſidence, and “not be ashamed before him at his coming,” 1 John 2:28. 4:16. Were death all that we have to dread, death might be braved. But after death there is a judgment, a judgment attended with circumstances so tremendous, as Moreover, 4.’ to shake the hearts of the boldest of the sons of nature. Then “men shall seek death, and shall not find it; and shall desire to die, and death shall flee from them,” Rev. 9: 6. Then shall come indeed an awful day; a day to which all that have preceded it are intended to be sub- servient; when the Lord shall appear in the united splen- dor of creating, of governing, and of judicial majesty, to finish his purposes respecting man and earth, and to pro- nounce the final, irreversible sentence, “It is done !” Rev. 21: 6. Nothing of terror or magnificence hitherto beheld, —no glory of the rising sun aſter a night of darkness and of storm,-no convulsions of the earth,-no wide irruption of waters, no ſlaming comet dragging its burning train over half the heaven, can convey to us an adequate con- ception of that day of terrible brightness and irresistible devastation. Creation then shall be uncreated. “The heavens shall pass away with a great moise, and the ele- ments shall melt with ſervent heat; the earth, also, and the works that are therein, shall be burnt up,” 2 Pet. 3:10. The Lord shall be revealed from heaven in flaming fire, (2 Thess, 1:7, 8.) arrayed in all the glory of his Godhead, and attended by his mighty angels, Matt. 16:27. 25: 31. All that are in the grave shall hear his voice, and shall come forth, John 5: 28, 29. Earth and sea shall give up the dead which are in them. All that ever lived shall appear before him, Rev. 20: 12, 13. The judgment shall sit; and the books shall be opened, Dan. 7: 10. The eye of Omniscience detects every concealment by which they would screen from observation themselves, or their ini- quity. The last reluctant sinner is finally separated from the congregation of the righteous; (Ps. 1: º and inflexi- ble justice, so often disregarded, derided, and defied, gives ſorth their eternal doom | But to the saints this shall be a day of glory and honor. They shall be publicly ack- nowledged by God as his people; publicly justified from the slanders of the world ; invested with immortal bodies; presented by Christ to the Father; and admitted into the highest felicity in the immediate presence of God ſorever. These are the elevating, the transporting views, which made the apostle Paul speak with so much desire and earnest expectation of “the day of Christ.” Bates’ JVorks, p. 449; Bishop Hopkins and Stoddard on the Last Judgment ; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 467, 8vo. ; Boston's Fourfold State ; Davies' S rºmons ; Paley's Works ; Iſervey's Works ; Fuller's Works, vol. ii. pp. 78, 106, 152, 211, 307, 392, 437, 841, 859, 871, 883, 906; Dwight's The. ology; Irving's Argument for Judgment to come ; Payson’s Sermons ; Massilon's do. 5 Saurin's do. ; Nat. His of Enthu- siasm ; Saturday Evening ; Foster's Essays; and books under the articles HEAVEN and HELL-Hend. Buck ; Watson. JUDGMIENTS OF GOD, are the punishments inflicted by him for particular crimes. The Scriptures give us many awful instances of the display of divine justice in the punishment of nations, families, and individuals, for their iniquities. See Gen. 7. 19:25. Exod. 15. Judg. 1: 6, 7, Acts 12:23. Esther 5: 14, with chap. 7: 10. 2 Kings 11. Lev. 10: 1, 2. Acts 5: 1–10. Is. 30: 1–5. 1 Sam, 15: 9. 1 Kings 12:25, 33. It becomes us, however, to be ex- ceedingly cautious how we interpret the severe and aſſlic- tive dispensations of Providence, in the present world. Dr. Jortin justly observes, that there is usually much rashness and presumption in pronouncing that the cala- mities of sinners are particular judgments of God; yet, saith he, iſ from sacred and profane, from ancient and modern historians, a collection were made of all the cruel, persecuting tyrants, who delighted in tormenting their fellow-creatures, and who died not the common death of all men, but whose plagues were horrible and strange, even a sceptic would be moved at the evidence, and would be apt to suspect that it was theion ti, that the hand of God was in it. As Dr. Jortin was no enthusiast, and one who would not overstrain the point, we shall here princi- pally follow him in his enumeration of some of the most remarkable instances. - Herod the Great was the first persecutor of Christianity. He attempted to destroy Jesus Christ himself, while he was yet but a child, and for that wicked purpose slew all the male children that were in and about Bethlehem. What was the consequence Josephus hath told us: he had long and grievous sufferings, a burning ſever, a vora- J U D J U D [ 709 J cious appetite, a difficulty of breathing, swellings of his limbs, loathsome ulcers within and without, breeding ver- min, violent torments and convulsions, so that he endea- vored to kill himself, but was restrained by his friends. The Jews thought these evils to be divine judgments upon him for his wickedness. And what is still more remark- able in his case is, he left a numerous family of children and grandchildren, though he had put some to death; and yet, in about the space of one hundred years, the whole family was extinct. Herod Antipas, who beheaded John the Baptist, and treated Christ contemptuously when he was brought be. fore him, was defeated by Aretas, an Arabian king, and afterwards had his dominions taken from him, and was sent into banishment along with his infamous wife, He- rodias, by the emperor Caius. - Herod Agrippa killed James, the brother of John, and put Peter in prison. The angel of the Lord soon after smote him, and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost. Judas, that betrayed our Lord, died, by his own hands, the most ignominious of all deaths. Pontius Pilate, who condemned our blessed Savior to death, was not long afterwards deposed from his office, banished from his country, and died by his own hands; the divine vengeance overtaking him soon after his Crime. The high-priest Caiaphas was deposed by Vitellius, three years after the death of Christ. Thus this wicked man, who condemned Christ for fear of disobliging the Romans, was ignominiously turned out of his office by the Roman governor, whom he had sought to oblige. Ananias, the high-priest, persecuted Paul, and inso- lently ordered the by-standers to smite him on the mouth. Upon which the apostle said, “God shall Smite thee, thou whited wall.” Whether he spake this prophetically or not, let the event determine ; for certain it is, that some time after he was slain, together with his brother, by the hands of his own son. - Ananus, the high-priest, slew James the Less; for which and other outrages he was deposed by king Agrip- pa the younger, and probably perished in the last destruc- tion of Jerusalem. Nero, in the year 64, turned his rage upon the Chris- tians, and put to death Peter and Paul, with many others. Four years after, in his great distress, he attempted to kill himself; but being as mean-spirited and dastardly as he was wicked and cruel, he had not th; resolution to do that piece of justice to the world, and was forced to beg assistance. * Domitian persecuted the Christians also. It is said he threw John into a caldron of boiling oil, and aſterwards banished him into the isle of Patmos. In the following year this monster of wickedness was murdered by his own people. The Jewish nation persecuted, rejected, and crucified the Lord of Glory. Within a few years after, their nation was destroyed, and the Lord made their plagues wonderful. Flaccus was governor of Egypt near the time of our Savior's death, and a violent persecutor of the Jews. The wrath of God, however, ere long overtook him, and he died by the hands of violence. t Catullus was governor of Lybia, about the year 73. He was also a cruel persecutor of the Jews, and he died miserably. For though he was only turned out of his office by the Romans, yet he fell into a complicated and incurable disease, being sorely tormented both in body and mind. He was dreadfully terrified, and continually crying out that he was haunted by the ghosts of those whom he had murdered ; and, not being able to contain himself, he leaped out of his bed, as if he were tortured with fire and put to the rack. His distemper increased till his entrails were all corrupted, and came out of his body; and thus he perished, as signal an example as ever was known of the divine justice rendering to the wicked according to their deeds. . - Caius, the Roman emperor, was a great persecutor of the Jews and Christians, and a blasphemer of the God of heaven. Soon after his atrocities, however, he was mur- dered by one of his own people. * Severus, umperor of Rome, was a violent and cruel persecutor of the followers of Christ. He also, and all his family, perished miserably, about the year 200 after our Savior. - About the same time, Saturninus, governor of Africa, persecuted the Christians, and put several of them to death. Soon after, he went blind. Heliogabalus, the emperor, brought a new god to Rome, and would needs compel all his subjects to worship him. This was sure to have ended in a persecution of the Christians. But, soon after, this vile monster was slain by his own soldiers, about the year 222. Claudius Herminianus was a cruel persecutor of the Christians in the second century, and he was eaten of worms while he lived. Decius-persecuted the church about the year 250; he was soon aſter killed in battle. Gallus succeeded and continued the persecution. He, too, was killed the year following. - Valerian, the emperor, had many good qualities; but yet he was an implacable enemy to the Lord Jesus Christ and his gospel. Some time after he came to the throne, he was taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and used like a slave and a dog; for the Persian monarch, from time to time, obliged this unhappy emperor to bow him- self down, and offer him his back, on which to set his foot, in order to mount his chariot or his horse. He died in this miserable state of captivity. - AEmilian, governor of Egypt, about 263, was a virulent persecutor of the church of Christ. He was soon after strangled by order of the emperor. Aurelian, the emperor, just intending to begin a perse- cution against the followers of Christ, was killed in the year 274. Maximinus was a persecutor of the church. He reigned only three years, and then fell under the hands of vio- lence. About the year 300, was the greatest possible contest between Christ and the Roman emperors, which should have the dominion. These illustrious wretches seemed determined to blot out the Christian race and name from under heaven. The persecution was far more fierce and brutal than it had ever been. It was time, therefore, for the Lord Jesus Christ, the great Head of the church, to arise and plead his own cause; and so, indeed, he did. The examples we have mentioned are dreadful: those that follow are not less astonishing, and they are all delivered upon the best authorities. Diocletian persecuted the church in 303. After this nothing ever prospered with him. He underwent many troubles: his senses became impaired; and he quitted the empire. - Severus, another persecuting emperor, was overthrown and put to death in the year 307. - About the same time Urbanus, governor of Palestine, who had signalized himself by tormenting and destroying the disciples of Jesus, met with his due reward; for al- most immediately after the cruelties committed, the divine vengeance overtook him. He was unexpectedly degraded and deprived of all his honors; and, dejected, dispirited, and meanly begging for mercy, was put to death by the same hand that raised him. Firmilianus, another persecuting governor, met with the same fate. Maximianus Herculius, another of the wretched perse. cuting emperors, was compelled to hang himself, in the year 310. Maximianus Galerius, of all the tyrants of his time the most cruel, was seized with a grievous and horrible dis- ease, and tormented with worms and ulcers to such a de- gree, that they who were ordered to attend him could not bear the stench. Worms proceeded from his body in a most fearful manner; and several of his physicians were put to death because they could not endure the smell, and others because they could not cure him. This hap- pened in the year of our Lord 311. * Maxentius, another of the inhuman monsters, was overthrown in battle by Constantine ; and in his flight he fell into the Tiber, and was drowned in the year 312. Maximinus put out the eyes of many thousands of J U D J U D . | 710 J Christians. Soon after the commission of his cruclties, a disease arose among his people, which greatly affected their eyes, and took away their sight. He himself died miserably, and upon the rack, his eyes starting out of his head through the violence of his distemper, in the year 313. All his family likewise were destroyed, his wife and children put to death, together with most of his friends and dependents, who had been the instruments of his cruelty. ~ A Roman officer, to oblige this Maximinus, greatly op- pressed the church at Damascus : not long after, he de- stroyed himself. - Licinius, the last of these persecuting emperors before Constantine, was conquered and put to death in the year 323. He was equally an enemy to religion, liberty, and learning. Cyril, the deacon, was murdered by some pagans, at Heliopolis, for his opposition to their images. ... They rip- ped open his belly, and ate his liver: the divine ven- geance, however, pursued all those who had been guilty of this crime; their teeth came out, their tongues rotted, and they lost their sight. .. * Valens was made emperor in 364; and though an Arian Christian himself, he is said to have caused fourScore presbyters, who differed from him in opinion, to be put to sea, and burnt alive in a ship. Afterwards, in a battle with the Goths, he was defeated and wounded, and fled to a cottage, where he was burnt alive, as most historians relate: all agree that he perished, The last pagan prince, who was a formidable enemy to Christianity, was Radagaisus, a king of the Goths. He invaded the Roman empire with an army of four hundred thousand men, about the year 405, and vowed to sacrifice all the Romans to his gods. The Romans, how- ever, fought him, and obtained a complete victory, taking him and his sons prisoners, whom they put to death. Huneric, the Wandal, though a Christian, was a most cruel persecutor of those who diſfered from him in opi- nion, about the year of our Lord 484. He spared not even those of his own persuasion, neither his friends nor his kindred. He reigned, however, mot quite eight years, and died with all the marks of divine indignation upon him. Julian the apostate greatly oppressed the Christians: and he perished soon after, in his rash expedition against the Persians. Several of those who were employed or permitted by Ju- lian to persecute the Christians, are said to have perished miserably and remarkably. I will here relate the fate of a few of those unhappy wretches in the words of Tillemont, who faithfully collected the account from the ancients. We have observed, says that learned man, that count Julian, with Felix, superintendent of the finances, and Elpidius, treasurer to the emperor, apostates all three, had received orders to go and seize the effects of the church at Antioch, and carry them to the treasury. They did it on the day of the martyrdom of St. Theodoret, and drew up an account of what they had seized. But count Julian was not content with taking away the sacred vessels of the church, and profaning them by his impure hands: carrying to greater lengths the outrage he was doing to Jesus Christ, he overturned and ſlung them down on the ground, and sat upon them in a most criminal manner; adding to this all the banters and blasphemies that he could devise against Christ, and against the Christians, who, he said, were abandoned of God. Felix, the superintendent, signalized himself also by another impiety ; for as he was viewing the rich and magnificent vessels which the emperors Constantine and Constantius had given to the church, “Behold,” said he, “with what plate the son of Mary is served P’ It is said, too, that count Julian and he made it the subject of ban- ter, that God should let them thus profane his temple, without interposing by visible miracles. - But these impieties remained not long unpunished, and Julian had no sooner profaned the sacred utensils than he felt the effects of divine vengeance. He fell into a griev- ous and unknown disease ; and his inward parts being corrupted, he cast out his liver and his excrements, not from the ordinary passages, but ſrom his miserable mouth which had uttered so many blasphemies, His secret parts, and all the flesh round about them, corrupted also, and bred worms ; and to show that it was a divine pu- mishment, all the art of physicians could give him no relief. In this condition he continued forty days, without speech or sense, preyed on by worms. At length he came to himself again. The imposthumes, however, all over his body, and the worms which gnawed him con- tinually, reduced him to the utmost extremity. He threw them up, without ceasing, the last three days of his life, with a stench which he himself could not bear. The disease with which God visited Felix was not so long. He burst suddenly in the middle of his body, and died of an effusion of blood in the course of one day. Elpidius was stripped of his effects in 366, and shut up in prison, where, after having continued for some time, he died without reputation and honor, cursed of all the world, and surnamed the Apostate. To these instances many more might be added nearer our own times, did our room permit. These, however, are sufficient to show us what a ſearful thing it is to fall into the hands of the living God, and how fruitless and awful it is to oppose his designs, and to attempt to stop the progress of his gospel. “Why do the heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing? He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh; the Lord shall have them in de- rision. Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron ; thou shalt dash them to pieces as a potter's vessel. , Be wise now, therefore, O ye kings; be instructed, ye judges of the earth. Serve the Lord with ſear, and rejoice with trembling,” Ps. 2. Jortin's Remarks on Ecclesiastical His- tory, vol. iii. p. 246, &c.; Simpson's Key to the Prophecies, 29; Nenton on the Prophecies, dis. 24; Bryant's Observa. tions on the Plagues of Egypt ; Tillemont, Histoire des Emp. —Hend. Buck. JUDICIUM DEI, or Judgment of God, was a term anciently applied to all extraordinary trials of secret crimes; as those by arms and single combat; and the ordeals, or those by fire, or red hot plough-shares, by plunging the arm in boiling water, or the whole body in cold water, in hopes that God would work, a miracle, rather than suffer truth and innocence to perish. These customs were a long time kept up even among Christians, and they are still in use in some nations. Trials of this sort were usually held in churches, in the presence of the bishop, priest, and secular judges, after three days’ fast- ing, confession, communion, and many adjurations and ceremonies, described at large by Du Cange.—Hend. Buck. JUDSON, (ANN H,) first ſemale missionary to Bur- mah, was the daughter of John and Rebecca Hasseltine, of Bradford, Mass., and was born December 22, 1789. In early life she was gay, enterprising, active, and eager for the acquisition of knowledge. At the age of sixteen, she became pious. She was educated at the academy of her native town, where she was adjudged to be the best scholar in the school. She was then remarkably beanti- ful, and was among many well educated young ladies, of highly respectable families; but she bore her honors so meekly that she was the general favorite. She oſten ad- justed those little disputes which spring up in every semi- nary, and sometimes, iſ not settled at once, produce lasſing effects. She married the Rev. Adoniram -Judson, appointed a missionary to India, February 5, 1812. In his letter to her father, asking his consent to the marriage, Mr. Judson said—“I have now to ask, whether you can consent to her departure for a heathen land; whether you can con- scnt to her czposure to the dangers of the ocean ; to every kind of want and distress; to degradation, insult, perse- cution, and perhaps a violent death? Can you consent tº all this for the sake of Him, who left his heavenly home and died for her and you ?” * She was the first American female, who made up her mind to go to India as a missionary. She sailed from Salem, February 19, with Mrs. Harriet Newell, and ar- rived in June at Calcutta. While there, she and her hus- band, having on their passage embraced the principles of the Baptists, were baptized, Sept. 6, 1812. As the mission- arics were ordered to quit India, she sailed to the isle of J U D [711 | France, where, on her arrival, January 17, 1813, she was informed of the death of Mrs. Newell. She proceeded in July to Rangoon, in Burmah. After studying the lan- guage several years, Mr. Judson began to preach and to jublish tracts in the Burman language. He was also joined by the missionaries, Hough, Colman, and Whee- lock. In January, 1820, Mr. Judson made a fruitless visit to the emperor to obtain permission to propagate the Christian religion. In consequence of this refusal, Mr. Colman was induced to remove to Chittagong, near which place he died, July 4, 1822. Mr. Wheelock was also de- ceased, and Mr. Hough had departed, so that in March, 1820, Mr. and Mrs. Judson were left alone at Rangoon. Several converts, however, were baptized in 1820. In consequence of alarming illness, Mrs. Judson left Rangoon in August, 1821, and repaired to Calcutta, and thence to England. In September, 1822, she arrived at New York. After visiting her friends at Bradford for a few weeks, she was induced, on account of her health, to ſº the winter in the milder climate of Baltimore, where r. Elnathan Judson, an only brother of her husband, re- sided. Here she lived in retirement, and wrote an inte- resting work, a History of the Burman Mission, in a series of letters to Mr. Butterworth, a member of parliament, in whose house she was received while in England. She sailed on her return June 22, 1823, from Boston, with the missionaries Mr. and Mrs. Wade, and arrived at Calcutta in October, and in December proceeded to Ran- goon. In the same month she accompanied her husband to Ava, the capital. Just as they were getting under way in their missionary labors, the Burmese war broke out. The Bengal government invaded Burmah, in the spring of 1824. The war was a bloody one to the Bur- mese. June 8th, Mr. Judson was seized and imprisoned, with Dr. Price, and others. During his imprisonment of more than a year and a half; nine months in three pair of fetters, two months in five pair, amidst indescribable sufferings, Mrs. Judson repaired every day two miles to the prison, prepared food for her husband, and adminis- tered to the wants of the prisoners, and made constant application to the government for their lives and their deliverance. But for her they must have perished. “O woman— e When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou!” Her appeals, written in elegant Burmese, were given to the king when no one of his officers’ dared mention the subject to him. At length he directed her with her hus- band, to go to the English army, then marching on vic- toriously under general Sir Archibald Campbell, and prepare the way for a treaty of peace. She was sent with all the honors of an embassador, and the British Commander-in-chief received her in this character. She came to every point in the business with great sin- gleness of heart and clearness of understanding. She gave the English a better account of the court of the king of Ava, than they had ever had from any other source. The treaty was made through her influence, and even that proud monarch did not hesitate to acknowledge her merits, though her own narrative modestly conceals them. Mr. and Mrs. Judson now settled in the new town of Amherst, on the Salwen river. But aſter a few months, and during the absence of Mr. Judson, she died there of a fever, October 24, 1826, aged thirty-six. This fatal event is to be ascribed to her sufferings at Ava. In a few months her only surviving child, Maria, died. Her little son, Roger Williams, had died at Rangoon, and was buried there. Her grave, which is under a large tree, called the Hopia, or hope-tree, will be hereafter visited by Christian missionaries, as a place made sacred by the ashes of a woman of no ordinary character. For beauty, talents, piety, dignity of demeanor, and perseverance of mind, Mrs. Judson has had but few equals. She acquired languages with great facility, and used her acquirements to the best purposes of her calling. She wrote with ease and elegance. She was a pattern of con- jugal affection and missionary ardor. She was chivalrous and romantic without being giddy or vain. She was en- gaged in a great work, and she went ſearlessly on to death. She shrunk from no danger, nor turned back froſſi any peril. She saw martyrdom before her, but it was surrounded by beatific visions. She saw the seeds of the gospel planted in a heathen land, and she believed, that, if it was long in springing up, it would in time flourish, and break asunder the chains of superstition and sin. Every day confirms the wisdom of her anticipations. No female missionary ever passed through such scenes of suffering, or made such efforts of benevolence in sick- ness and amidst perils and difficulties of every kind. When, at a future time, the gospel shall fully triumph over the superstitions of the East, her name will be honored throughout Burmah, as it is already honored throughout the Christian and civilized world. A very interesting Memoir of the Life of Mrs. Judson, was published by James D. Knowles, Boston, 1829. N. Y. Mirror, 1834. JUGGERNAUT, or JAGANATH; (i. e. The Lord of the World ;) the most celebrated and sacred temple in Hia. º É| ; s º ; ( 3. i i : 2.3% sº -- a--- > -º º .. - º * Eº sº. 2; --- - - \º-º: dostan, in the district of Cuttack, on the coast of Orissa. It stands near the shore, not far from the Chilka lake, in a waste, Sandy tract, and appears like a huge, shapeless mass of stone. The idol is a carved block of wood, with a hideous face, painted black, and a distended, blood-red mouth. See Sutton's Orissa Mission, Boston, 1833. On festival days the throne of the idol is placed on a tower sixty feet high, moving on wheels, accompanied by two other idols, that likewise sit on their separate thrones. Six long ropes are attached to the tower, by which the people draw it along. The priests and their attendants stand round the throne on the tower, and occasionally turn to the worshippers with indecent and disgusting songs and gestures. The walls of the temple and the sides of the car are also covered with obscene images, in large, durable sculpture. While the tower moves along, numbers of devout worshippers throw themselves on the ground in order to be crushed by the wheels; and the multitude shout in approbation of the act, as a pleasing sacrifice to the idol. In the temple itself, a number of prostitutes are kept for the pilgrims who frequent it, the number of which latter, it is calculated, amounts to at least one million two hundred thousand annually; of whom it is said, nine out of ten die on the road of famine and sickness ; at any rate, it is a well-known fact, that the country for miles round the sacred place is covered with human bones. Not far from the temple is a place called by Europeans Golgotha, where the corpses are thrown, and dogs and vultures are always feeding on the carrion. The whole scene presents one of the most revolting and harrowing spectacles of the cruelties and abominations of idolatry to be met with on the face of the globe : yet, from the con- tributions of the poor deluded pilgrims, the East India J U L J U N I 712 company receive an annual revenue of twelve thousand pounds, deducting the expenses of the temple, repairs of roads, &c. Since 1810, a road has been made to the place from Calcutta, to which a wealthy Hindoo, Rajah Sukmoy Roy, contributed sixteen thousand pounds, on condition of its being called by his name.—Hend. Buck. JULITTA, a martyr of the fourth century, under Dio- eletian, was a Lyconian lady of royal descent, but more celebrated for her Christian virtues than her noble blood. To avoid the bigoted rage of the pagan governor, she withdrew from Iconium, her native city, to Tarsus. But here, with her young son Cyricus, she was seized, and confessing herself a Christian was ordered to the rack. Her beautiful boy for repeating his mother's words, “I am a Christian,” was dashed in pieces on the pavement be- fore her eyes; for which the dying mother gave thanks to God. After patiently suffering various torments, she was beheaded, April 16, A. D. 305.—Fox, p. 55. JULITTA, of Cappadocia; a lady of distinguished ca- pacity, virtue and courage, who having had part of her estate unjustly seized by a pagan, made an appeal to the protection of the laws. This was refused, unless she would sacrifice to idols. On her nobly declaring that she would not, for the sake of her property or life, renounce her God and Savior, she was condemned to be burnt, which sentence was executed, A. D. 305.—Foz, 55. JULIAN, THE Apost ATE ; a Roman emperor, son of Julius Constans, (brother of Constantine the Great,) born at Constantinople in the year 331. With his younger brother Gallus he was intrusted for his education to Euse- bius of Nicomedia, who gave them Mardonius for their tutor. They were brought up in the Christian religion, and compelled to enter the order of priests, which appears to have disgusted Julian, who, at the age of twenty-four, re- paired to Athens, where he enjoyed the instruction of some renowned heathen philosophers, and embraced their reli- glon. * . On his coming to the throne, he sought to restore the pagan worship in all its splendor; opposed the Christians; took from the churches their riches, which were often very great; and after failing in the attempt to induce the Christians, by flattery, to renounce their faith, he did all in his power to make their situation disagreeable, forbid- ding them to plead before a court of justice, or to receive offices under the state. He did not even permit them publicly to profess their religion ; and to falsify the pro- phecy of Christ with regard to the temple at Jerusalem, he encouraged the Jews to rebuild it, about three hundred years after its destruction. In this, however, he was com- pletely foiled, for flames of fire belching forth from sub- terraneous caverns slew many of the workmen, and caused the undertaking to be entirely abandoned. Julian died in 365, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. His last words were, “O Galilean, thou hast conquered ſ” (See GALILEAN.) His character was full of contradictions: while, on the one hand, he was learned, magnanimous, moderate, temperate, and humane, he was, on the other, fickle, inconsistent, eccentric, fanatical and superstitious in the highest degree; and at the bottom of all these fea- tures of his character there appears to have lain a sarcas- tic, sophistic coldness, and dissimulation.— Hend. Buck. JULIANO ; a Spanish Roman Catholic of the seven- teenth century, who on travelling into Germany became a convert to the Protestant faith. His zeal for the diffusion cf the word of God, led him to undertake the dangerous enterprise of conveying into Spain a large quantity of Bibles, concealed in casks, and packed up as Rhenish wine. A pretended Protestant betrayed him. He was seized by the Inquisition, and together with eight hundred purchasers of his precious treasure, was condemned to the torture and to death.—Foz, p. 136. JULIUS CAESAR, the first Roman emperor, had some connexion with Jewish affairs. He was the son of Lu- cius Caesar and Aurelia, daughter of Cotta, and born in the year of Rome 654; ninety-eight years before Jesus Christ. After having passed through the offices of tri- bune, quaestor, aedile, high-priest, and praetor or governor of Spain, he obtained the consulship, in the year of Rome 695, and chose the government of Gaul, which he re- duced into the form of a province, after nine or ten years of government. After the death of his daughter Julia, he went to war with Pompey; but when he entered Italy with his victorious army, he so terrified his enemies, that they fled. Passing into Egypt, Caesar was shut up in Alexandria, with some troops, where he was very much embarrassed, and presséd by the Egyptian army. Anti- pater induced the Jews to declare for Caesar, who obtained a complete victory, and thus became master of Egypt. Caesar always preserved a grateful recollection of the im- portant service which Antipater had rendered him. He confirmed all the privileges of the Jews in Egypt, and caused a pillar to be erected, on which he ordered them all to be engraved, with the decree which confirmed them. In his fifth and last consulship, Caesar permitted Hyrcanus to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, which Pompey had de- molished. He was assassinated, March 15, B. C. 54.— Calmet. - JULIUS; a centurion of the cohort of Augustus, to whom Festus, governor of Judea, committed Paul, to be conveyed to Rome. Julius had great regard for Paul, Acts 27: 1, &c. He suffered him to land at Sidon, and to visit his friends there; and in a subsequent part of the voyage he opposed the violence of the soldiers directed against the prisoners, generally; in order to save the apostle. When he delivered his charge to the custody of the chief captain of the guard, there can be no doubt, but that his favorable report of the apostle contributed essen- tially to the indulgence he afterwards met with, and by which his imprisonment was greatly moderated.— Calmet. JULIUS; a Roman senator of the second century, who becoming a convert to Christianity, was ordered by the emperor to sacrifice to him as Hercules. This Julius ab- Solutely refused to do, at the same time avowing himself a Christian. After a long imprisonment, pursuant to his sentence, he was beat to death with clubs, which he patiently suffered for his Savior's sake.—Foz, p. 22. JUMPERS; persons so called from the practice of jumping during the time allotted for religious worship. This singular practice began, it is said, in the western part of Wales, about the year 1760.-Hend. Buck. JUNIUS, (FRANCIS, S. T. P.) This extraordinary man was born at Bourges, in France, in 1543. Under a kind and learned father he received the rudiments of his edu- cation ; and though feeble in health, gave such striking indications of wisdom as led his mother to remark that he would be a second Socrates. At Lyons, however, where he was sent to complete his education, he found many temp. tations, and at length became a complete and avowed atheist. His father being informed of the state of his mind, sent for him, and with the utmost tenderness re- quested him to read the New Testament with attention. He obeyed, and God appeared ſor him, while reading the first chapter of John. “I was so impressed,” he observes, “with what I read, that I could not but perceive the divi- nity of the subject, and the authority and majesty of the Scriptures, to surpass greatly all human eloquence. I shuddered in my body with horror at myself; my soul was astonished; and I was so strongly affected all that day, that I scarce knew who, or what, or where I was.” From this time he became a Christian indeed, and gave up the study of law for theology. In 1565, he became minister of Antwerp, then at Limbourg, and in 1581, pro- fessor of divinity at Heidelberg. In 1592, he was called to the same office in Leyden, which he filled till his much lamented death, in 1602. Junius, though he suffered much from persecution, was by universal acknowledgment one of the greatest and best of men. His learning and judg- ment, transparent probity, his pacific temper, deep humi- lity, and ardent piety, have rarely been surpassed. His last hours were rich in Christian consolation, drawn from the free grace and faithfulness of God in Christ. His Latin works fill two vols. folio. His Latin Translation of the Old Testament, in which he was aided by Tremellius, is in high esteem.–Middleton, vol. ii. p. 309. - JUNIPER, (Heb. retem.) It is very questionable whether this shrub is mentioned in Scripture, though it is found in our translation, 1 Kings 19:4. Job 30: 3, 4. The Psalmist (120: 4.) mentions the coals of the juniper as affording the fiercest fire of any combustible matter J U s J U S [ 713 J that he found in the desert, and therefore the fittest pu- nishment for a deceitful tongue : “What shall be given unto thee, or what shall be dome unto thee, thou false tongue? Sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals of ju- niper.” That is, the wrath of God, like a keen and barbed arrow from the bow of the mighty, shall pierce the strongest armor, and strike deep into the hardest heart, and, like the fierce and protracted flame of the juniper, shall torment the liar with unutterable anguish. —Abbott. . . JUPITER ; the supreme god of the Roman and Greek mythology, whom the people of Lystra supposed to have descended from heaven in the form, of Barnabas, Acts 14: 12. (See Gods.) . JUST; conformed to the principles of right and equity; acquitted of the charge of guilt, and according to the di- vine law entitled to the rewards of righteousness. This may take place either on legal or evangelical principles. (See Justice of God; and Justification.) - - JUSTICE, consists in an exact and scrupulous regard to the rights of others, with a deliberate purpose to pre- serve them on all occasions sacred and inviolate. It is soften divided into commutative and retributive justice. The former consists in an equal exchange of benefits; the latter in an equal distribution of rewards and punish- ments. Dr. Watts gives the following rules respecting justice.—“1. It is just that we honor, reverence, and re- spect those who are superiors in any kind, Eph. 6: 1, 3. 1 Pet. 2: 17. 1 Tim. 5:17.—2. That we show particular kindness to near relations, Prov. 17: 17-3. That we love those who love us, and show gratitude to those who have done us good, Gal. 4: 15.—4. That we pay the full due to those whom we bargain or deal with, Rom. 13. Deut. 24: 14.—5. That we help our fellow-creatures in cases of great necessity, Exod. 22: 4.—6. Reparation to those whom we have wilfully injured.” Watts' Serm. ser. 24, 26, vol. ii.; Berry Street Lect. Ser. iv.; Grove's Mor. Phil. p. 332, vol. ii.; Wollaston's Relig. of Nature, pp. 137, 141; Jay's Serm. vol. ii. p. 131; Dwight's Theo- logy; Payson's Sermons.—Hend. Buck. JUSTICE, (ADMINISTRATION of .) According to the Mosaic law, there were to be judges in all the cities, whose duty it was likewise to exercise judicial authority in the neighboring villages; but weighty causes and ap- peals went up to the supreme judge or ruler of the com- monwealth, and, in case of a failure here, to the high- priest, Deut. 17: 8, 9. In the time of the monarchy, weighty causes and appeals went up, of course, to the king, who, in very difficult cases, seems to have consulted the high-priest, as is customary at the present day among the Persians and Ottomans. The judicial establishment was reorganized after the captivity, and two classes of judges, the inferior and superior, were appointed, Ezra 7:25. The more difficult cases, nevertheless, and appeals, were either brought before the ruler of the state, called Pahhah, or before the high-priest; until, in the age of the Maccabees, a supreme, judicial tribunal was instituted, which is first mentioned under Hyrcanus II. This tribu- mal is not to be confounded with the Seventy-two coun: sellors, who were appointed to assist Moses in the civil administration of the government, but who never filled. the office of judges. (See SANHEDRIM.) * Josephus states, that in every city there was a tribunal of seven judges, with two Levites as apparitors, and that it was a Mosaic institution. That there existed such an institution in his time, there is no reason to doubt; but he probably erred in referring its origin to so early a pe- riod as the days of Moses. (See JUDGEs.) This tribunal, which decided causes of less moment, is once alluded to by our Lord, by the name of the judgment, Matt. 5: 22. The Talmudists mention a tribunal of twenty-three judg- es, and another of three judges; but Josephus is silent in respect to them. The courts of twenty-three judges were the same with the synagogue tribunals, mentioned in John 16: 2, which merely tried questions of a religious nature, and sentenced to no other punishment than “forty stripes save one,” 2 Cor. 11; 24. . The court of three judges was merely a session of referees, which was al- lowed to the Jews by the Roman laws; for the Talmud- ists themselves, in describing this court, go on to observe, that one judge was chosen by the accuser, another by the accused, and a third by the two parties conjunctly; which shows at once the nature of the tribunal. - The time at which courts were held, and causes were brought before them for trial, was in the morning, Jer. 21: 12. Ps. 101: 8. According to the Talmudists, it was not lawful to try causes of a capital nature in the night; and it was equally unlawful to examine a cause, pass sentence, and put it in execution on the same day. The last particular was very strenuously insisted on. It is worthy of remark, that all of these practices, which were observed in other trials, were neglected in the tumultuous trial of Jesus, Matt. 26: 57. John 18: 13–18. The places for judicial trials were in very ancient times the gates of cities, which were well adapted to this purpose. (See GATEs.) Originally, trials were everywhere very Summary, excepting in Egypt; where the accuser com- mitted the charge to writing, the accused replied in writ- ing, the accuser repeated the charge, and the accused answered again, &c., Job 14: 17. It was customary in Egypt for the judge to have the code of laws placed be- fore him ; a practice which still prevails in the East. Moses interdicted, in the most express and decided man- ner, gifts or bribes, which were intended to corrupt the judges, Exod. 22: 20, 21. 23: 1–9. Lev. 19:15. Ileut. 24: 14, 15. Moses also, by legal precautions, prevented capital punishments, and corporal punishments which were not capital, from being extended, as was done in other nations, both to parents and their children, and thus involving the innocent and the guilty in that misery which was justly due only to the latter, Exod. 23: 7. Deut. 24: 16. Dan. 6: 24. •. The ceremonies which were observed in conducting a judicial trial, were as follows: 1. The accuser and the accused both made their appearance before the judge or judges, (Deut. 25: 1.) who sat with legs crossed upon the floor, which was furnished for their accommodation with carpet and cushions. A secretary was present, at least in more modern times, who wrote down the sentence, and, indeed, every thing in relation to the trial; for instance, the articles of agreement that might be entered into pre- vious to the commencement of the judicial proceedings, Isa. 10: 1, 2. Jer. 32: 1–14. The Jews assert that there were two secretaries, the one being seated to the right of the judge, who wrote the sentence of not guilty, the other to the left, who wrote the sentence of condemnation, Matt. 25: 33–46. That an apparitor or beadle was pre- sent, is apparent from other sources. 2. The accuser was denominated in Hebrew satan, or the adversary, Zech. 3: 1–3. Ps. 109: 6. (See ADVERSARY.) The judge or judges were seated, but both of the parties implicated stood up, the accuser standing to the right hand of the accused: the latter, at least after the captivity, when the cause was one of great consequence, appeared with hair dishevelled, and in a garment of mourning. 3. The wit- nesses were sworn, and, in capital cases, the parties con- cerned, 1 Sam. 14: 37–40. Matt. 26: 63. In order to es- tablish the charges alleged, two witnesses were necessary, and, including the accuser, three. The witnesses were exa- mined separately, but the person accused had the liberty to be present when their testimony was given in, Num. 35:30. Deut. 17: 1–15. Matt. 26: 59. Proofs might be brought from other sources : for instance, from written contracts, or from papers in evidence of any thing pur- chased or sold, of which there were commonly taken two copies, the one to be sealed, the other to be left open, as was customary in the time of Jerome, Jer. 32: 10–13. 4. The parties sometimes, as may be inferred from Prov. 18:18, made use of the lot in determining the points of difficulty between them, but not without a mutual agree- ment. The sacred lot of Urim and Thummim was an- ciently resorted to, in order to detect, the guilty, (Josh. 7: 14–24. 1 Sam. 14.) but the determination of a case of right or wrong in this way was not commanded by Moses. 5. The sentence, very soon after the completion of the examination, was pronounced ; and the criminal, without any delay, even if the offence were a capital one, was hastened away to the place of punishment, Josh. 7:22, &c. 1 Sam. 22: 18, 1 Kings 2: 23. A few additional remarks will cast some light upon _ºf" 90 J U S J U.S [ 714 J &y on our children.” some passages of Scripture. The station of the accused was in an eminent place in the court, that the people ight see them, and hear what was alleged against them, ...; the proofs of it, together with the defence made by the criminals. This explains the reason of the remark by the evangelist Matthew, concerning the posture of our Lord at his trial : “Jesus stood before the governor;” and that, in a mock trial, many ages before the birth of Christ, in which some attention was also paid to public forms, Naboth was set on high among the people, 1 Kings 21; 9. The accusers and the witnesses also stood, unless they were allowed to sit by the indulgence of the judges, when they stated the accusation, or gave their testimony. To this custom of the accusers rising from their seats, when called by the court to read the indictment, our Lord al- ludes in his answer to the scribes and Pharisees, who ex- pressed a wish to see him perform some miracle: “The queen of the South shall rise up in the judgment with this generation, and shall condemn it,” Matt. 12:42. Accord- ing to this rule, which seems to have been invariably ob- served, the Jews who accused the apostle Paul at the bar of Festus the Roman governor, “stood round about,” while they stated the crimes which they had to lay to his charge, Acts 25: 7. They were compelled to stand as well as the prisoner, by the established usage of the courts of justice in the East. The Romans often put criminals to the question, or en- deavored to extort a confession from them by torture. Agreeably to this cruel and unjust custom, “the chief captain commanded Paul to be brought into the castle, and bade that he should be examined by scourging,” Acts 22: 24. It was usual, especially among the Romans, when a man was charged with a capital crime, and during his arraign- ment, to let down his hair, suffer his beard to grow long, to wear filthy, ragged garments, and appear in a very dirty and sordid habit; on account of which they were called sordidati. When the person accused was brought into court to be tried, even his near relations, friends and acquaintances, before the court voted, appeared with dis- hevelled hair, and clothed with garments foul and out of fashion, weeping, crying, and deprecating punishment. The accused sometimes appeared before the judges clothed in black, and his head covered with dust. In allusion to this ancient custom, the prophet Zechariah represents Joshua, the high-priest, when he appeared before the Lord, and Satan stood at his right hand to accuse him, as clothed with filthy garments, Zech. 3: 3. - Aſter the cause was carefully examined, and all parties impartially heard, the public crier, by command of the presiding magistrate, ordered the judges to bring in their verdict. The most ancient way of giving sentence, was by white and black sea-shells, or pebbles. This custom has been mentioned by Ovid in these lines:— Mos erat antiquis, niveis atrisque lapadis His damnare reos, illis absolvere culpa. “It was a custom among the ancients, to give their votes by white or black stones; with these they condemned the guilty, with those acquitted the innocent.” In allusion to this ancient custom, our Lord promises to give the spiri- tual conqueror “a white stone,” (Rev. 2: 17.) the white stone of absolution or approbation. When sentence of condemnation was pronounced, if the case was capital, the witnesses put their hands on the head of the criminal, and said, “Thy blood be upon thine own head.” To this custom the Jews alluded, when they cried out at the trial of Christ, “His blood be on us and Then was the malefactor led to execu- tion, and none were allowed openly to lament his misfor- tune. His hands were secured with cords, and his feet with fetters; a custom which furnished David with an affecting allusion, in his lamentation over the dust of Ab- ner : “Thy hands were not bound, nor thy feet put in fetters;” (2 Sam. 3: 34.) that is, he was put treacherously to death, without form of justice. 2. Executions in the East are often very prompt and arbitrary, when resulting from royal authority. In many cases the suspicion is no sooner entertained, or the cause of offence given, than the fatal order is issued; the mes. men feel in the present state. N senger of death hurries to the unsuspecting victim, shows his warrant, and executes his orders that ifistant in silence and solitude. Instances of this kind are continually oc- curring in the Turkish and Persian histories. silent and hasty executioners the royal preacher seems to refer in that proverb, “The wrath of a king is as mes- sengers of death; but a wise man will pacify it;” (Prov. 16: 14.) his displeasure exposes the unhappy offender to immediate death, and may fill the unsuspecting bosom with terror and dismay, like the appearance of a capidgi, or executioner; but by wise and prudent conduct a man may sometimes escape the danger. From the dreadful promptitude with which Bemaiah executed the commands of Solomon on Adonijah and Joab, it may be concluded that the executioner of the court was as little ceremonious, and the ancient Jews, under their kings, nearly as passive, as the Turks or Persians. The prophet Elisha is the only person on the inspired record who ventured to resist the bloody mandate of the sovereign, 2 Kings 6:32. - Criminals were at other times executed in public ; and then commonly without the city. To such executions without the gate, the Psalmist undoubtedly refers in this complaint : “The dead bodies of thy saints have they given to be meat unto the fowls of the heaven; the flesh of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth; their blood have they shed like water round about Jerusalem, and there was none to bury them,” Ps. 79: 2, 3. The last clause admits of two senses: 1. There was no friend or relation left to bury them. 2. None were allowed to perform this last office. The despotism of Eastern princes often pro- ceeds to a degree of extravagance which is apt to fill the mind with astonishment and horror. It has been thought, from time immemorial, therefore, highly criminal to bury those who had lost their lives by the hand of an execu- tioner, without permission. To such a degree of savage barbarity it is probable the enemies of God’s people car- ried their opposition, that no person dared to bury the dead bodies of their innocent victims. In ancient times, persons of the highest rank and sta- tion were employed to execute the sentence of the law. They had not then, as we have at present, public execu- tioners; but the prince laid his commands on any of his courtiers whom he chose, and probably selected the person for whom he had the greatest favor. Sometimes the chief magistrate executed the sentence of the law with his own hands; for when Jether shrunk from the duty which his father required, Gideon, at that time the su- preme magistrate in Israel, did not hesitate to do it him- Self. In these times such a command would be reckoned equally barbarous and unbecoming; but the ideas which were entertained in those primitive ages of honor and propriety, were in many respects extremely different from OUll’S. his son Telemachus to put to death the suitors of Pene- lope, which was immediately done. The custom of em- ploying persons of high rank to execute the sentence of the law, is still retained in the principality of Senaar, where the public executioner is one of the principal nobi. lity; and, by virtue of his office, resides in the royal pa- lace.—Watson. : JUSTICE OF GOD, is that perfection whereby he is infinitely righteous and just, in his principles and in all his proceedings with his creatures. Mr. Ryland defines it thus: “The ardent inclination of his will to prescribe equal laws as the Supreme governor, and to dispense equal rewards and punishments as the supreme judge,” Rev. 16: 5. Ps. 145: 7. 97: 1, 2. It is distinguished into remunerative and punitive justice. Remunerative jus- tice is a distribution of rewards, the rule of which is not the merit of the creature, but his own gracious promise, Jam. 1: 12. 2 Tim. 4: 8. Punitive or vindictive justice, is the infliction of punishment for any sin committed by men, 2. Thes, 1:6. That God will not let sin go unpu. nished is evident, 1. From the word of God, Exod. 34: 6, 7. Num. 14: 18. Neh. 1: 3.−2. From the character of God, Isa. 1: 13, 14. Ps. 5: 5, 6. Heb. 12:29.—3. From sin being punished in Christ, the surety of his people, 1 Pet. 3: 18.—4. From all the various natural evils which The use we should make of this doctrine is this :–1. We should learn the dreadful To such In Homer, the exasperated Ulysses commanded * J U S J U S [ 715 J nature of sin, and the inevitable ruin of impenitent sin- ners, Ps. 9: 17-2. We should highly appreciate the Lord Jesus Christ, in whom justice is satisfied, 1 Pet. 3: 18.—3. We should imitate the justice of God, by cherishing an ardent regard to the rights of God and to the rights of mankind.—4. We should abhor all sin, as it strikes directly at the justice of God.—5. We should derive comfort from the consideration that the judge of all the earth will do right, as it regards ourselves, the church, and the world at large, Ps. 97: 1, 2. Ryland's Contemp, vol. ii. p. 439; Witsius' CEco- nomy, lib. xi. chap. 8. § 11; Dr. Onven on the Justice of God; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. i. p. 155, 8vo. ; Elisha Cole on the Righteousness of God ; Maclaurin's Sermons; Dnight's Theology; Fuller's Works.—Hend. Buck. JUSTIFICATION ; a forensic term, which signifies the declaring or the.."; a person righteous according to law. It stands opposed to condemnation; and this is the idea of the word whenever it is used in an evangeli- cal sense, Rom. 5: 18. Deut. 25: 1. Prov. 17: 15. Matt. 12:37. It does not signify to make men holy, but the holding and declaring them to be free from punishment. It has been , defined, “An act of God’s free grace, in which he pardoneth all our sins, and accepteth us as righteous in his sight only for the righteousness of Christ imputed to us, and received by faith alone.” The doctrine of justification was styled by Luther, the article of a standing or falling church. It is a capi- tal article of that faith which was once delivered to the saints. Far from being a merely speculative point, it spreads its vital inſluence through the whole body of theo- logy, runs through all Christian experience, and operates in every part of practical godliness. Such is its grand importance, that a mistake about it has a malignant effi- cacy, and is attended with a long train of dangerous con- sequences. Nor can this appear strange, when it is con- sidered, that the doctrine of justification is no other than the way of a sinner's acceptance with God. Being of such peculiar moment, it is inseparably connected with many other evangelical truths, the harmony and beauty of which we cannot behold while this is misunderstood. It is, iſ any thing may be so called, an essential and ſundamental truth of Christianity; and as our very salvation depends on it through eternity, it deserves and demands our most serious consideration. (See AccEPTANCE witH God.) Justification, in a theological sense, is either legal or evangelical. If any person could be found that had never broken the divine law, he might be justified by it in a manner strictly legal. But in this way none of the human race can be justified, or stand acquitted before God. For all have sinned ; there is none righteous; no, not one, JRom. 3. As sinners, they are under the sentence of death by his righteous law, and excluded from all hope and mercy. That justification, therefore, about which the Scriptures principally treat, and which reaches the case of a sinner, is not by a personal, but an imputed right- eousness; a righteousness without the law, (Rom. 3: 21.) provided by grace and revealed in the gospel; for which reason, that obedience by which a sinner is justified, and his justification itself, are called evangelical. In this affair there is the most wonderful display of divine justice and boundless grace. Of divine justice, if we regard the meritorious cause and ground on which the Justifier pro- ceeds in absolving the condemned sinner, and in pro- nouncing him righteous. Of boundless grace, if we con- sider the state and character of those persons to whom the , blessing is granted. Justification may be further distin- guished as being either at the bar of God, and in the court of conscience ; or in the sight of the world, and be- fore our fellow-creatures. The former is by mere grace through faith; and the latter is by works. To justify, is evidently a divine prerogative. It is God that justifieth, Rom. 8:33. That sovereign Being, against whom we have so greatly offended, whose law we have broken by ten thousand acts of rebellion against him, has, in the way of his own appointment, the sole right of acquitting the guilty, and of pronouncing them righteous. He appoints the way, provides the means, and imputes the righteousness; and all in perfect agree- ment with the demands of his offended law, and the rights *. * of his violated justice. But although this act is in some places of the infallible word more particularly appropriated personally to the Father, yet it is manifest that all the Three Persons are concerned in this grand affair, and each performs a distinct part in this particular, as also in the whole economy of salvation. The eternal Father is represented as appointing the way, and as giving his own Son to perform the conditions of our acceptance before him; (Rom. 8: 32.) the divine Son as engaged to sustain the curse and make the atonement; to fulfil the terms, and provide the righteousness by which we are justified; (Tit. 2: 14.) and the Holy Spirit as revealing to sinners the perfection, suitableness, and freeness of the Savior's work, enabling them to receive it as exhibited in the gos- pel of sovereign grace; and testifying to their consciences complete justification by it in the court of heaven, John 16: 8, 14. As to the objects of justification, the Scripture says, they are sinners, and ungodly. For thus runs the divine declaration : To him that worketh is the reward (of justi- fication, and of eternal life as connected with it,) not reck- oned of grace, but of debt. But to him that worketh not, but believeth on Him that justifieth—whom 2 the right- eous 2 the holy 2 the eminently pious? nay, verily, but the ungodly ; his faith, or that in which he believes, is counted unto him for righteousness, Rom. 4: 4, 5. Gal. 2: 17. Here, then, we learn, that the subjects of justifica- tion, considered in themselves, are not only destitute of a perſect righteousness, but have performed no good works at all. They are denominated and considered as the un- godly, when the blessing is bestowed upon them. Not that we are to understand that such remain ungodly. “All,” says Dr. Owen, “that are justified, were before ungodly: but all that are justified, are at the same instant made godly.” That the mere sinner, however, is the subject of justification appears from hence. The Spirit of God, speaking in the Scripture, repeatedly declares that we are justified by grace. But grace stands in direct opposition to works. Whoever, therefore, is justified by grace is considered as absolutely unworthy in that very instant when the blessing is vouchsafed to him, Rom. 3: 24. The person, therefore, that is justified, is accepted without any cause in himself. Hence it appears, that if we regard the persons who are justified, and their state prior to the enjoyment of the immensely glorious privilege, divine grace appears, and reigns in all its glory. As to the way and manner in which sinners are justi- fied, it may be observed that the Divine Being can acquit none without a complete righteousness. Justification, as before observed, is evidently a ſorensic term, and the thing intended by it a judicial act. So that, were a person to be justified without a righteousness, the judgment would not be according to truth; it would be a false and unright- eous sentence. That righteousness by which we are justified must be equal to the demands of that law accord- ing to which the Sovereign Judge proceeds in our justifi- cation. Many persons talk of conditions of justification; (see article CoNDITION ;) but the only condition is that of perfect righteousness : this the law requires, nor does the gospel substitute another. But where shall we find, or how shall we obtain a justifying righteousness 2 Shall we flee to the law for relief? Shall we apply with diligence and zeal to the performance of duty, in order to attain the desired end? The apostle positively affirms, that there is no acceptance with God by the works of the law; and the reasons are evident. Our righteousness is imperfect, and consequently cannot justify. If justification were by the works of men, it could not be by grace : it would not be a righteousness without works; there would be no need of the righteousness of Christ. And, lastly, if justification were by the law, then boasting would be encouraged; whereas God's design, in the whole scheme of salvation, is to exclude it, Rom. 3: 27. Eph. 2:8,9. Nor is faith itself our righteousness, or that for the sake of which we are justified; for, though believers are said to be justified by faith, yet not for faith; faith can only be considered as the instrument, and not the cause. That faith is not our righteousness, is evident from the following considera- tion: No man's faith is perfect; and, iſ it were, it would not be equal to the demands of the divine law. It could J U S J U S [ 716 j not, therefore, without an error in judgment, be accounted a complete righteousness. But the judgment of God, as before proved, is according to truth, and according to the rights of the law. That obedience by which a sinner is justified is called the righteousness of faith, righteousness by faith, and is represented as revealed to faith; conse- quently it cannot be faith itself. Faith, in the business of justification, stands opposed to all works; “to him that worketh not, but believeth.” Now, if it were our justifying righteousness, to consider it in such a light would be highly improper. For in such a connexion it falls under the consideration of a work; a condition, on the perform- ance of which our acceptance with God is manifestly SuS- pended. If faith itself be that on account of which we are accepted, then some believers are justified by a more, and some by a less perfect righteousness, in exact proportion to the strength or weakness of their faith. That which is the end of the law is our righteousness, which certainly is not faith, but the obedience of our exalted Substitute, Rom. 10:4. Were faith itself our justifying righteous- mess, we might depend upon it before God, and rejoice in 1t. So that according to this hypothesis not Christ, but faith is the capital thing; the object to which we must look; which is absurd. When the apostle says, “faith was imputed to him for righteousness,” his main design was to prove that the eternal Sovereign justifies freely, without any meritorious cause in the believer. Nor is man’s obedience to the gospel, as to a new and milder law, the matter of his justification before God. It was a notion that some years ago obtained, that a relaxa- tion of the law, and the severities of it, has been obtained by Christ; and a new law, a remedial law, a law of milder terms, has been introduced by him, which is the gospel; the terms of which are faith, repentance, and obedience; and though these are imperfect, yet, being sin- cere, they are accepted of by God in the room of a perfect righteousness. But every part of this scheme is wrong, for the law is not relaxed, nor any of its severities abated; there is no alteration made in it, either with respect to its precepts or penalty : besides the scheme is absurd, for it supposes that the law which a man is now under requires only an imperfect obedience; but an imperfect righteous- ness cannot answer its demands ; for every law re- quires perfect obedience to its own precepts and prohibi- tions, Nor is a profession of religion, nor sincerity, nor good works, at all the ground of our acceptance with God, for all our righteousness is imperfect, and must therefore be entirely excluded. By grace, Saith the apostle, ye are saved, not of works, lest any man should boast, Eph. 2: 8, 9. Besides, the works of sanctification and justifica- tion are two distinct things: the one is a work of grace within men; the other an act of grace for or towards men ; the one is imperfect, the other complete; the one carried on gradually, the other done at once. (See SANCTIFICATION.) If, then, we cannot possibly be justified by any of our own performances, nor by faith itself, nor even by the graces of the Holy Spirit, where then shall we find a righteousness by which we can be justified ? The Scrip- ture furnishes us with an answer—“By Jesus Christ all that believe are justified from all things from which they could not be justified by the law of Moses,” Acts 13: 38, 39. “He was delivered for our offences, and raised again for our justification,” Rom. 4; 25. “Being justi- fied by his blood, we shall be saved from wrath through him,” Rom. 5: 9. The spotless obedience, therefore, the bitter sufferings, and the accursed death of our heavenly Surety, constitute that very righteousness by which sin- ners are justified before God. That this righteousness is imputed to us, and that we are not justified by a personal righteousness, appears from the Scriptures with superior evidence. “By the obedience of one shall many be made righteous,” Rom. 5: 19. “He hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin, that we might be made the right- eousness of God in him,” 2 Cor. 5: 21. “And be found in him, not having mine own righteousness, which is of the law, but that which is through the faith of Christ; the righteousness which is of God by faith,” Phil. 3: 9. See also Jer, 23; 6. Dan, 9: 24, and the whole of chaps, 2 and * 3 of Galatians. EousNESs.) As to the properties of justification : 1. It is an act of God’s free grace, without any merit whatever in the crea- ture, Rom. 3: 24.—2. It is an act of justice as well as grace : the law being perfectly fulfilled in Christ, and di- vine justice satisfied, Rom. 3: 26. Ps, 85: 10,–3. It is an individual and instantaneous act, done at once, admit- ting of no degrees, John 19:30.-4. It is an irreversible, and unalterable act, Mal. 3: 6. Rom. 5: 17. 8:30. As to the time of justification, divines are not agreed. Some have distinguished it into decretive, virtual, and actual. 1. Decretive, is God’s eternal purpose to justify sinners in time by Jesus Christ. 2. Virtual justification has a reſerence to the satisfaction made by Christ. 3. Actual, is when we are enabled to believe in Christ, and by faith are united to him. Others say that it is eternal, because his purpose respecting it was from everlasting: and that, as the Almighty viewed his people in Christ, they were, of consequence, justified in his sight. But the principle on which the advocates for this doctrine have proceeded is most absurd. They have confounded the design with the execution; for if this distinction be not kept up, the utmost perplexity will follow the consideration of every subject which relates to the decrees of God; nor shall we be able to form any clear ideas of his moral go- vernment whatever. To say, as one does, that the eter- mal will of God to justify men is the justification of them, is not to the purpose; for, upon the same ground, we might as well say that the eternal will of God to convert and gloriſy his people is the real conversion and glorification of them. That it was eternally determined that there should be a people who should believe in Christ, and that his righteousness should be imputed to them, is not to be disputed ; but to say that these things were really done from etermity, (which we must say, if we believe eternal justification,) this would be absurd, . It is more consistent to believe, that God from eternity laid the plan of justifi- cation; that this plan was executed by the liſe and death of Christ; and that the blessing is only manifested, re- ceived, and enjoyed, when we are regenerated; so that no man can say, or has any reason to conclude, he is justi- fied, until he believes in Christ, Rom. 5: 1. 8: 1. The effects or blessings of justification, are, 1. An en- tire freedom from all penal evils in this life, and that which is to come, 1 Cor. 3: 22–2. Peace with God, Rom. 5: 1-3. Access to God, through Christ, Eph. 3:12.-4. Acceptance with God, Eph. 5: 27-5. Holy confidence and security under all the difficulties and troubles of the present state, 2 Tim. 1: 1, 12.-6. Finally, eternal salva- tion, Rom. 8:30. 5: 18. Thus, we have given as comprehensive a view of the doctrine of justification as the nature of this work will admit; a doctrine which is founded upon the sacred Scrip- tures, and which so far from leading to licentiousness, as Some suppose, is of all others the most replete with mo- tives to love, dependence, and obedience, Rom. 6: 1, 2. A doctrine which the primitive Christians held as consti- tuting the very essence of their system ; which the re- formers considered as the most important point; which the venerable martyrs gloried in, and sealed with their blood; and which, as the church of England observes, is a “very wholesome doctrine, and full of comfort.” See Booth's Reign of Grace ; Luther on Galatians ; Dr. Onven on Justification ; Ramlinson on Justification ; Pres. Edwards' Sermons on ditto. ; Lime Street Lectures, p. 350; Hervey's Theron and Aspasio, and Eleven Letters; Witherspoon's Connexion betnveen Justification and Holiness; Gill and Ridg- ley's Div.; Divight's Theology; Works of Robert Hall; Chalmer's Works; but especially the Complete Works of Andrew Fuller.—Hend. Buck. JUSTIN, surnamed the MARTYR, one of the fathers of the church, was born at Neapolis, anciently Sichem, in Palestine ; and was a philosopher of the Platonic school. He is believed to have preached the gospel in Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt. He was beheaded at Rome, in 165. Of his works the principal are, two Apologies for the Christians.—Davenport ; Spirit of the Pilgrims. JUSTINIAN I., emperor of the East, was born, in 483, of an obscure family, at Tauresium, in Dardania, on (See articles REconcILIATION ; Righr- K. A. N K E A (.717 the Illyrian and Thracian frontier; was associated in the government of the empire by his uncle Justin ; and, on the déath of that monarch, succeeded to the sole autho- rity. Personally, Justinian was a bigot, and a man of a weak mind; yet, in some points of view, his reign was a glorious one. He died in 565.-Davenport. K. KAABA; originally a temple at Mecca, in great es- teem among the heathen Arabs, who, before they em- braced Mohammedanism, called a small building of stone in the same temple kaaba, which has in its turn become an object of the highest reverence with the Mohammedans. They say it was built by Abraham and Ishmael. On the side of it is a black stone, surrounded with silver, called braktan, set in the wall, about four feet from the ground. This stone has served, since the second year of the He- gira, as the kibla, or point towards which the Mohamme. dan turns his face during prayer. The hadjis or pilgrims touch and kiss this stone seven times, after which they enter the kaaba, and offer up their prayers. At first the Mohammedans turned their face towards Jerusalem, until their leader ordered the present direction. It appears from Burckhardt, that this same holy kaaba is the scene of such indecencies as cannot with propriety be particu- larized: indecencies which are practised not only with impunity, but publicly and without a blush-Hend. Buck. RADESH, (holy or holiness ;) the name of a wilderness, (Gen. 20: 1. Num. 20: 22.) which appears to be the same as that called the wilderness of Paran in Num. 13:26, and in chap. 33: 36, the desert of Tzin. Simon thinks that Kadesh implies a sacred place, or asylum ; and he refers it to two cities: (1.) In the desert of Paran, (Num. 13: 26.) which he thinks is the same as Kadesh-Barnea, Num, 34: 4. Deut. 1: 2, 19. 2: 14. Judith 5: 14. (2.) A place on the confines of Edom, (Num. 20: 16.) in the de- sert of Tzin, Num. 27: 14, 33: 36. Kadesh-Barnea was eight leagues south from Hebron.—Calmet. KADESH-BARNEA. (See KADESH.) - KADMONITES; (Gen. 15: 19.) a tribe of people who inhabited the promised land east of the Jordan, about mount Hermon. They were descended from Canaan, the son of Ham. Cadmus, the ſounder of Thebes in Boeotia, has been conjectured to have been originally a Kadmon- ite, and his wife Hermione to have been so named from mount Hermon. The Kadmonites, says Calmet, were Hivites; the word Hivites is derived from a root which signifies a serpent ; and fable says, that Cadmus sowed serpent's teeth, from which sprung up armed men; be- cause he settled at Thebes his Hivites, or Kadmonites, who were valiant and martial.—Calmet. KANAH; a brook on the borders of Ephraim and Ma- masseh, (Josh. 16:8. 17: 9.) which falls into the Mediter- ranean a few miles South of Cesarea.—Calmet. KANT, (IMMANUEL,) a celebrated metaphysician, and founder of a new sect, was born, in 1724, at Konigsberg, in Prussia, and was the son of a saddler. He was edu- cated at the Frederician college, on leaving which he be- came a private tutor. At a later period he gave lectures on mathematics. He commenced as an author in his twenty-third year; but it was not till 1781, that he began to publish the works which have excited so much admira- tion and controversy, especially in Germany. In that year, he published his Critique of pure Reason, which contains his system of philosophy, commonly called the critical philosophy. A second part of it, published in 1783, bore the title of Prolegomena for future Metaphysics. The principles contained in them he had, however, long been promulgating from the chair of logic and metaphysics at Konigsberg, to which he was appointed in 1770. In 1786 and 1788, he was chosen rector of the university. He died in 1804, having ſor some years been in a state of gradual decay. Kamt was a man of talent, an acute thinker, but more fond of abstraction, than of experiment. His fame is consequently on the decline, and must sink lower as the inductive philosophy of Bacon advances in the study of the mind. His religious system is little better than deism in disguise. Robinson's Bibl. Repos. for 1831.—Davenport. KARAITES, (Heb. Karaim ;) i. e. Scripturists, a Jew. ish sect residing chiefly in Poland and the Crimea, but to be found also in different parts of Lithuania, Austria, the Caucasus, Turkey, Egypt, Abyssinia, India, and the Holy Land. They principally differ from the Rabbinists in their rejection of the oral law, and their rigid appeal to the text of Scripture as the exclusive source and test of religious truth. It is on this account that they are calloa Scripturists. Not that they never consult the Talmud, but they will not allow that it has any binding authority over their consciences. They also differ from them in the interpretation of Scripture itself. While the Talmudist chiefly applies the cabalistical art to bring out recondite and mysterious meanings from the Sacred text, the Ka raite maintains that the Scripture is its own interpreter, and that the sense of a passage is to be determined by the grammatical meaning of the words, the scope and connexion, and a comparison of parallel passages. They are very strict in their adherence to the letter of the law, are ſree from many of the Superstitions common among the Jews in general, correct and exemplary in their do. mestic habits and arrangements, and characterized in their dealings by probity and integrity. They are scarcely ever known to be embroiled in a lawsuit, or to become the subject of legal prosecution. This sect claims a very high antiquity, and seems ori- ginally to have been the same with that of the Sadducees, from whom, however, it is supposed they separated when the latter adopted the errors by which they were distin- guished in the time of our Lord. They were afterwards reformed by rabbi Anan, about the middle of the eighth century. According to accounts current among them, the first place where a Karaite synagogue was established after the destruction of Jerusalem was Grand Cairo, where they exist to this day. The number of the Karaites is not great, probably not much above eight thousand. Those in the south of Russia possess a translation of the Hebrew Bible in the Tartar language, which is vernacular among them.—Hend. Buck. KATTATH ; the limit of the tribe of Zebulun, Josh. 19:15; in Judg. 1:30. called Kithron, which is the same in sense.—Calmet. KEDAR ; a region in the desert of the Agarenes, Gen. 25: 13. 1 Chron. 1: 29.—2. A city, as some think, called by Josephus, Camala, Isa. 42: 11. 60: 7. Ezek. 27: 21. Ps. 120: 5. Jer. 2: 10: 49: 28.—3. A son of Ishmael, (Gen. 25: 13.) the father of the Kedarenians, mentioned by Pliny, who dwelt in the neighborhood of the Nabathae- ans, in Arabia Deserta. These pº living in tents, it is not possible to show the place of their habitation, because they often changed it. Arabia. Deserta is sometimes called Kedar; but the Kedarenians dwelt principally in the south of Arabia. Deserta, or in the north of Arabia Petraea: there were some as far as the Red sea, Cant. 1: 5. Isa. 42: 11.—Calmet. KEDRON. (See CedroN.) KEACH, (BENJAMIN,) the famous author of the “Scripture Metaphors,” the “Travels of True Godli- ness,” &c. was a Baptist minister of Winslow, Bucks, Eng. in the latter part of the seventeenth century. Being a bold and zealous preacher during the reign of Charles II, he was frequently seized and committed to prison, where he was sometimes bound, but often released by bail. On one occasion four dragoons determined to trample him to death with their horses. They had already bound him, and laid him on the ground, and were just putting spurs to their horses to accomplish their horrid design, when an officer rode up, and interposed his authority. In 1664, he was prosecuted before lord Clarendon, the great patron of persecuting power, and sentenced to the pillory for pub- K. E. M. K. E. N [ 718 lishing a work entitled The Child's Instructer, or a New and Easy Primer. While in the pillory he said, “Good people, I am not ashamed to stand here this day with this paper on my head. My Lord Jesus was not ashamed to suffer on the cross for me, and it is for his cause that I am made a gazingstock. You that are acquainted with the Scrip- tures know the way to the crown is by the cross. The cause for which I stand here, will plead its own innocency, when the strongest of its opposers shall be ashamed. I do sincerely desire that the Lord would convert them, and convince them of their errors, that their souls may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus.” He added, “This is one yoke of Christ's which I experience is easy to me, and a burden which he doth make light. Oh, did you but experience the great love of God, and the excellences that are in him, it would make you willing to go through any sufferings for his sake. I do account this the great- est honor that ever the Lord was pleased to conſer on me.” Mr. Keach was the author of eighteen practical, sixteen polemical, and nine poetical works, in all forty-three ; besides a number of prefaces and recommendations for the works of others.-Benedict, i. 215; Ivimey, i. 338. KEEP. To keep God's word, statutes, or laws, is to believe them firmly as indeed the word of God; to love, esteem, and delight in them ; and diligently endeavor to have our whole life exactly conformed thereto, Ps. 119: 17, 34, God keeps covenant and mercy: according to the tenor of his covenant, he is ever ready to forgive his peo- ple's sins, and to grant free favors to them, 1 Kings 8:23. He keeps the door of men's lips, in preserving them from vain, imprudent and sinſul words, Ps. 141: 3. Ministers are keepers of the vineyard; they watch over and labor in the church, and preserve the truths, ordinances, and mem- bers thereof from spiritual injuries, Sol. Song 8: 11. The Saints are made slavish keepers of the vineyard to the neg- lect of their own, when, by administering public offices, intermeddling too much with carnal business, or by op- pression from the impositions of men, they are made to neglect the due management of their own hearts and lives, Sol. Song 1: 6. To keep the heart with all diligence, is watchfully to observe its inclinations and motions, that it comply with no temptation, no appearance of evil; and earnestly to study that its whole temper, thoughts, and the words and works proceeding therefrom, correspond with the unerring law of God, Prov. 4; 23.— Brown. KEHELATHAH; an encampment of Israel in the wilderness, Numb. 33:22. As it appears to denote “the place of assembly,” some have thought the gathering and revolt of IGorah, Dathan, and Abiram happened here. It is probably the same as Keilah, a town in the south of Ju- dah-Calmet. KEILAH; a town of Judah, (Josh. 15:44.) which Eusebius places seventeen miles from Eleutheropolis, on the side of Hebron; and Jerome eight miles from the late city. It is said that the prophet Habakkuk’s tomb was shown there.—Calmet. KEITHIANS ; a party which separated from the Qua- kers in Pennsylvania in the year 1691. They were head- ed by the famous George Keith, from whom they derived their name. Those who persisted in their separation, after their leader deserted them, adopted Baptist views, º immersion, and received the Lord's supper. his party were also called Quaker Baptists, because they retained the language, dress, and manner of the Qua- kers. See Benedict's History of the Baptists.—Hend. Buck. KEMPIS, (Thomas A) whose real name was Ham- merlein, was born, in 1388, at I(empen, in the diocese of Cologn, and died, in 1471, superior of the monastery of mount Agnes, at Zwoll. He was born of poor, but pious parents, who early devoted him to the church. His cha- racter was distinguished for apostolic simplicity and purity. Much of his time was spent in transcribing the Bible, and other works, which he performed in a very beautiful manner. His original works are all in Latin, and consist of sermons, hymns, prayers, lives and ascetic treatises. The treatise on the Imitation of Christ is his masterpiece, and has gone through more than a thousand editions. It has been said, perhaps without solid ground, that it was written by Gerson.—Davenport ; Ency. Ami. KEMUEL; the third son of Nahor. Kemuel may have given name to the ICamilites, a people of Syria, lying west of the Euphrates.—Calmet. - ICEN, (THOMAS, D.D.,) a pious prelate and poet, was born in 1637, at Berkhamstead; was educated at Winchester, and at New college, oxford; was made bishop of Bath and Wells by Charles II, ; was one of the seven bishops who were tried for petitioning James II. ; declined taking the oaths to William III., for which he was deprived of his See ; was pensioned by queen Anne; and died in 1711. His Sermons, Poems, and other works, were published in four volumes 8vo. Bp. Ken was a learned and excellent man, immovable in what he deemed to be right, but of a pacific temper, and generally honored and beloved. Seve- ral of his hymns are very fine.—Davenport. ICENI; a region of the Philistine country, 1 Sam. 27: 10. Judg. 1: 16. “The children of the ICenite,” should be, according to the LXX, “ of Jethro the ICenite.”—Cal- 77/6t. - KENITES; a people who dwelt west of the Dead sea, and extended themselves far into, Arabia Petraea. Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite, and out of regard to him all of this tribe who submitted to the Hebrews, were suffered to live in their own country. The rest fled, in all probability, to the Edomites and Amalekites. See 1 Sam. 15: 6. The lands of the ICenites were in Judah’s lot, Num. 24; 21. They were carried into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar.—Calmet. ICENIZZITES ; an ancient people of Canaan, whose land God promised to the descendants of Abraham, (Gen. 15: 19.) and who dwelt, it is thought, in Idumea. Kenaz, Son of Eliphaz, probably took his name ſrom the IXeniz- zites, among whom he settled.—Calmet. t ICENNICOTT, (BENJAMIN, D. D.,) well known in the literary world for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew Bible, and other publications, was born at Totnes, in Devonshire, A. D. 1718. His early display of talents recommended him to some gentlemen, who sent him to Oxford, and there supported him while he went through his academical studies. He had not been long at Oxford before he distinguished himself by the publication of two dissertations, one on the Tree of Life, the other on the Oblations of Cain and Abel, on account of which the de- gree of bachelor of arts was conſerred upon him gratis a year before the statutable time. He soon after acquired additional fame by the publication of several occasional sermons, which were well received. In the year 1753, he laid the foundation of his great work, and spent a long time in searching out and examining Hebrew manuscripts, with a view to the elucidation of his subjects. He appeal- ed to the Jews themselves regarding the state of the He- brew text, and gave a compendious history of it ſrom the close of the Hebrew canon to the time of the invention of printing, with an account of one hundred and three Ho- brew manuscripts. In 1760 he published his proposals for collecting all the Hebrew MSS. prior to the invention of the art of printing, that could be found in Great Britain; and, at the same time, for procuring as many collections of foreign MSS. as his time and money would permit. The utility of the proposed collation being very gene- rally admitted, a subscription was made to defray the expense of it, amounting to nearly ten thousand pounds. Various persons were employed, both at home and abroad ; but of the foreign literati the principal was pro- ſessor Bruns, of the university of Helmstadt, who not only collated Hebrew MSS. in Germany, but went for that purpose into Switzerland and Italy. In consequence of these efforts, more than six hundred IJebrew MSS., and sia:técn MSS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch were discovered in different libraries in England, and on the continent; many of which were wholly collated, and others consulted in important passages. During the progress of his work he was rewarded with the canonry of Christ church. His first volume was published in 1776, and the whole was completed in 1780, at Oxford, in two vols, folio, entitled “Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum, cum Variis Lectionibus.” The text of Van der Hooght was adopted; but it was printed without the points. The poetical portions are divided into stanzas, according to the nature of the poctry; and the various readings are printed at the hottom of the page. K. E. T. K I D [ 719 J When we contemplate his diligence and learning, it must be confessed that Hebrew literature and sacred criti- cism are more indebted to him than to any scholar of the age in which he lived. He was a good and conscientious man; and, in the decline of life, resigned a valuable liv- ing, because he was unable to discharge the duties which it imposed upon him. He died at Oxford, in 1783, and, at the time of his death, was employed in printing remarks on sundry passages of the Old Testament, which were after- wards published from his papers. Dr. Kennicott was also keeper of the Radcliffe library, and maintained a corre- spondence for several years with some of the most emi- nent literary men in Europe, particularly the celebrated rofessor Michaelis, to whom he addressed a Latin epistle, in 1777, in defence of his great work. Watts' Bib. Brit. ; Jones's Christ. Biog. ; and Bp. Marsh's Lect., lect. 11; Ency. Amer.—Hend. Buck. - KERCHIEFS, an article of dress used by the false prophetesses, are thought to have been headtires, or veils bound to the head, so as to cover most, if not all of the face. “They make kerchiefs on the head of every statue to hunt souls;” they put them on the head of the idolatrous statues; or they put them on the head of those they spoke to, as iſ a divine token of their protection ; or it may mean that they blindfolded people with their delusive speeches, Ezek. 13: 18.-Brown. - KETT, (HENRy,) a divine and scholar, was born, in 1761, at Norwich; was educated at Trinity college, Ox- ford; became perpetual curate of Hykeham, in Lincoln- shire; and was drowned, in 1825, while bathing. He wrote Juvenile Poems; History the Interpreter of Prophe- cy; a Tour to the Lakes; Emily, a moral tale; and ſlogic made easy; edited the Flowers of Wit, and Head- ley's Beauties; and contributed to the Olla Podrida.-- Davenport. KETTLEWELL, (John,) a divine of the church of England, distinguished by his piety and learning, was born at North Allerton, in Yorkshire, on the 10th of March, 1653, and educated at Oxford, where he became eminent as a tutor. While a youth he wrote his celebrated book, entitled “Measures of Christian Obedience,” which occa- sioned him to be much moticed. Lord Digby presented him, July, 1682, to the vicarage of Coleshill, in Warwick- shire. When he had been about seven years at this place, a great change for the worse took place in his circum- stances; for soon after the revolution, he was deprived of his living, in consequence of his refusing to take the oaths of supremacy to king William and queen Mary. He now came to London, and occupied himself in literary pursuits. He had the happiness to become acquainted with Mr. Nel- son, whose friendship was valuable to him, and with whom he concerted the “Model of a fund of charity for the necdy, suffering, that is, the non-juring Clergy.” He was naturally of a delicate constitution, and inclined to con- Sumption, of which he died at the age of forty-two, on the 12th of April, 1695. Mr. Nelson, who must have known him well, gives the following great and noble character of him, in a preface to his “Five Discourses,” a volume printed after his death: “He was learned without pride; wise and judicious without cunning; he served at the altar without either covetousness or ambition; he was devout without affectation; sincerely religious without moroseness; courteous and affable with- out flattery or mean compliances; just without rigor ; charitable without vanity; and heartily zealous for the interest of religion without faction.” His works were Collected and printed in 1718, in two volumes folio.—Jones' Chris. Biog. ICETURAH ; the name of Abraham's second wife. (See ABRAHAM.) It seems evident from the whole tenor of the history, that Abraham was childless until the birth of Ish- mael, (Gen. 15: 2, 3.) that he had no otherson than Ishmael when he received the promise of Isaac, (Gen. 17: 18.) and that Isaac and Ishmael jointly, as his eldest sons, celebrat- ed his funeral, Gen. 25: 9. His second marriage, at the age of one hundred and forty years, shows his faith in the divine promise, that he should be “a father of many na- tions;” for which purpose his constitution might be mira- culously renewed as Sarah's was. Besides, Abraham himself was born when his father Terah was one hundred and thirty years of age. Abraham settled the sons of Keturah in the east country of Arabia, near the residence of Ishmael.—Watson. . ICEY; the grand instrument and symbol of complete authority. “And the key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder: so he shall open, and none shall shut ; and he shall shut, and none shall open,” Isa. 22: 22. The keys of the ancients were very different from ours; because their doors and trunks were closed generally with bands, and the key served only to loosen or fasten these bands in a certain manner. - - The rabbins say, that God has reserved to himself four keys; the key of rain, the key of the grave, the key of fruitſulness, and the key of barrenness. Christ reproaches the scribes and Pharisees with having taken away the key of knowledge; (Luke 11: 52.) that is, with putting such false glosses on the Scriptures, that they read them without advantage to themselves, and without discovering to others the truth; which in this way they suppressed in unright- eousness, Rom. 1: 18. Christ promised to Peter, that he should first open the gate of his kingdom, both to Jew and Gentile, in making the first converts among them, Matt. 16: 19. It is obser- vable that no supremacy is here given to Peter; as the pow- er of binding and loosing belonged equally to all the apos- tles, Matt. 18: 18. The term binding and loosing was customarily applied by the Jews to a decision respecting doctrines or rites, establishing which were lawful and which unlawful. (See BIND.) And it may also denote, to bind with sickness, and to loose by restoring to health. Jesus Christ says that he has the key of David, and also, the keys of death and Hades; (see HADes;) (Rev. 1: 18.) that is, it is in his power to bring to the grave, or to de- liver from it; to appoint to life or to death; to summon to the state of departed spirits, or to release from that state at the resurrection of the last day, Rev. 20; 13–15.-Wat. son ; Calmet. KEYS, (Power of THE ;) a term made use of in reſer- ence to ecclesiastical jurisdiction, denoting the power of ex- communicating and absolving. The Romanists say that the pope has the power of the keys, and can open and shut paradise as he pleases; grounding their opinion on that expression of Jesus Christ to Peter—“I will give thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven,” Matt. 16:19. But eve- ry one must see that this is an absolute perversion of Scripture. (See KEY, and ABsoLUTION.) In St. Gregory we read that it was the custom for the popes to send a golden key to princes, wherein they inclosed a little of the filings of St. Peter's chain, kept with such de- votion at Rome; and that these keys were worn in the bo- som, as being supposed to contain Some wonderful virtues. Such has been the Superstition of past ages —Hend. Buck. KIBROTH-HATTAAWAH, (the graves of lust,) was one of the encampments of Israel in the wilderness, where they desired of God flesh for their sustenance, declaring they were tired with manna, Num, 11:34, 35. Quails were sent in great quantities, but while the meat was in their mouths, (Ps. 78; 30.) God smote so great a number of them, that the place was called the graves of those who lusted. A most monitory example ! 1 Cor. 10: 6–Calmet, ICICK ; a metaphor taken from a fed horse, or like ani. mal, kicking with his heels at his owner when he gives him provision, pricks him forward, or the like. To kick against God is wantonly and stubbornly to rebel against him, and make his benefits an occasion of rebelling against him, Deut. 32: 15. 1 Sam. 2: 19. Acts 9: 5.-Bronn. KID, (gedi ;) the young of the goat. Among the He- brews the kid was reckoned a great delicacy; and appears to have been served for food in preference to the lamb, (See GoAT.) It continues to be a choice dish in the neigh- boring countries.—Watson. l{IDDER, (Richard,) bishop of Bath and Wells, was born in Sussex or Suffolk, and educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge, of which he became a member in 1649. Suc. ceeding to fellowship, he took holy orders, and obtained from the college the benefice of Stanground, Huntingdon. shire, of which, however, he was deprived in 1662, for re- fusing episcopal ordination. His firmness on his convic- tion appears eventually to have given way, and on his conforming, he was presented to the living of Rayne, in K IF K I N., [ 720 Essex, by the earl of Essex. In 1674, he was céllated to St. Mary Outwick, in the city of London; seven years af. ter which he obtained a stall in Norwich cathedral, and in 1681 was farther promoted to the deanery of Peterborough. In 1691, bishop Ken being deprived of the see of Bath and Wells, on account of his adherence to the cause of James the Second, dean Kidder was selected by king William as His successor, and he was in consequence raised to the episcopal bench. Two years after his elevation, he preach- ed the lecture founded by Mr. Boyle, and continued to pre- side over his diocess for more than twelve years, till the memorable storm which passed over most parts of the west of England, on the night of the 26th November, 1703, when he fell a victim to its fury. The bishop and his wife had retired to rest, when they were overwhelmed by the sudden fall of a stack of chimneys in the episcopal palace at Wells, and were not extricated till life in both had become extinct. Many of the bishop's works, however, survive him, the principal of which are, “A Demonstration of the Mes- siah,” in three parts; “A Commentary on the Pentateuch,” in two volumes, octavo ; and an octavo volume, compris- ing twelve sermons. He was a very clear, elegant, learn- ed writer; and one of the best divines of his time.—Watts' Bib. Brit. ; Jones' Chris. Biog. ISIDNEYS; metaphorically, the inmost powers, thoughts, and desires of the soul, and which are sometimes called reins, Ps. 16: 7.—Bronn. KIFFIN (WILLIAM ;) one of the most distinguished mi- nisters among the English Baptists of the seventeenth cen- tury, and one of the very few on whom the great Disposer of all events saw fit to bestow much of the perilous riches and honors of this world. He was personally known to both Charles II., and James II, his successor. Crosby informs us, that on one occasion when Charles wanted mo- ney, he sent to Mr. Kiffin to borrow of him forty thousand pounds. Mr. Kiffin, knowing the unprincipled character of the monarch, replied that he could not command so much, but that if it could be of any service to his majesty he would present him with ten thousand pounds, that is, upwards of forty thousand dollars. This the king accept. ed, and Tir. Kiffin afterwards remarked that he thereby saved thirty thousand pounds. Mr. Kiffin had great influ- ence at court, and was hence enabled to render great service to his brethren. By his means the false and scur- Tilous pamphlet, entitled Baxter baptized in Blood, was examined and condemned ; and by his intercession also, twelve Baptists, who had been condemned to death at Aylesbury, received the king's pardon. But with all his wealth and influence, he was a meek and modest man. In 1683, two of his grandsons, Benjamin and William Hewling, young gentlemen of great fortunes, accomplish- ed education, and eminent piety, were concerned in the ill- timed and ill-fated expedition of the duke of Monmouth, which terminated in the destruction of almost all who had any hand in it. These interesting young men, the last male descendants of their house, the one twenty-one years of age and the other not quite twenty, who added uncom- mon beauty and gracefulness of person to spotless morals, high talent, devoted love of the Protestant cause, and ar- dent courage in the field, were taken prisoners, and con- demned to death. Large ransoms and earnest petitions were offered for their lives, but the cruel James was inexo- rable. The scene at their execution was so affecting, yet so bright with the heavenly joy and sweetness of their beha- vior, that even the soldiers declared they scarcely knew how to bear it, and many others present said it both broke and rejoiced their hearts. A full account of it may be found in the first volume of Ivimey's History of the Eng- lish Baptists. Mr. Kiffin, in 1688, was nominated by James II, one of the aldermen of the city of London in his new charter. This was an honor the venerable minister by no means desired. Waiting on the king by his request, he said, “Sire, I am an old man, and have withdrawn myself from all kinds of business for some years past, and am incapa- ble of doing any service in such an affair to your majesty, in the city. Besides, sire,” the old man went on, fixing his eyes steadfastly upon the king, while the tears ran down his cheeks, “the death of my grandsons gave a wound * to my heart, which is still bleeding, and never will close but in the grave.” t - - - The king was deeply struck by the manner, the free- dom, and the spirit of the rebuke. A total silence ensued, while the galled countermance of James seemed to shrink from the horrid remembrance. In a minute or two, how- ever, he recovered himself sufficiently to say, “Mr. Kiffin, I shall find a balsam for that sore,” and immediately turn- ed to other business. Mr. Kiffin was compelled, with three or four others of his Baptist brethren, to accept the office, till by the coming of the prince of Orange, in about six months, he was per- mitted to retire from its burdens and snares. He died a few years after, not far from eighty years of age, leaving behind him a character of rare excellence, tried alike by the fires of prosperity and adversity, in the most eventful times. —Crosby's History of the English Baptists; Ivimey; Benedict. ICILIEN ; an Irish bishop, missionary, and martyr of the seventh century. He received from his parents a pious education, and having deeply imbibed the truth of the Scriptures, took unwearied delight in diffusing the gos- pel. With eleven others he crossed to the continent, and by his evangelical labors in Germany, was instrumental of converting to Christianity Gozbert, governor of the city of Wurtzburg, with many others. As a last proof of Goz- bert's sincerity, Kilien required him to dissolve his incest- uous marriage with his brother's widow, Guilana. Goz. bert complied, but Guilana in revenge put all the mission- aries to the sword, A. D. 689–Fox. p. 81. RILL. The desire of the slothful kills them ; their de- light in ease hurts their constitution, and exposes them to great straits and poverty; or their desire after things, for which they care not to labor, leads them to methods that bring them to an unhappy end, Prov. 21:25. The letter, or covenant of works killeth ; it is the strength of sin, and condemns men to death, spiritual, temporal, and eternal. The letter or external part of ceremonies, without regard to the gospel signification killed men and hindered them from Christ and salvation, and cleaving thereto hastened ruin on the Jewish nation. The letter or unsanctified head- knowledge of divine truth kills; it encourageth pride, and makes men esteem themselves, and contemn Christ, and to their own ruin refuse the offers of the gospel, 2 Cor. 3: 6.—Bronyn. - I(IMCHI, (DAVID,) a learned rabbi, was born, at Nar bonne, about the end of the twelfth century; and died, in Provence, in 1240. His contemporaries regarded him with almost superstitious reverence. He is the author of a Hebrew Grammar; a Treatise on Hebrew Roots; Dic- tionarium Talmudicum ; and Commentaries on the Psalms and several other books of the Scriptures.—Davenport. KINDNESS; the spirit of love, favorable treatment, or a constant and habitual practice of friendly offices and benevolent actions. (See BeNEFICENCE: CHARITY; GEN- TLENEss.)—Hend. Buck. - KINDRED; a number of people related to one another by blood or marriage. The kindreds of the earth that shall mourn at Christ’s second appearing, are the vast multi- tudes of wicked and worldly men, Rev. 1: 7. The kin- dreds over which Antichrist rules, are vast multitudes of different nations, sexes, and conditions, Rev. 13: 7, and 11:9.--Bromm. KING, (PeTER,) lord chancellor of England, and ſa- mous for his ecclesiastical learning, as well as his know- ledge in the law, was born in 1669, at Exeter, in Devon- shire. His father was an eminent grocer and Salter, in that city; and, though possessed of considerable property, and descended from a good family, determined to bring up his son to his own business. With this view he gave him only the common rudiments of education, and took him into the shop, where he kept him for some years. . The son's inclination, however, being strongly bent on learn- ing, he took all opportunities of gratifying his thirst after knowledge. He laid out all the money he could muster in books, and devoted every moment of his leisure hours to study. His acquaintance with Mr. Locke, who was his maternal uncle, and who, at his death, left him half his library, was of vast advantage to him. That gentleman availed himself cf an opportunity to examine his nephew, and being greaty surprised and pleased with his prodi. K I N FC I N [ 721 gious attainments in literature, prevailed upon his father to send him to the university of Leyden, where he prose- cuted his studies with great success. He appears to have turned his attention chiefly to divinity; and when only twenty-two years of age, gave good proof of his acquire- ments, by publishing the first part of his celebrated “In- quiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the primitive Church, that flourished within the first Jhree hundred years after Christ, faithfully collected out of the extant writings of those ages,” 1691, octavo. In he preface to this work, the author modestly requested to be shown, either publicly or privately, any mistakes he might have fallen into, in handling the subject; and his re- quest was first complied with by Mr. Edmund Elys, be- tween whom and the author there passed several letters in 1692, which were published by Mr. Elys, in 1694, in octavo, under the title of “Letters on several Subjects.” On his return from Leyden, Mr. King, and it is said to have been by the advice of Mr. Locke, entered himself a student at the Inner Temple, and applied himself to the law; in which profession his great parts and indefatigable industry, for both of which he was remarkable, soon made him eminent. He had not been many years at the Tem- ple, when he had acquired as high a reputation for his knowledge in law, as he previously had for his theological attainments. In 1702, he published “The History of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on its several Articles,” octavo. This treatise displayed extraordinary learning and judgment, and established the author's litera- ry fame. On the accession of George the First, he was appointed lord chief justice of the court of common pleas, and soon after sworn of the privy council. He was creat- ed a peer, the 25th of May, 1725, by the title of lord King, baron of Oakham, in Surry; and the great seal being taken from lord Macclesfield, was delivered to him. He continued in the office of lord high chancellor, till the 26th of November, 1733, when he resigned the seals, and on the 22d of July, 1734, his life also.-Jones' Chris. Biog. ICING. It appears to have been a maxim of the He- brew law, that the person of the king was inviolable, what- ever his character may have been, 1 Sam. 24: 5–8. 2 Sam. 1: 14. We have already seen, that by the law of Mo- ses the Israelitish monarchy was to be hereditary, and the history of the Jews shows that this law was strictly at- tended to. Nevertheless, it appears from the history of David, that the succession did not necessarily go by the right of primogeniture, for he appointed Solomon as his successor, in preference to Adonijah, his elder brother. The inauguration of the king next demands our atten- tion. There can be little doubt, that all the kings were anointed; hence king and anointed seem to have been used as synonymous terms, 1 Sam. 2: 10. 2 Sam. 1: 14, 21. This anointing was sometimes performed privately by a prophet, (1 Sam. 10: 1. 16:1–13. 1 Kings 19: 16. 2 Kings 9:1–6.) and was a symbolical prediction that the person so anointed would, at some future period, ascend the throne. After the monarchy was established, this unc- tion was performed by a priest, (1 Kings 1: 39.) at first in some public place, (1 Kings 1:32—34.) and afterwards, in the temple, the monarch elect being surrounded by his guards, 2 Kings 11: 12, 13. 2 Chron. 13. Some are of opinion that he was at the same time girded with a sword, Ps. 45:3. The next step was to place the diadem or crown upon the sovereign's head, and the sceptre in his hand. To the former of these there is an allusion in Ps. 21: 3, and also in Ezek. 21:26, and to the latter in Ps. 45: 6. When the diadem was placed on the head of the mo- march, he entered into a solemn covenant with his sub- 'ects, that he would govern according to the law ; (2 Sam. 5:3. 1 Chron. 11: 3.) after which the nobles pledged them- selves to obedience, and confirmed the pledge with the kiss of homage, or, as the Jews call it, the kiss of majesty, 1 Sam. 10: 1. This ceremony is probably alluded to in the following passage of the Psalmist : “IXiss the Son, lest he be angry,” &c.; (Ps. 2: 12.) that ls, acknowledge him as your king, pay him homage, and yield him subjection. Loud acclamations, accompanied with music, them follow- ed, after which the king entered the city, 1 Kings 1: 39, 40. 2 Kings 11: 12, 19. 2 Chron. 23: 11. To this prac- tice there are numerous allusions both in the Old Testa- ment (Ps. 47: 2–9. 97: 1. 99: 9, &c.) as well as in the New ; (Matt. 21:9, 10. Mark 11:9, 10. Luke 19:35, 38.) in which last cited passages the Jews, by welcoming our Savior in the same manner as their kings were formerly, manifestly acknowledged him to be the Messiah whom they expected. In noticing the state and grandeur of the Jewish mo- narchs, we must not omit mentioning their attendants and guards; particularly the Cherethites and Pelethites, of whom there is frequent mention in the histories of David and Solomon, 2 Sam. 15: 18. 20:7, 8: 16, 18. They seem to have been the king's body-guard, like the praetorian band among the Romans. Their number may probably be gathered from the targets and shields of gold, which Solomon made for his guards; which were five hundred, 1 Kings 10: 16, 17, compared with 2 Chron. 12: 9–11. Yet, notwithstanding all this royal state and grandeur, they were only God's viceroys, bound to govern according to the statute-law of the land, which they, as well as their subjects, were required to obey. (See Gover NMENT of THE HEBREws; HABITs; HoRSEs ; JUSTICE, ADMINISTRA- TION OF ; REVENUE ; TRIBUTE.)—Calmet. KINGDOM OF GOD, in Scripture, is a term of frequent occurrence, and variously applied to the providential, mo- ral, and evangelical government of JEHow AH. Thus we read of the kingdom of God, (Ps. 103: 19. Dan. 4: 3.) or his universal empire and dominion over all creatures; in reference to which it is said, “Jehovah is a great God, and a great King above all gods,” Ps. 95: 3. “His throne is established in the heavens, and his kingdom ruleth over all.” - Again: we frequently read in the evangelists of the kingdom of heaven ; a phrase, says Dr. Campbell, in which there is a manifest allusion to the predictions in which the dispensation of the Messiah was revealed by the prophets in the Old Testament, particularly by Daniel, who mentions it as “a kingdom which the God of heaven would set up, and which should never be destroyed,” Dan. 2: 44. The same prophet also speaks of it as a kingdom to be given, with glory and dominion over all people, na- tions, and languages, to one like unto the Son of man, Dan. 7: 13, 14. See also Micah 4: 6, 7. The Jews, ac- customed to this way of speaking, expected the kingdom of the Messiah to resemble that of a temporal king, exer- cising power on his enemies, restoring the Hebrew mo- narchy, and the throne of David to all its splendor; sub- duing the nations, and rewarding his friends and faithful servants, in proportion to their fidelity and services. Hence the early contests among the apostles about prece- dency in his kingdom; and hence the sons of Zebedee de- sired the two chief places in it. According to the prophecy of Daniel, this kingdom was to take place during the existence of the Roman empire, the last of the four great monarchies that had succeeded each other, Dan. 2: 44. And as it was set up by the God of heaven, it is, in the New Testament, termed “the king- dom of God,” or “the kingdom of heaven.” It was typifi- ed by the Jewish theocracy, and declared to be at hand by John the Baptist, and by Christ and his apostles also in the days of his flesh; but it did not come with power till Jesus rose from the dead and sat down on the right hand of the Majesty on high, Acts 2: 32–37. Then was he most so- lemnly inaugurated, and proclaimed King of the universe, and especially of the New Testament church, amidst ador- ing myriads of attendant angels, and “the Spirits of just men made perfect.” Then were ſulfilled the words of Je- hovah by David, “I have set my King upon my holy hill of Zion,” Ps. 2: 6. This is that spiritual, evangelical, and eternal empire to which he himself referred when in- terrogated before Pontius Pilate, and in reference to which he said, “My kingdom is not of this world,” John 18:36, 37. His empire, indeed, extends to every creature; for “all authority is committed into his hands, both in heaven and on earth,” and he is “head over all things to the church;” but his kingdom primarily imports the gospel Church, which is the subject of his laws, the seat of his government, and the object of his care; and, being sur- rounded with powerful opposers, he is represented as rul- ing in the midst of his enemies. This kingdom is not of a worldly origin, or nature, nor 91 K I N | 722 | has it this world for its end or object, Rom. 14: 17, 1 Cor. 4:20. It can neither be promoted nor defended by world- ly power, influence, or carnal weapons, but by bearing witness unto the truth, or by the preaching of the gospel with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, 2 Cor, 10: 4, 5. Its establishment among men is progressive, but it is destined at last to fill the whole earth, Dam. 2. Rev. 11: 15. Its real subjects are only those who are of the truth, and hear Christ's voice ; for none can enter it but such as are born from above; (John 3: 3––5. Matt. 18; 3. 19: 14. Mark 10: 15.) nor can any be visible subjects of it, but such as appear to be regenerated, by a credible profession of faith and obedience, Luke 16: 16. JMatt. 20: 28–44. Its privileges and immunities are not of this world, but such as are spiritual and heavenly; they are all spiritual blessings in heavenly things in Christ Jesus, Eph. 1: 3. Over this glorious kingdom death has mo power; it extends as well to the future as the present world; and though en- tered here by renewing grace, (Col. 1: 13.) rited in its perfection in the world of glory, Matt, 25; 34. 1 Cor. 15:50, 2 Pet. 1: 11. Hypocrites and false brethren may indeed insinuate- themselves into it here; but they will have no possible place in it hereafter, Matt, 13:41, 47–50. 22: 11–14. Luke 13: 28, 29. 1 Cor. 6: 9, 10. Gal. 5: 21. Rev. 21: 27.- Watson ; Calmet. KINGDOM OF HEAVEN, is an expression used in the New Testament, to signify the reign, or administration, of Jesus Christ on earth and in heaven, Matt. 4; 17. 5: 3, 10, 12, 20. 6: 10, 33. 7:21. (See KINGDOM OF GOD.) KINGS, Books of. The first book of Kings com- mences with an account of the death of David, and con- tains a period of a hundred and twenty-six years, to the death of Jehoshaphat; and the second book of ICings con- tinues the history of the kings of Israel and Judah through a period of three hundred years, to the destruction of the city and temple of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. These two books formed only one in the Hebrew canon, and they were probably compiled by Ezra from the records which were regularly kept, both in Jerusalem and Samaria, of all public transactions. These records appear to have been made by the contemporary prophets, and frequently derived their names from the kings whose history they contained. They are mentioned in many parts of Scrip- ture; thus, (1 Kings 11:41.) we read of the Book of the Acts of Solomon, which is supposed to have been written by Nathan, Abijah, and Iddo, 2 Chron. 9:29. We else- where read that Shemaiah the prophet, and Iddo the seer, wrote the Acts of Rehoboam, (2 Chron. 12:15.) that Jehu wrote the Acts of Jehoshaphat, (2 Chron. 20:34.) and Isaiah those of Uzziah and Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 26: 22. 32: 32. We may therefore conclude, that from these pub- lic records, and other authentic documents, were composed the two books of Kings; and the uniformity of their style favors the opinion of their being put into their present shape by the same inspired person.— Watson. RING'S MOTHER. That “ king's mother” was a title of dignity, is obvious by 1 Kings 2: 19. - From the travels of Bruce we learn, (1.) That the title and place of Iteghé, or, “king's mother,” is of great con- sequence; we find her interfering much in public affairs, keeping a separate palace and court, possessing great in- fluence and authority. (2.) That while any Iteghé is liv- ing, it is contrary to law to crown another; which ac- counts at once for Asa's Iteghé, or king's mother, being his grandmother, the same person as held that dignity be- fore he came to the crown. (3.) That this title occurs also in other parts of the East ; and is given without con- sideration of natural maternity. (4.) It should seem, that “Queen,” in our sense of the word, is a title and sta- tion unknown in the royal harem throughout the East. If it be taken at all, it is by that wife who brings a son after the king's coronation; such son being presumptive heir to the crown, his mother is sometimes entitled “Sul- tana Queen,” or “prime Sultaness;” but not with the English ideas annexed to the title queen. º That this person is called indifferently, “Queen,” or “ſteghé,” or “King's Mother,” even by Bruce ; whence arises the very Same ambiguity in him, as has been remarked in Scripture, 1 ICings 15: 1–10. 2 Chron. 13: 4, 16. 2 Kings 24: 12, 15, comp, with Jer, 29: 2. This illustration g * it is inhe- also sets in its proper light the interſerence of the “queen,” in the story of Belshazzar, Dan, 5: 10. In order to de- termine who was this “queen,” which has been a desidera- tum among learned men, it is not enough to know who might be Belshazzar's wife, or wives, at the time : but also who was Iteghé, or king's mother, before he came to the crown; and who, therefore, being well acquainted with former events, and continuing in the same dignity, might naturally allude to them on this occasion. Had in- quiry into this matter been conducted on these principles, in all probability, it had been more conformable to the manners of the East, and had superseded many ineffectual conjectures.—Calmet. - . . . . . . . . KIPPIS, (ANDREw,) a dissenting divine, biographer, and miscellaneous writer, the son of a silk mercer, was born, in 1725, at Nottingham; was educated by Dr. Dodd- ridge ; and, after having been minister at Boston and at Dorking, was appointed, in 1753, pastor to a congregation in Prince's street, Westminster. In 1763, he was chosen classical and philological tutor to the academy founded by Mr. Coward; and this office he held for more than a quar- ter of a century. He was subsequently connected with the Hackney Institution. Dr. ICippis was a member of the Royal and Antiquarian societies. He died in 1795, leaving behind him a well-earned reputation for learning, character, and talents. Kippis contributed to the Monthly Review, and other periodicals; projected and wrote in the New Annual Register; and produced, besides various oc- casional pamphlets, Lives of Cook, Pringle, Doddridge, and Lardner; but his great work was the new edition of the Biographia Britannica, of which only five volumes were published. It was conducted on a plan so elaborate, that no termination of it on the same scale is ever likely to be attempted.—Davenport. - - .* - ICIR ; a city of Moab, Isa. 15: 1. 2. Part of Albania and Media, where the river Kyrus flows, 2 Kings 16:9. Isa. 22:6. Amos 1:5. 9: 7.—Calmet. - KIRJATH-HUZOTH, (the city of squares,) was the royal seat of Balak, king of Moab; and therefore may well be supposed to have had handsome Streets, &c. Num. 22:39. —Calmet. - -- - KIRJATH-JEARIM. (See DEBIR.) . . KIRJATH-SEPHER, (the city of books,) otherwise De- bir, Kirjath-debir, the city of words ; a city in the tribe of Judah, aſterwards given to Caleb. It was taken by Oth. niel, to whom Caleb for his reward gave his daughter Achsah in marriage, Josh. 15: 15. Judg. 1: 11, &c. This city was so called long before Moses; at least it would seem so by the manner of mentioning it, which proves that books were known before that legislator, and that he is not the oldest writer, as the fathers have asserted ; a character which it is to be observed he never assumes. It is possible that the Canaanites might lodge their re- cords in this city, and those few monuments of antiquity which they had preserved ; or it might be something like the cities of the priests in Israel, the residence of the learned ; a kind of college. This idea receives confirma- tion from its other name, Debir, which designates an ora- cle; and seems to hint at a seat of learning, a college, or university; an establishment, probably, of priests, for the purpose of educating the younger members of their body. The circumstance is very remarkable, because it occurs so early as the days of Joshua ; and is evidently an esta- blishment by the Canaanites, previous to the Hebrew in- vasion. It contributes, therefore, greatly to prove that the origin of letters was not the revelation of them to Moses on mount Sinai, as Some have imagined ; since, beside the silence of Moses on that matter, we find indications of their being already in use elsewhere.—Calmet. KIRK. SESSIONS ; the name of a petty ecclesiastical judicatory in Scotland. Each parish, according to its ex- tent, is divided into several particular districts, every one of which has its own elders and deacons to oversee it. A consistory of the minister, elders, and deacon of a pārish, form a kirk session. These meet once a week, the minis- ter being their moderator, but without a negative voice. It regulates matters relative to public worship, elections, catechising, visitations, &c. It judges in matters of less scandal ; but greater, as adultery, are leſt to the presby tery, and in all cases an appeal lies from it to the presby K. I. S. K. N. E. { 723 ] tery, Kirk sessions have likewise the care of the poor, and poor's funds. (See CHURCH of SeoTLAND, and PRES- ByTERIANISM.)—Hend. Buck. . . . . . . . - - KIRKLAND, (SAMUEL,) a missionary among the Indi- ans. His ſather was minister of Norwich, Con. He was graduated at the college in New Jersey, in 1765. . While at school he had learned the language of the Mohawks; and he commenced a journey to the Seneca Indians in or- der to acquire their language, Nov. 20, 1764, and did not return till May, 1766. He was ordained at Lebanon, June 19th, as a missionary to the Indians. He removed his wife to Oneida castle in 1769. In the spring following he went to the house of his friend, general Herkimer, at Jittle Falls; and there his twin children were born, Aug. 17, 1770, of whom one is Dr. Kirkland, late president of Harvard college. For more than forty years his attention was directed to the Oneida tribe in New York, and he died at Paris, in that state, the place of his residence, in the neighborhood of Oneida, March 28, 1808, aged sixty-six. Mr. Kirkland was instrumental in the conversion of Shenandoah, the famous Oneida chief, whose subsequent life illustrated the power of the gospel, and whose last words were, “Bury me by the side of my minister and friend, that I may go up with him at the great resurrec- tion tº Wheelock's Narratives; Panoplist, iii. 636; Chris- tian Orator.—Allen. RIRWAN, (WALTER BLAKE,) an eloquent Irish divine, born about 1754, at Galway; was educated at St. Omer's and Louvain; took orders as a Catholic priest; and, in 1778, was appointed chaplain to the Neapolitan ambas- sador. In 1787, becoming a Protestant, he conformed to the established church of England, and, after having held the living of St. Nicholas, in Dublin, was promoted to the deanery of Killala. He died in 1805. As a pulpit ora- tor, Kirwan had no rival among his contemporaries; and his powers were often exerted with astonishing success in favor of chartible institutions. The collection bri one oc- casion was not less than thirteen hundred pounds. A volume of his Sermons was published after his decease. Of Kirwan it has been finely said, that “he came to rouse one world with the thunders of another.” London Chris. Observer, 1814.—Davenport. KISHON. “That ancient river, the river Kishon,” falls into the bay of Acre, and has its source in the hills to the east of the plain of Esdraelon, which it intersects. Being enlarged by several small streams, it passes be- tween mount Carmel and the hills to the north, and then falls into the sea at this point. In the condition we saw it, says Maundrell, its waters were low and inconsidera- ble; but in passing along the side of the plain, we discern- ed the tracks of many lesser torrents, failing flown into it from the mountains, which must needs make it swell ex- ceedingly upon sudden rains, as doubtless it actually did at the destruction of Sisera’s hºst. (See ESDRAELoN.) Robinson's Bib. Repos. for 1831 - Watson. KISS; a mode of salutatiºn, and token of respect, which has been practised in 'all nations. It was also in ordinary use among the Jews; ſhènce Judas in this way saluted his master.iº, But there was also the kiss of hom- age, as one of the ceremonies performed at the inaugura- tion of the kings of Israel. The Jews called it the kiss of majesty. Ps. 2: 12, seems to be an allusion to this. (See RINGs.) St. Paul speaks frequently of the kiss of peace, which was in use, among believers, and was given by them to one anothèº as a token of charity and union, Rom, 16: 16. 1 Cor. 16: 20, 2 Cor. I3: 12. 1 Thess. 5: 26. 1 Peter 5: 14. Acts 20:37, Kissing the feet is in Eastern countries expressive ºf exuberant gratitude or : l r tº: reverence, Luke 7:45}{8 '''''''': "..., ... . . Catholics kiss, the bishop's hand, or rāſhār" the 3ring w - * - - ... n. - * ...&_** * * * , which he wears in virtue of his episcopal officeſtº'Kissing. the foot or toe has been required by the popes as a sign of respect from the secular power since the eighth centºry. The first who received this honor was pope Constantine I. It was paid him by the emperor Justinian II, on his entry into Constantinople, in 710. Valentine I, about 827, required every one to kiss his foot; and, from that time, this mark of reverence appears to have been expect- ed by all popes. When the ceremony, takes place, the pope wears a slipper with a cross, which is kissed. In more recent times, Protestants have not been obliged to kiss the pope's foot, but merely to bend the knee slightly. The kiss of peace forms part of one of the Catholic rites. It is given immediately before the communion; the cler- gyman who celebrates mass kissing the altar, and em- bracing the deacon, saying, “Paz tibi, frater, et ecclesiae sanctae Dei;” the deacon does the same to the sub-deacon, saying “Paz tecum ;” the latter salutes the other clergy. The kiss of charity, which still obtains among cer. tain sects as an ordinance to be observed in public, is only the same custom under a different form. That such a practice obtained in the church at a very early period can- not be denied, as it is mentioned by Justin, Tertullian, and other fathers, when referring to the Agapa: ; a practice on which the pagans founded the calumny of promiscuousem- braces; but it is without any warrant from Scripture; the salutation there called the “holy kiss,” and the “kiss of charity,” not being enjoined as a public rite, or church observance, but simply an occasional greeting of Christian kindness, as circumstances of meeting afforded an oppor tunity. It should be remembered also, that in both Jew- ish and Christian assemblies, the two sexes sat apart.— Watson ; ; Hend. Buck. KITE, (ajah ;) Lev. 11: 14. Deut. 14: 13. Job 28: 7. Bochart supposes this to be the bird which the Arabians call the ja-ſao; ; from its note ; and which the ancients named a salon, “the merlin,” a bird celebrated for its sharp-sightedness. This faculty is referred to in Job 28: 7, where the words is rendered “vulture.” As a noun masculine plural, ajim, in Isa. 13:22. 34: 14, and Jer. 1: 39, Bochart says that jaekals are intended; but, by the several contexts, particularly the last, it may well mean a kind of unclean bird, and so be the same with that men. tioned above.—Watson. — I(ITRON ; a city of Zebulum, which that tribe could not take from the Canaanites, Judg. 1: 30. Kitron is Sippor, (Sepphoris,) says Bab. Megill. (fol. 6. 1.) a very strong place, and the largest city in Galilee. It is noted in the Talmuds for being a university; in which taught rabbi Judah the Holy, who died here.—Calmet. KLOPSTOCK, (FREDERIC THEoPHILUs,) one of the most eminent poets of Germany, was born, in 1724, at Quedlin- burg, and was educated at the college of that place, at Jena, and at Leipsic. The first three cantos of his Mes- siah were published, in 1748, in a Bremen periodical work; in 1751 the first five appeared, and, in 1755, the first ten ; the concluding ten did not appear till 1769. In 1750, the king of Denmark invited him to Copenhagen, and gave him a pension tº Klopstock continued to reside in the Danish capital till 1771, when he removed to Ham- burgh, to fill the offices of Danish legate, and counsellór from the court of Badenii". He died March 14, 1803. As a lyrical writer Klopstock is perhaps among the most suc- cessful of any age. He may well be called the Pindar of modern poetry; but that whei. is superior to him in richº ness and deep feeling, as the spiritual world which he paints, excels in intrinsid magnificence the subjects celebrated by the Grecian poets; His religious odes exhibit the elevation of the Psalmistii Purity and noble feeling were the characteristics of his mind. . The most illiterate cannot fail to understand and venerate Klopstock as a writer of sacred poetry. ..." ii.i..' . His first wife, MARGARET, whom he married in 1754, and who died in 1758, was a woman of genius. Among her works are Letters from the Dead to the Living; and the Death of Abel, a tragedy. Her husbänd placed over her remains this simple and beautiful epitaph:-‘‘Seed sown by God, to ripen for the harvestº "..." The Messiah is a wºrk of great; sublimity and beauty; but Klopstock has certainly failed to accomplish that which súthe of his countrymen, sanguinely hoped from him ; namely, to eclipse the Paradise Lost. His patriotic Odés: glow with poetic fire, and his Tragedies, though not calculated for the stage, are worthy of their author. Ency. Ame.—Davenport. • ** * KNEADING-TROUGHS. In the description of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, (Exod. 12: 34.) we read that “the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders.” Person ; who know how K. N. O K No I 724 J tumbersome our kneading-troughs are, and how much less important they are than many other utensils, may wonder at this statement, and find a difficulty in account- ing for it. But this wonder will cease, when it is under- stood that the vessels which the Arabs make use of, for kneading the unleavened cakes they prepare for those who travel in the very desert through which Israel pass- ed, are only small wooden bowls; and that they seem to use no other in their own tents for that purpose, or any other; these bowls being used by them for kneading their bread, and serving up their provisions when cooked. It will appear, that nothing could be more convenient than kneading-troughs of this sort for the Israelites in their journey. Besides, Dr. Pococke gives us a description of a round leather coverlid, which the Arabs lay on the ground, and which serves them to eat off. This piece of furniture has, he says, rings round it by which it is drawn together with a chain, that has a hook to it, to hang it by: It is drawn together, and in this manner they bring it full of bread, and when the repast is over, carry it away at once, with all that is left. Perhaps this utensil is rather to be understood by the word translated kneading-troughs, than the Arab wooden bowl. There is nothing, in the other three places in which the word occurs, to contradict this explanation. These places are Exod. 8; 3. Deut. 28: 5. and 17; in the two last of which places it is trans- lated store. Many of the sneers that pass for wit, while they are nothing better than sheer ignorance, lose even that shadow of support to their profaneness, at which they catch, by more correct information.—Calmet. ICNEE, not only signifies that part of the body so call- ed, but the whole body, a part being put for the whole, Ps. 109: 24. Also for persons; so, weak and feeble knees denote weak and disconsolate persons, Job 4: 4. Heb. 12: 12. Isa. 35: 3.−Bromm. ICNIFE. To put a knife to our throat at the table of the great, is carefully to restrain our appetite, as if we were in the utmost hazárd of eating too much, Prov. 23: 2.—Bromwn. KNOCK. Jesus knocks at the door of our heart; by his word, spirit, and providence he awakens, invites, and urges us to receive himself as the free gift of God, and Savior come to seek and save that which was lost, Rev. 3: 20. Sol. Song 5: 2. Our knocking at his door of mercy is ſervent and frequent prayers for his distinguished presence and favor, Matt. 7: 7, 8. Luke 1 1: 10.- Bromºn. KNOLLYS, (HANSARD;) a very eminent minister among the English Baptists of the seventeenth century. He was a man of great learning, Sound principles, Solid piety, and true pulpit eloquence. He was deservedly popular as a preacher, and suffered greatly for conscience' sake. Few men of his age were more useful. He was an Episco- pal minister some years, but came to this country in 1633, a Baptist. For some hard things said of the Massachu- setts government he ingenuously made a confession in Bos- ton. He was the first minister ever settled in Dover, N. H. where he preached from 1635 to 1639. He was aſterwards involved in some disturbances, and went to Long Island. Most of the New England historians have abused his cha- racter in a shameful manner. Only Cotton Mather has done him justice. About 1642, he returned to England, and formed a large Baptist church in London, of which he was near fifty years the minister. He died, September 19, 1691, aged ninety-three. He published Rudiments of the Hebrew Grammar, 1648.—Backus ; Ivimey. ICNOWLEDGE, is defined by Mr. Locke to be the perception of the connexion and agreement, or disagree- ment and repugnancy of our ideas. It also denotes learn- ing, or the improvement of our faculties by reading; ex- perience, or the acquiring new ideas or truths, by seeing a variety of objects, and making observations upon them in our own minds. No man, says the admirable Dr. Watts, is obliged to learn and know every thing; this can neither be sought nor required, for it is utterly im- possible : yet all persons are under some obligation to im- prove their own understanding, otherwise it will be a bar- ren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and bram- bles. Universal ignorance, or infinite error, will over- spread the mind which is utterly neglected and lies with. out any cultivation. The following rules, therefore, should be attended to ſor the improvement of knowledge:–1. Deeply possess your mind with the vast importance of a good judgment, and the rich and inestimable advantage of right reasoning.— 2. Consider the weaknesses, failings, and mistakes of hu- man nature in general.—3. Be not satisfied with a "slight view of things, but take a wide survey now and then of the vast and unlimited regions of learning, the variety of questions and difficulties belonging to every science.— 4. Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a ready wit, and good parts; for this, without study, will never make a man of knowledge.—5. Do not imagine that large and laborious reading, and a strong memory, can denomi- nate you truly wise, without meditation and studious thought.—6. Be not so weak as to imagine that a life of learning is a life of laziness.-7. Let the hope of new dis- coveries, as well as the satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, animate your daily industry.—8. Do not hover always on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly with mere appearances.—9. Once a day, especially in the early years of life and study, call yourselves to an ac- count what new ideas you have gained.—10. Maintain a constant watch, at all times, against a dogmatical spirit. —11. Be humble and courageous enough to retract any mistake, and confess an error.—12. Beware of a fanciful temper of mind, and a humorous conduct.—13. Have a care of trifling with things important and momentous, or of sporting with things awful and sacred.—14. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious frame of spirit.—15. Watch against the pride of your own reason, and a vain conceit of your own intellectual powers, with the neglect of divine aid and blessing.—16. Offer up, therefore, your daily requests to God, the Father of Lights, that he would bless all your attempts and labors in reading, study, and conversation.—Watts on the Mind ; Dr. John Edwards' Un- certainty, Deficiency, and Corruption of Human Knonyledge ; Reid's Intellectual Powers of Man ; Stennett's Sermon on Acts 26:24, 25. Upham's Intellectual Philosophy; Douglas on the Advancement of Society; Works of Robert IIall ; Amer. Library of Useful Knomledge.—Hend. Buck. KNOWLEDGE OF GOD, is often taken for the fear of God, and the whole of religion. There is, indeed, a speculative knowledge, which consists only in the belief of his existence, and the acknowledgment of his perfec- tions, but has no influence on the heart and conduct. A spiritual, saving knowledge is attended with veneration for the Divine Being, (Ps. 89: 7.) love to him as an object of beauty and goodness, (Zech, 9: 17.) humble confidence in his mercy and promise, (Ps. 9; 10.) and sincere, uni- form, and persevering obedience to his word, 1 John 2: 3. It may further be considered as a knowledge of God, the Father; of his love, faithfulness, power, &c. Of the Son, as it relates to the dignity of his mature, (1 John 5: 20.) the suitability of his offices, (Heb. 9.) the perfection of his work, gº 68: 18.) the brightness of his example, (Acts 10: 38.) and the prevalency of his intercession, Heb. 7:25. Of the Holy Ghost, as equal with the Father and the Son; of his agency as an enlightener and com- forter; as also in his work of witnessing, sanctifying, and directing his people, John 15, 16. 2 Cor. 3: 17, 18. John 3: 5, 6. Rom. 8: 16. - © . - This knowledge may be considered as experimental, (2 Tim. 1: 12.) confiding, (Job 13:15, 16.) aſſectionate, (1 John 3: 19.) influential, (Ps. 9; 16. Matt. 5: 16.) self. abasing, (Is. 6. Job 42: 5, 6.) satisfying, (Psal. 36: 7. Prov. 3: 17.) and superior to all other knowledge, Phil. 3: 8. - The advantages of religious knowledge are very great. It forms the basis of true honor and felicity. Not all the lustre of a noble birth, not all the influence of wealth, not all the pomp of titles, not all the splendor of power, can give dignity to the soul that is destitute of inward im- provement. By this we are allied to angels, and are ca- pable of rising forever in the scale of being. Such is its inherent worth, that it hath always been represented under the most pleasing images. In particular, it hath been compared to light, the most valuable and reviving of nature's works, and to that glorious luminary which is the most beautiful and transporting object our eyes behold. If we entertain any doubts concerning the intrinsic value K N O K N O I 725 ; of religious knowledge, let us look around us, and we shall be convinced how desirable it is to be acquainted with God, with spiritual, with eternal things. Observe the difference between a cultivated and a barren country. While the former is a lovely, cheerful, and delightful sight, the other administers a spectacle of horror. There is an equal difference between the nations among whom the principles of piety prevail, and the nations that are overrun with idolatry, superstition, and error. I(now- ledge, also, is of great importance to our personal and pri- vate felicity: it furnishes a pleasure that cannot be met with in the possession of inferior enjoyments; a fine en- tertainment, which adds a relish to prosperity, and allevi- ates the hour of distress. It throws a lustre upon great- ness, and reflects an honor upon poverty. Knowledge wili also instruct us how to apply our several talents for the benefit of mankind. It will make us capable of ad- vising and regulating others. Hence we may become the lights of the world, and diffuse those munificent beams around us, which shall shine on benighted travellers, and discover the path of rectitude and bliss. This knowledge, also, tends to destroy bigotry and enthusiasm. To this we are indebted for the important change which hath been made since the beginning of the Reformation. To this we are indebted for the general cultivation and refinement of the understandings of men. It is owing to this that even arbitrary governments seem to have lost something of their original ferocity, and that there is a source of im- provement in Europe which will, we hope, in future times, shed the most delightful influences on society, and unite its members in harmony, peaee, and love. But the advantages of religious knowledge are still greater, for it points out to us an eternal felicity. The several branches of human science are intended only to bless and adorn our present existence; but religious knowledge bids us provide for an immortal being, sets the path of salvation before us, and is our inseparable companion in the road to glory. As it instructs in the way to endless bliss, so it will survive that mighty day when all worldly literature and accomplishments shall forever cease. At that so- lemn period, in which the records and registers of men shall be destroyed, the systems of human policy be dis- solved, and the grandest works of genius die, the wisdom which is spiritual and heavenly shall not only subsist, but be increased to an extent that human nature cannot in this life admit. Our views of things, at present, are ob- scure, imperfect, partial, and liable to error; but when we arrive at the realms of everlasting light, the clouds that shadowed our understanding will be removed; we shall behold, with amazing clearness, the attributes, ways, and works of God; shall perceive more distinctly the design of his dispensations; shall trace with rapture the wonders of nature and grace, and become acquainted with a thou- sand glorious objects, of which the imagination can as yet have no conception, 1 Cor. 13: 9–12. In order to increase in the knowledge of God, there must be dependence on him from whom all light proceeds, (Jas. 1: 6.) attention to his revealed will, (John 5: 39.) a watchful spirit against corrupt affections, (Luke 21:34.) a humble frame of mind, (Ps. 25: 9.) frequent medita- tion, (Ps. 104:34.) a persevering design of conformity to the divine image, Hos. 6: 3. Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 381; Saurin’s Serm., vol. i. ser. 1; Gill’s Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 12, 8vo; Tillotson's Serm., ser, 113; Watts' Works, vol. i. ser, 45; Hall's Sermon on the Advantages of Know- ledge to the Loner Classes; Foster's Essay on Popular Igno- rance ; Dwight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. KNOX, (JOHN,) the great champion of the Scottish re- formation, was born, in 1505, at Gifford, in East Lothian, and was educated at Haddington and St. Andrews. After he was created master of arts, he taught philosophy, most probably as a regent in one of the colleges of the univer- sity. His class became celebrated, and he was considered as equalling, if not excelling, his master, in the subtleties of the dialectic art. About the same time, although he had no interest but what was procured by his own merit, he was advanced to clerical orders, and ordained a priest before he reached the age fixed by the canons of the church. At this time, the fathers of the Christian church, Jerome and Augustine, attracted his particular attention. By the writings of the former, he was led to the Scriptures as the only pure ſountain of divine truth, and instructed in the Miſſ utility of studying them in the original languages. In the works of the latter he found religious sentiments very op posite to those taught in the Romish church, who, while she retained his name as a saint in her calendar, had ba- nished his doctrine as heretical from her pulpits. From this time he renounced the study of scholastic theology; and, although not yet completely emancipated from super- stition, his mind was fitted for improving the means which Providence had given for leading him to a fuller and more comprehensive view of the system of evangelical religion. It was about the year 1535, when this favorable change commenced; but it does not appear that he professed himself a Protestant before the year 1542. He was con- verted from the Romish faith by Wishart, and became a zealous preacher of the new doctrines. Having been compelled to take shelter in the castle of St. Andrews, he fell into the hands of the French in July, 1547, and was carried with the garrison to France, where he remained a captive on board of the galleys till 1549. Subsequent to his liberation he was for a short time chaplain to Edward WI., after which he visited Geneva and Frankfort, and, in 1555, returned to his native country. After having for twelve months labored actively and successfully to strengthen the Protestant cause in Scotland, he revisited Geneva, where he remained till 1559. During his resi- dence in Geneva he published his First Blast of the Trum- pet against the monstrous Government of Women; a treatise which was levelled against Mary of England, but which gave serious offence to Elizabeth. From April, 1559, when he once more and finally set foot on Scottish earth, till his decease, which took place November 24, 1572, the reformed church was triumphant, and he was one of its most prominent, admired, and honored lead- €TS. When his body was laid in the grave, the regent of Scotland emphatically pronounced his eulogium, in the well-known words, “There lies he who never feared the face of man.” • - Knox has been styled the intrepid reformer; and that character he unquestionably deserves. In personal intre- pidity, and popular eloquence, he resembled Luther. His doctrinal sentiments were those of Calvin ; and like Zuin- glius, he felt an attachment to the principles of religious liberty. He effected much in the great work of the refor- mation; but his manners were so severe, and his temper so acrid, that whilst he may be equally respected with Lu- ther and Melancthon, he is not equally beloved. Knox was, however, known and beloved by the principal persons among the reformed in France, Switzerland, and Germa- ny; and the affectionate veneration in which his memory was held in Scotland after his death, evinced that the in- fluence he possessed among his countrymen, during his life, was not constrained, but founded on the high opinion which they entertained. Banatyne has thus drawn his character, and it is unquestionably entitled to considera- tion –“ In this manner (says he) departed this man of God; the light of Scotland, the counſort of the church within the same, the mirror of godliness, and pattern, and example to all true ministers, in purity of life, soundness of doctrine, and boldness in reproving of wickedness; one that cared not for the favor of men, how great soever they were.” Of his works the principal is a History of the Reforma- tion in Scotland: the fourth edition of it includes all his R O R K OR I 726 ) bther writings. Life of Knox by Dr. M'Crie. Chris, Biog.—Hend. Buck; Davenport. KNOX, (Dr. Vioesimus,) a divine and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1752; was educated at Merchant Tailors school, and at St. John's college, Oxford; succeed- ed his father as head master of Tunbridge school; held that situation for thirty-three years; obtained the livings of Runwell and Ramsden Crays, in Essex, and the cha- pelry of Shipbourne, in Kent; and died December 6, 1821. Among his original works are, Essays, Moral and Litera- ry; Liberal Education; Winter Evenings; Personal No- bility; Christian Philosophy; and The Spirit of Despo- tism. He was the compiler of the Elegant Extracts and Epistles.—Davenport. * ROHATH ; the second son of Levi, and father of Am- ram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel, Gen. 46: 11. Exod. 6: 18. Rohath's family was appointed to carry the ark and sa- cred vessels of the tabernacle, while the Israelites marched through the wilderness, Num. 4, &c.—Watson. KOLLOCK, (HENRY, D. D.,) minister of Savannah, was born at New Providence, New Jersey, December 14, 1778, and was graduated at Princeton, in 1794. In December, 1800, he was ordained at Elizabethtown. In December, 1803, he was appointed professor of theology at Princeton, having a care also of the church. His abilities and elo- quence procured him great respect. In 1806, he removed to Savannah, where he was a mi- nister about thirteen years. For a time some ecclesiastical difficulties, founded on a charge of intemperance, threw a cloud over his good name. He went to Europe in 1817, and returned with invigorated health. He died, December 19, 1819, aged forty-one. After his death, his sermons were published in four volumes.—Allen. KORAH, was the son of Izhar, of the race of Levi, and father of Asher, Elkanah, and Alisaph, and head of the Korites, a celebrated family among the Levites. Korah, being dissatisfied with the rank he held among the sons of Levi, and envying the authority of Moses and Aaron, formed a party against them, in which he engaged Da- than, Abiram, and On, with two hundred and fifty of the principal Levites, Num. 16:1–3, &c. When Korah, for his rebellion, was swallowed up in the earth, his sons were preserved from his misfortunes. In succeeding generations the sons of I(orah continued as before to serve in the tabernacle of the Lord. David appointed them their office in the temple, to guard the doors, and sing the praises of God. To them are ascribed several psalms, which are designated by the name of Korah; as the forty-second, forty-fourth to the forty-ninth, eighty-fourth to the eighty-seventh ; in all, eleven psalms.-Watson. KORAN, or with the article, AL-KoRAN, (Alcoran,) i.e. the Koran, which originally means the reading, or that which is to be read, is the Bible, or religious code of the Mohammedans, written in Arabic by Mohammed. It is also called Al-Forkan, either from its division into distinct portions, or because it is regarded as that which divides right from wrong; Al-Moshaſ, the volume; and Al-Kitab, the book. * * - - 1. KoRAN, IIISTORY OF THE.—It is the common opinion, that Mohammed, assisted by one Sergius, a monk, com- posed this book. The Koran, while Mohammed lived, was only kept in loose sheets: his successor, Abubeker, first collected them into a volume, and committed the keeping of it to Haphsa, the widow of Mohammed, in or- der to be consulted as an original; and there being a good deal of diversity between the several copies already dis- persed throughout the provinces, Ottoman, successor of Abubeker, procured a great number of copies to be taken from that of Haphsa, at the same time suppressing all the others not conformable to the original. There are seven principal cditions of the Koran; two at Medina, one at Mec- ca, one at Cuſa, one at Bassora, one in Syria, and the com- mon, or vulgar edition. The first contains six thousand verses, the others surpassing this number by two hundred or two hundred and thirty-six verses; but the number of words and letters is the same in all ; viz. seventy-seven thousand six hundred and thirty-nine words, and three hundred and twenty-three thousand and ſiſteen letters. The number of commentaries on the Koran is so large, that the bare titles would make a huge volume. Ben Os. * Jones' chair has written the history of them, entitled Tarikh Ben Oschair. The principal among them are, Reidhari, Thaa- lebi, Zamalchschari, and Bacai. The Mohommedans have a positive theology built on the Koran and tradition, as well as a scholastical one built on reason. They have likewise their casuists, and a kind of canon law, wherein they distinguish what is of divine and what of positive right. They have their beneficiaries, too, chaplains, -álmoners, and canons, who read a chapter every day out of the Ko- ran in their mosques, and have prebends annexed to their office. The hatib of the mosque is what we call the par. son of the parish ; and the scheiks are the preachers, who take their texts out of the ICoran. - 2. I(or AN, MoHAMMEDAN FAITH concerNING.—It is the general belief among the Mohammedans that the Koran is of divine original; nay, that it is eternal and uncreated; remaining, as some express it, in the very essence of God, and the first, transcript has been from everlasting, by God's throne, written on a table of vast bigness, called the pre- served table, in which, are also recorded the divine decrees, past and future; that a copy from this table, in one vo- lume, upon paper, was, by the ministry of the angel Ga. briel, sent down to the lowest heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night of power, from whence Gabriel re- vealed it to Mohammed in parcels, some at Mecca, and some at Medina, at diſſerent times, during the space of twenty-three years, as the exigency of affairs required; giving him, however, the consolation to show him the whole (which they tell us was bound in silk, and adorned with gold and precious stones of paradise) once a year; but in the last year of his life he had the favor to see it twice. In fine, the book of the Koran is held in the high- est esteem and reverence among the Mussulmen. They dare not so much as touch the Koran without being first washed, or legally purified ; to prevent which an inscrip- tion is put on the cover or label,-" Let mone touch, but they who are clean.” It is read with great care and re- spect, being never held below the girdle. They swear by it; take omens from it on all weighty occasions; carry it with them to war; write sentences of it on their banners; adorn it with gold and precious stones; and knowingly suffer it not to be in the possession of any of a diſſerent religion. Some say that it is punishable even with death, in a Christian, even to touch it; others, that the venera- tion of the Mussulmen leads them to condemn the trans- lating it into any other language as a profanation : , but these seem to be exaggerations. The Mohammedans have taken care to have their Scripture translated into the Persian, the Javan, the Malayan, and other languages; though out of respect to the original, these versions are generally, if not always, interlincated. 3. KorAN, THE STYLE AND MERITs of TIIE, EXAMINED.— The praise of all the productions of genius is invention ; that quality of the mind, which, by the extent and quick- ness of its views, is capable of the largest conceptions, and of forming new combinations of objects the most distant and unusual. But the I(oran bears little impression of this transcendent character. Its materials are wholly borrowcq from the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, from the Talmu- dical legends and apocryphal gospels then current in the East, and from the traditions and fables which abounded in Arabia. The materials collected from these Several sources are here heaped together with perpetual and heedless repetitions, without any settled principle or visi- ble connexion. When a great part of the life of Moham- med had been spent in preparatory meditation on the sys- tem he was about to establish, its chapters were dealt out slowly and separately during the long period of twenty- three years. Yet, thus deſective in its structure, and no less objectionable in its doctrines, was the work which Mohammed delivered to his followers as the Oracles of God. The most prominent feature of the Koran, that point of excellency in which the partiality of its admirers has ever delighted to view it, is the sublime motion it gene- rally impresses of the nature and attributes of God. If its author had really derived these just conceptions from the inspiration of that Being whom they attempt to describe, they would not have becn surrounded, as thcy now are, on every side, with error and absurdity. But it might be ea. sily proved, that whatever it justly defines of the divine A .*.* º: # LA B attributes, was borrowed from our Holy Scripture; which even from its first promulgation, but especially from the completion of the New Testament, has extended the views and enlightened the understandings of mankind; and thus furnished them with arms which have too often been ef. fectually turned against itself by its ungenerous ene- mies. In this instance, particularly, the copy is far below the great original, both in the propriety of its images and the force of its descriptions. It is, therefore, abundantly º that no miracle was either externally performed for the support, or is inter- mally involved in the composition of the Mohammedan revelation. See Sale's Koran; Prideaux's Life of Maho- mel ; White's Sermons at the Bampton Lecture; and MoHAM- MEDANISM.–Hend. Buck. - - KORNTHAL, (Society of ;) a religious community in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, which originated in the ſol- lowing circumstances:—In the year 1818, Theophilus William Hoffmann, a notary-public, and burgomaster of Leonberg, perceiving that a difference of religious belief led a great number of the inhabitants of Wurtemberg to Russia and America, thought it would be an efficacious means of preventing other dissenters from following their example, if they were removed from under the jurisdiction of the Lutheran-consistory, and obtained toleration for the exercise of their religious worship. A royal decree, of the 22d of August, 1819, sanctioned their separation from the Lutheran church, and gave its approbation to regulations, formed by themselves, for their organization as a religious body, and for their relation to the state. They consisted, at that time, of about forty families; but their numbers rapidly increased. They purchased the lordship of Korn- thal, a bailiwick of Leonberg, two leagues from Stutgard, containing a thousand acres of arable and woody land, with some buildings, for a hundred and fifteen thousand florins. One of their first cares was to erect a commodious place of worship, capable of holding two thousand per- sons. Their mode of worship nearly resembles that of the Protestant churches, from which they are légally separated, although they adopt the tenets and teach the catechism of Luther, and have a liturgy similar, not to that introduced into certain Lutheran churches in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but to that of 1582. It will be seen from what follows, that their discipline resembles that of the Moravian Brethren. Their service consists of a succession of hymns, prayers, and Scripture reading; the Lord’s supper is administered every fourth week, eight days previous to which, separate meetings are held of married men and widowers, married women and widows, bachelors, and spinsters. Besides the Sundays, they celebrate the festivals of Jesus Christ, the Apostles, St. Stephen, the New Year, Epiphany, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, St. John the Baptist, Annunciation, and Purification of the Vir. gin Mary. They have also, once a month, a day of fasting and prayer. Their clergy consist of readers, elders, and a I 727 . ... •w, a *.* L A M president, called bishop, who in public service appear ifi. white robes. A secular president administers their tem: poral affairs; who, like all their civil and ecclesiastical officers, is elected by the community, whose suffrage is also requisite in the admission of members. A community of goods is not held by thern : any member, on quitting the society, may carry away his movables; but he car; only sell his fixtures to another member, or, in default of a purchaser, to the community. The two sexes have separate burial places. . Feasts at baptisms and funerals are abolished; also salutations on the new year. Mourn- ing is never worn. Oaths are forbidden. Benevolence towards persons of other communions is commanded, Begging is prohibited, and care is taken of the poor and aged. A portion of the money collected for charitable uses, is applied to carrying the knowledge of the •ospel fo heathen lands. They have schools for each sex, in which they are mainly solicitous to inculcate piety and virtue. No member may marry without the advice of the presi- dents, especially out of the society. Every one must have some trade. For every thing there is a fixed price. No brother may borrow money but from the common chest, No member may lodge a foreigner, or take a foreign ser- vant, without informing the president. The various branches of agriculture, and the mechanical arts, form the habitual employment of this colony. Since 1821, a kind of journal has, at indefinite periods, presented to the public a view of the civil and religious state of this society, whose prosperity will augment while it shall retain its pri- mitive zeal, its purity of manners, and its love of labor.— IIend. Buck. * KRUDENER, (Baroness VALERIA,) a religious enthusi- ast, daughter of count Wittenkoff, was born, in 1766, at Riga ; married baron Krudener when she was only four- teen; and was for a considerable period one of the gayest of the gay in the Parisian circles. At length she became a fanatical devotee, announced herself as an envoy from Heaven, and wandered from state to state preaching, and surrounded by thousands of people. In many places she was driven out by the magistrates. She died, in the Cri- mea, in 1824. Alexander of Russia was among those who listened to her doctrines. She wrote Valeria, a novel, which is believed to depict some of her early adventures.— Davenport ; Hend. Buck; Ency. Amer. KTISTOLATRAE; a branch of the Monophysites, which maintained that the body of Christ before his resurrection was corruptible.—Hend. Buck. KYRLE, (Jon N,) a man remarkable for his active be- nevolence, was born, in 1640, at Whitehouse, in Glouces- tershire, and died at Ross, in Herefordshire, in 1724. Pope, in his Moral Essays, has commemorated the good deeds of this estimable character. With his small fortune, however, Kyrle could not solely have accomplished all that is attributed to him; but his example prompted some, and his solicitations induced others, to associate with him in the work of charity and public utility.—Davenport. L. LABADISTS, were so called from their founder, John Labadie, a native of France. He was originally in the Romish communion; but leaving that, he became a mem- ber of the reformed church, and performed with reputation the ministerial functions in France, Switzerland, and Hol- land. He at length erected a ne: community, which re- sided successively at Middlcourg, in Zealand, Amsterdam, Hervorden, and at Aitona, where he died, about 1674. After his death, his followers removed their wandering community to Wiewert, in the district of North Holland, where it soon fell into oblivion. If we are to judge of the I.abadists by their own account, they did not differ from the reformed church so much in their tenets and doctrines as in their manners and rules of discipline; although it seems that Labadie had some strange notions.—H. Buck. LABARUM ; the name given to the imperial banner, upon which Constantine, after his conversion, blazoned the monogram of Christ.—Hend. Buck, LACTANTIUS, (LUCIUs CELIUs,) a father of the church, the purity of whose Latinity has gained for him the title of the Christian Cicero, was born in the third cen- tury, but whether in Africa, or at Fermo, in Italy, is un- decided. He studied under Arnobius; became celebrated for his eloquence; and was appointed tutor to Crispus, the son of Constantine. He is supposed to have died at Treves, about 325. His principal works are, De Opificio Dei;, and Divinarum Institutionum-Davenport. - LAITY; the people, as distinguished from the clergy. (See CLERGY.) - LAKE ; a confluence of waters. The principal lakes in Judea, were the lake Asphaltites, the lake of Tiberias, and the lake Semechon; and, towards Egypt, the lake Sirbon. (See the respective articles.)—Calmet. LAMAISM; the religion of the people of Thibet. The Delai Lama, “Grand Lama,” is at once the high-priest, and the visible object of adoration, to this nation, to the L. A M [728 J hordes of wandering Tartars, and to the prodigious popu- lation of China. He resides at Patoli, a vast palace on a mountain near the banks of the Burampooter, about seven miles from Lahasse. The foot of the mountain is sur- rounded by twenty thousand lamas, or priests, in attend- ance on their sovereign pontiff, who is considered as the vicegerent of the Deity on earth; and the more remote Tartars are said to regard him absolutely as the Deity himself, and call him God, the everlasting father of hea- ven: They believe him to be immortal, and endowed with all knowledge and virtue. Every year they come up from different parts to worship, and make rich offerings at his shrine. Even the emperor of China, who is a Mant- thou Tartar, does not fail in acknowledgments to him in his religious capacity; and entertains in the palace at Pekin an inferior lama, deputed as his nuncio from Thibet. The grand Lama is only to be seen in a secret place of his palace, amidst a great number of lamps, sitting cross- legged on a cushion, and decked all over with gold and precious stones; while, at a distance, the people prostrate themselves before him, it being not lawful for any so much as to kiss his feet. He returns not the least sign of re- Spect, nor ever speaks, even to the greatest princes; but only lays his hand upon their heads, and they are fully persuaded that they thereby receive a full forgiveness of their sins. The sunniasses, or Indian pilgrims, often visit Thibet as a holy place; and the Lama entertains a body of two or three hundred in his pay. Besides his religious influence and authority, he is possessed of unlimited power throughout his dominions, which are very extensive. The inferior lamas, who form the most numerous as well as the most powerful body in the state, have the priesthood entirely in their hands, and, besides, fill up many monas- tic orders, which are held in great veneration among them. The whole country, like Italy, abounds with priests; and they entirely subsist on the rich presents sent them from the utmost extent of Tartary, from the empire of the great mogul, and from almost all parts of the Indies. The opinion of the orthodox among the Thibetians is, that when the grand lama seems to die, either of old age or infirmities, his soul, in fact, only quits a crazy habitation to enter another, younger and better; and is discovered again in the body of some child, by certain tokens, known only to the lamas, or priests, in which order he always appears. Almost all the nations of the East, except the Mohamme- dans, believe the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul, as the most important article of their faith; espe- cially the inhabitants of Thibet, Burmah, and Anan, the Siamese, the greater part of the Chinese and Japanese, and the Monguls and Kalmucks. According to their doc. trine, the soul no Sooner leaves her old habitation than she enters a new one. The delai lama, therefore, or rather the god Foe or Fuh, residing in the delai lama, passes to his Successor ; and he being a god, to whom all things are known, the grand Lama is therefore acquainted with every thing which happened during his residence in his former bodies. - This religion, which was early adopted in a large part of the globe, is said to have been of three thousand years' standing; and neither time, nor the influence of men, has had the power of shaking the authority of the grand Lama. This theocracy, which extends as fully to temporal as to spiritual concerns, is professed all over Thibet and Mon-" galia; is almost universal in Greater and Less Bucharia, and several provinces of Tartary; has some followers in the kingdom of Cashmere, in India; and is the predomi- nant religion of China. . It has been observed that the religion of Thibet is the counterpart of the Roman Catholic, since the inhabitants of that country use holy water, and a singing service. They also offer alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the dead. They have a vast number of convents filled with monks and friars, amounting to thirty thousand, and confessors chosen by their superiors. They use beads, wear the mi. tre, like the bishops; and their delai lama is nearly the same among them as the sovereign pontiff was formerly, in the zenith of his power, among the Roman Catholics. So complete is the resemblance, that, when one of the first Roman missionaries penetrated Thibet, he came to the * conclusion, that the devil had set up there an imitation of the rites of the Catholic church, in order the more effectu- ally to destroy the Souls of men. - Captain Turner, speaking of the religion of Thibet, says, “It seems to be the Schismatical offspring of the religion of the Hindoos, deriving its origin from one of the follow- ers of that faith, a disciple of Bouddhu, who first broached the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of Tartary. It is reported to have received its earliest ad- mission in that part of Tibet, or Thibet, bordering upon India, which from hence became the seat of the sovereign lamas; to have traversed over Mantchieux Tartary, and to have been ultimately disseminated over China and Ja- pan. Though it differs from the Hindoo in many of its outward forms, yet it still bears a very close affinity with the religion of Brumha in many important particulars. The principal idol in the temples of Tibet, or Thibet, is Muha-Moonee, the Booddhu of Bengal, who is worshipped under these and various other epithets, throughout the great extent of Tartary, and among all nations to the east- ward of the Brumhapootru. In the wide-extended space over which this faith prevails, the same object of venera- tion is acknowledged under numerous titles : among others, he is styled Godumu, or Gotumu, in Assam and Ava, Shummunu in Siam, Amida Buth in Japan, Fohi in China,” &c.—Watson. LAMB OF GOD. By this name John the Baptist called our Savior, (John 1:29, 36.) to signify his inno- cence, and his quality as a victim to be offered for the sins of the world. Or, he might allude to these words of the prophet : “He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before his shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth,” Isa. 53: 7. If it were a little before the passover, then the sight of a number of lambs going to Jerusalem to be slain on that occasion, might suggest the idea; as if he had said, “Behold the true, the most excel- lent Lamb of God,” &c.—Calmet. LAMBETH ARTICLES. (See ARTICLEs.) LAMBERT, (John,) the English martyr. His real name was Nicholson, Lambert being assumed in the latter part of his life to avoid the dangers that beset his life. He was born in Norfolk, and educated at Cambridge, where the excellent Bilney was the means of his conversion, not only to Protestant principles, but to God. He was soon obliged to seek refuge in Holland; whence in 1532 he was brought to London by means of Sir Thomas More, and tried before the archbishop of Canterbury on forty- nine articles, preserved, with his answers, by Fox. In 1534, Warham dying, Cranmer succeeded to the primacy, and Lambert was released. In 1538, he was apprehended at the instigation of bishop Gardiner, and tried before Henry VIII. with great pomp. Lambert defended him self with the firmness of a man, the learning of a scholar, and the humility of a Christian. But the cause was al- ready prejudged, and he was condemned to be burnt. Lord Cromwell and Cranmer, afterwards such distin- guished friends of the Reformation, that day were against him. No man was used at the stake with greater cruelty than was Lambert. But God was with him. Just before he expired, he liſted up his hands, all flaming with fire, and cried out to the people, with his dying voice, in these glo- rious words, NoNE BUT CHRIST : NoNE BUT CHRIST . A volume could not have conveyed the energy of divine truth like these words, in these circumstances.—Middle- ton, vol. i. p. 139 LAME. Persons weak in body, or in their intellect and grace, and halting between different opinions, are called lame, Isa. 33: 23. Heb. 12: 13.—Bronn. LAMECH; a descendant of Cain, the son of Mathu. sael, and father of Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-Cain, and Naamah, Gen. 4: 18–20, &c. He stands branded as the father of polygamy, the first who dared to violate the sacred com- mand; (Gen. 2: 24.) giving way to his unbridled passion, and thus overleaping the divine mound raised by the wis- dom of our great Creator; which restraint is enforced by the laws of nature herself, who peoples the earth with an equal number of males and females, and thereby teaches foolish man that polygamy is incompatible with her wise regulations. He married Adah and Zillah : the former L A M I, A N 729 | was the mother of Jabal and Jubal, and the latter of Tu- bal-Cain and Naamah, his sister.—Watson. LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH; a mournful po- em, composed by the prophet, on occasion of the destruc- tion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The first two chapters principally describe the calamities of the siege of Jerusalem; the third deplores the persecutions which Je- remiah himself had suffered ; the fourth adverts to the ruin and desolation of the city and temple, and the misfortune of Zedekiah ; and the fifth is a kind of form of prayer for the Jews in their captivity. At the close the prophet speaks of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had insulted Jerusalem in her misery, and threatens them with the wrath of God. (See JEREMIAH.) The first four chapters of the Lamentations are in the acrostic form ; every verse or couplet beginning with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in regular order. The first and second chapters contain twenty-two verses, according to the letters of the alphabet; the third chapter has trip- lets, beginning with the same letter; and the fourth is like the first two, having twenty-two verses. The fifth chapter is not an acrostic. is lively, tender, pathetic, and affecting. It was the talent of this prophet to write melancholy and moving elegies; and never was a subject more worthy of tears, nor written with more tender and affecting sentiments.-Calmet. LAMPETIANS ; a denomination in the seventeenth century, the ſollowers of Lampetius, a Syrian monk. He pretended that as man is born free, a Christian, in order to please God, ought to do nothing by necessity; and that it is, therefore, unlawful to make vows, even those of obe- dience. To this system it is said he added the doctrines of the Arians, Carpocratians, and other denominations.— Hend. Buck. - - LAMP. There is frequent mention of lamps in Scrip- ture, and the word is often used figuratively. The inven- tion of lamps is ascribed to the Egyptians. They also were the first who put burning lamps in the tombs with their dead, as an emblem of the immortality of the soul. Lamps were known to the Hebrews as early as the time of Moses and Job. • : To do this subject justice, it might be considered under Several distinctions: as, (1.) Military lamps, those intend- ed to meet the exigencies of night, in the external air, when the breeze is lively, or when the wind is high. (2.) Domestic lamps, those intended for service in the interior •of a dwelling, or to be carried about into all parts of it; but not powerful enough to resist a gale of wind in the open air. (3.) Lamps for religious uses; those hung up in temples, or deposited in the sacred recesses of edifices, public or private, &c. We shall, however, attend only to the distinction between lamps for the exterior, the open air; and lamps for the interior, domestic purposes. 1. We meet with the Hebrew term lapid, properly lam- pid, (whence the word lamp,) in that remarkable history of the “smoking furnace and the burning lamp,” which ratified the covenant made with Abraham; (Gen. 15: 17.) where the text observes, that, (1.) it was after the sun was gone down, (2.) when it was dark, what is rendered, a furnace, passed; and this is expressly noted as (3.) smok- ing. Whatever light, or splendor, overcame the darkness of the evening, with the much greater darkness occasion- ed by the density of the Smoke by which it was immedi- ately surrounded, and in the centre of which it blazed, was certainly not feeble, or dim, but lively, vigorous, and even powerful. The action took place in the open air; and this lamp, described as burning, was competent to re- sist, and more than resist, every impulse of the atmo- sphere. With this we may compare the appearances at the giving of the law, (Exod. 20: 18.) and in Daniel's vision, Dan. 10:6. Also Judg. 7: 15, 15:4. Isa. 62: 1. Ez. 1: 13, and Zech. 12: 6, in all of which the same word is used in the original. To this word answers the Greek lampas, Matt. 25: 1. . . . - e . 2. A lamp for domestic use is called ner in the Hebrew, and is frequently, though erroneously, rendered candle in our version. See Prov. 31: 18. Job. 29: 3. 18: 5, 6. 2 Sam. 21: 18. Num, 21:30. This household lamp is in Greek usually called the luchnos, Matt. 5: 15. The houses in the East were, from the remotest antiquity, lighted with The style of Jeremiah's Lamentations. lamps; and hence it is so common in Scripture to call every thing which enlightens the body or mind, which guides or refreshes, by the name of a lamp. These lamps were sustained by a large candlestick set upon the ground. The houses of Egypt, in modern times, are never without lights: they burn lamps all the night long, and in every occupied apartment. So requisite to the comfort of a family is this custom reckoned, or so imperious is the power which it exercises, that the poorest people would rather retrench part of their food than neglect it. As this custom no doubt prevailed in Egypt and the adjacent re- gions of Arabia and Palestine in former times, it imparts a beauty and force to some passages of Scripture which have been little observed. Thus, in the language of Jere- miah, to extinguish the light in an apartment is a converti- ble phrase for total destruction; and nothing can more properly and emphatically represent the total destruction of a city than the extinction of the lights : “I will take from them the light of a candle, and this whole land shall be a desolation and an astonishment.” See also Job 21: 17. 18: 5, 6. A brilliant lamp is, on the other hand, the chosen sym- bol of prosperity, a beautiful instance of which occurs in the complaint of Job, 29: 2, 3. When the ten tribes were taken from Rehoboam, and given to his rival, Jehovah pro- mised to reserve one tribe, and assigns this reason: “That David my servant may have a light always before me in Je- rusalem,” 1 Kings 11:36. In many parts of the East, and in particular in the Indies, instead of torches and flam- beaux, they carry a pot of oil in one hand, and a lamp full of oily rags in the other. (See MARRIAGE.)—Calmet ; HWatson. - LAND, in the Old Testament, often denotes the country of the Israelites, or the particular country, or district, Spo- ken of; the land of Canaan, the land of Egypt, the land of Ashur, the land of Moab. In many places of our pub- lic version the phrase “all the earth” is used, where the meaning should be restricted to the land, or all the land. —Calmet. LANFRANC, a pious and learned Romish prelate, was born, in 1005, at Pavia; became prior of Bec, in Nor- mandy, in 1044; and was made abbot of St. Stephen, at Caen, in 1062. When William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, he raised Lanſranc to the archbishop- ric of Canterbury, who held the see till his decease, in 10S9. Lanfranc rebuilt the cathedral of Canterbury, and founded the hospitals of St. John and Harbledown. He. was the antagonist of the great Berengarius, and Wrote, in good Latin, various theological works.—Davenport. LANGDON, (SAMUEL, D. D.,) minister of Portsmouth, N. H., and president of Harvard college, was a native of Boston; was graduated in 1740; ordained as the successor of Mr. Fitch in 1747; inducted into the office of president as the successor of Mr. Locke in 1774, but resigned it, in consequence of the disaffection of his pupils, occasioned by his want of the requisite dignity and authority, in 1780. He settled at Hampton Falls, N. H., in 1781. His exten- sive knowledge, hospitality, patriotism, and piety secured to him, in this calm retreat, the affection and respect of the people of his charge, and of his numerous acquaint- ance. He died, November 29, 1797, aged seventy-four. He published many sermons, besides an Examination of R. Sandeman’s letters on Theron and Aspasio, 1765; a Summary of Christian Faith and Practice, 1768; and Remarks on the Leading Sentiments of Dr. Hopkins’ Sys- tem of Doctrines, 1794. Alden's Acc. of the Relig. Soc. of Portsmouth ; Hist. Col., vol. x. p. 51-Allen. LANGUAGE, in general, denotes those articulate sounds by which men express their thoughts. Much has been said respecting the invention of language. On the one side, it is observed, that it is altogether a human inven- tion, and that the progress of the mind, in the invention and improvement of language, is, by certain natural gra- dations, plainly discernible in the composition of words. But on the other side it is alleged, that we are indebted to divine revelâtion for the origin of it. Without supposing this, we see not how our first barents could so early hold converse with God, or the man with his wife. Admitting, however, that it is of divine original, we cannot suppose that a perfect system of it was all at once given to man. It is much more matural to think that God taught our first s 92 * L. A N L. A P [ 730 J parents only such language as suited their present occa- sion, leaving them, as he did in other things, to enlarge and improve it, as their future necessities should require. Without attempting, however, to decide this controversy, we may consider language as one of the greatest blessings belonging to mankind. Destitute of this, we should make but small advancements in science, be lost to all social en- joyments, and religion itself would feel the want of such a power. Our wise Creator, therefore, has conferred upon us this imestimable privilege : let us then be cautious that our tongues be not the vehicle of vain and useless matter, but used for the great end of glorifying him, and doing good to mankind. . - What was the first language taught man, is matter of dispute among the learned, but most think it was the He- brew. There are, however, other opinions on the oft-dis- puted subject as to the primitive language. The Arme- nians allege, that as the ark rested in their country, Noah and hus children must have remained there a considerable time, before the lower and marshy country of Chaldea could be fit to receive them ; and it is therefore reasonable to suppose they left their language there, which was proba- bly the very same that Adam spoke. Some have fancied the Greek the most ancient tongue, because of its extent and copiousness. The Teutonic, or that dialect of it which is spoken in the Lower Germany and Brabant, has found a strenuous patron in Geropius Becanus, who endeavors to derive even the Hebrew itself from that tongue. The pretensions of the Chinese to this honor have been allow- ed by several Europeans. The patrons of this opinion endeavor to support it, partly, by the great antiquity of the Chinese, and their having preserved themselves so many ages from any considerable mixture or intercourse with other nations. It is a notion advanced by Dr. Allix, and maintained by Mr. Whiston with his usual tenacity and fervor, that the Chinese are the posterity of Noah, by his children born after the flood; and that Fohi, the first king of China, was Noah. As for those which are called the Oriental languages, they have each their partisans. The generality of Eastern writers allow the preference to the Syriac, except the Jews, who assert the antiquity of the Hebrew with the greatest warmth; and with them several Christian writers agree, particularly Chrysostom, Austin, Origen, and Jerome, among the ancients; and among the moderns, Bochart, Heidegger, Selden, and Buxtorf. The Sanscrit has also put in its claims; and some have thought that the Pali bears the character of the highest antiquity. All these are however useless speculations. The only point worth contending for is, that language was conveyed at once to the first pair in sufficient degree for intellectual intercourse with each other, and devotional intercourse with God; and that man was not left, as infidel writers have been pleased to say, to form it for himself out of rude and instinctive sounds. It is true that many languages bear marks of being raised to their improved state from rude and imperfect elements, and that all are capable of being enriched and rendered more exact; and it is this which has given some color to those theories which trace all language itself up from elemental sounds, as the necessities of men, their increasing knowledge, and their imagination led to the in- vention of new words and combinations. All this is, how. ever, consistent with the Scripture fact, that language was taught at first by God to our first parents. The dispersion of mankind carried many tribes to great distances, and wars still further scattered them, and often into wide re- gions, where they were further dispersed to live chiefly by the chase, by fishing, or at best but an imperſect agricul- ture. In various degrees we know they lost useful arts; and for the same reasons they would lose much of their original language; those terms being chiefly retained which their immediate necessities, and the common affairs of a gross life, kept in use. But when civilization again overtook these portions of mankind, and kingdoms and empires were ſounded among them, or they became inte- gral parts of the old empires, then their intercourse with each other becoming more rapid, and artificial, and intel- lectual, their language was put into a new process of im- provement, and to the eye of the critic would exhibit the various stages of advancement; and in many it would be pushed beyond that perfection which it had when it first began to deteriorate. (See LETTERs.) . Dr. Adam Smith's I)issertation on the Formation of Languages ; Harris' FIermes; Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses, vol. iii.; Traité de la Formation Mécanique des Langues, par le Pré- sident de Brosses; Blair's Rhetoric ; Gregory's Essays, ess. 6; Lord Monboddo on the Origin and Progress of Language; Good's Book of Nature.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. LANTERN, (lampadon.) The word occurs, John 18: 3; but appears to denote a sort of military lamp. (See LAMP.) The soldiers came thus furnished to apprehend our Lord, lest he should escape through the darkness of the night.—Watson. LAODICEA. There were several cities of this name, but the Scripture speaks only of that in Phrygia, upon the river Lycus, near Colosse. Its ancient name was Diospo- lis: it was afterwards called Rhoas. Lastly, Antiochus, the son of Stratonice, rebuilt it, and called it Laodicea, from the name of his wife Laodice. It increased towards the time of Augustus Caesar. The fertility of the soil, and the good fortune of some of its citizens, raised it to greatness. Hiero, who adorned it with many offerings, bequeathed to the people more than two thousand talents; and though an inland town, it grew more potent than the cities on the coast, and became one of the largest towns in Phrygia. Such was its state when Christianity was planted in it, and also at the date of the epistle to the Colossians, A. D. 60, or 61. Whether the church here was numerous, we know not; but it seems they boasted of their splendid garments, and wealth, and knowledge; which agrees with their history, that they were enriched by the fleeces of their sheep, and eminent in polite studies. Its three theatres, and the immense circus, which was capable of containing upwards of thirty thousand specta- tors, the spacious remains of which (with other ruins bu- ried under ruins) are yet to be seen, give proof of the greatness of its ancient wealth and population; and indi- cate too strongly, that in that city where Christians were rebuked, without exception, for their lukewarmness, there were multitudes who were lovers of pleasure more than lovers of God. The amphitheatre was built after the Apo- calypse was written, and the warning of the Spirit had been given to the church of the Laodiceans to be zealous and repent, Rev. 3: 14–22. It became the mother-church of sixteen bishoprics. - There are no sights of grandeur, nor scenes of tempta: tion, around it now. Its tragedy may be briefly told. It was lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot ; and therefore it was loathsome in the sight of God; and with the city of its abode, it has been blotted ſrom the world. “Laodicea,” says Dr. Smith, “is utterly desolated, and without any in. habitant, except wolves, and jackals, and foxes. It can boast of no human inhabitants, except occasionally when wandering Turcomans pitch their tents in its spacious am- phitheatre. Colonel Lake observes, “There are ſew ancient cities more likely than Laodicea to preserve many curious remains of antiquity beneath the surface of the soil. Its opulence, and the earthquakes to which it was subject, render it probable that valuable works of art were often there buried beneath the ruins of the public and private edifices.” The finest sculptured fragments are to be seen at a considerable depth, in excavations which have been made among the ruins.— Watson ; Calmet. LAPWING, (dukiphath,) Levit. 11:19. Deut. 14: 18. The bird intended by the Hebrew name in these places is * * --~~~ undoubtedly the hoopoe; a very beautiful, but most un- clean and filthy, species of birds. The Septuagint renders L A. T L. A U | 731 J it epopa ; and the Vulgate, upupa ; which is the same with the Arabian interpreters. is kukuphah ; and the Syrian, kikuphah ; which approach the Hebrew dukiphath. It may have its name from the moise or cry it makes, which is very remarkable, and may be heard a great way.—Harris ; Abbott ; Watson. LARDNER, (NATHANIEL, D. D.,) a learned dissenting divine, was born, in 1684, at Hawkhurst, in Kent, of pious parents; studied at Utrecht and Leyden; became a minis- ter in his twenty fifth year; and, aſter having been chap- laſm and tutor in the family of lady Treby, acquired equal reputation as a preacher and a writer. During the year 1724, he was engaged, with several other ministers, in preaching a lecture, on Tuesday evenings, at the Old Jew- ry, from whence originally sprung his great work, “The Credibility of the Gospel History.” On the 24th of Au- gust, 1729, he received an unexpected invitation from the church at Crutched Friars, which he accepted. He main- tained a large correspondence, both in Great Britain and foreign parts, particularly in America and Germany. On account of his deafness, he in 1751 resigned the place of morning preacher at Crutched Friars, having been assist- ant there near twenty-two years. As he lived very retir- ed, especially the latter part of his life, he engaged in very few public things; however, as a private man, he was always ready in every good word and work, affording his assistance, according to his ability, to those in distress. He died, at his native place, in 1768. The collected edi- tion of his works forms eleven volumes, octavo. Of these the chief is, The Credibility of the Gospel History, a pro- duction which is deserving of the highest praise, for its learning, faithfulness, and candor. See Memoirs, by Dr. Kippis.-Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Davenport. LARNED, (SYLvester,) the eloquent minister of New Orleans, was the son of colonel Simon Larned, of Pittsfield, Massachusetts. His mother was a woman of extraordi- mary intellectual power and pious zeal. He was born Au- gust 31, 1796, and in his senior year at college his mind was first impressed by religious truth. He graduated, at Middlebury, (Vt.) in 1813, having the English oration. His talents were very early developed. His theological cducation was at Andover and Princeton. At this period no one equalled him in extemporary debate. After he became a preacher, in 1817, and was ordained as an evan- gelist, he repaired to New Orleans. On the arrival of Mr. Larned the society was quickly established, and he was settled as the minister of the first Presbyterian congrega- tion. He fell a victim to the yellow ſever, Thursday, Au- gust 31, 1820, aged twenty-four. He preached on the pre- ceding Sabbath from the words, “For to me to live is Christ and to die is gain;” and closed his discourse in tears. Probably no preacher in the United States occupi- ed a more important station, or was more admired for his eloquence. By his death, a kind of sacrifice to duty, he left a deep impression of the courage and value of true piety.—Allen. LAS CASAS. (See CASAs.) LATIMER, (HUGH,) a pious prelate, one of the victims of the sanguinary Mary, was the son of ayeoman, and was born, about 1470, at Thurcaston, in Leicestershire. He was educated at Christ's college, Cambridge. In early life he was a zealous papist, but, being converted at fifty- three, he became an equally zealous champion of the Re- formation. The credit to the Protestant cause, which he gained in the pulpit, he maintained by a holy life out of it. Mr. Bilney and he gave daily instances of goodness, which malice could not scandalize, nor envy misinterpret. They visited the prisoners, relieved the poor, and fed the hun- gry, Cambridge was full of their good works; their cha- rities to the poor, and friendly visits to the sick, were con- stant topics of discourse. (See BILNEY.) After having encountered many perils, he was made bishop of Worcester, in 1535, by Henry VIII. The bishop. ric, however, he resigned, on the passing of the act of the six articles; and was punished by being imprisoned during the remainder of Henry's reign. He had the cou- rage, while in favor at court, to write a letter of remon- strance to Henry VIII., on the evil of prohibiting the use of the Bible in English, and even presented him for a new The Egyptian name of the bird' year's giſt, instead of a purse as was usual, a New Tes. tament, having the leaf turned down to this passage: “Whoremongers and adulterers God will judge.” The ac- cession of Edward VI. set Latimer at liberty, and he re- Sumed his preaching, but refused to resume the mitre. On Mary ascending the throne, he was again incarcerated; and, in 1555, was brought to the stake, where he suffered with unshaken courage. Ridley was his fellow-martyr. When they came to the stake, he lifted up his eyes and est Deus;” i. e. God is faithful, who will ºrsº- *- *_*: * wº- - º not suffer us to be tempted above what we are able to bear. He then prepared himself, saying to the bishop of Lon- don, “We shall this day, brother, light such a candle in England, as shall never be put out.” Such was the death of Hugh Latimer, bishop of Wor- cester. He had a happy temper, improved by the best principles; and such was his cheerfulness, that none of the circumstances of life were seen to discompose him : such was his Christian fortitude, that not even the severest trials could unman him. Indeed, ſor Latimer, no eulogy is wanting, when it is recollected that he was one of the leaders of that noble army of martyrs who introduced the Reformation into England. “He, more than any other man, promoted the Reforma tion by his preaching. The straight forward honesty of his remarks, the liveliness of his illustrations, his homely wit, his racy manner, his manly freedom, the playfulness of his temper, the simplicity of his heart, the sincerity of his understanding, gave life and vigor to his sermons when they were delivered, and render them now the most amus- ing productions of that age, and to us, perhaps, the most valuable.” See Gilpin's Lives of Reformers ; Middleton's Evang. Biog.—Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. LATITUDINARIANS; persons who, disregarding fix- ed, determinate, or exclusive views of doctrine or worship, maintain that men will be saved, independently of any particular persuasion which they entertain....The term was given it to More, Hales, Chillingworth, Wilkins, Cud- worth, Whitchcot, Gale, Tillotson, and others, mostly Cam- bridge men, who endeavored to examine all the principles of morality and religion on philosophical principles, and to maintain them by the reason of things. They declared against superstition on the one hand, and enthusiasm Oil the other, They were attached to the constitution and forms of the church; but moderate in their opposition to those who dissented from it. They were mostly Armini- ans of the Dutch school, but admitted of a considerable latitude of sentiment, both in philosophy and theology, on which account they were denominated Latitudinarians. In conjunction with other clergymen of that period, they introduced a very inefficient mode of preaching into the established church; learnedly defending the truth of Chris- tianity as a system, but modifying the statements of the gospel, obscuring the glory of divine grace, and thus meu- tralizing its influence on the heart of man. They were, in fact, low churchmen, of Arminian principles; moderate in piety, in sentiment, and in zeal; though some of them gradually became ‘fierce for moderation.’”—Hend. Buck. LAUD, (WILLIAM, D. D.,) a prelate, the son of a clothier, was born, in 1573, at Reading, in Berkshire; was educated at the free school of his native place, and at St. John’s col- lege, Oxford ; was ordained in 1601; became president of º * L. A. W. L. A. W [ 732 J º: A. D. 258.—Fox, 32. his college in 1611; and, after having held various livings, was at length patronised by James I., who had long looked upon him with coldness. His first preferment from the sovereign was the deanery of Gloucester, which he obtain. ed in 1616. In 1620 he was nominated to the see of St. David's, whence he was successively translated, in 1626, 1628, and 1633, to Bath and Wells, London, and Canter- bury. From the moment of his attaining power he acted the part of a furious persecutor of those who differed from him on religious points, and an enemy to public liberty. His ingratitude, too, was equal to his violence. The meeting of the long parliament was the signal of his down- fal. in the Tower. On his being brought to trial he defended himself with great courage and acuteness. A bill of attainder was at length passed against him by the com- mons, and he was executed, January 10, 1644–5. Laud was intolerant, tyrannical, and superstitious; but it would be unjust to conceal that he was a patron of learning. The most interesting of his works is his Diary.—Daven- port ; Clissold ; Ency. Amer. LAUGHTER, is an indication either of delight and as- surance; or of mirth and mockery. Sarah in her trans- port of joy called her son Isaac ; that is, laughter, Gen. 21: 6. “At destruction and famine thou shalt laugh;” i. e. thou shalt not fear it, thou shalt be perſectly secure against those evils. God laughs at the wicked ; he de- spises their vain efforts. Ishmael laughed at Isaac ; he insulted him, he vexed him. See Gal. 4: 29. Laughter in general implies rejoicing. “There is a time to laugh, and a time to weep;” that is, a time to rejoice, and a time to be afflicted, Eccl. 3: 4. “Blessed are ye who weep now, for ye shall laugh,” Luke 6: 21, 25. It is frequently used for excessive and irreligious mirth. “I said of laughter, it is mad,” Eccl. 2: 2. “Your laughter shall be turned into mourning ;” your worldly joy shall terminate in sor- row and remorse, James 4:9. Abraham's laughter, when God promised him a son, was an expression of admiration and gratitude, not of doubt : the Scripture which relates it does not disapprove of it, as it does of Sarah's, Gen. 17: 17.-Calmet. LAURA ; in church history, a name given to a collec- tion of little cells at some distance from each other, in which the hermits of ancient times lived together in a wil- derness. These hermits did not live in community, but each monk provided for himself in his distinct cell. The most celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical history were in Palestine ; as the laura of St. Euthymus, St. Sa- ba, the laura of the towers, &c.—IIend, Buck. LAUREATE, as a passive verb, to be crowned with the prize, as a successful theological candidate, in ancient times, at the Scotch universities.—Hend. Buck. LAURENTIUS, (commonly called St. Laurence,) a Christian martyr of the third century, was one of the dea- cons of the church at Rome. Being seized and command- ed to produce the church treasures, he collected together the helpless poor Christians, who were supported by their brethren, and said, “These are the true treasures of the church.” The governor of the city, exasperated by dis- appointment, and by what he took to be an intended in- Sult, ordered him to immediate tortures and death; which though actually roasted on a gridiron) Laurentius en- ured with a fortitude inconceivable. He died August 2, LAVATER, (John CASPAR,) the philosopher and divine, a native of Zurich, in Switzerland, was born in 1741; be. He was impeached, and confined during three years came pastor to the Orphan's church, in his birthplace, and afterwards to that of St. Peter; and received a wound from a French soldier in 1799, of which he died in 1801. He was the author of Swiss Lays; Spiritual Canticles; The Journal of a Secret Observer; and other productions; but the work which has made him universally known is his Fragments on Physiognomy. These Fragments have been translated in several languages; but their popularity has been long on the wane. Dr. Spurzheim, however, has followed his steps in this department with better success. Lavater was an enthusiastic, but eminently worthy and benevolent man. His Christian piety was of the highest order.—Davenport ; Ency. Amer. LAVER, (BRAzEN.) Moses was directed. (Exod. 30: 18.) to make, among other articles of furniture for the services of the tabernacle, a laver of brass, Exod. 38; 8. (See GLAss.) This is not particularly described as to, form; but the lavers made for the temple were borne by four cherubim, standing upon bases or pedestals mounted on brazen wheels, and having handles belonging to them, by means of which they might be drawn, and conveyed from one place to another, as they should be wanted. These lavers were double, that is to say, composed of a basin, which received the water that fell from another square vessel above it, ſrom which they drew water with cocks. The whole work was of brass ; the square vessel was adorned with the heads of a lion, an ox, and a che- rub ; that is to say, of extraordinary hieroglyphic crea- tures. Each of the lavers contained ſorty baths, or four bushels, forty-one pints, and forty cubic inches of Paris measure. There were ten made in this form, and of this capacity; five of them were placed to the right, and five to the leſt of the temple, between the altar of burnt-offer- ings and the steps which led to the porch of the temple. — Calmet. - º LAW ; a rule of action; a precept or command, com- ing from a superior authority, which an inferior is bound to obey. The manner in which God governs rational crea- tures is by a law, as the rule of their obedience to him, and this is what we call God's moral government of the World. - - The term, however, is used in Scripture with considera ble latitude of meaning; and to ascertain its precise im- port in any particular place, it is necessary to regard the scope and connexion of the passage in which it occurs. Thus, for instance, sometimes it denotes the whole reveal- ed will of God as communicated to us in his word. In this sense it is generally used in the book of Psalms, 1:2. 19: 7. 119. Isa. 8:20. 42: 21. Sometimes it is taken for the Mosaic institution as distinguished from the gospel, John 1: 17. Matt. 11: 13. 12:5, Acts 25: 8. Hence we frequently read of the law of Moses as expressive of the whole religion of the Jews, Heb. 9; 19. 10: 28. Some- times, in a more restricted sense, for the ritual or ceremo- nial observances of the Jewish religion. . In this sense the apostle speaks of “the law of commandments contain- ed in ordinances,” (Eph. 2: 15. Heb. 10: 1.) and which, being only “a shadow of good things to come,” Christ Jesus abolished by his death, and so in effect destroyed the ancient distinction between Jew and Gentile, Gal. 3: 17, - Very frequently it is used to signify the decalogue, or ten precepts which were delivered to the Israelites from mount Sinai. It is in this acceptation of the term that the Lord Jesus declares he “came not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it ;” (Matt. 5: 17.) and he explains its import as requiring perfect love to God and man, Luke 10: 27. It is in reference to this view that St. Paul aſſirms, “By the deeds of the law shall no flesh living be justified ; for by the law is the knowledge of sin,” Rom. 3: 20. The lan. guage of this law is, “The soul that sinneth it shall die,” and “Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things that are written,” or required, “in the book of the law, to do them,” Gal. 3:10. To deliver believers from this pe- nalty, “Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law, being himself made a curse for us,” Gal. 3: 13. The law, in this sense, was not given that men should obtain righteousness or justification by it, but to convince them of sin, to show them their need of a Savior, to shut them up, as it were, from all hopes of salvation from that source, and - LAw L. A. W [ 733 ] to recommend the gºspel of divine grace to their accept- ance, Gal. 3: 19–25. Again, this term denotes the rule of good and evil, or of right and wrong, revealed by the Creator and in- scribed on man's conscience, even at his creation, and con- sequently binding upon him by divine authority; and in this respect it is in substance the same with the decalogue. That such a law was connate with, and, as it were, im- planted in, man, appears from its traces, which, like the ruins of some noble building, are still extant in every man. It is from those common notions, handed down by tradition, though often imperfect and perverted, that the heathens themselves distinguished right from wrong, by which “they were a law unto themselves, showing the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience bearing witness,” (Rom. 2: 12–15.) although they had no express revelation. The term law is, however, eminently given to the moral law, as given by Moses; on the principles and spirit of which, a ſew general remarks may be oſtered. The right consideration of this divine institute, says Dr. Graves, will surround it with a glory of truth and holiness, not only worthy of its claims, but which has continued to be the light of the world on theological and moral subjects, and often on great political principles, to this day. 1. Illustration of the Moral Lan, as given to the Jews.-It is an obvious, but it is not therefore a less important re- mark, that to the Jewish religion we owe that admirable summary of moral duty, contained in the ten command- ments. All fair reasoners will admit that each of these must be understood to condemn, not merely the extreme crime which it expressly prohibits, but every inferior of fence of the same kind, and every mode of conduct lead- ing to such transgression; and, on the contrary, to enjoin opposite conduct, and the cultivation of opposite disposi- tions. Thus, the command, “Thou shalt not kill,” con- demns not merely the single crime of deliberate murder, but every kind of violence, and every indulgence of pas- sion and resentment, which tends either to excite such violence, or to produce that malignant disposition of mind, in which the guilt of murder principally consists : and similarly of the rest. In this extensive interpretation of the commandments, we are warranted, not merely by the deductions of reason, but by the letter of the law itself. For the addition of the last, “Thou shalt not covet,” proves clearly that in all, the dispositions of the heart, as much as the immediate outward act, is the object of the divine Le- gislator; and thus it forms a comment on the meaning, as well as a guard for the observance, of all the preceding commands. Interpreted in this natural and rational lati- tude, how comprehensive and important is this summary of moral duty It inculcates the adoration of the one true God, who “made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is;” who must, therefore, be infinite in power, and wisdom, and goodness; the object of exclusive ado- ration; of gratitude for every blessing we enjoy; of fear, for he is a jealous God; of hope, for he is merciful. It prohibits every species of idolatry; whether by associating false gods with the true, or worshipping the true by sym- bols and images. Commanding not to take the name of God in vain, it enjoins the observance of all outward re- spect for the divine authority, as well as the cultivation of inward sentiments and feelings suited to this outward re- yerence; and it establishes the obligation of oaths, and, by consequence, of all compacts and deliberate promises; a principle, without which the administration of laws would be impracticable, and the bonds of society must be dissolved. By commanding to keep holy the Sabbath, as the memorial of the creation, it establishes the necessity of public worship, and of a stated and outward profession of the truths of religion, as well as of the cultivation of suitable feelings; and it enforces this by a motive which is equally applicable to all mankind, and which should have taught the Jew that he ought to consider all nations as equally creatures of that Jehovah whom he himself adored; equally subject to his government, and, if sin- cercly obedient, entitled to all the privileges his favor could bestow. It is also remarkable, that this commandment, requiring that the rest of the Sabbath should include the man-servant, and the maid-servant, and the stranger that was within their gates, nay, even their cattle, proved that the Creator of the universe extended his attention to all his creatures; that the humblest of mankind were the ob. jects of his paternal love; that no accidental differences, which so often create alienation amongst different nations, would alienate any from the divine regard; and that even the brute creation shared the benevolence of their Creator, and ought to be treated by men with gentleness and hu- manity. When we proceed to the second table, comprehending more expressly our social duties, we find all the most im- portant principles on which they depend clearly enforced. The commandment which enjoins, “Honor thy father and mother,” sanctions the principles, not merely of filial obe- dience, but of all those duties which arise from our domes- tic relations; and, while it requires not so much any one specific act, as the general disposition which should re- gulate our whole course of conduct in this instance, it impresses the important conviction, that the entire law proceeds from a Legislator able to search and judge the heart of man. The subsequent commands coincide with the clear dictates of reason, and prohibit crimes which human laws in general have prohibited as plainly destructive of social happiness. But it was of infinite im: portance to rest the prohibitions, “Thou shalt not kill,” “Thou shalt not commit adultery,” “Thou shalt not steal,” “Thou shalt not bear false witness,” not merely on the deductions of reason, but also on the weight of a divine authority. How often have false ideas of public good in some places, depraved passions in others, and the delu- sions of idolatry in still more, established a law of reputa- tion contrary to the dictates of reason, and the real inte- rests of society. In one country we see theft allowed, iſ perpetrated with address; in others, piracy and rapine honored, if conducted with intrepidity. Sometimes we per- ceive adultery permitted, the most unnatural crimes com- mitted without remorse or shame; nay, every species of im purity enjoined and consecrated as a part of divine worship. In others, we find revenge honored as spirit, and death in- flicted at its impulse, with ferocious triumph. Again, we see every feeling of nature outraged, and parents exposing their helpless children to perish for deformity of body or weakness of mind; or, what is still more dreadful, from mercenary or political views; and this inhuman practice familiarized by custom, and authorized by law. And, to close the horrid catalogue, we sce false religions leading their deluded votaries to heap the altars of their idols with human victims; the master butchers his slave, the con- queror his captive; nay, dreadful to relate, the parent Sacri- fices his children, and, while they shriek amidst the tortures of the flames, or in the agonies of death, he drowns their cries by the clangor of cymbals and the yells of fanaticism. Yet these abominations, separate or combined, have dis- graced ages and nations which we are accustomed to ad- mire and celebrate as civilized and enlightened,—Babylon and Egypt, Phoenicia and Carthage, Greece and Rome. Many of these crimes legislators have enjoined, or philo- sophers defended. What, indeed, could be hoped ſrom legislators and philosophers, when we recollect the institu- tions of Lycurgus, especially as to purity of manners, and the regulations of Plato on the same subject, in his model of a perfect republic ; when we consider the sensu- ality of the Epicureans, and immodesty of the Cynics when we find suicide applauded by the Stoics, and the murderous combats of gladiators defended by Cicero, anu. exhibited by Trajan? Such variation and inconstancy in the rule and practice of moral duty, as established by the ſeeble or fluctuating authority of human opinion, demon- strates the utility of a clear divine interposition, to impress these important prohibitions; and it is difficult for any sagacity to calculate how far such an interposition was necessary, and what effect it may have produced by imſlu- encing human opinions and regulating human conduct, when we recollect that the Mosaic code was probably the first written law ever delivered to any nation; and that it must have been generally known in those Eastern coun- tries, from which the most ancient and celebrated legisla- tors and sages derived the models of their laws and the principles of their philosophy. But the Jewish religion promoted the interests of moral gº I, A W I, A Y | 734 | virtue, not merely by the positive injunctions of the deca- logue; it also inculcated clearly and authoritatively the two great principles on which all piety and virtue depend, and which our blessed Lord recognised as the command- ments on which hang the law and the prophets, the º of love to God and love to our neighbor. The ove of God is everywhere enjoined in the Mosaic law, as the ruling disposition of the heart, from which all obedi- ence should spring, and in which it ought to terminate, Deut. 6: 4, 5, 10: 12. Lev. 19: 18, 33, 34. Thus, on a review of the topics we have discussed, it appears that the Jewish law promulgated the great princi- ples of moral duty in the decalogue, with a solemnity suit- ed to their high pre-eminence; that it enjoined love to God with the most unceasing solicitude, and love to our neighbor, as extensively and forcibly, as the peculiar de- sign of the Jewish economy, and the peculiar character of the Jewish people, would permit; that it impressed the deepest conviction of God's requiring, not mere external observances, but heart-felt piety, well regulated desires, and active benevolence; that it taught sacrifice could not obtain pardon without repentance, or repentance without reformation and restitution; that it described circumcision itself, and, by consequence, every other legal rite, as de- signed to typify and inculcate internal holiness, which alone could render men acceptable to God; that it repre- sented the love of God as designed to act as a practical principle, stimulating to the constant and sincere cultiva- tion of purity, mercy, and truth; and that it enforced all these principles and precepts by sanctions the most likely to operate powerfully on minds unaccustomed to abstract speculations and remote views, even by temporal as well as eternal rewards and punishments; the assurance of which was confirmed from the immediate experience of similar rewards and punishments, dispensed to their ene- mies and to themselves by that supernatural Power which had delivered the Hebrew nation out of Egypt, conducted them through the wilderness, planted them in the land of Canaan, regulated their government, distributed their pos- sessions, and to which alone they could look to obtain new blessings, or secure those already enjoyed. From all this we derive another presumptive argument for he divinº au- thority of the Mosaic code; and it may be contended, that a moral system thus perfect, promulgated at so early a pe- riod, to such a people, and enforced by such sanctions as no human power could undertake to execute, strongly be- speaks a divine original. 2. Illustration of the Moral Lan, as given to Christians.— It is important to remark, however, that, although the mo- ral laws of the Mosaic dispensation pass into the Christian code, they stand there in other and higher circumstances; so that the New Testament is a more perfect dispensation of the knowledge of the moral will of God than the Old. In particular, (1.) They are more expressly extended to the heart, as by our Lord, in his sermon on the mount; who teaches us that the thought and inward purpose of any offence, is a violation of the law prohibiting its exter- ºnal and visible commission. (2.) The principles on which they are ſounded are carried out in the New Testament into a greater variety of duties, which by embracing more perfectly the social and civil relations of life, are of a more universal character. (3.) There is a much more enlarged injunction of positive and particular virtues, es- pecially those which constitute the Christian temper. (4.) By all overt acts being inseparably connected with corresponding principles in the heart, in order to constitute acceptable obedience, which principles suppose the rege- neration of the soul by the Holy Ghost. This moral reno- vation is, therefore, held out as necessary to our salvation, and promised as a part of the grace of our redemption by Christ. (5.) By being connected with promises of divine assistance, which is peculiar to a law connected with evangelical provisions. (6.) By their having a living illustration in the perfect and practical example of Christ. (7.) By the higher sanctions derived from the clearer revelation of a future state, and the more explicit promises of eternal life, and threatenings of eternal punishment. It follows from this, that we have in the gospel the most complete and perfect revelation of moral law ever given to men ; and a more exact manifestation of the bright- * and is not in orders; opposed to a clergyman. mess, perfection, and glory of that law, under which an: gels and our progenitors in paradise were placed, and which it is at once the delight and the interest of the most perfect and happy beings to obey. 3. Lany, remedial, a fancied law, which some believe in, who hold that God, in mercy to mankind, has abolished that rigorous constitution or law that they were under originally, and instead of it has introduced a more mild constitution, and put us under a new law, which requires no more than imperfect sincere obedience, in compliance with our poor, infirm, impotent circumstances since the fall. I call this a fancied law, because it exists nowhere except in the imagination of those who hold it. (See NeoNoMIANs; and JUSTIFICATION.) s 3. Law of honor is a system of rules constructed by people of fashion, and calculated to facilitate their inter- course with one another, and for no other purpose. Consequently nothing is adverted to by the law of honor but what tends to incommode this intercourse. Hence this law only prescribes and regulates the duties betwixt equals, omitting such as relate to the Supreme Being, as well as those which we owe to our inferiors; and, in most instances, is favorable to the licentious in. dulgence of the natural passions. Thus it allows of for. nication, adultery, drunkenness, prodigality, duelling, and of revenge in the extreme, and lays no stress upon the virtues opposite to these. 5. Lan's of nations are those rules which by a tacit con- Sent are agreed upon among all communities, at least among those who are reckoned the polite and humanized part of mankind. Graves on the Pentateuch ; Witherspoon's Moral Philosophy ; Gill's Body of Div., vol. i. p. 454, 8vo. vol. iii. 425, ditto; Paley's Mor. Phil., vol. i. p. 2; Cum- berland's Lan of Nature ; Grove's Mor. Phil., vol. ii. p. 117; Booth's Death of Legal Hope ; Works of Pres. Ednards; Taylor, Inglish, and Burder's Pieces on the Moral Lan: ; Watts' Works, vol. i. ser, 49, 8vo. edition, and vol. ii. p. 443, &c.; Scott's Essays ; Fuller's Works ; Dnight's Theo- logy; Bridges' Christian Ministry; Tyng's Lectures on the Lam, and Gospel.— Watson ; Hend. Buck. LAW, (WILLIAM,) a non-juring divine, was born, in 1686, at King's Cliffe, in Northamptonshire; was educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge; and died in 1761. Law was a man of piety, acuteness and talent; but a firm be- liever in the absurdities of Behmen. Of his works the most popular are, The Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life; and a Practical Treatise on Christian Perfection.— Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Davenport. LAW, (EDMUND, D.D.,) a learned prelate, was born, in 1703, near Cartmel, in Lancashire; was educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge; and after having held some less- er preferments, among which were the living of Greystock, the archdeaconry of Carlisle, and the mastership of Peter- house, Cambridge, he was raised, in 1769, to the bishop- ric of Carlisle. He died in 1787. He wrote Considera- tions on the Theory of Religion; Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time, &c.; and various tracts; and published an edition of Locke's works.—Davenport. LAWYERS. These functionaries, so often mentioned in the New Testament, were men who devoted themselves to the study and explanation of the law; particularly of the traditionary or oral law. They belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, and fell under the reproof of our Savior for having taken from the people the key of knowledge. They were as the blind leading the blind.--Calmet. LAY-BROTHERS ; among the Romanists, illiterate persons, who devote themselves at some convent to the service of the religious. They wear a different habit from that of the religious, but never enter into the choir, nor are present at the chapters ; nor do they make any other vow than that of constancy and obedience.—Hend. Buck. LAYMAN ; one who follows a secular employment, The dis- tinction is purely ecclesiastical; and being ſounded on misinterpretation and misapplication of the word of God, is most preposterously adopted by some dissenters, whose professed principles are totally at variance with the un- scriptural idea which it is calculated to foster. (See CLERGY.)—IIend. Buck. L E A L E A ( 735 | LAZARUS; brother to Martha and Mary. He dwelt at Bethany with his sisters, near Jerusalem ; and the Lord Jesus did him the honor sometimes of lodging at his house when he visited the city. See the account of his resurrection related at ſarge in John 11: 5, &c.—Watson. LEAD, is a very heavy metal, sufficiently well known. The mode of purifying it from the dross which is mixed with it, by subjecting it to a fierce flame, and melting off its scoria or dross, furnishes several allusions in Scripture to God's punishing, or purifying his people. The prophet Ezekiel (22: 18, 20.) compares the Jews to lead, because of their guilt, and dross, from which they must be purged as by fire. Mention is made of a talent of lead in Zech. 5: 7, 8, which probably was of a figure and size as well known as any of our weights in ordinary use ; so that though weights are usually called in Hebrew stones, yet, Yerhaps, they had some of metal only; as this talent of ead, for instance. Lead was one of the substances used for writing upon by the ancients. (See Book.)—Calmet. LEADLY ANS ; the followers of Jean Leadly, an Eng- lish lady, who, about the beginning of the eighteenth century, pretended to visions, and insisted that if all who bear the Christian name, regardless of external doctrines and discipline, would commit their souls to the care of the internal guide, the church would speedily become a glo- rious scene of charity, concord, and happiness. Her disci- ples she formed into a body, to which she gave the name of the Philadelphian Society. She predicted a period when all intellectual beings should be finally restored to perfec- tion and happiness. She had two principal associates, Bromely and Pordage, the former of whom had nothing to recommend him but his mystical piety; and the latter surpassed Jacob Behmen himself in obscurity and non- sense; and could only excite in his hearers a stupid awe, by the sonorous jingle of his words.—Hend. Buck. LEAGUE, (SMALCALDic;) a solemn alliance first form- ed at Smalcald, in 1530, and afterwards at Frankfort, by the elector of Saxony, and those princes who were con- federate with him, with a view to defend, with the utmost vigor, their religion and liberties against the dangers and encroachments with which they were menaced by the edict which had just been framed at the diet of Augsburg. Into this confederacy they invited the kings of England, France, and Denmark, with several other states and re- publics, and left no means unemployed that might tend to corroborate and cement it. Mosheim's Church Hist., iv. p. 98.-Hend. Buck. LEAGUE AND COVENANT, (SoLEMN) (See Co- venANT.) - & - LEAN. Men lean to their own understanding, when, without serious consulting of God, they trust to their own wisdom and prudence to direct their management, Prov. 3: 5. Saints lean upon Christ when, trusting in his word, they cleave to his person, depend on his righteousness and strength, and delight themselves in his love, Sol. Song 8: 5. Hypocrites lean on the Lord when they profess a strong attachment to his truth, ordinances and ways; and expect that he will show them singular favors and deliverances, Mic. 3: 11.-Brown. LEARN. (1) To get the knowledge of things by hearing or observing, 1 Cor. 14:31. Ps. 119: 71. (2.) To imitate; to follow as a pattern, Ps. 106: 35. Matt. 11:29. (3.) To take heed, 1 Tim. 1: 20. (4.) To know the senti- ments of others, Gal. 3: 2. Christ learned obedience by the things-which he suffered; by his sufferings he experimen- tally felt what it was to obey the divine law; and he im- proved them all to excite his holy manhood to fulfil the obedience required of him, Heb. 5: 8. Some are ever learning and yet never come to the knowledge of the truth ; have long the means of instruction, and profess to use them, and yet never have any solid knowledge of divine things, 2 Tim. 3: 7.—Bromwn. - - - LEARNING ; skill in any science, or that improve- ment of the mind which we gain by study, instruction, observation, &c. An attentive examination of ecclesias- tical history will lead us to see how greatly learning is indebted to Christianity, and that Christianity, in its turn, has been much served by learning. “All the useful learning,” says Dr. Jortin, “which is now to be found in the yorld, is in a great measure owing to the gospel. The Christians, who had a great veneration for the Old Testament, have contributed more than the Jews them. selves to secure and explain those books. The Christians, in ancient times, collected and preserved the Greek ver. sions of the Scriptures, particularly the Septuagint, and translated the originals into Latin. To Christians were due the old Hexapla; and in later times Christians have published the Polyglots and the Samaritan Pentateuch. It was the study of the Holy Scriptures which excited Chris- tians from early times to study chronology, sacred and secular; and here much knowledge of history, and some skill in astronomy, were needful. The New Testament, being written in Greek, caused Christians to apply them- selves also to the study of that language. As the Chris- tians were opposed by the pagans and the Jews, they were excited to the study of pagan and Jewish literature, in order to expose the absurdities of the Jewish traditions, the weakness of paganism, and the imperfections and in- suſficiency of philosophy. The first fathers, till the third century, were generally Greek writers. In the third cen- tury the Latin language was much upon the decline, but the Christians preserved it from sinking into absolute barbarism. Monkery, indeed, produced many sad effects; but Providence here also brought good out of evil; for the monks were employed in the transcribing of books, and many valuable authors would have perished if it had not been for the monasteries. In the ninth century, the Saracens were very studious, and contributed much to the restoration of letters. But whatever was good in the Mohammedan religion, it is in no small measure indebted to Christianity for it, since Mohammedanism is made up for the most part of Judaism and Christianity. If Chris- tianity had been suppressed at its first appearance, it is extremely probable that the Latin and Greek tongues would have been lost in the revolutions of empires, and the irruptions of barbarians in the East and in the West; for the old inhabitants would have had no conscientious and religious motives to keep up their language ; and then, together with the Latin and Greek tongues, the knowledge of antiquities and the ancient writers would have been destroyed. To whom, then, are we indebted for the knowledge of antiquity, for every thing that is called philosophy, or the literae humaniores 2—to Christians. To whom, for grammars and dictionaries of the learned languages 2—to Christians. To whom for chronology, and the continuation of history through many centuries 2 —to Christians. To whom for rational systems of mora- lity, and improvements in natural philosophy, and for the application of these discoveries to religious purposes?— to Christians. To whom for metaphysical researches carried as far as the subject will permit 2—to Christians. To whom for the moral rules to be observed by nations. in war and peace?—to Christians. To whom for juris- prudence, and for political knowledge, and for settling the rights of subjects, both civil and religious, upon a proper foundation ?—to Christians. To whom for the Reforma- tion ?—to Christians. “As religion hath been the chief preserver of erudition, so erudition hath not been ungrateful to her patroness, but hath contributed largely to the support of religion. The useful expositions of the Scriptures, the sober and sensible defences of revelation, the faithful representa- tions of pure and undefiled Christianity; these have been the works of learned, judicious, and industrious men.” Nothing, however, is more common than to hear the ig- norant decry all human learning as entirely useless in religion; and what is still more remarkable, even some, who call themselves preachers, entertain the same senti- ments. But to such we can only say what a judicious preacher observed upon a public occasion, that if all men had been as unlearned as themselves, they never would have had a text on which to have displayed their igno- rance. Dr. Jortin's Sermons, vol. vii. charge 1; Miss H, More's Hints to a Young Princess, vol. i. p. 64; Cook's Miss. Ser. on Matt. 6: 3; Dr. Stennett's Ser. on Acts 26: 24, 25; Buckminster's Oration.—Hend. Buck. LEAST. The wilful breaker of the least of God’s com- mandments shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven; i.e. shall be of little use or esteem in the visible church, I, E. B L E. C. [ 736 and, without repentance, shall never be admitted into the kingdom of glory, Matt. 5: 19.- Bronyn. LEAVE. God may leave his people so as to withdraw his sensible presence and comfort for a time; but never leaves them, nor forsakes them, so as to break his covenant relation to them, as their God, Savior, and Portion ; or, as to withhold what continued supplies of gracious inſluence are necessary to maintain the existence of their new na- ture, Ps. 141:8. Heb. 13: 5. Dying parents leave their fatherless children with God, when by the effectual, fervent. prayer of faith, they commit them to his care, and trus: in his promise that he will preserve, direct, and provide for them, Jer. 49: 11.—Bromwn. LEAVEN ; well known for its gradually transforming power, Matt. 13:33. 16: 11. 1 Cor. 5: 6. It was forbid- den to the Hebrews, during the seven days of the passo- ver, in memory of what their ancestors did, when they went out of Egypt; they being then obliged to carry un- leavened meal with them, and to make bread in haste; the Egyptians pressing them to be gone, Exod. 12:15, 19. Lev. 2: 11. They were hence very careful in cleansing their houses from it before this feast began. God forbade either leaven or honey to be offered to him in his temple; that is, in cakes, or in any baked meats. But on other occasions they might offer leavened bread or honey. See Num. 15:20, 21, where God requires them to give the first fruits of the bread, which was kneaded in all the cities of Israel, to the priests and Levites. Paul (1 Cor. 5:7, 8.) expresses his desire, that Christians should celebrate their passover with unleavened bread; which figuratively signifies sincerity and truth.—Calmet. LEBANON, or LIBANUs ; signifying white, from its Snows ; the most elevated mountain or mountain-chain in Syria, celebrated in all ages for its cedars; which, as is well known, furnished the wood for Solomon's temple. This mountain is the centre, or nucleus, of all the moun- tain-ridges which, from the north, the south, and the east, converge towards this point; but it overtops them all. This configuration of the mountains, and the superiority vſ Lebanon, are particularly striking to the traveller ap- proachiàg both from the Mediterranean on the west, and the Desert on the east. Dr. E. D. Clarke, in the month of July, saw some of the eastern summits of Lebanon, Or Anti-Libanus, near Damascus, covered with snow, not lying in patches, as is common in the summer season with mountains which border on the line of perpetual congelation, but do not quite reach it, but with that per- fectly white, smooth, and velvet-like appearance which snow only exhibits-when it is very deep,-a striking spectacle in such a climate, where the beholder, seeking protection from a burning Sun, almost considers the firmament to be on fire. At the time this observation was made, the ther- mometer, in an elevated situation near the sea of Tibe- rias, stood at one hundred and two degrees in the shade. Sir Frederic Henniker passed over snow in July; and Ali Bey describes the same eastern ridge as covered with snow in September. The cedar of Lebanon has, in all ages, been reckoned an object of unrivalled grandeur and beauty in the vege- table kingdom. It is, accordingly, one of the natural images which frequently occur in the poetical style of the Hebrew prophets; and is appropriated to denote kings, princes, and potentates of the highest rank. (See CEDAR.) The stupendous size, the extensive range, and great elevation of Libanus; its towering summits capped with perpetual snow, or crowned with fragrant cedars; its olive plantations ; its vineyards producing the most delicious wines; its clear ſountains, and cold-flowing brooks; its fertile vales, and odoriferous shrubberies,—combine to form, in Scripture language, “the glory of Lebanon,” Isa. 35: 4. But that glory, liable to change, has, by the unanimous consent of modern travellers, suffered a sensi- ble decline. The extensive forests of cedar, which adorn- ed and perfumed the summits and declivities of those mountains, have almost disappeared. Only a small num- ber of these “trees of God, planted by his almighty hand,” which, according to the usual import of the phrase, sig- nally displayed the divine power, wisdom, and goodness, now remain. Their countless number in the days of So- .omon, and their prodigious bulk, must be recollected, in * order to feel the ſorce of that stablime decly .ation of the prophet : “Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereoſ sufficient for a burnt-offering,”—Isa. 40: 16. Though the trembling sinner were to make choice of Le- banon for the altar; were to cut down all its forests to form the pile; though the fragrance of this fuel, with all its odoriferous gums, were the incense; the wine of Leba- non pressed from all its wineyards, the libation; and all its beasts, the propy.iatory sacrifice; all would prove in- sufficient to make atonement for the sins of men; would be regarded as nothing in the eyes of the supremé Judge for the expiation of even one transgression. The just and holy law of God requires a nobler altar, a costlier Sacrifice, and a sweeter perfume, the obedience and death of a divine Person to atone for our sins, and the incense of his continual intercession to secure our accept- ance with the Father of mercies, and admission into the mansions of eternal rest.— Watson. LEBB/EUS; otherwise Judas or Thaddaeus, brother of James the Less, son of Mary sister of the Virgin, and of Cleophas, and brother of Joseph. He was married and had children. Nicephorus calls his own wife Mary. The Muscovites believe, that they received the faith from him.—Calmet. LEBONAH ; (Judg. 21:19.) a place which Maundrell takes for Chan-Leban, ſour leagues from Slchem south- ward, and two from Bethel.—Calmet. * LECLERC, (Jolin,) an eminent critic, was born, in 1657, at Geneva; and died, in 1736, in a state of childish- ness, at Amsterdam, where he was a clergyman, and pro- ſessor of philosophy, belles-lettres, and Hebrew. Leclerc was impatient of contradiction, acrimonious and satirical in debate, irascible, and fond of singularity. He has been called the self constituted inquisitor of the republic of lite- rature. Among his works are, Ars Critica ; Harmonia Evangelica ; and the three Bibliotheques, or Libraries, in twenty-five, twenty-cight, and twenty-nine volumes.— Davenport ; Ency. Am. LECTURE, (RELIGIOUs;) a discourse or sermon de- livered on any subject in theology. Beside lectures on the Sabbath day, many think proper to preach on week- days; sometimes at five in the morning, before people go to work, and at seven in the evening, after they have done. In London there is preaching almost every fore- noon and evening in the week, at some place or other. It may be objected, however, against week-day preaching, that it has a tendency to take people from their business, and that the number of places open on a Sabbath day su- persedes the necessity of it. But in answer to this may it not be observed,—1. That people stand in need at all times of religious instruction, exhortation, and comfort?— 2. That there is a probability of converting sinners then as well as at other times?—3. That ministers are com- manded to be instant in season and out of season 2–And, 4. It gives ministers an opportunity of hearing one ano- ther, which is of great utility. After all, it must be re- marked, that he who can hear the truth on a Sabbath day does not act consistently to neglect his family or business to be always present at week-day lectures; nor is he alto- gether wise who has an opportunity of receiving instruc- tion, yet altogether neglects it.—IIend. Buck. - LECTURES, (BAMPTON ;) a course of eight sermons preached annually at the university of Oxford, set on foot by the reverend John Bampton, canon of Salisbury. Ac- cording to the directions in his will, they are to be preach- ed upon either of the following subjects: To confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics and schismatics; upon the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures ; upon the authority of the writings of the primitive fathers, as to the faith and practice of the primitive church; upon the divinity of our Lord and Sa- vior Jesus Christ; upon the divinity of the Holy Ghost; upon the articles of the Christian faith, as comprehended in the Apostles' and Nicehe creeds. For the support of this lecture, he bequeathed his lands and estates to the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the university of Ox. ford forever, upon trust that the vice-chancellor for the time being take and receive all the rents and profits there. of; and, after all taxes, reparations, and necessary deduc. tions made, to pay all the remainder to the endowment of *****-* *-**** eae §）， $ſ; ſae ge 732. .—Pa -rºc †º: ER © Ź 28 to \! -wis W § §§· ←---- }}}• -●saewaewae·ſae！！،، ſae& §）,\\}\\}\\}\\|:;（}}}|{QSĒĢÑ}}• THE BRAZEN LAW ∞∞ ;： L E C L E E [ 737 * these divinity lecture sermons. He also dircets in his w.l., that no person shall be qualified to preach these lec- tures unless he have taken the degree of master of arts, at least in one of this two universities of Oxford or Cam- bridge, and that the same person shall never preach the same Sermon twice. A number of exccllent sermons preached at this lecture are now before the public. A more enlarged account of this lecture may be seen in the Christian Observer for May, 1809.—Hend. Buck. LECTURE, (MERCHANTs';) a lecture set up in the year 1672, by the Presbyterians and Independents, to show their agreement among themselves, as well as to support the doctrines of the Reformation against the pre- vailing errors of Popery, Socinianism, and Infidelity. The principal ministers for learning and popularity were chosen as lecturers; such as Dr. Bates, Dr. Manton, Dr. Owen, Mr. Baxter, Mr. Collins, Jenkins, Mead, and after- wards Mr. Alsop, Howe, Cole, and others. It was en- couraged and supported by some of the principal mer- chants and tradesmen of the city. Some misunderstanding taking place, the Presbyterians removed to Salter's hall, and the Independents remained at Pinner’s hall, and each party filled up their numbers out of their respective de- nominations. This lecture is kept up to the present day, and is now held at Broad street meeting every Tuesday morning.—Hend. Buck. LECTURE, (MonTIILY.) A lecture preached monthly by the Congregational ministers of London in their diffe- rent chapels, taken in rotation. These lectures have of late been systematically arranged, so as to form a con- nected course of one or more years. A valuable volume on the Evidences of Revelation, published in 1827, is one of the fruits of these monthly exercises.—Hend. Duck. LECTURES, (MoRNING.) Certain casuistical lectures, which were preached by some of the most able divines in London. The occasion of these lectures seems to be this: During the troublesome times of Charles I., most of the citizens having some near relation or friend in the army of the earl of Essex, so many bills were sent up to the pulpit every Lord's day for their preservation, that the minister had neither time to read them, nor to recommend their cases to God in prayer; it was, therefore, agreed by some Iondon divines to separate an hour for this purpose every morning, one half to be spent in prayer, and the other in a suitable exhortation to the people. When the heat of the war was over, it became a casuistical lacture, and was carried on till the restoration of Charles II. These sermons were afterwards published in several vo- lumes quarto, under the title of the Morning Exercises. The authors were the most eminent preachers of the day; Mr. (afterwards archbishop) Tillotson was one of them. It appears that these lectures were held every morning for one month only; and from the preface to the volume, dated 1689, the time was afterwards contracted to a fortnight. Most of these were delivered at Cripple-gate church, some at St. Giles', and a volume against popery in Southwark. Mr. Neale observes, that this lecture was afterwards re- vived in a different form, and continued in his day. It was kept up long aſterwards at several places in the sum- mer, a week at each place; but latterly the time was ex- changed for the evening.—Hend, Buck. LECTURES, (Moyer's;) a course of eight sermons preached annually, set on foot by the beneficence of lady Moyer, about 1720, who left by will a rich legacy, as a foundation for the same. A great number of English writers having endeavored, in a variety of ways, to inva- lidate the doctrine of the Trinity, this opulent and ortho- dox lady was influenced to think of an institution, which should produce to posterity an ample collection of produc- tions in defence of this branch of the Christian faith. The first course of these lectures was preached by Dr. Water- land, on the Divinity of Christ, and are well worthy of per'asal,—Hend. Buck. ſECTURE, (WARBURTONIAN ;) a lecture founded by 'ishop Warburton, to prove the truth of revealed religion in general, and the Christian in particular, from the com- pletion of the prophecies in the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian church, especially to the apostasy of papal Rome. To this foundation we owe the Sº Y admirable discourses of Hurd, Halifax, Bagot, and many others.-Hend. Buck. LECTURERS, in the church of England, are an order of preachers distinct from the rector, vicar, and curate. They are chosen by the vestry, or chief inhabitants of the parish, supported by voluntary subscriptions and legacies, and are usually the afternoon preachers, and sometimes officiate on some stated day in the week. Where there are lectures founded by the donations of pious persons, the lecturers are appointed by the founders, without any inter- position or consent of the rectors of churches, &c. though with the leave and approbation of the bishop; such as that of lady Moyer at St. Paul’s. But the lecturer is not entitled to the pulpit without the consent of the rector or vicar, who is possessed of the freehold of the church.— Hend. Buck. - LEE, (ANN,) founder of the sect of Shakers in Ame- rica, was born in Manchester, England, about 1736, and was the daughter of a blacksmith, who lived in Toad lane. Her trade was that of a cutter of hatter's fur. She married at an early age Abraham Standley, a blacksmith, who lived in her father's house. She had four children, who all died in infancy. At the age of twenty-two, about 1758, she became a convert to James Wardley, who was originally a Quaker, but who in 1747, imagining that he had supernatural vi- sions and revelations, established the sect, called Shakers, from their bodily agitations. Having become a member of this society, which was merely a new form of the fanaticism of the French prophets fifty years before, she passed through the exercises of the sect. In her fits, as she clenched her hands, it is said, the blood flowed through the pores of her skin. Her flesh wasted away, and in her weakness she was fed like an infant. Thus was she exercised nine years, by the end of which time, it might be thought, she had lost her reason. At length, about 1770, she made the discovery of the wickedness of mar- riage, and opened her testimony against it. She called herself “Ann, the Word,” signifying, that in her dwelt the JVord ; and to this day her followers say, that “the man who was called Jesus, and the woman who was called Ann, are verily the two first pillars of the church, the two anointed ones,” &c. º Soon after Mrs. Standley, alias Ann Lee, begun her tes- timony against “the root of human depravity,” her ex- ercises induced the people of Manchester to shut her up in a mad-house, where she was kept several weeks. She came to America in the ship Maria, Capt. Smith, and ar- rived at New York in May, 1774, having as her compa- nions her brother, William Lee, James Whitaker, John Hocknell, called elders, and others. In the spring of 1776, she went to Albany, and thence to Niskeuna, now Water- Vliet, eight miles from Albany. Here she and her follow- ers lived unknown a ſew years, holding their meetings as usual. (See SHAKERs.) But the beginning of 1780, when therc was an unusual religious commotion, brought her in a fine harvest of de- luded followers. One of these, Valentine Rathbun, was a Baptist minister, who however in about three months re- covered his senses, and published a pamphlet against the imposture. He says, that there attended this infatuation an inexplicable agency upon the body, to which he him- self was subjected, that affected the nerves suddenly and forcibly like the electric fluid, and was followed by tremb- lings and the complete deprivation of strength. When the good mother had somewhat established her authority with her new disciples, she warned them of the great sin of following the vain customs of the world, and having fleeced them of their ear-rings, necklaces, buckles, and every thing which might nourish pride, and having cut off their hair close by their ears, she admitted them into her church. Thus metamorphosed, they were ashamed to be seen by their old acquaintance, and would be induced to continue Shakers to save themselves from further hu miliation. The impostor asserted, that she was not liable to the assaults of death, and that, when she left this world, she should ascend in the twinkling of an eye to heaven. But unhappily for her claims, she died at Water-Vliet, Sep- tember 8, 1784. L E G . dº L E I | 738 | As to the moral character of mother Ann, Reuben Rathbun, who was once a Shaker, testifies, that he once saw her come to hard blows with William Lee. He adds, “It appears to me, that the mother, at that time, was very much overcome with strong liquor.” He considered her also as well skilled in profane and indecent language. But, whatever might have been her moral deportment, it is one of the deplorable facts, of which the history of the world is full, evincing the blindness and depravity of man, that rational beings should yield their minds to her blasphemous religious pretensions. New York Theol. Mag., i. 82; V. Rathbun's Hints; D. Rathbun's, Taylor’s, TVest's and Brown's Account of Shakers—Allen. LEECH. (See HoRSE-LEEcH.) $. LEEK, (chetsir ;) in Num. 11:5, translated “leek;” in 1 Kings 18: 5. 2 Kings 19:26. Job 40: 15. Ps. 37: 2. 90: 5. 103: 15. 104: 14. 129: 6. 147: 8. Isa. 35: 7. 37: 27. 40; 6, it is rendered “grass;” in Job 8: 12, “herb;” in Prov. 27:25. Isa. 15: 6, “hay;” and in Isa. 34: 13, “a court.” The leek is much of the same nature with the Onion. The kind called karrat by the Arabians, the allium porrum of Linnaeus, Hasselquist says, must certainly have been one of those desired by the children of Israel, as it has been cultivated and esteemed from the earliest times to the present in Egypt. The inhabitants are very fond of eating it raw, as sauce for their roasted meat; and the poor people eat it raw with their bread, especially for breakfast. There is reason, however, to doubt whether this plant is intended in Num. 11:5, and so differently rendered every- where else : it should rather intend such vegetables as grow promiscuously with grass. Ludolphus supposes that it may mean lettuce and salads in general ; and Maillet observes, that the succory and endive are eaten with great relish by the people in Egypt. Bishop Lowth thinks it is the lotus, a sort of water lily, peculiar to Egypt, which forms one of the most common aliments of the Egyptians now, as we learn from history it did in ancient times. The root of this plant is round, of the size of an apple, of an agreeable flavor and refreshing quality, es- pecially in the heats of summer. Some or all of these may be meant.—Watson. LEES; dregs. To drink up the cup of God's wrath, “even to the lees,” is to drink the whole cup to the bot- tom, Ps. 75: 8. Isa. 51: 17. Ezek. 23: 34. “The lees of the people,” signifies the vilest part of them, Isa. 49: 6, 7. God threatens by Zephaniah, to visit those who are settled on their lees; i. e. hardened in their sins, Zeph. 1: 12.-Calmet. *.s LEGAL or MOSAIC DISPENSATION. PENSATION.) LEGALIST, strictly speaking, is one who acts accord- ing to or consistent with the law ; but in general the term is made use of to denote one who expects salva- tion by his own works. (See LAw.) We may further consider a legalist as one who has no proper conviction of the evil of sin; who, although he pretends to abide by the law, yet has not a just idea of its spirituality and demands. He is ignorant of the grand scheme of Salva- tion by free grace : proud of his own fancied righteous- ness, he submits not to the righteousness of God; he derogates from the honor of Christ, by mixing his own works with his ; and in fact denies the necessity of the work of the Spirit, by supposing that he has ability in himself to perform all those duties which God has required. Sugh is the character of the legalist ; a character diame- trically opposite to that of the true Christian, whose sen- timent corresponds with that of the apostle, “By grace are ye saved, through faith, and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God. Not of works, lest any man should boast,” Eph. 2: 8, 9.-Hend. Buck. LEGATE ; a cardinal or bishop, whom the pope sends as his ambassador to sovereign princes.—Hend. Buck. LEGEND, (legenda ;) originally a book, in the Romish church, containing the lessons that were to be read in di- vine service: from hence the word was applied to the histories of the lives of Saints, because chapters were read out of them at matins; but as the golden legend, compiled by James de Varase, about the year 1290, contained in it several ridiculous and romantic stories, the word is now * (See Dis- used by Protestants to signify any incredible or inauthen- tic narrative. Hence, as Dr. Jortin observes, we have false legends concerning the miracles of Christ, of his apostles, and of ancient Christians; and the writers of these fables had, in all probability, as good natural abili- ties as the disciples of Christ, and some of them wanted neither learning nor craft; and yet they betray themselves by faults against chronology, against history, against manners and customs, against morality, and against pro- bability. A liar of this kind can never pass undiscovered; but an honest relater of truth and matter of fact is Safe: he wants no artifice, and fears no examination.— Hend. Duck. LEGION. The Roman legions were composed each of ten cohorts, a cohort of fifty maniples, and a maniple of fifteen men ; consequently, a full legion contained six thousand soldiers, Matt. 26: 53.—Calmet. . LEGION, (THEBEAN ;) a name given, in the time of Diocletian, to a whole legion of Christians, consisting of more than six thousand men, who were said to have suſ- ferred martyrdom by the order of Maximian. Though this story hath never wanted patrons, yet it is disbelieved by many. Dr. Jortin, in his usual facetious way, says, that it stands upon the authority of one Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, and a writer of the fifth century, who had it from Theodorus, another bishop, who had the honor and felicity to find the relics of these martyrs by revelation, and perhaps by the smell of the bones (—Hend. Buck. LEGION, (THUNDERING;) a name given to those Chris- tians who served in the Roman army of Marcus Antonius, in the second century. The occasion of it was this:— When that emperor was at war with the Marcomanni, his army was inclosed by the enemy, and reduced to the most deplorable condition by the thirst under which they lan- guished in a parched desert. Just at this time they were remarkably relieved by a sudden and unexpected rain. This event was attributed to the Christians, who were supposed to have effected this by their prayers; and the name of the thundering legion was given to them, on ac- count of the thunder and lightning that destroyed the enemy, while the shower revived the fainting Romans. Whether this was really miraculous or not, has been dis- puted among learned men. Those who wish to see what has been said on both sides, may consult Wilsius Dissertat. de Legione Fulminatrice, which is subjoined to his AEgyp- tiaca, in defence of this miracle ; as also what is alleged against it by Dan. Lauroque, in a discourse upon that subject, subjoined to the Adversaria Sacra of Matt. Lau- roque, his father. The controversy between Sir Peter King and Mr. Moyle upon this subject is also worthy of attention.—Hend. Buck. LEHI, (jan-bone ;) Judg. 15: 18. , Calmet remarks, that the Hebrews sometimes called naked, sharp, and steep rocks, teeth, (1 Sam. 14:4, 5. Job 39: 28.) and that in this case God opened a rock called Machtes, or the Cheek- tooth, which was at the place where Samson obtained his victory, and which, for this reason, he called Lehi, the Jaw-bone. This fountain issuing out of a rock called the Cheek-tooth, at a place named the Jaw-bone, has induced some to believe that it came immediately out of a tooth- hole in the ass’s jaw-bone, which would be a surprising miracle indeed. But as Calmet explains the matter, the miracle of the fountain issuing out of the rock at Sam- son's prayer is acknowledged; and wonders are not to be multiplied without necessity. This opinion is adopted by Josephus, by the paraphrast Jonathan, and by many com- mentators. En-halckore signifies “the fountain of invo- cation.” The fountain subsisted long, and still subsists, probably, in Palestine. Glycas, and the martyr Antoninus, speak of it as in the suburbs of Eleutheropolis.--Calmet. LEIBNITZ, (GoDFREY WILLIAM,) baron, a philosopher and Scholar of almost universal genius, was born, in 1646, at Leipsic; and studied at the universities of that place and of Jena. He was first in the service of the elector of Mentz, as counsellor of revision in the chancery; and, after the death of that prince, was patronised by the house of Hanover. He also received pensions and flat- tering distinctions from Peter the Great, the king of Prus- sia, and the emperor of Germany; and was a member of various learned bodies. France he visited once, and L E I L E L | 739 Leighton, and born in London, in the year 1613. .* England twice, and was received with the respect which was due to his merits. He died at Hanover, in 1716. The major part of the numerous works of Leibnitz, has been collected in six quarto volumes by Dutens. Some of the rest were published by Raspe, with the title of Phi- losophic Works. - . . . “Leibnitz, who was thus occupied with the most ab- struse metaphysicaſinquiries, (says a modern Writer,) was also in his day the rival of Newton himself in physical science; possessed unequalled erudition, classical and scholastic; was distinguished by his knowledge of Roman jurisprudence and German antiquities; and was a pro- found and masterly controversial theologian.” Gibbon also has drawn his character at full length, and in glowing colors, But unlike Gibbon, Leibnitz was a Christian. He was a Protestant, and a Trinitarian. One of his works is entitled “A Logical Defence by new argu- ments of the Most Holy Trinity.” Ency. Am.—Davenport. LEIGHTON, | Abp. RoberT,) the most pious and popular preacher of his time, was the eldest son of Dr. Alexander being instructed in the common parts of education, and initiated into the higher branches, he was sent to the uni- versity of Edinburgh. He was pious from his youth; early indicating considerable talents, as well as a strong desire to serve God in the sacred ministry; and his studies were directed with that important view. He soon com- manded the admiration of his fellow-students by his quick progress in the mathematics and philosophy, and by his familiar acquaintance with the learned languages; while he gained their esteem by the gentleness of his tem- per, and the prudence of his conduct. Having finished his academical course with great success and applause, he was sent abroad, and lived several years in France. He early imbibed a strong aversion to prelacy, and to the tyranny which the leaders in the church of England prac- tised; an aversion, doubtless, greatly heightened by the sufferings of his father, who was a conscientious, zealous, and persecuted Puritan. The son, accordingly, on his return to Britain, attached himself to the church of Scot- land, which was strictly formed on the Presbyterian mo- del; and having been unanimously called by the congre- gation of Newbottle, near Edinburgh, he was ordained there about the thirtieth year of his age. IIe remained at Newbottle several years, and was most assiduous in discharging the various duties of his office. His prepara- tion for the pulpit was very exact : he diligently visited the poor, the sick, and the afflicted of his flock; and pro- moted personal, domestic, social, and public religion, to the utmost of his power, by precept, example, and many prayers. At the time when Charles I. was confined, by the com- missioners of the parliament, in Holmby house, and the engagement was formed to rescue him, Leighton, disgusted with animosity, unable perhaps to ascertain the point where resistance to the authority of a prince becomes law- ful and necessary, and probably dreading the downfal of monarchy, declared for the engagement, and gave up his connexion with the Presbyterians, to form one with the Episcopalians. For this conduct, the Presbyterians de- nounced him as an apostate, and the Episcopalians wel- comed him as a convert. The office of principal in the university of Edinburgh becoming vacant soon after Leighton’s resignation of his charge, the magistrates and common-council of that city, who had the gift of presentation, unanimously chose him to fill the chair, and pressed his acceptance of it, by the powerful motive, that he would serve the church, signally, without taking any part in public measures. He delivered lectures, especially to the students of theology, and occa- sionally supplied the place of divinity professor. His the- ological lectures are known to the learned world, and have been translated into English. For pure Latin, Sublime thought, and warm diction, they have never been sur- passed, and seldom equalled. In that office Dr. Leighton remained ten years, the ornament and delight of the uni- versity, and a blessing to studious youth. The conduct of bishop Leighton in accepting a bishop- ric, in 1662, has been much blamed ; but it appears that he hoped, by such conduct, to accommodate differences, After and soften animosities; but still, afterwaras, he was not satisfied with his own conduct. * ... • ‘ The good bishop, who had expressly declared to Charles, that he would not plant even Christianity itself by vio- lence, and far less a particular mode of government and worship, in 1667, went to London the second time, and remonstrated earnestly with the king, against the oppres- sive measures pursued. Charles, as usual, gave him fair speeches and promises, but nothing effectual was done. Leighton returned to his diocess with a heavy heart, and labored in word and doctrine, preaching and catechising throughout his diocess. In the year 1670, he was, without his solicitation, and against his will, appointed to the archbishopric of Glas- gow, though he did not take possession of that see for twelve months after the appointment. While he was archbishop of Glasgow, he did all in his power to reforia the clergy; to correct wickedness, and promote piety among the people; to suppress violence, and to soothe the minds of the Presbyterians. Finding his new situation more and more disagreeable, and seeing no hope of uniting the different parties, he again determined to resign his dignity, and went to London for that purpose, in the sum- mer of 1673. The king, however, still refused to accept his resignation, but gave a written engagement to allow. him to retire, after the trial, of another year; and, when that period had elapsed, his resignation was accepted. After resigning the dignity of archbishop of Glasgow, he resumed that of bishop of Dunblane; but, wearied and disgusted with the court, he retired to Broadhurst, in Sus- sex, and there, in domestic and peaceful habits, spent the remainder of his days with a relative. In 1684, he ex- pired, serene and happy. The works of this learned and pious man consist of various sermons; “A Commentary on the First Epistle of Peter; “A Critical Exposition of some of the Psalms;” and “Lectures on the First Nine Chapters of St. Matthew ;” and have been frequently published. Few uninspired writings, says Dr. Doddridge, are better adapted to mend the world. They continually overflow with love to God and man. & For a further account of this excellent man, see Leigh- ton’s Works ; Burmet's History of his Own Times ; Burnet's Pastoral Care ; Doddridge's Preface, to Leighton's Works ; The Remains of Archbishop Leighton, by Jerment ; his Select Works by Cheever, Boston, 1832.—Jones' Chris. Biog. LELAND, (Jonn, D.D.,) a learned English dissenting mi- nister, well known by his writings in deſence of Christianity, was born at Wigan, in Lancashire, in 1691, of eminently pious and virtuous parents. They took the earliest care to imbue his mind with virtuous principles; but in his sixth year, the small pox deprived him of his understand- ing and memory, obliterating from the tablet of his mind all his former ideas. In this deplorable state he continued nearly a year, when his faculties seemed to spring up anew ; and though he did not retain the least trace of any impressions made on him prior to his disorder, yet he now discovered a quick apprehension and strong memory. In a few years after, his parents settled at Dublin, which situation gave him an early introduction to learning and the sciences. When properly qualified by years and study, he was called to the pastoral office, in a congregation of Protestant dissenters in that city. He was an able and acceptable preacher, but his labors were not confined to the pulpit. The numerous attacks that, at that period, were made upon Christianity, and some of them by writers of no contemptible ability, determined him to consider the sub- ject with the exactest care and most faithful examination. The result was a firm conviction of the divine authority, as well as the importance and excellency of Christianity, which he now set himself to defend against a host of as sailants. He was indeed a master in this controversy, and his history of it, entitled “A View of the Deistical Writers that have appeared in England, in the last and present Century,” is greatly and deservedly esteemed. His calm and dispassionate manner of treating his oppo- ments, and his solid confutation of their objections and reasonings, contributed more to depress the cause of atheism and infidelity, than the angry zeal of warm dis. putants. - L E N L E o | 740 J In the decline of life, he published another laborious work, entitled “The Advantages and Necessity of the Christian Revelation, shown from the state of Religion in the Ancient Heathen World, especially with respect to the I(nowledge and Worship of the One true God; a Rule of Moral Duty, and a State of Rewards and Punishments; to which is prefixed, a long preliminary Discourse on Na- tural and Revealed Religion,” two volumes quarto. This noble and extensive subject, the several parts of which have been slightly and occasionally handled by other writers, Leland has treated at large with superior ability. The work has been subsequently reprinted, in two VO- lumes, octavo. Dr. Leland died in 1766, in the seventy- fifth year of his age, highly respected for his learning and talents. After his death, his Sermons were published, in four volumes, octavo, with a preface, giving some account of the life, character, and writings of the author, by the Rev. Dr. Isaac Weld; London, 1769.—Jones' Chris. Biog. LELAND, (THOMAS,) a divine and miscellaneous writer, was born, in 1722, at Dublin, and was educated at Trinity college, where, in 1763, he became professor of oratory. In 1768, the lord lieutenant appointed him his chaplain, and subsequently gave him the vicarage of Bray, and a prebend in St. Patrick’s cathedral. Dr. Leland died in 1785. He wrote Sermons; The History of Ireland; The Life of Philip of Macedon; and a Dissertation on the Principles of Human Eloquence, (which was anonymously attacked by Hurd;) and translated the Orations of De- mosthenes and Æschines.—Davenport. LEMPRIERE, (John,) a native of Jersey, was educated at Winchester, and at Pembroke college, Oxford; was head master of Abington grammar-school, and afterwards of the schoo at Exeter; and, on resigning the latter, was presented to the livings of Meeth and Newton Petrock, in Devonshire, which he meld till his decease, in 1824. He compiled the Biblioth ca Classica ; and Universal Biogra- phy; and printed the first volume of a translation of He- rodotus.—Davenport. - LENT, a Teutonic word, in German, Lenz, the spring ; a time of fasting in the church, observed as a period of humiliation before Easter. The Romish church, and some of the Protestant communion, maintain, that it was always a fast of forty days, and, as such, of aposto- lical institution. Others think that it was of ecclesiastical institution, and that it was variously observed in different churches, and grew by degrees from a fast of ſorty hours to a fast of forty days. This is the sentiment of Morton, bishop Taylor, Du Moulin, Daille, and others. Anciently, the manner of observing Lent among those who were piously disposed, was to abstain from food till evening : their only refreshment was a supper, and it was indifferent whether it was flesh or any other food, provided it was used with sobriety and moderation. Lent was thought the proper time for exercising more abundantly every species of charity: thus what they spared of their own bodies by abridging them of a meal, was usually given to the poor : they employed their vacant hours in visiting the sick and those that were in prison; in enter- taining strangers, and reconciling differences. The im- perial laws forbade all prosecution of men in criminal actions, that might bring them to corporal punishment and torture, during the whole season. This was a time of more than ordinary strictness and devotion; and, there- fore, in many of the great churches, they had religious assemblies for prayer and preaching every day. All pub. lic games and stage plays were prohibited at this season, and also the celebration of all festivals, birthdays, and marriages. The Christians of the Greek church observe four Lents ; the first commences on the 15th of November; the second is the same with our Lent; the third begins the week aſter Whitsuntide, and continues till the festival of St. Peter and St. Paul; and the fourth commences on the 1st of August, and lasts no longer than till the 15th. These Lents are observed with great strictness and austerity, but on Saturdays and Sundays they indulge themselves in drinking wine and using oil, which are prohibited on other days.-Hend. Buck. LENTIL, (odeshim ; Gen. 25: 34. 2 Sam. 17:28, 23: 11. Ezek. 4: 9.) a sort of pulse; in the Septuagint phakos. * and Vulgate lens. . The lentils of Egypt were very much esteemed among the ancients. St. Austin says, they grow abundantly in Egypt, are much used as a food there, and those of Alexandria are considered particularly valuable. Dr. Shaw says, beans, lentils, kidney-beans, and garvan- cos are the chief of their pulse kind. Beans, when boiled, and stewed with oil and garlic, are the principal food of persons of all distinctions. Lentils are dressed in the same manner as beans, dissolving easily into a mass, and, making a pottage of a chocolate color. This, we find, was the “red pottage”, which Esau, from thence called Edom, exchanged for his birthright.—Watson. LEO X., Pope, JoHN DE MEDICI, the son of the illustri- ous Lorenzo, was born, in 1475, at Florence, and was nominated a cardinal in his thirteenth year. In 1505, he was made governor of Perugia ; was intrusted with the command of the papal army in 1511; and was made pri- soner, in the following year, at the battle of Ravenna. He attained the papal crown in 1513, on the death of Ju- lius II. He died in 1521, Leo was one of the most mu- mificent patrons of learning and of the arts; but he was prodigal, and on some occasions grossly violated the prin- ciples of justice. To his shameless sale of indulgences, to raise money to complete St. Peter's church at Rome, the world is indebted for the Reformation of the church, by Luther.—Davenport. LEO, (JUDIE.) This great and good divine was born in Alsace, Germany, in 1482, and took his degree at the university of Basil in 1512. Here he was associated with Zuinglius, and imbibed from Dr. Wittenbush, his preceptor, the true principles of the gospel. He also studied the Oriental languages, the fathers, particularly Jerome arid Augustine, and the books of Luther, Erasmus, and Reuchlin, the famous Hebraist. Called to the pastoral charge at Zurich, where he labored eighteen years, he openly opposed the abominations of popery, both from the pulpit and the press; and became distinguished among the great and burning lights of the Reformation. Assisted by other learned men, he undertook, by request of his brethren, the translation of the Old Testament, to which he devoted himself with such intense application as destroyed his health. He died in 1542, leaving most of the poetical books unfinished ; which however were completed by his friend Bibliander, and published by Conrade Pellican. It is said that Robert Stephens in a great measure pirated this translation. He was also the aúthor of Annotations on Genesis, Exodus, and the Epis- tles, besides translating some of the Works of Zuinglius into Latin. In his last moments he said, “To my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, my hope and my Salvation, I wholly give up my soul and body. I cast myself wholly upon his mercy and grace. In this confidence I fear not to die.”— Middleton, i. p. 152. LEONARD, (GeoRGE,) a young minister of great love- liness and promise, was born in Raynham, Mass., August 17, 1802, of pious parents. His father dying when he was five years old, his religious education devolved on his excellent mother. He became pious in 1818, was bap- tized in 1820, and graduated at Brown university in 1824. He was immediately chosen tutor of Columbian college, Washington. In 1826, he accepted an invitation to be- come pastor of the second Baptist church in Salem, (Mass.) where he labored till the failure of his health, in 1829. Having in some measure recovered in 1831, he settled as pastor of the Baptist church in Portland, (Me.) where he ſell a victim to the ardor of his zeal. He died of an affection of the lungs, August 11, 1832, in the calm triumph of the Christian believer. His last words were, “Prepare to meet your God.” He was eminent as a biblical scholar.—Memoir, preſized to his Sermons. LEONIDAS, father of the celebrated Origen, was a Christian martyr of the third century. Previous to the execution, his son, in order to encourage him, wrote to him as follows: “Beware that your care for us does not make you change your resolution " The father accepted the heroic exhortation of the son, and yielded his neck joy- fully to the stroke of the executioner.—Fox, p. 23. LEOPARD, (nimr; Cant. 4:8. Isa. 11; 6. Jer. 5: 6. 13: 23. Hosea 13: 7. Hab. 1: 8, Dan. 7: 6.) pardalis, L E P I, E S | 741 ) Rev. 13: 2. Ecclus. 28.23. There can be no doubt that the pard or leopard is the animal mentioned. Bochart * shows that the name is similar in the Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic. The LXX uniformly render it by pardalis ; and Jerome, pardus. The leopard is a fierce ani- mal, spotted with a diversity of colors; it has small white eyes, wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a large tail; five claws on his fore feet, four on those behind. It is said to be extremely cruel to man. Its name, leo-pard, implies that it has something of the lion and of the pan- ther in its nature. Probably, these animals were nume- rous in Palestine; as we find places with a name intima- ting their having been the haunts of leopards: Nimrah, (Num. 32: 3.) Beth-Nimrah, (Num. 32: 36. Joshua 13: 27.) and “waters of Nimrim,” (Isaiah 15. 6. Jer. 48: 34.) and “mountains of leopards,” Cant. 4: 8. Brocard says, that the mountain called by the name of Leopards is two leagues from Tripoli northwards, and one league from Libanus. Nimrod might have his name from this ani- mal.-Watson ; Calmet. LEPER. (See LEPRosy.) LEPROSY. Moses mentions three sorts of leprosies; in (1.) men; (2) houses; and (3.) clothes. 1. Leprosy in men ; this disease affects the skin, and sometimes increases in such a manner, as to produce scurf, scabs, and violent itchings, and to corrupt the whole mass of blood. At other times it is only a deformity. The Jews regarded the leprosy as a disease sent from God, and Moses prescribes no natural remedy for the cure of it. He requires only that the diseased person should show himself to the priest, and that the priest should judge of his leprosy ; if it appeared to be a real leprosy, capable of being communicated to others, he separated the leper from the company of mankind. He appoints certain sa- crifices and particular ceremonies already mentioned for the purification of a leper, and for restoring him to socie- ty. The marks which Moses gives for the better distin- guishing a leprosy, are signs of the increase of this dis- ease. Those who have treated of this disease, have made the same remarks, but have distinguished a recent leprosy from one already formed and become inveterate. A recent leprosy may be healed, but an inveterate one is incurable. The common marks by which, as physicians tell us, an inveterate leprosy may be discerned are these : The voice becomes hoarse, like that of a dog which has been long barking, and comes through the nose rather than the mouth: the pulse is small and heavy, slow and disorder- ed: the blood abounds with white and bright corpuseles, like millet-seeds; is, in fact, all a scurfy serum, without due mixture; so that salt put into it does not melt, and is so dry, that vinegar mixed with it bubbles up; the urine is undigested, settled, ash-colored, and thick; the sediment like meal mixed with bran : the face is like a coal half extinguished, shining, unctuous, bloated, full of very hard pimples, with small kernels round about the bottom of them : the eyes are red and inflamed, and project out of the head, but cannot be moved either to the right or left: the ears are swelled and red, corroded with ulcers abut the root of them, and encompassed with small kernels: the nose sinks, because the cartilage rots: the mostrils are open, and the passages stopped with ulcers at the bottom : the tongue is dry, black, swelled, ulcerated, shortened, di- vided in ridges, and beset with little white pimples; the skin of it is uneven, hard, and insensible; even if a hole be made in it, or it be cut, a putrefied sanies issues from it instead of blood. Leprosy is very easily communica- ted; and hence Moses has taken so much precaution tº prevent lepers from communication with persºns in health, His care extended even to dead bodies thus infected, which he directed should not be buried with others, We can hardly fail of observing the character, and ter. ror in consequence, of this disease; how dreadful is the leprosy in Scripture! how justly dreadful, when so fatal, and so hopeless of cure Mungor Park states that the Negroes are subject to a leprosy of the very worst kind; and Mr. Grey Jackson, in his “Account of Morocco.” (p. 192.) informs us, that the species of leprosy called jeddem, is very prevalent in Barbary. “At Moroccothere is a se- parate quarter, outside of the walls, inhabited by lepers only. Those who are affected with it are obliged to wear a badge of distinction whenever they leave their habita- tions; so that a straw hat, with a very wide brim, tied on in a particular manner, is the signal for persons not to ap- proach the wearer. & Niebuhr gives the best account of the various kinds of leprosy in Arabia. 2. The leprosy of houses, mentioned in Lev. 14: 34. The rabbins and others conclude, that this leprosy of houses was not natural, but was a punishment inflicted by God on wicked Israelites; but Calmet is of opinion that it was caused by animalculae which erode the stones like mites in a cheese. Might it be similar to the dry-rot in timber 3 3. The leprosy in clothes is also noticed by Moses, as com- mon in his time. Calmet thinks it very credible, that the leprosy in clothes and skins was caused by vermin.-Calmet. LESHEMI, perhaps Laish, also Dan.—Calmet. LESLIE, (CHARLEs,) was born in Ireland, but the date of his birth is unknown. His father, John Leslie, whose life exceeded a hundred years, was made bishop of the Orkney islands, by Charles the First, and afterwards suc- cessively translated to the Irish sees of Raphoe and Clo- gher. Charles was his second son, and received his edu- cation at Trinity college, Dublin, where he graduated master of arts. He afterwards became a student in the Temple, but relinquished the law for divinity, and entered into orders in 1680. In 1687, he was made chancellor of Connor, and dis- played great firmness in resisting the measures of the popish party, by disputation and otherwise; and in parti. cular, withstood the admission of a sheriff of that reli- gion, although nominated by James the Second himself, But notwithstanding this resistance to what he deemed an illegal mandate, he did not fall in with the principles of the revolution, and declined taking the oath to king Wil- liam, which necessarily deprived him of all his prefer. ments; and he withdrew, with his family, from England. He returned to his own country, and died at his own house at Glaslough, in the county of Monaghan, April the 13th, 1732. He wrote, with singular acuteness and ability, against Deists, Jews, and Socinians, and his works have been collected and published, in two volume, folio. Bayle styles him a man of great merit and learning, and adds, that he was the first who wrots, in Great Bri- tain, against the ſamaticism of madame Bourignon: his books, he further says, are much esteemed, and especially his treatise of “The Snake in the Grase.” Salmon ob- serves, that his works must transmit him to posterity as a man thoroughly learned and truly pious. Dr. Hickessays that he made more converts to a sound faith and holy life than any man of the age in which he liv :d; that his con- summate learning, attended by the lowest humility, the strictest piety without the least tincture ºf narrowness, a conversation to the last degree lively and spirited, yet to the last degree innocent, made him the delight of man- kind. Biog, Brit. and Ency, Brit.—Jones' Chris. Biog. LESSONS, among ecclesiastical writers, are portions of the Holy Scriptures read in churches at the time of di- vine service. In the ancient church, reading the Scrip- ture was one part of the service of the catechumen, at which all persons were allowed to be present, in order to obtain instruction. (See BIBLE.)—Hend. Buck. 1, E T L E V I 742 LETECH; a Hebrew measure, half an omer; contain. ing sixteen pecks, or four bushels, Hos, 3: 2.-Calmet. LETTERS ; marks for the purpose of expressing sounds, used in writing. Few subjects have given rise to more discussion than the origin of alphabetic characters, If they are of human invention, they must be considered as one of the most admirable efforts of the ingenuity of man. So wonderful is the facility which they afford for recording human thought; so ingenious, and at the same time so simple, is the analysis which they ſurnish for the sounds of articulate speech, and for all the possible varie- ty of words; that we might expect the author of this hap- y invention to have been immortalized by the grateful omage of succeeding ages, and his name delivered down to posterity with the ample honors it so justly merited. But the author and the era of this discovery, if such it be, are both lost in the darkness of remote antiquity. Even the nation to which the invention is due cannot now be as- certained. The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Persians, the Indians, have all laid claim to the ho- nor of it; and each has named its inventor among the remote, and probably fabulous, personages that figure in the earlier ages of their history. Lucan affirms, that the Phoenicians invented the com- mon letters before the Egyptians were acquainted with the use of paper, or with the art of writing in hieroglyph- ical characters; (lib. 3.) it was probably in imitation of the Phoenicians, therefore, that the Egyptians used letters in their writing. Of this we cannot be certain, but two things we know; first, that there were great resemblances in the ancient characters of the two people; and secondly, that Moses, who was instructed in all the learning of Egypt, wrote in Phoenician characters. The old Egyp- tian letters are at present unknown, though many of them remain. This people lost the use of their writing when under the dominion of the Greeks, and the Coptic or mo- dern Egyptian character is formed from the Greek. The Phoenicians spread the use of their letters through- out all their colonies. Cadmus carried them into Greece; the Greeks perfected them, and added others. They communi- cated them to the Latins, and after the conquests of Al- exander, extended them over Egypt and Syria. So that the Phoenician writing, which is so ancient, and the pa- rent of so many others, would at this day have been en- tirely forgotten, had not the Samaritans preserved the Pen. tateuch of Moses, written in the old Canaanite or Hebrew character; by the help of which, medals, and the small re- mains of Phoenician monuments, have been deciphered. Some learned men, however, maintain that the square Hebrew character still in use, is the same as was used by Moses; but the greater number suppose that the Jews gradually abandoned the original character, while in cap: tivity at Babylon, and that ultimately. Ezra substituted the Chaldee, which is now used ; while the Samaritans reserved their Pentateuch, written in old Hebrew and }. characters. (See WRITING...) It is generally said, that the Hebrews have no vowels, and that to supply the want of them, they invented the vowel points, sometimes used by them in their books. But it is certain that they have vowels; though they do no, always express them in their writing; and that the sound, powers, and quantity of these vowels are not al- ways the same, as happens also in other languages. Aleph, Vau, Jod, and Ain are vowels; He is an aspirate only. The vowel points are modern, and the invention of the Massorets, about the middle of the ninth, or the be- ginning of the tenth, century. The honor of them is as- cribed principally to the rabbins Asher and Naphtali, who lived at that time. They are ten in number, and express the five vowels according to their different changes and pronunciations. The inquisitive reader may find the sub- stance of the dispute for and against the antiquity of the vowel points clearly and concisely represented by Prideaux, in the first part of his Connection, book v., and from thence may have a distinct view of the chief arguments produced pro and con in this controversy, by those emi- nent antagonists Capellus, the two Buxtorſs, &c. - The Hebrews have certain acrostic verses, which begin with the letters of the alphabet, ranged in order. - The most considerable of these is Psalm 119, which contains twenty-two stanzas of eight verses each, all acro- stic; that is, the first eight begin with Aleph, the next eight with Beth, and so on. Other Psalms, as 25, 33, have but twenty-two verses, each beginning with one of the twenty-two letters of the alphabet. Others, as 111, 112, have one half of the verse beginning with one letter, and the other half with another. Thus:— Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, Who delighteth greatly in his commandments. º The first half of the verse begins with Aleph; the second with Beth. The Lamentations of Jeremiah are also in acrostic verse, as well as the thirty-first chapter of Pro- verbs, from the eighth verse to the end. . . . . . . The Jews use their characters not only for writing, but for numbers, as did the Greeks, who in their arithmetièa: computations fixed a numerical value on their lºtters. But we do not believe the ancient Hebrews did SC, nºt that letters were numerical among them. The sacred authors always write the numbers entire and without ab" breviation. We know that some learned men have at: tempted to rectify dates, or supply years, on a supposition that the letters served for numerals in the Scripture; but it was incumbent on them first, to prove that the ancient Hebrews used that manner. º - In consequence of this uncertainty respecting the author of alphabetic writing, and the high value and extreme difficulty of the invention itself, many have been inclined to attribute this art to an immediate revelation from the Deity; contending that it was communicated with other invaluable gifts from above, in remote ages, to the de- scendants of Abraham, and probably to the patriarch Mo- ses, who was the author of the most ancient compositions in alphabetical writing that we at present possess. The arguments which are brought in support of the divine re- velation of the alphabet, are chiefly these: 1. The high antiquity of the use of letters; the Hebrew characters having existed in a perfect state when Moses composed the Pentateuch, the most ancient writing now known to be extant. 2. The similarity between the various alphabets of different nations, which, for the most part, are the same, in the order, power, and even form, of their letters with the Hebrew." 3. The complete want of alphabetic cha- racters among those nations, which have been cut off from all communication with the ancient civilized world, as the aboriginal Aunericans; or that part of the human race which had no opportunity of borrowing the system of written characters revealed to the IIebrews, as China. (See WRITING, and Books.)—Watson; Calmet. LETTER, (THE) Paul places the letter in opposition to the spirit; a way of speaking very common in the ecclesiastical style, Rom. 2: 27, 29. 7: 6. 2 Cor. 3: 6, 7. “God hath made us ministers of the New Testament, not of the letter, but of the spirit; for the letter killeth, but the spirit quickeneth;” that is, the law of Moses is inca- pable of giving life to the soul, and justifying before God those who are most servilely addicted to the literal obser- vance of it. These things can be effected only by means of the gospel of Christ, and of that Spirit of truth alsº holiness which attends it, and makes it effectual to the salvation of the soul.—Calmet. - LEUCOPETRIANS ; the name of a ſanatical sect which sprung up in the Greek and Eastern churches to- . wards the close of the twelfth century; they professed to believe in a double trinity, rejected wedlock; abstained from flesh, treated with the utmost contempt the sacra, ments of baptism and the Lord’s supper, and all the va. rious branches of external worship; placed the essence of religion in internal prayer alone; and maintained, as it is said, that an evil being or genius dwelt in the orcast , of every mortal, and could be expelled from thence by no other method than by perpetual supplication to the Su- preme Being. The founder of this sect is said to have been a person called Leucopetrus, and his chief disciple, Tychicus, who corrupted by ſanatical interpretations seve- ral books of Scripture, and particularly the gospel of Mat- thew. This account is not undoubted.—Hend. Buck. LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah, was born in Mesopotamia, A. M. 2248, Gen. 29: 34, 34:25, 26. 46; 11. 49: 5, 6. - - Ilevi was, according to his father's prediction, scattered L E V L I B [ 743 over all Israel, having no share in the division of Canaan, but certain cities in the portions of other tribes. He was not the worse provided for, however, since God chose the tribe for the service of the temple and priesthood, and be. stowed on it many privileges above the other tribes, in digni- ty, and in the advantages of life. (See LEVITEs.)—Calmet. LEWIATHAN ; Job 3: 8. 41: i: Psalms 74: 14. 104: 26. Isaiah 27: 1. The old commentators concurred in re- --->;--> - garding the whale as the animal here intended. Beza and Diodati were among the first to interpret it the croco- dile : and Bochart has since supported this last rendering with a train of argument which has nearly overwhelmed all opposition, and brought almost every commentator over to his opinion. It is very certain that it could not be the whale, which does not inhabit the Mediterranean, much less the rivers that empty themselves into it; nor will the characteristics at all apply to the whale. The crocodile, on the contrary, is a natural inhabitant of the Nile, and other Asiatic and African rivers; of enormous voracity and strength, as well as fleetness in swimming; attacks mankind and the largest animals with most daring impetuosity; when taken by means of a powerful net, will often overturn the boats that surround it ; has, pro- portionally, the largest mouth of all monsters whatever; moves both its jaws equally, the upper of which has not less than forty, and the lower than thirty-eight sharp, but strong and massy, teeth; and is furnished with a coat of mail, so scaly and callous as to resist the force of a mus- ket-ball in every part, except under the belly. Indeed, to this animal the general character of the leviathan seems so well to apply, that it is unnecessary to seek far- ther.—Calmet ; Harris ; Abbott ; Watson. LEWIRATE ; a Hebrew law, in obedience to which, when a man died without issue, his brother was obliged to marry his widow, with the view of raising up a first- born son to succeed to the inheritance. The term is de- rived from the word Levir, which, though not of classical authority, is found in the Vulgate and the Pandects, and is explained by Festus to signify a husband's brother. Michaelis on the Lan's of Moses, article 98.-Hend. Buck. LEVITES. Under this name may be comprised all the descendants of Levi ; but it principally denotes those who were employed in the lowest ministries of the temple, by which they were distinguished from the priests, who, be- ing descended from Aaron, were likewise of the race of Levi by Kohath, but were employed in higher offices. The Levites were descendants of Levi, by Gershom, lºo- hath, and Merari, excepting the family of Aaron ; for the children of Moses had no part in the priesthood, and were only common I.evites. God chose the Levites instead of the first-born of all Israel, for the service of his tabernacle and temple, Num. 3: 6, &c. They obeyed the priests in the ministrations of the temple, and brought to them wood, water, and other things necessary for the sacrifices. They sung, and play- ed on instruments, in the temple, &c.; they studied the law, and were the ordinary judges of the country, but Sub- ordinate to the priests. should not begin in the service of the tabernacle till they were five-and-twenty years of age, (Num. 8:24–26.) or, as he says elsewhere, from thirty to fifty years old, Num. 4: 3. But David, finding that they were no longer em- ployed in these grosser offices of transporting the vessels of the tabernacle, appointed them to enter on service at the temple at twenty years of age. The priests and Le- vites waited by turns, weekly, in the temple. They be- gan their weeks on one Sabbath day, and on the Sabbath day in the following week went out f waiting, 1 Chron. 23:24, 2 Chron, 21: 17, Ezra 3: 8, Moses ordained that the Levites God provided for the subsistence of the Levites, by giv- ing them the tythe of corn, fruit, and cattle; but they paid to the priests the tenth of their tythes; and as the Levites possessed no estates in the land, the tythes which the priests received from them were looked on as the first- fruits which they were to offer to the Lord, Num. 18: 21. –24. God assigned them for their habitations forty-eight cities, with ſields, pastures and gardens, Num. 35. Of these, thirteen were given to the priests, six of which were cities of refuge, Joshua 20: 7. 21: 19, 20, &c. While the Levites were actually employed in the temple, they were subsisted out of the provisions in store there, and out of the daily offerings there made; and if any Levite quitted . the place of his abode, to serve the temple, even out of the time of his half-yearly or weekly waiting, he was re- ceived there, kept and provided for, in like manner as his other brethren, who were regularly in waiting, Deut. 18: 6–8. When an Israelite made a religious entertainment in the temple, God required that the Levites should be in vited to it, Deut. 12: 18, 19. The consecration of Levites was without much ceremo- ny. They wore no peculiar habit to distinguish them from the other Israelites, and God ordained nothing par- ticularly for their mourning, 2 Chron. 29: 34. The man- ner of their consecration may be seen in Num. 8: 5–7, &c.—Watson. LEVITES, (MILITARY ;) a name given to such ministers in the time of the Commonwealth, as filled the office of chaplain to the regiments of the parliamentary army.— Hend. Buck. LEVITICUS; a canonical book of Scripture, being the third book of the Pentateuch of Moses; thus called be- cause it contains principally the laws and regulations re- lating to the Levites, priests, and sacrifices; for which reason the Hebrews call it the law of the priests, because it includes many ordinances concerning their services. (See PENTATEUch.)—Watson. LEVITY; lightness of spirit, in opposition to gravity. Nothing can be more proper than for a Christian to wear an air of cheerfulness, and to watch against a morose and gloomy disposition. But though it be his privilege to re- joice, yet he must be cautious of that volatility of spirit which characterizes the unthinking, and marks the vain professor. To be cheerful without levity, and grave with- out austerity, form both a happy and dignified character. —Hend. Buck. LEWIS DE DIEU. This great man, minister of Ley- den, and professor in the Walloon college of that city, was born, in 1590, at Flushing, where his father was mi- nistér. He was a scholar of great abilities, and well versed in the Oriental tongues. He was held in high esteem by archbishop Usher. While yet a youth, prince Maurice being in Zealand, heard him preach, and some time after sent for him to court. Our young divine mo- destly excused himself, declaring that he designed in the exercise of his ministry to satisfy his conscience, and to censure freely what he should find deserved censure ; a li- berty which courts did not care to allow; while at the same time he thought the post offered him, more proper for a man in years than a student. He was called to Leyden in 1619, and discharged his duties with great diligence till his death, in 1642. He de- clined the offer which was made him of the divinity pro- fessorship in the new university of Utrecht. He publish- ed in 1631, a Commentary on the Four Gospels, and Notes on the Acts of the Apostles, of which father Simon speaks highly. He drew up likewise rudiments of the Hebrew and Persian tongues, and edited several works in both languages. The learned Constantine l’Emperor says that for practical piety, knowledge of theology, and science of all kinds, he was a star of the first magnitude,-Middle- ton, vol. iii. p. 154. - LIBATION. This word is used in sacrificial language, to express an effusion of liquors, poured upon victims to be sacrificed to the Lord. The quantity of wine for a li- bation was the fourth part of a hin, rather more than two pints. Libations among the Hebrews were poured on the victim after it was killed, and the several pieces of it were laid on the altar, ready to be sº by the flames, Lev. 6: 20, 8: 25, 26. 9:4, 16: 12, 20. These libations • **** - i, I B consisted in flerings of bread, wine, and salt. The Greeks and Latins offered libations with the sacrifices, but they were poured on the victim's head while it was living. So Sinon, relating the manner in which he was to be sa- * crificed, says he was in the priest's hands ready to be slain; was loaded with bands and garlands; that they were preparing to pour upon him the libations of grain and salted meal:— - - - Jamque dies infanda aderat, intihi sacra parart, + &t salsae frugés, ct circunt tempora vittº, AEmeid ii. 130, 131. “The salted barley on my front was spread, The sacred fillets bound my destingd head.” * PITT, Št. Paul describes limself, as it were, a victim about to be sacrificed, and that the accustomed libations were al- ready, in a manner, poured upon him : “For I am ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand,” 2 Tim. 4: 6. The same expressive sacrificial term occurs in Philip. 2: 17, where the apostle represents the faith of the Philippians as a sacrifice, and his own blood as a li- bation poured forth to hallow and consecrate it: “Yea, and if I be offered, spendomai, upon the sacrifice and ser- vice of your faith, Ijoy and rejoice with you all.”—Wat- son ; Calmet. LIBELLATICI; a term in ecclesiastical history, applied to certain Christians, who saved themselves from persecu- tion, either by privately signing libels (writings) of abju- ration; or by procuring, either through interest or by mo- ney, libels of security, excusing them from the heathen sacrifices. Broughton's Dict.—Williams. LIBERALITY; bounty; a generous disposition of mind, exerting itself in giving largely. It is thus distin- guished from generosity and bounty —Liberality implies acts of mere giving or spending; generosity, acts of great- ness; bounty, acts of kindness. Liberality is a natural disposition; generosity proceeds from elevation of senti- ment; bounty from religious motives. Liberality denotes freedom of spirit; generosity, greatness of soul; bounty, openiiess of heart.—Hend. Buck. LIBERALITY OF SENTIMENT ; a generous dispo- sition a man feels towards another who is of a different opinion from himself; or, as one defines it, “that generous expansion of mind which enables it to look beyond all petty distinctions of party and system, and, in the esti- mate of men and things, to rise Superior to narrow pre- judices.” As liberality of sentiment is often a cover for error and scepticism on the one hand, and as it is too little attended to by the ignorant and bigoted on the other, we shall here lay before our readers a view of it by a masterly writer. “A man of liberal sentiments must be distinguished from him who hath no religious sentiments at all. He is one who hath seriously and effectually investigated, both in his Bible and on his knees, in public assemblies and in private conversations, the important articles of religion. He hath laid down principles, he hath inferred consequen- ces; in a word, he hath adopted sentiments of his own. “He must be distinguished, also, from that tame, un- discerning domestic among good people, who, though he bas sentiments of his own, yet has not judgment to esti- *: the worth and value of one sentiment beyond ano- } &r. “Now, a generous believer of the Christian religion is one who will never allow himself to try to propagate his sentiments by the commission of sin. No collusion, no bitterness, no wrath, no undue influence of any kind, will he apply to make his sentiments receivable; and no living thing will be less happy for his being a Christian. He will exercise his liberality by allowing those who differ from him as much virtue and integrity as he possibly can. “There are, among a multitude of arguments to enforce such a disposition, the following worthy our attention :- “First, We should exercise liberality in union with sen- timent, because of the different capacities, advantages, and tasks of mankind. Religion employs the capacities of mankind just as the air employs their lungs and their organs of speech. The fancy of one is lively, of another The judgment of one is elastic ; of another feeble, dull. a damaged spring. The memory of one is retentive; *44 | L I B that of another is treacherous as the wind. The passions of this man are loſty, vigorous, rapid; those of that man crawl, and hum, and buzz, and, when on wing, sail only round the circumference of a tulip. Is it conceivable that capability, so different in everything else, should be all alike in religion? The advantages of mankind differ. How should he who hath no parents, no books, no tutor, no companions, equal him whom Providence hath gratifi- ed with them all ; who, when he looks over the treasures of his own knowledge, can say, this I had of a Greek, that I learned of a Roman ; this information I acquired of my tutor, that was a present of my father; a friend gave me this branch of knowledge, an acquaintance be- queathed me that? The tasks of mankind differ; so I call the employments and exercises of life. In my opin- ion, circumstances make great men; and if we have not Caesars in the state, and Pauls in the church, it is because neither church nor state are in the circumstances in which they were in the days of those great men. Push a dull man into a river, and endanger his life, and suddenly he will discover invention, and make efforts beyond himself. The world is a fine school of instruction. Poverty, sick- ness, pain, loss of children, treachery of ſriends, malice of enemies, and a thousand other things, drive the man of sentiment to his Bible, and, so to speak, bring him home to a repast with his benefactor, God. Is it conceivable that he whose young and tender heart is yet umpractised in trials of this kind, can have ascertained and tasted so many religious truths as the sufferer has 3 “We should believe the Christian religion with liberali- ty, in the second place, because every part of the Chris- tian religion inculcates generosity. Christianity gives us a character of God; but what a character does it give GoD Is LovE. Christianity teaches the doctrine of Provi- dence; but what a providence Upon whom doth not its light arise? Is there an animalcule so little, or a wretch so forlorn, as to be forsaken and forgotten of his God? Christianity teaches the doctrine of redemption; but the redemption of whom 3–of all tongues, kindred, nations, and people; of the infant of a span, and the sinner of a hundred years old : a redemption generous in its princi: ple, generous in its price, generous in its effects; fixed sentiments of divine munificence, and revealed with a liberality for which we have no name. In a word, the il- liberal Christian always acts contrary to the spirit of his religion : the liberal man alone thoroughly understands it. “Thirdly, We should be liberal, because no other spirit is exemplified in the infallible guides whom we profess to follow. I set one Paul against a whole army of uninspir- ed men: “Some preach Christ of good-will, and some of envy and strife. What then? Christ is preached; and I therein do rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. One eateth all things, another eateth herbs; but why dost THOU judge thy brother ? We shall all stand before the judgment-seat of Christ.” We often inquire, What was the doctrine of Christ, and what was the practice of Christ? Suppose we were to institute a third question, Of what TEMPER was Christ 2 & “Once more : We should be liberal as well as orthodox, because truths, especially the truths of Christianity, do not want any support from our illiberality. Let the little bee guard its little honey with its little sting; perhaps its little life may depend a little while on that little nourish- ment. Let the fierce bull shake his head, and nod his horn, and threaten his enemy, who seeks to eat his flesh, and wear his coat, and live by his death : poor fellow ! his life is in danger; I forgive his bellowing and his rage, But the Christian religion,--is that in danger? And what human efforts can render that false which is true, that odi- ous which is lovely 2 Christianity is in no danger, and therefore it gives its professors life and breath, and all things except a power of injuring others. “In fine, liberality in the profession of religion is a wise and innocent policy. The bigot lives at home; a rep- tile he crawled into existence, and there in his hole he lurks a reptile still. A generous Christian goes out of his own party, associates with others, and gains improvement by all. It is a Persian proverb, ‘A liberal hand is better than a strong arm.’ The dignity of Christianity is better supported by acts of liberality than by accuracy of rea- ** §: *.*.* &|- } *. » \ - &4± +u '! • × ° * `n 8 *- -ș a“,*- ·&, ** →-* |-, ’- ſaș-· ** #� ș** -Ķ- }»·- ** ... *~ » +·· *- • ! ; ·-{ • - lºº ------ ... <== ------ :*--º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º- º-º-º-º-º-º: ::::::::::::::::- *:----º::::::A.<- ###: :E *. sº Nº. * W sº * . , * : * ~ * * Rºsº <>;-º-º-º: sº tººl-Tº: tº: sº cº-º:ºº-sºczºº §§§ º BAALBEC L. I.B I, I F [ 745 soning; but when both go together, when a man of senti- ment can clearly state and ably defend his religious prin- ciples, and when his heart is as generous as his principles are inflexible, he possesses strength and beauty in an emi- nent degree.” See. Theol. Misc. vol. i. p. 39; Draper on Bigotry; Nenton, Cecil, and Fuller's Works; Wayland's Piscourses.—Hend. Buck. - - . LIBERTINIE ; one who acts without restraint, and pays no regard to the precepts of religion. (See LIBER- TINEs.)—Hend. Buck. - LIBERTINES. 1. Mention is made of the synagogue of the Libertines, (Acts 6: 9.) concerning whom there are different opinions, two of which bid fairest for the truth. The first is that of Grotius and Vitringa, adopted by Guise and Doddridge, that they were Italian Jews or proselytes. The ancient Romans distinguished between libertus and li- bertinus. Libertus was one who had been a slave, and ob- tained his freedom ; libertinus was the son of a libertus. But this distinction in after ages was not strictly observed; and libertinus also came to be used for one not born, but made free, in opposition to ingenuus, or one born free. But as all the other people of the several synagogues, men- tioned in this passage of the Acts, are denominated from the places from whence they came, it is probable that the Libertines were so too; and as the Cyrenians and Alex- andrians, who came from Africa, are placed next to the Libertines in that catalogue, it is probable they also be- longed to the same country. So that, upon the whole, there is little reason to doubt of the Libertines being so called from the place from whence they came ; and the order of the names in the catalogue might lead us to think, that they were farther off from Jerusalem than Alexan- dria and Cyrenia, which will carry us to the proconsular province in Africa about Carthage. That a city called Libertina did exist in that province is certain; and that it became the seat of a flourishing Christian church. 2. A religious sect which arose in the year 1525, whose principal tenets were, that the Deity was the sole opera- ting cause in the mind of man, and the immediate author of all human actions; that, consequently, the distinctions of good and evil, which had been established with regard to those actions, were false, and groundless, and that men could not, properly speaking, commit sin; that religion consisted in the union of the spirit, or rational soul, with the Supreme Being; that all those who had attained this happy union, by sublime contemplation and elevation of mind, were then allowed to indulge without exception or restraint, their appetites or passions; that all their actions and pursuits were then perfectly innocent; and that, after the death of the body, they were to be united to the Deity. These maxims occasioned their being called Libertines, and the word has been used in an ill sense ever since. 3. Libertimes of Geneva were a cabal of rakes rather than of fanatics; for they made no pretence to any religious system, but pleaded only for the liberty of leading volup- tuous and immoral lives. This cabal was composed of a certain number of licentious citizens, who could not bear the severe discipline of Calvin. There were also among them several who were not only motorious for their disso- lute and scandalous manner of living, but also for their atheistical impiety and contempt of all religion.—Hend. Buck ; Watson. te LIBERTY, denotes a state of freedom, in contradis- tiviction to slavery or restraint.—1. Liberty of conscience is freedom from restraint in our choice, and judgment about matters of religion.—2. Internal liberty, or liberty of choice, is that in which our volitions are not determined by any foreign cause or consideration whatever offered to it, but by our own understanding or pleasure.—3. External liber- ty, or liberty of action, is opposed to a constraint laid on the executive powers; and consists in a power of render- ing our volitions effectual.—4. Philosophical or moral liber- ty consists in a prevailing disposition to act according to the dictates of reason, i. e. in such a manner as shall, all things considered, most effectually promote our happiness-5. Spiritual liberty consists, in freedom from the curse of the moral law; from the servitude of the Jewish ritual; from the love, power, and guilt of sin; from the dominion of Satan; from the corruptions of the world; from the fear of death, and the wrath to come, Rom. 6: 14 8: 1. Gal. 3: 13. John 8: 36. Rom 8: 21. Gal. 5: 1. Thess. 1: 10. See articles MATERIALISTs; NECESSITY ; WILL; PREDESTINATION ; and Doddridge's Lect., vol. i. p. 50, oct.; Watts' Phil., sect. v. p. 288; Jon. Ednyards on the Will ; Locke on Und. ; Grove’s Mor. Phil, sect. 18, 19; J. Palmer on Liberty of Man ; Martin's Qi.e- ries and Remarks on Human Liberty ; Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 175, &c.; Saurin's Serm., vol. iii. ser. 4; Bronm's Philosophy; Oliver's Hints; M. Necker on Religion ; Ful- ler's Works; Works of Robert Hall ; Wilkes' Essays.-- Płend. Buck. LIBYA. This name, in its largest sense, was used by the Greeks to denote the whole of Africa. But Libya Proper, or the Libya of the New Testament, the country of the Lubims of the Old, was a large country lying along the Mediterranean, on the west of Egypt. It was called Pentapolitana Regio by Pliny, from its five chief cities, Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, Apollonia, and Cyrene; and Libya. Cyrenaica by Ptolemy, from Cyrene, its capi- tal. Libya is supposed to have been first peopled by, and to have derived its name from, the Lehabim, or Lubim. These, its earlier inhabitants, appear, in the times of the Old Testament, to have consisted of wandering tribes, who were sometimes in alliance with Egypt, and at others with the Ethiopians of Arabia; as they are said to have assisted both Shishak and Zerah in their expeditions into Judea, 2 Chron. 12, 14, 16. They were for a time suffi- ciently powerful to maintain a war with the Carthaginians, by whom they were in the end entirely overcome. Since that period, Libya, in common with the rest of the East, has successively passed into the hands of the Greeks, Ro- mans, Saracens, and Turks. The city Cyrene, built by a Grecian colony, was the capital of this country, in which, and other parts, dwelt many Jews, who came up to Jeru- salem at the feast of Pentecost, together with those dis- persed among other nations, and are called by St. Luke “dwellers in the parts of Libya about Cyrene,” Acts 2: 10.- JVatson ; Calmet ; Jones. LICE. Swarms of lice was the third plague with which God punished the Egyptians, Exod. 8: 16. The Hebrew word kanin, which the LXX. render skniphes, some trans- late “flies,” and think them the same as gnats. But Jo- sephus, the Jewish rabbins, and most of the modern trans- lators render the Hebrew word at large lice ; and Bochart and Bryant support this interpretation. The former ar- gues that gnats could not be meant; 1. Because the crea- tures here mentioned sprang ſrom the dust of the earth, and not from the waters. 2. Because they were both on men and cattle, which cannot be spoken of gnats. 3. Be- cause their name comes from the radix kaun, which signi- fies to make firm, fix, establish ; which can never agree to gnats, flies, &c., which are ever changing their place, and are almost constantly on the wing. 4. Because kanah is the term by which talmudists express the term louse, &c. To which may be added, that iſ they were winged and stinging insects, as Jerome, Origen, and others have sup- posed, the plague of flies is unduly anticipated ; and the next miracle will be only a repetition of the former. Mr. Bryant, in illustrating the aptness of this miracle, has the following remarks : “The Egyptians affected great external purity, and were very nice both in their persons and clothing; bathing and making ablutions con- tinually. Uncommon care was taken not to harbor any vermin. They were particularly solicitous on this head; thinking it would be a great profanation of the temple which they entered, if any animalculae of this sort were concealed in their garments. The priests, says Herodo- tus, are shaved, both as to their heads and bodies, every third day, to prevent any louse, or any other detestable creature, being ſound upon them when they are perform- ing their duty to the gods. The judgment, therefore, in- flicted by the hands of Moses, was, consequently, not only most noisome to the people in general, but it was no smail odium to the most sacred order in Egypt, that they were overrun with these filthy and detestable vermin.”— Watson. LIE. (See LYING...) - LIFE ; É. a state of active and happy existence. 1. Mortal life, since the fall, is the continuance or duration of our present state, which the Scriptures represent as blended largely with death, and consequently short and 94 L I G L I L | 746 ) vain, Gen. 3: 17. 19: 22–24. Job 14: 1, 2., James 4: 14. 2. Spiritual life consists in our being in the favor of God, influenced by a principle of sanctifying grace, and living in dependence on him to his glory. It is considered as 6f divine origin, (Col. 3: 4.) hidden, (Col. 3: 3.) peace- ful, (Rom. 8: 6.) secure, John 10: 28. , 3., Eternal life is the consummation of spiritual, (Rom. 6: 22.) that never ending state of existence which the saints shall enjoy in hea- ven; and is glorious, (Col. 3: 4.) holy, Rev. 21:27. and blissful, 1 Pet. 1; 4.2 Cor. 4; 17. (See Heaven.)—-Hend. Buck. LIFE, Book of. (See Book.) - LIFE, TREE OF. (See TREE OF LIFE.) - LIFTERS, and ANTILIFTERS; so were called two congregations at Killmaurs, in North Britain, who, ac- cording to Sir John Sinclair, differed on the paltry ques- tion, whether it was necessary for the minister to lift in his hand the plate of bread before its distribution in the Lord's supper. the others Old Lights; terms that have been applied in other cases somewhat similar. Grégoire's Hist, tom. i. p. 61, quoted from Sinclair's Works, vol. ix. pp. 375–6.- TVºlliams. LIFTING UP THE HANDS, is among the Orientals a common part of the ceremony of taking an oath:-‘‘I have lift up mine hand unto the Lord,” says Abraham, Gen. 14; 22. And, “I will bring you into the land con- cerning which I lift up mine hand,” (Exod. 6:8.) which I promised with an oath. To LIFT UP one’s HANDs, EYES, soul, or HEART, unto the Lord, are also expressions describing the sentiments and emotion of one who prays earnestly, or desires a thing with ardor.—Calmet. LIGHT, gº) is used in a physical sense, (Matt. 17: 2. Acts 9: 3. 12; 7. 2 Cor. 4: 6.) for a fire giving light, (Mark 14: 54. Luke 22:56.) for a torch, candle, or lamp, (Acts 16:29.) and for the material light of heaven, as the sun, moon, or stars, Ps. 136: 7. James 1: 17. Figura- tively taken, it signifies a manifest or open state of things; Matt. 10: 27. Luke 12:3.) also, in a still higher sense, the eternal source of truth, purity, and joy, 1 John 1: 5. James 1: 17. God is said to dwell in light inaccessible, 1 Tim. 6: 16. This seems to contain a reference to the glory and splen- dor which shone in the holy of holies, where Jehovah ap- peared in the luminous cloud above the mercy-seat, and which none but the high-priest, and he only once a year, was permitted to approach unto ; (Lev. 16: 2. Ezek. 1: 22, 26, 28.) but this was typical of the glory of the celes- tial world. Light frequently signifies, also, instruction, both by doc- trine and example; (Matt. 5: 16. John 5:35.) or persons considered as giving such light, Matt. 5: 14. Rom. 2 19. It is applied in the highest sense to Christ, the true Light, the Sun of Righteousness, who is that in the spiritual, which the material light is in the natural world ; who is the great Author, not only of illumination and knowledge, but of spiritual life, health, and joy to the souls of men. The images of light and darkness, says bishop Lowth, are commonly made use of in all languages to imply or denote prosperity and adversity, agreeably to the common sense and perception which all men have of the objects themselves. But the Hebrews, upon a subject more sub- lime indeed, in itself, and illustrating it by an idea which was more habitual to them, more daringly exalt their strains, and give a loose rein to the spirit of poetry. They display, for instance, not the image of the spring, of Au- rora, or of the dreary night; but the Sun and stars as rising with increased splendor in a new creation, or again in- volved in chaos and primeval darkness, Isa. 30: 26. 60: 19, 20. 24; 25. Ezek. 27: 7, 8. - The expressions are bold and daring ; but the imagery is well known, the use of it is common, the signification definite ; they are therefore perspicuous, clear, and truly magnificent.—Watson. - . LIGHT OF NATURE. (See NATURE.) LIGHT, Divine. (See ICNowIEDGE ; RELIGION.) LIGHTFOOT, (John, D. D.) a most learned English di- vine, was the son of a minister, and born in March, 1602, at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire. At Cambridge, he ap- plied himself to eloquence, and succeeded so well in it as $º They were also called Neny Lights, and to be thought the best orator of the under graduates in the university. He also made an extraordinary proficiency in Latin and Greek. When he took the degree of bache- lor of arts he left the university, and became assistant to a school at Repton, in Derbyshire. After he had supplied this place a year or two, he entered into orders, and be- came curate of Norton-under-Hales, in Shropshire. He now began to study the Hebrew language, persuaded that no man could be well versed in the Scriptures but an He- braist. Not long after he removed to Hornsey, where he wrote his Emblems, or Miscellanies, Christian and Judai- cal, in 1629. He was then only twenty-seven, and yet was well acquainted with the Latin and Greek fathers, as well as the ancient heathen writers. He, at that time, satisfied himself in clearing up many of the abstrusest passages in the Bible: and therein had provided the chief materials, as well as formed the plan of his “Harmony.” An opportunity of inspecting it at the press, was a motive for his going to London, where he had not long been, be- fore he was chosen minister of St. Bartholomew's, behind the royal exchange. The great assembly of divines meet- ing in 1643, our author gave his attendance there, and made a distinguished figure in their debates; where he used great freedom, and gave signal proofs of his courage as well as learning, in opposing many of those tenets which the divines were endeavoring to establish. In 1653, he was presented to the living of Much Munden, in Hert- fordshire. In 1655, he entered upon the office of vice- chancellor of Cambridge. The year of Dr. Lightfoot's decease is not exactly known. He was a true Christian. In the discharge of his clerical duties, he was zealous and active. As to his learning in the rabbinical way, he was excelled by none, and had few equals. The most com- plete edition of the works of this learned author is that edited by Pitman, comprised in thirteen volumes, octavo ; London, 1825. Jones' Chris. Biog-Hend. Buck. LIGURE, (lishim; Exod. 28. 19. , 39: 12.) a precious stone, of a deep red color, with a considerable tinge of yel- low. Theophrastus and Pliny describe it as resembling the carbuncle, of a brightness sparkling like fire.—Watson. LILLY, (WILLIAM,) an astrologer; was born, in 1602, at Diseworth, in Leicestershire; and, after having been servant to a mantuamaker, and bookkeeper to a trades- man, he became a professor of astrology. Lilly, who had a tolerable spice of the knave in his composition, soon ac- quired both fame and money in his new vocation. Dur- ing the civil wars he was consulted by both parties as to events; but it was the cause of the parliament that he finally espoused. He died in 1681. Among his works are, Observations on the Life and Death of Charles I. ; and his own Life.—Davenport. LILY, (shushan ; 1 Kings 7: 19, 22, 26. 2 Chron. 4: 5. Cant. 2: 2, 16. 4: 5. 5: 13. 6: 2, 3. 7: 2. Hos. 14: 5. Krinon, Matt. 6: 28. Luke 12:27.) a well known, sweet, and beautiful flower, which furnished Solomon with a variety of charming images in his Song, and with graceful orna- ments in the fabric and furniture of the temple. The title of some of the Psalms “upon Shushan,” or “Sho- shanim,” (Ps. 45, 60, 69, 80.) probably means no more than that the music of these sacred compositions was to be regulated by that of some odes, which were known by those names or appellations. . . . By “the lily of the valley,” (Cant. 2: 2.) we are not to understand the humble flower, generally so called with us, the lilium convallium, but the noble flower which ornaments our gardens, and which in Palestine grows wild in the fields, and especially in the valleys. In the East, as with us, it is the emblem of purity and moral excellence. So the Persian poet, Sadi, compares an amiable youth to “ the white lily in a bed of narcissuses,” because he sur- passed all the young shepherds in goodness. , As, in Cant. 5: 13, the lips are compared to the lily, bishop Patrick supposes the lily here instanced to be the same which, on account of its deep red color, is particu- larly called by Pliny rubens lilium, and which, he tells us, was much esteemed in Syria. Such may have been the lily mentioned in Matt. 6: 28–30; for the royal robes were purple. Sir James E. Smith observes, “It is natural to presume the divine Teacher, according to his usual cus. tom, called the attention of his hearers to some object at º L IN L I N [ 747 I ºr hand; and as the fields of the Levant are overrun with the amaryllis lutea, whose golden lilaceous flowers in au- tumn afford one of the most brilliant and gorgeous objects in nature, the expression of ‘Solomon in all his glory not being arrayed like one of these,” is peculiarly appropriate. I consider the feeling with which this was expressed as the highest honor ever done to the study of plants; and if my botanical conjecture be right, we learn a chronological fact respecting the season of the year when the sermon on the mount was delivered.” (See GRAss.)—Watson. LIMBO, in Roman Catholic divinity, signifies a place on the borders of hell, where the patriarchs remained un- til the advent of Christ, who, before his resurrection, ap- peared to them, and opened for them the doors of heaven. It is commonly called limbus patrum ; besides which, some adopt a limbus infantum, to which those infants go who die without having been baptized.—Hend. Buck. LIME, (shid; Deut. 27: 2, 4. . Isa. 33: 12. Amos 2: 1.) a soft friable substance, obtained by calcining or burning stones, shells, or the like. From Isaiah 33: 12, it appears that it was made in a kiln lighted with thorn bushes; and from Amos 2: 1, that bones were sometimes calcined for lime. The use of it was for plaster or cement, the first mention of which is in Deut. 27.— Watson. LIMITER, (limitour ;) an itinerant and begging friar, employed by the convent to collect its dues, and promote its temporal interests, within certain limits, though under the direction of the brotherhood who employed him ; he was occasionally a person of considerable importance. Russell's Notes; Works of the English and Scottish Refor- mers, vol. ii. pp. 536, 542–Hend. Buck. - LINCOLN, (ENSIGN.) This estimable man, “the me- morial of whose virtues will be imperishable,” was born in Hingham, (Mass.) Jan. 8, 1779. His early years were blest with the care of an eminently pious mother. He was regularly bred to the profession of a printer by Messrs. Manning and Loring, of Boston. - About the age of nineteen Mr. Lincoln felt the power of the gospel under the ministry of the Rev. Dr. Baldwin, and was baptized by him on profession of his faith. To the Baptist communion, though enlarged and catholic in his affections, he continued conscientiously and ardently attached to the end of his days. He soon became intimate with other young men of character and religious principle, and with them spent many of his evenings in Social reli- gious meetings, while as an apprentice he was a model of faithfulness and purity. Here were the germs of his sub- sequent life. . In the year 1800, he commenced business on his own account. The first work he printed was Cowper's Poems, in two volumes, the first edition of the works of that im- mortal bard of Christianity which appeared in this coun- try. - When Mr. Samuel Hall (a name well known and re- spected among booksellers at the beginning of the present century) was looking round among the younger members of the profession for a successor, his eye rested on Mr. Lincolm ; and he and Mr. T. Edmands, with whom he had just formed a partnership, became the purchasers of Mr. Hall's stock in trade, and the occupants of the long cele- brated stand, No. 59, Cornhill, (now Washington, street,) Boston. Very few partnerships have been of so long du- ration, or have contributed more to the furtherance of sound knowledge, especially religious knowledge, in our country; and it is but justice to add, that no partnership in trade has more deservedly enjoyed the esteem and con- fidence of the public, by the uniform exercise of all the mercaritile and Christian virtues for the space of thirty years; none more enterprising, industrious, and economi- cal; none more fair and honorable in the sight of all men. It was dissolved only by the lamented death of Mr. Lin- coln, Dec. 2, 1832, at the age of fifty-three. . Mr. Lincoln had been from 1811, a licensed minister of the gospel of Christ; and though he never was ordained, and therefore never relinquished the secular profession to which he had been educated, and in which he thought it his duty to pcrsevere with all the constancy of a man of the world, yet he preached, and prayed, and performed the ordinary offices of a minister of the gospel with all the holy fervor of an apostle. He won the unaffected re- spect of all men, as a generous neighbor, an honest friend, and a virtuous citizen. “A purer mind,” says Mr. Buck ingham, “never inhabited a mortal frame. A love of truth and goodness was the ruling passion of his soul. His manners were frank and open; his deportment was as free from prudery and affectation, as his heart was from hypocrisy. He delighted in the social intercourse of friends, and was always an object around which they might gather to indulge in the pleasures of conversation ; to be pleased, improved, refined. There are few who combine so many of the useful qualities with so much re- tiring modesty. There are few who have done so much good in so noiseless a manner.” - Mr. Lincoln's death, though in the meridian of life and usefulness, and watched by the breaking hearts of his fami- ly and friends, was not only peaceful but triumphant. He had lived to see the prosperity of the cause he loved, and labored to promote; to see the churches he had assisted largely in planting, flourishing in all directions around him; to see all his children who were grown up, become the devoted followers of the Savior, and preparing to fill his place in society, and in the church of God; and he felt that death was welcome. “If I should live to the age of Methuselah,” he remarked, “I could find no bet- ter time to die.” To an inquiry whether he enjoyed the presence of Christ, he readily answered, “The Savior promised to be with me a great while ago, and he will ful- fil every word.” Being asked on another occasion how he felt, “Oh, delightfully,” was his characteristic reply; “the Lord reigneth ; he will do infinitely well for me and mine. I feel entire confidence in his wisdom and good- ness.” A prayer which he offered audibly, about an hour before his death, concluded with these touching words: “Gracious Redeemer, what has been wrong do thou for- give ; what has been gracious do thou record.” The glo- ry of Christ being afterwards alluded to, he said, (and they were his last words,) “Yes, not to behold his glory would be no heaven (?” Thus in the full view of the near approach of death, and with an intellect calm and collect- ed, he expressed his unshaken reliance on God, and his hope in his Redeemer. At his funeral the church was dressed in the habiliments of mourning; and the general aspect and solemnity of the audience, composed in part of ministers and distinguished citizens of different denominations in the city and vicini- ty, seemed in silent eloquence to say that a saint of emi- nent usefulness had departed to the rewards of grace in the world of glory. Mr. Lincoln was active in the organization of the Evan- gelical Tract society, the Howard Benevolent society; the Boston Baptist Foreign Mission society, the Massachu- setts Baptist Education society, and other institutions of . a similar character. To these he not only gave his name, but much of his time, and thoughts, and pen, as well as his property. - - . Among the numerous valuable works issued from the press of Lincoln and Edmands, for which the public are in- debted to Mr. Lincoln, may be mentioned particularly, Winchell’s Watts, the Pronouncing Bible, and the series of beautiful volumes, styled The Christian Library. Lincoln's Scripture Questions, and Sabbath School Class Book, prepared by him, are well known.—Rev. Dr. Sharp's Funeral Sermon ; Boston Courier ; Christian Watchman ; Am. Baptist Magazine for April, 1833. LINDSEY, (THEoPHILUs,) a Unitarian divine, was born, in 1723, at Middlewich, in Cheshire, and was educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge. He, after ten years vacil- lation, resigned the living of Catterick in 1773, in conse- quence of his having embraced the principles of Unitari- anism. On account of this resignation Mr. Belshams calls him “the venerable confessor.” Upon this title Robert Hall admirably observes :—“The nature of the doc- trine professed must be taken into consideration before we can determine that profession to be a Christian profession; nor is martyrdom entitled to the high veneration justly bestowed on acts of heroic piety, on any other ground than its being what the term imports, an attestation of the truth. It is the saint which makes the martyr, not the martyr the Saint.” . From 1774 till 1793, he was minister of a congregation L I O * L IT [ 748 l .* m Essex street, in the Strand. He died in 1803. He wrote among other works, an Apology for himself; a Se- quel to the Apology; Considerations on the Divine Go- vernment; an Examination of Mr. Robinson's Plea; an Historical View of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship; and Sermons. See Belsham's Memoirs of Lindsey; Reviews of Robert Hall ; Jones' Chris. Biog.—Davenport. LINE. To stretch a line over a city, is to destroy it, Zech. 1: 16. Jer. 2:8-Calmet. - . LINEN, (bed;) the product of a well known plant, (flax,) whose bark, being prepared, serves to make fine and much esteemed linen clothes. Another sort of linen Scripture calls shesh ; which we believe to be cottom. Under the name of linen byssus is included; but this was something different from both linen and cotton. It was a kind of silk yield- ed by fish of the muscle kind, which Rondelet calls pinna magna. (See FLAx.)—Calmet, - . LINN, (John BLAIR,) an American divine and poet, son of William Linn, D. D., was born in Pennsylvania, in 1777, and after graduating at Columbia college, entered on the study of law, in the office of Alexander Hamilton, in New York. Finding but little agreeable to him in this pursuit, and having felt the power of religion on his heart, he determined to embrace the ministry; and after complet- ing a course of theological study, he was settled as a preacher, in Philadelphia, in 1799. He died of consump- tion, in 1805. He is the author of Valerian, a poem on the influence of Christianity, and of the Powers of Genius, a poem possessing much beauty, and which has gone through several editions, both in England and the Uni- ted States. Life by C. B. Brown ; Allen.—Davenport. LINUS; a Christian mentioned by Paul, (2 Tim. 4:21.) an - whom Irenaeus, Eusebius, Optatus, Epiphanius, Aus- tin, Jerome, and Theodoret, affirm to have succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. Mr. Taylor thinks there is little hazard in taking LINus for the British CyLLIN, brother of Claudia. (See CLAUDIA, and PomponLA GRECIA.) If so, it agrees with the history that Christianity had made converts in the family of Bren- nus, king of Britain, and Caractacus, his son, then prison- ers at Rome; and the first (Gentile) bishop of Rome was a Briton. (See CHRISTIANITY.)—Calmet. LION. The name by which this noble animal is gene- rally designated in the Hebrew Scriptures is translated, to §§ º W jº G º \\Sºº º: Fº: gºš w W \ {{\{\}ºs }º W §º - \ º % * W - *** Nº. EN zºº.º.Sº... Sº ::::::::\º :::::::::::ºš §§ * - Jº-3- - -º-, *::" ºr Zºº ſº.” * º pluck or tear off, and has been supposed to have originated in his remarkable habit of tearing his prey to pieces, Ps. 7: 2. 22: 13. Mic. 5: 8. But there are several other names given to him by the inspired writers, each of which is characteristic either of his age or some feature in his character. We now proceed to describe this noble animal, whose outward form seems to speak his internal generosity. His figure is striking, his look conſident and bold, his gait proud, and his roar is terrible. . His stature is not over- grown, like that of the elephant, or rhinoceros ; nor is his shape clumsy, like that of the hippopotamus, or the ox. It is compact, well proportioned, and sizable; a perfect model of strength, joined with agility. It is muscular and bold, neither charged with ſat or unnecessary flesh. * It is sufficient but to see him in order to be assured of his superior force. His large head, surrounded with a dread- ful mane; all those muscles that appear under the skin swelling with the slightest exertions; and the great breadth of his paws, with the thickness of his limbs, plainly evince that no other animal in the forest is capable of opposing him. His face is very broad, and is surrounded with very long hair, which gives it a most majestic air. His huge eyebrows ; his round and fiery eyeballs, which, up- on the least irritation, seem to glow with peculiar lustre; together with the formidable appearance of his teeth; ex- hibit a picture of terrific grandeur which it is impossible to describe. The length of a large lion is between eight and nine feet; and its height about four feet and a half The top of the head, the temples, the cheeks, the undel jaw, the neck, the breast, the shoulders, the hinder part of the legs, and the belly, are ſurnished with long hair, while all the rest of the body is covered with very short hair, of a taxwny color. The mane of the lion grows every year longer as the animal grows older : but the lioness is with- out this appendage at every age. This mane is not coarsc or rough as in a horse, but is composed of the same hair as covers the rest of the body. It is usually supposed that the lion is not possessed of the sense of smelling in such perſection as many other animals. ly incommodes him : this is apparent, indeed, from the formation of his eyes, which, like those of the cat, seem fitted for seeing best in the dark. For this reason, he sel- dom appears in open day, but ravages chiefly by night. With this fact, corresponds the language of the royal prophet, Ps. 104: 20–22. # The most fierce and terrible of these animals are found in Africa, and the hottest parts of Asia. It is particularly in the frightful deserts of these scorching regions that those enormous and ſerocious beasts are found, that seem to be the scourge and terror of the neighboring kingdoms. Happily, indeed, says Buffon, the species is not very nu- merous, and it seems to be diminishing daily; for those who have travelled, through these countries, assure us, there are by no means so many there at present, as were known formerly. (See JoRDAN.) Accustomed to measure his strength with every animal he meets, the habit of conquering renders the lion intrepid and terrible. In those regions where he has not experi- enced the dangerous arts and combinations of man, he has no apprehensions from his power. He boldly foces him, and seems to brave the force of his arms. Wounds rather serve to provoke his rage than to repress his ardor. Nor is he daunted by the opposition of numbers; a single lion of the desert, often attacks an entire caravam, and, after an obstinate combat, when he finds himself overpowered, in- stead of ſlying he continues to combat, retreating, and still facing the enemy till he dies. To this trait in his charac. ter Job alludes, when, complaining of his trials, he hastily said to the Almighty, “Thou huntest me as a fierce lion,” ch. 10: 16. We see, also, the propriety with which Hushai describes the valiant among the troops of Absalom, as possessing “the heart of a lion,” 2 Sam, 17: 10.—Calmet. LIP, is sometimes used for the bank of a river, ſor the border of a vessel or table, Exod'ſ 25: 24. 2 Chrón. 4: 2. It also signifies language, Gen. 11: 1. Exod. 6: 12, &c. “We will render thee the calves of our lips,” says Hosea, (14: 2.) that is, sacrifices of praise, instead of bloody vic- tims. “I do not send thee,” says the Lord to Ezekiel, (3: 5.) “to a people deep of lip,” of an unknown language – Calmet. . LITANY; a general supplication used in public wor- ship to appease the wrath of the Deity, and to request those blessings a person wants. The word comes from the Greek litaneia, “ supplication.” . At first, the use of litanies was not fixed to any stated time, but were only employed as exigencies required. They were observed, in imitation of the Ninevites, with ardent supplications and fastings, to avert the threatened judgments of fire, earthquakes, inundations, or hostile invasions. About A. D. 400, litanies began to be used in processions, the people walking barefoot, and repeating them with great devotion; and it is pretended that by this means several countries were delivered from great calamites. The days on which It is also observed, that too strong a light great. &: L IT L LO [ 749 J they were used were called Rogation days; these were appointed by the canons of different councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo, that they should be used every month throughout the year; and thus, by degrees, they came to be used weekly on wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient stationary days for fasting. To these days the rubric of the church of England has added Sundays, as being the greatest day for assembling at divine service. Almost every saint in the Roman calendar has his lita- ny, in which the people respond, Ora pro nobis, “pray for us.” Litanies are found in the old Lutheran hymn books; but they are no longer used by German Protes- tants.—Hend. Buck. LITHGOW, (WILLIAM;) a gentleman of Scotland, who, while travelling in Spain, in 1620, fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and was subjected to unheard of tortures, but was providentially delivered. The history may be found at length in Fox, pp. 167–173. LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general be- longing to divine service. The word comes from the Greek leitourgia, “ service, public ministry,” formed of leitos, “public,” and ergon, “work.” In a more restrain- ed signification, liturgy is used among the Romanists to signify the mass, and among Protestants, the common prayer. All who have written on liturgies agree, that in primitive days, divine service was exceedingly simple, clogged with very few ceremonies, and consisted of but a small number of prayers; but, by degrees, they increased the number of ceremonies, and added new prayers, to make the office look more awful and venerable to the peo- ple. At length, things were carried to such a pitch, that a regulation became necessary: and it was found necessa- ry to put the service and the manner of performing it into writing, and this was what they called a liturgy. Liturgies have been different at different times and in different countries. The Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Maronites, and Nestorians, have their several liturgies, and some of them from three to forty different ones. The liturgy of the Roman church consists of the Bre- viary, containing the matins, lauds, &c.; the Missal, or volume employed in saying mass, and containing the cal- endar, the general rubrics, or rites of that mass; the Cere- monial, containing the offices peculiar to the pope, such as consecration, benediction, canonization, &c.; the Pontifi- cale, which describes the functions of bishops at ordina- tions, consecrations of churches, &c.; and the Ritual, con- taining the services as performed by the simple priests both in public worship and in private. The whole of this liturgy is performed in Latin. The liturgy of the church of England was composed in the year 1547, and established in the second year of king Edward VI. In the fifth year of this king it was revised, because some things were contained in that liturgy which showed a compliance with the superstition of those times, and some exceptions were taken against it by some learn- ed men at home, and by Calvin abroad. Some altera- tions were made in it, which consisted in adding the gene- ral confession and absolution, and the communion to begin with the ten commandments. The use of oil in confirma- tion and extreme unction was left out, and also prayers for souls departed, and what related to a belief of Christ's real presence in the eucharist. This liturgy, so reformed, was established by the acts of the fifth and sixth Edward VI. cap. 1. . However, it was abolished by queen Mary, who enacted, that the service should stand as it was most commonly used in the last year of the reign of king Henry VIII. That of Edward VI, was re-established, with some alterations, by Elizabeth. Some further alterations were introduced, in consequence of the revision of the common prayer book, by order of king James, in the first year of his reign, particularly in the office of private bap- tism, in several rubrics, and other passages, with the addi- tion of five of six new prayers and thanksgivings, and all that part of the catechism which contains the doctrine of the sacraments. The book of common prayer, so altered, remained in force from the first year of king James to the fourteenth of Charles II. The last revision of the liturgy was in the year 1661. Many petitions have been since made for a revision, but without success. - The common prayer book of the Protestant Episcopa Church, in the United States, which was adopted in 1789, omits the Athanasian creed, and leaves to the officiating minister the discretionary power to substitute for the arti- cle “he descended into hell,” the words “he went into the place of departed spirits.” Bingham's Orig. Eccl. p. 13; Broughton's Dict. ; Bennett, Robinson, and Clarkson, on Li- tur. passim ; A Letter to a Dissenting Minister on the Expe- diency of Forms, and Brekell's Answer; Roger's Lectures on the Liturgy of the Church of England ; Biddulph's Essays on the Liturgy; Orton's Letters, vol. i. pp. 16, 24.—Hend. uck. LIVERPOOL LITURGY. A liturgy so called from its first publication at Liverpool. It was composed by some of the Presbyterians, who, growing weary of extem. pore prayer, thought a form more desirable. It made its appearance in 1652. Mr. Orton says of it, “It is scarcely a Christian liturgy. In the collect the name of Christ is hardly mentioned ; and the Spirit is quite banished from it.” It was little better than a deistical composition. Or ton's Letters, vol. i. pp. 80, 81; Bogue and Bennett's Hist. of Diss. vol. iii. p. 342.-Hend. Buck. LIVE. To be inwardly quickened, nourished, and actu- ated by the influence of God, Gal. 2:20. (2.) To be great- ly refreshed and comforted, Ps. 22: 16. 1 Thess. 3: 8. (3.) To have the continued possession of grace here, and glo- ry hereafter, John 14: 19. God lives in and of himself; he has incomprehensible and everlasting activity and happi- ness, Num. 14:21. Christ now lives possessed of all hap- piness for himself, Rev. 1: 18. He lives for his people, perpetually interceding for them, and conveying to them his purchased blessings; (Heb. 7:25.) and he lives in them as a quickening Spirit; he dwells in their hearts by faith, and is the life-giving principle from which their spiritual activity and comforts proceed; and they live on him by faith, drawing virtue from his word, person, righteousness, and fulness, for their quickening, activity, and comfort, Gal. 2: 20. Men live not by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. Even when there are no apparent means of subsistence, we are to trust to the power and promise of God for our support in life, Matt. 4:.4. Men #. to themselves, but unto God, or Christ, when they make, not their carnal ease, profit, or ho- nor their great end, but his glory, and the edification of his church, Rom. 14: 7, 8. 2 Cor. 5: 14, 15. To live in God's sight is to be preserved by his favor, live under his special care, and in the exercise of loving and pleasing him, Hos. 6; 2. Gen. 17, 18. The religious service of saints is call- ed a living and reasonable sacrifice, to distinguish it from the ancient sacrifices of beasts; and because proceeding from a soul spiritually quickened, it is performed in a lively and active manner, Rev. 12: 1–(See LIFE.) Brown. LIZARD. Several species of lizards are well known. There are some in Arabia, a cubit in length; but in the Indies there are some much longer. In America they are eaten, as they probably were in Arabia and Judea, since Moses forbids them as food. We find several sorts of lizards mentioned in Scripture; letah ; chomet; tinshemeth ; (Lev. 11:30.) and shemamith. The third is translated mole; but Bochart maintains that it is the chameleon, (which is a kind of lizard.)—Calmet. LLORENTE, (John ANTHoNY,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, was born, in 1756, at Rincon del Soto, and obtained vari- ous preferments, among which was that of secretary-gene- ral to the Inquisition. Having accepted a conside, able post under Joseph Bonaparte, and written in his favor, he was compelled to quit Spain on the return of Ferdinand. He died in 1823. He is the author of a History of the In- quisition; Memoirs relative to the History of the Spanish Revolution; Political Portraits of the Popes; and other works.--Davenport. LLOYD, (WILLIAM, D.D.)alearned prelate of the church of England, was born at Tilehurst, in Berkshire, 1627, where his father was rector of the parish. After having resided at the university of Oxford for several years, and gone through his degrees, he obtained a prebend in the collegi- ate church of Ripon, soon after the restoration, and in 1666 was appointed chaplaim to the king. After holding various other ecclesiastical preferments, among which was the deanery of Bangor, he, in 1676, was instituted to the ſ, O C L O C | 700 vicarage of St. Martin’s in the Fields, Westminster; and, in 1680, he was raised to the bishopric of St. Asaph. While he held this benefice, he joined archbishop Sancroft, and other prelates, in presenting a petition to king James II., deprecating his assumed power of suspending the laws against popery. The prosecution and acquittal of the pe. titioners is a well known and important fact in English history. On the revolution taking place, bishop Lloyd was made almoner to king William III. ; and, in 1692, he was translated to the see of Litchfield. Thence he was promoted to the see of Worcester, where he sat till his death, in 1717, in the ninety-first year of his age. His writings, which amount to about twenty distinct publications, display much learning and acuteness. He assisted Dr. Wilkins in his “Essay toward a real Charac- ter;” but his most important work is a “Dissertation on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel ; and an Exposition of that Prophecy.” We are also indebted to him for the chrono. logy, and many of the references and parallel passages printed in most of our English Bibles. Biog. Brit. : Ai- kin's Gen. Biog.—Jones' Chris. Biog. - LOCKE, (John,) one of the greatest of English philoso- phers and metaphysicians, was born, in 1632, at Wrington, in Somersetshire; and was educated at Westminster school, and at Christ church, Oxford; though he often said that what he had learned there was of little use to him, to enlighten and enlarge his emind. The first books which gave him a relish for the º of philosophy, were the writings of Des Cartes; for though he did not always approve of his sentiments, he found that he wrote with great perspicuity. After some time, he applied himself very closely to the study of medicine : not with any de- sign of practising as a physician, but principally for the benefit of his own constitution, which was but weak. He went to the continent, in 1664, as secretary to the envoy sent to Berlin; resumed his medical studies after his re- ‘turn; and graduated as a bachelor of physic, in 1674, though he never entered upon general practice. Locke was introduced, in 1666, to lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaſtesbury, who esteemed him highly, confided to him the superintendence of his son's education, and the form- ing of a constitution for the colony of Carolina, and, when he himself became chancellor, appointed him secretary of . presentations, and, at a later period, secretary to the board of trade. When Shaftesbury withdrew to Holland, Locke accompanied him, and he remained on the continent for some years. Here he formed a friendship with Limborch and Leclerc. So obnoxious was he to James' govern- ment, that the British envoy demanded that he should be delivered up; a fate which he escaped only by concealing himself for a year. It was while he resided in Holland that he completed his Essay on the Human Understanding, and wrote his first Letter on Toleration. Having returned to England at the revolution, he published his Essay in 1690. It was virulently but vainly assailed, and rapidly spread his fame in all quarters. That fame he enhanced by his additional Letters on Toleration; his two Treatises on Government, which annihilated Filmer and the whole tribe of non-resis- tance teachers; his Thoughts on Education ; Reasonable- ness of Christianity; and other pieces. His merit was rewarded by his being made a commissioner of appeals, and, subsequently, of trade and plantations. The last fourteen or fifteen years of his life, Mr. Locke spent chiefly at Oates, seldom coming to town; and during this agreeable retirement, he applied himself to the study * of the Scriptures, of the divine origin of which he was thoroughly persuaded. It has been said that Mr. Locke was a Unitarian, at least so far as to disbelieve the doc- trine of the Trinity. The confidence with which his name has been quoted of late, to this effect, will appear remark- able, if it is remembered, 1. That no positive evidence of it is to be found in his writings. 2. That to Dr. Stilling- fleet, who accused him of it, he expressly denied having written a sentence unfavorable to the doctrine of the Tri- nity. 3. That in a letter to Limborch, alluding to Dr. Allix’s work on the Trinity, he uses this remarkable lan- guage: “I have not been in the habit of expecting any aid in this cause from the Jews and rabbins; but light is very delightful, from whatever source it may shine.” His Common Place Book of the Scriptures is an invaluable fruit of his scriptural studies. He admired the wisdom and goodness of God in the method found out for the sal- vation of mankind; and when he thought upon it, he could not forbear crying out, “O, the depth of the riches of the goodness and knowledge of God!” He was per- suaded that men would be convinced of this by read- ing the Scriptures without prejudice; and he frequently exhorted those with whom he conversed, to a serious study of these sacred writings. A relation inquired of him, what was the shortest and surest way for a young gentleman to attain a true knowledge of the Christian religion ? “LET HIM study,” said Mr. Locke, “The Holy ScRIPTURE, ESPE- CIALLY IN THE New TESTAMENT. THEREIN ARE CONTAINED The words of ETERNAL LIFE. IT HAS GOD FOR ITS AUTHOR; sALvATION FoR ITs END; AND TRUTH, witHouT ANY MIXTURE of ERRoR, FoR ITs MATTER.” These words deserve to be written in letters of gold. * In 1704, his strength began to fail him more than ever in the beginning of the summer, a season which, for many years, had restored him some degree of strength. He then saw how short a time he had to live, and prepared to quit this world, with a deep sense of the manifold mercies of God to him, which he took delight in recounting to his friends; and full of a sincere resignation to the divine will, and in firm hopes of his promises of a future life, he ex: pired, on the 28th of October, 1704, in the seventy-third year of his age. - There is no occasion to attempt a panegyric on this great man; his writings are now well known and valued, and will last as long as the English language. Averse to all mean complaisance, his wisdom, his experience, his gentle manners, gained him the respect of his inferiors, the esteem of his equals, the friendship and confidence of those of the highest quality. He was very exact to his word, and religiously performed whatever, he promised. As he always kept the useful in his eye, he esteemed the employments of men only in proportion to the good they were capable of producing; for which reason he had no great value for those critics, and mere grammarians, who waste their lives in comparing words and phrases, and in coming to a determination in the choice of a various read- ing in a passage of no importance. But, above all, Locke was a Christian, habitual and sincere. The ways of religion he loved, and he found them the ways of pleasantness and peace : thus he com-- bined wisdom and knowledge, and truly benefited the world. He left several manuscripts behind him, besides his “Paraphrase on some of St. Paul's Epistles,” which were published at different times after his death. His collected works form four quarto volumes. Great as are his merits in other respects, it is principally as the cham- pion of civil and religious liberty that Locke is entitled to the reverence and gratitude of mankind.--Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Davenport. - LOCUST; a voracious insect, belonging to the grass- hopper or grylli genus, and a great scourge in Oriental countries. - Moses describes four sorts of locusts, or, it may be, the same sort in different states:—arbeh, salam, chargol, and chageb; which Jerome translates bruchus, attacus, ophioma- cus, and locusta. On many occasions the locust has been employed by the Almighty for chastising his guilty creatures. . A swarm of locusts were among the plagues of Egypt, when they covered the whole land, se that the earth was dark- L Q C L O C [751 ) ened; and they devoured every green herb of the earth, and the fruit of every tree which the hail had leſt, Exod. * ſº --- ſº * = * w - " " - " " - - - 22 2 º Ø 3 %2 33%% º % º 10: 15. But the most particular description of this insect, and of its destructive career, mentioned in the sacred writings, is to be found in Joel 2: 3–10. This is, per- haps, one of the most striking and animated descriptions to be met with in the whole compass of prophecy. The contexture of the passage is extremely curious; and the double destruction to be produced by locusts, and the ene- mies of which they were the harbingers, is painted with the most expressive force, and described with the most terrible accuracy. We may fancy the destroying army to be moving before us while we read, and imagine that we see the desolation spreading. The following extracts may furnish a commentary upon this and other passages in the Holy Scriptures — . “The locusts were no sooner hatched, in June, than each of the broods collected itself into a compact body of a furlong or more in square, and marching afterwards directly forward towards the sea, they let nothing escape them ; eating up every thing that was green and juicy, not only the lesser kinds of vegetables, but the vine like- wise, the fig-tree, the pomegranate, the palm, and the apple tree, even all the trees of the field, (Joel 1: 12.) in doing which, they kept their ranks like men of war, climbing over, as they advanced, every tree or wall that was in their way; nay, they entered in our very houses and bed- chambers like thieves. The inhabitants, to stop their pro- gress, made a variety of pits and trenches all over their fields and gardens, which they filled with water; or else they heaped up therein heath, stubble, and such like com- bustible matter, which were severally set on fire upon the approach of the locusts. But this was all to no purpose, for the trenches were quickly filled up, and the fires extin- guished by infinite swarms succeeding one another, whilst the front was regardless of danger, and the rear pressed on so close, that a retreat was altogether impossible. A day or two after one of these broods was in motion, others were already hatched to march and glean after them, gnawing off the very bark, and the young branches of such trees, as had before escaped with the loss only of their fruit and foliage. So justly have they been compared by the prophet to a great army, who further observes, that the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate milderness.”—Shan's Travels, p. 187, 4to. “I cannot better represent their flight to you,” says Beauplan, “than by comparing it to the flakes of snow in cloudy weather, driven about by the wind; and when they alight upon the ground to feed, the plains are all covered, and they make a murmuring noise as they eat, and in less than two hours they devour all close to the ground; then rising, they suffer themselves to be carried away by the wind; and when they fly, though the sun shines ever so bright, it is no lighter than when most clouded. The air was so full of them, that I could not eat in my chamber without a candle ; [Joel 2: 10.] all the houses being full of them, even the stables, barns, chambers, garrets, and cellars,” ver. 9. . “These insects seek each other,” says M. Baron, “the moment they are able to use their wings; after their union, the female lays her eggs in a hole which she makes in the earth; and for this purpose she seeks light sandy earth, avoiding moist, compact, and cultivated grounds. The eggs lie all the winter, till the warmth of spring calls them into life. - “There is no doubt on the changes to which the locust is subject. The animal which appears at first in the form of a worm, passes afterwards into the state of a nymph; and undergoes a third metamorphosis by quitting its skin, and becoming a perfect animal, capable of continuing its species. A locust remains in its nymph state twenty-four or twenty-five days, more or less, according to the season: when, having acquired its full growth, it refrains some days from eating; and, gradually bursting its skin, comes forth a new animal, full of life and vigor. These insects leap to a height two hundred times the length of their bo- dies, by means of those powerful legs and thighs, which are articulated near the centre of the body. When raised to a certain height in the air, they spread their wings, and are so closely embodied together as to form but one mass, intercepting the rays of the sun, almost by a total eclipse. “Even when dead they are hurtful. The infection spread by their corrupting carcasses is insupportable. Surius and Cornelius Gemma both, mentioning a prodi- gious incursion of locusts in 1542, report, that after their death, they infected the air with such a stench, that the ravens, crows, and other birds of prey, though hungry, yet would not come near their carcasses. We have ourselves experienced two years ago the truth of this fact; the pits where they had been buried, after twenty-four hours, could not be passed. In A. D. 591, it is said that nearly a million of men and beasts were carried off in Spain, by a pestilence arising from their stench.” Upon this information Mr. Taylor submits the following remarks:— 1. Heat and dryness are favorable to the increase of lo- custs. We think, therefore, that when God threatens to bring a plague of locusts over Israel, as in Joel, (chap. 2.) it may imply also a summer of drought. The prophet Nahum says of the locusts, that they camp in the hedges in the cold day, but when the Sun ariseth they flee away. Every observer notices the torpid effect of cold, and the invigorating powers of heat, on the locust. But, 2. Another remarkable particular appears to have consi- derable connexion with some things said on Exod. 16: 13, that “in the morning, or evening, or in misty weather, lo- custs do not see equally well, nor fly so high; they suffer themselves to be more closely approached ; they are stiff and slow in their motions; and are more easily destroyed.” This supports those who consider the word selav as denoting a mist, or fog; and think it possible that the word selavim (Num. 11: 31) may express those clouds of locusts, which compose these flying armies.—The opposition of two winds was likely to produce a calm, and a calm to cause a fog; the lower flight of the locusts, the gathering them during the evening, all night, and the next morning, agree with these extracts; and the fatal effects (verses 33, 34.) while the flesh was yet between the teeth of the people, seem to be precisely such as might be expected, from the stench of the immense masses of locusts, spread all abroad round about the camp. Could a more certain way of ge- nerating a pestilence have been adopted, considering the stench uniformly attributed to them, and the malignity at- tending such infection as their dead carcasses so exposed must occasion ? *. As locusts are commonly eaten in Palestine, and in the neighboring countries, there is no difficulty in supposing, that the word acrides, used by Matthew, (3: 4.) speaking of the food on which John subsisted, might signify these insects. The ancients affirm, that in Africa, Syria, Persia, and almost throughout Asia, the people did commonly eat these creatures. Some nations were called Acridophagi, or eaters of locusts, because these insects formed their principal food. . To explain Rev. 9:1–11, Mr. Taylor has translated the following passage from Niebuhr: (Descrip. Arab. p. 153.) —“An Arab of the desert near Basra [Bassorah] informed me of a singular comparison of the locust with other ani- mals. The terrible locust of chap. 9. of the Apocalypse not then occurring to me, I regarded this comparison as a jest of the Bedouin, [Arab] and paid no attention to it, till it was repeated by another from Bagdad. It was thus:— He compared the head of the locust to that of the horse ; its breast to that of the lion; its feet to those of the camel; its body to that of the serpent; its tail to that of the scor- L 0 L L O L [ 752 J ion; its horns, [antenna.] if I mistake not, to the locks of air of a virgin; and so of other parts.” - It seems more natural to compare their teeth to those of lions, than their breasts to those of lions; but this is more especially proper to the Apocalyptic writer's purpose, as he had already informed us of their resemblance to “horses prepared for battle.” As to the armor, &c. of horses pre- pared for battle, in the East, Knolles informs us, that the Mamelukes' horses were commonly furnished with silver bridles, gilt trappings, and rich saddles; and that their necks and breasts were armed with plates of iron. It is not therefore unlikely, that they had also ornaments re- sembling crowns of gold, to which the horns of the locust might be, with propriety, compared : we find they had really “breast-plates of iron;” and by their rushing on the enemy, and the use they made of their mouths, as described by Knolles, the comparison of them to locusts seems very applicable. it is remarkable that Solomon says, (Prov. 30: 27.) “The locusts have No king;” but the locusts of the Apoca- lypse have a king, and a dreadful king too; Abaddon, the destroyer. (See ABADDON.)—Calmet. LOG; a Hebrew measure, which held five-sixths of a pint; it is called the fourth part of a cab, 2 Kings 6:25. Lev. 14: 10, 12, 24.—Calmet. * LOGAN, (John,) a divine and poet, was born, in 1748, at Fala, in Scotland; was educated at Edinburgh; and, after having been minister at South Leith, he re- moved to London, in 1786, and became a writer in the English Review. He died in 1788. Logan wrote a vo- lume of poems; the tragedy of Runnamede ; Sermons; a Dissertation on the Manners and Spirit of Asia ; and a Review of the Charges against Mr. Hastings. For the last, which appeared anonymously, Stockdale, the publish- er, was prosecuted; but was successfully defended by Er- skine,—Davenport. LOGOS, THE word; a term employed by the evangelist J&zil to designate the mediatorial character of our Re- deemer, with special reference to his revelation of the cha- racter and will of the Father. It appears to be used as an abstract for the concrete, just as we find this same writer employing light for enlightener, life for life-giver, &c.; so that it properly signifies the speaker or interpreter, than which nothing can more exactly accord with the statement made, John 1: 18: “No man hath seen God at any time ; the only-begotten, who is in the bosom of the Father, hath declared him,” i.e. communicated to us the true knowledge of his mind and character. That the term is merely expressive of a divine attribute, a position which has been long and variously maintained by Socinians, though abandoned as untenable by some of their best au- thorities, is in total repugnance to all the circumstances of the context, which distinctly and expressly require per- sonal subsistence in the subject which it describes. He whom John styles the Logos, has the creation of all things ascribed to him ; is set forth as possessing the country and people of the Jews; as the only-begotten (son) of the Fa- ther; as assuming the human nature, and displaying in it the attributes of grace and truth, &c. Such things could never, with the least degree of propriety, be said of any mere attribute or quality. Nor is the hypothesis of a per- sonification to be reconciled with the universally admitted fact, that the style of John is the most simply historical, and the furthest removed from that species of composition to which such a figure of speech properly belongs. To the Logos, the apostle attributes eternal existence, distinct Fº and strict and proper Deity—characters which e also ascribes to him in his first epistle—besides the pos- session and exercise of perſections which absolutely ex- clude the idea of derived or created being. See Dr. Lau- rence's Dissertation on the Logos; J. J. Gurney's Biblical Notes; Stuart's Letters to Channing ; Spirit of the Pil- grims; and Dr. J. P. Smith on the Person of Christ.— Hend. Buck. (See John, Gospel, of.) LOLLARDS ; a religious sect, differing in many points from the church of Rome, which arose in Germany about the beginning of the fourteenth century; so called, as many writers have imagined, from Walter Lollard, their chief leader and champion, a native of Mentz, and equally famous for his eloquence and his writings, who was burnt at Cologne; though others think that Lollard was no Sur- name, but merely a term of reproach applied to all here- tics who concealed what was deemed error under the ap- pearance of piety. The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the word Lollard from lolium, “a tare,” as if the Lollards were the tares sown in Christ's vineyard. Abelley says, that the word signifies “praising God,” from the German loben, “to praise,” and herr, “lord;” recause the Lollards em. ployed themselves in travelling about from place to place, singing psalms and hymns. Others, much to the same purpose, derive lollhard, lullhard, or lollert, lullert, as it was written by the ancient Germans, from the old Ger- man word lullen, lollen, or lallen, and the termination hard, with which many of the high Dutch words end. Lollen signifies, “to sing with a low voice,” and therefore Lollard is a singer, or one who frequently sings; and in the vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a person who is continually praising God with a song, or singing hymns to his honor. - Fuller, however, informs us, that in the reign of Edward III., about A. D. 1315, Walter Lollard, a German preach- er, or, (as Perrin, in his History of the Waldenses, calls him,) one of their barbs, (pastors,) of great renown among them, came into England; and who was so eminent in England, that as in France they were called Berengarians, from Berengarius, and Petrobrusians, from Peter Bruis, and in Italy and Flanders, Arnoldists, from the famous Arnold of Brescia; so did the Waldensian Christians for many generations after bear the name of this worthy man, being called Lollards. Bishop Newton having mentioned the Lollards, says, “There was a man more worthy to have given name to the sect, the deservedly fa- mous John Wickliffe, the honor of his own, and the admi- ration of succeeding times.” In England, the followers of Wickliffe were called, by way of reproach, Lollards, though the first English Lollards came from Germany. Lollard and his followers rejected the sacrifice of the mass, extreme unction, and penances for sin; arguing that Christ's sufferings were sufficient. He is likewise said to have set aside baptism, as a thing of no effect; but this appears to be a mistake, founded on their rejection of infant baptism, and their denial of its saving efficacy. That this was the case, appears from the laws made against them in the reign of Henry IV. ; for among the articles by which the inquisitors were to examine them, one was, “Whether an infant dying unbaptized can be saved 3”. This the Lollards constantly asserted, in opposi- tion to the church of Rome, which decreed that no infant could be saved without it. Fox says, that among the errors they were charged with, were these: “That they spoke against the opinion of such as think children are damned who depart before baptism, and said that Christian people be suſficiently baptized in the blood of Christ, and need no water; and that infants be sufficiently baptized, if their parents are baptized before them.” Fox thinks they were slandered in this matter; we think justly, so far as the denial of believers' baptism is concerned, for the last of the three charges is itself a plaim contradiction of it. Besides, Sir Lewis Clifford, who had been a friend of Wick- liffe, expressly affirmed, that “the Lollards would not bap- tize their new-born children;” and Thomas Walden, who had access to the writings of Wickliffe, calls him “one of the seven heads that came out of the bottomless pit for denying infant baptism, that heresie of the Lollards, of whom he nas so great a ringleader.” w Fox says, that it was upon these charges, that in the space of four years, one hundred and twenty Lollards, men and women, were apprehended, and suffered greatly; a number of them being burnt at the stake. William Saw- try, the parish priest of St. Osith, in London, was the first martyr in this English persecution. Rapin says, “In 1389, the Wickliffites or Lollards began to separate from the church of Rome, and appoint priests from among them- selves to perform divine service after their way.” From this period to the Reformation, their sufferings were very great. More than one hundred are recorded by name who were burnt to death. - The Lollards' tower still stands as a monument of their miseries, and of the cruelty of their implacable enemies. L O R L O R [ 753 ] This tower is at Lambeth palace, and was ſitted up for this purpose by Chicheby, archbishop of Canterbury, who came to this see in 1414. It is said that he expended two hundred and eighty pounds to make this prison for the Lollards. The vast staples and rings to which they were fastened, before they were brought out to the stake, are still to be seen in a large lumber-room at the top of the palace; and ought to make Protestants look back with gratitude upon the hour which terminated so bloody a pe. riod. (See WickLIFFE ; and OLDCASTLE.) Mosheim, vol. i. pp. 398, 404; Foz, p. 235—240; Ivimey, vol. i. pp. 25, 59, 64, 68–73, 83–85.--Hend. Buck. - LOMBARD, (PeTER,) otherwise known by the title of Master of the Sentences; an author of great repute in the twelfth century. He was born at Novara, in Lombar- dy, and died archbishop of Paris, in 1164. His work on the sentences is divided into four books, and has been largely commented upon. He has also left commentaries on the Psalms and Paul's Epistles.—Hend. Buck. G * G-SUFFERING OF GOD. (See PATIENce of OD. J.ONG ; to desire very earnestly, as one hungry or thirsty desires refreshment: (Gen. 34:8. 2 Sam. 23: 15.) so persons grievously afflicted long for death, Job 3: 21. David's soul longed for his banished son Absalom, 2 Sam. 13: 39. Exiles long to see their native country, Gen. 31: 30. Faithful ministers sick or imprisoned long to visit their people, Phil. 2: 66. Saints long for the experience of God's presence or power in his ordinances, and for his salvation from the guilt, power, and pollution of sin, to perfect holiness and happiness, Ps. 84; 2. 119:40, 174.— Bromwn. LOOK. God's looking on men imports his perfect know- ledge of their conduct; his care of and kindness to them; (Ps. 53: 2. Lam. 3: 50.) his delightful contemplation of their graces, (Sol. Song 6: 13.) or his apparent unconcern about them, as if he were a mere by-stander; (Hab. 1: 13. Ps. 35. 17.) or his terrifying and punishing them, Dxod. 14:24. Men's looking to God or Christ imports their viewing him by faith in his excellencies and new covenant relations, desiring direction, support, and every blessing of salvation from him, and their viewing him as their pattern, Ps. 34: 5. Isa. 45:22. 17: 7. Heb. 12: 2. —Bromwn. . LOOKING-GLASSES. Moses says, that the devout women who sat up all night at the door of the tabernacle in the wilderness, offered cheerfully their “looking-glass- es” to be employed in making a brazen laver ſor the puri- fications of the priests, Exod. 38; 8. These looking-glasses were, without doubt, of brass, since the laver was made out of them. (See GLAss, and LAVER.)—Calmet. LORD ; a term properly denoting one who has domin- ion, whether in a family or community; whether on earth or in heaven. Applied to God, it signifies the supreme Governor and Disposer of all things. When printed with large capitals in the English Bible, it stands for the He- brew Jehovah, and when in small, Adonai; names exclu- sively given to the Divine Being. (See GoD, and JEHow AH.) —Hend. Buck. - LORD'S DAY. (See SABBATH.) LORD'S NAME TAKEN IN WAIN, consists first, in using it lightly or rashly, in exclamations, adjurations, and appeals in common conversation. 2. Hypocritically in our prayers, thanksgivings, &c. 3. Superstitiously, as when the Israelites carried the ark to the field of battle, to render them successful against the Philistines, 1 Sam. 4: 3, 4. 4. Wantonly, in Swearing by him, or creatures in his stead, Matt. 5: 34, 37. 5. Angrily, or sportfully, cursing, and devoting ourselves or others to mischief and damnation. 6. Perjuring ourselves, attesting that which is false, Mal. 3: 5. 7. Blasphemously reviling God, or causing others to do so, Rom. 2: 24. e Perhaps there is no sin more common as to the practice, and less thought of as to the guilt of it, than this, Nor is 1t thus common with the vulgar only, but with those who call themselves wise, humane, and moral. They tremble at the idea of murder, theft, adultery, &c., while they for. get that the same law which prohibits the commission of these crimes, does, with equal force, forbid that of profan- ing his name. No man, therefore, whatever his sense, abilities, or profession may be, can be held guiltless, or be exonerated from the charge of being a wicked man, while he lives in the habitual violation of this part of God's sa- cred law. . A very celebrated female writer justly observes, that “it is utterly inexcusable; it has none of the palliatives of temptation which other vices plead, and in that respect stands distinguished from all others, both in its nature and degree of guilt. Like many other sins, however, it is at once cause and effect; it proceeds from want of love and reverence to the best of Beings, and causes the want of that love both in themselves and others. This species of profaneness is not only swearing, but, perhaps, in some respects, swearing of the worst sort; as it is a direct breach of an express command, and offends against the very letter of that law, which says, in so many words, “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.” It offends against politeness and good breeding, for those who commit it little think of the pain they are inflicting on the sober mind, which is deeply wounded when it hears the holy name it loves dishonored; and it is as contrary to good breeding to give pain, as it is to true piety to be profane. It is astonishing that the refined and elegant should not reprobate this practice for its coarse- ness and vulgarity, as much as the pious abhor it for its sinfulness. *.x “I would endeavor to give some faint idea of the gross- ness of this offence by an analogy, (O ! how inadequate ;) with which the feeling heart, even though not seasoned with religion, may yet be touched. To such I would earnestly say—Suppose you had some beloved friend—to put the case still more strongly, a departed friend—a re- vered parent, perhaps, whose image never occurs without awakening in your bosom sentiments of tender love and lively gratitude; how would you feel if you heard this honored name bandied about with unfeeling familiarity and indecent levity; or, at best, thrust into every pause of speech as a vulgar expletive 2 Does not your affection- ate heart recoil at the thought 2 And yet the hallowed name of your truest Benefactor, your heavenly Father, your best Friend, to whom you are indebted for all you enjoy; who gives you those very friends in whom you so much delight, those very talents with which you dishonor him, those very organs of speech with which you blas- pheme him, is treated with an irreverence, a contempt, a wantonness, with which you cannot bear the very thought or mention of treating a human friend. His name is im- piously, is unfeelingly, is ungratefully singled out as the object of decided irreverence, of systematic contempt, of thoughtless levity. His sacred name is used indiscrimi- nately to express anger, joy, surprise, impatience; and, what is almost still more unpardonable than all, it is wan- tonly used as a mere unmeaning expletive, which, being excited by no temptation, can have nothing to extenuate it; which causing no emotion, can have nothing to re- commend it, unless it be the pleasure of the sin.” H. More on Education, vol. ii. p. 87; Gill’s Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 427; Bronn's System of Relig., p. 526; Dwight's The- ology.—Hend. Buck. LORD'S PRAYER is that which our Lord gave to his disciples on the mount. According to what is said in the sixth chapter of Matthew, it was given as a directory; but from Luke 11: 1, some argue that it was given as a form. Some have thought that the second and fourth petition of that prayer could be intended only for temporary use; but it is always our highest duty to pray that Christ's kingdom may be advanced in the world, and also to profess our daily dependence on God's providential care. Neverthe- less, there is no reason to believe that Christ meant that his people should always use this as a set form ; for, if that had been the case, it would not have been varied as it is by the two evangelists, Matt. 6. Luke 11. Besides, we do not find that the disciples ever used it as a form. It is, however, a most exquisite summary of prayer, for its matter, brevity, and order; and Christians should study its meaning, and enter into its spirit, far more deeply than they do. Frequently as it is repeated in the course both of public and domestic devotion, it is far from being uni- versally known, or if known, from being always recollect- ed, what is the nature and extent of the petitions it in 95 L O R L OT [ 754 ) volves. This may in a great measure be accounted for by the consideration that the prayer is often impressed up- on the youthful memory, without any explanation of its meaning or its views; and recited mechanically in after life, with an habitual feeling that whatever the child could learn, the man must understand. What is familiar to the memory, is by a very natural process of association. Sup- posed to be also familiar to the mind. See Doddridge's Tectures, lect. 194; Barron's Works, vol. i. p. 48; Arch. bishop Leighton's Explanation of it ; West on the Lord's Prayer ; Gill's Body of Div.; Hannah More's Works; For- dyce on Edification by Public Instruction, pp. 11, 123. Mendam's Expo. of the Lord's Prayer; Fuller's Works-Hend. Buck. LORD'S SUPPER is an ordinance which our Savior in- stituted as a commemoration of his death and sufferings. 1. It is commonly called a sacrament, that is, a sign and an oath: an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace; an oath by which we bind our souls with a bond unto the Lord. Some, however, reject this term as not being scriptural; as likewise the idea of Swearing or vowing to the Lord. (See Wow.) 2. It is called the Lord's supper, because it was first instituted in the evening, and at the close of the passover supper; and because we there- in feed upon Christ, the bread of life, Rev. 3:20. 1 Cor. 11. communion with Christ, and with his people, 1 Cor. 12: 13. 10:17.” 4. It is called the eucharist, a thanksgiving, because Christ, in the institution of it, gave thanks, (1 Cor. 11: 24.) and because we, in the participation of it, must give thanks likewise. 5. It is called a feast, and by some a feast upon a sacrifice, (though not a sacrifice itself,) in allusion to the custom of the Jews feasting upon their Sa- crifices, 1 Cor. 10: 18. As to the nature of this ordinance, we may observe, that, in participating of the bread and wine, we do not consider it as expiatory, but, 1. As a commemorating or- dinance. We are here to remember the person, love, and death of Christ, 1 Cor. 11:24. 2. A confessing ordinance. We hereby profess our esteem for Christ, and dependence upon him. 3. A communicating ordinance ; blessings of grace are here communicated to us. 4. A covenanting ordinance. God, in and by this ordinance, declares that he is ours, and we by it declare ourselves to be his, Matt. 26: 28. Heb. 8:8. 5. A standing ordinance, for it is to be observed to the end of time, 1 Cor. 11; 26. It seems to be quite an indifferent thing what bread is used in this ordinance, or what colored wine, for Christ took that which was readiest. The eating of the bread and drinking of the wine being always connected in Christ's example, they ought never to be separated ; whenever one is given, the other should not be withheld. This bread and wine are not changed into the real body and blood of Christ, but are only em- blems thereof. (See TRANSUBSTANTIATION.) The subjects of this ordinance should be such as make a credible profession of the gospel in the mode appointed his disciples by the Savior; the ignorant, and those whose lives are immoral, have no right to it; nor should it be ever administered as a test of civil obedience, for this is sacrilegiously perverting the design of it. None but true believers can approach it with profit; yet we cannot ex- clude any who make a credible profession of faith in Christ; for God only is the judge of the heart, while we can only act according to outward appearances. Much has been said respecting the time of administer- ing it. Some plead for the morning, others the afternoon, and some for the evening; which latter, indeed, was the time of the first celebration of it, and is most suitable to a supper. How often it is to be observed has been disputed. Some have been for keeping it every day in the week; others four times a week; some every Jord's day, which many think is nearest the apostolic practice; (Acts 20: 7.) a practice which was long kept up in Christian antiquity, and only deviated from when the love of the Christians began to wax cold. Others have kept it three times a year, and some once a year; but the most common is once a month. It evidently appears, however, both from Scripture, (1 Cor. 11: 26.) and from the nature of the or- dinance, that it ought to be frequent. As to the posture, Dr. Doddridge justly observes, that it is greatly to be lamented that Christians have perverted 3. It is called the communion, as herein we have munion. an ordinance, intended as a pledge and means of their mutual union, into an occasion of discord and contention, by laying such a stress on the manner in which it is to be administered, and the posture in which it is to be receiv ed. As to the latter, a table posture seems most eligible, as having been used by Christ and his apostles, and being peculiarly suitable to the notion of a sacred feast; and kneeling, which was never introduced into the church till transubstantiation was received, may prove an occasion of superstition. * - - We will only subjoin a few directions in what frame of mind we should attend upon this ordinance. It should be with sorrow for our past sins, and a tender composure of affection, free from the disorders and ruffles of passion ; with a holy awe and reverence of the divine Majesty, yet with a gracious confidence and earnest desires towards God; with raised expectations; prayer, joy, and thanks- giving, and love to all men. When coming from it, we should admire the condescensions of divine grace; watch against the snares of Satan, and the allurements of the world; rejoice in the finished work of Christ; depend up- on the gracious influence of the Spirit, that we may live more to the glory of God; keep up a sense of the divine favor; and be longing for heaven, where we hope at last to join the general assembly of the first-born. - The advantages arising from the participation of the Lord's supper are numerous. 1. It is a means of strength- eming our faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, 2. It affords great consolation and joy. 3. It increases love. 4. It has a tendency to enlighten our minds in the mystery of god- liness. 5. It gives us an utter aversion to all kinds of sin, and occasions a hearty grief for it. 6. It has a tendency to excite and strengthen all holy desires in us. 7. It re- news our obligations to our Lord and Master. 8. It binds the souls of Christians one to another. In the early times of the gospel the celebration of the Lord's supper was both frequent and numerously attended. Voluntary absence was considered as a culpable neglect ; and exclusion from it, by the sentence of the church, as a severe punishment. Every one brought an offering pro: portioned to his ability; these offerings were chiefly of bread and wine; and the ministers appropriated as much as was necessary for the administration of the eucharist. They then had a part of what was left for their mainte- nance; and the rest furnished supplies for the poor. See Saurin's Sermons; and Henry, Earle, Doolittle, Grove, and Robertson on the Lord's Supper ; Dr. Onven's, Charnock's, Dr. Cudnorth's, Mr. TVållet's, Dr. Worlhington's, Dr. Watts', Bishop Warburton's, Bishop Cleaver's, Dr. Bell's Pieces on the subject ; Orme's Discourses on the Lord's Supper ; Dwight's Theology; Works of Robert Hall; Works of Andren, Ful- ler ; and Erskine, Haldane, and Mason on Frequency of Com- A variety of other treatises, explanatory of the nature and design of the Lord's supper, may be seen in almost any catalogue...—Watson; Hend. Buck. LO-RUHAMAH; not beloved. (See AMMI.) LOSADA, (CHRISTOPHER ;) an eminent physician, and learned philosopher of Spain, in the sixteenth century, who was arrested by the Inquisition in consequence of his zeal to diffuse Protestant principles among his country- men. Neither the prison nor the rack availing to make him renounce his principles, he was condemned to the flames, which he bore with admirable Christian patience, committing his soul to a faithful Creator.—Foz, p. 136. LOT; the son of Haran, and nephew to Abraham. He accompanied his uncle from Ur to Haran, and from thence to Canaan; a proof of their mutual attachment, and simi- larity of principles respecting the true religion. With Abraham he descended into Egypt, and afterwards return- ed with him into Canaan : but the multiplicity of their flocks, and still more the quarrels of their servants, rem- dered a friendly separation necessary. When God destroy. ed the cities of the plain with fire and brimstone, he de- livered “just Lot” from the conflagration, according to the account of the divine historian. . - . The whole time that Lot resided there was twenty-three years. During all this period he had been a preacher of righteousness among this degenerate people. In him they had before their eyes an illustrious example of the ex- ercise of genuine piety, supported by unsullied Justice L O V L O W [755 J and benevolent actions. And doubtless it was ſor these purposes that divine Providence placed him for a time in that city. The losses which Lot sustained on this melan- choly occasion were very great; his wife, property, and all the prospects of the future settlement of his family. Some think it was in judgment for a worldly choice. Lot left Zoar, and retired with his two daughters to a cave in an adjacent mountain. Conceiving that all man- kind was destroyed, and that the world would end, unless they provided new inhabitants for it, they made their fa- ther drink, and the eldest lay with him without his per- ceiving it; she conceived a son whom she called Moab. The second daughter did the same, and had Ammon. The crime of incest was not then clearly understood, as now. 2. Several questions are proposed concerning Lot's wife being changed into a pillar of salt. Some are of opi- nion, that being surprised and suffocated with fire and smoke, she continued in the same place, as immovable as a rock of salt; others, that a column or monument of salt stone was erected on her grave; others, that she was stifled in the flame, and became a monument of salt to posterity; that is, a permanent and durable monument of her imprudence. The common opinion is, that she was suddenly petrified and changed into a statue of rock salt, which is as hard as the hardest rocks. The words of the original, however, have been much too strictly taken by translators. Getsib, rendered statue, by no means expresses form, but fixation; hence a mili- tary post; that is, a fixed station; and as the Hebrews reckoned among salts both nitre and bitumen, so the term salt here used, denotes the bituminous mass which over- whelmed this woman, fixed her to the place where it fell upon her, raised a mound over her, of a height propor- tionable to that of her figure, and was long afterwards pointed out by the inhabitants as a memento of her fate, and a warning against loitering, when divinely exhorted, Luke 17:32.—Watson ; Calmet, - LOTS are a mutual agreement to determine an uneer- tain event, no other ways determinable, by an appeal to the providence of God, on casting or throwing something. This is a decisory lot, Prov. 16:33. 18: 18. The mat- ter, therefore, to be détermined, in order to avoid guilt, should be important, and no other possible way left to de- termine it; and the manner of making the appeal solemn and grave, if we would escape the guilt of taking the name of God in vain. Wantonly, without necessity, and in a ludicrous manner, to make this appeal, must be there- fore highly blamable. And if thus the decisory lot, when wantonly and unnecessarily employed, be criminal, equally, if not more so, must the divinatory lot be, which is employed for discovering the will of God; this, being no means of God’s appointment, must be superstitious, and the height of presumption. --- The manner of casting lots is not described in the Scriptures; but several methods appear to have been used. Solomon observes, (Prov. 16:33.) that “the lot,” pebble, . “is cast into the lap,” (bechif) probably, of an urn, or vase. Literally, “in a lot-vase the lots are shaken in all directions; nevertheless, from the Lord is their whole de- cision—judgment.” The wise man also acknowledges the usefulness of this custom, Prov. 18; 18. “The lot causeth contentions to cease, and parteth between the mighty.” . It is sometimes forbidden, however; as, when it is practised without ne: cessity; or with superstition; or with a design of tempt: ing God; or, in things in which there are other natural means of discovering truth, reason and religion ſurnish better ways to guide us. Haman (Esth. 3: 7, &c.) used lots, not only out of superstition, but likewise in an unjust and criminal matter, when he undertook to destroy the Jews. Nebuchadnezzar did so in a superstitious manner, when, being on the way to Jerusalem, and Rabbath of the Ammonites, he cast lots to determine which of the two cities he should first attack, Ezek. 21: 18, &c. The Moravian Brethren employ the appeal to lot in the . case of marriage and other appointments in their commu- nity.—Hend. Buck; Calmet. - • e LOVE ; an attachment of the affections to any object, accompanied with an ardent desire to promote its happi- ness. It has been distinguished into, 1. Love of com: placency, which arises ſrom the consideration of any object agreeable to us, and calculated to afford us pleasure. 2. Love of esteem, which arises from the "mere considera- tion of some excellency in an object, and belongs either to persons or things. 3. Love of gratitude, which arises from the sense of kindness conferred on us. 4. Love of benevo- lence, which is an inclination to seek the happiness and wel: fare of any being. Usually these elements are blended in our attachments; but they oſten exist in a sepafate state, or in very different degrees of combination. It is the excellence of the Christian system, that it en- nobles, regulates, and directs this passion to proper objects, and moderates it within due bounds. Finding this princi- ple in the human mind, it does not banish but encourage it; does not depress but exalt it; does not abate but pro- mote it. It is conducted by piety to proper objects, is ani- mated with the noblest expectations, and is trained up for perpetual exercise in a world where it shall be perfectly purified, perfectly extended, and perfectly rewarded. Love is the greatest of all graces; (1 Cor. 13:13.) it an- swers the end of the law; (1 Tim. 1: 5.) resembles the inhabitants of a better world; and without it every other attainment is of no avail, 1 Cor. 13. (See CHARITY.)— Drcight's Theology; Hend. Buck ; Calmet. LOVE OF OUR NEIGHBOR, is that humane, ten- der, and benevolent regard for our fellow-men required by the divine law, which is to be exercised towards all with- out exception, according to their degree of proximity to us, in kindred, place, acquaintance, and opportunity. It is a settled disposition of the soul, in the view of time and eternity, prompting us to every act of kindness towards them. It does not consist merely in pity to and relief of oth- ers; (1 Cor. 13.) in love to our benefactors only, and those who are related to us, Matt. 5:46, 47. It must flow from love to God, and extend to all mankind; yea, we are re- quired by the highest authority to love even our enemies ; (Matt. 5:44.) not so as to countenance them in their evil actions, but to forgive the injuries they have done to us; and promote as well as pray for their happiness, conver. sion, and salvation. (See CHARITY.)— Hend. Buck. LOVE, BROTHERLY, is that peculiar attachment among Christians arising from their common faith, in- terest, object, and hope. Its foundation is their common love of Christ, and truth, and virtue, or Christian höliness. Love to good men must be particularly cultivated, for it is the command of Christ; (John 13: 3.) they belong to the same Father and family; (Gal. 5: 10.) we hereby givº proof of our discipleship; (John 13:35.) the example of Christ should allure us to it, (1 John 3: 16.) it is creative of a variety of pleasing sensations, and prevents a hou- sand evils. - This love should show itself by praying for Qur brethren, (Eph. 6: 18.) bearing one another's burdens, by assisting and relieving each other, (Gal. 6: 2.) by forbearing with one another, (Col. 3: 13.) by reproving and admonishing in the spirit of meekness, (Prov. 27: 5, 6.) by establishing each other in the truth, by conversation, exhortation, and stirring up one another to the several duties of religion, both public and private, Jude 20, 21. Heb. 10:24, 25. (See CHARITY.) Divight's Theology; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall ; Douglas on Truth and Error—Hend. Buck. LOVE, FAMILY of. A peculiar sect of Baptists, that arose in Holland, in the sixteenth century, (1555,) founded by Henry Nicholas, a Westphalian. He maintained that he had a commission from heaven to teach men that the es. sence of religion consisted in the feelings of divine love ; that all other theological tenets, whether they related to objects of faith or modes of worship, were of no sort of moment; and, consequently, that it was a matter of in. difference what opinions Christians entertained concerning the divine nature, provided their hearts burned with the pure and sacred flame of piety and love.—Hend. Buck. LOVE FEASTS. (See AGAPJe.) LOVE OF GOD, is either his natural delight in that which is good, (Isa. 61:8.) or his special benevolence to mankind, (John 3: 16.) or that gracious, sovereign affec. tion he bears to his people, Eph. 2:4. 1 John 4:19. Not that he possesses the passion of love as we do; but it implies his benevolent purpose and will to deliver, bless, and save his peoole. The love of God to his people appears in his all- **. L O W L O W [ 756 ) wise de Signs, and plans for their happiness, Eph. 3: 10. 2. In the choice of them, and determination to Sanctify and glorify them, 2 Thess, 2:13. 3. In the giſt of his Son to die for them, and redeem them from sin, death, and hell, Rom. 5: 9. John 3: #6. 4. In the revelation of his will, and the declaration of his promises to them, 2 Peter 1:4. 5. In the awful punishment of their enemies, Ex. 19: 4, 6. In his actual conduct towards them; in supporting them in liſe? blessing them in death, and bringing them to glory, Rom. 8:30–39. 6: 23. - The properties of this love may be considered as, 1. Everlasting, Jer. 31; 3. Eph. 1:4. , 2. Immutable, Mal. 3:6. Zeph. 3: 17. 3. Free; neither the sufferings of Christ nor the merits of men are the cause, but his own good pleasure, John 3: 16. 4. Great and unspeakable, Eph. 2: 4, 6. 3:19. Ps. 36: 7. Gill's Div.; Hall's Help to Zion's Travellers ; Fuller's Works.-Hend. Buck. LOVE TO GOD; the disposition which lies at the foun- dation of all true holiness, or real virtue. To serve and obey God on the conviction that it is right to serve and obey him, is in Christianity joined with that love to God which gives life and animation to service, and renders it the means of exalting our pleasures, at the same time that it accords with our convictions. The supreme love of God is the chief, the noblest, thereſore, of all our affec- tions. It is the sum and the end of law; and though lost by us in Adam, it is restored to us by Christ. Whºm it regards God absolutely, and in himself, as a Being of infinite and harmonious perfections and moral beautics, it is that movement of the soul towards him which is produced by admiration, approval, and delight. When it regards him relatively, it fixes upon the cease- less emanations of his goodness to us all in the continu- ance of the existence which he at first bestowed; the cir- cumstances which render that existence felicitous; and, above all, upon that “great love where with he loved us,” manifested in the gift of his Son for our redemption, and in Saving us by his grace; or, in the forcible language of St. Paul, upon “the exceeding riches of his grace in his kindness to us through Christ Jesus.” Under all these views an unbounded gratitude overflows the heart which is influenced by this spiritual affection. But the love of God is more than a sentiment of gratitude : it rejoices in his perfections and glories, and devoutly contemplates them as the highest and most interesting subjects of thought; it keeps the idea of this supremely beloved ob- Ject constantly present to the mind; it turns to it with adoring ardor from the business and distractions of life; it connects it with every scene of majesty and beauty in nature, and with every event of general and particular providence; it brings the soul into fellowship with God, real and sensible, because vital ; it moulds the other affec- tions into conformity with what God himself wills or pro- hibits, loves or hates; it produces an unbounded desire to please him, and to be accepted of him in all things; it is jealous of his honor, unwearied in his Service, quick to prompt to every sacrifice in the cause of his truth and his church ; and it renders all such sacrifices, even when car. ricq to the extent of suffering and death, unreluctant and cheerful. It chooses God as the chief good of the Soul, the enjoyment of which assures its perſect and eternal in. terest and happiness. “Whom have I in heaven but thee? and there is none upon earth that I desire beside thee,” is the language of every heart, when its love of God is true in principle and supreme in degree. If, then, the will of God is the perſect rule of morals; and if Supreme and perfect love to God must produce a prompt, an unwearied, a delightful subjection to his will, or rather, an entire and most free choice of it as the rule of all our principles, aſſections, and actions; the impor- tance of this affection in securing that obedience to the law of God in which true morality consists, is manifest; and we clearly perceive the reason why an inspired writer has affirmed, that “ love is the fulfilling of the law.” The necessity of keeping this subject before us under those views in which it is placed in the Christian system, and of not surrendering it to mere philosophy, is, however, an important consideration. (See AFFEctions.) With the philosopher the love of God may be the mere approval of the intellect ; or a sentiment which results * from the contemplation of infinite perſection, manifesting itself in acts of power and goodness. In the Scriptures it is much more than either, and is produced and maintained by a different process. We are there taught that “the carnal mind is enmity against God,” and is not, of course, capable of loving God. . Yet this carnal mind may consist with deep attainments in philosophy, and with strongly impassioned poetic sentiment. The mere approval of the understanding, and the susceptibility of being impressed with feelings of admiration, awe, and even pleasure, when the character of God is manifested in his works, as both may be found in the carnal mind which is enmity to God, are not therefore the love of God. They are principles which enter into that love, since it cannot exist without them ; but they may exist without this affection itself, and be ſound in a vicious and unchanged nature. The love of God is a fruit of the Holy Spirit; that is, it is truly exercised only in the souls which he has re- generated ; and, as that which excites its exercise is chiefly, and in the first place, a sense of the benefits bestowed by the grace of God in our redemption, and a humble persuasion of our personal interest in those benefits, it necessarily presupposes our reconciliation to God through faith in the atomement of Christ, and that attestation of it to the heart by the Spirit of adoption. We here see, then, another proof of the necessary connexion of Christian morals with Christian doctrine, and how imperfect and deceptive every system must be which separates them. Love is essential to true obedience; for when the apos- tle declares love to be “the fulfilling of the law,” he de- clares, in effect, that the law cannot be fulfilled without love; and that every action which has not this for its principle, however virtuous in its show, fails of accom- plishing the precepts which are obligatory upon us. But this love to God cannot be fully exercised so long as we are sensible of his wrath, and are in dread of his judg- ments. These feelings are incompatible with each other, and we must be assured of his readiness to forgive, before we are capable of loving him with the whole heart, and soul, and mind, and strength. Thus the very existence of love to God implies the doctrines of atonement, repentance, faith, and the gift of the Spirit of adoption to believers; and un- less it be taught in this connexion, and through this pro- cess of experience, it will be exhibited only as a bright and beauteous object to which man has no access; or a fictitious and imitative sentimentalism will be substituted for it, to the delusion of the souls of men. It is not either from the visionary mystic, the sensual famatic, or the frantic zealot, but from the plain word of God, that we are to take our ideas of this divine sentiment. There we find it described in all its native purity and sim- plicity. The marks by which it is there distinguished contain nothing enthusiastic or extravagant. It may be considered, 1, As sincere, Matt. 22:36, 38. 2. Constant, Rom. 8. 3. Universal of all his attributes, commandments, ordinances, &c. 4. Progressive, 1 Thess. 5: 12. 2 Thess. 1: 3. Dph. 3: 19. 5. Superlative, Lam. 3: 24. 6. Eternal, Rom. 8. This love manifests itself, 1. In a desire to be like God. 2. In making his glory the supreme end of our actions, 1 Cor. 11:31. 3. In delighting in communion with him, 1 John 1: 3, 4. In grief under the hidings of his ſace, Job 23: 2.5. In relinquishing all that stands in opposition to his will, Phil. 3: 8, 6. In regard to his house, worship, and ordinances, Ps, 84. 7. In love for his truth and peo. ple, Ps. 119. John 13:35, 8. By confidence in his pro. mises, Ps, 71:1. And lastly, by obedience to his word, John 14: 15, 1 John 2: 3. Gill's Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 94, 8vo; Watts' Discourses on Love to God; Scott's Sex, ser. 14; Maclaurin's Essays ; Edwards' IWorks; Dellamy on True. Religion, and Signs of Counterfeit Lote, p. 82. Bishop Porteus' Ser; vol. i. ser. 1; Wilberforce's Fiew Works of Hannah More ; Newton's Works ; Ścott's Works. Cecil's Works ; Fuller's do. ; Hall's do. ; but above all, Dnight's Theology.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. •. LOVE OF THE WORLD. (See World.) - LOW. Let the rich Christian rejoice in that he is made lon 5 humble in the temper of his mind; or even that he has his outward wealth and honor taken from him, as that tends to his real good, James 1: 10. Christ was made for a little while, or in a little degree, lower than the I, O W 1, U C [ 757 j angels, in his state of humiliation, Ps. 8: 5. Heb. 2: 7, 9. — Aj7'07)?!, LOW CHURCHMEN ; those who disapproved of the schism made in the church by the non-jurors, and who dis- tinguished themselves by their moderation towards Dissen- ters, and were less ardent in extending the limits of ecclesi- astical authority. (See HIGII CHURCHMEN.)—Hend. Buck. LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH are (1.) Valleys, which diversify the face of the globe, and are evidently lower than hills, which also contribute to that diversity Isa. 44; 23. (2.) The grave, which is the lowest part àf the carth, usually opened to men, Ps. 63:9. (3.) Sheol, or Hades, sometimes called the deep, or abyss ; and, indeed, it is secluded from our cognizance, till we are called to visit “that bourne from whence no traveller returns,” Eph. 4: 9. (4.) As to the phrase “lower parts of the earth,” in Ps. 139; 15, it is obscure. . It does not appear necessary to take the Hebrew word, rendered “ lower parts,” as ex- pressing the extremely deep, or central parts, in reference to the general globe of the earth; (see Ps. 63:9. Eph. 4:9. Isa. 44; 23.) so that the dust of the earth, of which man was originally made, being taken from the valley, not from high hills, may be understood by the phrase. “The formation of my body was not without thy knowledge, though as wonderful as the composition of the globe it- self ſ” Comp. Job 10:9–12.-Calmet. LOWTH, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished divine, and fa- ther of bishop Lowth, was born in London, the 11th of September, 1661. He was educated at the Mer- chant Tailors' school, whence he was elected, in 1675, into St. John’s college, Oxford; where, in 1683, he gradu- ated master of arts, and proceeded to bachelor of divinity in 1688. His studies were strictly confined within his own province, and applied solely to the duties of his function ; yet, that he might acquit himself the better, he ac- quired an uncommon share of critical learning. There was scarcely any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane or ecclesiastical, especially the latter, that he had not read with care and attention, constantly accompanying his reading with critical and philological remarks. But the most valuable part of his character was that which least appeared in the eyes of the world. His piety, diligence, hospitality, and beneficence, rendered his life highly ex- emplary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations. The works of this learned divine, who died in 1732, are, “A Windication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Old and New Testament;” “Directions for the profita- ble reading of the Holy Scriptures;” “A Commentary on the Prophetical Books of the Old Testament,” which generally accompanies Patrick and Whitby. Biog, Brit. —Jones' Chris. Biog. LOWTH, (Robert, D. D.,) a distinguished English pre- late, was born at Buriton, the 27th of Nov. 1710. In 1737, /*H he graduated master of arts, at Oxford, and in 1741, was elected proſessor of poetry in the university of Oxford. The first preferment which he obtained in the church, was the rectory of Ovington, in Hampshire, in 1744; and four years afterwards he accompanied Mr. Legge, aſter- wards chancellor of the exchequer, to Berlin. He was, about this time, appointed tutor to the sons of the duke of Devonshire, during their travels on the continent. On his return he was appointed archdeacon of Winchester, by bishop Hoadley, who, three years after, presented him with the rectory of East Woodhay, In 1753, he published his valuable work, “De Sacra Poesi Hebræorum, Praelectiones Academicæ,” quarto. Of this work to which the duties of the author's professor- ship gave occasion, all the pest critics speak in unqttälts fical praise. In 1754, he received the degree of doctor if, divinity, ſrom the university of Oxford, by diploma; and in 1755, went to Ireland as chaplain to the marquis of IIartington, then appointed lord-lieutenant, who nominat- ed him bishop of Limerick, a preferment which he ex- changed for a prebend of Durham, and the rectory of Sedge- ficli. In the year 1758, he preached a sermon in favor of free inquiry in matters of religion, which has been often reprinted, and has been much admired. In the same year he published his “Life of William of Wykeham,” oc. tavo; and in 1762, “A Short Introduction to English Grani. mar;” a production that has gone through a great number of editions, and may be considered the precursor of that at- tention to grammatical accuracy and precision which has since distinguished the best writers of English prose. In 1766, Dr. Lowth was appointed bishop of St. David's, whence, in a few years afterwards, he was translated to the see of Oxford. In 1777, he succeeded Dr. Terrick in the diocess of Lon- don: and, in the following year, published the last of his literary labors, namely, “Isaiah ; a new Translation, with a Preliminary Dissertation, and Notes.” This ele- gant and beautiful version of the evangelical prophet, of which learned men in every part of Europe have been unanimous in their eulogiums, is alone sufficient to trans mit his name to posterity. On the death of archbishop Cornwallis, the primacy was offered to Dr. Lowth ; a dig- nity which he declined on account of his advanced age and family afflictions. In 1768, he lost his eldest daugh. ter; and in 1783, his second daughter suddenly expired while presiding at the tea-table : his eldest son was also suddenly cut off in the prime of life.” This amiable pre- late died on the 3d of November, 1787, at his palace of Fulham, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Dods- ley's An. Register, and Brit. Plutarch.-Jones' Chris. Biog. LUCIAN; a philosopher and wit, who appeared as one of the early opposers of the Christian religion and its followers. The hostile sentiments of the heathens towards Chris- tianity, says Dr. Neander, were different, according to the difference of their philosophical and religious views. There entered then upon the contest two classes of men, who have never since ceased to persecute Christianity. These were the superstitious, to whom the honoring God in spirit and in truth was a stumbling-stone, and the care- less unbeliever, who, unacquainted with all feelings of re- ligious wants, was accustomed to laugh, and to mock at every thing which proceeded from them, whether he un- derstood it or not, and at all which supposed such feelings and proposed to satisfy them. Such was Lucian. To him Christianity, like every oth- er remarkable religious phenomenon, appeared only as a fit object for his sarcastic wit. Without giving himself the trouble to examine and to discriminate, he threw Chris- tianity, Superstition, and fanaticism into the same class. It is easy enough, in any system which lays deep hold on man's nature, to find out some side open to ridicule, if a man bring forward only that which is external in the sys tem, abstracted from all its inward power and meaning, and without either understanding, or attempting to un- derstand this power. He, therefore, who looked on Chris. tianity with cold indifference, and the profane every-day feelings of worldly prudence, might easily here and there find objects for his satire. The Christian might indeed have profited by that ridicule, and have learned from the children of darkness to join the wisdom of the serpent with the meekness of the dove. In the end the scoffer brings himself to derision, because he ventures to pass sentence on the phenomena of a world of which he has not the slightest conception, and which to his eyes, buricul as they are in the films of the earth, is entirely closed. Such was Lucian. He sought to bring forward all that is striking and remarkable in the external conduct and circumstances of Christians, which might serve for the object of his sarcastic raillery, without any deeper inquiry as to what the religion of the Christians really was. And yet even in that at which he scoffed, there was much which might have taught him to remark in Christianity no common power over the hearts of men, had he been capable of such serious impressions. The firm hope of L U C L U K [ 758 J ~ eternal life, which taught them to meet death with tran- quillity, their brotherly love one towards another, might have indicated to him some higher spirit which animated these men; but instead of this he treats it all as delusion, because many gave themselves up to death with some- thing like fanatical enthusiasm. He scoffs at the notion of a crucified man having taught them to regard all man- kind as their brethren, the moment they should have ab- jured the gods of Greece; as if it were not just the most remarkable part of all this, that an obscure person in Je- rusalem, who was deserted by every one, and executed as a criminal, should be able, a good century after his death, to cause such effects as Lucian, in his own time, saw ex- tending in all directions, and in spite of every kind of per- secution. How blinded must he have been to pass thus lightly over such a phenomenon' But men of his ready wit are apt to exert it with too great readiness on all sub- jects. They are able to illustrate every thing out of no- thing; with their miserable “mil admirari,” they can close their hearts against all lofty impressions. With all his wit and keenness, with all his undeniably fine powers of observation in all that has no concern with the deeper im- pulses of man's spirit, he was a man of very little mind. But hear his own language : “The wretched people have persuaded themselves that they are altogether immortal, and will live forever; therefore they despise death, and many of them meet it of their own accord. Their first lawgiver has persuaded them also to regard all mankind as their brethren, as soon as they have abjured the Gre- cian gods; and, honoring their crucified Master, have be- gun to live according to his laws. They despise every thing heathen equally, and regard all but their own no- tions as profaneness, while they have yet embraced those motions without sufficient examination.” He has no fur- ther accusation to make against them here, except the ease with which they allowed their benevolence towards their fellow-Christians to be abused by impostors, in which there may be much truth, but there is nevertheless some exaggeration. Neander's Church. History.—Watson. LUCIANISTS, or LucAnists; a sect so called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the second century, being a disciple of Marcion, whose errors he followed, add- ing some new ones to them. Epiphanius says he aban- doned Marcion, teaching that people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the Creator; and yet other authors mention that he held this error in common with Marcion and other Gnostics. He denied the immortality of the soul, asserting it to be material. There was another sect of Lucianists, who appeared some time after the Arians. They taught that the Father had been a Father always, and that he had the name even before he begot the Son, as having in him the power and faculty of generation; and in this manner they accounted ſor the etermity of the Son.—Hend. Buck. LUCIFER. This word signifies literally the morning star. Isaiah (14:12, &c.) speaks of the fall of Lucifer, which most commentators are of opinion denotes the king of Babylon, who, like Satan, fell from his state of glory and elevation, and was cast headlong into hell, or hades, the state of the dead, 1 Tim. 3: 6.-Calmet. . LUCIFERIANS ; a sect who adhered to the schism of Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, in the fourth century, who was banished by the emperor Constantius, for having de- fended the Nicene doctrine concerning the three persons in the Godhead. It is said, also, that they believed the soul to be corporeal, and to be transmitted ſrom the father to the children. The Luciferians were numerous in Gaul, Spain, Egypt, &c. The occasion of this schism was, that Lucifer would not allow any acts he had done to be abo- lished. There were but two Luciferian bishops, but a great number of priests and deacons. The Luciferians bore a great aversion to the Arians.—IIend. Buck. LUCIFUGAE, or LIGHT-HATERs ; a name of reproach given to the early Christians, because, in times of persecu- tion, they frequently held their religious assemblies at night, or before the break of day.—Hend. Buck. LUCIUS, (of Cyrene,) mentioned Acts 13:1, was one of the prophets of the Christian church at Antioch. Some think that he was one of the seventy. 2. A disciple, mentioned Rom. 16:21, and styled Paul's kinsman, is thought by some to be the Sane as flucius the Cyrenian; but he is generally distinguished ſrom him. We know nothing of this Lucius, unless he and Luke be the same person, which seems very credible. (See LUICE.) —Calmet. - - LUD; the fourth son of Shem, (Gen. 10: 22.) who is be-, lieved to have peopled Lydia, a province of Asia Minor, Arias Montanus places the Ludim where the Tigris and Euphrates meet, and M. le Clerc, between the rivers Cha- boras and Saocoras or Masca.—Calmet, LUDIM; the son of Mizraim, (Gen. 10: 13.) and also a people frequently mentioned in Scripture, Isa. 66; 19. Jer. 46: 9. Ezek. 27: 10. 30: 5. We may admit of two coun- tries under this name, (1.) Lydia in Asia; and (2) Ly- dia, or Ludim, in Africa. Josephus affirms, that the de- scendants of Ludim had long been extinct, having been destroyed in the Ethiopian wars. The Jerusalem para- phrast translates Ludim, the inhabitants of the Marcotis, a part of Egypt. The truth is, that although these people were in Egypt, it is not easy to show exactly where they dwelt.—Calmet. - LUHITH ; a mountain, in the opinion of Lyra, and the Hebrew commentators on Isa. 15: 5; but Eusebius thinks it to be a place between Areopolis and Joara; others sup- pose between Petra and Sihor. From Jer, 48: 5, it is evi- dent that it was an elevated station, but whether a town on a hill, or a place for prospect, or simply the prospect up a hill, the road lying that way, does not appear. The order of the places named is not the same in both prophets, though both refer to the calamities of Moab, to which do: minion Luhith belonged.—Calmet. LUKE, the evangelist, is the author of the gospel bear. ing his name, and also of the Acts of the Apostles. Mr. Taylor has bestowed much labor on an historical biogra- phy of this evangelist, with a view to the elucidation and authentication of several of the Scripture narratives. He says, “We have traced the evangelist under the names of Lucius and Luke, from Jerusalem to Antioch, from An- tioch to Troas and Philippi; again from Philippi to Jeru- salem, and from Jerusalem to Malta, and to Rome. We have found him a learned, confidential, and considerate man, advanced in years, cndowed with the Holy Ghost from on high, an inspired teacher, a valuable companion and counsellor of the apostle Paul; a correct, judicious, and spirited writer, a man of research, and of no less for- titude than composure. We now part with him, at the conclusion of his history, on his last remove into Achaia ; where he soon after died, at the great age of eighty-four. “Nothing so fully establishes our confidence in a writer, as a knowledge of his personal character. If he be loose, inaccurate, heedless, we hardly know how to trust him when he declares the most solemn truths in the most Solemn man- ner. If he be studious, particular, punctual, we pay a de- ference even to his current discourse; and iſ he affirm a thing, we rest satisfied of its truth and reality. But, persons of strict accuracy seldom trust to their memory entirely on important affairs; they make memoranda, or keep some kind of journal, in which they minute transactions as they arise; so that, at after-periods, they can refer to events thus record- ed, and refresh their memories by consulting their former observations. This, too, is customary, chieſly, if not wholly, among men of letters, men of liberal and enlarged education, men who are conversant with science, and who know the value of hints made on the spot, pro re nata. “We turn now to the preſace of Luke's gospel, and we find it completely in union with this strongly marked ex- actness and precision :- Whereas many good people enough, and not to be blamed, have taken in hand, but did not complete their intention, to publish an orderly narra- tion of certain events, as they have been delivered to us by those who, from the beginning of these events, were (some of them) eye witnesses, and (others) parties con- cerned in them, promoters of them by personal participa- tion; it has seemed good to me, having accurately exa. mined all points from a much earlier period than they had done, indeed from the very first rise of the matter, to write an orderly history of these things; and thereby to accom- plish that desirable purpose in which those writers have failed.' We say, this profession of correctness and order is perfectly in character with the man who tells us how L UK L UK * tº many days he staid in such a place, in what point the wind was, what was the name of the ship he sailed in, on what occasion a council was held in the vessel, and what was the language and observations of the seamen, as to the bearing of the port they intended to make, &c. This man could not bear the imperfections of the books which came under his notice on a certain subject; they did not begin early enough, and they ended too soon. He there- fore determined to begin his history much earlier, and to continue it much later. This he accomplished in a man- ner which we shall see hereafter. “We have presumed, that Luke, at our first acquaint- ance with him, was of mature age, a reasoning and con- siderate man; and we further presume, a physician. Such was the companion of Cleopas, Luke 24: 18. But, there is another personage of greater importance than Cleopas, on whose account the character of Luke peculiarly de- mands notice. For if we reflect, we shall find that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was of much about the age of Luke; (say nearly fifty years, at the time of the crucifixion;) that she was no less reasoning and no less considerate than he was ; and that his profession of physician admit- ted access to the confidence of the sex, without offence. The inference we wish to draw is, that this evangelist re- ceived from the holy mother those papers which he has preserved in the early part of his gospel; with that infor- mation which enabled him to assert his ‘perſect under- standing (or diligent tracing) of all things connected with this history, ſrom the very first.’ It is probable, that this confidence was the résult of prolonged intercourse. “By tracing the chronology of Luke’s life in an invert- ed order, we obtain a stronger conviction of the truth of the facts stated, than others have allowed themselves to indulge ; nevertheless, that these facts have been already admitted, may appear from the words of the equally cau- tious and learned Lardner. ‘It is probable, that he is Lu- cius, mentioned Rom. 16:21. If so, he was related to St. Paul the apostle. And it is not unlikely, that that Lucius is the same as Lucius of Cyrene, mentioned by name, (Acts 13: 1.) and in general with others, chap. 11; 20. It appears to me very probable, that St. Luke was a Jew by birth, and an early Jewish believer. This must be reck- oned to be a kind of requisite qualification for writing a history of Christ, and the early preaching of his apostles, to advantage; which certainly St. Luke has performed. He may, also, have been one of the two whom our Lord met in the way to Emmaus, on the day of his resurrection, as related Luke 24: 13–35. He is expressly styled by the apostle his fellow-laborer, Philem. ver. 24. If he be the person intended Col. 4: 14, (which seems very proba- ble,) he was or had been by profession a physician. And he was greatly valued by the apostle, who calls him be- loved. He accompanied Paul when he first went into Ma- cedonia. And we know, that he went with the apostle from Greece through Macedonia and Asia, to Jerusalem, and thence to Rome, where he stayed with him two years of his imprisonment. We do not exactly know when Luke formed the design of writing his two books; but, probably, they are the labor of several years. Nor can any besitate to allow the truth of what is said by some of the ancients, that Luke, who for the most part was a com- panion of Paul, had likewise more than a slight acquaint- ance with the rest of the apostles.’ “We have no design of enlarging on the life of Luke ; but would point out a few incidental allusions to him, in their regular order. For, notwithstanding what appears so conspicuously, his habitual correctness and diligence, we, by placing him in the number of the one hundred and twenty, on whom the Holy Ghost ſell, in a visible form, insist on his unquestionable inspiration; and that in no ordinary degree. He was, in this respect, though no apos- Je, yet equal to the apostles: and there can be no doubt, but what the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit quali- fied him abundantly for the discharge of every duty to which he might be called, whether as a teacher, or as a writer. (See INSPIRATION.) - - “We suppose him, he being a Cyrenian, to have felt a special interest in the opposition raised by “those of the synagogue of the Libertini, of the Cyrenians, and the Alexandrians' (all Africans) against Stephen; which end- ed in the death of that protomartyr, Acts 6: 9. And here, perhaps, began his acquaintance with the ‘young man, whose name was Saul.” We suppose him, also, to have sympathized much with those who were scattered abroad on the persecution that followed the death of Stephen; ‘some of whom were men of Cyprus and Cyrene, who went as far as Antioch,’ Acts 11: 20. But, whether he quitted Jerusalem at this time, cannot be determined with- out reserve. If he did, he was now a sufferer through the persecution of that very man, Saul, with whom he afterwards contracted the most confidential intimacy. Lit- the did either of them see the events of a few years!” 2. LUKE, (Gosper, of.) Lardner thinks that there are a few allusions to Luke's gospel in some of the apostolical fathers, especially in Hermas and Polycarp; and in Jus. tin Martyr there are passages evidently taken from it ; but the ear.iest author, who actually mentions St. Luke's gospel, is Irenaeus; and he cites so many peculiarities in it, all agreeing with the gospel which we now have, that he alone is sufficient to prove its genuineness. We may however observe, that his testimony is supported by Cle- ment of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, Jerome, Chrysostom, and many others. Dr. Owen and Dr. Town- son have compared many parallel passages of St. Mark's and St. Luke's gospels; and Dr. Townson has concluded that St. Luke had seen St. Mark’s gospel, and Dr. Owen, that St. Mark had seen St. Luke’s ; but there does not appear to be a sufficient similarity of expression to justify either of these conclusions. There was among the an- cients a difference of opinion concerning the priority of these two gospels; and it must be acknowledged to be a very doubtful point. There is also some doubt about the place where this gospel was published. It seems most probable that it was published in Greece, and for the use of Gentile converts. Dr. Townson observes, that the evangelist has inserted many explanations, particularly concerning the scribes and Pharisees, which he would have omitted if he had been writing for those who were acquainted with the cus- toms and sects of the Jews. The accounts to which he refers in his preface are now entirely lost, and the names of their authors are not known. When the four authentic gospels were published, and came into general use, all others were quickly disregarded and forgotten. St. Luke's gospel is addressed to Theophilus; but there was a doubt, even in the time of Epiphanius, whether a particular person, or any good Christian in general, be in- tended by that name. Theophilus was probably a real person, that opinion being more agreeable to the simpli- city of the sacred writings. We have seen that St. Luke was for several years the companion of St. Paul; and ma- ny ancient writers consider this gospel as having the sanc- tion of St. Paul, in the same manner as St. Mark's had that of St. Peter. Whoever will examine the evangelist’s and the apostle's account of the eucharist in their respec- tive original works, will observe a great coincidence of expression, Luke 22. 1 Cor. 11. St. Luke seems to have had more learning than any other of the evangelists, and his language is more varied, copious, and pure. This superiority in style may perhaps be owing to his longer residence in Greece, and greater acquaintance with Gentiles of good education, than fell to the lot of the writers of the other three gospels. This gospel contains many things which are not found in the other gospels; among which are the following: the birth of John the Baptist; the Roman census in Judea ; the circumstances attending Christ's birth at Bethlehem ; the vision granted to the shepherds; the early testimony of Simeon and Anna ; Christ's conversation with the doctors in the temple when he was twelve years old; the parables of the good Samaritan, of the prodigal Son, of Dives and Lazarus, of the wicked judge, and of the publican and Pharisee; the miraculous cure of the woman who had been bowed down by illness eighteen years; the cleansing of the ten lepers; and the restoring to life the son of a widow at Nain; the account of Zaccheus, and of the peni- tent thief; and the particulars of the journey to Emmaus, It is very satisfactory that so early a writer as Irenaeus has noticed most of these peculiarities; which proves not only that St. Luke's gospel, but that ſhe other gospels L UT L UT [ 760 ) also, are the same now that they were in the second cen: tury. § Acts of THE ApostLEs.)—Calmet ; Watson. LUKEWARMNESS; applied to the affections, indif. ference, or want of ardor. In respect to religion, hardly any thing can be more culpable than this spirit. If there be a God possessed of unspeakable rectitude in his own nature, and unbounded goodness towards his creatures, what can be more inconsistent and unbecoming than to be frigid and indifferent in our devotions to him 3 Athe- ism, in some respects, cannot be worse than lukewarm- ness. The atheist disbelieves the existence of a God, and, therefore, cannot worship him at all ; the lukewarm owns the existence, sovereignty, and goodness of the Supreme Being, but denies him that fervor of aſſection, that devo- tedness of heart, and activity of service, which the excel- ..ency of his nature demands, and the authority of his word requires. Such a character, therefore, is represent- ed as absolutely loathsome to God, and obnoxious to his wrath, Rev. 3:15, 16. The general signs of a lukewarm spirit are such as these:—Neglect of private prayer; a preference of world- ly to religious company; a lax attendance on public ordi- mances; omission or careless perusal of God’s word; a zeal for some appendages of religion, while languid about religion itself; a backwardness to promote the cause of God in the world, and a rashness of spirit in censuring those who are desirous to be useful. - If we inquire the causes of such a spirit, we shall find them to be—worldly prosperity; the influence of carnal relatives and acquaintances; indulgence of secret sins; the fear of man; and sitting under an unfaithful ministry. The inconsistency of it appears if we consider, that it is highly unreasonable; dishonorable to God; incompatible with the genius of the gospel; a barrier to improvement; a death-blow to usefulness; a direct opposition to the commands of Scripture; and tends to the greatest misery. To overcome such a state of mind, we should consider how offensive it is to God; how incongruous with the very idea and nature of true religion; how injurious to peace whose whole life was labor for us and our salvation ; how grievous to the Holy Spirit; how dreadful an example to those who have no religion; how unlike the saints of old, and even to our enemies in the worst of causes; how dan- gerous to our immortal souls, since it is indicative of our want of love to God, and exposes us to just condemnation, Amos 6: 1. Massillon’s Sermons ; Davies' Sermons ; Walk- er’s Sermons ; Fuller's Works.-Hend. Buck. LUNATICS; a name given to those diseased persons, who suffer most severely on the changes of the moon ; ſor example, epileptical persons, or those who have the falling sickness; insane persons, or those tormented with fits of morbid melancholy ; as well as persons possessed by the devil; for oſten those have been believed to be really possessed by the devil, who were tormented only with great degrees of melancholy or fury. Jerome (in Matt. 4: 24.) is of opinion, that the lunatics in the gospel were possessed persons, whom the people through mistake call- ed lunatics, because they saw them most tormented during the change of the moon ; the devil affecting to make them suffer most in these circumstances, that simple people might impute the cause of it to the moon, and from thence take occasion to blaspheme the Creator. Others maintain, that all the diſſerence betwecn an epileptic and a luna- tic was, that one was more disordered than the other. Persons subject to epilepsies are not all cqually attacked. Some fall more frequently, others more rarely : some eve- day. Lunatics are affected chiefly on the declension of the moon. Comp. Matt. 17: 15. (See DEMONIACs.)— Calmet. LUST; the irregular love of pleasure, riches, or ho- nors, Rom. 7: 7—25. 1 John 2: 6. As in both Testaments, evil desires, as well as evil actions, are equally proscribed, so the first care of every man who would please God should be to crucify his lusts, Gal. 5: 24.—Calmet. LUTHER, (MARTIN,) the celebrated reformer, was born the 10th of November, 1483, at the town of Eisleben, in the electorate of Saxony. His father, John Luther, was remarkable for his industry. He was a local magistrate, a man of respectability, and good character. Iſis mo- riving assistance from the labors of others. ther, Margaret Lindeman, was a woman of eminent piety; and Luther was much benefited by her maternal instruc. \\ tions. At an early age, he was placed under the tuition of George Omilius, who instructed him in the elements of knowledge, and from whom he was early removed, to be placed in a superior school at Magdeburg. At the age of fifteen, he was sent to a distinguished seminary in Eise- nach; his master's name was John Trebonius, and the school was conducted by Franciscans. Here was laid the foundation of his future eminence; and he soon com- posed Latin verses, which alike surprised and gratified his instructers. At the age of nineteen, he repaired to the seminary of Erfurt, where he diligently studied logic and Latin, and most probably Greek; and attained so much proficiency, that, when only twenty years of age, he took the degree of master of arts. Luther at this time was in an unregenerate state ; but in the following year, 1504, walking out one day with a friend, named Alexius, they were overtaken by a thunder- storm, and his friend was struck dead by his side. Per- ceiving the vanity of all terrestrial good, he then deter- mined on ending his days in a monastery; and notwith- standing the contrary advice of his friends, and the plea- sure he derived from social intercourse, in 1505 he entered the Augustinian monastery at Erfurt. On embracing the monastic profession, he was very imperfectly acquainted with the routine of the discipline. It was in 1507, (2d of May,) and in Luther's twenty-fourth year, that he entered into orders, and celebrated his first mass. This date is the more remarkable, because he discovered, about the same time, a Latin copy of the Bible, lying in the library of the monastery; he eagerly laid hold of this neglected book, and persevered in studying it with so much diligence, that he was able, in a short time, to refer with ease and promptitude to any particular passage. In the zealous prosecution of his studies, he had little opportunity of de- The writings of the fathers, with the exception of those of Augustine, were wholly unknown to him. His knowledge of Greek was very imperfect, and with Hebrew he was entirely un- acquainted. Besides, the only copy of the Scriptures as yet in his possession, was the Latin Vulgate. Erasmus had not then published his edition of the New Testament; and since the days of Jerome, no very eminent example had been given of the application of sound criticism to the sacred canon. Deprived thus of information, from the researches of others, Luther would often spend a whole day in meditating on a few particular passages. To this he was prompted cqually by a thirst for information, and the disquieted state of his mind. Beſore his acquaintance with the Bible, he had, like other persons, been satisfied with the current doctrines, and had never thought of exa- mining a subject in which he suspected no error. Now, however, he was sufficiently advanced to perceive that his early creed must be abandoned, without having gone far enough to find another in its place. His former melan- choly returned, and continued to do so at intervals, until his views of divine truth acquired clearness and consis- tency. During this state of uncertainty, when reflecting on the wrath of God, and on the extraordinary examplcs of punishment recorded in Scripture, he was sometimes struck with such terror as almost to ſaint away. He has been so much agitated by eagerness of temper, when en- gaged in a dispute on doctrine, as to find it necessary to throw himself on a bed in an adjoining chamber, where he would fall down in prayer, and frequently repeat these LUT L U T tº words: “He hath concluded all in unbelief, that he might have mercy upon all.” In those agitations of mind, Lu- ther's resort was to the works of Augustine, who was, in his eyes, an oracle of equal price, as Jerome in those of Erasmus. Luther, absorbed in study, and averse to con- sume time in the uninstructive routine of Romish ceremo- nies, became unmindful of the forms of the monastery; he would read and write with such ardor, for days toge- ther, as to overlook the hours prescribed for divine service by the canons; he was, on the other hand, rigid in the observance of the penance enjoined to his profession. At a diet held at Worms, in 1495, it had been agreed among the electors, that each should become the founder of a university. Luther's sovereign, Frederick, elector of Saxony, surnamed the Sage, was fully alive to the advan- tages of erecting such an establishment in his territory. In 1508, Luther was appointed to an academical chair in the university of Wittemberg, at the early age of twenty- five. He now felt the necessity of acquiring a knowledge of Hebrew. Luther was, in many respects, not only a sincere but a zealous Catholic. In addition to the duty of teaching his class and preaching, Luther occasionally heard confessions. In the exercise of this functiºn, in the year 1517, some persons came to him to confess, and though guilty of serious crimes, refused to undergo the penance prescribed by him, because they had already re- ceived remission in the shape of an indulgence. Luther, revolting at this eyasion, flatly refused them the absolution for which they applied. As he persisted in this negative determination, the persons in question, considering them- selves aggrieved, entered a serious complaint against him with Tetzel, who was at that time in the neighborhood of the town of Interbock. In an evil hour for the papacy, Tetzel became violently incensed against Luther; and be- 1ng one of the holy commission charged with the extirpa- tion of heresy, he threatened to subject Luther, and those who might adhere to him, to the horrors of the inquisition. The manner in which Luther proceeded, affords a convinc- ing proof that he acted with no deliberate hostility to the church. Conformably to the custom of the age, in the case of doubtful points, he came to the determination of stating his ideas in a series of propositions, with a View to a public disputation. Accordingly, on the 31st of October, 1517, he públished ninety-five, discussing copiously the doctrines of penitence, tharity, indulgences, purgatory, &c. Having affixed the propositions to the church adjacent to the castle of Wittemberg, an invitation to a public dispu- tation on them was subjoined, accompanied with a request, that those who were necessarily absent, would transmit. him their observations in writing. A long and tedious contest ensued between Tetzel and Luther; they wrote much and violently ; and, resolute as was his character, a considerable time elapsed before he came to an open rupture with the court of Rome. Towards the end of the year 1519, Luther began to express, without reserve, his dissent from the church of Rome, on the subject of the Sacrament. In the year 1521, Luther published his celebrated essay, “De Captivitate Babylonica Ecclesiae.” He here examin- ed into the nature and use of the Sacraments, which, as is well known, are, according to the Romanists, seven in number. From this enumeration Luther dissented; and denied the name of sacrament to confirmation, holy orders, marriage, or extreme unction. But he continued to in- clude penance in the list, as well as baptism and the Lord's supper. The universities of Cologne and Louvain having openly burned Luther's books, and a similar exam- ple having been given at Rome, the reformer now determin- ed to retaliate. He caused public notice to be given at Wit- temberg, that he purposed burning the antichristian decre- tals, on Monday, the 10th of December. So novel a scene excited great interest, and the concourse, accordingly, was immense. The people assembled at nine o'clock in the morning, and proceeded, in regular divisions, to the spot in the neighborhood where the ceremony was to be per- formed. Having there partaken of a slight, repast, an eminent member of the university erected a kind of fume- ral pile, and set it on fire; after which Luther took Gra- tian's Abridgment of the Canon Law, the Letters com- monly called Decretals of the Pontiffs, the Clementimes and Extravagants, and, last of all, the Bull of Leo X. A-. ...these he threw into the fire, and exclaimed with a loud voice, “Because ye have troubled the saints of the Lord, therefore let eternal fire trouble you.” Having remained to witness their consumption, he returned into the city, ac- companied by the same multitude, without the occurrence of the slightest disorder. Luther, according to his usual practice, replied with great spirit to the condemning sen- tence of the universities of Cologne and Louvain. The adherents of the court of Rome were much disappointed at the inefficient operation of the bull against Luther; and the conduct of that court, in this business, has been subjected to those charges of impolicy which are generally applied to unsuccessful counsels. It has been said by many persons, that the bull was too long delayed; by others, that its language was too violent and arbitrary. The term granted to Luther having expired, a new bull made its appearance on the 3d of January, 1521, confirm- ing the preceding in all its extent, with the serious addi- tion of Luther's excommunication. But this edict made very little impression, and its reception tended only to show the diminished efficacy of papal fulminations against the progress of opinion. The time had now arrived for holding Charles' first diet. The city of Nuremberg being infested with the plague, the place of meeting was fixed at Worms. The diet as- sembled in January, and the agents of the court of Rome were indefatigable in their efforts to get a summons for Luther speedily issued. Frederick, apprized of all their machinations, gave Luther information, through the me- dium of Spalatin, of what was likely to happen, and caused him to be asked what course he would pursue in the event of his being summoned by the emperor to ap- pear before the diet 2—a step which, in consequence of the urgency of the pope's agents, he thought very probable. Luther's answer was conveyed in a very spirited and well- written letter to Spalatin, in which he says, “If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles on the roofs of the houses, I would go on.” When drawing to- wards the close of his journey, Luther received an invite tion from Glassio, the emperor's confessor, to meet him the residence of one of Luther's friends, at some distance from the road. But Luther, whether suspicious of Glas- Sio, or, as is more likely, afraid of exceeding the limited term of twenty-one days, replied, “that he was determin- ed to go whither he had been ordered by the emperor.” Accordingly, he reached Worms on the 16th of April, attired in his friar's cowl, seated in an open chariot, pre ceded by the emperor's herald on horseback, in his offi- cial dress. Next day, the 17th of April, notice was sent from the emperor to Luther, that his presence was re- quired at the diet in the afternoon. Even the roofs are said to have been covered with spectators. An intimation having been privately given to Luther not to speak, except in reply, the proceedings commenced on the part of one John Eckius, official, as it is termed, of the archbishop of Treves, and equally hostile to Luther as his namesake, the disputant. This orator, in an audible voice, first in Latin, and next in German, proposed two questions:— “Whether Luther avowed himself the author of the books bearing his name 3’ to a collection of which he then pointed; and “Whether he was disposed to retract, or persistin their contents?” Luther instantly acknowledged himself the author of these works; but, in regard to the second question, he asked, no doubt by the suggestion of his counsel, that “time might be given him to consider his answer.” On entering the diet next day, Eckius re- capitulated, with great form, the proceedings of the day before, and asked Luther once more whether he retracted or persisted 2 Luther delivered an answer at great length, first in German, and afterwards in Latin. Notwithstand- ing the awe of the assembly, and the excessive heat from the great numbers present, he spoke in a tone of clearness and confidence for two hours, and ended in these noble words: “Let me then be refuted and convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures, or by the clearest arguments; otherwise I cannot and will not recant; for it is neither safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I take my stand I can do no otherwise, so help me God! Amen.” 96 \ L U T L UT [ 762 ) - Eckius, who had discovered symptoms of impatience during the delivery of the defence, declared, as soon as it was ended, that Luther had not answered to the point, and ought not to express doubts about things that had been already defined and condemned by so many councils. Luther replied. The emperor being, in a great measure, unacquainted with the mode of conducting the affairs of Germany, and impatient at the continuance of the con- troversy, allowed himself to be persuaded that the fittest course would be to excommunicate Luther at once. This took place, accordingly, next day, the 19th of April; but, being done without the assent of the princes, the effi: cacy of the decree was very different from what would have attended a concurrent resolution of the diet. Many persons of distinction continued to visit Luther, and the multitude gave evident signs of their interest in his cause. The subsequent proceedings of the diet were such as to show the expediency of this step, extraordinary as it was. After some delay, incurred, probably, for the purpose of taking advantage of the departure of Luther's principal friends from the diet, an imperial edict was issued, which declared him a schismatic and heretic, and put him under the ban of the empire. This edict was not published un- til the 26th of May, although dated, for the sake of ap- pearing the act of the diet at large, so far back as the 8th of May. - Luther was now confined in the castle of Wittemberg; but though secluded from intercourse with the world, he was incapable of passing his time in inactivity or.indiffe- rence. The first essay which Luther found means to pub- lish from his retreat, was a short treatise in German, “On the Abuse of Auricular Confession.” His next publica- tion was a short practical work, consisting of “Notes on the Evangelists,” the merit of which was acknowledged, even by his adversaries. He carried on, likewise, a con- troversy with James Latomus, a divine of Louvain, al- ready known to the public by his disputes with Reuchlin and Erasmus, and who had undertaken the defence of the decision given by his university in Luther’s cause. In 1521, he also composed his celebrated work on “Monastic Vows.” - Luther was now to encounter an adversary of a new kind. Henry VIII. of England, having, in the early part of life, paid some attention to the study of scholastic the- ology, was flattered by his courtiers into the belief of be: ing able to obtain an easy triumph over the arguments of Luther. Henry’s book, considering the badness of his cause, and the wretched system of learning then in vogue, is not destitute of merit. But Luther was not to be dis- couraged, either by high-sounding encomiums, or by the rank of his assailant. He made a prompt reply, and had no scruple in describing the king by the most uncourteous epithets. Luther having, after a short absence, returned from the castle of Wittemberg, began, in 1522, to devote himself to a labor of great importance,—the translation of the Scriptures into German. The magnitude of the de- sign was in correspondence with his ardent and enterpri- sing cast of mind; and the seclusion of his present resi- dence was favorable to the commencement of its execution. The church of Rome was well aware of the danger to her superstitious legends and extravagant assumptions, from a good translation of the Bible. Her defenders have, therefore, directed many attacks against Luther's labor, and have presumed to accuse it of frequently vitiating the sense of the original. Meanwhile the civil authorities in Germany continued their efforts to crush the Lutheran doctrine. In the same year Luther returned to Wittemberg, which gave occasion to lively demonstrations of joy; the learned and unlearned partaking equally in the general exulta- tion. It was about this time that Luther had occasion to write to the Bohemians. They were beginning, he heard, to waver in their favorable disposition towards the new creed, in consequence of the divisions arising among its followers. He argued strongly, that to return to the church of Rome was not the way to escape the evils of discussions, since no communion was more distracted by multiplicity of schisms. Indefatigable in his labors against the papacy, he soon after published a work, entitled, “Ad- versus falso nominºtum ordinem Episcoporum.” The ‘strong contentions of interest in the conclave. next of his numerous publications was a small treatise, entitled, “De Doctrinis Hominum Witandis.” This may be considered an abridgment of his former book on “Mo- nastic Wows.” - . . . It is now time to direct our attention to the proceedings of the court of Rome. The virtuous but inexperienced Adrian had paid the debt of nature on the 14th of Sep- tember, 1523. His death gave occasion, as usual, to At last, Julius of Medicis was elected in the end of November, and assumed the name of Clement WII. The chief diffi- culty which he apprehended, in regard to the Reformation, arose from the extraordiny admissions made by his pre- decessor. He deemed it éxpedient, therefore, to negotiate as if Adrian had taken no active part in these unpleasant proceedings. Blind, like most bad governments, to the real cause of public discontent, Clement and his advisers looked in particular circumstances and events, for that which they should have sought in the general diffusion of information. On the 7th of December, therefore, Clement addressed a letter to the elector Frederick, allu- ding, in general terms, to the disturbances existing in Germany, and expressing a confident belief that the elec- tor would advocate the cause of the church. This letter, in imitation of the example of his predecessors, was in- tended to pave the way for the further progress of Cam- peggio's negotiation. Accordingly, on the 15th of Janua- ry, 1524, that legate being about to repair to the diet as- sembled at Nuremberg, the pope wrote another letter to Frederick, still expressed in general terms, but in a style of studied complaisance, and intimating a wish that the elector would consult with the legate, in regard to the best means of restoring peace and tranquillity to the empire. Ably as this letter was penned, it does not appear to have extracted any answer from the wary Frederick. The publication of “The Recess of the Diet” took place on the 18th of April. It was divided into two general heads; the first regarding Luther and his doctrine, the second treating of the dangers which threatened Germary. Luther having speedily obtained a copy of the “Recess” published by the diet, was strongly agitated by the conduct of the princes of Germany. With that disregard of con- sequences which so frequently marked his conduct, he in- stantly republished the Edict of Worms, of May 8th, 1521, and contrasting it with that 6f Nuremberg, had no hesitation to call the princes “miserable, infatuated men, set over the people by God in his anger.” His views in other respects began to expand, and he ventured, on the .9th of October, 1524, to lay aside his monastic habit, and to assume the dress of a professor or preacher. A part of this year was passed by Luther in a manner much more profitable than controversy. He translated the Psalms into German verse, for the use of the common people ; and added Sacred hymns of his own composition. Luther now determined to settle himself in marriage. This step, remarkable in itself, on the part of one who had sworn celibacy, was rendered still more so by the ex- istence of a similar obligation on the part of her whom he espoused. (See Bore, CATHARINE voN.) The advo- cates of the church of Rome poured out the most vehe- ment declamations against Luther, on the occasion of his marriage with a nun. Some affirmed that he was mad, or possessed with an evil spirit. The elector, John, now consented to take steps to make the Lutheran the predo- minant religion in his dominions. Though the majority of his subjects were favorably inclined to it, the change was too great to be effected otherwise than by degrees, Towards the end of 1525, an attempt, it was said, was intended to be made to cut off Luther by poison. In con- sequence of the suspicion of some of Luther's friends, a Jew and several other persons were arrested at Wittem- berg; but, on their examination, nothing could be disco- vered, and Luther interceded that they might not be put to the torture. They were accordingly set at liberty. Hi- therto Luther had been not only the origin, but the main spring, of the opposition to, the papacy; but the range which it now embraced, was too wide to be directed by the exertions of an individual. The further progress of this opposition belongs, therefore, to general history, and would be wholly misplaced in a biographical relation. In di. L U-T L UT [ 763 ) *. recting the translation of the Bible, Luther now devoted much time. He had divided this stupendous labor into three parts,z-the books of Moses; the subsequent histo- ry of the Jews; and, lastly, the prophetical and other books of the Old Testament. The version of the prophets did not begin to appear till 1527; and, in completing this part of his task, Luther received benefit from the assis- tance of some Jews of the city of Worms. Isaiah was printed in 1528. Daniel followed soon aſter; and, in 1530, the whole was completed. His chief coad- jutors in this noble undertaking were Bugenhagen, better known by the name of Pomeranus, Justus Jonas, Melanc- thon, and Matthew, surnamed Aurogallus. . The year 1526 was the first, since 1517, that Luther al- lowed to pass without publishing a book against the Ro- manists. In the course of the year, however, he published his “Commentaries on Jonah and Habakkuk,” along with some lesser pieces of Scripture criticism. The imperial diet, at midsummer, was held at the city of Spires, and the pressure of business was such as to require the attend- ance of the elector John, during several months. Luther continued occupied in plans for the progress of the Refor- mation, which were to be submitted to the elector, as soon as more urgent business permitted him to give them his attention. Next year, 1528, Luther published his “Com- mentary on Genesis and Zechariah,” as well as a Letter to the bishop of Misnia, respecting the Eucharist. Luther, while residing at Cobourg, suffered several attacks of ill health, but nothing could relax his application to his stu- dies. He employed his time in the translation of the books of the prophets, and in composing his “Commen- tary on the Psalms.” From the fatigue of these graver employments, he sought relaxation in composing an Ad- monition to the Clergy assembled at Augsburg, which he thought proper to send to that city to be printed. It was entitled, “Admonitio ad Ecclesiastici ordinis Congrega- tiones in Comitiis Augustanis.” During the following year, 1532, Luther published commentaries on different portions of Scripture. It was now that he was destined to lose a valuable friend and protector, in the person of John, elector of Saxony, who expired of apoplexy, on the 16th of August, being cut off, like his brother Frederick, in his sixty-third year. The year 1536 was remarkable for the death of the great Erasmus. It is much to be lamented, that his dis- pute with Luther was revived two years before, with a great share of mutual asperity; Luther having gone so far as to bring the charge of atheism against his antago- mist. Improperly as Erasmus acted in his latter years, he deserves to be regarded as one of the principal found- ers of the Reformation. (See ERASMUs.) Luther's last controversy with Erasmus was followed by one with very different opponents, the Anabaptists. (See ANABAPTISTs.) In the beginning of 1537, Luther was afflicted with a strangury, and the symptoms were so severe, that both he and his friends began to despair of his life. During this alarming illness, much anxiety was manifested for his re- covery, as well by his friends as by the public characters who favored the Reformation. His recovery appears to have been complete, and he was able to resume his labors in the cause of religion. He prepared for the press two editions of his great work, the translation of the Bible, and published them successively in 1541 and 1545. It was in 1545, in Luther's sixty-second year, that his constitution began to exhibit strong symptoms of decline. But bodily infirmity was not the only misfortune of Lu- ther. That constitutional ardor which enabled him to brave the threats of ecclesiastical and temporal rulers, was connected with a temper productive, in several re- spects, of much uneasy sensation to its possessor. It happened, also, very unfortunately, that the evening of Luther's day was clouded by an altercation with the law- yers on the subject of clandestine marriages. So strong was the effect of this accumulation of chagrin, that Lu- ther lost his attachment to his favorite city, Wittemberg, and left it in the month of July, 1545. His companions were his three sons, John, Martin, and Paul, and his stea- dy friend, Justus Jonas. His health now, however, ra- pidly declined; and, on the 18th of February, he expired at Eiselben. His last words were, “O my heavenly Fa- The book of. ther, eternal and merciful God, thou hast revealed to me thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ I have preached him, I have confessed him, I love him, and I worship him as my dearest Savior and Redeemer; him whom the wicked persecute, accuse, and blaspheme.” He then repeated three times the words of the psalm, “Into thy hands I commit my spirit; God of truth, thou hast redeemed me.” Luther was no ordinary man. In all his proceedings, various as they were, in his preachings, his treatises, and disputations, we discern no step taken for the gratification of personal advantage; all is disinterested and zealous; all is prompted by an anxiety to understand and promul- gate the word of God. . In considering Luther as an author, we are struck with the extent and variety of his labors. They consist of controversial tracts, of commentaries on Scripture, of sermons, of letters, and of narratives of the chief events of his life. The leading feature of his controversial writings is an unvaried confidence of the goodness of his argu- ments. His compositions of all kinds, including sermons and epistolary disquisitions, are calculated, by his distin- guished biographer, Seckendorff, at the extraordinary number of eleven hundred and thirty-seven. Where the mass of writing was so large, we must expect little polish of style. Luther's imagination was vigorous, but the cul- tivation of taste engaged no part of his attention. His inelegance of style has been chiefly remarked in his Latin publications. His theological system he professed to found altogether on the authority of Scripture. Warm as he was in temper, and unaccustomed to yield to authoritative demands, he yet possessed much of the milk of human kindness. His frankness of disposition was apparent at the first interview, and his communica- tive turn, joined to the richness of his stores, rendered his conversation remarkably interesting. The visitor of Lu- ther's domestic circle was assured of witnessing a pleasing union of religious service with conjugal and paternal af. fection. The diffusion of religious knowledge being al- ways foremost in Luther's mind, he was fond, when along with his friends, of turning the conversation in that direc- tion. Nor was there any objection on the part of his as- sociates. - - As a preacher, he was justly celebrated. He mounted the pulpit full of his subject, and eager to diffuse a portion of his stores among his audience. The hearer's attention was aroused by the boldness and novelty of the ideas; it was kept up by the ardor with which he saw the preacher inspired. In the discourse, there was nothing of the stiff ness of labored composition; in the speaker, no affectation in voice or gesture. Luther’s sole object was to bring the truth fully and forcibly before his congregation. His delivery was aided by a clear elocution, and his diction had all the copiousness of a fervent imagination. Few men have conferred on posterity so many benefits as this learned, pious, and zealous reformer. Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Bonvers' Life of Luther; Ency. Amer. ; Mosheim ; Robert son’s Charles V.-Hend. Buck. LUTHERANISM; the system of Protestantism adopt ed by the followers of Luther. It has undergone some alterations since the time of its founder. Luther reduced the number of sacraments to two, viz, baptism and the eucharist; but he believed the impana- tion or consubstantiation ; that is, that the matter of the bread and wine remain with the body and blood of Christ; and it is in this article that the main difference between the Lutheran and the English churches consists. Luther maintained the mass to be no sacrifice ; exploded the adoration of the host, auricular confession, meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worship of images, &c., which had been introduced in the corrupt times of the Romish church. He also opposed the doctrine of free will, maintained predestination, and asserted our justifica- tion to be solely by the imputation of the merits and sa- tisfaction of Christ. He also opposed the fastings of the Romish church, monastical vows, the celibacy of the cler- gy, &c. - . The Lutherans, however, of all Protestants, are said to differ least from the Romish church; as they affirm that the body and blood of Christ are materially present in the sacrament of the Lord's supper, though in an incompre- LY D L. Y S I 764 ) hensible manner; and likewise represent some religious rites and institutions, as the use of images in churches, the distinguishing vestments of the clergy, the private confession of sins, the use of wafers in the administration of the Lord’s supper, the form of exorcism in the celebra- tion of baptism, and other ceremonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and some of them as useful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard to the divine decrees, that they re- spect the Salvation or misery of men, in consequence of a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters, and not as free and unconditional, or as founded on the gratuitous mercy and sovereign will, of God. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the Lu- therans began to entertain a greater laxity of sentiment than they had before adopted. Their public teachers now use an unbounded liberty of dissenting from the decisions of those symbols or creeds which were once deemed al- most infallible rules of faith and practice, and of declar- ing their dissent in the manner they judge the most expe- dient, Mosheim attributes this change in their sentiments to the maxim which they generally adopted, that Chris- tians were accountable to God alone for their religious opin- ions; and that no individual could be justly punished by the magistrate for his erroneous opinions, while he conducted himself like a virtuous and obedient subject, and made no attempts to disturb the peace and order of civil society. This just maxim has however been made a cover for the vilest hypocrisy of scepticism. On the present state of the Lutheran church in Germany, see Spirit of the Pil- grims, 1828–1833; Robinson's Bibl. Repos. for 1831; N. Y. Bap. Reg., 1834. See also the article NeoLogy ; and PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHRISTIAN CHURCH. In Sweden, the Lutheran church is episcopal; in Nor- way the same. In Denmark, the episcopal authority is retained, and the name of bishop re-adopted instead of that of superintendent, which still obtains in most parts of Ger. many; though the superior power is vested in a consistory, Over which there is a president, with a distinction of rank and privileges, and a subordination of inferior clergy to their superiors, different from the parity of Presbyterian- ism. Mosheim's Eccles. History ; Life of Luther; Hancis' Ch. Hist, Vol. ii. p. 454; Enc. Brit. : Robertson's History of Charles V. Vol. ii. p. 42; Luther on Galatians.—Hend. Buck. LUTHERAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES. (See Appendix to this work.) LUXURY ; a disposition of mind addicted to pleasure, riot, and superfluities. , Luxury implies a giving one's self up to pleasure ; voluptuousness, an indulgence in the Same to excess. Luxury may be further considered as consisting in, 1. Vain and useless expenses. 2. In a parade beyond what people can afford. 3. In affecting to be above our own rank. 4. In living in a splendor that does not agree with the public good. In order to avoid it, we should consider that it is ridiculous, trouble- Some, sinful, and ruinous. Robinson's Claude, vol. i. p. 382; Ferguson on Society, part vi. Sect. 2.-Hend. Buck. LUZ. (See BETHEL.) LYCAONIA.; a province of Asia Minor, and forming part of Cappadocia, having Galatia north, Pisidia south, Cappadocia east, and Phrygia west. In it were the cities of Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra, Acts 14: 6, &c. The “Speech of Lycaonia” is generally believed to have been a corrupt Greek; that is, Greek mingled with a great deal of Syriac.—Calmet. LYCIA ; a province of Asia Minor, having Phrygia on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, Pamphylia on the east, and Caria on the west, 1 Mac. 15:23. Acts 27: 5. Paul landed at the port of Myra in this province, when going to Rome, A. D. 60.-Calmet. LYDDA, in Hebrew, Lud, or Lod, by the Greeks and Latins called Lydda, or Diospolis, is a city in the way from Jerusalem to Caesarea Philippi. It lay east of Jop. pa four or five leagues; and belonged to Ephraim. It seems to have been inhabited by the Benjamites, after the Babylonish captivity, (Neh. 11:35.) and was one of the three toparchies which were dismembered from Samaria, and given to the Jews, 1 Mac. 11:34. Peter coming to Lyd. da, cured Æneas, who was sick of the palsy, Acts 9:33,34. “Lydda was denominated by the Greeks Diospolis, [the city,l or temple of Jupiter, probably because a temple had $. been dedicated in its vicinity to that deity. Since the cru sades it has received from the Christians the name of St George, on account of its having been the scene of the martyrdom and burial of that saint. In this city tradiº tion reports that the emperor Justinian erected a church.” It is now a ruined village.—Calmet. - LYDIA; a woman of Thyatira, a seller of purple, who dwelt in the city of º in Macedonia, Acts 16: 14, 40. Her household was the first in Europe converted by Paul's preaching. This woman was not by birth a Jewess, but a proselyte. Whether she was married, and had chil- dren, is unknown.—Calmet. - ". LYDIA ; a Roman province, once a celebrated lºingdom. of Asia Minor, peopled by the sons of Lud, son of Shem, Gen. 10:23. We have very little notice of these Lydians in Scripture. They are mentioned in Isa. 66: 19, if thes be not rather the Lydians in Egypt.—Calmet. - LYING ; speaking falsehoods wilfully, with an intent to deceive. Thus, by Grove, “A lie is an affirmation or denial by words, or any other signs to which a certain de- terminate meaning is affixed, of something contrary to our real thoughts and intentions.” Thus, by Paley, “A lie is a breach of promise; for whoever seriously ad- dresses his discourse to another, tacitly promises to speak the truth, because he knows that the truth is expected.” There are various kinds of lies. 1. The pernicious-lie, uttered for the hurt or disadvantage of our neighbor. 2. The officious lie, uttered for our own or our neighbor’s ad- vantage. 3. The ludicrous and jocose lie, uttered by way of jest, and only for mirth’s sake in common converse. 4. Pious frauds, as they are improperly called, pretended inspirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are species of lies. 5. Lies of the conduct, for a lie may be told in gestures as well as in words; as when a tradesman shuts up his windows to induce his creditors to believe that he is abroad. 6. Lies of omission, as when an author wil- fully omits -what ought to be related; and may we not add, 7. That all equivocation and mental reservation come under the guilt of lying? - The evil and injustice of lying appear, 1. From its be- ing a breach of the natural and universal right of man- kind to truth in the intercourse of speech. 2. From its being a violation of God’s sacred law, Phil. 4:8. Lev. 19: 11. Col. 3: 9. 3. The faculty of speech was bestowed as an instrument of knowledge, not of deceit ; to communi- cate our thoughts, not to hide them. 4. It is esteemed a reproach of so heinous and hateful a nature for a man to be called a liar, that sometimes the life and blood of the slanderer have paid for it. 5. It has a tendency to dis- Solve all society, and to indispose the mind to religious impressions. 6. The punishment of it is tremendous: the loss of credit, the hatred of those whom we have de- ceived, and an eternal separation from God in the world to come, Rev. 21: 8, 22: 15. Psalm 101: 7. (See Equivo- CATION.) Grove's Moral Phil., vol. i. ch. 11; Paley's Mo- ºral Phil., vol. i. ch. 15; Doddridge's Lect., lect. 68; Watts' Serm, vol. i. Ser. 22; Evans' Serm., vol. ii. ser, 13; South's Serm, vol. i. Ser. 12; Dr. Lamont’s Serm., vol. i. ser. 11 and 12; Mrs. Opie's Illustrations of Lying ; and Divight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. LYSANIAS, or Lys1As, tetrarch of Abilene, a small province in Lebanon, (Luke 3: 1.) was probably son or grandson of another Lysanias known in history, (Dio. lib. xlix. p. 44.) and put to death by Mark Antony, who gave part of his kingdom to Cleopatra. (See ABILA.)—Calmet. LYSIAS; a friend and relation of king Antiochus Epiphanes, to whom he left the regency of Syria when he passed beyond the Euphrates. (See ANTIochus Epi- PHANES.)—Calmet. . LYSIMACHUS; brother of Menelaus, high-priest of the Jews, who, in an attempt to pillage the treasury of the temple, was killed, 2 Mac. 4: 39, 40. He is some- times reckoned among the high-priests, because he was vicegerent to his brother Menelaus ; but he never himself possessed that dignity.—Calmet. . LYSTRA ; a city of Lycaonia, of which Timothy was a native, and where Paul and Barnabas, in the space of a few hours, were first deified, and then stoned by the peo. ple. What a lesson on the instability of popular favor. Acts 14. (See LycAON1A,)—Calmet. - M A C M A c [ 765 1 MAACAH MAACHAH, MAACIIATI, or BETH-MAACHA; a little province of Syria, east and north of the sources of Jordan, toward Damascus. It was called Abel-beth-maa- cha, because Abel was situated in it. (See ABEL, the plain.)—Calmet. - MAACHAH ; daughter of Abishalom, wife of Reho- boam, king of Judah, and mother of Abijam his successor, 1 Kings 15: 2. In 2 Chron. 13: 2, she is called Micaiah, daughter of Uriel of Gibeah. (See King's MoTHER.)—2. The daughter of Abishalom, wife of Abijam, king of Ju- dah, and mother of Asa his successor, 1 Kings 15: 10, 13, 14. Asa deprived her of the office of priestess of the groves. There are several other persons of this name, mentioned in the Old Testament.--Calmet. MAALEH-ACRABBIM ; a mountain, so called from the multitude of scorpions that infested it, at the southern end of the Salt sea, Num. 34: 4. Josh. 15: 3.-Calmet. MACARIANS ; the followers of Macarius, an Egyp- tian monk, who was distinguished, towards the close of the ſourth century, for his sanctity and virtue. In his writings there are some superstitious tenets, and also cer- tain opinions that seem tainted with Origenism. The name has been also applied to those who adopted the sen- timents of Macarius, a native of Ireland, who, about the close of the ninth century, propagated in France the tenet afterwards maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelligence or soul performed the spiritual and rational functions in all the human race.—Hend. Buck. MACCABEES; two apocryphal books of the Old Testa- ment, which contain the history of Judas, surnamed Mac- cabaeus, and his brothers, and the wars which they main- tained against the kings of Syria, in defence of the Jew- ish religion, and the independence of their country. The author and age of these books are uncertain. The first is a valuable historical document, supplying important in- formation respecting the Jewish affairs at the time to which it refers. The second contains a considerable quantity of spurious matter, and requires to be read with caution. (See ApocRYPHA; JERUSALEM ; and Jews.) There are a third and fourth book of Maccabees, but they are of no authority whatever. They are found in some manuscripts and editions of the LXX., but have never been admitted even into the Vulgate.—Hend. Buck. MACEDONIA; a kingdom of Greece, having Thrace to the north, Thessaly south, Epirus west, and the AEgean sea east. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, king of Ma- cedonia, having conquered Asia, and subverted the Per- sian empire, the name of the Macedonians became very famous throughout the East ; and it is often given to the Greeks, the successors of Alexander in the monarchy. In like manner, the name of Greeks is often put for Mace- donians, 2 Maccabees 4:36. When the Roman empire was divided, Macedonia fell to the share of the emperor of the East. After it had long continued subject to the Romans, it fell under the power of the Ottoman Turks, who are the present masters of it. - St. Paul was invited by an angel of the Lord, who ap- eared to him at Troas, to come and preach the gospel in Macedonia, Acts 16:9. After this vision, the apostle no longer doubted his divine call to preach the gospel in Ma- cedonia; and the success that attended his ministry con- firmed him in his persuasion. Here he laid the founda- tion of the churches of Philippi and Thessalonica.-- Calmet ; Watson. MACEDONIANS; the followers of Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, who, through the influence of the Eu- nomians, was deposed by the council of Constantinople, in 360, and sent into exile. He considered the Holy Ghost as a divine energy diffused throughout the universe, and not as a person distinct from the Father and the Son. The sect of the Macedonians was crushed before it had arrived at its full maturity, by the council assembled by Theodosius, in 381, at Constantinople. (See SEMI-ARIANs.) —Hend, Buck. - MACHIAVELIANISM; the doctrine or principles of Machiavel, as laid down in his treatise entitled “The Prince,” and which consists in doing any thing to compasa a design, without any regard to the peace or welfare of subjects, the dictates of honesty and honor, or the precepts of religion. This work has been translated into many languages, and written against by many authors, though the world is not agreed as to the motives of the writer; some thinking he meant to recommend tyrannical max- ims; others, that he only delineated them to excite abhot- rence.—Hend. Buck. MACKINTOSH, (Sir JAMEs, LL.D.) This distinguished man, who united in no ordinary degree the rarest qualities of the philosopher, the jurist, the orator, the historian, and the man of letters, was born at Alldowrie, in the county of Inverness, Scotland, October 24, 1765. His early instruc- tion and training ſell into the hands of his grandmother, a woman of great excellence. In 1783, he entered King's college, Aberdeen, where his acquaintance with the cele- brated Robert Hall commenced, and gave a tone to his mind which it ever aſter in some degree retained. At Edinburgh he studied medicine, but on going to London to practise, he soon embarked on the more congenial cur- rent of politics. In 1791, the powerful talent displayed in his Vindicia Gallicae, brought him into the notice of Sheridan, Fox, and even of Burke. He now studied law thoroughly, and his Lectures on the Law of Nature and of Nations, in 1798, and his defence of Peltier in 1803, won him the highest reputation. He received the honor of knighthood and was appointed Recorder of Bombay, where he for several years discharged his official duties with distinguished zeal, ability, and philanthropy. In 1811, his health failiſ.g, he returned to England, with a pension from the East India company of twelve hundred pounds a year. In 1813, he entered the house of commons as representative of the county of Nairn, and in 1818, for Knaresborough. The part he took on the question of na- tural rights, won him the name of the Friend of America. On all questions of foreign policy, and international law, on the alien bill, the liberty of the press, religious tolera- tions, slavery, the settlement of Greece, parliamentary reform, and especially the reform of the criminal law, Sir James took a prominent part, and was always found on the side of freedºm, justice, and humanity. The rich gifts of profound and original thought, the delightful com- bination of philosophy and taste, were exhibited by Mack- intosh in higher perfection than by any parliamentary orator since the time of Burke. In 1822, he was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and in 1830, commissioner for the affairs of India. He died May 30, 1832, greatly lamented. - - Sir James Mackintosh was a Christian ; always in conviction, but in his last days vitally. His principal Works, besides those mentioned above, are Life of Sir Thomas More, Progress of Ethical Philosophy, and Histo- ry of England.—Museum, 1833; Life of Robert Hall. MACKNIGHT, (JAMEs, D. D.,) an eminent Scotch di- vine and critic, was born in 1721, at Irvine, in Argyle- shire; studied at Glasgow and Leyden; was first settled at Maybole and Jedburgh, and was, for thirty years, one of the ministers of Edinburgh. He died in 1800. He published a Harmony of the Four Gospels; The Truth of the Gospel History; and a much admired Translation, with Commentaries and Notes, of all the Apostolic Epis- tles. This last was the great labor of his life.—Davenport. MACLAURIN,-(JoHN,) one of the brightest ornaments of the Christian name, was born in October, 1693, at Glenderule, in Argyleshire, of which parish his father was minister. He had two brothers, one of whom, Daniel, died young; and the other, Colin, is well known as one of the ablest mathematicians of the age. Losing their parents at an early period, they were taken under the care of an uncle, Mr. Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilsinnan, who sent them to the university of Glasgow, where they M A D M A G | 706 | pursued their studics with great effect; after which, John was sent to finish his education at Leyden, undcr professor Wesselius. In 1717, he was licensed to preach, by the presbytery of Dumbarton; and in 1719, ordained minister of Luss, a country parish situated on the banks of Loch Lomond, about twenty miles north-west of Glasgow. He was not allowed, however, to continue long in so ob- scure a station. His uncommon talents attracted the at- tention of all who had access to know him ; and, in 1723, he accepted an invitation from the city of Glasgow, to be. come the minister of the north-west parish, a station which aſſorded an ample field for his talents and usefulness, and in which he continued to labor with great acceptance, till removed by death, on the 8th of September, 1754. Mr. Maclaurin was a correspondent of president Ed- wards, and with him it appears originated the proposal of a union of Christians in extraordinary prayer, which Ed- wards so ably recommended, and which was the germ of the present Monthly Concert. His mind was of the very highest order, and imbued with a piety pure and profound as that of a seraph, and as active and unwearied in plan- ning and doing good. The fruits of his pen that remain, though small in quantity, are of sterling value, and prove him to have been a profound thinker, an accurate and cogent reasoner, deeply versed in the mysteries of redemp- tion, and zealous for the glory of his divine Master. His works consist of “Essays and Sermons,” in one volume duodecimo, which has often been published; and an octa- vo volume on the “Prophecies concerning the Messiah,” of which the late Dr. Hurd has been thought to avail himself in his excellent “Introductory Sermons at Lin- coln’s Inn.” - It has been remarked, by a late writer and competent judge, that Mr. Maclaurin’s “Essay on Prejudices against the Gospel,” and the sermons on “The Sins of men not Chargeable on God,” and “On Glorying in the Cross of Christ,” are compositions, the two first for profundity and acuteness, and the last for impressive eloquence, to which, in the whole range of theological literature, we shall not easily find any thing superior. See Mr. Bronm's Introduc- tory Essay, prefixed to a nerv edition of his works, 1824.— Jones' Chris. Biog. MAD, MADNEss. Insanity, or deprivation of reason ; medically defined to be delirium without fever. Our Lord cured, by his word, several who were deprived of the ex- ercise of their rational powers; and the circumstances of their histories prove, that there could neither be mistake nor collusion respecting them. How far madness may be allied to, or connected with, demoniacal possession, is a very intricate inquiry; and whether in the present day §. perhaps anciently) evil spirits may not take advantage rom distemperature of the bodily frame, to augment evils endured by the patient, is more than may be affirmed, though the idea seems to be not absolutely repugnant to reason. Nevertheless, what may be, is probably different on most inquiries from what we can prove really is. The epithet mad, is applied to several descriptions of persons in Scripture; as (1.) To one deprived of reason, Acts 26: 24. 1 Cor. 14: 23.−(2.) To one whose reason is depraved, and overruled by the fury of his angry passions, Acts 23; 11.—(3.) To one whose mind is perplexed and bewildered, so disturbed that he acts in an uncertain, ex- travagant, irregular manner, Deut. 28: 34. Eccl. 7: 7.- (4.) To one who is infatuated by the vehemence of his desires after idols, and vanities, Jer, 1: 38,-or (5.) After folly, deceit, and falsehood, Hosea 9: 7. David's madness (1 Sam, 21; 13.) is by many supposed not to have been feigned, but a real epilepsy, or falling sickness; and the LXX, use words which strongly indicate this sense. It is urged in support of this opinion, that the troubles which David underwent might very naturally weaken his constitutional strength; arºd that the force he suffered in being obliged to seek shelter in a foreign court, would disturb his imagination in the highest degree. See Sauzin's Sermons.—Calmet. * . . . MADAI, the third son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) is com- monly thought to be father of the Medes; but, beside that Media is too distant from the other countries peopled by Japheth, it cannot be comprehended under the name of “The Isles ºf the Gentiles,” which were allotted to the sons of Japheth. These reasons have induced some learned men to suggest, that Madai was father of the Macedonians; whose country was called Æmathia, as if from the Hebrew or Greek Ei, an island, and Madai; q. d. the isle of Madai. Near this country is mentioned a people called Maedi or Madi. (See MEDIA.)—Calmet. MAGDALA ; a city on the west side of the sea of Ga- lilee, near Dalmanutha; Jesus, after the miracle of the seven loaves, being said by St. Matthew to have gone by ship to the coasts of Magdala; (Matt. 15: 39.) and by St. Mark, to “the parts of Dalmanutha,” Mark 8: 10. Mr. Buckingham came to a small village in this situation called Migdal, close to the edge of the lake, beneath a range of high cliffs, in which small grottoes are seen, with the remains of an old square tower, and some larger buildings, of rude construction, apparently of great anti- quity. Migdol implies a tower, or fortress; and this place, from having this name particularly applied to it, was doubtless, like the Egyptian Migdol, one of consider- able importance ; and may be considered as the site of the Migdal of the Naphtalites, as well as the Magdala of the New Testament.— Watson. MAGDALEN, (RELIGIOUS OF ST. ;) a denomination given to divers communities of nuns, consisting generally of penitent courtezans; sometimes also called Magdalen- ettes. They were established at Mentz in 1542; at Paris in 1492; at Naples in 1324; at Rouen and Bordeaux in 1618. In each of these monasterics there were three kinds of persons and congregations: the first consisted of those who were admitted to make vows, and those bear the name of St. Magdalen ; the congregation of St. Martha. was the second, and was composed of those whom it was not thought proper to admit to vows finally ; the congre- gation of St. Lazarus was composed of such as were de- tained by force. The religious of St. Magdalen at Rome were established by pope Leo X. Clement VIII. settled a revenue on them ; and further appointed, that the effects of all public prostitutes dying intestate should ſall to them ; and that the testaments of the rest should be inva- lid, unless they bequeathed a portion of their eſſects, which was to be at least a fifth part of them. The term originated in the mistaken notion, that Mary Magdalen, of whom we read in the gospel, was a woman of bad cha- racter; a notion which is still very prevalent, notwith- standing the increased attention which has been excited to the interpretation of Holy Scripture. (See MARY MAG- DALEN.)—Hend. Buck. MAGI, or MAGIANs; from mog, or mag, which signifies a priest, in the Pehlvi language; an ancient caste of priests with the Persians and Medians, who, abominating the adoration of images, worshipped God only by fire, in which they were directly opposite to the Sabians. (See SABIANs.) The Magi believed that there were two prin- ciples, one the cause of all good, and the other the cause of all evil; in which opinion they were followed by the sect of the Manichees. (See MANicuees.) They called the good principle Jezden, and Ormuzd; and the evil prin- ciple Ahriman, or Aherman. The former was by the Greeks called Oromasdes, and the latter, Arimanius. The reason of their worshipping ſire was, because they looked upon it as the truest symbol of Oromasdes, or the good god ; as darkness was of Arimanius, or the evil god. In all their temples they had fire continually burning upon their altars, and in their own private houses. The religion of the Magi fell into disgrace on the death of the ringleaders, who had usurped the sovereignty aſter the death of Cambyses; and the slaughter that was made of the chief men among them sunk it so low, that Sabi- anism everywhere prevailed against it, Darius and most of his followers on that occasion going over to it. But the affection which the people had for the religion of their forefathers not being easily to be rooted out, the famous Zoroaster, some ages after, undertook to revive and re- form it. The reformation which this great man made in the Magian religion was in the first principle of it; for he introduced a God superior both to Oromasdes and Ari- manius. Dr. Prideau, K is of opinion that Zoroaster took the hint of this alteration in their theology from the pro- phet Isaiah, who brings in God, saying to Cyrus, king of M. A. G. M A G [ 767 J Persia, “I am the Lord, and there is none else : I form the light, and create darkness; I make peace and create evil,” ch. 45: 7. In short, Zoroaster held that there was one supreme independent Being, and under him two prin- ciples, or angels; one the angel of light, or good, and the other the angel of evil, or darkness; that there is a perpe- tual struggle between them, which shall last to the end of the world; that then the angel of darkness and his disci- ples shall go into a world of their own, where they shall be punished in everlasting darkness; and the angel of fight and his disciples shall go into a world of their own, where they shall be rewardcq in everlasting light. Zoroaster was the first who built temples; the Ma- gians before his time performing their devotions on the tops of hills, and in the open air, by which means they were exposed to the inconvenience" of rain and tempests, which often extinguished their sacred fires. To procure the greater veneration for these sacred fires, he pretended to have received fire from heaven, which he placed on the altar of the first fire-temple he erected, which was that of Xis, in Media, from whence they say it was propagated to all the rest. The Magian priests kept their sacred fire with the greatest diligence, watching it day and night, and never suffering it to be extinguished. They fed it only with wood stripped of the bark, and they never blowed it with their breath or with bellows, for fear of polluting it; to do either of these was death by their law. The Magian religion, as reformed by Zoroaster, seems in many things to be built upon the plan of the Jewish. The Jews had their sacred fire which came down from heaven upon the altar of burnt-offerings, which they never suffered to go out, and with which all their sacrifices and oblations were made. Zoroaster, in like manner, pretended to have brought this holy fire from heaven; and as the Jews had a Shekinah of the divine presence among them, resting over the mercy-seat in the holy of holies, Zoroaster like- wise told his Magians to look upon the sacred fire in their temples as a Shekinah, in which God especially dwelt.— From these and some other instances of analogy between the Jewish and Magian religion, Prideaux infers that Zoroaster had been first educated and brought up in the Jewish religion. $4. Zoroaster made his first appearance in Media, in the city of Xix, now called Aderbijan, as some say ; or, ac- cording to others, in Ecbatana, now called Tauris, in the age of Daniel. Instead of admitting the existence of two first causes, with the Magians, he asserted the existence of one Supreme God, who created both these, and out of these two produced, according to his sovereign pleasure, every thing else. He had the address to bring over Da- rius to his new reformed religion, notwithstanding the strongest opposition of the Sabians; and from that time it became the national religion of all that country, and so continued for many ages after, till it was supplanted by that of Mohammed. Zoroaster composed a book contain- ing the principles of the Magian religion. It is called Zendavesta, and by contraction Zend. (See ZEND.) So great an improvement in the moral character and influence of the religion of a whole nation as was effected by Zoroaster, a change which certainly is not paralleled in the ancient history of the religion of mankind, can scarcely be thought possible, except we suppose a divine interposition, either directly, or by the occurrence of some very impressive events. Now as there are so many au- thorities for fixing the time of Zoroaster or Zeratusht not many years subsequent to the death of the great Cyrus, the events connected with the conquest of Babylon may account for his success in that reformation of religion of which he was the author. For, had not the minds of men been prepared for this change by something extraordinary, it is not supposable that they would have adopted a purer faith from him. That he gave them a better doctrine, is clear from the admission of Prideaux, who has very un- justly branded him as an impostor. Let it then be re- membered, that as “the Most High ruleth in the king- doms of men,” he often overrules great political events for moral purposes. The Jews were sent into captivity to Babylon to be reformed from their idolatrous propensi- ties, and their reformation commenced with their cala- mity. A miracle was there wrought in favor of three * Hebrew conſessors of the existence of the one only God, and that under circumstances to put shame upon a popu- lar idol in the presence of the king and “all the rulers of the provinces,” that the issue of this controversy between Jehovah and idolatry might be made known throughout that vast empire. * , - Nor are we to suppose the impression confined to the court; for the history of the three Hebrew youths, of Ne- buchadnezzar's dream, sickness, and reformation from idolatry, of the interpretation of the handwriting on the wall by Daniel the servant of the living God, of his deli- verance from the lions, and the publicity of the prophecy of Isaiah respecting Cyrus, were too recent, too public, and too striking in their nature, not to be often and largely talked of. (See Cyrus.) Besides, in the prophecy re- specting Cyrus, the intention of Almighty God in recording the name of that monarch in an inspired book, and show- ing beforehand that he had chosen him to overturn the Babylonian empire, is expressly mentioned as having re- spect to two great objects; first, the deliverance of Israel, and, second, the making known his Supreme divinity among the nations of the earth. We quote from Lowth's translation :- “For the sake of my servant Jacob, And of Israel my chosen, I have even called thee by thy name ; * I have surnamed thee, though thou knewest me not. I am Jehov AH, and none else, Beside me there is no God; I will gird thee, though thou hast not known me, That they .."4. Jºrom the rising of the sun, And from the West, that there is NoNK BESIDE ME,” &c. It was therefore intended by this proceeding on the part of Providence to teach, not only Cyrus, but the people of his vast empire, and surrounding nations, 1. That the God of the Jews was Jehovah, the self-subsistent, the eternal God; 2. That he was God alone, there being no Deity beside himself; and, 3. That good and evil, repre- sented by light and darkness, were neither independent nor eternal subsistences, but his great instruments, and under his control. The Persians, who had so vastly extended their empire by the conquest of the countries formerly held by the mo- narchs of Babylon, were thus prepared for such a reſor- mation of their religion as Zoroaster effected. The princi- ples he advocated had been previously adopted by Cyrus and other Persian monarchs, and probably by many of the principal persons of that nation. Zoroaster himself thus became acquainted with the great truths contained in this famous prophecy, which attacked the very foundations of every idolatrous and Manichean system. From the other sacred books of the Jews, who mixed with the Persians in every part of the empire, he evidently learned more. This is sufficiently proved from the many points of simi- larity between his religion and Judaism, though he should not be allowed to speak so much in the style of the Holy Scriptures as some passages in the Zendavesta would indicate. He found the people, however, “prepared of the Lord” to admit his reformations, and he carried them. --- This cannot but be looked upon as one instance of se- veral merciful dispensations of God to the Gentile world, through his own peculiar people, the Jews, by which the idolatries of the heathen were often checked, and the light of truth relrindled among them. This renders pagan nations more evidently “without excuse.” That this dispensation of mercy was afterwards neglected among the Persians, is certain. How long the effect continued we know not, nor how widely it spread; perhaps longer and wider than may now distinctly appear. If the Magi, who came from the East to seek Christ, were Persians, some true worshippers of God would appear to have re- mained in Persia to that day; and if, as is probable, the prophecies of Isaiah and Daniel were retained among them, they might be among those who “waited for re- demption,” not at Jerusalem, but in a distant part of the world. The Parsees, who were nearly extirpated by Mo- hammedan fanaticism, were charged by -their oppressors with the idolatry of fire, and this was probably true of the multitude. Some of their writers, however, warmly defended themselves against the charge. A considerable M A G M A I [ 768 number of them remain h India to this day, and profess to have the books of Zoroaster. . 2. The term Magi was also anciently used generally throughout the East, to distinguish philosophers, and es- pecially astronomers. Pliny and Ptolemy mention Arabi as synonymous with Magi; and it was the opinion of many learned in the first ages of Christianity, that the Magi who presented offerings to the infant Savior, (Matt. 2: 1.) came from Southern Arabia; for it is certain that “gold, frankincense, and myrrh,” were productions of that country. They were philosophers among whom the best parts of the reformed Magian system, which was ex- tensively diffused, were probably preserved. They were pious men, also, who had some acquaintance, it may be, with the Hebrew prophecies, and were favored themselves with divine revelations. They are to be regarded as members of the old patriarchal church, never quite extin- guished among the heathen ; and they had the special honor to present the homage of the Gentile world to the infant Savior.—Hend. Buck; Watson. MAGIC; a term originally conveying a good or lauda- ble meaning, being used purely to signify the study of wisdom, and the more sublime parts of knowledge, as taught by the Magi; but as some of them engaged in as- trology, divination, sorcery, &c., it became odious, and was, in length of time, only used to signify an umlawful and diabolical kind of science, supposed to depend on the influence of the devil and departed spirits. Magic has been divided into natural, which consists in the application of natural active causes to passive sub- jects, by means of which many surprising, but yet simply natural effects are produced; celestial, which attributes to spirits a kind of rule or dominion over the planets, and to these an influence over the affairs of men ; and diabolical, which consists in the invocation of demons, the entering into compact with the devil, &c., with a view to produce effects seemingly surpassing the powers of nature. All Indulgence in such arts of imposture was strictly prohi- bited by the law of Moses, under pain of death, as a Yerm of idolatry.—Hend. Buck. MACICIANS ; persons pretending to a supernatural acquaintance with, and control over the powers of nature. They abounded in Egypt; and, according to the earliest accounts which we have of them in the book of Exodus, they appear to have possessed great dexterity; but how great soever their sleight of hand, so that they seemed to work miracles equally great with those recorded in these accounts, they were themselves obliged to acknowledge the limitation of their power. (See JANNEs.) God by Moses forbids recourse to such on pain of de- struction, Lev. 19: 31. 20: 6. It was such sort of people that Saul extirpated out of the land of Israel, 1 Sam. 28: 3. Daniel also speaks of magicians and diviners in Chaldea, under Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1: 20, &c. He names four sorts: Chartumim, Asaphim, Mecasphim, and Casdim, Dan. 2: 2. The first, Chartumim, according to Theodotion, signifies “enchanters;” according to the LXX., “sophists;” according to Jerome, hariolas, “divi- ners, fortune-tellers, casters of nativities.” The second word, Asaphim, has a great resemblance to the Greek word sophos, “wise man;” whether the Greeks took this word from the Babylonians, or vice versá. Theodotion and Je- rome have rendered it “magicians;” the LXX., “ philo- sophers.” The third word, Mecasphim, by Jerome and the Greeks, is translated malefici, “enchanters;” such as used noxious herbs and drugs, the blood of victims, and the bones of the dead, for their superstitious operations. The fourth word, Casdim, or Chaldeans, has two significa- tions: first, the Chaldean people, over whom Nebuchad- mezzar was monarch ; the second, a sort of philosophers, who dwelt in a separate part of the city, who were exempt from all public offices and employments. Their studies were physic, astrology, divination, foretelling of future events by the stars, interpretation of dreams, augury, wor- ship of the gods, &c. All these inquisitive and supersti- tious arts were prohibited among the Israelites, as founded on imposture or devilism, and as inconsistent with faith in God's providence, and trust in his supremacy.—Hend. Buck; Watson. - g - MAGISTER DISCIPLINAE, or MASTER of Discipling; the appellation of a certain ecclesiastical officer in the ancient church. It was a custom in some places, particu- larly in Spain, in the time of the Gothic kings, about the end of the fifth century, for parents to dedicate their chil- dren very young to the service of the church. For this purpose they were taken into the bishop's family, and educated under him by some grave and discreet person whom the bishop deputed for that purpose, and set over them, by the name of Presbyter, or Magister Disciplina, whose chief business it was to inspect their behavior, and instruct them in the rules and discipline of the church.- Płend. Buck, - - MAGNANIMITY; greatness of soul; a disposition of mind exerted in contemning dangers and difficulties, in scorning temptations, and despising earthly pomp and splendor. Cic. de Offic., lect. i. ch. 20; Grove's Moral Phil., vol. ii. p. 268. See articles CourAGE ; ForTITUDE; in this work; Steele's Christian Hero ; Watts on Self- Murder.—Hend. Buck. - - - MAGNIFY ; to make great, or declare to be great. God magnifies his own mercy or name, when, by the fulfil- ment or powerful application of his word, he discovers the unbounded nature of his mercy, and other perfections. Gen. 19:19. Acts 19: 7. He magnifies his nord above all his name when he clearly discovers his mercy and faithful- mess contained and pledged in it, Ps. 138: 2. Jesus mag- nifted the law and made it honorable; his subjection. to it, as he was the great Lawgiver, highly demonstrated the honor and immutable obligation of it: and he rendered to it an infinitely more valuable obedience than it could ever have received of men, Isa. 42: 21. Men magnify God or his works when they publish and declare his greatness and glory, Ps. 34: 2. Job 46: 24.—Bronn. MAGOG; son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) and father, as is believed, of the Scythians and Tartars; a name which comprehends the Getae, the Goths, the Sarmatians, the Sacae, the Massagetae, and others. The Tartars and Mus- covites possess the country of the ancient Scythians, and retain several traces of the names Gog and Magog. They were formerly called Mogli, and in Tartary are the pro- vinces Lug, Mongug, Cangigu, and Gigui; Engui, Cor- gangui, Caigai, &c. Gog and Magog have in a manner passed into a proverb, to express a multitude of powerful, cruel, barbarous, and implacable enemies to God and his worship. (See Gog.)—Calmet. - MAHALATH, is the title of Psalms 53 and 88. “To the chief musician on Mahalath;” which some think sig- mifies a musical instrument; but Calmet rather thinks it imports dancing, which is certainly its proper significa- tion in Hebrew ; as iſ the title of the Psalm imported to be, “An instructive Psalm of David, for the chief master of dancing;” or, for the chorus of singers and dancers.- Calmet. - MAHANAIM ; a city of the Levites, of the family of Merari, in the tribe of Gad, upon the brook Jabbok, Josh. 21: 38. 13: 26. The name Mahanaim signifies “two hosts,” or “two fields.” The patriarch gave it this name because in this place he had a vision of angels coming to meet him, Gen. 32: 2. Mahanaim was the seat of the kingdom of Ishbosheth, after the death of Saul, 2 Sam. 2: 9, 12. It was also to this place that David retired, dur- ing the usurpation of Absalom; (2 Sam. 17; 24.) and this rebellious son was subdued, and suffered death, not far from this city.— Watson. MAHER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ, (he hasteneth to the prey;) a name given to one of the sons of the prophet Isaiah, by way of prediction. The prophet observes, that his children were for signs and wonders, and this name is evidence of the fact. Of the same nature we are to consider Emmanuel, and some other names.—Calmet. MAHOMET. (See MoHAMMED ; MoHAMMEDANISM.) MAIMED, implies the loss of a limb or member; often the absolute loss of it, not a suspension of its use, by a contraction, or diminution. This total loss is clearly the import of the original word: “If thine hand or foot offend thee, cut them off, and cast them from thee—enter into life maimed, rather than, having two hands,” &c. Matt. 18:8. And this should the rather be observed, to distin- guish it from withered, contracted, &c.; and because it may be asked, what we should think of a person who ^- M A L M A N [ 769 | could restore a lost limb, or member. Perhaps we are not always sensible of the full import of this word, when reading the history of the miraculous cures performed by our Lord.—Calmet. - MAIMONIDES, or BEN MAIMon, (Moses,) one of the most celebrated of the Jewish rabbis, who is called the eagle of the doctors, and the lamp of Israel, was born, in 1131, at Cordova; was profoundly versed in languages, and in all the learning of the age; became chief physician to the sultan of Egypt; and died in 1204. Among his works are, a Commentary on the Mischna; an Abridg- ment of the Talmud ; and The Book of Precepts.- Davenport. x MAJORISTS; those who held with Major in the Lu- theran controversy, about the time of the Interim, relative to good works; it being maintained by those so called, that they were necessary to salvation; whereas their oppo- nents were of opinion that such a position only swelled the errors of popery, already countenanced by some of the reformers; and one of them went so far as to avow, that good works were hurtful to salvation.—Hend. Buck. MAKAZ; a city probably of Dan, (1 Kings 4: 9.) Sup- posed by Calmet to be the Malºtesh, the jaw-tooth, or En- hakkore, of Judg. 15: 19. Zeph. 1: 11.—Calmet. - MAKELOTH; an encampment of Israel in the desert; (Num. 33:25, 26.) thought to be Malathis, which Eusebius and Jerome place twenty miles from Hebron, in the south of Judah.—Calmet. * --- MALACHI; the last of the twelve minor prophets. It is doubted whether his name be a proper name, or only a generical one, signifying the angel of the Lord, a mes- senger, a prophet. It appears by Hag. 1: 13, and Mal. 3: 1, that in these times the name of Malach-Jehovah, messen- ger of the Lord, was given to prophets. The author of the Lives of the Prophets, under the name of Epiphanius Dorotheus, and the Chronicon. Alexandrinum, say, that Malachi was of the tribe of Zebulun, and native of Sa- pha; that the name Malachi was given to him because of his angelical mildness. He died very young, as they say, and was buried near the place of his ancestors. It is much more probable, however, that Malachi was the same as Ezra; and this is the opinion of the ancient He- brews, of the Chaldee paraphrast, of Jerome, and of abbot Rupert. - - It appears certain that Malachi prophesied under Nehe- miah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time of great disorder among the priests and people of Judah; whom he reproves. He inveighs against the priests; reproves the people for having taken strange wives, for inhumanity to their brethren, for too frequently divorcing their wives, and for neglect of paying tithes and first-fruits. He seems to allude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the Lord, together with the priests and the chief of the nation. Malachi is the last of the prophets of the synagogue, and lived about four hundred years before Christ. He prophe- sied of the coming of John the Baptist, and of the twofold coming of our Savior very clearly, ch. 3. He speaks of the abolition of sacrifices under the old law, and of the sa- crifice of the new covenant, ch. 1: 10, 13. 4:5, 6–Calmet. MALEVOLENCE, is that disposition of mind which inclines us to wish ill to any person. It discovers itself in frowns and a lowering countenance; in uncharitableness, in evil sentiments; hard speeches to or of its object; in cursing and reviling; and doing mischief either with open violence or secret spite, as far as there is power. It is a sort of habitual hatred. (See HATRED.)—Hend. Buck. MALICE, is a settled or deliberate determination to revenge or do hurt to another. It more frequently denotes the disposition of inſerior minds to execute every purpose of mischief within the more limited circle of their abili- ties. It is a most hateful temper in the sight of God, (Rom. 1:29.) strictly forbidden in his holy word, (Col. 3: 8–12.) disgraceful to rational creatures, (1 Cor. 14:20.) and every way inimical to the spirit of Christianity, Matt. 5:44. 1 Pet. 2: 1. (See CHARITY; Love.)—Hend. Buck. MALIGNITY; a disposition obstinately bad or mali- cious. Malignancy and malignity are words nearly syno- nymous. . In some connexions, malignity seems rather more pertinently applied to a radical depravity of nature; and malignancy to indications of this depravity in temper and conduct in particular instances. degree from malevolence.—Hend. Buck. MALTA. (See MELITA.) - MAMMON : the Syriac god of wealth, or worldly acquisitions of all kinds, Matt. 6: 24. - MAMRE ; a city; (Gen. 13: 18.) either the same as Hebron and Arba, (Gen. 23: 17, 19. 35:27.) or a place at a short distance from it.—Calmet. - - MAN ; the head and lord of the animal creation, in whose complex structure the organic or vegetable, the animal or sensitive and the intellectual or spiritual world, are wonderfully united, and his condition on earth modified by the laws of each. (See ADAM ; Physi- oLoGY; MATERIALISM ; SouL ; DePRAvity; SALVATION.) In the present article we design to notice the natural history of man ; his characteristics as a distinct species; the principal varieties observable in the race; the unity of the species; and the sources to which naturalists trace the individual and generic varieties. I. The natural history of man in its most comprehen- sive sense constitutes a subject of immense extent and of endless variety; or rather includes several very important It differs only in subjects, if we attempt to describe both the individual and the species. In a complete history of man it would be necessary in respect to the former to relate the phenomena of his first production, to examine his anatomical struc- ture, his bodily and intellectual functions, his propensities and feelings and diseases, and progress from birth to death ; to point out the circumstances that distinguish him from other animals, and determine the precise de- gree of resemblance or difference, of specific affinity or diversity between them and ourselves; to compare or con- trast with each other the various nations or tribes of hu- man beings; to delineate the physical and moral charac- ters of the people inhabiting the different portions of the globe, and to trace their progress from the first rudiments of civil Society to the state at which they are now arrived. To write such a history of our species, says Mr. Law- rence, would demand a familiar acquaintance with nearly the whole circle of human knowledge, and a combination of the most opposite talents and pursuits. This labor, much too extensive to be properly executed by any indi..' vidual, is divided into several subordinate branches. The anatomist and physiologist unfold the construction, and uses of the corporeal mechanism ; the surgeon and physician describe its diseases; while the metaphysician and moralist employ themselves with the functions of the mind and moral sentiments. Man in society, his progress in the various countries and ages of the world, his multi- plication and extension, are the province of the historian and political economist; while the divine traces the higher relations that connect man with his Creator, with superior beings, and the future world. (See HEAVEN ; and HELL.) II. The distinctive characteristics of man as a species are the following: 1. Smoothness of the skin, and want of natural offen- sive weapons or means of defence. º 2. Possession of two hands, and very perfect structure of the hand. 3. Slow growth; long infancy; late puberty. 4. Menstruation of the female sex; exercise of the sex- ual functions not confined to particular seasons; refined and honorable conjugal sentiments. 5. Erect stature; to which the conformation of the body in general, and that of the pelvis, lower limbs, and their muscles in particular, are accommodated. 6. Capability of inhabiting all climates and situations, and of living on all kinds of food. 7. Great proportion of the brain to the face. 8. Great number and development of mental facul ties, whether intellectual, moral, or religious. 9. Speech ; letters; arts and sciences; REvel,ATION. 10. Perfectibility; or capacity of indefinite individual and social improvement; REVEALED IMMORTALITY. III. The differences which exist between inhabitants of the different regions of the globe, both in bodily forma- tion, and in the faculties of the mind, have led some na- turalists, as Linneus and Buffon, to the supposition of dis- tinct species. “With those forms, proportions, and colors, which we consider so beautiful in the fine figures of & * 97 M A N M A N [ 770 J Greece, contrast,” it has been said, “the woolly hair, the flat nose, the retreating 'forehead and advancing jaws, and black skin of the Negro; or the broad square face, narrow oblique eyes, beardless chin, coarse straight hair, and olive color of the Calmuck. Compare the ruddy and sanguine European with the jet-black African, the red man of America, the yellow Mongolian, or the brown South sea Islander; the gigantic Patagonian with the dwarfish Lap- lander; the highly civilized nations of Europe, so conspi- cuous in arts, science, and literature, in all that can strengthen and adorn society, or exalt and dignify human nature, with a troop of naked, shivering and starved New Hollanders, a horde of filthy Hottentots, or the whole of the more or less barbarous tribes that cover nearly the entire continent of Africa. Are these all brethren? have they descended from one stock, or must we trace them to more than one? and if so, how many Adams must we admit?” reduced to five—(1) the Caucasian, (2) the Mongolian, (3) the American, (4) the African, and (5) the Australian; and will probably be yet reduced to three—the Japhetite, the Shemite, and the Hamite ; while the unity of the species on anatomical and Scientific principles is now generally acknowledged. See Cuvier's Animal Ringdom. IV. The differences of physical organization, and of moral and intellectual qualities, which characterize the several races, says Dr. Lawrence, (himself a sceptic,) are, “1. Analogous in kind and degree to those which dis- tinguish the breeds of domestic animals, and must there- fore be accounted for on the same principles. & “2. They are produced in both instances as native or congenital varieties, and these transmitted to the offspring in hereditary succession. “3. Of the circumstances that favor this production of varieties in the animal kingdom, the most powerful is the state of domestication. “4. External or adventitious causes, such as climate, situation, food, way of life, have considerable effect in altering the constitution of man, and animals; but this effect, as well as that of art and accident, is confined usually to the individuals, not being transmitted by gene- ration, and not therefore affecting the race. “5. That the human species, therefore, is single, and that all the differences it exhibits are to be regarded merely as varieties.” Thus again does the progress of true science corroborate the Bible ! Good's Book of Nature; Lanrence's J.ectures on Physio- logy; Spurzheim's Works ; Combe and Chalmers on the Constitution of Man ; Mason on Self-Knowledge. MAN OF GOD, generally signifies a prophet; a man devoted to God; to his service. Moses is called peculiarly “ the man of God,” Deut. 33: 1. Josh. 14: 6. Our Savior frequently calls himself “the son of man,” in allusion, probably, to the prophecy of Daniel, in which the Messiah is spoken of, Dan. 7: 13.-Calmet. MAN OF SIN. (See ANTICHRIST.) MANAEN ; a Christian prophet and teacher, who had been in early life a foster-brother of Herod Antipas, Acts 13: 1. It is thought that he was one of the seventy disci- ples, but no particulars of his life are known.—Calmet. MANASSEH, the eldest son of Joseph, (Gen. 41: 50.) was born, A. M. 2290, B. C. 1714. The name Manasseh The testimony of revelation on this point is well known; and the time has been when certain men of science thought that they had discovered facts that must set aside that testimony. But since the subject has been more fully investigated by Blumenbach, Pritchard, and others, a better state of opinion has prevailed. However easy it may be to observe distinct, well-marked differences be- tween the particular specimens of the human race, we find the case very different when we come to make the division, and reduce all the specimens to one or the other of them. Whatever number we may fix upon, and how- ever well we may distinguish them, we see them, after all our attempts, constantly running into each other by every shade of gradation. Bory de St. Vincent divided the human race into fifteen species Linneus and Buffon into six The differences are now called by the more correct name of varieties; the generic ones, or races, are signifies forgetfulness, because Joseph said, “God hath made me forget all my toil, and all my father's house.” When Jacob was going to die, Joseph brought his two sons to him, that his father might give them his last blessing, Gen. 48. Jacob adopted them, though the birthright was given to Ephraim. The tribe of Manasseh came out of Egypt in number thirty-two thousand two hundred men, upwards of twenty years old, under the conduct of Gamaliel, son of Pedahzur, Num. 2: 20, 21. This tribe was divided in the land of promise. One half-tribe of Manasseh settled beyond the river Jordan, and possessed the country of Bashan, from the river Jabbok to mount Libanus; and the other half- tribe of Manasseh settled on this side Jordan, and pos- sessed the country between the tribe of Ephraim south, and the tribe of Issachar north, having the river Jordan east, and the Mediterranean sea west, Josh. 16, 17.— TWatson. MANASSEH, the fifteenth king of Judah, and son and successor of Hezekiah, was twelve years old when he be- gan to reign, and reigned fifty-five years, 2 Kings 20: 21. 21: 1, 2. 2 Chrom. 33: 1, 2, &c. His history is remarkable as a strong illustration of di- vine ſorbearance and mercy. He did evil in the sight of the Lord ; worshipped the idols of the land of Canaan ; rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had de- stroyed; set up altars to Baal ; and planted groves to false gods. He raised altars to the whole host of heaven, in the courts of God's house ; made his son pass through the fire in honor of Moloch; was addicted to magic, divina- tions, auguries, and other superstitions; set up the idol Astarte in the house of God; finally, he involved his peo- ple in all the abomination of the idolatrous nations to that degree, that Israel committed more wickedness than the ºnies, whom the Lord had driven out before them, To all these crimes Manasseh added cruelty; and he shed rivers of innocent blood in Jerusalem. The Lord. being provoked by so many crimes, threatened him by his prophets, 2 Chron. 33: 11, 12, &c. It was probably Sar gon or Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, who sent Tartan into Palestine, and who taking Azoth, attacked Manasseh, put him irons, and led him away, not to Nineveh, but to Babylon, of which Esar-haddon had become master, and M A N M A N | 771 J had reunited the empires of the Assyrians and the Chal- deans. - * Manasseh, in bonds at Babylon, humbled himself before God, who heard his prayers, and brought him back to Je- rusalem; and Manasseh acknowledged the hand of the Lord. Manasseh was probably delivered out of prison by Saosduchin, the successor of Esar-haddon, 2 Chron. 33: 13, 14, &c. Being returned to Jerusalem, he restored the worship of the Lord; broke down the altars of the false gods; abolished all traces of their idolatrous worship; but he did not destroy the high places: which is the only thing Scripture reproaches him with, after his return from Babylon. He caused Jerusalem to be fortified; and he inclosed with a wall another city, which in his time was crected west of Jerusalem, and which went by the name of the second city, 2 Chron. 33: 14. He put garrisons into all the strong places of Judah. Manasseh died at Jerusalem, and was buried in the garden of his house, in the garden of Uzza, 2 Kings 21: 18. He was succeeded by his son Amon.—Watson. MANDEVILLE, (BERNARD,) a sceptical physician and writer, was born, about 1670, at Dort, in Holland; settled in England at the beginning of the eighteenth century; and died in 1733. He is the author of several productions, among which are, an Inquiry into the Origin of Honor; Free Thoughts on Religion; and The Virgin Unmasked; but his principal work is The Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices made Public Bencſits. This last most false and extravagant position was attacked by Berkeley, to whom Mandeville replied, and was presented, as flagrantly im- moral, by the grand jury of Middlesex.-Davenport. . . MANDRAKE, (dudaim; Gen. 30: 14–16. Cant. 7: 13.) Interpreters have wasted much time and pains in endea- voring to ascertain what is intended by the Hebrew word dudaim. Some translate it by “violet,” others, “lilies,” “jasmines,” “truffle or mushroom,” and some think that the word means “flowers,” or “fine ſlowers,” in general. Bochart, Calmet, and Sir Thomas Browne, suppose the citron intended; Celsius is persuaded that it is the fruit of the lote tree ; Hiller, that cherries are spoken of; and Ludolf maintains that it is the fruit which the Syrians call mauz, resembling in figure and taste the Indian fig. But the generality of interpreters and commentators understand by dudaim, mandrakes, a species of melon; and it is so rendered in the Septuagint, and in both the Targums, on Gen. 29: 32–34. 30: 14. It appears from Scripture, that they were in perfection about the time of wheat harvest, have an agreeable odor, may he preserved, and are placed with pomegranates, Cant. 7: 13. Nor was the opinion of their prolific virtue confined to the Jews; the Greeks and the Romans had the same no- tion of mandrakes. They gave to the fruit the name of “Apple of Love,” and to Venus that of Mandragoritis. The emperor Julian in his epistle to Calixenes says, that he drank the juice of mandrakes to excite his inclina- tions. And before him, Dioscorides had observed of it, “The root is supposed to be used in philters or love-po- tions.” On the whole, theré seems little doubt but this plant had a provocative quality, and therefore its Hebrew name dudaim may be properly deduced, says Calmet, from dudim, pleasures of love.—Watson ; Calmet. MANICH MEANS, or MAN1chees; a denomination founded in the latter part of the third century, by Mani, Manes, or Manichaeus. Being a Persian or Chaldean by birth, and educated among the Magi, he attempted a coa- lition of their doctrine with the Christian system, or rather, the explication of the one by the other. Dr. Lardner, so far from taking Mani and his followers for enthusiasts, as some have done, thinks they erred on the other side, and were rather a sect of reasoners and philosophers, than visionaries and enthusiasts. So Faustus, one of their leaders, says, the doctrine of Mani taught him not to receive everything recommended as said by our Savior, but first to examine and consider whether it be true, Sound, right, genuine; while the Catholics, he says, swallowed every thing, and acted as if they despised the benefit of human reason, and were afraid to examine and distin- guish between truth and falsehood. Augustine, it is well known, was for some time among this sect; but it was not pretensions to inspiration, but specious and alluring promises of rational discoveries, by which Augustine was deluded, as he particularly states in his letter to his friend Honoratus. So Beausobre remarks: “ These heretics were philosophers, who, having formed certain systems, accommodated revelation to them, which was the servant of their reason, not the mistress.” Mani, according to Dr. Lardner, believed in an eternal, self-existent Being, completely happy and perfect in good- ness, whom alone he called God, in a strict and proper sense; but he believed, also, in an evil principle, or being, which he called hyle, or the devil, whom he considered as the god of this world, blinding the eyes of them that be- lieve not, 2 Cor. 4: 4. God, the supreme and good, they considered as the Author of the universe ; and, according to Augustine, they believed, also, in a consubstantial Trinity, though they strangely supposed the Father to dwell in light inaccessible, the Son to have his residence in the solar orb, and the Holy Spirit to be diffused throughout the atmosphere; on which account they paid a superstitious, and perhaps an idolatrous, reverence to the sun and moon. Their belief in the evil principle was, no doubt, adopted to solve the mysterious question of the origin of evil, which, says Dr. Lardner, was the ruin of these men, and of many others. As to the hyle, or the devil, though they dared not to consider him as the crea- ture of God, neither did they believe in his eternity; for they contended, from the Greek text of John 8: 44, that he had a father. But they admitted the eternity of mat- ter, which they called darkness; and supposed hyle to be the result of some wonderful and unaccountable commo- tion in the kingdom of darkness, which idea seems to be borrowed from the Mosaic chaos. In this commotion darkness became mingled with light, and thus they ac- count for good and evil being so mixed together in the world. Having thus brought hyle, or Satan, into being, they next found an empire and employment for him. Every thing, therefore, which they conceived unworthy of the fountain of goodness, they attributed to the evil being ; particularly the material world, the Mosaic dis- pensation, and the Scriptures on which it was ſounded. This accounts, for their rejecting the Old Testament. Dr. Lardner contends, however, that they received generally the books of the New Testament, though they objected to particular passages as corrupted, which they could not re- concile to their system. - On Rom. 7. Mani founded the doctrine of two souls in man, two active principles; one, the source and cause of vicious passions, deriving its origin from matter; the other, the cause of the ideas of just and right, and of in- clinations to ſollow those ideas, deriving its origin from God. Considering all sensual enjoyments to be in some degree criminal, they were enemies to marriage; though, at the same time, knowing that all men cannot receive this saying, they allowed it to the second class of their disciples, called auditors; but by no means to the perfect or confirmed believers. Another absurd consequence of believing the moral evil of matter was, that they denied the real existence of Christ's human nature, and supposed him to suffer and die in appearance only. According to them, he took the form only of man ; a notion that was afterwards adopted by Mahomet, and which necessarily excludes all faith in the atonement. Construing too lite- rally the assertion that flesh and blood could not inherit the kingdom of God, they denied the doctrine of the resurrection. Christ came, they said, to save the souls of men, and not the bodies. No part of matter, accord- ing to them, could be worthy of salvation. In many leading principles they thus evidently agreed with the Gnostics, of whom, indeed, they may be considered a branch. (See GNosTics; and MAGI.)—Watson. MANIFEST; to show a thing clearly, and render it visible, Eccl. 3: 18. 1 Tim, 3: 16. The Son of God was manifest when he appeared visibly in our nature, 1 John 3: 5. The apostles were maniſest when it fully appeared by their behavior, doctrine, and success, that they were sent of God, 2 Cor. 11: 6. The saints and the wicked are ma- mifest when the difference between their characters and states is clearly discovered, 1 John 3: 10. The manifesta- tion of the Spirit is either that which the Holy Ghost shows to men, the doctrines of the gospel, the love of God, and M A N M A R I 772 ) . our interest in it, and the things of another world; or, his gifts and graces, whereby his power and residence in us are plainly evinced, 1 Cor. 12; 7. The manifestation of the sons of God is the public display of their station and happi- ness, in their being openly acknowledged and honored by Christ at the last day, Rom, 8: 19.—Brown. MANIFOLD. God’s wisdom, mercy, and grace, are manifold; unbounded in their nature, showed forth in a variety of ways, and numerous in their fruits, Eph. 3: 10. Neh, 9: 19. 1 Pet. 4: 10. Temptations and trials are andnifold when very numerous, and in many different forms, and from various sources, 1 Pet. 1: 6. Transgres- sions are manifold when many in number, and of many different forms, and in many various degrees of aggrava- tion, Amos 5: 12.-Bromwn. MANNA; a substance which God gave to the children of Israel for food, in the deserts of Arabia. It began to fall on Friday morning, the sixteenth day of the second month, which from thence was called Ijar, and continued to fall daily in the morning, except on the Sabbath, till after the passage over Jordan, and to the passover of the fortieth year from the exodus, that is, from Friday, June 5, A. M. 2513, to the second day of the passover, Wednes- day, May 5, A. M. 2553. It was a small grain, white, like hoar-frost, round, and the size of coriander seed, Ex. 16:14. Num. 11:1–5. It fell every morning with the dew, about the camp of the Israelites, and in so great quantities during the whole forty years of their journey in the wil- derness, that it was sufficient to feed the entire multitude, of above a million of souls, every one of whom gathered, for his share every day, the quantity of an omer, i. e. about three quarts. It maintained all this multitude, and yet none of them found any inconvenience from the constant eating of it, , Every Friday there fell a double quantity, (Exod. 16: 5.) and though it putrefied and bred maggots when kept on any other day, yet on the Sabbath it suffered no such alteration. And the same manna that was melted by the heat of the sun, when left in the field, was of so hard a consistence when brought into the house, that it was beat in mortars, and would even endure the fire. It Was baked in pans, made into paste, and so into calces. Instead of “It is manna,” read “What is it?” in Ex. 16:14. Scripture gives to manna the name of “bread of hea- ven,” and “food of angels;” perhaps, as intimating its superior quality, Ps. 78; 25. There is a vegetable sub- stance called manna which falls in Arabia, in Poland, in Calabria, in mount Libanus, and elsewhere. The most common and the most famous is that of Arabia, which is a kind of condensed honey, found in the summer time on the leaves of trees, on herbs, on the rocks, or the sand of Arabia Petraea. That which is gathered about mount Si- nai has a very strong smell, which it receives from the herbs on which it falls. It easily evaporates, insomuch that if thirty pounds of it were kept in an open vessel, hardly ten would remain at the end of fifteen days. Seve. ral writers think that the manna with which the Israelites were fed was like that now found in Arabia, and that the only thing that was miraculous in the occurrence was the regularity of the supply, and its cessation on the Sabbath. The Jews, however, with the majority of critics, for good reasons, are of opinion that it was a totally different substance from the vegetable manna, and was specially provided by the Almighty for his people. And this is confirmed by the language of our Lord, John 6–Calmet. MANNER. God spake unto the fathers under the Old Testament, in divers manners; not fully, and all at once, but by little and little, sometimes more, and sometimes less clearly ; and by the diſſerent means of angels, pro- phets, visions, dreams, voices from heaven, Urim and Thummim, &c., Heb. 1: 1. To say the manner of Beer- sheba liveth, was to swear by the idol there worshipped, Amos 8:14–Rronm; Omen on the Spirit. MANNING, (JAMEs, D. D.,) first president of the college in Rhode Island, was born in New Jersey, October 22, 1738, and graduated at Nassau hall, in 1762. Not long after he began to preach, several of his Baptist brethren in New Jersey and Pennsylvania proposed the establishment of a college in Rhode Island, on account of the religious free- dom, which was there enjoyed. He was chosen its first president. The charter was obtained in February, 1764, and in 1765 he removed to Warren, Rhode Island, to make preparations for carrying the design into execution. In 1770, the institution was removed to Providence, where a spacious building had been erected, to which two others have since been added, and the whole called Brown Uni- versity. He was soon chosen pastor of the Baptist church in that town also, and he continued in the active discharge of the duties of these two offices, (except in an interval of about six months, in 1786, when he was a member of con- gress,) till his death, by apoplexy, July 29, 1791, aged fifty-two. - - - - Dr. Manning was equally known in the religious, politi- cal, and literary world. Nature had given him distin- guished abilities. The resources of his genius seemed adequate to all duties and occasions. He was of a kind and benevolent disposition, social and communicative in mind, and enchanting in manners. His life was a scene of labor for the benefit of others. His piety, and his ſer- vent zeal in preaching the gospel, evinced his love to God and man. With a most graceſul form, a dignified and majestic appearance, his address was manly, familiar, and engaging, his voice harmonious, and his eloquence irre- sistible. In the government of the college he was mild, yet energetic. He lived beloved and died lamented, be- yond the lot of ordinary men. The good order, learning, and respectability of the Baptist churches in the eastern states, under God are much owing to his personal influence, and assiduous attention to their welfare. Benedict, ii. p. 346. MANOAH, the father of Samson, was of the tribe of Dan, and a native of the city of Zorah, Judg. 13: 6—23. (See SAMson.)—Watson. - MANSLAYER. (See Avenger, and REFUGE.) MANTON, (Thomas, D. D.,) a laborious and zealous divine of the seventeenth century, was born, in 1620, at Laurence-Lydiard, Somerset, England. His father and both his grandfathers were ministers. He was educated at Oxford, and received orders from bishop Hall, before he was twenty; being regarded by the good bishop as an ex- traordinary young man. Alluding to his extreme youth he afterwards said, “The Lord forgive my rash intru- sion.” He soon settled at Stoke-Newington, near London. Here he prepared and published his Expositions of James and Jude. During the revolution he was frequently called to preach before the parliament, where he had the courage to preach against the death of the king, though he gave great offence. Some years after he was chosen preacher of St. Paul’s, Covent-Garden, where he had a numerous congregation of persons of great note and rank, and was eminently successful in his ministry. Usher calls him one of the best preachers in England. He was also chap- lain to the Protector, and one of the committee for examin- ing ministers under the commonwealth. He was forward however to promote the restoration, and was chosen one of the king’s chaplains, and one of the Savoy commission- ers; but soon fell under suspicion for non-conformity, and, in 1662, was deprived and imprisoned for six months. He died October 18, 1677. Perhaps few men of the age had more virtue, and fewer failings; but his only trust was in the Lamb of God. He left numerous writings, chiefly sermons and expositions.—Middleton, iii. p. 429. MAON ; a city in the south of Judah, (Josh. 15:55. 1 Sam. 23:24, 25. 25: 2.) and about which Nabal the Car- melite had great possessions. It is thought to be the Maenois, or Moeonis, which Eusebius places in the neigh- borhood of Gaza; and the Menaeum of the Codex Theodo- sianus, which is near Beersheba.-Calmet. • MARAH, (bitterness.) When the Israelites coming out of Egypt, arrived at the desert of Etham, they there found the water to be so bitter, that neither themselves nor their cattle could drink it, Exod. 15:23. They there- fore began to murmur against Moses, who praying to the Lord, was shown a kind of wood; which being thrown into the water, made it potable. This wood is called alvah by the Mahometans. The word alua has some rela- tion to aloes, which is a very bitter wood; and some inter- preters have hinted, that Moses took a very bitter sort of wood, on purpose that the power of God might be more remarkable, in sweetening these waters. Josephus says, that this legislator used the wood which he found by chance, lying at his feet. M A R M A R [ 773 J We believe that the colonists who first peopled some parts of America, corrected the qualities of the water they ound there, by infusing in it branches of Sassafras; and it is understood that the first inducement of the Chinese to the general use of tea, was to correct the water of their rivers; it follows, therefore, that some kinds of wood pos- sess such a quality: and it may be, that God directed Moses to the very wood proper for his purpose. But then, it must be confessed, that the water of those parts conti- nues bad to this day, and is so greatly in want of something to improve it, that had such a discovery been communi- cated by Moses, it could hardly have been lost. It must therefore be admitted to have been a miracle, wrought by divine power upon a special occasion.—Calmet. MARAN-ATHA. º: ANATHEMA.) MARBLE, (shish; 1 Chron. 29: 2. Esth. 1: 6. Cant. 5: 15.) a valuable kind of stone, of a texture so hard and compact, and of a grain so fine, as readily to take a beau- tiful polish. It is dug out of quarries in large masses, and is much used in buildings, ornamental pillars, &c. Marble is of different colors, black, white, &c.; and is sometimes elegantly clouded and variegated. The Se- venty and Vulgate render it “Parian stone,” which was remarkable for its bright white color. Probably the cliff Ziz, (2 Chron. 20: 16.) was so called from being a marble crag : the place was afterwards called Petra. The variety of stones mentioned in the pavement of Ahasuerus might be marble of different colors. The ancients sometimes made pavements wherein were set very valuable stones.— Watson. "MARCELLA; a Roman widow, the intimate friend of Paula, and of Eustochium. The latter received instruc- tion from her; and it is easy to judge, says Jerome, of the merit of one who could form such disciples. Marcella was a Christian, and deeply learned in the Scriptures. She was greatly opposed to the errors of Origen, who mingled the dogmas of oriental philosophy with the truths of Chris- tianity. On difficult passages of Scripture she consulted Jerome; but she herself was consulted from all parts as a great theologian, and her answers were always dictated by prudence and humility. She died A. D. 409, soon after Rome was taken by the Goths.-Betham. MARCELLANS ; a sect of ancient heretics, towards the close of the second century; so called from Marcellus of Ancyra, their leader, who was accused of reviving the errors of Sabellius. Some, however, are of opinion that Marcellus was orthodox, and that they were his enemies, the Arians, who fathered their errors upon him.—Hend. Buck. MARCIONITES, or MARCIONISTs, Marcionista: ; a very ancient and popular sect of heretics, who, in the time of , Epiphanius, were spread over Italy, Egypt, Palestine, Sy- ria, Arabia, Persia, and other countries; they were thus denominated from their author, Marcion. Marcion was of Pontus, the son of a bishop, and at first made profession of the monastic life; but he was excommunicated by his own father, who would never admit him again into com- munion with the church, not even on his repentance. On this he abandoned his own country, and retired to Rome, where he began to broach his doctrines. He flourished between the years 130 and 160, and was one of the most distinguished and influential heretics of the second century. He was the second person before Manes who mixed the Eastern doctrines with Christianity. His celebrity arose, not so much from his introducing any new doctrines, as from his enlarging upon those which had been taught before him, which he did in a work which he entitled Atitheses, which was celebrated by the ancients, and regarded by his followers as a symbolical book. He laid down two principles, the one good, the other evil; between these he imagined an intermediate kind of deity, of a mixed nature, who was the creator of this infe- rior world, and the god and legislator of the Jewish na- tion. The other nations, who worshipped a variety of gods, were supposed to be under the empire of the evil principle. These two conflicting powers exercised oppres- sions upon rational and immortal souls; and therefore the supreme God, to deliver them from bondage, sent to the Jews a being more like unto himself, even his Son Jesus Christ, clothed with a certain shadowy resemblance of a body : this celestial messenger was attacked by the prince of darkness, and by the god of the Jews, but without effect. Those who followed the directions of this celestial conduc- tor, mortify the body by fastings and austerities, and re- nounce the precepts of the god of the Jews and the prince of darkness, shall after death ascend to the mansions of felicity and perfection. The rule of manners which Mar- cion prescribed to his followers was excessively austere, containing an express prohibition of wedlock, wine, flesh, and all the external comforts of life. Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and passion of Jesus Christ, and held them to be apparent only. He denied the resurrection of the body, and allowed none to be baptized but those who preserved their continence; but these he granted might be baptized three times. In many things he followed the sentiments of the heretic Cerdon, and rejected the law and the prophets, or, according to Theodoret, the whole of the Old Testament. He pretend- ed the gospels had been corrupted, and received only one, which has been supposed to be that of Luke; but they are so very different, that the most distinguished modern critics are decidedly of opinion that Marcion's was merely an apocryphal gospel, and a mutilated or gar- bled copy of Luke's, as some of the fathers alleged on conjecture. He rejected the two epistles to Timothy, that . to Titus and the Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. Whoever would wish to investigate the history of this heretic, can hardly avoid studying the five books written expressly against him by Tertullian; but they must be read with some allowance for invective. Dr. Burton on the Early FIeresies, Note 13.−PIend. Buck. MARCITES, MARcitze; a sect of heretics in the second century, who also called themselves the perfecti, and made profession of doing every thing with a great deal of liberty and without fear. This doctrine they borrowed from Si- mon Magus, who however was not their chief; for they were called Marcites from one Marcus, who conferred the priesthood, and the administration of the sacraments, on women.—Hend. Buck. MARCOSIANS, or ColopARSIANs ; an ancient sect in the church, making a branch of the Valentinians. Irenaeus speaks at large of the leader of this sect, Mar- cus, who, it seems, was reputed a great magician. . The Marcosians had a great number of apocryphal books, which they held for canonical, and of the same authority with ours. Out of these they picked several idle fables touching the infancy of Jesus Christ, which they put off for true histories. Many of these fables are still in use and credit among the Greek monks.—Hend. Buck. MARCUS; a Christian bishop of Arethusa, who having destroyed a heathen temple, and erected a Christian church in its room, was accused before the emperor Julian. His persecutors stripped and beat him, and after various tor- ments covered him with honey, and hung him up in a basket to be stung to death by wasps.—Foz, p. 69. MARESHAH, or MARIssa ; a city of Judah, called also Moresheth and Morasthi. The prophet Micah was a na- tive of this city. It was two miles from Eleutheropolis; and near to it, in the vale of Zephathah, was fought a fa. mous battle between Asa, king of Judah, and Zerah, king of Cush, in which Asa defeated a million of men, 2 Chron. 14: 9–13. In the latter times of the Jewish common- wealth, Mareshah belonged to Idumea, as did several other southerly cities of Judah.-Calmet. MARGARET, (queen of Scotland;) a woman of the rarest piety, and of a character fitted to throw a lustre on the purest ages. She was grandaughter to Solomon, king of Hungary. With her brother, Edgar Atheling, she was wrecked on the coast of Scotland, and was there, in 1066, married to Malcolm, who had just recovered the throne of Scotland from the usurper Macbeth. Through her influence the ferocious spirit of her husband received a happy tincture of humanity, and through his high opi- nion of her wisdom she was enabled greatly to reform the kingdom, to diminish taxes, purify the courts of justice, repress the insolence of the soldiery, revive the spirit of piety, and introduce a more serious regard to the duties of the Sabbath. She made laws to enforce temperance. The poor and unfortunate shared her kindest regard. Her children she carefully and successfully educated on Chris M A R M. A. R. | 774.] tian principles. Theoderic, a monk of Durham, who wrote her life, says, “She would discourse with me con- cerning the sweetness of everlasting life, in such a man- ner as to draw tears from my eyes.” In 1093, while suffering from sickness, she heard of the death of her hus- band, who was slain at Alnwick, in Northumberland, in the reign of William Rufus, ... She received the bitter news as a Christian. “I thank thee, O Lord,” she said, “that in sending me so great an affliction, thou wouldst purify me from my sins. Thou, who by thy death hast given life to the world, deliver me from evil.” This excellent queen survived but a few days.--Belham. MARGARET, of FRANCE, duchess of Berri and Savoy, daughter of Francis I., was born in 1523, and received a superior education. She was the patroness of the sciences and learned men; and after the death of her father gain: ed a high reputation by her beauty, piety, learning, and amiable qualities. She married Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1559, and died, 1574, aged fiſty-one. The most illus- trious of the literati contended who should praise her best, and her subjects called her the Mother of her People.— Betham. MARIAMNE. (See HEROD.) MARK was the nephew of Barnabas, being his sister's son. He is supposed to have been converted to the gos- pel by St. Peter, who calls him his son ; (1 Peter 5: 13.) but no circumstances of his conversion are recorded. The first historical fact mentioned of him in the New Testa- ment is, that he went, in the year 44, from Jerusalem to Antioch, with Paul and Barnabas. Not long after, he set out from Antioch with those apostles upon a journey, which they undertook by the direction of the Holy Spirit, for the purpose of preaching the gospel in different countries: but he soon left them, probably without sufficient reason, at Perga in Pamphylia, and went to Jerusalem, Acts 13. Afterwards, when Paul and Barnabas had determined to visit the several churches which they had established, Barnabas proposed that they should take Mark with them; to which Paul objected, because Mark had left them in their former journey. This difference of judgment ended in their separation, though it did not break their friend- ship, or cool their zeal ſor the diffusion of the gospel. Mark accompanied his uncle Barnabas to Cyprus, but it is not mentioned whither they went when they leſt that island. We may conclude that St. Paul was afterwards reconciled to Mark, from the manner in which he men- tions him in his epistles written subsequently to this dis- pute; and particularly from the direction which he gives to Timothy: “Take Mark, and bring him with thee; for he is profitable to me for the ministry,” 2 Tim. 4: 11. No further circumstances are recorded of Mark in the New Testament; but it is believed, upon the authority of an- cient writers, that soon after his journey with Barnabas he met Peter in Asia, and that he continued with him for some time; perhaps till Peter suffered martyrdom at Rome. Epiphanius, Eusebius, and Jerome, all assert that Mark preached the gospel in Egypt; and the two latter call him bishop of Alexandria, where he suffered martyrdom. 2. Dr. Lardner thinks that Mark’s Gospel is alluded to by Clement of Rome: but the earliest ecclesiastical wri- ter upon record who expressly mentions it is Papias. It is mentioned, also, by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome, Augus- tine, Chrysostom, and many others. The works of these fathers contain numerous quotations from this gospel; and as their testimony is not contradicted by any ancient wri- ter, we may safely conclude that the gospel of Mark is gen- uine. The authority of this gospel is not affected by the question concerning the identity of Mark the evangelist, and Mark the nephew of Barnabas; since all agree that the writer of this gospel was the familiar companion of St. Peter, and that he was qualified for the work which he undertook, by having heard, for many years, the public discourses and private conversation of that apostle. Some writers have asserted that St. Peter revised and approved this gospel, and others have not scrupled to call it the gospel according to St. Peter; by which title they did not mean to question St. Mark’s right to be considered as the author of this gospel, but merely to give it the sanction of St. Peter's name. The following passage in Żusebius appears to contain so probable an account of the occasion of writing this gospel, and comes supported by such high authority, that we think it right to transcribe it: “The lustre of piety so enlightened the minds of Peter', hearers at Rome, that they were not contented with the bare hearing and unwritten instruction of his divine preaching, but they earnestly requested St. Mark, whose gospel we have, being an attendant upon St. Peter, to leave with them a written account of the instructions which had been delivered to them by word of mouth ; nor did they desist till they had prevailed upon him ; and thus they were the cause of the writing of that gospel, which is called according to St. Mark; and they say, that the apos- tle being informed of what was done, by the revelation of the Holy Ghost, was pleased with the zeal of the men, and authorized the writing to be introduced into the churches, Clement gives this account in the sixth book of his Insti. tutions; and Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, bears testimony to it.” Jerome also says, that St. Mark wrote a short gos- pel from what he had heard from St. Peter, at the request of the brethren at Rome, which, when St. Peter knew, he approved, and published it in the church, commanding the reading of it by his own authority. - Different persons have assigned different dates to this gospel ; , but there being almost an unanimous concurrence of opinion, that it was written while Mark was with St. Pe- ter at Rome, and not finding any ancient authority for supposing that St. Peter was in that city till A. D. 64, we are inclined to place the publication of this gospel about A. D. 65. St. Mark having written this gospel for the use of the Christians at Rome, which was at that time the great metropolis and common centre of all civilized nations, we accordingly find it free from all peculiarities, and equally accommodated to every description of persons. Quota- tions from the ancient prophets, and allusions to Jewish customs, are, as much as possible, avoided ; and such ex- planations are added as might be necessary for Gentile readers at Rome; thus, when Jordan is first mentioned in this gospel, the word river is prefixed, (Mark 1: 5.) the Oriental word corban is said to mean a gift, (Mark 7: 11.) the preparation is said to be the day before the Sabbath, (Mark 15:42.) and defiled hands are said to mean un- washed hands; (Mark 7: 2.) and the superstition of the Jews upon that subject is stated more at large than it would have been by a person writing at Jerusalem. Some learned men, from a collation of St. Matthew's and Mark’s gospels, have pointed out the use of the same words and expressions in so many instances, .that it has been sup- posed Mark wrote with St. Matthew's gospel before him ; but the similarity is not strong enough to warrant such a conclusion ; and seems no greater than might have arisen from other causes. St. Peter would naturally recite in, his preaching the same events and discourses which St. Matthew recorded in his gospel ; and the same circum- stances might be mentioned in the same manner by men who sought not after “excellency of speech,” but whose minds retained the remembrance of facts or conversations which strongly impressed them, even without taking into consideration the idea of supernatural guidance. (Sce INSPIRATION.) We may farther observe, that the idea of Mark’s writing from St. Matthew’s gospel does not cor- respond with the account given by Eusebius and Jerome, as stated above.—Watson. MARK ON THE FOREHEAD. (See Foreheap.) MARICET. The market or forum, in the cities of an- tiquity, was very different from our markets, where meat, &c. is usually sold. When we read (Acts 17: 17.) of the apostle Paul disputing with philosophers in the “market,” at Athens, we are apt to wonder what kind of philosophers these market-folks could be ; or why the disputants could not engage in a place fitter for investigation, and discus- sion, of abstruse and difficult subjects. But the ſact is, that the forum was usually a public market on one side only, the other sides of the area being occupied by tem- ples, theatres, courts of justice, and other public build- ings. In short, the forums were sumptuous squares, sur- rounded by decorations &c. of various, and often of mag- nificent, kinds. Here the philosophers met, and taught; here laws were promulgated; and here devotions, as well as amusements, occupied the populace. The nearest ap * M. A. R. proach to the composition of an ancient forum, is Covent- garden, in England; where we have a market in the mid: Åle, a church at one end, a theatre at one corner, and sitting magistrates close adjacent. In short, if we add a school for philosophical instruction, or divinity lectures, we have nearly the composition of an ancient forum, or market-place. Hence, when the Pharisees desired salu- tations in the market-places, (Mark 12:38.) it was not merely from the country people who brought their pro- duce for sale, but, as they loved to be admired by re- ligious people at the temple, the synagogues, &c. So they *. desired salutations from persons of consequence, judges, magistrates, dignitaries, &c. in the forum, in order to dis- play their importance to the people, to maintain their in- fluence, &c.—Calmet. - MARLORATUS; one of the reformers of the sixteenth century. This excellent minister of Christ was born in Lorrain, in 1506. His parents dying while he was young, he obtained his education in a monastery of Augustine friars. Thence he went to the university of Sausanne, where : it pleased God to bring him to the knowledge of the truth. He soon became pastor first of Vivia, and then of Rouen, in Normandy, where he gathered, and watched over a large congregation with signal fidelity and success. In 1561, he distinguished himself at the conference at Poissy, in defence of the Protestants. The next year, in the civil war, Rouen was taken by the papists, and Marloratus, on a false charge of high treason, was sentenced to an inſa- mous death. He died, glorifying God by his faith, pa- tience, and meekness, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. He left several excellent writings.-Middleton, ii. p. 82. MARONITES ; a sect of Eastern Christians who follow the Syrian rites, and are subject to the pope; their princi- pal habitation being on mount Libanus, or between the Ansarians to the north and the Druses to the South. Mo- sheim informs us, that the Monothelites, condemned and exploded by the council of Constantinople, found a place of refuge among the Mardaites, signifying in Syriac rebels, a people who took possession of Lebanon, A. D. 676, which became the asylum of vagabonds, slaves, and all sorts of rabble; and about the conclusion of the seventh century they were called Maronites, after Maro, their first bishop; a name which they still retain. None, he says, of the ancient writers, give any certain account of the first person who instructed these mountaineers in the doc- trine of the Monothelites; it is probable, however, from several circumstances, that it was John Maro, whose name they have adopted; and that this ecclesiastic received the name of Maro from his having lived in the character of a monk, in the famous convent of St. Maro, upon the borders of the Orontes, before his settlement among the Mardaites of mount Libanus. One thing is certain, from the testimony of Tyrius, and other unexceptionable wit- nesses, as also from the most authentic records, namely, that the Maronites retained the opinions of the Monothe- lites until the twelfth century, when, abandoning and re- nouncing the doctrine of one will in Christ, they were re- admitted into the communion of the Roman church. The most learned of the modern Maronites have left no method unemployed to defend their church against this accusa- tion; they have labored to prove, by a variety of testimo- nies, that their ancestors always persevered in the Catholic faith, and in their attachment to the Roman pontiff, with- out ever adopting the doctrine of the Monophysites or Monothelites. But all their efforts are insufficient to prove the truth of these assertions, and the testimonies they allege will appear absolutely fictitious and destitute of authority. The nation may be considered as divided into two classes, the common people and the shaiks, by whom must be understood the most eminent of the inhabitants, who, from the antiquity of their families, and the opulence of their fortunes, are superior to the ordinary class, all live dispersed in the mountains, in villages, hamlets, and even detached houses; which is never the case in the plains. The whole nation consists of cultivators. Every man improves the little domain he possesses, or farms, with his own hands. Even the shaiks live in the same manner, and are only distinguished from the rest by a bad pelisse, a horse, and a few slight advantages in food I 775 They M. A. R. f • * and lodging; they all live frugally, without many enjoy. ments, but also with few wants, as they are little ac- quainted with the inventions of luxury. In general, the nation is poor, but no one wants necessaries; and iſ beg- gars are sometimes seen, they come rather from the sea- coast than the country itself. Property is assacred among them as in Europe; nor do we see there those robberies and extortions so frequent with the Turks. Travellers may journey there, either by night or by day, with a se- curity unknown in any other part of the empire, and the stranger is received with hospitality, as among the Arabs: it must be owned, however, that the Maronites are less generous, and rather inclined to the vice of parsimony. Conformably to the doctrines of Christianity, they have only one wife, whom they frequently espouse without hav- ing seen, and always without having been much in her company. Contrary to the precepts of that same religion, however, they have admitted, or retained, the Arab cus- tom of retaliation, and the nearest relation of a murdered person is bound to avenge him. From a habit founded on distrust, and the political state of the country, every one, whether shaik or peasant, walks continually armed with a musket and poinards. This is, perhaps, an incon- venience ; but this advantage results from it, that they have no movices in the use of arms among them, when it is necessary to employ them against the Turks. As the country maintains no regular troops, every man is obliged to join the army in time of war; and if this militia were well conducted, it would be superior to many European armies. From accounts taken in late years, the number of men, fit to bear arms, amounts to thirty-five thousand. In religious matters the Maronites are dependent on Rome. Though they acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, their clergy continue, as heretofore, to elect a head, with the title of batrak, or patriarch of Antioch. Their priests marry, as in the first ages of the church; but their wives must be maidens, and not widows; nor can they marry a second time. They celebrate mass in Syriac, of which the greatest part of them comprehend not a word. The gospel, alone, is read aloud in Arabic, that it may be understood by the people. The communion is administered in both kinds. In the small country of the Maronites there are reckoned upwards of two hundred convents for men and women. These religious are of the order of St. Anthony, whose rules they observe with an exactness which reminds us of earlier times. The court of Rome, in affiliating the Maronites, has granted them an hospitium at Rome, to which they may send several of their youth to receive a gratuitous education. It should seem that this institution might introduce among them the ideas and arts of Europe; but the pupils of this school, limited to an education purely monastic, bring home nothing but the Italian language, which is of no use, and a stock of theological learning, from which as little advantage can be derived; they accordingly soon assimilate with the rest. Nor has a greater change been operated by the three or four missionaries maintained by the French capuchins at Gazir, Tripoli, and Bairout. The most valuable advantage that has resulted from their labors is, that the art of writing has become more common among the Maronites, and rendered them, in this country, what the Copts are in Egypt; that is, they are in pos- session of all the posts of writers, intendants, and kaiyas among the Turks, and especially of those among their allies and neighbors, the Druses. . Mosheim observes, that the subjection of the Maronites to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff was agreed to with this express condition, that neither the popes nor their emissaries should pretend to change or abolish any thing that related to the ancient rites, moral precepts, or religious opinions of this people; so that, in reality, there is nothing to be found among the Maronites that savors of popery, if we except their attachment to the Roman pontiff. It is also certain that there are Maro. nites in Syria, who still behold the church of Rome with the greatest aversion and abhorrence; nay, what is still more remarkable, great numbers of that nation residing in Italy, even under the eye of the pontiff, opposed his authority during the seventeenth century, and threw the court of Rome into great perplexity. One body of these M. A. R. M A R [ 776 ) non-conforming Maronites retired into the valleys of Pied- mont, where they joined the Waldenses; another, above six hundred in number, with a bishop, and several eccle-, siastics at their head, flew into Corsica, and implored the protection of the republic of Genoa, against the violence of the inquisitors.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. MARRIAGE ; a civil and religious contract, by which a man is intimately and permanently united to one woman, for the various important ends ordained of God, Gen. 1: 28. 2: 18–24. Mal. 2: 14, 15. Matt. 19: 3–11. Eph. 5: 22–33. 6: 1–4. 1 Cor. 7: 2–39. It is founded on the original constitution of the sexes, and dignified by peculiar sentiments of affection, delicacy, and honor. Marriage is a part of the law of nations. - - - The public use of the marriage institution consists, ac- cording to Paley, in their promoting the following benefi- cial effects: 1. The private comfort of individuals. , 2. The production of the greatest number of healthy children, their better education, and the making of due provision for their settlement in life. 3. The peace of human society, in cutting off a principal source of contention, by assigning one or more women to one man, and protecting his exclusive right by sanctions of morality and law. 4. The better government of society, by distributing the community into separate families, and appointing over each the authority of a master of a family, which has more actual influence than all civil authority put together. 5. The additional security which the state receives for the good behavior of its citizens, from the solicitude they feel for the welfare of their children, and from their being confined to permanent habitations. 6. The encourage- ment of industry. See also Divight's Theology on this topic; and Anderson on the Domestic Constitution. Whether marriage be a civil or a religious contract, has been a subject of dispute. The truth seems to be that it is both. It has its engagements to men, and its vows to God. A Christian state recognises marriage as a branch of public morality, and a source of civil peace and strength. It is connected with the peace of Society by 'assigning one woman to one man, and the state protects him, therefore, in her exclusive possession. Christianity, by allowing divorce in the event of adultery, supposes, also, that the crime must be proved by proper evidence before the civil magistrate ; and lest divorce should be the result of unfounded suspicion, or be made a cover for license, the decision of the case could safely be lodged nowhere else. Marriage, too, as placing one human being more completely under the power of another than any other relation, requires laws for the protection of those who are thus so exposed to injury. The distribution of society into families, also, can only be an instrument for promoting the order of the community, by the cognizance which the law takes of the head of a family, and by mak- ing him responsible, to a certain extent, for the conduct of those under his influence. Questions of property are also involved in marriage and its issue. The law must, therefore, for these and many other weighty reasons, be cognizant of marriage; must prescribe various regulations respecting it; require publicity of the contract; and guard some of the great injunctions of religion in the matter by penalties. In every well-ordered society marriage must be placed under the cognizance and control of the state. But then those who would have the whole matter to lie between the parties themselves, and the civil magistrate, appear wholly to forget that marriage is also a solemn religious act, in which vows are made to God by both persons, who, when the rite is properly understood, engage to abide by all those laws with which he has guarded the institution; to love and cherish each other; and to remain faithful to each other until death. For if, at least, they profess be- lief in Christianity, whatever duties are laid upon hus- bands and wives in the Holy Scriptures, they engage to obey, by the very act of their contracting marriage. 2. We find but few laws in the books of Moses con- cerning the institution of marriage. Though the Mosaic law nowhere obliges men to marry, the Jews have always looked upon it as an indispensable duty implied in the words, “increase and multiply;” (Gen. 1: 28.) so that a man who did not marry his daughter before she was twenty years of age, was looked upon as accessory to anyº irregularities the young woman might be guilty of for want of being timely married. Moses restrained the Israelites from marrying within certain degrees of con- sanguinity; which had till then been permitted, to prevent their taking wives from among the idolatrous nations among whom they lived, Gen. 34:3. A man was at li- berty to marry not only in the twelve tribes, but even out of them, provided it was to a proselyte, or among such nations as used circumcision; such were the Midianites, Ishmaelites, Edomites, Moabites, and Egyptians. Ac- cordingly, we find Moses himself married to a Midianite, and Boaz to a Moabite. Amasa was the son of Jether, an Ishmaelite, by Abigail, David's sister; and Solomon, in the beginning of his reign, married Pharaoh’s daughter. Whenever we find him and other kings blamed for mar- rying strange women, we must understand it of those nations which were idolatrous and uncircumcised. The laws of revelation, as well as most civilized coun- tries, have made several exceptions of persons marrying who are nearly related by blood. (See LEVIRATE ; and INCEST.) Some have supposed from those passages, 1 Tim. 3: 2. Tit. 1: 6, that bishops or pastors ought never to marry a second wife. But such a prohibition would be contrary to natural right, and the design of the law itself; neither of which was ever intended to be set aside by the gospel dispensation. It is more probably de- signed to guard against polygamy, and against divorce on frivolous occasions; both of which were frequent among the Jews, but condemned by our Lord, Matt. 19: 3–9. (See PolyGAMy; and Divorce.) Marriage should always be entered into with delibera- tion; at a proper age; and with mutual consent; as well as with the consent of parents and guardians, under whose care single persons may be. It is an honorable state, (Heb. 13: 4.) being an institution of God, and that in Paradise, (Gen. 2.), Christ also honored marriage by his presence, and at such a solemnity wrought his first miracle, (John 2.) Moreover, it is honorable, as fornication, self- pollution, and seduction, are thereby prevented; the world peopled with inhabitants ; families are formed and built up, supplying the important elements of churches and of states; candidates for heaven multiplied; and, by its various duties, life rendered an unspeakable blessing. 3. Among the Jews, at weddings, the bridegroom had a Paranymphus, or brideman, called by our Savior “the friend of the bridegroom,” John 3:29. A number of young people kept him company during the days of the wedding, to do him honor; as also young women kept company with the bride all this time. The companions of the bridegroom are expressly mentioned in the history of Samson; (Judg. 14, and Cant. 5: 1. 8: 13.) also the com- panions of the bride; Cant. 1: 4. 2: 7. 3: 5. 8: 4. Ps. 45: 9, 14, 15. The office of the brideman was to perform the ceremonies of the wedding, instead of the bridegroom, and to obey his orders. Some think that the Architricli- nus or governor of the feast, at the marriage in Cama, was the brideman, Paranymphus, or friend of the bridegroom, who presided at the feast, and had the care of providing for the guests, John 2: 9. The friends and companions of the bride sang the Epithalamium, or wedding song, at the door of the bride the evening before the wedding. Psalm 45. is a sacred Epithalamium, entitled “a song of rejoicing of the well-beloved.” The ceremony of the wed- ding was performed with great decorum, the young people of each sex being kept separate, in distinct apartments, and at different tables. The reservedness of the Eastern people towards their women required this ; and we see proofs of it in the marriage of Samson, in that of Esther, and in the Canticles. The young men diverted themselves sometimes in proposing riddles, and the bridegroom ap- pointed the prize to those who could explain them, Judg. 14: 14. The wedding ceremonies commonly lasted seven days for a maid, and three days for a widow. So Laban says to Jacob, respecting Leah—“fulfil her week,” Gen. 29:27. The ceremonies of Samson's wedding continued seven whole days, §§ 14: 17, 18.) as also those of that of Tobias, ch. 11: 12. These seven days of rejoicing were commonly spent in the house of the woman's father, M.A. R. M. A. R. [ 777 J atter which they conducted the bride to her husband's home. (See MARRIAGE CEREMONY.) - - . The procession accompanying the bride from the house of her father to that of the bridegroom was generally one of great pomp, according to the circumstances of the married couple ; and for this they often chose the night. “At a marriage, the procession of which I saw some years ago,” says Mr. Ward, (View of Hist. of Hindoos, vol. iii. p. 171, 172.) “the bridegroom came from a dis- tance, and the bride lived at Serampore, to which place the bridegroom was to come by water. After waiting two or three hours, at length, near midnight, it was an- nounced, as if in the very words of Scripture, “Behold ! the bridegroom cometh, go ye out to meet him.” All the persons employed now lighted their lamps, and ran with them in their hands to fill up their stations in the proces- sion ; some of them had lost their lights, and were un- prepared, but it was then too late to seek them, and the cavalcade moved forward to the house of the bride, at which place the company entered a large and splendidly illuminated area, before the house, covered with an awn- ing, where a great multitude of friends, dressed in their best apparel, were seated upon mats. The bridegroom was carried in the arms of a friend, and placed in a su- perb seat in the midst of the company, where he sat a short time, and then went into the house, the door of which was immediately shut, and guarded by Sepoys. I and others expostulated with the door-keepers, but in vain. Never was I so struck with our Lord’s beautiful parable, as at this moment :—and the door was shut.” See Matt. 25: 1–13. - - From a parable of Christ, in which a great king is re- presented as making a most magnificent entertainment at the marriage of his son, (Matt. 22.) we learn that all the guests, who were honored with an invitation, were expect- ed to be dressed in a manner suitable to the splendor of such an occasion, and as a token of just respect to the new married couple; and that after the procession, in the evening, from the bride's house was concluded, the guests, before they were admitted into the hall where the enter- tainment was served up, were examined, that it might be known if any stranger had intruded, or if any of the company were apparelled in raiment unsuitable to the genial solemnity they were going to celebrate; and such, if found, were expelled the house with every mark of ig- nominy and disgrace. From the knowledge of this custom the following passage receives great light and lustre. When the king came in to see the guests, he discovered among them a person who had not on a medding garment. . He called him and said: Friend, how came you to intrude into my palace in a dress so unsuitable to this occasion ? —The man was struck dumb ; he had no apology to offer for this disrespectful neglect. The king then called to his servants, and bade them bind him hand and foot—to drag him out of the room—and thrust him out into the mid- night darkness. (See HABITS IN DRess.) 3. When this important contract is once made, then cer- tain rights are acquired by the parties mutually, who are also bound by reciprocal duties, in the fulfilment of which the practical virtue of each consists. And here the supe- rior character of the morals of the New Testament, as well as their higher authority, is illustrated. It may, in- deed, be within the scope of mere moralists to show that fidelity, and affection, and all the courtesies necessary to maintain affection, are rationally obligatory upon those who are connected by the nuptial bond ; but in Chris- tianity nuptial fidelity is guarded by the express law, “Thou shalt not commit adultery,” and by our Lord’s ex- position of the spirit of that law which forbids the indul- gence of loose thoughts and desires, and places the purity of the heart under the guardianship of that hallowed fear which his authority tends to inspire. Affection, too, is made a matter of diligent cultivation upon considerations, and by a star lard, peculiar to our religion, , Husbands are placed in a relation to their wives, similar to that which Cºurist bears to his church, and his example is thus made their rule. As Christ loved the church, so husbands are to love their wives; as Christ “gave himself,” his life, “for the church,” (Eph. 4; 25.) so are they to ha- zard life for their wives': as Christ saves his church, so is it the bounden duty of husbands to endeavor, by every possible means, to promote the religious edification and salvation of their wives. The connexion is thus exalted into a religious one; and when love which knows no abate- ment, protection at the hazard of life, and a tender and constant solicitude for the Salvation of a wife, are thus enjoined, the greatest possible security is established for the exercise of kindness and fidelity. The reciprocal duties on the part of the wife are, affectionate reverence, subjection, obedience, assistance, sympathy, modesty, love, chaste, single, Christian, constant and faithful unto death, Eph. 5:32, 33. Tit. 2: 5. 1 Tim. 5: 11, 12. Ruth 1: 16. (See articles Divorce; PARENT.) Grove's Mor. Phil., vol. ii. p. 470; Paley's Mor. Phil., vol. i. ch. viii. p. 339; Doddridge's Lectures, vol. i. pp. 225, 234, 265, 8vo ed. ; Bean’s Christian Minister's Advice to a Nen-married Couple ; Guide to Domestic Happiness; Advantages and Disadvantages of the Married State ; Stennett on Domestic Duties ; Jay's Essay on Marriage ; James' Family Monitor ; Calebs ; Ab- bott's Family at Home ; Dwight's Theology; Fuller's Works; Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. v.; and especially Anderson on the Domestic Constitution.— Watson ; Calmet ; Hend. Buck. MARRIAGE, (CHRISTIAN RULE OF.) The importance of regulating the conjugal alliance on religious principles, was, according to the record of the Old Testament, practi. cally recognised at a very early period. The intermix- ture, by marriage, of the professed servants and worship- pers of God, with those by whom his authority was disowned, was first branded, and afterwards positively forbidden by divine authority; denounced as an evil, the results of which were most injurious to the intertists of religion, and which exposed those who fell into it to the condigm and awful displeasure of the Most High. Now, although there were some circumstances attending the marriages in this manner denounced, which do not directly apply to the state of Society in our own country, (especially the circumstance that the people with whom such inter- course was forbidden, were idolaters,) yet there is much, as must be evident to every pious observer, that illustrates the sin and danger of forming so intimate and permanent a union in life with the ungodly. The general fact is hence clearly deducible, that there is an influence in mar- riage strongly affecting the character, which demands from those who are anxious for moral rectitude and im- provement, much of caution as to the manner in which their affections are fixed; and that unequal alliances— alliances where the parties are actuated by different spiri- tual habits and desires, and where good is made to meet and combine with bad, encountering most imminently the danger of seduction and pollution—are guilty, unnatural, and monstrous. The expression of the divine authority, in application to the Jews, is to be regarded as compre- hending the principle of his people in all ages, that here they ought not to walk in the counsel of the ungodly, nor to stand in the way of sinners. What we thus are enabled to conclude from the Old Testament, will be still more distinctly exemplified from the New. The evangelical writings do not indeed fre quently offer directions expressly on the subject of mar- riage; the point appearing rather to be assumed than argued, that in Christian marriage, the husband and wife ought both, in the emphatic terms of the apostle Peter, to be and walk as being “heirs together of the grace of liſe.” - In the first epistle to the Corinthians, the apostle Pau. applies himself to a question which seems at that time – have been agitated—whether Christians, who, previous ts their conversion, had contracted marriages with unbelie vers, ought not to be actually diſorced from the wives or husbands remaining in unbelief, because of the evil and peril attending the continuance ºf the alliance. Such an extreme, advocated by some, he considers as uncalled for 1 Cor. 7: 10–17. But respecti ig the formation of a new matrimonial connexion by a beli-ver, (the case taken being that of a believing widow, thor gh the rule of course ex- tends to all,) this is the direction :-" She is at liberty to be married to whom she will, only in the Lord,” 1 Cor. 7:39. Here is a simple pror'amation, the force of which is permanent, and in submission to which Christians, in every period, should act. They are to marry “only in - 98 : M A R M A R [ 778 | the Lord.” They, being themselves “in the Lord,”— united to the Lord Jesus by the Divine Spirit, and pos- sessing an interest in the redeeming blessings he has pur- chased, are to marry only on Christian principles, and of course only such as are thus also “in the Lord”—be- liever with believer, and with none else. This is the ob- vious meaning of the passage, which no sophism can evade or fritter away. - - It would be easy to employ the attention further, on the general statements contained in the word of God, re- specting the character of separation from the world, which ought to be sustained by his church, the ends for which it is called, and the objects it is bound to perform ; statements which all bear on the principle as to marriage; operating to enforce and to confirm it. See especially 2 Cor. 6: 14–18. 7: 1. But, without amplifying here, and satisfied that this principle receives, from the testi- mony already quoted, a convincing and solemn establish- ment, the reader is requested to ponder a truth, which is as indubitable as it ought to be impressive ; namely, that marriages formed by Christians in violation of the reli- gious design of the institute, and of the express principles of their religion, are connected with evils many and cala- mitous, most earnestly to be deprecated, and most cau- tiously to be avoided. Is it indeed to be expected on the ground of religion, that an act can be committed against the expressed will of the Most High God, without exposing the transgressor to the scourge of his chastisement 2 Is it to be expected, on the ground of reason, that an alli- ance can be formed between individuals whose moral attributes and desires are essentially incompatible, with- out creating the elements of uneasiness, discord, and dis- appointment 2 Excited imagination and passion may delude with the belief of innocence and hope of escape; but religion and reason speak the language of unchange- able veracity, and are ever justified in the fulfilments of experience, and of fact. The operation of the evil results whose origin is thus deduced, is of course susceptible of modifications from several circumstances in domestic and social life ; and, for many reasons, the degrees of public exhibition and of personal pressure may vary. Yet it may be remarked uniformly, respecting these results, they are such as deeply affect the character. A reſerence has already been made to the moral influence of marriage ; and as the marriages stigmatized under the patriarchal, and forbidden and pu- mished under the Jewish dispensation, were obnoxious on account of the contamination into which they led the pro- ſessed people of God, so are the marriages of Christians with worldlings in this age, a norldly spirit being still the essence of idolatry, (James 4: 4. Col. 3: 5. 1 John 2: 15–17. Matt. 6: 24.) the objects of censure and deprecation, be- cause of the baneful effect they exert on those who are numbered among the redeemed of the Lord. Such mar- riages as these present constant and insinuating tempta- tions to seduce Christians to worldly dispositions and pur- suits; they enfeeble their spiritual energies; interfere with their communion with God; hinder their growth in the attainments of divine life; check and oppose their per- formance of duty and their pursuit of usefulness, in the family, the church, and the world. The writer of this article has never known or heard of (what he feels justi- ed in terming) a forbidden marriage, which, if its origina. character were continued, did not pollute and in- jure. . . Some instances have been most palpable and painful; nor can it be considered but as a truth unques- tionable and motorious, that whoever will so transgress, invokes a very blighting of the soul. It may be remarked respecting these results, again, they are such as deeply affect happiness. Christian character and Christian happiness are closely connected : if the one be hurt, the other will not remain untouched. And who sees not in the unhal- lowed alliance a gathering of the elements of sorrow 2 Are there not ample materials for secret and pungent accusations of conscience, that agitate the heart with the untold pangs of self-condemnation and remorse ? Is there not reason for the bitterness of disappointment, and the sadness of foreboding fear, because the best intercourse is unknown—the purest affection is impossible—the nobles? union is wanting—and the being on whom the spirit would repose, is, to all that is the sweetest and most sub- lime in human sympathies, human joys, and human pros- pects, an alien and a stranger? And what must be the horror of that anticipation which sets forth the event of a final separation at the bar of God, when, while the hope of personal salvation may be preserved, the partner of the bosom is seen as one to be condemned by the Judge, and banished with everlasting destruction from his presence and the glory of his power O the infatuation of the . folly which leads to unite, where are created evils like these, rather than where God will sanction, and where time and etermity will both combine to bless! - Its effects upon what may be regarded as the supreme end of the marriage relation—the religious education of children, is another most distressing consideration. What 7must it be . What has it ever been '. That much injury therefore has arisen to the public in- terests of the church of Christ from this transgression cannot be doubted. Injury done to individual character, is injury done to the community to which the individual is attached. It has always been a fact, that whoever sins in the household of faith, sins not only against him- self, but against others; and that this transgression is one peculiarly extended in its inſluence; operating more than, perhaps, any one else which can be named, to bring reli- gion from its vantage ground, to clog its progress, and to retard its triumph. Cong. Mag., May, 1831; Jay on Mar- riage ; Malcon on the Christian Rule of Marriage ; H. More's Calebs in Search of a Wife ; and the works referred to under the article MARRIAGE.-Hend. Buck. - MARRIAGE CEREMONY. The forms of solemnizing marriage, even among Christians, differ in different places. In Lutheran countries, as in the United States, it is gene- rally celebrated in private houses. In Scotland, like all other religious services of that country, it is extremely simple, and is performed in the session house, the resi- dence of the minister, or the private house of some friend of one of the parties. But in England, it can only be legally administered at the altar, before which, in the body of the church, the parties are placed, after having mutually joined hands and pledged their mutual troth, according to a set form of words, which they say after the minister. Quakers and Jews are the only exceptions at present ; although efforts are now making to so alter the marriage law, as to allow all dissenters the liberty of solemnizing marriage in their own way. See an Appeal to Dissenters, by J. Wilson, Esq. of the Inner Temple, 1832. The ancient Jews celebrated their marriages in a man. ner much like that which still prevails in the East. The wedding festival lasted several days, as may be seen in the case of Samson; and of Jacob at an earlier period. On the last day the bride was conducted to the house cſ the bridegroom’s father. The procession generally set off in the evening with much ceremony and pomp. The . ... • * *-*. e. * - - §§ ºs * * * rummº --- } $º _------ º ilºt º º tºº. #|Núlºg., º companions of each attended them with Songs and music of instruments. The way as they went along was lighted by numerous torches. In the mean time, another com- pany, consisting of the young friends of the bridegroom, was waiting at the bridegroom's house, ready at the first notice of their approach to go forth and meet them. They joined themselves to the procession, and the whole company moved forward to the house, where an entertain- ment was provided for them, and the remainder of the M. A. R. M A R | 779 ) evening was spent in cheerful participation of the mar- riage supper, with such social merriment as suited the joyous occasion. (See MARRIAGE.) In modern times, the Jews have a regular formal mar- riage rite by which the union is solemnly ratified. The parties stand up under a canopy, each covered by a veil; º & - - Fºº-->sº §ºſ. - º §ºiº. fººt -ºº º tº * º º 2:* R.W -- .ſ Éi == # : Bºr º ſ º: w ... "ſº * - A - - A 6. Mºjº: tº ſº. º fºlſ : 2,; Sº | º º Zºº & Y" . w ºº:: ... º.º. Bºº F º Yº * º £23%'. º º 'i º º yº, º f : Aftiº º !" º º # , d ºw-# #5 º: º: some grave person takes a cup of wine, pronounces a short blessing, and hands it to be tasted by both ; the bride- groom puts a ring on the finger of the bride, saying, By this ring thou art my spouse according to the custom of Moses and the children of Israel ! The marriage contract is then read and given to the bride's relations; another cup of wine is brought and blessed six times, when the married couple taste it, and pour the rest out in token of cheerful- ness; and to conclude all, the husband dashes the cup itself against the wall, and breaks it all to pieces, in memory of the sad destruction of their once glorious temple.—Hend. Buck. . MARRIAGE WEIL. (See Weiſ.) MARROW-MEN ; otherwise called the Tivelve Bréth- ren, and the Representers ; those ministers of the Scotch church who, about the beginning of last century, advo- cated the evangelical views contained in a book called the “Marrow of Modern Divinity,” which at that time had been republished and widely circulated in Scotland, and paved the way for the secession which afterwards follow- cd. This book having been condemned by an act of the general assembly, a representation was drawn up and signed by the following twelve ministers:—James Hogg, Thomas Boston, John Bonnar, James Kidd, Gabriel Wil- son, Ebenezer Erskine, Ralph Erskine, James Wardlaw, James Bathgate, Henry Davidson, William Hunter, and John Williamson. This representation they gave in to the Assembly; but after a great deal of vexation and oppo- sition, they were dismissed from its bar with a rebuke and admonition. The Representers were not offly accu- rate and able divines, and several of them learned men, but ministers of the most enlightened and tender consciences, enemies in doctrine and practice to all licentiousness, and shining examples of true holiness in all manner of con- versation. They were at the same time zealous adherents to the Confession of Faith and the Catechisms. The term Marrowmen and Anti-Marronmen now became deno- minative of evangelical and legal preachers; and from this time may be dated the commencement of an exten- sive and remarkable revival of religion in Scotland. Hend. Buck. . . MARS' HILL. (See ATHENs; and AREoPAGUs.) MARTHA; sister of Lazarus and Mary, and mistress of the house where our Savior was entertained, in the village of Bethany. Martha is always, named before Mary, probably because she was the elder sister. Whether she was truly pious, previous to the time reſerred to Luke 10:38, is extremely doubtful. That she was afterwards, at the period of her brother's death, is certain, John 11: 1–27. May we not hope that the Savior's well-known reproof was the means of her real conversion from the world to God? e MARTIN, bishop of Rome in the seventh century, was born at Todi, in Italy, and received from his parents an excellent education. Accomplished by the united endow: ments of divine grace and human science, he was elected on the death of Theodore to succecd him in the church at Rome, by the unanimous voice of the peoplc. His cha- racter seems to have well merited the important trust; the duties of which he discharged in the most faithſul and affectionate manner. His zeal however in calling a coun- cil which condemned the opinion of the Monothelites, in- censed the emperor, who seized him under the false pre- tence of treason, and after various indignities, which he meekly endured, put him to death, A. D. 665.—Foz, p. 80. MARTINA, a Christian martyr in the reign of the tyrant Maximinus, was a noble and beautiful virgin of Rome, who for the sake of Christ suffered manifold tor- tures, which were finished at length by the sword of the executioner, A. D. 235. Multitudes of Christians in the course of this three years’ persecution were slain without trial, and buried in- discriminately in heaps, fifty or sixty being sometimes cast into a pit together.—Foz, p. 25, 26. MARTYN, (HENRY,) missionary to India and Persia, was born at Truro, in the county of Cornwall, on the 18th of February, 1781. His father educated him piously and respectably. His residence at St. John’s college, where his name had been previously entered in the summer, commenced in the month of October, 1797. The tenor of Henry Martyn's life, during this and the succeeding year he passed at college, was, to the eye of the world, in the highest degree amiable and corn- mendable. He was outwardly moral; with little ex- ception, was unwearied in application, and exhibited marks of no ordinary talent. But whatever may have been his external conduct, and whatever his capacity in literary pursuits, he seems to have been totally ignorant of spiritual things, and to have lived “without God it the world.” At length, however, it pleased God to con vince Henry, by a most affecting visitation of his provi dence, that there was a knowledge far more important tº him than any human science ; and that, whilst contem- plating the heavens by the light of astronomy, he should devote himself to his service, who, having made those heavens, did, in his nature, pass through them as his medi- ator and advocate. But his conversion did not improperly interfere with his literary pursuits. His decided superi- ority in mathematics, therefore, soon appeared; and the highest academical honor was adjudged him in January, 1801, a period when he had not completed the twenticth year of his age. Mr. Martyn's engagements consisted chiefly in instructing some pupils, and preparing himself for the examination, which was to take place previous to the election in the month of March, 1802, when he was chosen ſellow of St. John’s. Soon afterwards, he obtained the first prize for the best Latin prose composition in the university. But with such exertions Mr. Martyn became dissatisfied, and he resolved to devote his future life in the service of God, as a CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY, in connex- ion with the Church Missionary Society. The situation of a chaplain to the East India company, had long ap- peared to many of those who took a lively interest in him and his work, to be peculiarly eligible, as offering singular facilities for missionary exertions amongst millions of idolaters. The commencement of Mr. Martyn's ministry, amongst the Europeans at Dinapore, in India, was not of such a kind, as either to gratify or encourage him. At first he read prayers to the soldiers at the barracks, on the long drum; and as there was no place for them to sit, was de- sired to omit his sermon. On Sunday, March 15, 1805, he commenced the performance of divine worship in the ver nacular language of India, concluding with an exhortation from the Scripture in the same-tongue. The spectacle was as novel as it was gratifying, to bebold two hundred women, Portuguese, Roman Catholics, and Mohamme- dans, crowding to attend the service. In addition to Mr. Martyn's studies in Sancrit, Persian, and Hindostanee, we find him now sedulously employed in reading Leland against the deistical writers; and thence drawing out arguments against the Koran. Throughout the year 1808, Mr. Martyn's life flowed on in the same course of uniformity and usefulness. He continued to minister to the Europeans and the natives at the hospitals, and daily received the more religious part of his flock at his own house, whilst his health permitted: to this was added the M A R M A R [ 780 J revisal of the sheets of the Hindostamee version of the New Testament, which he had completed; the superin- tendence of the Persian translation, confided to Sabat ; and the study of Arabic, that he might be fully competent to superintend another version of the New Testament into that tongue. Mr. Martyn's removal from Dinapore to Cawnpore was to him, in many respects, a very unpleasant arrangement. IIe was several hundred miles farther distant from Cal- cutta, and was far more widely separated than before from his friend Mr. Corrie : he had new acquaintances to form at his new abode ; and, after having, with much diffi- culty, procured the erection of a church at Dinapore, he was transported to a spot where none of the conveniences, much less the decencies and solemnities, of public wor- ship were visible. We find him, soon after he arrived there, preaching to a thousand soldiers, drawn up in a hollow square, when the heat was so great, although the sun had not risen, that many actually dropped down, un- able to support it. - The close of the year 1809 was distinguished by the commencement of Mr. Martyn's first public ministration among the heathen. A crowd of mendicants, whom, to prevent perpetual interruptions, he had appointed to meet on a stated day, for the distribution of alms, frequently assembled before his house in immense numbers, present- ing an affecting spectacle of extreme wretchedness. To this congregation he determined to preach the word of life. The following Sunday he preached again to the beggars, in number about five hundred, when all he said was re- ceived with great applause. And on the last day of the year he again addressed them, their number amounting to above five hundred and fifty. - The two last years of his life were spent at Shiraz, in Persia, among the Mohammedams. Here, however, his health rapidly declining, after having preached a sermon on the anniversary of the Calcutta Bible society, which was afterwards printed, and entitled, “ Christian India; or, an Appeal on behalf of nine hundred thousand Christians in India who want the Bible ;” Mr. Martyn departed forever from those shores, where he had fondly and fully purposed to spend all his days. At Tocat, on the 16th of October, 1812, either falling a sacrifice to the plague, which then raged there, or sinking under that disorder, which So greatly reduced him, he surrendered his soul into the hands of his Redeemer. He had not completed the thirty- second year of a life of eminent activity and usefulness, and he died whilst hastening towards his native country, that, having there repaired his shattered health, he might again devote it to the glory of Christ, amongst the nations of the East. With respect to his labors:—his own “works praise him in the gate,” far above human commendation. By him, and by his means, the whole of the New Testament was translated into Hindostanee—a language spoken from Delhi to cape Comorin, and intelligible to many mill- ions of immortal souls. The Psalms of David and the New Testament were rendered into Persian—the verna- cular language of two hundred thousand who bear the Christian name, and known over one fourth of the habi- table globe. By him, also, the imposture of the prophet of Mecca was daringly exposed, and the truths of Chris- tianity openly vindicated, in the very heart and centre of a Mohammedan empire. A light has been kindled by him there, that will never go out. Even the Persian mol- lahs say of him, “Henry Martyn was never beat in an argument. He was a good man ; a man of God P’ But when it is considered, that the Persian and Hindostamee Scriptures are in wide and extensive circulation, who can ascertain the consequences which may have already ſol- lowed, or foresee what may hereaſter accrue, from their dispersion ? Mr. Ward, of Serampore, publicly acknow- ledged that the most successful missionary that had then visited India, was HENRY MARTYN . See Memoir, by Mr. Sargent, last Am. edition, 1832.—Jones' Chris. Biog. MARTYR, (PeTER,) a celebrated reformer and theolo- glan, whose real name was Vermigli, was born, in 1500, at Florence. He was originally an Augustin monk, and became an eminent preacher, and prior of St. Fridian's, at Lucca. Having, however, embraced the Protestant doc- trines, he ſound it necessary to quit his native country. After having been ſor some time professor of divinity at Strasburg, he was invited to England, and appointed professor of theology at Oxford. He left England, on the accession of Mary, and died in 1561, theological professor at Zurich. He wrote several works, of great erudition, among which are Commentaries upon parts of the Scrip- tures. His personal character is said to have been ex- tremely amiable.—Davenport; Middleton, vol. i. p. 499. MARTYR, is one who lays down his life or suffers death for the salve of his religion. The word is Greek, and properly signifies a “witness.” . It is applied by way of eminence to those who suffer in witness of the truth of the gospel. The Christian church is illustrious with martyrs. Pro- phecy had foretold that so it should be, and history is filled with surprising accounts of their singular constancy and fortitude under the most cruel torments human nature was capable of suffering. The primitive Christians were accused by their enemies of paying a sort of divine worship to martyrs. Of this we have an instance in the answer of the church of Smyrna to the suggestion of the Jews, who, at the martyrdom of Polycarp, desired the heathen judge not to suffer the Christians to carry off his body, lest they should leave their crucified master, and worship him in his stead. To which they answered, “We can neither forsake Christ, nor worship any other; for we worship him as the Son of God; but love the martyrs as the disciples and follow- ers of the Lord, for the great affection they have shown to their King and Master.” A like answer was given at the martyrdom of Fructuosus, in Spain; for when the judge asked Eulogius, his deacon, whether he would not worship Fructuosus, as thinking, that, though he refused to wor- ship the heathen idols, he might yet be inclined to worship a Christian martyr, Eulogius replied, “I do not worship Fructuosus, but him whom Fructuosus worships.” The primitive Christians believed that the martyrs en- joyed very singular privileges; that upon their death they were immediately admitted to the beatific vision, and that God would grant to their prayers the hastening of his kingdom, and shortening the times of persecution. Per- haps this consideration might excite many to court mar- tyrdom, as we believe many did. It must be recollected, however, that martyrdom in itself is no proof of the good- ness of our cause, only that we ourselves are persuaded that it is so. “It is not the blood, but the cause, that makes the martyr.” (Mead.) Yet we may consider the number and fortitude of those who, in the first ages, suſ. fered for Christianity as a collateral proof at least of its truth and excellence; for the thing for which they suffered was not a point of speculation, but a plain matter of fact, in which (had it been false) they could not have been mistaken. The martyrdom, indeed, of so many wise and good men, in succeeding ages, taken with a view of the whole system of Christianity, will certainly afford some- thing considerable in its favor.—Hend. Buck. MARTYRS, FESTIVALs of. The festivals of the mar. tyrs are of very ancient date in the Christian church, and may be carried back at least to the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom about the year of Christ 168. On these days the Christians met at the graves of the martyrs, and offered prayers and thanksgivings to God for the example they had afforded them: they celebrated the eucharist, and 'ave alms to the poor; which, together M. A. R. M A R i is with a panegyrical oration or sermon, and reading the acts of the martyrs, were the spiritual exercises of these anniversaries.—Hend. Buck. . - MARTYROLOGY; a catalogue or list of martyrs, in- cluding the history of their lives and sufferings for the sake of religion. Only a small proportion, however, have been rescued from destruction and oblivion. It is enough that their names are in the Lamb's Book of Life. - The martyrologies generally draw their materials from the calendars of particular churches, in which the several festivals dedicated to them are marked; and which seem to be derived from the practice of the ancient Romans, who inserted the names of heroes and great men in their ſasti, or public registers. The papal martyrologies are very numerous, and con- tain many ridiculous, and even contradictory narratives; which is easily accounted for, if we consider how many forged and spurious accounts of the lives of Saints and martyrs appeared in the first ages of the church, which the legendary writers afterwards adopted, without examin- ing into the truth of them. However, some good critics, of late years, have gone a great way towards clearing the lives of the saints and martyrs from the monstrous heap of fiction they labored under. (See article LEGEND.) The martyrology of Eusebius of Caesarea was the most celebrated in the ancient church. It was translated into Latin by Jerome; but the learned agree that it is not now extant. The martyrology of Jerome, says Du Sol- lier, is the great Roman martyrology; from this was made the little Roman one printed by Rosweyd ; of this little Roman martyrology was formed that of Bede, augmented by Florus. . Ado compiled his in the year 858. The mar- tyrology of Nevelon, monk of Corbie, written about the year 1089, is little more than an abridgment of that of Ado : father Kircher also makes mention of a Coptic mar- tyrology, preserved by the Maronites at Rome. We have also several Protestant martyrologies, contain- ing the sufferings of the reformed under the papists; viz. an English martyrology, by John Fox; with others by Clark, Bray, &c. (See PERSECUTION.)—Hend. Buck. MARY ; the mother of Jesus, and wife of Joseph. She is called by the Jews the daughter of Eli; and by the early Christian writers, the daughter of Joakim and Anna : but Joakim and Eliakim are sometimes interchanged, (2 Chron. 36: 4.) and Eli, or Heli, is therefore the abridg- ment of Eliakim, Luke 3: 23. She was of the royal race of David, as was also Joseph her husband; and she was also cousin to Elisabeth, the wife of Zacharias the priest, Luke 1:5, 36. Mary being espoused to Joseph, the angel Gabriel ap- peared to her, to announce to her that she should be by a miracle of divine power, the mother of the Messiah, Luke 1: 26, 27, &c. To confirm this message, and to show that nothing is impossible to God, he added that her cousin Blisabeth, who was old, and had been hitherto barren, - was then in the sixth month of her pregnancy, Mary, thus convinced, answered, “Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to thy word.” Infidelity has busied itself with the basest conjectures, and most malignant misrepresentations of the extraordi- mary facts, recorded by the evangelists with such unpre- tending historical simplicity. But it should never be for- gotten that this is but one link in a long chain of undeniable miracles. The subsequent scenes connected with the birth, and the presentation of Christ in the temple, the flight in- to Egypt, the slaughter of the innocents, and other events in the infancy of our Lord, are plainly related in the gos- pels. But his mother, it is said—and it marks her cha- racter of quiet thoughtfulness, profound piety, and deep maternal love—laid up all these things in her heart, Luke 2:51, &c. - The gospel speaks nothing more of the virgin Mary till the marriage at Cana of Galilee, at which she was present with her son Jesus. She was at Jerusalem, at the last passover our Savior celebrated there. There she saw all that was transacted; followed him to Calvary; and stood at the foot of his cross with an admirable constancy and courage, though the sword, as Simeon ſoretold, pierced through her own heart. Jesus seeing his mother, and his beloved disciple near, he said to his mother, “Woman, (See LUKE.): behold thy son; and to the disciple, Behold thy mother. And from that hour the disciple took her home to his own house.” No further particulars of this favored woman are mentioned, except that she was a witness of Christ's resurrection. A veil is drawn over her character and his- tory; as though with the design to reprove that wretched idolatry of which she was made the subject when Christi- anity became corrupt and paganized. - 2. MARy, the mother of John Mark, a disciple of the apostles. She had a house in Jerusalem, whither, it is thought, the apostles retired after the ascension of our Lord, and where they received the Holy Ghost. After the imprisonment of St. Peter, the faithful assembled in this house, and were praying there when Peter, delivered by the ministry of an angel, knocked at the door of the house, Acts 12: 12. - 3. MARy, of Cleophas. The best critics take Mary mo- ther of James, and Mary wife of Cleophas, to be the same person, Matt. 27: 56. Mark 15:40, 41. Luke 24: 10. John 19:25. St. John gives her the name of Mary of Cleophas; and the other evangelists, the name of Mary, mother of James. Cleophas and Alpheus are the same person; as James, son of Mary, wife of Cleophas, is the same as James, son of Alpheus. It is thought she was thesister of the virgin Mary, and that she was the mother of James the Less, of Joses, of Simon, and of Judas, who in the gospel are named the brethren of Jesus Christ, (Matt. 13:55. 27: 56. Mark 6: 3.) that is, his cousin-germans. She was an early believer in Jesus Christ, and attended him on his journeys, to minister to him. She was present at the last . passover, and at the death of our Savior she followed him to Calvary; and during his passion she was with the mo- ther of Jesus at the foot of the cross. She was also pre- sent at his burial ; and on the Friday before had, in union with others, prepared the perfumes to embalm him, Luke 23: 59. But going to his tomb very early on the Sunday morning, with other women, they there learned, from the mouth of an angel, that he was risen; of which they car- ried the news to the apostles, Luke 24; 1–5. Matt. 28:9. By the way, Jesus appeared to them; and they embraced his feet, worshipping him. This is all we know with cer- tainty concerning Mary, the wife of Cleophas. 4. MARy, sister of Lazarus, who has been preposterous- ly confounded with that female sinner spoken of, Luke 7: 37–39. She lived with her brother and her sister Mar- tha at Bethany; and Jesus Christ, having a particular af. fection for this family, often retired to their house with his disciples. Six days before the passover, after having raised Lazarus from the dead, he came to Bethany with his disciples, and was invited to sup with Simon the leper, John 12; 1, &c. Matt. 26: 6, &c. Mark 14: 3, &c. Ma- ry, grateful for the recovery of so dear a brother, express- ed her feelings in a costly manner. Judas Iscariot mur- mured; but Jesus justified Mary in what she had done, saying that by this solemn unction she had prevented his embalmment, and in a manner had declared his death and burial, which were at hand. From this period the Scrip- tures make no mention of either Mary or Martha. 5. MARY MAGDALENE ; so called, it is probable, from Magdala, a town of Galilee, of which she was a native, or where she had resided during the early part of her life. Out of her, St. Luke tells us, Jesus had cast seven devils, by whose malignant power she had been afflicted, Luke 8: 2. Some, without a shadow of proof, have supposed her to be the sinful woman spoke of, Luke 7: 37–39; as oth- ers have as erroneously imagined her to be Mary, the sis- ter of Lazarus. - There is no doubt but that Mary Magdalene, both in character and circumstances, was a woman of good repu- tation, and high standing in Society. She is mentioned by the evangelists as being one of those women that fol. lowed our Savior, to minister to him, according to the cus- tom of the Jews. She attended him in the last journey he made from Galilee to Jerusalem, and was at the foot of the cross with the holy virgin; (John 19:25. Mark 15: 47.) after which she returned to Jerusalem, to buy and prepare with others certain perfumes, that she might em- balm him after the Sabbath was over, which was then about to begin. All the Sabbath day she remained in the city; and the next day, early in the morning, went to the M A S M A S | 782 ) Repulchre along with Mary, the mother of James, and Salome, Mark 16: 1, 2, Luke 24: 1, 2, For other particu- lars respecting her, see also Matt. 28: 1–5, John 20, 11 —17.—Watson. - MASCARON, (Juttus,) a distinguished French prelate and pulpit orator, was born in 1634; entered among the priests of the Oratory ; and soon became so popular a preacher that multitudes thronged from all quarters to hear him. In 1666, he was called to the court, to preach before Louis XIV. ; and in 1671, he was raised to the see of Tulle, whence, in 1679, he was translated to that of Agen. He died in 1703, most admired are those on Henrietta of England, the duke of Beaufort, and marshal Turenne,—Davenport. MASCHIL; a title, or inscription, at the head of seve- ral psalms of David and others, in the book of Psalms. Thus Psalm 32, is inscribed, “A Psalm of David, Mas- chil;” and Psalm 42, “To the chief musician, Maschil, for the sons of Korah.” The word Maschil, in the He- brew, signifies, “he that instructs;” though some inter- preters take it for the name of a musical instrument. Some of the rabbins believe that, in repeating the psalms which have this inscription, it was usual to add an inter- pretation or explication to them. Others, on the contrary, think it shows the clearness and perspicuity of such psalms, and that they needed no particular explication. The most probable opinion is, that Maschil means an in- structive song.— Watson. MASHAM, (Lady DAMARIs,) daughter of the celebrated . Cudworth, was born at Cambridge, England, in 1658. Her father perceiving the bent of her genius, took particu- lar care of her education, so that she was early distin- guished for piety and uncommon learning. She became the second wife of Sir Francis Masham, of Oates, in Es- sex; and repaid her father’s care of her, in the admirable pains she took in the education of her only son. In the study of divinity and philosophy she was greatly assisted by Mr. Locke, who lived in her family many of the last years of his life. She wrote a Discourse con- cerning the Love of God, 1691, 12mo; and Occasional Thoughts in reference to a Virtuous or Christian Life, 1700, 12mo; and drew up the account of Mr. Locke pub- lished in the great Historical Dictionary. She died in 1708.- Betham. MASON, (John MitchELI, D. D.,) a distinguished American divine and pulpit orator, was born in the city of New York, in 1770, and after graduating at Columbia col- lege, prepared himself for the sacred ministry. His theo- logical studies were completed in Europe. In 1792, he returned to New York, and was established in the ministry at that place till 1811, when he accepted the appointment of provost in Columbia college. This situation his ill health obliged him to resign, and he visited Europe to re- pair his constitution. On his return in 1817, he again re- sumed his labors in preaching, and in 1821, undertook the charge of Dickinson college, in Pennsylvania. In 1824, he returned to New York, and died in 1829. He was the author of Letters on Frequent Communion ; a Plea for Sacramental Communion on Catholic Principles; and a number of Essays, Reviews, Orations, and Sermons, published at different times. They have recently been collected and published, in four volumes, octavo. The mind of Dr. Mason was of the most robust order; his theology Calvinistic; and his style of eloquence pow- erful and irresistible as a torrent. When Robert Hall first heard him deliver before the London Missionary Society, in 1802, his celebrated discourse on Messiah’s Throne, it is said he exclaimed, “I can never preach again ſ”—Davenport. MASORA; a term, in the Jewish theology, signifying a work on the Bible, performed by several learned rab- bins, to secure it from any alterations which might other. wise happen. The work regards merely the letter of the Hebrew text, in which they have first fixed the true reading by vowels and accents ; they have, secondly, numbered not only the chapters and sections, but the verses, words, and letters of the text; and they find in the Pentateuch ſive thousand two hundred and forty-five verses, and in the whole Bi- ble twenty-three thousand two hundred and six. The Of his funeral orations the Masora is called by the Jews the “hedge or ſence of the law,” because this enumeration of the verses, &c. is a means of preserving it from being corrupted and altered. They have, thirdly, marked whatever irregularities occur in any of the letters of the Hebrew text; such as the dif. ſerent size of the letters, their various positions and inver- sions, &c.; and they have been ſtuitful in finding out reasons for these mysteries and irregularities in them. They are, fourthly, supposed to be the authors of the Keri and Chetibh, or the marginal corrections of the text in our Hebrew Bibles. + According to Elias Levita, they were the Jews of a ſa- mous School at Tiberias, about five hundred years after Christ, who composed, or at least began, the Masora ; whence they are called Masorites, and Masorctic doctors, Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the points and ac. cents in the Hebrew text, as we now find it, and which serve for vowels. - - - . The age of the Masorites, however, has been much dis- puted. Archbishop Usher places them before Jerome; Capel at the end of the fifth century; father Morin in the tenth century. Basnage says that they were not a society, but a succession of men; and that the Masora was the work of many grammarians, who, without associating and communicating their motions, composed this collection of criticisms on the Hebrew text. It is urged, that there were Masorites from the time of Ezra and the men of the great synagogue, to about the year of Christ 1030; and that Ben Asher and Ben'Naphtali, who were the best of the proſession, and who, according to Basnage, were the inventors of the Masora, flourished at this time. Each of these published a copy of the whole Hebrew text, as correct, says Dr. Prideaux, as they could make it. The eastern Jews have followed that of Ben Naphtall, and the western that of Ben Asher ; and all that has been done since is to copy after them, without making any more corrections or masoretical criticisms. - There is a great and little Masora printed at Venice and at Basil, with the Hebrew text in a different cha- racter. Buxtorf has written a work on the Masorites, which he calls Tiberias.-Hend. Buck. - MASS, Miss A ; in the church of Rome, the oſfice of prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist; or, in ăii § § à |º ** * * **** É|iššº § | º |; ſºlº # # º ‘tº 3 * * 8 * | * * * * º w § º | º ºr sº º 2. º § tº . §" #| || ºff Sºśºſºft §º |} | : ; º º jºš); # #|}}} º º º º ºfºº ſº. º Sºft { § j}|####|jã ** §§§ * §§§ #º A\}}} . fº W. : ºss º: º &º *::: §§ § Sº/). RN; º § º t º NY tº º º * º ſº {{I}1} . | º ſº ſ * * if: |º ſº. W. º |ººlſ: tº . tº º t º . | º: ſº º R \l º º: f º § fºg º ºf...; º º }|| º ºšlji § §§ §§§ º º Sº | º other words, the consecrating the bread and wine so th it is transubstantiated into the body and blood of Christ and offering them as an expiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead. Nicod, after Baronius, observes that the word comes from the Hebrew missach, (oblatum,) or from the Latin missa missorum ; because in former times the cate- chumens and excommunicated were sent out of the church, when the deacons said, “Jie, missa est,” after sermon and reading of the epistle and gospel; they not being allowcal to assist at the consecration. Menage derives the word from missio, “ dismissing;” others, from missa, “ sending';” because in the mass the prayers of men on earth are sent up to heaven. - - . . As the mass is in general believed to be a representa- tion of the passion of our blessed Savior, so every action of the priest, and every particular part of the service, are M. A. S M. A. T. f 788 J supposed to allude to the particular circumstances of his assion and death. The general division of masses is in- to high and low mass. The first is that sung by the chor. isters, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon : low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed without singing. There are a great num- ber of different or occasional masses in the Romish church, many of which have nothing peculiar but the name. Such are the masses of the saints: that of St. Mary of the Snow, celebrated on the fifth of August; that of St. Margaret, patroness of lying-in women; that at the feast of St. John the Baptist, at which are said three masses; that of the Innocents, at which the gloria in excelsis and hallelujah are omitted; and, it being a day of mourning, the altar is of a violet color. As to ordinary masses, some are said for the dead, and, as is supposed, contribute to extricate the soul out of purgatory. At these masses the altar is put in mourning, and the only decorations are a cross in the mid- łe of six yellow wax lights; the dress of the celebrant, and the very mass-book, are black; many parts of the office are omitted, and the people are dismissed without the benediction. If the mass be said for a person distin- guished by his rank or virtues, it is followed with a fune- ral oration; they erect a chapelle ardente, that is, a repre- sentation of the deceased, with branches and tapers of yellow wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the deceased's tomb, where the priest pronounces a solemn absolution of the deceased. There are likewise private masses said for stolen or strayed goods or cattle, for health, for travellers, &c., which go under the name of votive masses. There is still a further distinction of masses, de- nominated from the countries in which they were used : thus the Gothic mass, or missa mosarabum, is that used among the Goths when they were masters of Spain, and which is still observed at Toledo and Salamanca; the Am- brosian mass is that composed by St. Ambrose, and used only at Milan, of which city he was bishop; the Gallic mass, used by the ancient Gauls; and the Roman mass, used by almost all the churches in the Roman commu- lion.— Watson. MASSALIANS, or Mess AiiANs ; a sect which sprung up about the year 361, in the reign of the emperor Con- stantius, who maintained that men have two souls, a ce- lestial and a diabolical ; and that the latter is driven out by prayer. From these words of our Lord, “Labor not for the meat that perisheth,” it is said, that they concluded they ought not to do any work to get their bread. We may suppose, says Dr. Jortin, that this sect did not last long ; that these sluggards were soon starved out of the world; or rather, that cold and hunger sharpened their wits, and taught them to be better interpreters of Scrip- ture. It is more probable, however, that they have been misrepresented by their enemies.—Hend. Buck. MASSILLON, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) the most eloquent of the lºrench divines, was born in 1663, the son of a notary, at Hieres, in Provence. In 1681, he entered into the con- gregation of the Oratory, and wherever he was sent gain- ed all hearts, by the liveliness of his character, the agree- ableness of his wit, and a natural fund of sensible and captivating politeness. These advantages, united with his great talents, excited the envy of his brethren, no less than the admiration of others; and he was sent, by his superiors to one of their houses, in the diocess of Meaux. The first efforts of his eloquence were made at Vienne, while he was a public teacher of theology, and his fune- ral oration on Henri de Villars, archbishop of that city, was universally admired. The fame of this discourse in- duced ſather de la Tour, then general of the congregation of the Oratory, to send for him to Paris. After some time, being asked his opinion of the principal preachers in that capital—“They display,” said he, “great genius and abilities; but, if I preach, I shall not preach as they do.” He kept his word, and took up a style of his own, not attempting to imitate any one, except it was Bourda: loue, whom, at the same time, the natural difference of his disposition did not suffer him to follow very closely. A touching and natural simplicity is the characteristic of his style, and has been thought, by able judges, to reach the heart, and produce its due effects, with much more certainly than all the logic of Bourdalone. His powers were immediately distinguished when he made his appear. ance at court; and at Versailles, he received this compli. ment from Louis XIV. : “My father, when I hear other preachers, I go away much pleased with them; but when- ever I hear you, I go away much displeased with myself.” On one occasion, the effect of a discourse preached by him, “On the Small Number of the Elect,” was so extraor- nary, that it raised the hearers from their seats, and pro- duced a general, though involuntary murmur of applause in the congregation. The preacher himself was confused by it; but the effect was only increased, and the pathetic was carried to the greatest height that can be supposed possible. His mode of delivery contributed not a little to his suc- cess. “We seem to behold him still in imagination,” said they who had been fortunate enough to attend his dis- courses, “with that simple air, that modest carriage, those eyes so humbly directed downwards, that unstudied ges- ture, that touching tone of voice, that look of a man fully impressed with the truths which he enforced, conveying the most brilliant instruction to the mind, and the most pathetic movements to the heart.” The famous actor, Baron, after hearing him, told him to continue as he had begun. “You,” said he, “have a manner of your own; leave the rules to others.” At another time, he said to an actor who was with him, “My friend, this is the true ora- tor; we are mere players.” - Massillon was not the least inflated by the praises he received. His modesty continued unaltered, and the charms of his society attracted those who were likely to be alarmed at the strictness of his lessons. In 1717, the re- gent, being convinced of his merits, by his own attend- ance on his sermons, appointed him bishop of Clermont. The French academy received him as a member in 1719. The funeral oration of the duchess of Orleans, in 1723, was the last discourse he pronounced at Paris. From that time he resided altogether in his diocess, where the mildness, benevolence, and piety of his character, gained all hearts. His love of peace led him to make many en- deavors to conciliate his brethren of the Oratory and the Jesuits; but he found, at length, that he had less influence over divines, than over the hearts of sinners. He died, resident on his diocess, in September, 1742, at the age of seventy-nine. His name has since been almost proverbial in France, where he is considered a consum- mate master of eloquence. His works were published, complete, by his nephew, at Paris, in 1745 and 1746, form- ing fourteen volumes of a larger, and twelve of a smaller kind of duodecimo.—Jones' Chris. Biog. ; D'Alembert. MASTER ; a person who has servants under him ; a ruler or instructer. The duties of masters relate, 1. To the civil concerns of the family. To arrange the several busi- nesses required of servants; to give particularinstructions for what is to be dome, and how it is to be done; to take care that no more is required of servants than they are equal to ; to be gentle in our deportment towards them ; to reprove them when they do wrong, to commend them when they do right; to make them an adequate recom- pense for their services, as to protection, maintenance, wages, and character. 2. As to the morals of servants. Masters must look well to their servants' characters be- fore they hire them; instruct them in the principles and confirm them in the habits of virtue; watch over their morals, and set them good examples. 3. As to their reli- gious interests. They should instruct them in the know- ledge of divine things; (Gen. 14: 14, 18; 19.) pray with them, and for them ; (Joshua 24: 15.) allow them time and leisure for religious services, &c., Eph. 6: 9. See Stennett on Domestic Duties, ser. 8; Paley's Moral Philoso- phy, vol. i. pp. 233, 235; Beattie's Elements of Moral Sci- ence, vol. i. pp. 150, 153; Doddridge's Lectures, vol. ii. p. 266; Dwight's Theology; Lindsley's Lectures to the Middle Aged ; Anderson on the Domestic Constitution.—Hend. Buck. MATERIALISTS ; a sect in the ancient church, com- posed of persons who, being prepossessed with that max- im in philosophy, “ex nihilo nihil fit,” out of nothing, nothing can arise, had recourse to an eternal matter, on which they supposed God wrought in the creation, instead of admitting him alone as the sole cause of the existence of all things, Tertullian vigorously opposed them in his M A T M A T [784] treatise against Hermogenes, who was one of their num- ber. Materialists are also those who maintain that the soul of man is material, or that the principle of perception and thought is not a substance distinct from the body, but the result of corporeal organization. Most of these theorists are sceptics; but some of them are professed believers in Christianity. We shall here state the views of this latter class, with their necessary consequences, and then briefly give the reasonings of their opponents. I. The followers of the late Dr. Priestley are Material- ists, and hence philosophical necessarians. According to the doctor's writings, he believed, 1. That man is no more than what we now see of him : his being commences at the time of his conception, or perhaps at an earlier period. The corporeal and mental faculties, inhering in the same substance, grow, ripen, and decay together; and whenever the system is dissolv- ed, it continues in a state of dissolution till it shall please that Almighty Being who called it into existence, to re- store it to life again. For if the mental principle were, in its own nature, immaterial and immortal, all its pecu- liar faculties would be so too; whereas we see that every faculty of the mind, without exception, is liable to be im- paired, and even to become wholly extinct, before death. Since, therefore, all the faculties of the mind, separately taken, appear to be mortal, the substance, or principle, in which they exist, must be pronounced mortal too. Thus we might conclude that the body was mortal, from ob- serving that all the separate senses and limbs were liable to decay and perish. This system gives a real value to the doctrine of the re- surrection of the dead, which is peculiar to revelation ; on which alone the sacred writers build all our hope of future life; and it explains the uniform language of the Scriptures, which speak of one day of judgment for all mankind; and represent all the rewards of virtue, and all the punishments of vice, as taking place at that awful day, and not before. In the Scriptures, the heathens are represe;ited as without hope, and all mankind as perish- ing at death, if there be no resurrection of the dead. The apostle Paul asserts, in 1 Cor. 15, 16, that “if the dead rise not, then is not Christ risen ; and if Christ be not raised, your faith is vain, ye are yet in your sins : then they also who are fallen asleep in Christ are perish- ed.” And again, ver. 32, “If the dead rise not, let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die.” In the whole dis- course, he does not even mention the doctrine of happi- ness or misery without the body. If we search the Scriptures for passages expressive of the state of man at death, we find such declarations as expressly exclude any trace of sense, thought, or enjoy- ment. See Ps. 6: 5. Job 14: 7, &c. 2. That there is some fixed law of nature respecting the will, as well as the other powers of the mind, and every thing else in the constitution of nature; and, consequently, that it is never determined without some real or apparent cause foreign to itself; i. e. without some motive of choice; or that motives influence us in some definite and invaria. ble manner, so that every volition, or choice, is constantly regulated and determined by what precedes it: and this constant determination of mind, according to the motives presented to it, is what is meant by its necessary deter- mination. This being admitted to be fact, there will be a necessary connexion between all things past, present, and to come, in the way of proper cause and effect, as much in the intellectual as in the natural world; so that, according to the established laws of nature, no event could have been otherwise than it has been, or is to be, and therefore all things past, present, and to come, are pre- cisely what the Author of nature really intended them to be, and has made provision for. To establish this conclusion, nothing is necessary but that throughout all nature the same consequences should invariably result from the same circumstances. For if this be admitted, it will necessarily follow, that at the commencement of any system, since the several parts of it and their respective situations were appointed by the Deity, the first change would take place according to a " certain rule established by himself, the result of which would be a new situation; after which, the same laws continuing, another change would succeed, according to the same rules, and so on forever; every new situation in- variably leading to another, and every event, from the commencement to the termination of the system, being strictly connected; so that, unless the fundamental laws of the system were changed, it would be impossible that any event should have been otherwise than it was. In all these cases, the circumstances preceding any cnange, are called the causes of that change ; and since a de- terminate event, or effect, constantly follows certain circumstances, or causes, the connexion between cause and effect is concluded to be invariable, and therefore me- cessary. . It is universally acknowledged, that there can be no effect without an adequate cause. This is even the foundation on which the only proper argument for the be- ing of a God rests. And the necessarian asserts, that if, in any given state of mind, with respect both to disposi- tions and motives, two different determinations, or voli- tions, be possible, it can be on no other principle than that one of them should come under the description of an effect without a cause ; just as if the beam of a balance might incline either way, though loaded with equal weights. And if any thing whatever, even a thought in the mind of man, could arise without an adequate cause, any thing else, the mind itself, or the whole universe, might like- wise exist without an adequate cause. This scheme of philosophical necessity implies a chain of causes and effects established by infinite wisdom, and terminating in the greatest good of the whole universe ; evils of all kinds, natural and moral, being admitted, as far as they contribute to that end, or are in the nature of things inseparable from it. Vice is productive not of good, but of evil to us, both here and hereaſter, though good may result from it to the whole system ; and, according to the fixed laws of nature, our present and future happiness necessarily depend on our cultivating good dispositions. . This scheme of philosophical necessity the doctor dis- tinguishes from the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination in the following particulars :- 1. No necessarian supposes that any of the human race will suffer etermally ; but that future punishments will an- swer the same purpose as temporal ones are found to do ; all of which tend to good, and are evidently admitted for that purpose. Upon the doctrine of necessity, also, the most indifferent actions of men are equally necessary with the most important; since every volition, like any other effect, must have an adequate cause depending upon the previous state of the mind, and the influence to which it is exposed. 2. The necessarian believes that his own dispositions and actions are the necessary and sole means of his pre- sent and future happiness; so that, in the most proper sense of the words, it depends entirely on himself whether he be virtuous or vicious, happy or miserable. 3. The Calvinistic system entirely excludes the popular notion of free will, viz., the liberty or power of doing what We please, virtuous or vicious, as belonging to every per- son, in every situation; which is perfectly consistent with the doctrine of philosophical necessity, and indeed results from it. [The doctor misrepresents CALVINISM.] 4. The necessarian believes nothing of the posterity of Adam's sinning in him, and of their being liable to the wrath of God on that account; or the necessity of an inſi- nite Being making atonement for them by suffering in their stead, and thus making the Deity propitious to them. He believes nothing of all the actions of any man being necessarily sinſul; but, on the contrary, thinks that the very worst of men are capable of benevolent intentions in many things that they do; and, likewise, that very good men are capable of falling from virtue, and consequently of sinking into final perdition. Upon the principles of the necessarian, also, all late repentance, and especially after long and confirmed habits of vice, is altogether and ne- cessarily ineffectual ; there not being sufficient time left to produce a change of disposition and character, which can only be done by a change of conduct of proportiona- bly long continuance. In short, in three doctrines of Materialism, Philosophy M A T MAT [ 785 cal Necessity, and Socinianism, are considered as equally parts of one system. The scheme of necessity is the im- mediate result of the materiality of man; for mechanism is the undoubted consequence of materialism; and that man is wholly material, is eminently subservient to the proper or mere humanity of Christ. For if no man have a soul distinct from his body, Christ, who in all other re- spects appeared as a man, could not have a soul which had existed before his body; and the whole doctrine of the pre-existence of souls, of which the opinion of the pre- existence of Christ is a branch, will be effectually over- turned. Such is the reasoning of Dr. Priestley. II. Much has been written of late years against the doc- trine of Materialism, and the different modifications which it has assumed; but the able and condensed argument of Wollaston, in his “Religion of Nature delineated,” iſ well considered, will furnish every one with a most clear and satisfactory refutation of this antiscriptural and irra- tional error. We can offer only a brief abstract. The soul cannot be mere matter: for if it is, then either all matter must think; or the difference must arise from a peculiar system of organization ; or a faculty of thinking must be superadded to some systems of it, which is not superadded to others. 1. But, in the first place, that position which makes all matter to be cogitative, is contrary to all the apprehensions and knowledge we have of the nature of it; nor can it be true, unless our senses and faculties be contrived only to deceive us. Why doth the scene of thinking lie in our heads, and all the ministers of sensation make their re- ports to something there, if all matter be apprehensive and cogitative 2 For in that case there would be as much thought and understanding in our heels, and everywhere else, as in our heads. If all-matter be cogitative, then it must be so as matter, and thinking must be of the essence and definition of it; but if so, we should not only continue to think always, till the matter of which we consist is an- mibilated, and so the assertor of this doctrine would stum- ble upon immortality unawares; but we must also have thought always in time past, ever since that matter was in being ; nor could there be any the least intermission of actual thinking ; which does not appear to be our case. 2. In the next place, the faculties of thinking, &c., can- not arise from a peculiar system of organization, because by organization bodies can only become greater or less, round or square, rare or dense, &c.; all which ideas are quite different from that of thinking ; there can be no re- lation between them, except that of an instrument to an agent. These modifications and affections of matter are so far from being principles or causes of thinking and acting, that they are themselves but effects, proceeding from the action of some other matter or thing upon it, and are proofs of its passivity, deadness, and utter incapacity of becoming cogitative: this is evident to sense. - 3. That faculty of thinking, so much talked of by some as superadded to certain systems of matter, fitly disposed, by virtue of God's omnipotence, though it be so called, must in reality amount to the same thing as another be- ing, or nature, with the faculty of thinking. For a faculty of thinking alone will not make up the idea of a human soul, which is endued with many faculties; apprehending, reflecting, comparing, judging, making deductions and reasoning, willing, putting the body in motion, continuing the animal functions by its presence, and giving life; and therefore, whatever it is that is superadded, it must be something which is endued with all those other faculties, And whether that can be a faculty of thinking, and so these other faculties be only faculties of a faculty, or whe- ther they must not all be rather the faculties of some spiritual nature, which being, by their own concession, superadded to matter, must be different from it, we leave the unprejudiced to determine. If men would but serious- ly look into themselves, the soul would not appear to them merely as a faculty of the body, or a kind of appurte- nance to it, but rather as some intelligent being, properly º in it, not only to use it as an instrument, and act y it, but also to govern it, or the parts of it, as the tongue, hands, feet, &c., according to its own reason. For we think it is plain enough, that the mind, though it acts under great limitations, doth, however, in many instances govern the body by its own will; and it is monstrous tº suppose this governor to be nothing but some fit dispo- sition, or accident, superadded, of that matter which is governed. A ship, it is true, would not be fit for naviga- tion, if it was not built and provided in a proper manner; but then, when it has its proper form, and is become a system of materials fitly disposed, it is not this disposition that governs it : it is the man, that other substance, who sits at the helm, and they who manage the sails and tac- kle, that do this. So our vessels without a proper organi- zation and conformity of parts would not be capable of being acted as they are ; but still it is not the shape, or modification, or any other accident, that can govern them. The capacity of being governed or used can never be the governor, applying and using that capacity. No, there must be at the helm something distinct, that commands the body, and without which the vessel would run adrift, or rather sink. For the foregoing reasons it is plain, that matter cannot. think, cannot be made to think. But iſ a faculty of think- ing can be superadded to a system of matter, without uni- ting an immaterial substance to it; yet a human body is not such a system, being plainly void of thought, and or- ganized in such a manner as to transmit the impressions of sensible objects up to the brain, where the percipient, and that which reflects upon them, certainly resides; and therefore that which there apprehends, thinks, and wills, must be that system of matter to which a faculty of think ing is superadded. But all the premises well considered, judge whether, instead of saying that this inhabitant of our heads (the soul) is a system of matter to which a ſac- ulty of thinking is superadded, it might not be more rea: sonable to say, it is a thinking mature intimately united to that fine material vehicle, more or less perfectly organ- ized, the brain. During our earthly life, by the will of the Father of spirits, these act in conjunction, that which affects the one affecting the other: the soul is detained in the body till the habitation is spoiled, and their mutual tendency to improvement interrupted, by Some hurt of disease, or by the decays and ruins of old age, or the like. By an accidental blow, the scull is beaten in, the brain is pressed upon, and the patient lies without sense or feel- ing. No sooner is the pressure removed than the power of thought immediately returns. It is known, again, that the phenomena of fainting arise from a temporary defi- ciency of blood in the brain ; the vessels collapse, and the loss of sense immediately ensues. Restore the circula- tion, and the sense is as instantly recovered. On the con- trary, when the circulation in the brain is too rapid, and inflammation of the organ succeeds, we find that ãeliri. um, frenzy, and other disorders of the mind arise in pro- portion to the inflammatory action, by which they are ap; parently produced. It is observed, also, that when the stomach is disordered by an excess of wine, or of ardent spirits, the brain is also affected through the strong sym- pathies of the nervous system, the intellect is disordered, and the man. has no longer a rational command over him- self or his actions. From these, and other circumstances of a similar nature, it is concluded, that thought is a quali- ty or function of the brain ; that it is inseparable from the organ in which it resides ; and as Mr. Lawrence, after the French physiologists, represents it, that “medullary mat- ter thinks.” Now it must certainly be inferred from all these cur- cumstances, that there is a close connexion between the power of thinking and the brain; but it by no means fol- lows, that they are, therefore, one and the same. Allow- ing, however, for a moment, the justice of the inference, from the premises which have been stated, we must re- member, that we have not as yet taken in all the circum- stances of the case. We have watched the body rather than the mind, and that only in a diseased State ; and from this partial and imperfect view of the subject, our conclusions have been deduced. But let us take the matter in another point of view. We have observed the action of the brain upon thought, and have seen that when the former is unnaturally com- pressed, the latter is immediately disordered or lost. Let us now turn our attention to the action of thought upon the brain. A letter is brought to a man containing some 99 M A T M A T [786 ) afflicting intelligence. He casts his eye upon its contents, and drops down without sense or motion. What is the cause of this sudden affection? It may be said that the vessels have collapsed, that the brain is consequently dis- ordered, and that loss of sense is the natural consequence. But let us take one step backward, and inquire what is the cause of the disorder itself, the effects of which are thus visible. It is produced by a sheet of white paper distinguished by a few black marks: But no one would be absurd enough to suppose, that it was the effect of the paper alone, or of the characters inscribed upon it, unless those characters conveyed some meaning to the under- standing. It is thought then which so suddenly agitates and disturbs the brain, and makes its vessels to collapse. From this circumstance alone we discover the amazing influence of thought upon the external organ ; of that thought which we can neither hear, nor see, nor touch, which yet produces an affection of the brain fully equal to a blow, a pressure, or any other sensible injury. Now this very action of thought upon the brain clearly shows that the brain does not produce it, while the mutual influ- ence which they possess over each other, as clearly shows that there is a strong connexion between them. But it is Carefully to be remembered, that connexion is not identity. While we acknowledge then, on the one side, the mutual connexion of the understanding and the brain, we must acknowledge, on the other, their mutual independence. The phenomena which we daily observe lead us of neces- i. to the recognition of these two important princi- pies. If then from the observations which we are enabled to make on the phenomena of the understanding and of the brain, we are led to inſer mutual independence, we shall find our conclusions still farther strengthened by a con- sideration of the substance and composition of the latter. Not only is the brain a material substance, endowed with all those properties of matter which we have before shown to be inconsistent with thought, but it is a substance, which, in common with the rest of our body, is undergo- ing a perpetual change. Indeed experiments and obser- vations give us abundant reason for concluding that the brain undergoes within itself precisely the same change with the remainder of the body. A man will fall down in a fit of apoplexy, and be recovered ; in a few years he will be attacked by another, which will prove fatal. Up- on dissection it will be found that there is a cavity formed by the blood effused from the ruptured vessel, and that a certain action had been going on, which gradually ab- sorbed the coagulated blood. If then an absorbent sys- tem exists in the brain, and the organ thereby undergoes, in the course of a certain time, a total change, it is impos- sible that this flux and variable substance can be endow- ed with consciousness or thought. If the particles of the brain, either separately or in a mass, were capable of con- sciousness, then after their removal the consciousness which they produced must forever cease. The conse- quence of which would be, that personal identity must be destroyed, and that no man could be the same individual being that he was ten years ago. But our common sense informs us, that as far as our understanding and our mo- ral responsibility are involved, we are the same individual beings that we ever were. If the body alone, or any sub- stance subject to the laws of body, were concerned, per- sonal identity might reasonably be doubted: but it is something beyond the brain that makes the man at every period of his life the same : it is consciousness, that, amidst the perpetual change of our material particles, unites every link of successive being in one indissoluble chain. The body may be gradually changed, and yet by the deposition of new particles, similar to those which ab- sorption has removed, it may preserve the appearance of identity. But in consciousness there is real, not an ap- parent, individuality, admitting of no change or substi- tution. So inconsistent with reason is every attempt which has been made to reduce our thoughts to a material origin, and to identify our understanding with any part of our corporeal frame ! The more carefully we observe the ope-- ration, both of the mind and of the brain, the more clearly we shall distinguish, and the more forcibly shall we feel, the independence of the one upon the other. We know that the brain is the organ or instrument by which the mind operates on matter, and we know that the brain again is the chain of communication between the mind and the material world. That certain disorders therefore in the chain should either prevent or disturb this commu- nication is reasonably to be expected; but nothing more is proved from thence than we knew before, namely, that the link is imperſect. And when that link is again restor- ed, the mind declares its identity, by its memory of things which preceded the injury or the disease; and where the recovery is rapid, the patient awakes as it were from a disturbed dream. How, indeed, the brain and the think- ing principle are connected, and in what manner they mu- tually affect each other, is beyond the reach of our facul- ties to discover. We must, for the present, be contented with our ignorance of the cause, while from the effects we are persuaded both of their connexion on the one hand, and of their independence on the other. For the argu- ments from Scripture see FUTURE STATE ; INTERMEDIATE STATE ; NECESSITY; PRE-ExISTENCE ; SouL ; SocINIAN ; and books under those articles.—Hend. Buck ; Watson. MATHER, (INCREASE, D. D.,) a very pious and learned American divine, was born at Dorchester, in 1639; was educated to the ministry, and was settled in the North church, Boston, in 1664. He continued there for sixty- two years, discharging the duties of his sacred office with zeal and ability. In 1685, he was appointed to the presi- dency of Harvard college, which he resigned in 1701. He died in 1723. He was an indefatigable student, and published a variety of works on religion, politics, history, and philosophy.—Davenport. - MATHER, (CoTTon, D. D.,) son of Increase Mather, and author of the celebrated “Essays to do Good,” to which Franklin ascribes his desire to be useful, was born at Boston, Feb. 12, 1662–3. At twelve years old he had made such uncommon progress in the Latin and Greek languages, besides entering on the Hebrew, that it was thought proper to remove him to the university. Ac- cordingly, he was admitted into Harvard college, where the progress he made in his academical studies was no way short of what he had made at school. Here he soon set himself to draw up systems of the sciences as he studi- ed them, which he found to be an excellent means of per- ſecting himself in them. His systems of logic and phys- ics were so far from contemptible, (though composed at an age when few lads are attempting any thing superior to themes at school,) that they have been valued and used for systems by some others since. Another excellent means of improvement, by the books he read, which he used from the beginning of his studies, was to write re- marks upon them. Multitudes of such remarks were found among his papers, after his death. He took his first degree at sixteen years of age, and, in his nineteenth year, he proceeded master of arts. The thesis he exhibit- ed and defended on that occasion was, concerning the di- vine authority of the Hebrew points, in which he main- tained their authority. But the best and brightest orna- ment of Dr. Mather's character, was his early piety, for which he was no less remarkable than for his natural ca- pacity, and his wonderful progress in learning. . When he was grown a little above the age of childhood, he join- ed himself to a religious society of young men, who met on Lord's day evenings; and he used afterwards to ascribe much of the skill which he had attained in speaking and praying, to his early exercises in that society. Dr. Mather had, from his cradle, an impediment in his speech, which seemed so opposed to his usefulness as a minister, that, for some time, he quite laid aside all thoughts of the minigtry, and applied himself to the study of physic. But, by habituating himself to a deliberate way of speaking, he, in time, got rid of his impediment; and then, by the advice of his friends, he returned to the study of divinity; which he prosecuted with such success- ful application, that before he was eighteen years old, he was thought to be prepared for public service, and was advised to begin to preach ; which accordingly he did, August 22, 1680, and accepted a call from the North church, at Boston. Though, from the account which has been given of Dr. / M A T M A T [ 787 J Mather's labors in the ministry, one might naturally be led to think, that he could have time for nothing else, yet his heart was so set on doing good, in every possible way, that he redeemed time for several other valuable and use. ful services. He published a proposal for an evangelical treasury, in order to build churches where they were wanted, distribute books ef piety, relieve poor ministers, &c., which his own church, and some others, readily ac- ceded to. That he might the better extend his usefulness beyond the limits of his own country, he applied himself to the study of the modern languages. He learned the French and Spanish ; and, in his forty-fifth year, he made himself so far master of the Iroquois Indian tongue, that he wrote and published treatises in each of those lan- guages. In short, it was the great ambition of his whole life to do good. His heart was set upon it; he did not therefore content himself with merely embracing opportu- nities of doing good, that occasionally offered themselves, but he very frequently set apart much time on purpose to devise good; and he seldom came into any company without having this directly in his view. It was constant- ly one of his first thoughts in the morning, What good may I do this day ? And that he might more certainly attend to the various branches of so large and comprehen- sive a duty, he resolved this general question, What good shall I do? into several particulars, one of which he took into consideration, while he was dressing himself, every morning ; and as soon as he came into his study, he set down some brief hints of his meditations upon it. He had ordinarily a distinct question for each morning in the week. His question for the Lord's day morning constant- ly was, What shall I do, as a pastor of a church, for the good of the flock under my charge 2 Upon this he consi- dered, what subjects were most suitable and seasonable for him to preach on ; what families of his flock were to be visited, and with what particular view ; and how he might make his ministry still more acceptable and useful. He published, in his lifetime, three hundred and eighty- two books. Though many of them are indeed but small volumes, as single Sermons, Essays, &c. yet there are seve- ral among them of a much larger size : as his “Magnalia Christi Americana;” his “Christian Philosopher;” his “Ratio Disciplinae Fratrum Nov-Anglorum;” his “Di- rections to a Candidate for the Ministry,” a book which brought him as many letters of thanks as would fill a vo- lume. Besides all these, the doctor leſt behind him seve- ral books in manuscript ; one of which, viz. his “Biblia Americana, or Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures,” was proposed to be printed in three volumes folio. The true motive that prompted him to write and publish so great a number of books, appears from the motto that he wrote on the outside of the catalogue, which he kept of his own works, viz. John 15: 8, “Herein is my Father glorified, that ye bear much fruit.” He received various public honors with a grateful sense of his obligations to those that conferred them : he also considered them as. encouragements, which the providence of God designedly ministered to his zeal and diligence in his sacred work; and he begged grace from on high to make a right im- provement of them. It might be said of Dr. Mather, with peculiar propriety, that “he was in the fear of the Lord all the day long,” for he was almost continually conversing with God in his thoughts; and there was hardly a single occurrence that he met with in life, but he improved it, to awaken in his mind some pious thoughts, and, very commonly, into an occasion of short ejacudatory prayers. At length the life of Dr. Mather drew to a close, and he was, for a long. time, confined to a bed of sickness. Many were the so- lemn blessings he pronounced on those that came to see him, and the serious charges which he gave them at part- ing. How earnestly did he wish and pray that the bless- ing of him, in whom all nations are to be blessed, might rest on the persons and families of his friends. Dr. Ma- ther died the 13th of Feb. 1727–8, which was the next day after he had completed his sixty-fifth year. God was graciously pleased to favor him with an easy dismission - out of life, and with a sweet composure of mind to the very last; blessings which he often and earnestly prayed for. “Mark the perfect man, and behold the upright, for the end of that man is peace.” See his Life, written by Dr. Jennings.-Jones' Chris. Biog. - MATTHEW, called also Levi, was the son of Alphe- us, but probably not of that Alpheus who was the father of the apostle James the Less. He was a native of Gali- lee; but it is not known in what city of that country he was born, or to what tribe of the people of Israel he be- longed. Though a Jew, he was a publican or tax-gatherer under the Romans; and his office seems to have consisted in collecting the customs due upon commodities which were carried, and from persons who passed, over the lake of Gennesareth. St. Matthew, soon after his call, made an entertainment at his house, at which were present Christ and some of his disciples, and also several publi” cans. After the ascension of our Savior, he continued, with the other apostles, to preach the gospel for some time in Judea ; but as there is no farther account of him ex tant, in any writer of the first four centuries, we must con- sider it as uncertain into what country he afterwards went, and likewise in what manner and at what time he died, though the general opinion is, that he preached and suſ. fered martyrdom in Persia or Parthia. 2. In the few writings which remain of the apostolical fathers, Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius, and Polycarp, there are manifest allusions to several pas- sages in St. Matthew's gospel. This gospel is repeatedly quoted by Justin Martyr, but without mentioning the name of St. Matthew. It is both frequently quoted, and St. Matthew mentioned as its author, by Irenaeus, Ori- gen, Athanasius, Cyril, Epiphanius, Jerome, Chrysostom, and a long train of subsequent writers. It was, indeed, universally received by the Christian church ; and we do not find that its genuineness was controverted by any early profane writer. We may therefore conclude, upon the concurrent testimony of antiquity, that this gospel is rightly ascribed to St. Matthew. * It is generally agreed, upon the most satisfactory evi- dence, that St. Matthew's gospel was the first which was written. Eusebius, who lived a hundred and fifty years after Irenaeus, says, that Matthew wrote his gospel just before he left Judea to preach the religion of Christ in oth- er countries; but when that was, neither he nor any other ancient author informs us with certainty. The impossi- bility of settling this point upon ancient authority has given rise to a variety of opinions among moderns. Of the several dates assigned to this gospel, which deserve any attention, the earliest is A. D. 38. It appears very improbable that the Christians should be left any considerable number of years without a writ- ten history of our Savior's ministry. We may with rea- son conceive that the apostles would be desirous of losing no time in writing an account of the miracles which Je- sus performed, and of the discourses which he delivered, because the sooner such an account was published, the easier it would be to inquire into its truth and accuracy; and, consequently, when these points were satisfactorily ascertained, the greater would be its weight and authori. ty. We must own that these arguments are so strong-in favor of an early publication of some history of our Sa- vior's ministry, that we cannot but accede to the opinion of Jones, Wetstein, and Dr. Owen, that St. Matthew’s gos- pel was written A. D. 38. ſ There has also of late been a difference of opinion con- cerning the language in which this gospel was originally written. In a question of this sort, however, which is a question of fact, the concurrent voice of antiquity is deci- sive. Though the fathers are unanimous in declaring that St. Matthew wrote his gospel in Hebrew, yet they have not informed us by whom it was translated into Greek. It is, however, universally allowed, that the Greek translation was made very early, and that it was more used than the original. This last circumstance is easily accounted for. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the language of the Jews, and every thing which belong- ed to them, fell into great contempt; and the early fathers, writing in Greek, would naturally quote and refer to the Greek copy of St. Matthew's gospel, in the same manner as they constantly used the Septuagint version of the Old Testament. There being no longer any country in which the language of St. Matthew's original gospel was com- Ö M A T M’IE [ 788 J monly spoken, that original would soon be ſorgotten; and the translation into Greek, the language then generally understood, would be substituted in its room. This early and exclusive use of the Greek translation is a strong proof of its correctness, and leaves us but little reason to lament the loss of the original. “As the sacred writers,” says Dr. Campbell, “ espe- cially the evangelists, have many qualities in common, so there is something in every one of them, which, if at- tended to, will be found to distinguish him from the rest. That which principally distinguishes St. Matthew, is the distinctness and particularity with which he has related many of our Lord's discourses and moral instructions. Of these, his sermon on the mount, his charge to the apostles, his illustration of the nature of his kingdom, and his prophecy on mount Olivet, are examples. He has al- so wonderfully united simplicity and energy in relating the replies of his Master to the cavils of his adversaries. Being early called to the apostleship, he was an eye-wit- ness and ear-witness of most of the things which he re- lates; and though I do not think it was the scope of any of these historians, to adjust their narratives to the pre- cise order of time wherein the events happened, there are Some circumstances which incline me to think, that St. Matthew has approached at least as near that order as any of them.” And this, we may observe, would natu- rally be the distinguishing characteristic of a marrative, written very soon after the events had taken place. The most remarkable things recorded in St. Matthew’s gospel, and not found in any other, are the following : the visit of the eastern Magi; our Savior's flight into Egypt; the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem; the parable of the ten virgins; the dream of Pilate's wife; the resurrec- tion of many saints at our Savior's crucifixion; and the bribing of the Roman guard, appointed to watch at the holy sepulchre, by the chief priests and elders. IIorne, and Hug's Introductions.—Watson. - MATTHIAS, the apostle, was first in the rank of our Savior’s disciples, and one of those who continued with him from his baptism to his ascension, Acts 1:21, 22. It is very probable he was of the number of the seventy, as Clemens Alexandrinus and other ancients inform us. We have no particulars of his youth or education, for we may reckon as nothing what is read in Abdias, or Obadiah, concerning this matter. The Greeks believe that Matthi- as preached and died at Colchis.-Watson. MAURY, (John SIFFREIN,) a French cardinal and statesman, was born, in 1746, at Vaureas, in the comtat Wenaissin, and acquired great reputation by his eloquence as a preacher. He was one of the deputies of the clergy to the states general, and was conspicuous for his opposi- tion to revolutionary, measures. In 1791, he quitted France, and the pope made him a cardinal. Napoleon, in 1810, gave him the archbishopric of Paris. Maury died in 1817. He wrote an Essay on Eloquence; and other works.-Davenport. - MAXCY, (JonATIAN, D. D.,) a distinguished Baptist minister, and president of three colleges, was born at At- tleborough, Mass., Sept. 2, 1768, and was graduated in 1787, at the college in Providence, of the Baptist church in which town he was ordained the pastor, Sept. 8, 1791. He was also professor of divinity in the college, and eleven years the president, ſrom Sept. 6, 1792. In 1801, he suc- ceeded Dr. Edwards as the president of Union college, Schenectady, in which office he was succeeded by Dr. Nott, in 1804. For the next fifteen years he was the first presi- dent of the college of South Carolina, in Columbia, where he died June 4, 1820, aged fifty-two. Dr. Maxcy was one of the most accomplished scholars and pulpit orators this country has produced. His character was very amiable, and his piety sincere. His health through liſe was deli- cate, and hence his change of situation. His death was that of the believer in Jesus, and his memory is widely revered. He published a Discourse on the Death of Presi- dent Manning ; on the Existence of God ; on the Atone- ment, 1796; Address to a class, 1797; a Funeral Sermon before the legislature of South Carolina, 1818.-Allen. . MATURIN, (CHARLEs Roger'r,) a divine, dramatist, and poet, was born, in 1782, in Ireland, and was educated at Trinity college, Dublin. Though he was popular for his eloquence as a preacher, his only church preſerment was the curacy of St. Peter's, in the Irish metropolis. His pen was fertile, but the remuneration which he received could not save him from frequent embarrassments. His first three novels, The Fatal Revenge, The Wild Irish Boy, and The Milesian Chief, were published under the as- sumed name of Dennis Jasper Murphy. He died in 1825. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote Sermons; The Universe, a poem ; the novels of Melmoth, and Wo- man; and the tragedies of Bertram, Manuel, and Fredol- pho. The genius of Maturin was great, but it was not always under the control of a pure taste.—Davenport. MAYHEW, (ExPERIENCE,) minister on Martha's Wine- yard, was born Jan. 27, 1673. His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, were all engaged as missionaries to the Indians before him, and several hundred of them were converted to Christ. In March, 1694, about five years after the death of his father, he began to preach to the Indians, taking the oversight of five or six of their as- semblies. The Indian language had been familiar to him from infancy, and he was employed by the commissioners of the society for propagating the gospel in New England to make a new version of the Psalms and of John, which work he executed with great accuracy in 1709. He died Nov. 29, 1758, aged eighty-five. He published a sermon, entitled, All Mankind by Nature equally under Sin, 1724; Indian Converts, 8vo, 1727; in which he gives an ac- count of the lives of thirty Indian ministers, and about eighty Indian men, women, and youth, worthy of remem- brance on account of their piety; a Letter on the Lord's Supper, 1741; Grace Defended, 8vo, 1744; in which he contends, that the offer of salvation, made to sinners in the gospel, contains in it a conditional promise of the grace given in regeneration. In this, he says, he differs from most Calvinists; yet he supports the doctrines of original sin, of eternal decrees, and of the sovereignty of God in the salvation of man. a His son Zechariah succeeded him in the missionary field, making five generations thus engaged. The age attained by the Mayhews is remarkable ; the first, Tho- mas, died aged ninety; Experience, eighty-four; John, grandson of the first John, eighty-nine; his brother, Jere. miah, eighty-five ; Dr. Matthew, eighty-five ; Zechariah, seventy-nine. Indian Conv., Appen. 306, 307; Chauncy's Remarks on Dandaff’s Sermon, 23.—Allen. - MAY HEW, (JonATHAN, D. D.,) a divine of Boston, was born in Martha’s Vineyard, in 1720, and educated at Harvard college. In 1747, he was ordained pastor of the West church, in Boston, and continued in this station the remainder of his life. He possessed a mind of great acute- ness and energy, and in his principles was a determined republican. He had no little influence in producing the American revolution. His sermons and controversial tracts obtained for him a high reputation, and many of them were republished several times in England. He died in 1766.—Davenport. MAZZAROTH, #. 38: 32. Our margin supposes this word to denote the twelve signs of the zodiac, a broad circle in the heavens, comprehending all such stars as lie in the path of the sun and moon. As these luminaries appear to proceed throughout this circle annually, so diſſe. rent parts of it progressively receive them every month, and this progression seems to be what is meant by “bringing forth mazzaroth in his season ;” q. d. “Canst thou by thy power cause the revolutions of the heavenly bodies in the zodiac, and the seasons of Summer and winter, which en- Sue on their progress into the regular annual or monthly situations 3"—Calmet. M’KEEN, (Joseph, D. D.,) first president of Bowdoin college, was born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, Oct. 15, 1757. He was graduated at Dartmouth college in 1774, and after being some time an assistant in the acade- my at Andover, he directed his attention to theology, and was ordained successor of Dr. Willard, as pastor of the church in Beverly, in May, 1785. Here he continued with reputation and useſúlness seventeen years. Being , chosen president of Bowdoin college, which had been in- corporated eight years, but had not yet been carried into operation, he was inducted into that important oſlice, Sept. 2, 1802. He died July 15, 1807, aged forty-nine, leav M E D " M. E. D | 789 J ing the seminary, over which he had presided, in a very flourishing condition. - Dr. M'I(een possessed a strong and discriminating mind; his manners were conciliating though dignified, and his spirit mild though firm and decided. Hs was inde- fatigable in his exertions to promote the interests of sci- ence and religion. He was respectable for his learning and exemplary for his Christian virtues, being pious with- out ostentation, and adhering to evangelical truth without bigotry or superstition. He published several Se..mons, and some papers in the Transactions of the American academy; his inaugural address, with Mr. Jenks' eulogy, 1802.-Allen. MEANS OF GRACE ; those ordinances God has esta- blished as the channels of his mercy in Christ, and which we are to use for the purpose of improving our minds, affecting our hearts, and obtaining spiritual blessings; such are hear- ing the gospel, reading the Scriptures, self-examination, meditation, prayer, praise, Christian conversation, &c. The means are to be used without any reference to merit, solely with a dependence on the Divine Being; nor can we ever expect happiness in ourselves, nor be good exem- lars to others, while we live in the neglect of them. It is in vain to argue that the divine decrees supersede the necessity of them, since God has as certainly appointed the means as the end. Besides, he himself generally works by them ; and the more means he thinks proper to use, the more he displays his glorious perfections. Jesus Christ, when on earth, used means; he prayed, he exhort- cd, and did good, by going from place to place. Indeed, the systems of nature, providence, and grace, are all car- ried on by means. The Scriptures abound with exhorta- lions to them, (Matt. 5. Rom. 12.) and none but enthusi- asts or immoral characters ever reſuse to use them. See Griffin's Park Street Lectures; Dwight's Theology, and Ful- lcr’s Works.—Hend. Buck. MEASURE ; that by which any thing is measured, adjusted, or proportioned. See the general table of Weights, Measures, and Money, of the Hebrews, at the cnd of this work. Also the particular names of each, as SHEKEL, TALENT, BATH, EPHAH, &c.—Calmet. , MEATS. (See Foon, and ANIMALs.) MEDAD and ELDAD; two men who were among those whom God inspired with his Holy Spirit, to assist Moses in the government, Num. 11: 26–30. The Jews affirm, that they were brothers by the mother's side to Moses, and sons of Jochebed and Elizaphan. They are divided about the subject of their prophecies; some think- ing they prophesied concerning the quails that the Israel- ites were quickly to receive ; others concerning the death of Moses, and the exaltation of Joshua.-Calmet. MEDAN, or MADAN, the third son of Abraham and Keturah, (Gen. 25: 2.) is thought, with Midian his bro- ther, to have peopled the country of Midian or Madian, cast of the Dead sea.—Calmet. MEDE, (Joseph, B. D.,) a learned English divine, was descended from a respectable family at Berden, in Essex, and born in 1586. He became a commoner of Christ- church, Cambridge, in 1602, where he took the degree of master of arts in 1610, having at this time made such progress in all kinds of leårning, that he was universally esteemed an accomplished scholar. He was an acute logi- cian, an accurate philosopher, a skilful mathematician, an excellent anatomist, a great philologist, a master of many languages, and a good proficient in history and chronology. IIe was appointed Greek lecturer on Sir Walter Mildmay's foundation, and particularly employed himself in studying the history of the Chaldeans and Egyptians. In 1627, he published at Cambridge his “Clavis Apocalyptica,” in quarto, to which he added, in 1632, “In Sancti Joannis Apocalypsin Commentarius, ad amussim Clavis Apocalyp- tićac.” An English translation of this celebrated work was published in London in 1650, entitled “The Key of the Revelation searched and demonstrated out of the na- tural and proper Characters of the Visions, &c., to which is added, a Conjecture concerning Gog and Magog.” This work has been honored with high commendation ſtom the learned Dr. Hurd, in his “Introduction to the Study of the Prophecies,” vol. ii. p. 122, &c., where he characterizes him as “a sublime genius, without vanity, interest, or spleen, but with a single, unmixed love of truth, dedi- cating his great talents to the study of the prophetic Scrip- tures, and unfolding the mysterious prophecies of the Revelation.” Mr. Mede died in 1638. A collection of the whole of his works was published in 1677, in two vo- lumes, folio, by Dr. Worthington, who added to them a life of the author. He was a pious and profoundly learned man; and in every part of his works the talents of a sound and learned divine are eminently conspicuous. Biog. Brit.—Jones' Chris. Biog. MEDIA. It has been commonly thought that Media was peopled by the descendants of Madai, son of Japheth, Gen. 10: 2. The Greeks maintain that this country took its name from Medus, the son of Medea. If, however, Madai and his immediate descendants did not people this country, some of his posterity might have carried his name thither, since we find it so often given to Mečia from the times of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, and from the transportation of the ten tribes, and the destruc- tion of Samaria under Shalmaneser, A. M. 3283. Media Proper was bounded by Armenia and Assyria Proper on the west, by Persia on the east, by the Caspian provinces on the north, and by Susiana on the south. It was an elevated and mountainous country, and formed a kind of pass between the cultivated parts of eastern and western Asia. Hence, from its geographical position, and from the temperature, verdure, and fertility of its climate, Media was one of the most important and interesting re- gions of Asia. - Into this country the ten tribes who composed the kingdom of Israel were transplanted, in the Assyrian captivity, by Tiglath-pileser and Shalmaneser, 1 Chron. 5: 26. 2 Kings 17:6. The geographical position of Media was wisely chosen for the distribution of the great body of the cap- tives; for, it was so remote, and so impeded and inter- sected with great mountains and numerous and deep ri- vcrs, that it would be extremely difficult for them to escape from this natural prison, and return to their own country. They would also be opposed in their passage through Kir, or Assyria Proper, not only by the native Assyrians, but also by their enemies, the Syrians, transplanted thither before them. The superior civilization of the Israelites, also, and their skill in agriculture, and in the arts, would tend to civilize and improve those wild and barbarous re- ions.—Watson. , - MEDIATOR ; a person that intervenes between two parties at variance, in order to reconcile them. Thus Je. sus Christ is the Mediator between an offended God and sinful man, 1 Tim. 2: 5. Both Jews and Gentiles have a nution of a Mediator: the Jews call the Messiah Amezoa, the Mediator, or Middle One. The Persians call their god Mithras, mesites, a mediator; and the demons, with the heathers, seem to be, according to them, mediators be- tween the Superior gods and men. Indeed, the whole reli- gion of paganism was a system of mediation and interces- sion. The idea, therefore, of salvation by a Mediator, is not so novel or restricted as some imagine; and the Scrip- tures of truth inform us, that it is only by this way human beings can arrive at eternal felicity, Acts 4:12. John 14:6. Man, in his state of innocence, was in friendship with God; but, by Sinning against him, he exposed himself to his just displeasure; his powers became enfeebled, and his heart filled with enmity against him : (Rom. 8: 6.) he was driven out of his paradisiacal Eden, and totally inca- pable of returning to God, and making satisfaction to his justice. Jesus Christ, therefore, was the appointed Media- tor to bring about reconciliation; (Gen. 3: 12. Col. 1: 21.) and in the fulness of time he came into this world, obeyed the law, satisfied justice, and brought his people into a state of grace and favor; yea, into a more exalted state of friendship with Gcq than was lost by the fall, Eph. 2: 18. Now, in order to the accomplishing of this work, it was necessary that the Mediator should be God and man in one person. It was necessary that he should be man,—1. That he might be related to those of whom he was a Media. tor and Redeemer.—2. That sin might be satisfied for, and reconciliation be made for it, in the same nature which sinned.—3. It was proper that the Mediator should be ca pable of obeying the law broken by the sin of man, as a divine person could not be subject to the law, and yield 1M E 0 M E D 790 | a ºbedience to it, Gal. 4: 4. Rom. 5: 19,-4. It was meet that the Mediator should be man; that he might be capable of suffering death; for, as God, he could not die, and without shedding of blood there was no remission, Heb. 2: 10, 15. 8; 3,-5. It was fit he should be man, that he might be a faithful high-priest, to sympathize with his eople under all their trials, temptations, &c., Heb. 2: 17, 8. 4: 15–6. It was fit that he should be a holy and righteous man, free from all sin, original and actual, that he might offer himself without spot to God, take away the sins of men, and be an advocate for them, Heb. 7:26. 9: 14. 1 John 3: 5. (See IncARNATION.) - - But it was not enough to be truly man, and an innocent person; he must be more than a man : it was requisite that he should be God also, for, 1. No mere man could have entered into a covenant with God to mediate between him and sinſul men.—2. He must be God, to give virtue and value to his obedience and sufferings; for the suffer- ings of men or angels would not have been sufficient.—3. Being thus God-man, we are encouraged to hope in him. In the person of Jesus Christ the object of trust is brought nearer to ourselves; and those well-known, tender affec- tions which are only figuratively ascribed to the Deity, are in our great Mediator thoroughly realized. Further, were he God, and not man, we should approach him with fear and dread; were he man and not God, we should be guilty of idolatry to worship and trust him at all, Jer. 17: 5. The plan of salvation, therefore, by such a Mediator, is the most suitable to human beings that possibly could be ; for here “mercy and truth meet together, righteousness and peace kiss each other,” Ps. 85: 10. (See Jesus CHRIST.) The properties of Christ as Mediator are these :—1. He is the only Mediator, 1 Tim. 2: 4. Praying, therefore, to saints and angels, is an error of the church of Rome, and has no countenance from the Scripture.—2. Christ is a Mediator of men only, not of angels; good angels need not any ; and as for evil angels, none is provided nor ad- mitted.—3. He is the Mediator both for Jews and Gen- tiles, Eph. 2: 18. 1 John 2: 2.—4. He is Mediator both for. Old and New Testament saints.-5. He is a suitable, con- stant, willing, and prevalent Mediator; his mediation always succeeds, and is infallible. (See ATONEMENT, and ADvocate.) Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. i. oct. p. 336; Witsii CEcon. Foºd. lib. ii. c. 4; Fuller's Gospel its on-n Witness, ch. iv. p. 2; Hurrion's Christ Crucifted, p. 103, &c.; Dr. Onven on the Person of Christ; Dr. Goodwin’s Works, b. iii.; Maclaurin's Works ; Butler's Analogy; Works of Robert Hall; Dnight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. MEDICINE, or the healing art, is an invention ascribed by Jesus, son of Sirach, to God himself, Ecclus. 38: 1, &c. Scripture makes no mention of physicians before the time of Joseph, who commanded his servants, the physi- cians of Egypt, to embalm the body of Jacob, Gen. 50: 2. The art of medicine, however, was very ancient in Egypt. They ascribed the invention of it to Thaut, or to Hermes, or to Osiris, or to Isis; and some of the learned have thought that Moses having been instructed in all the learn- ing of the Egyptians, must also have known the chief secrets of medicine. They also argue it from his accurate diagnosis, or indications concerning diseases, the leprosy, infirmities of women, animals, clean and unclean, &c. It does not appear that physicians were common among the Hebrews, especially for internal maladies; but for wounds, fractures, bruises, and external injuries, they had physi- cians, or surgeons, who understood the dressing and bind- 1ng up of wounds, with the application of medicaments. See Jer. 8: 22. 46: 11. Ezek. 30: 21. But there was no remedy known for the leprosy, or for distempers which were the consequences of incontinence. - The low state of the art of medicine, with the persua- sion that distempers were effects of God’s anger, or were caused by evil spirits, was the reason that in extraordinary maladies the sufferers applied to various empirics, diviners, magicians, enchanters, or false gods. Sometimes they applied to the prophets of the Lord for cure ; or, at least, to know whether they should recover or not, 2 Kings 5: 5, 6. 8:8. 20; 7. Isa. 28:21. Asa being diseased in his ſeet; and having applied to physicians, is upbraided with it, as contrary to that confidence which he ought to have had in the Lord, 1 Kings 15:23. 2 Chron. 16: 12. And when our Savior appeared in Palestine, although there can be no doubt that there were physicians in the country, it is evi- dent that the people placed but little confidence in them. Compare Mark 5: 26. Luke 8: 43. They brought to our Savior and his apostles multitudes of diseased people from all parts of the land. (See DISEASEs.) . Medicine, which may be termed a science of ſacts, is indebted for its present distinction to observation, and on it must depend for its further advancement. To observa- tion, the physician owes the most exact and valuable part of his knowledge, and upon it he rests the basis of his dia- gnosis, prognosis, and treatment of disease. It is at the bedside of the patient that the observer must study dis- ease; there he will see it in its true characters, stripped of those false shades by which it is so frequently disguiscd in books. There, freed from the vagueness and illusion of systems, the student can acquire fixed and definite no- tions of diseases, and learn the difficult art of distinguish- ing them. If physicians had always confined themselves within the limits of strict observation—if they had restrict- ed themselves to such conclusions as are fairly deducible from facts, the science of medicine would not now be over- loaded, as it is, by hypothesis, and we should possess a suſ- ficient body of materials to enable us to establish sound general principles. - In man, the most artificial of all animals, the most ex- posed to all the circumstances that can act unfavorably on his frame, diseases are so numerous and diversified as to exhaust the ingenuity of the noSologist, and fatigue the memory of the physician. It is only of late years that pa- thology—the knowledge of the alterations induced by dis- ease in the organs and textures of which the system is composed—has begun to assume the rank of a special department of medical science. The improved means of investigating diseases which have been devised, by ren- dering the methods of examination more strict and rigor- ous, have given a very decided impulse to medicine. Pathological anatomy has raised it to a level with the descriptive sciences, when considered in reference to or- ganic alterations, and the “Auscultation, Mediate” has placed it among the physical sciences so far as the doc- trine of symptoms is concerned. Nosology, or the classi- fications of diseases, has also been greatly improved. “Perhaps nosological catalogues,” says Dr. Lawrence, “would afford the most convincing argument that man has departed from the way of liſe to which nature has destined him ; unless, indeed, it should be contended that these afflictions are a necessary part of his nature; a dis- tinction from animals, of which he will not be very likely to boast. - “The accumulation of numbers in large cities—the noxious effects of impure air, Sedentary habits, and un- wholesome employments—the excesses in diet, the luxuri- ous food, the heating drinks, the monstrous mixtures, and the pernicious seasonings, which stimulate and oppress the organs—the unnatural activity of the great cerebral circulation, excited by the double impulse of our luxuri- ous habits and undue mental exertions, the violent pas- sions which agitate and exhaust us, the anxiety, chagrin, and vexation from which few.entirely escape, reacting on, and disturbing the whole frame—the delicacy and sensi- bility to external influences caused by our heated rooms, warm clothing, inactivity, and other indulgences—are so many fatal proofs that our most grievous ills are our own work, and might be obviated by a more simple and uni- form way of life.”—Lanrence's Lectures ; Martinct's Patho- logy; Good's Study of Medicine; Calmet. MEDITATION, is an act by which we consider any thing closely, or wherein the soul is employed in the search or consideration of any truth. In religion it is used to signify the serious exercise of the understanding, whereby our thoughts are fixed on the observation of spiritual things, in order to practice. Mystic divines make a great difference between meditation and contemplation: the for- mer consists in discursive acts of the Soul, considering methodically and with attention the mysteries of faith and the precepts of morality; and is performed by reflections and reasonings which leave behind them manifest impres sions on the brain. The purely contemplative, they say have no need of meditation as seeing aſ things ir Gº' a iſ 791 J a glance, and without any reflection. (See BEGUINs, and QUIETISTs.) wº 1. Meditation is a duty which ought to be attended to by all who wish well to their spiritual interests. It ought to be deliberate, close, and perpetual, Ps. 119: 97. 1:2. 2. The subjects which ought more especially to engage the Christian mind are the works of creation; (Ps. 19.) the perfections of God; (Deut. 32: 4.) the excellencies, offices, characters, and works of Christ; (Heb. 12; 2, 3.) the of: fices and operations of the Holy Spirit; (John 15; and 16.) the various dispensations of Providence; (Ps. 97: 1, 2.) the precepts, declarations, promises, &c. of God’s word; (Ps. 119.) the value, powers, and immortality of the soul; (Mark 8: 36.) the noble, beautiful, and benevolent plan of the gospel; (1 Tim. 1: 11.) the necessity of our personal interest in and experience of its power; (John 3: 3.) the depravity of our nature, and the freedom of divine grace in choosing, adopting, justifying, and Sanctifying us ; (1 Cor. 6: 11.) the shortness, worth, and swiftness of time; (James 4: 14.) the certainty of death; (Heb. 9: 27.) the resurrection and judgment to come; (1 Cor. 15: 50, &c.) and the future state of eternal rewards and punishments, Matt. 25. These are some of the most important subjects on which we should meditate. 3. To perform this duty aright, we should be much in prayer; (Luke 18: 1.) avoid a worldly spirit; (1 John 2: 15.) beware of sloth; (Heb. 6: 11.) take heed of sensual pleasures; (James 4: 4.) watch against the devices of Sa- tan; (1 Pet. 5: 8.) be often in retirement; (Ps. 4:4.) em- brace the most favorable opportunities—the calmness of the morning; (Ps. 5: 1, 3.) the solemnity of the evening; (Gen. 24: 63.) Sabbath days; (Ps. 118: 24.) Sacramental occasions, &c., 1 Cor. 11: 28. - 4. The advantages resulting from this are, improvement of the faculties of the soul; (Prov. 16:22.) the affections are raised to God; (Ps. 39: 1, 4.) an enjoyment of divine peace and felicity; (Phil. 4: 6, 7.) holiness of life is pro- moted; (Ps. 119: 59, 60.) and we thereby experience a foretaste of eternal glory, Ps. 73:25, 26. 2 Cor. 5: 1, &c.; Baxter's Saints' Rest.—Hend. Buck. - MEEKNESS; a calm, serene temper of mind, not ea- sily ruffled, or provoked to resentment. In the Greek language it is praos, easiness of spirit, and thus it may be justly called; for by quietly acquiescing in the dispensa- tions and will of God, and leaving to him the avenging of injuries, it accommodates the soul to every occurrence, and so makes a man easy to himself, and to all about him. The Latins call a meek man mansuetus, used to the hand; which alludes to the taming and reclaiming of crea- tures wild by nature, and bringing them to be tractable and familiar, Jam. 3: 7, 8. So where the great principles of Christianity have disciplined the soul, where the holy grace of meekness reigns, it subdues the impetuous dispo- sition, and teaches it, trusting in God, both to submit and to forgive. It teaches us to govern our own anger when- ever we are at any time provoked, and patiently to bear the anger of others, that it may not be a provocation to us. The former is its office, especially in superiors; the latter in inferiors, and both in equals, James 3: 13. The excellency of such a spirit appears, if we consider that it enables us to gain a victory over corrupt nature; (Prov. 16:32.) that it is a beauty and an ornament to hu. man beings; (1 Pet. 3:4) that it is obedience to God's word, and conformity to the best patterns; Eph. 5: 1, 2. Phil. 4: 8. It is productive of the highest peace to the professor, Luke 21; 19. Matt. 11: 28, 29. It fits us for any duty, *ion, relation, condition, or persecution, Phil. 4: 11, 12. - To obtain this spirit, consider that it is a divine injunc- tion, Zeph. 2: 3. Col. 3: 12. 1 Tim. 6: 11. Observe the many examples of it: Jesus Christ; (Matt. 11: 28.) Abra- ham; (Gen. 13, 16: 5, 6.) Moses; (Num. 12: 3.) David; (Zech. 12; 8. 2 Sãm, 16; 10, 12. Ps. 131: 2) Paul, 1 Cor. 9:19. How lovely a spirit it is in itself, and how it se- cures us from a variety of evils. That peculiar promises are made to such, Matt. 5: 5. Isa. 66: 2. That such give evidence of their being under the influence of divine grace, and shall enjoy the divine blessing, Isa. 57: 15. See Henry on Meekness ; Dunlop's Sermors, vol. ii. p. 434; AEvans' Sermons on the Christian Temper ser, 29; Tillotson on 1 Pet. 2: 21 ; and on Matt. 5: 44; Logan's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 10; and Jortin’s Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 11.-H. Buck. MEETING-HOUSE; a place appropriated for the pur- pose of public worship. (See CHURCH, CHAPEL, and BELL.) -— Hend. Buck. - MEGIDDO ; a city of Manasseh, (Josh. 17: 11. Judg. 1:27.) famous for the defeat of king Josiah, 2 Kings 23: 29, 30. It is alluded to under this character, Rev. 16. 16. (See ESDRAELON.)—Calmet. MELANCHOLY ; sadness or gloom, arising either from habit of body, or the state of the mind. To remove it, the following remedies may be applied:—1. Early rising. 2. Plain, nourishing food. 3. Strict temperance. 4. Exercise in the open air. (See MEDICINE.) Or, if it arises particularly ſrom the mind, 1. Associate with the cheerful. 2. Study the Scriptures. 3. Consider the amiable character of God, and the all-sufficient atone. ment of his Son. 4. Avoid all sin. 5. Be much in prayer, that you may enjoy the promised presence of the Holy Spi- rit, the infallible CoMFORTER. 6. Be constantly engaged in such employments as combine the sense of duty and the feelings of benevolence. See Burton, Baxter, and Ro- gers on Melancholy; Cecil’s Remains; Fuller's Works; Na- tural History of Enthusiasm.—Hend. Buck. MELANCTHON, (PHILIP,) Luther's fellow-laborer in the Reformation, was born February 16, 1497, at Bretten, in the palatinate of the Rhine. He was distinguished, at an early age, by his intellectual endowments. His rapid progress in the ancient languages, during his boyhood, made him a peculiar favorite with Reuchlin. At his ad- vice he changed his name, according to the custom of the learned at that time, from Schwartzerd (Black earth) into the Greek name Melancthon, of the same signification ; and, in 1510, went to the university of Heidelberg. Here he was pre-eminent in philological and philosophical stu- dies, so that the following year he was deemed qualified for the degree of bachelor of philosophy, and was made the instructer of several young counts. But as this university denied him the dignity of magister, on account of his youth, he went to Tubingen, in 1512, where, in addition to his former studies, he devoted himself particularly to theolo- gy; and, in 1514, after obtaining the degree of master, delivered lectures on the Greek and Latin authors. In 1518, he received from the great Erasmus the praise of uncommon research, correct knowledge of classical an- tiquity, and of an eloquent style. On Reuchlin’s recom mendation, he was appointed, the same year, to be profes- sor of the Greek language and literature, at the university of Wittemberg, where he was brought into contact with Luther; and, by his enlightened mind, ripened judgment, philosophical and critical acumen, the uncommon distinct- ness and order of his ideas, his extraordinary caution, yet steadfast zeal, contributed greatly to the progress and suc cess of the Reformation, in connexion with the activity, spirit, and enterprise of Luther. His superiority as a scho- lar, his mild, amiable character, and the moderation and candor with which he treated the opposite party, rendered him peculiarly suitable to be a mediator. No one knew better than he how to soften the rigor of Luther, and to recommend the new doctrines to those who were prepos- sessed against them. His “Loci Theologici,” which first appeared in 1521, opened the path to an exposition of the Christian creed, at once scientific and intelligible, and be. came the model to all Protestant writers on dogmatics. He urged decidedly, in 1529, the protest against the reso- lutions of the diet of Spire, which gave his party its name, In 1530, he drew up the celebrated Confession of Augs- . burg. This and the Apology for it, which he composed soon after, carried the reputation of his name through al. Europe. Francis I. invited him to France, in 1535, with the view to a pacific conference with the doctors of the Sorbonne; and he soon after received a similar invitation to England; but political reasons prevented his accepting either of the invitations. He went to Worms, in 1541, and soon after to Ratisbon, to defend the cause of the Protestants; but failing by his wisdom and moderation to produce the peace which he so earnestly desired, he was reproached by his own party for the steps which he had taken, which they considered as s leading to an unworthy compromise with the Catholics M E L *. M. E. L. 1921. The same happened to him at Bonn, in 1543; but neither Luther nor any of his friends, how much soever they dis- approved of his measures, ever entertained a doubt of the purity of his intentions, or his fidelity to the cause of gos- pel truth. Much as Melancthon had to suffer ſtom Luther's vehemence, the friendship of these two noble-spirited men, agreeing in their religious belief, remained unbroken till Luther’s death, when Melancthom lamented for him with the feelings of a son. A great part of the confidence which Luther enjoyed, was now transferred to his surviving friend. Germany had already called him her teacher, and Wittemberg revered in him its only support, and the restorer of its university af. ter the Smalcaldic war. The new elector, Maurice, treated him with distinction, and did nothing in religious matters without his advice. But some theologians, who would ſain have been the sole inheritors of Luther's glory, attacked his dogmas, and raised suspicions of his orthodoxy. The approximation of his views, on the subject of the Lord’s supper, to those of the Swiss reformers, occasioned him much censure, as did still more his acquiescence in the in- troduction of the Augsburg Interim into Saxony, in 1549. Flacius and Osiander greatly annoyed him : the former on the subject of religious ceremonies, and the latter on that of justification ; but the investigation of his orthodoxy, which was instituted at Naumberg, in 1554, resulted in his entire justification. The unity of the church, to pro- mote which he made another attempt at Worms, in 1557, was his last wish. He died at Wittemberg, April 19, 1560, aged sixty-three years. A more amiable, benevolent, open, and unsuspicious character, never ornamented the Christian name. His endeavors to promote education are never to be forgotten; and while the history of the Reformation continues to be a subject of interest, Melancthom will command respect and esteem. See the admirable Life of Melancthon, lately written by F. A. Cox, L.L. D.; Jones' Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck. MFT ſº?EDEK, (king of justice ;) king of Salem, and priest of the Most High God. Scripture tells us nothing of his father, or of his mother, or of his genealogy, or of his birth, or of his death, Gen. 14: 17. Heb. 7: 1–3. And in this sense he was, as Paul says, a figure of Jesus Christ, who is a priest forever, according to the order of Melchi- zedek; and not according to the order of Aaron, whose origin, consecration, life, and death, are known. The person of Melchizedec prºsents an interesting sub- ject of inquiry. He has been variously and absurdly sup- posed to be the Holy Spirit, the Syn of God, Enoch, or an angel; more probably, Shem. The latter opinion has been elaborately supported by Mr. Taylor, the substance of whose statements and reasonings is as follows:— From the allusions to the history of Melchizedek in Scripture, we gather, 1. That he had undergone deep dis- tress; had implored the Preserving Tower to interfere in his behalf, and had been heard. 2. That he had exempli- fied great piety and obedience. 3. That he was not a priest by regular official descent, that is, by birth, but by divine appointment. 4. That he was a king. 5. That the Levitical priesthood is very inferior to his ; as—(1.) It is comparatively modern,-(2.) It has not equal dignity, wanting royalty.—(3.) It often changes hands; and some- times is held by persons not very holy.—(4.) It concerns only a single small nation; and does not so much as as- sume to officiate for mankind in general. We turn to the Bible history of Shem, a person of con- spicuous piety after the deluge; witness his behavior to his father, Noah, whom Ham, his brother, had exposed. It is natural to infer the same pious disposition of charac- ter before that catastrophe. His name, imposed, appa- rently, prior to that event, signifies settled, steady : and, as Noah was “a preacher of righteousness” to the antediluvi- ans, we may think the same of his son Shem, who suc- ceeded in the priesthood. That dreadful event which was coming on the earth was certainly foretold to Noah; and If to Noah to Shem, who also assisted in the preparation of the ark. Deeply pious, and eminently sedate, he could not but look forward with apprehension, and every thing *warrants the belief, that both the son and the father would deprecate and deplore the judgment they awaited. In other words—the piety of Shem prompted him, under these trying circumstances, to address with prayers and supplications, with strong cryings and tears, that celestial Power which was able to save him from death; in which this patriarch was the counterpart of our Lord Jesus; who, foreseeing his descent into the silent tomb, (as Shem fore- saw his enclosure in the floating tomb of the ark,) prayed, “If it were possible let this cup pass from me;”—but, in the issue, as Shem in obedience to the divine injunction entered the ark, so did Jesus enter the grave :—“never- theless, not my will, but thine be done.” Shem was saved, and revivified; so was Jesus; one from the ark, the other from the sepulchre. The ark discharged its inhabitants on the mountains of Caucasus; whence it is probable the patriarch Shem travel- led, in process of time, to Canaan; there he was acknow- ledged as a royal priest; being, first, king of justice. And who could more properly exercise this office 2 To promul- gate laws, or to apply them; to direct in matters of jurispru- dence; to combine the dignity of the magistrate with the affection of the patriarch; to promote the welfare of those communities which were his posterity—who could be more suitable than Shem 2 he was truly “the king of justice.” His tribunal was adjacent to his residence in “the king's valley;” so called, because here sat the king; and here, according to the duty of a king, he administered justice in mercy; “the royal valley, for despatch of public and offi- cial affairs.” This not only explains the reason why Abraham visited Shem in triumph; but also why that patriarch takes so great interest in a victory, by which the country was cleared from its Hamite invaders; why he blesses Abra- ham, and treats him with such distinction ; why the tithes of the spoils are presented to Melchizedek; why the tribunal in the king's valley is selected for the solemnities of the occasion; why Abraham takes nothing from his kindred, the kings he had delivered; and, in short, why this history is preserved in the sacred records, as being one of those remarkable events of which posterity ought not to be ignorant. - These hints lead us to contemplate this venerable patri- arch, Shem, whom hitherto we have rather considered as a king, in his character of a priest also ; a priest of no ordinary description. Many are his qualifications for this office; but natural descent must not be enumerated among them; for the apostle reports him “fatherless, and mother- less;” that is, as he immediately explains himself, “with- out pedigree”—genealogy-less. This was an insuperable blemish in a Levitical priest, and incapacitated from priest ly privileges; see Neh. 7: 65. Besides this, it may be said, in conſormity to the import of the tradition, that this priest of the Most High God had neither father nor mother, in the postdiluvian world; he was of the former world, of the former people; and now pedigree, descent, was reck- oned from him. We prefer, however, the Levitical idea; and suppose the apostle adopts priestly terms, to express the absence of claim to the priestly office by descent; ac- cording to another expression of the same sentiment, “he whose pedigree is not reckoned from them (the Levitical orders) received tithes.” We know, also, that the principle of respectable descent was so powerful, not only among the Jews, but among the heathen, that the most venerated of their sacred personages—the Vestals, for instance— were ineligible to that dignity, unless both parents were unblemished, and both were living at the time of the elec- tion. Such a virgin is described by Aulius Gellius (Noct. Att. i. 12.) as patrima et matrima, or what the Greeks called amphithales, possessing both parents, And this, probably, was one of the most ancient regulations of patriarchal reli- gion; and, perhaps, coeval with Sacerdotal appointments and institutions. But why had Shem no right, by descent, to the priest- hood? We take the fact to be, that Japheth was the eldest by birth; (see JAPHETH ;) whence his name, and his dou- ble portion, as befitted his birthright; but Shem, being appointed to the priesthood, received an official precedence, and in consequence is named (among his own descendants, at least) before his brother Japheth. - - We have now considered those particulars which are usually thought perplexing, except that one which is ad * M E L M E L [ 793 ] mitted to be the most perplexing of all. What is this un- changeable priesthood? Is it unchangeable by reason of the continued life of him who possesses it? In what could originate a conception so extraordinary, so contrary to ex- erience 2 Providence has interposed, to assist in answer- ing this question also ; and when the usual stores of learn- ing are exhausted, has opened fresh repositories to elucidate a subject hitherto impenetrable. In what sense is it said of Shem that he is living? Ob- serve, the apostle uses a word which does not imply strict demonstration of this; but a current report, general belief: “it is witnessed;” not by myself, nor by any to whom I refer confidence; but, it is admitted; this may be taken as the fair import of the term. But how is even this looser sense, this immortality, not strict but popular, to be justi- fied?—The question is answered, by producing from the Purānas the following extract; the tenor of which no one in our part of the world would ever have imagined. “Atri [Noah] for the purpose of making the Vedas [the sacred books] known to mankind, had three sons; or, as it is [elsewhere] declared in the Purānas, the Trimurti, or Hindoo Triad, was incarnated in his house. The eldest, [son] called Soma, or the moon in a human shape, was a portion, or form, of Brahma. To him the sacred isles in the west were allotted. He is still alive, though invisible, and is acknowledged as the chief of the sacerdotal tribe, to this day.” (Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 261.) Every word of this testimony is important, and it agrees with the western reports concerning Melchizedek. The comparison is striking, and justifies attention. The parallel is exact; it assists us even beyond what appears at first sight. No wonder now, that this patriarch, as “king of peace,” was a character too sacred to be mo- lested by war; no wonder that Abraham, and in him Levi, paid tithes to this most venerated personage, &c. The multiplicity of names for the same person in the East is notorious : Vishnu has a thousand; Siva also has a thou- sand; and other ancient characters in proportion : So that no doubt, on the identity of Atri's being Noah, arises from the dissimilarity of appellation. The name Soma is known as Sem, or Shem, in other writings; indeed the Seventy constantly write, Sem, or perhaps Sem. This curious history, thus brought to light from a far country, affords several inferences;–as (1.) The apostle says, many things might be uttered respecting Melchize- dek, but they were hard to be understood. This hint seems to point at various reports concerning him, which, not improbably, were in traditionary circulation among those Hebrews to whom the writer addressed his epistle. 2.) The priesthood of Shem being exercised in his person uring so long a period as five hundred years, suggests, almost naturally, an idea of perpetuity. (3.) The access of Abraham to the divine presence, by means of this royal priest, with the communications this patriarch might make to Abraham, must not be allowed to escape notice. When Abraham was divinely directed to quit Kedem, was Shem the agent? When he offered up Isaac, was it near the Salem of Shem? When Rebekah inquired of the Lord, was it by the ministration of Shem was he the person who prophetically informed her, “two nations are in thy womb,” &c.? tº bearing of the Psalmist's expression, (Ps. 1.10: 4.), “A priest forever,” like Melchizedek; like him who is “still alive, though invisible; and chief of the Sacerdotal tribe,” though not acting as such now in a public capacity, [but thought to continue his office in heaven itself.] It may be proper to anticipate an objection, not new, indeed, but forcible, were it just, by an observation in vindication of the chronology of Shem's life.—That patri- arch lived, by the shortest computation, till Isaac was fiſty years of age; but other computations add forty or fifty years to his life. At the shortest period, however, he out- lived his father Noah above one hundred and fifty years; and his son Arphaxad, sixty years; consequently, no chro- nological difficulty attends the principles adopted as the basis of these arguments. - - If it be asked—Why does not Moses in Genesis, or the apostle to the Hebrews, call Melchizedek by the name of Shem It may be sufficient to answer, that he was much better known at that time, and in that country, un- - * 100 (4.) This may show the propriety and the . º der his title, “King of Justice.” He was better known: for though we find him called Shama, Sharma, or Soma, in India, yet that name has not been preserved in the West. Moreover, Bochart says: (p. 784.) The Orientals call the planet Jupiter by the name Zedek, in honor of Shem; as appears by the old Jewish writings. Indeed, that Jewish tradition considered Shem as the same with Melchizedek, is evident from the Targums of Jonathan, and of Jerusalem, the Midrash Agada, as cited by rabbi Solomon; and the Cabalists in Baal-haturim. Now, if this were an article not denied among the Jews, the rea- son why it needed no elucidation is clear: probably, too, the inhabitants of Jerusalem would have been highly offended with any doubt on the subject; or any question whether the Salem of this king were their own Jerusalem. Is there any allusion to the title of this king, in 2 Sam. 23: 5. Isa. 41: 26. Acts 3: 14. 7: 52. Jam. 5: 7 ? It is but fair to apprize the reader, that these principles, if well established, lead to important consequences; for as we have elsewhere supposed the art of writing to be extant, in ages prior to the Abrahamic migration, and confessedly a priestly study, it will follow, that Shem might bring into the west, and communicate to Abraham, and by him to his family, the then extant parts of that volume which we esteem sacred. He might, indeed, communicate much other information, and many additional predictions; while, possibly, only those which referred to the land allotted to Abraham and his posterity are come down to us; those referring to other nations having been neglected among the Jewish historians. This has great effect on the autho- rity of that system of which Moses was the minister. It supersedes tradition ; it allows no interval of time wherein the books written could become obsolete, or so much as difficult to a linguist like Moses. It accounts also for the knowledge diffused throughout Canaan, that this country had been authoritatively, that is, divinely, allotted to the Hebrew nation in remote ages.—Calmet. - MELCHITES; the name given to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other Christians of the Levant. The Melchites, ex- cepting some few points of little or no importance, which relate only to ceremonies and ecclesiastical discipline, are, in every respect, professed Greeks; but they are governed by a particular patriarch, who assumes the title of Patri- arch of Antioch. The name of Melchites, or Royalists, was given to them because they agreed with the Greeks who submitted to the council of Chalcedon, and was designed by their enemies to brand them with the reproach of hav- ing done so merely in conformity to the religion of the emperor. They celebrate mass in the Arabic language. The religious among the Melchites follow the rule of St. Basil, the common rule of all the Greek monks.-Hend. Buck. MELCHIZEDEKIANS ; a denomination which arose about the beginning of the third century. They affirmed that Melchizedek was not a man, but a heavenly power superior to Jesus Christ; for Melchizedek, they said, was the intercessor and mediator of the angels; and Jesus Christ was only so for man, and his priesthood only a copy of that of Melchizedek.-Hend. Buck. MELETIANS; the name of a considerable party who adhered to the cause of Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in " Upper Egypt, after he was deposed, about the year 306, by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, under the charge of his having sacrificed to the gods, and having been guilty of other heinous crimes; though Epiphanius makes his only failing to have been an excessive severity against the lapsed. This dispute, which was at first a personal differ- ence between Meletius and Peter, became a religious con- troversy; and the Meletian party subsisted in the fifth century, but was condemned by the first council of Nice. They joined with the Arians against the Orthodox par. ty of Athanasius, without, however, adopting their he- resy. - Schismatics of the same name arose at Antioch, in 360, when Meletius, of Melitene, in Armenia, was chosen bishop of the Arians, and was afterwards driven out, on account of his orthodoxy. The Roman and Greek churches reckon this Meletius among their saints.-Hend. Buck. MELITONI; so called from one Melito, who taught M. E. M. MI E IN [ 794 * that not the soul, but the body of man, was made aſter God’s image.—Hend. Buck. - MELITA, perhaps that now called Malta; an island in the Mediterranean sea, between Africa and Sicily, twenty miles in length and twelve in breadth, formerly reckoned a part of Africa, but now belonging to Europe. St. Paul suffered shipwreck upon the coast, Acts 28: 1–3. In the opinion of Dr. Hales, the island where this hap- pened was not Malta, but Meleda. His words are: “That ‘his island was Meleda, near the Illyrian coast, not Malta, on the Southern coast of Sicily, may appear from the fol. lowing considerations: 1. It lies confessedly in the Adria- tic sea, but Malta a considerable distance from it. 2. It lies nearer the mouth of the Adriatic than any other island of that sea; and would, of course, be more likely to receive the wreck of any vessel driven by tempests towards that quarter. And it lies north-west by north of the south-west promontory of Crete; and came nearly in the direction of a storm from the south-east quarter. 3. An obscure island called Melita, whose inhabitants were “barbarous,” was not applicable to the celebrity of Malta at that time, which Jicero represents as abounding in curiosities and riches, and possessing a remarkable manufacture of the finest linem; and Diodorus Siculus more fully: ‘Malta is fur- nished with many and very good harbors, and the inhabi- tants are very rich ; for it is full of all sorts of artificers, among whom there are excellent weavers of fine linen. Their houses are very stately and beautiful, adorned with graceful eaves, and pargetted with white plaster. The Inhabitants are a colony of Phoenicians, who, trading as merchants, as far as the Western ocean, resorted to this place on account of its commodious ports and convenient situation for maritime commerce; and by the advantage of this place, the inhabitants frequently became famous both for their wealth and their merchandise.” 4. The cir- cumstance of the viper, or venomous snake, which fas- tened on St. Paul's hand, agrees with the damp and woody island of Meleda, affording shelter and proper nourishment for such, but not with the dry and rocky island of Malta, in which there are no serpents now, and none in the time of Pliny. 5. The disease with which the father of Publius was affected, dysentery combined with ſever, probably inter- mittent, might well suit a country woody and damp, and probably, for want of draining, exposed to the putrid eſtlu- via of confined moisture; but was not likely to affect a dry, rocky, and remarkably healthy island like Malta.”— Calmet ; Watson. MELON ; (abattehim, clingers, Num. 11: 5.) a luscious fruit, so well known that a description of it would be su- perfluous. . It grows to great perfection, and is highly esteemed, in Egypt, especially by the lower class of peo- ple, during the hot months. - There are varieties of this fruit; but that more particu- larly referred to in the text must be the water-melon, which in Egypt is now called battich. It is cultivated, says Has- Selquist, on the banks of the Nile, in the rich clayey earth, which subsides during the inundation. This serves the Egyptians for meat, drink, and physic. The juice is pecu- liarly cooling and agreeable in that sultry climate, where it is justly pronounced one of the most delicious refresh- ments that nature, amidst her constant attention to the wants of man, aſſords in the season of violent heat. This well explains the regret expressed by the Israelites for the loss of this fruit, whose plcasant liquor had so often quenched their thirst, and relieved their weariness in their servitude, and which would have been exceedingly grate- ful in a dry, scorching desert.—Harris ; Watson. MEMBER, properly denotes a part of the natural body, 1 Cor. 12:12–25. Figuratively, sinful habits or affec- tions, which in an unrenewed state compose a system, like a body consisting of many members; (Rom. 7: 23.) also, true believers, members of Christ's mystical body, as forming one Society or body, of which Christ is the head, Eph. 4; 25.—Calmet. MEMORY ; a faculty of the mind, or rather that state of the mind, in which ideas or notions of things past are accompanied with a persuasion that the things themselves were formerly real and present to the individual conscious- ness. When we remember with little or no effort, it is called remembrance simply or memory, and sometimes passive memory. When we endeavor to remernber what does not immediately and of itself occur, it is caſled active memory, or recollection. - - A good memory has these several qualifications: 1. It is ready to receive and admit with great ease the various ideas, both of words and things, which are learned or taught.—2. It is large and copious to treasure up these ideas in great number and variety.—3. It is strong and durable to retain, for a considerable time, those words or thoughts which are committed to it.—4. It is faith- ful and active to suggest and recollect, upon every pro- per occasion, all those words or thoughts which it hath treasured up. (See ATTENTION.) - - As this faculty may be injured by neglect and slothful- ness, we will here subjoin a few of the best rules which have been given for the improvement of it. 1. We should form a clear and distinct apprehension of the things which we commit to memory.—2. Beware of every sort of interm- perance, for that greatly impairs the faculties.—3. If it be weak, we must not overload it, but charge it only with the most useful and solid notions.—4. We should take every opportunity of uttering our best thoughts in conversation, as this will deeply imprint them.—5. We should join to the idea we wish to remember, some other idea that is more familiar to us, which bears some similitude to it, ei- ther in its nature, or in the sound of the word.—6. We should think of it before we go to sleep at night, and the first thing in the morning, when the faculties are ſresh- 7. Method and regularity in the things we commit to the memory are necessary.—8. Often thinking, writing, or talk- ing, on the subjects we wish to remember.—9. Fervent and frequent prayer. See Watts on the Mind, chap. 17; Grey's Memoria Technica ; Rogers' Pleasures of Memory; Reid's Intellectual Poncers of Man, pp. 303, 310, 338, 356; Bronn ; Abercrombie ; Chalmers; and Upham's Intellectual Philosophy; Spurzheim's Works.-Hend. Buck. jºiniº's ; a denomination in the first century, from Menander, a Samaritan, and supposed disciple of Simon Magus. He pretended to be one of the aions sent from the pleroma, or celestial regions, to succor the souls that lay groaning under oppression ; and to support them against the demons, that hold the reins of empire in this sublunary world. But his notions were so extravagant, that he was rather considered as a lunatic than a heretic, and very justly. Mosheim's E. H. vol. i. p. 143.− Williams. MENDAEANS, MENDAITEs, Mendai Ijahi, or disciples of St. John, that is, the Baptist. From twenty to twenty- five thousand families of this sect still remain, chiefly in the neighborhood of Bassora, a city between Arabia and Persia, on the extremity of the desert of Irac. They are Sometimes called Christians of St. John ; a name which they probably received from the Turks, and to which they contentedly submit for the sake of the toleration it affords them ; but they are better known in ecclesiastical history as Hemero (or every day) Baptists, from their frequent Washings. (See CHRISTIANs of St. JoHN, and HEMERo BAPTISTs.)— Williams. - - MENDELSOHN, (Moses,) a learned Jewish writer, Was born, in 1729, at Dessau, in the principality of Anhalt. Though in his youth he was extremely indigent, yet, by incessant study, he acquired an extensive knowledge of philosophy and languages, and became a celebrated author. He died at Berlin, in 1786. Among his productions are, Phacdon, a Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul, which gained him the title of the Jewish Socrates; Philosophical Works ; Morming Hours; and a Letter to Lavater. He was a disciple of Locke.—Davenport ; De Israeli. MENDICANTS, or BEGGING FRIARs ; several orders of religious in popish countries, who, having no settled revc. nues, are supported by charitable contributions. They were instituted by pope Innocent III. in 1215, for the express purpose of opposing heretics, and maintaining the authority of the pope and the church of Rome. Their affectation of humility and poverty, travelling barefooted, with a cord for a girdle round their loins, and begging from door to door, gave them great influence with the people, which they uniformly employed to the support of ignorance and superstition, and, in many cases, of persecution. They multiplied like locusts in the earth, and formed four great swarms—Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Her. [ 795 M E N mits of St. Augustine; which will be ſound severally noticed in their proper places. Mosheim's E. H., vol. iii. p. 193, &c.—Williams; Hend. Buck. MENE ; a Chaldean word, signifying he has numbered, or he has counted. , Daniel explained this ill-boding inscrip- tion to the king of Babylon. (See BELSHAzzAR.)—Calmet. MENI; an idol representing the moon. Jeremiah (7: 18. 44; 17, 18.) speaks of her as queen of heaven, and, with Isaiah, (65: 11. Heb.) shows that her worship was popular in Palestine, and among the Hebrews. Meni is probably Astarte, and Venus Coelestis, who was worship- ped by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, from whom Isracl learned her worship. Isaiah reproaches them with Setting up a table to Gad—fortune, good fortune, or the lord of fortune—and with making libations to Meni. (See Ibol ATRY, GAD, and GoDs.)—Calmet. MENNO, (Simons,) one of the illustrious reformers of the sixteenth century, a man whose apostolical spirit and labors have never yet been appreciated, was born at Wut- marsum, in Friesland, in 1505. In his twenty-ſourth year (1528) he entered into orders as a Romish priest in the village of Pingium, although in utter darkness of mind and workliness of spirit, yet not without some tenderness of conscience and apparent piety. In 1530, he was induced to examine the New Testament with diligence, in conse- quence of doubts concerning transubstantiation. He now became through grace gradually enlightened, his preach- ing changed, and he was called by some an evangelical preacher, though he says of himself that at the time, “the world loved me, and I the world.” At length an account of the martyrdom of Sieke Snyder at Leuwarden, for Anabaptism, roused him to a similar inquiry concern- ing the other sacrament, which resulted in his embracing the views of the persecuted Baptists, though he ſor several years struggled to suppress his secret convictions, on ac- count of the odium and suffering the avowal must incur. “By the gracious favor of God,” he observes, “I have ac- quired my knowledge, as well of baptism as of the Lord's supper, through the enlightening of the Holy Spirit, atten- dant on my much reading and contemplating the Scrip- tures, and not through the efforts and means of seducing sects, as I am accused.” - There is the fullest evidence that his change of views and practice was sincere. It was the result of a true con- version of God. There is no color for the injurious asser- tion of Mosheim, that he held a “clandestine intercourse with the Anabaptists,” until he ſound it convenient to “throw off the mask.” Menno asserts in the work from which we quote, (which has recently been translated into English, and published in this country,) that he had no communication whatever with the Baptists, until he had been led by the word and Spirit of God to adopt their prin- ciples. Aſter this, he says, “I besought my God with sigh- ing and tears, that to me a troubled sinner he would grant the gift of his grace; that he would endue me with wis- dom, spirit, frankness, and manly fortitude, so that I might preach his worthy name and holy word unadulterated, and proclaim his truth to his praise. • “At length the great and gracious Lord, perhaps aſter the course of nine months, extended to me his fatherly spirit, help, and mighty hand, so that I freely abandoned at once my character, honor, and fame, which I had among men, as also my anti-christian abominations, mass, infant bap- tism, loose and careless life, and all, and put myself wil- lingly in all trouble and poverty under the pressing cross of Christ my Lord. In my weakness I ſeared God; I sought pious people, and of these I found some, though few, in good zeal and doctrine. I disputed with the per- verted, and some I gained through God's help and power, and led them by his word to the Lord Christ; but the stiff. necked and obdurate I commended to the Lord. “Thus has the gracious Lord drawn me, through the free favor of his great grace. He first stirred in my heart; he has given me a new mind; he has humbled me in his fear; he has led me from the way of death, and, through mere mercy, has called me upon the narrow path of life into the company of the Saints. To him be praise forever. Amen.” * . • . About the year 1537, Menno was earnestly solicited by many of the Christians with which he connected himself, to assume among them the rank and functions of a public teacher; and as he looked upon the persons who made this proposal to be exempt from the fanatical phrensy of their brethren at Munster, he yielded to their entreaties. From this period to the end of his life he travelled from one country to another with his wife and children, exer- cising his ministry, under pressures and calamities of vari- ous kinds, that succeeded each other without interruption, and constantly exposed to the danger of falling a victim to the severity of the laws. “East and West Friesland,” says Mosheim, “with the province of Groningen, were first vi- sited by this zealous apostle of the Anabaptists; whence he directed his course into Holland, Guelderland, Brabant, and Westphalia; continued it through the German pro- vinces that lie on the coast of the Baltic Sea, and penetra- ted so far as Livonia. In all these places his ministerial labors were attended with remarkable success, and added to his sect a prodigious number of followers. Hence he is deservedly considered as the common chief of almost all the Anabaptists, and the parent of the sect that still sub- sists under that denomination.” Now hear Menno himself. “And, through our feeble service, teaching, and simple writing, with the careful deportment, labor, and help of our faithful brethren, the great and mighty God has made so known and public, in many cities and lands, the word of true repentance, the word of his grace and power, to- gether with the wholesome use of his holy sacraments, and has given such growth to his churches, and endued them with such invincible strength, that not only many proud, stout hearts have become humble, the impure chaste, the drunken temperate, the covetous liberal, the cruel kind, the godless godly, but also, ſor the testimony which they bear, they faithfully give up their property to confiscation, and their bodies to torture and to death ; as has occurred again and again, to the present hour. These can be no fruits nor marks of false doctrine; (with that God does not co-operate ;) nor under such oppression and misery could any thing have stood so long were it not the power and word of the Almighty. . * “See, this is our calling, doctrine, and fruit of our ser- vice, for which we are so horribly calumniated, and perse- cuted with so much enmity. Whether all the prophets, apostles, and true servants of God, did not through their service also produce the like fruits, we would gladly let all the pious judge. “He who bought me with the blood of his love, and called me to his service, unworthy as I am, searches me, and knows that I seek neither gold and goods, nor luxury, nor ease on earth, but only my Lord’s glory, my salvation, and the Souls of many immortals. Wherefore I have had, now the eighteenth year, to endure so excessive anxiety, oppression, trouble, Sorrow, and persecution, with my poor, feeble wife and little offspring, that I have stood in jeo- pardy of my life and in many a fear. Yes, while the priests lie on Soft beds and cushions, we must hide our- selves commonly in secret corners. While they at all nuptials and christenings, and other times, make them selves merry in public with fifes, drums, and various kinds of music, we must look out for every dog, lest he be one employed to catch us. Instead of being greeted by all as doctors and masters, we must be called Anabaptists, clan- destine holders-forth, deceivers, and heretics. In short, while for their services they are rewarded, in princely style, with great emoluments and good days, our reward and portion must be fire, sword and death. “What now I, and my true coadjutors in this very diff, cult, hazardous service, have sought, or could have sought, all the well disposed may easily estimate from the work itselſ and its fruit. I will then humbly entreat the faithful and candid reader once more, for Jesus' sake, to receive in love this my forced acknowledgment of my enlightening, and make of it a suitable application. I have presented it out of great necessity, that the pious reader may know how it has happened, since I am on all sides calumniated and falsely accused, as if I were ordained and called to this service by a seditious and misleading sect. Let him. that fears God read and judge.” ~. - . Menno was a man of whom the world was not worthy. The age in which he lived was, least of all, fitted and disposed to do justice to his character. He espoused opi *** M. b. N M E N | 796 j . nions, which not only provoked the hostility of the Catholic church, but which ſound little favor among the “powerful large sects,” the Lutherans and Calvinists. It is not surprising, therefore, that his conduct has been misunder- stood and misrepresented. We take pleasure in assisting to circulate an authentic exposition of his principles; and we offer our thanks to the translator for the service which he has rendered to us and to our readers, as well as to the interests of truth. A good memoir is still a desideratum Menno was a man of genius, and sound judgment. IIe possessed a natural and persuasive eloquence, and such a degree of learning as made him pass with many for an oracle, He appears, moreover, to have been a man of probity, of a meek and tractable spirit, gentle in his man- ners, affable in his commerce with persons of all ranks and characters, and extremely zealous in promoting prac- tical religion and virtue, which he recommended by his example as well as by his precepts. He died in 1561, in the duchy of Holstein, at the country seat of a certain no- bleman not far from the city of Oldesloe, who, moved with compassion by the view of the perils to which Menno was exposed, and the snares that were daily laid ſor his ruin, took him, with certain of his associates, into his protection, and gave him an asylum. The writings of Menno, which are almost all composed in the Dutch language, were pub- lished in folio, at Amsterdam, in the year 1651.—Hend. Buck ; Mosheim ; Menno's Departure from Popery. MENNONITES; a society of Baptists in Holland, so called from Menno Simons. (See MENNo.) This great man, as Mosheim observes, reduced the system of the scattered sect then called Anabaptists, to consistency and moderation. (See ANABAPTISTs, and BAPTISTs.) The Mennonites maintain that practical piety is the essence of religion, and that the surest mark of the true church is the sanctity of its members. They plead for universal toleration in religion; and debar none from their societies who lead pious lives, and own the Scriptures for the word of God. They teach that inſants are not the proper subjects of baptism ; that ministers of the gospel ought to receive no salary [from the state.] They also object to the terms, person and trinity, as not consistent with the simplicity of the Scriptures. They are, like the society of Friends, utterly averse to oaths and war, and to capital punishments, as contrary to the spirit of the Christian dispensation. In their private meetings every one has the liberty to speak, to expound the Scriptures, and to pray. They as- semble (or used to do so) twice every year from all parts of Holland, at Rynsbourg, a village two leagues from Leyden, at which time they receive the communion, sitting at a table in the manner of the Independents; but in their form of discipline they are said more to resemble the Pres- byterians. [This last statement wants authority.] The ancient Mennonites professed a contempt of erudi- ‘tion and science, [only when put in competition with piety in their ministers,) and excluded all from their communion who deviated in the least from the most rigorous rules of simplicity and gravity: but this primitive austerity is greatly diminished in their most considerable societies. Those who adhere to their ancient discipline are called Flemings, or Flandrians. The whole sect were formerly called Waterlandians, from the district in which they lived. An unspeakable number have been martyrs. The Mennonites in Pennsylvania do not baptize by im- mersion, though they administer the ordinance to none but believers. Their common method is this : the person to be baptized kneeling, the minister holds his hands over him, into which the deacon pours water, and through which it runs on the head of the baptized; after which follow imposition of hands and prayer. Mosheim ; though his account is written with violent prejudices; Edwards' and Benedict's Hislory of American Baptists, vol. i. p. 94. Such is the account published by Mrs. H. Adams, to which we are now able to make considerable corrections from the Letters of Mr. Ward the missionary, who re- cently visited both Holland and America. An “Account of the Origin of the Dutch Baptists,” or Mennonites, was published at Breda, in 1819, by Dr. Ypeij, proſessor of theology at Groningen, and the Rev. J. J. Dermont, chaplain to the king of the Netherlands, learned Pedobaptists. With this account Mr. Ward fills several let ters, and from it we shall make some extracts. In the opi- nion of these learned writers, “the Mennonites are descend- ed from the tolerably pure evangelical Waldenses, who were driven by persecution into various countries; and who during the latter part of the twelfth century fled into Flan- ders, and into the provinces of Holland and Zealand, where they lived simple and exemplary lives, in the villages as farmers, in the towns by trades, free from the charge of any gross immoralities, and professing the most pure and simple principles, which they exemplified in a holy con- versation. They were therefore in existence long before the Reformed church of the Netherlands. •, “There were then two sects among them : the one dis- tinguished by the name of the perfect, (who held to a com- munity of goods,) and the other the imperfect. By far the greater part of the first sect, and the whole of the second, were certainly among the most pious Christians the church ever saw, and the worthiest citizens the state ever had. History removes every doubt on this subject. “In the year 1536, their scattered community obtained a regular state of church order, separate from all Dutch and German Protestants, who at that time had not been formed into one body by any bonds of unity. This ad- vantage was procured them by the sensible management of a Friezland Protestant, Menno Simons, who had for- merly been a popish priest. This learned, wise, and pru- dent man, was chosen by them as their leader, that they. might by his paternal efforts, in the eyes of all Christen: dom, be cleared from the blame which some of them had incurred. This object was accomplished accordingly : some of the perfectionists he reclaimed to order, and others he excluded. He purified also the religious doc- trines of the Baptists. “We have now seen that the Baptists who were formerly called Anabaptists, and in later times Mennonites, were the original Waldenses; and who have long in the history of the church received the honor of that origin. On this account the Baptists may be considered as the only Chris- tian community which has stood since the days of the apostles, and as a Christian society which has preserved pure the doctrines of the gospel through all ages. The perſectly correct external and internal economy of the Baptist denomination, tends to confirm the truth, disputed by the Romish church, that the Reformation brought about in the sixteenth century was in the highest degree necessary; and at the same time goes to refute the erro- neous notion of the Catholics, that their communion is the most ancient.” Thus far, Dr. Ypeij and Dermont. This testimony, from the highest official authority in the Dutch Reformed church, is certainly a rare instance of liberality towards another denomination. It is conceding all the Mennonites or Baptists claim. It should be added, that they have constantly, but politely, declined the sala- ries, which the government of Holland offers to all deno- minations under its authority. The Mennonites, it appears, form one undivided Chris- tian body. Associations are held at different times, simi- lar to those in England and the United States, though some churches, as among the English and American Bap- tists, decline all union with any association. The business of the Association connected with Rotterdam is chiefly to provide supplies for destitute churches, and examine into the state of the Mennonite college at Amsterdam. There are no buildings connected with this college; but the stu- dents receive theological instruction in a room, containing the library, over the Mennonite chapel. The lectures are delivered in Latin; and each student before his entrance must be acquainted with Latin and Greek. They attend at a literary institution for instruction in Hebrew, ecclesi- astical history, physics, natural and moral philosophy, &c. They have private lodgings in different parts of the city. The college was established nearly a century ago, and was at first supported by the Amsterdam Mennonites alone ; but lately other churches send in their contributions, Some of the students receive support from the public fund; they are all intended for the Christian ministry. Divine worship is conducted among the Mennonites as among the churches of the reformed. They have preaching only once on the Sabbath, and the ministers are * M. E. R. M. E. R. ºn chosen in some places by the congregation, and in others by the elders and deacons. With respect to their confession of faith, as stated by one of their ministers, Mr. Gan, of Ryswick, it appears to be moderate orthodoxy. On baptism Mr. Gan says, it “consists in immersion or pouring upon of water, in the name,” &c. Conversion and faith are necessary; and those “who are the children of Christian parents, and have been educated in the Chris- tian church, are under an obligation to be baptized, as well as converted Jews and heathens. They train up catechumens under their ministers, and, about the age of sixteen, baptize them, taking from the candidate, before the minister and elders, an account of his repentance and faith. They reject infant baptism, and refuse to commune at the Lord's table with any who administer the ordinance to children, unless re-sprinkled.” According to Mr. Ward's account, (given him verbally by Rev. N. Messchaert,) the modern Mennonites plead the authority of Menno for the use of pouring and sprinkling as baptism. But in reality it is a wide departure from the views of Menno, who says, “After we have searched ever so diligently, we shall find no other baptism but dipping in water, which is acceptable to God and approved in his word.” With respect to the number of Mennonites in Holland, they are calculated at thirty thousand, including children, and form about one hundred and thirty churches. In the United States of America, it appears, “there are more than two hundred Mennonite churches, some of which contain as many as three hundred members in each; and,” Mr. Ward says, “they are mostly the descendants of the Mennonites, who emigrated in great numbers from Paltz. The Dutch Baptists have published a large history of themselves, and of their numerous martyrs. There is reason to hope, from recent intelligence, that a new and brighter era is beginning among them.—Ward's Farenell Letters, lett. 19–22; Am. Bap. Mag. 1834. MEN OF UNDERSTANDING. This title distinguish- ed a fanatical sect which appeared in Flanders and Brus- sels, in the year 1511. They owed their origin to an illiterate man, whose name was Egidius Cantor, and to William of Hildenison, a Carmelite monk. With some great truths they mingled egregious errors. They pre- tended to be honored with celestial visions, denied that any could arrive at perfect knowledge of the Holy Scrip- tures without the extraordinary succors of a divine illumi- nation, and declared the approach of a new revelation from heaven, more perfect than the gospel of Christ. They said that the resurrection was accomplished in the person of Jesus, and no other was to be expected; that the inward man was not defiled by the outward actions, whatever they were ; that the pains of hell were to have an end; and not only all mankind, but even the devils themselves, were to return to God, and be made partakers of eternal felicity. This denomination appears to have been a branch of the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit.—Hend. Buck. MENOLOGIUM, (from mene, the moon, and logos, a discourse,) in the Greek church, nearly corresponds to the martyrologium of the Roman church. It is a book in which the festivals of every month are recorded, with the names and biographies of the saints and martyrs, in the order in which they are read in the masses, &c.—Hend. Duck. - & . MEPHIBOSHETH; a son of Jonathan, whose proper name was Meribbaal. (See BAAL.) Mephibosheth was very young when his father was killed in the battle of Gil- boa, (2 Sam. 4: 4.) and his nurse was in such consterna- tion at the news, that she let the child fall, who from this accident was lame all his life. When David found him- self in peaceable possession of the kingdom, he sought for all that remained of the house of Saul, that he might show them kindness, in consideration of the friendship between him and Jonathan. He told Mephibosheth, that for the sake of Jonathan his father he should have his grandfa- ther's estate, and eat always at the royal table, 2 Sam. 9: 1, &c. See also 1 Chron. 8:34–Calmet, MERAB, or MEROR, the eldest daughter of king Saul, was promised to David in marriage, in reward for his vic- tory over Goliath; but was given to Adriel, son of Barzil. lai the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14: 49. 18: 17, 19. Merab had six sons by him, who were delivered to the Gibeonites and hanged before the Lord. The text intimates, that the six men delivered to the Gibeonites were sons of Michal, daughter of Saul, and wife of Adriel; but it is thought, that the name of Michal has slipped into the text instead of Merab; for (1.) Michal did not marry Adriel, but Phal- tiel ; and (2.) we nowhere read that Michal had six sons. Others think, these were six sons of Merab by birth, but of Michal by adoption.—Calmet. - - MERCURY ; a fabulous god of the ancient heathen, the messenger of the celestials, and the deity that presided over learning, eloquence, and traffic. The Greeks named him Hermes, an interpreter, because they considered him as interpreter of the will of the gods. Probably, it was for this reason that the people of Lystra, having heard Pau. reach, and having seen him heal a lame man, would ave offered sacrifice to him, as to their god Mercury ; and to Barnabas as Jupiter, because of his venerable aspect, Acts 14: 11. (See JUPITER, and Lystra.)—Calmet. MERCY ; that particular species or modification of goodness which has for its.objects beings who are in cir- cumstances of misery and distress, and which consists in commiserating and pitying them under their sufferings, and in affording them such relief as can be extended to them consistently with the relative situation of him-by whom the disposition is felt. Divine mercy is that attribute which compassionates the family of man, considered as miserable in consequence of the guilt which they have contracted by their voluntary and unprovoked rebellion against the moral government of Jehovah; and which is exercised in such a way, and to such an extent, as the end and rectitude of that govern- ment require. It is not the simple act of pity which one individual in private life may display towards another in- dividual, or a number of individuals, but it is a commise- ration which, though infinite with respect to its source, and unlimited in its nature, abstractedly considered, is nevertheless combined in its exercise with the due influ- ence of every consideration arising out of the public and official station which is occupied by God as the ruler of an universe of intelligent beings, whose interests as a whole cannot in justice be left out of view in the treatment of individuals. That a due regard is ever to be had to the good of the whole in every thing that is done for the bene- fit of any of the parts, is one of the firmest and most un- doubted principles of all enlightened and equitable legisla- tion. Mercy, in the sense in which it is too commonly taken, as exercised without any rational end or induce- ment, besides the bare impulse of the affections towards an isolated object, and consequently without the guidance and direction of an intelligent mind º attentive to all conceivable results, would be no proof of moral excel- lence, but a blind and undistinguishing act, which in num- berless instances would be . of infinitely greater misery than it actually relieved, and thus deserve the name of cruelty rather than that of mercy. g In Jehovah, this attribute is ever regulated by the high- est intelligence; its exercise is invariably accompanied with suitable displays of the divine purity; and its conse- quences combine with the relief and eternal felicity of its objects, the maintenance of the claims of divine moral go- vernment, and the advancement of the divine glory. That mercy is extended to any of the guilty children of men, is to be ascribed to the pure benevolence of the Deity; that it is not extended to all miserable offenders must be attri- buted to the same benevolence, in the character of the love of rectitude, or a just regard to the claims which are put forth by the vast community of intelligent existences over which he presides; and that it is shown to one sinner rather than another, is to be resolved into his all-wise, holy, and benevolent sovereignty: “He will have mercy on whom he will have mercy.” What completely establishes these views of the mercy of God, is the consideration of the peculiar and exclusive medium through which he has chosen to dispense it—the atonement made by the infinitely precious blood of his Son when he died as the substitute of sinners. While every feature in this wondrous transaction is calculated M E R MI E S [ 798 | to afford the most illustrious comment on the declaration, “He delighteth in mercy,” the whole plan is most obvi- ously designed to secure and uphold the pillars of the di- wine government, and to unite in its grand results the glory of God and the happiness of his obedient creatures, (See the articles ATONEMENT ; ABOUND ; JUSTICE.) According to the circumstances and wants of those who are its objects, the divine mercy may be regarded as en- lightening, renewing, forgiving, relieving, comforting, and strengthening. It is rich, efficient, unmerited, absolutely free, immutable, and eternal.—Jones ; Hend. Buck. MERCY-SEAT, (ilastērion, propitiatory.) This word is properly an adjective, agreeing with epithema, a lid, under- stood, which is expressed by the Seventy, Ex. 25, 17. In that version, ilastērion generally answers to the Hebrew caphrah, from the verb caphar, to cover, expiate, and was the lić or covering of the ark of the covenant, made of pure gold, on and before which the high-priest was to sprinkle the blood of the expiatory sacrifices on the great day of atonement, and where God promised to meet his people, Ex. 25: 17, 22. 29: 42. 30: 36. Lev. 16: 2, 14. St. Paul, by applying this name to Christ, (Rom. 3: 25.) assures us that he is the true mercy-seat, the reality of what the caphrah represented to the ancient believers; by him our sins are covered or expiated, and through him God communes with us in mercy. The mercy-seat also represents our approach to God through Christ; we come to the “throne of grace;” which beautiful designation is only a variation of the term “mercy-seat.”—Watson. MERIBAH, (strife, or contention ;) the name given to the station at or near Rephidim, where the people mur- mured for water, and Moses struck the rock, where it gushed out, Ex. 17:1–7. Dr. Shaw feels confident that he has discovered this extraordinary stone, at Rephidim, and has ſurnished a particular account of it in his Travels. Mr. Taylor, however, has shown that this idea proceeds upon a total misapprehension of the history, as well as of the reference made to it by the apostle Paul, 1 Cor. 10; 4. (Fragment 284.) (See REPIIIDIM.)—Calmet. MERIT, signifies desert, or the earning of a fair title to a reward. Originally the word was applied to soldiers and other military persons, who, by their labors in the field, and by the various hardships they underwent during the course of a campaign, as also by other services they might occasionally render the commonwealth, were said, merere stipendia, to merit, or earn their pay; which they might properly be said to do, because they yielded in real service an equivalent to the state for the stipend they re- ceived, which was therefore due to them in justice. Here, then, we come at the true meaning of the word merit; from which it is very clearly to be seen that there can be no such thing as merit in our best obedience. One man may merit of another, but all mankind together cannot merit from the hand of God, because, being originally his, all possible service is but a duty, the failing of which is sin. This still more evidently appears, if we consider the imperfections of all our services, and the express declara- tions of the divine word, Luke 17: 10. Eph. 2: 8, 9. Rom. 11: 5, 6. Tit. 3: 5. Rom. 10: 1, 4. The Doctrine of Merit stated, vol. iii. ser. 1; South’s Sermons ; Toplady's Works, vol. iii. p. 471; IIervey's Eleven Letters to Wesley; Robin- son’s Claude, vol. ii. p. 218; Divight's Theology; Fuller's Worrºs.--—Hend. Buck. MERITs of CHRIST : a term used to denote the active and passive obedience of Christ; all that he wrought and all that he suffered for the salvation of mankind. See AtoNEMENT: IMPUTATION ; OBEDIENCE ; RIGHTEOUSNESS OF CHRIST.—Hend. Buck. g MERODACH ; an ancient king of Babylon, placed among the gods, and worshipped by the Babylonians. Jeremiah (50: 2.) speaking of the ruin of Babylon says, “Babylon is taken, Bel is confounded, Merodach is broken n pieces, her idols are confounded, her images are broken in pieces.” We find certain kings of Babylon, whose names comprise that of Merodach ; as Evil-Merodach, and Merodach-Baladan.—Calmet. MEROM, the waters of Merom, (Josh. 11: 5.) or lake" of Semechon, is the most northern of the three lakes supplied by the river Jordan. It is situate in a valley, called the Ard Houle, formed by the two branches of mount Hebron. The lake is now called, after the valley, the lake of Houle. In summer this lake is for the most part dry, and covered with shrubs and grass, in which li- ons, bears, and other wild beasts conceal themselves. (See Jordan.)—Calmet. MEROZ; a place in the neighborhood of the brook Ki- shon, whose inhabitants, refusing to come to the assistance of their brethren, when they fought with Sisera, were put under an anathema, Judg. 5; 23.—Watson. MERRICK, (JAMES,) a poet and divine, was born, in 1720, at Reading; was educated at the school of that place, and at Trinity college, Oxford; and died in 1769. Bishop Lowth speaks of him as being one of the best of men and most eminent of scholars. Among his works are, Poems on Sacred Subjects; Annotations on the Psalms, and on the Gospel of St. John ; a translation of Tryphiodorus; and a metrical version of the Psalms.- Davenport. +. . MESHA ; (Gen. 10: 27–30.) the same, probably, as mount Masius. The sons of Joktan possessed the whole country between mount Masius and the mountains of Se- phar, or Sepharvaim.—Calmet. - MESHECH, (Country of.) Meshech was the sixth son of Japheth, and is generally mentioned in conjunction with his brother Tubal; and both were first seated in the north-eastern angle of Asia Minor, ſrom the shores of the Euxine, along to the south of Caucasus; where were the Montes Moschisi, and where, in after times, were the Ibe- ri, Tibareni, and Moschi. There appears also to have been in the same neighborhood, namely, in Armenia, a river and country termed Rosh : for so, Bochart says, the river Araxes is called by the Arabs; and that there was a people in the adjoining country called Rhossi. That pas- sage in Ezek. 38, also, which in our Bibles is rendered “the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal,” is, in the Septuagint, “the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal.” These Rhossi and Moschi, who were neighbors in Asia, dispersed their colonies jointly over the vast empire of Russia; and pre- serve their names still in those of Russians and Musco- vites.—Watson. . MESOPOTAMIA ; an extensive province of Asia, the Greek name of which denotes “between the rivers,” and on this account Strabo says, that “it was situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris.” In Scripture this country is often called Aram, and Aramea. But as Aram also signifies Syria, it is denominated Aram Naharaim, or the Syria of the rivers, Judg. 3; 8. 2 Sam. 10, Dan. 1:2. Zech. 5: 11. - This province, which inclines from the south-east to the north-west, commenced at thirty-three degrees twenty mi- nutes north latitude, and terminated near thirty-Seven degrees thirty minutes north latitude. Towards the South it extended as far as the bend formed by the Jordan at Cunaxa, and to the wall of Semiramis, which separated it from Messene. The northern part of Mesopotamia is oc- cupied by chains of mountains passing from north-west to south-east, in the situation of the rivers. The central parts of these mountains were called Singarae Montes. In the western part were Edessa, called also Callin-Rhac, (Orſa,) Charrae, (Harran,) Nicephorium, (Racca,) Circesium at the mouth of the Chaboras, Anathob, (Anah,) Neharda, (Hadith Unnour,) upon the right of the Euphrates. There are several other towns of less importance. According to Strabo, this country was fertile in vines, and afforded abundance of good wine. According to Ptolemy, Mesopo- tamia had on the north a part of Armenia, on the west the Euphrates on the side of Syria, on the east the Tigris on the borders of Assyria, and on the south the Euphrates, which joined the Tigris. Mesopotamia was a satrapy under the kings of Syria. It is now comprised in modern Persia. - “On the fiſth or sixth day after leaving Aleppo,” says Campbell, in his Overland Journey to India, “we arrived at the city of Diarbeker, the capital of the province of that name; having passed over an extent of country of between three and four hundred miles, most of it blessed with the greatest fertility, and abounding with as rich pastures as I ever beheld, covered with numerous herds and flocks. The air was charmingly temperate in the daytime, but, to my ſeeling, extremely cold at night. Yet notwithstanding M E S M E S I 799 the extreme fertility of this country, the bad administra- tion of government, conspiring with the indolence of the inhabitants, leaves it unpeopled and uncultivated. Diar- beker Proper, called also Mesopotamia from its lying be- tween two famous rivers, and by Moses called PADAN-ARAM, that is, ‘the fruitful Syria,’ abounds wth corn, wine, oil, fruits, and all the necessaries of life. It is supposed to have been the seat of the earthly paradise; and all geo- graphers agree that here the descendants of Noah settled immediately after the flood. To be treading that ground which Abraham trod, where Nahor the father of Rebecca lived, where holy Job breathed the pure air of piety and simplicity, and where Laban the father-in-law of Jacob resided, was to me a circumstance productive of delightful sensations.” (See ABRAHAM.)—Watson. MESSIAH. The Greek word Christos, ſrom whence comes Christ and Christian, exactly answers to the Hebrew Messiah, which signifies him that hath received unction, a king, a prophet, or a priest. (See JESUS CHRIST.) - The ancient Jews had just notions of the Messiah, which came gradually to be corrupted, by expecting a temporal monarch and conqueror; and finding Jesus Christ to be poor, humble, and of an unpromising appearance, they rejected him. Most of the modern rabbins, according to Buxtorſ, believe that the Messiah is come, but that he lies concealed because of the sins of the Jews. Others believe he is not yet come, fixing different times for his appearance, many of which are elapsed; and, being thus baſiled, have pronounced an anathema against those who shall pretend to calculate the time of his coming. To reconcile the pro- phecies concerning the Messiah that seemed to be contra- dictory, some have had recourse to a twofold Messiah ; one in a state of poverty and suffering, the other of splen- dor and glory. The first, they say, is to proceed from the tribe of Ephraim, who is to fight against Gog, and to be slain by Armillus; (Zech. 12; 10.) the second is to be of the tribe of Judah and lineage of David, who is to conquer and kill Armillus; to bring the first Messiah to life again, to assemble all Israel, and rule over the whole world. That Jesus Christ is the true Messiah, and actually come in the flesh, is evident, if we consider (as Mr. Fuller observes) that it is intimated that whenever he should come, the sacrifices and ceremonies of the Mosaic law were to be superseded by him, Ps. 40: 6–8, 1 Sam. 15: 22. Dan. 9: 27. Jer, 31:31, 34. Heb. 8: 13. Now sacri- fice and oblation have ceased. They virtually ceased when Jesus offered himself a sacrifice, and in a few years aſter, they actually ceased. A few of the ancient ceremo- nies are indeed adhered to, but, as one of the Jewish wri- ters acknowledges, “the sacrifices of the holy temple have ceased.” Let every Jew therefore ask himself this ques- tion : Should Messiah the Prince come at some future period, how are the sacrifice and oblation to cease on his appearance, when they have already ceased near eighteen hundred years ? (See CHRISTIANITY; Jesus CHRIST.) There have been numerous false Messiahs which have arisen at different times. Of these the Savior predicted, |Matt. 24: 14. Some have reckoned as many as twenty- four, of whom we shall here give an account. 1. Caziba was the first of any note who made a noise in the world. Being dissatisfied with the state of things under Adrian, he set himself up at the head of the Jew- ish nation, and proclaimed himself their long-expected Messiah. He was one of those banditti that infested Ju- dea, and committed all kinds of violence against the Ro- mans; and had become so powerful, that he was chosen king of the Jews, and by them acknowledged their Mes- siah. However, to facilitate the success of this bold en- terprise, he changed his name from Caziba, which it was at first, to that of Barchocheba, alluding to the star fore- told by Balaam; for he pretended to be the star sent from heaven to restore his nation to its ancient liberty and glo- ry. He chose a forerunner, raised an army, was anointed king, coined money inscribed with his own name, and proclaimed himself Messiah and prince of the Jewish na- tion. Adrian raised an army, and sent it against him. He retired into a town called Bither, where he was be- sieged. Barchocheba was killed in the siege, the city was taken, and a dreadful havoc succeeded. The Jews them- belves allow, that, during this short war against the Ro- promised to the Jews. mans in deſence of this false Messiah, they lost five or six hundred thousand souls. This was in the former part of the second century. - 2. In the reign of Theodosius the younger, in the year of our Lord 434, another impostor arose, called Moses Cretensis. He pretended to be a second Moses, sent to deliver the Jews who dwelt in Crete, and promised to di- vide the sea, and give them a safe passage through it. Their delusion proved so strong and universal, that they neglected their lands, houses, and all other concerns, and took only so much with them as they could conveniently carry. And on the day appointed, this false Moses, having led them to the top of a rock, men, women, and children threw themselves headlong down into the sea, without the least hesitation or reluctance, till so great a number of them were drowned, as opened the eyes of the rest, and made them sensible of the cheat. They then began to look out for their pretended leader, but he disappeared, and escaped out of their hand. - 3. In the reign of Justin, about 520, another impostor appeared, who called himself the son of Moses. His name was Dunaan. He entered into a city of Arabia Fe- lix, and there he greatly oppressed the Christians; but he was taken prisoner, and put to death by Elesban, an Ethi- opian general. 4. In the year 529, the Jews and Samaritans rebelled against the emperor Justinian, and set up one Julian for their king; and accounted him the Messiah. The em- peror sent an army against them, killed great numbers of them, took their pretended Messiah prisoner, and im- mediately put him to death. 5. In the year 571, was born Mohammed, in Arabia. At first he professed himself to be the Messiah who was By this means he drew many of that unhappy people after him. In some sense, therefore, he may be considered in the number of false Messiahs. (See MoHAMMEDANISM.) - 6. About the year 721, in the time of Leo Isaurus, arose another false Messiah in Spain; his name was Se- renus. He drew great numbers after him, to their no Small loss and disappointment, but all his pretensions came to nothing. 7. The twelfth century was fruitful in false Messiahs; for about the year 1137, there appeared one in France, who was put to death, with many of those who followed him. - 8. In the year 1138, the Persians were disturbed with a Jew, who called himself the Messiah. He collected to- gether a vast army. But he, too, was put to death, and his ſollowers treated with great inhumanity. 9. In the year 1–57, a false Messiah stirred up the Jews at Corduba, in Spain. The wiser and better sort looked upon him as a madman, but the great body of the Jews in that nation believed in him. On this occasion almost all the Jews in Spain were destroyed. 10. In the year 1167, another false Messiah arose in the kingdom of Fez, which brought great troubles and persecution upon the Jews that were scattered through that country. 11. In the same year an Arabian set up there for the Messiah, and pretended to work miracles. When search was made for him, his followers fled, and he was brought before the Arabian king. Being questioned by him, he replied, that he was a prophet sent from God. The king then asked him what sign he could show to confirm his mission ? “Cut off my head,” said he, “and I will re- turn to life again.” The king took him at his word, pro- mising to believe him if his prediction came to pass. The poor wretch, however, never returned to life again, and the cheat was sufficiently discovered. Those who had been deluded by him were grievously punished, and the nation condemned to a very heavy fine. 12. Not long after this, a Jew who dwelt beyond Eu. phrates, called himself the Messiah, and drew vast multi- tudes of people after him. He gave this for a sign of it; that he had been leprous, and was cured in the course of one night. He, like the rest, perished in the attempt, and brought great persecution on his countrymen. 13. In the year 1174, a magician and false Christ arose in Persia, who was called David Almusser. He pretend M ET M ET [800 ed that he could make himself invisible; but he was soon taken, and put to death, and a heavy fine laid upon his brethren the Jews, 14. In the year 1176, another of these impostors arose in Moravia, who made similar pretensions; but his frauds being detected, and not being able to elude the efforts ºvere made to secure him, he was likewise put to death. 15. In the year 1199, a famous cheat and rebel exerted himself in Persia, called David el David. He was a man of learning, a great magician, and pretended to be the Messiah. He raised an army against the king, but was taken and imprisoned; and, having made his escape, was afterwards seized again, and beheaded. Vast numbers of the Jews were butchered for taking part with this im- postor, 16. We are told of another false Christ in this same century by Maimonides and Solomon ; but they take no notice either of his name, country, or good or ill success. Here we may observe, that no less than ten false Christs arose in the twelfth century, and brought prodigious ca- lamities and destruction upon the Jews in various quar- ters of the world. 17. In the year 1497, we find another false Christ, whose name was Ismael Sophus, who deluded the Jews in Spain. He also perished, and as many as believed in him were dispersed. 18. In the year 1500, rabbi Lemlem, a German Jew of Austria, declared himself a forerunner of the Messiah, and pulled down his own oven, promising his brethren that they should bake their bread in the Holy Land next year. ^. 19. In the year 1509, one whose name was Pſefferkorn, a Jew of Cologne, pretended to be the Messiah. He aſ- terwards affected, however, to turn Christian. 20. In the year 1534, rabbi Salomo Malcho, giving out that he was the Messiah, was burnt to death by Charles V. of Spain. - C:... i. i.e year 1615, a false Christ arose in the East Indies, and was greatly followed by the Portuguese Jews who were scattered over that country. 22. In the year 1624, another in the Low Countries pretended to be the Messiah, of the family of David, and of the line of Nathan. He promised to destroy Rome, and to overthrow the kingdom of Antichrist, and the Turkish empire. - 23. In the year 1666, appeared the false Messiah Saba- tai Sevi, who made so great a noise, and gained such a number of proselytes. He was born at Aleppo, imposed on the Jews for a considerable time; but afterwards, with a view of saving his life, turned Mohammedan, and was at last beheaded. - 24. The last false Christ that made any considerable number of converts was one rabbi Mordecai, a Jew of Germany: he appeared in the year 1682. It was not long before he was found out to be an impostor, and was obliged to fly from Italy to Poland, to save his life. What became of him afterwards does not seem to be recorded. This may be considered as true and exact an account of the false Christs that have arisen since the crucifixion of our blessed Savior, as can well be given. See Johan- nes & Lent's Hist. of False Messiahs ; Jortin's Rem. on Eccl. Hist, vol. iii. p. 330; Kidder's Demonstration of the Mes- sias ; Harris’ Sermons on the Messiah ; The cleventh vo- lume of the Modern Part of the Universal History; Simpson's Key to the Prophecies, sec. 9; Maclaurin on the Prophecies relating to the Messiah; Fuller's Jesus the true Messiah.- IHend. Buck. - MESS-JOHNS ; a name given upwards of a century ago, in England, to chaplains kept by the nobility and others in high life; whose situation in the family appears to have been any thing but agreeable. . They were gene- rally expected to rise from table after the second course; and if they ever attempted to sit the dinner out, it gene- rally cost them their place. At an annual dinner given at that time, on St. Stephen's day, by the archbishop of Canterbury, the chaplain used to come in and say grace, and retired immediately, till wanted to bless after dinner. – Hend. Buck. METEMPSYCHOSIS; the doctrine of the transmigra- tion of souls into other bodies. This tenet has been at- tributed to the sect of the Pharisees. Josephus, who was himself a Pharisee, gives this account of their doctrine in these points:—“Every soul is immortal; those of the good only enter into another body, but those of the bad are tormented with everlasting punishment.” From whence it has been pretty generally concluded, that the resurrection they held was only a Pythagorean one, name- ly, the transmigration of the soul into another body; from which they excluded all that were notoriously wick- ed, who were doomed at once to eternal punishment; but their opinion was, that those who were guilty only of les- ser crimes were punished for them in the bodies into which their souls were next sent. It is also supposed, that it was upon this notion the disciples asked our Lord, “Did this man sin, or his parents, that he was born blind?” (John 9:2.) and that some said, Christ was “John the Baptist, some Elias, others Jeremias, or one of the prophets,” Matt. 16: 14. The transmigration of souls into other bodies was un- doubtedly the opinion of the Pythagoreans and Platonists, and was embraced by some among the Jews; as by the author of the book of Wisdom, who says, that “being good, he came into a body undefiled,” 8:20. Neverthe- less, it is questioned whether the words of Josephus, be: fore quoted, are a sufficient evidence of this doctrine of the metempsychosis being received by the whole sect of the Pharisees; for, “passing into another or different body,” may only denote its receiving a body at the re- surrection; which will be another, not in substance, but in quality; as it is said of Christ at his transfiguration, “ the fashion of his countenance was” another, or, as we render it, was “altered,” Luke 9:29. . As to the opinion which some entertained concerning our Savior, that he was either John the Baptist, or Elias, or Jeremias, or one of the prophets, (Matt. 16: 14.) it is not ascribed to the Pharisees in particular, and if it were, one cannot see how it could be founded on the doctrine of the metempsychosis; since the soul of Elias, now in- habiting the body of Jesus, would no more make him to be Elias, than several others had been, in whose bodies the soul of Elias, according to this doctrine, is supposed to have dwelt since the death of that ancient prophet, near a thousand years before. Besides, how was it possible any person that saw Christ, who did not appear to be less than thirty years old, should, according to the notion of the metempsychosis, conceive him to be John the Baptist, who had been so lately beheaded ? Surely this apprehen- sion mast be grounded on the supposition of a proper re- surrection. It was, probably, therefore, upon the same account, that others took him to be Elias, and others Je- remias. Accordingly, St. Luke expresses it thus:–“Oth- ers say, that one of the old prophets is risen from the dead,” Luke 9:19. It may farther be observed, that the doctrine of the resurrection, which St. Paul preached, was not a present metempsychosis, but a real future resurrec- tion, which he calls “the hope and resurrection of the dead,” Acts 23: 6. This he professed as a Pharisee, and for this profession the partisans of that sect vindicated him against the Sadducees, Acts 23: 7–9. Upon the whole, therefore, it appears most reasonable to adopt the opinion of Reland, though in opposition to the sentiments of many other learned men, that the Pharisees held the doctrine of the resurrection in a proper sense. The doctrine of the metempsychosis prevails at the present day almost universally among the heathen nations of the East. (See BUDHISM, HINDoorsM, and LAMAISM.) — Watson. METHODIST; a term frequently applied in England to a person who becomes religious, without reference to any particular sect or party, and especially to such mem- bers of the church of England as are evangelical and zea- lous in their preaching.—Hend. Buck. METHODISTS, DIALECTIc ; those popish doctors who arose in France about the middle of the Seventeenth cen- tury, in opposition to the Huguenots, or Protestants. These Methodists, from their different manner of treating the controversy with their opponents, may be divided into two classes. The one comprehends those doctors whose method of disputing with the Protestants was disingenu. # º | . NOTE There ºr at ºrcreparror.ºetween Ariºvent & . º § derit tºwn find tr. the vap. both view, erhitiſed. The 69°of Longitude.formuz an imaginary fºre of drivirion between the two. +3. FFT p. - - - sº **** -- & T *w- a - } , , ; *P , A., R Fºx afra A º º "... Yº Jet Kºś. It } % **. , &,”, Nº. r § thrºwth t; -: wn ~. ~ ... "e '' … §§§tº: a * § *ºr *; | *::::::= ** as: - º Jr. *; 3. Tº ºpahº -. C --. -º- ºr- - --—º. -- Air--- - 2: -2 :: ---T-T -- ~~~~~ *:- > *-* -t- -> --> === Anwarred & Cº.ºruth. M ET M ET [ 801 || ous and unreasonable, and who followed the example of those military chiefs who shut up their troops in intrench- ments and strong-holds, in: order to cover them from the attacks of the enemy. Of this number were the Jesuit Veron, who required the Protestants to prove the tenets of their church by plain passages of Scripture, without being allowed the liberty of illustrating those passages, *reasoning upon them, or drawing any conclusions from them ; Nihusius, an apostate from the Protestant religion; the two Wallenburgs, and others, who confined themselves to the business of answering objections; and cardinal Richlieu, who confined the whole controversy to the sin- gle article of the divine institution and authority of the church. The Methodists of the second class were of opinion that the most expedient manner of reducing the Protes- tants to silence, was not to attack them by piecemeal, but to overwhelm them at once by the weight of some gene- ral principle, or presumption, or some universal argument, which comprehended or might be applied to all the points contested between the two churches; thus imitating the conduct of those military leaders who, instead of spend- ing their time and strength in sieges and skirmishes, en- deavored to put an end to the war by a general and de- cisive action. Some of these polemics rested the defence of popery upon prescription; others upon the wicked lives of Protestant princes, who had left the church of Rome; others, the crime of religious schism ; the variety of opinions among Protestants with regard to doctrine and discipline, and the uniformity of the tenets and wor- ship of the church of Rome; and thus, by urging their respective arguments, they thought they should stop the mouths of their adversaries at once.—Hend. Buck. METHODISTS, Wesleyan. Origin. This large and respectable denomination was founded, in the year 1729, by one Mr. Morgan and Mr. John Wesley. (See WESLEY, Jon N.) These constitute the great body of the Arminian Methodists, who hold the chapels, schools, &c., built or ſounded by the great father of Methodism, and consider themselves as representatives to the present generation of what that system was when originally established. 1. Doctrine. The doctrines of the Wesleyan Metho- dists, according to their own account, are the same as the church of England, as set forth in her liturgy, articles, and homilies. This, however, has been disputed. Mr. Wesley, in his àppeal to men of reason and religion, thus declares his sentiments:—“ All I teach,” he observes, “respects either the nature and condition of justification, the nature and condition of salvation, the nature of justifying and saving faith, or the Author of faith and salvation. That justification whereof our articles and homilies speak, signifies present forgiveness, and consequently acceptance with God: I believe the con- dition of this is faith: I mean not only that without faith we cannot be justified, but also that, as soon as any one has true faith, in that moment he is justified. Good works follow this faith, but cannot go before it; much less can sanctification, which implies a continued course of good works, springing from holiness of heart. But it is allowed that sanctification goes before our justification at the last day, Heb. 12: 14. Repentance, and fruits meet for repentance, go before faith. Repentance abso- lutely must go before faith; fruits meet for it, if there be opportunity. By repentance I mean conviction of sin, producing real desires and sincere resolutions of amend- ment ; by salvation I mean not barely deliverance from hell, but a present deliverance from sin. Faith, in gene- ral, is a divine, supernatural evidence, or conviction of things not seen, not discoverable by our bodily senses: justifying faith implies not only a divine evidence or con- viction that God was in Christ reconciling the world unto himself, but a sure trust and confidence that Christ died for my sins, that he loved me, and gave himself for me. And the moment a penitent sinner believes this, God par- dons and absolves him ; and as soon as his pardon or jus- tification is witnessed to him by the Holy Ghost, he is saved. From that time (unless he make shipwreck of the faith) salvation gradually increases in his soul. “The Author of faith and salvation is God alone. -There is no more of power than of merit in man; but as all merit is in the Son of God, in what he has done and suffered for us, so all power is in the Spirit of God, And, therefore, every man, in order to believe unto salvation, ust receive the Holy Ghost.” So far Mr. Wesley. Re- specting original sin, free will, the justification of men, good works, and works done before justification, he refers us to what is said on these subjects in the former part of the ninth, the tenth, the eleventh, the twelfth, and thir- teenth articles of the church of England. In order that we may form still clearer ideas respecting Mr. Wesley's opinions, we shall here quote a few questions and answers as laid down in the Minutes of Conference. Q. “In what sense is Adam's sin imputed to all mankind?” A. “In Adam all die, i.e. 1. Our bodies then became mortal. 2. Our souls died, i. e. were disunited from God. And hence, 3. We are all born with a sinful, devilish nature; by reason whereof, 4. We are children of wrath, liable to death eternal,” Rom. 5: 18. Eph. 2: 3. Q. “In what sense is the righteousness of Christ imputed to all man- kind, or to believers?” A. “We do not find it expressly affirmed in Scripture that God imputes the righteousness of Christ to any, although we do find that faith is imputed for righteousness. That text, “As by one man’s disobe- dience all men were made sinners, so by the obedience of one all were made righteous,” we conceive, means by the merits of Christ all men are cleared from the guilt of Adam's actual sin.” Q. “Can faith be lost but through disobedience 2'' A. “It cannot. A believer first inwardly disobeys; inclines to sin with his heart; then his intercourse with God is cut off, i.e. his faith is lost; and after this he may fall into outward sin, being now weak, and like another man.” Q. “What is implied in being a perfect Christian 2° A. “The loving the Lord our God ... all our heart, and with all our mind, and Soul, and strength.” Q. “Does this imply that all inward sin is taken away ?” A. “Without doubt; or how could we be said to be saved from all our uncleannesses 2° Ezek. 36: 29. Q. “How much is allowed by our brethren who differ from us with regard to entire sanctification ?” A. “They grant, 1. That every one must be entirely sancti- fied in the article of death. 2. That till then a believer daily grows in grace, comes nearer and nearer to perfec- tion. 3. That we ought to be continually pressing after this, and to exhort all others to do so.” Q. “What do we allow them?” A. “We grant, 1. That many of those who have died in the faith, yea, the greater part of those we have known, were not sanctified throughout, not made perfect in love, till a little before death. 2. That the term sanctified is continually applied by St. Paul to all that were justified, that were true believers. 3. That by this term alone he rarely (if ever) means saved from all sin. 4. That consequently it is not proper to use it in this sense, without adding the word ‘wholly, entirely,” or the like. 5. That the inspired writers almost continually speak of or to those who were justified, but very rarely either of or to those who were sanctified. 6. That conse- quently it behooves us to speak in public almost continu- ally of the state of justification; but more rarely in full and explicit terms concerning entire sanctification.” Q. “What, then, is the point wherein we divide?” A. “It is this: Whether we should expect to be saved from all sin before the article of death.” Q. “Is there any clear Scripture promise of this, that God will save us from all Sin 2” A. “ There is. Ps. 130: 8: ‘ He shall redeem [S- rael from all his iniquities.” This is more largely express- ed in Ezek. 36:25, 29. 2 Cor. 7: 1. Deut. 30; 6, 1 John 3:8. Eph. 5: 25, 27. John 17:20, 23. 1 John 4:17.” Thus we have endeavored to give a view of the tenets of the Wesleyan Methodists; and this we have chosen to do in their own words, in order to prevent misrepresentation. 2. Discipline. Mr. Wesley having formed numerous societies in different parts, he, with his brother Charles, drew up certain rules, by which they were, and it seems in many respects still are, governed. They state the nature and design of a Methodist society in the following words:— “Such a society is no other than a company of men having the form and seeking the power of godliness; united in order to pray together, to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation. & 101 M ET M ET | 802 | “That it may the more easily be discerned whether they are indeed working out their own salvation, each Society is divided into smaller companies, called classes, accord- ing to their respective places of abode. . There are about twelve persons (sometimes fifteen, twenty, or even more) in each class; one of whom is styled the leader. It is his business, 1. To see each person in his class once a week, at least, in order to inquire how their souls prosper; to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasion may re- quire ; to receive what they are willing to give to the poor, or towards the gospel. 2. To meet the minister and the stewards of the society once a week, in order to in- form the minister of any that are sick, or of any that walk disorderly, and will not be reproved; to pay to the stewards what they have received of their several classes in the week preceding; and to show their account of what each person has contributed. “There is only one condition previously required of those who desire admission into these societies, namely, a desire to flee from the wrath to come; to be saved from their sins: but wherever this is really fixed in the soul, it will be shown by its fruits. It is, thereſore, expected of all who continue therein, that they should continue to evidence their desire of Salvation,-- “First, by doing no harm ; by avoiding evil in every kind; especially that which is most generally practised, such as taking the name of God in vain ; the profaning the day of the Lord, either by doing ordinary work there- on, or by buying or selling ; drumkenness; buying or selling spirituous liquors, or drinking them, unless in cases of extreme necessity; fighting, quarrelling, brawl- ing; brother going to law with brother; returning evil for evil, or railing for railing; the using many words in buying or selling; the buying or selling uncustomed goods; the giving or taking things on usury; i.e. unlaw- ful interest. “Uncharitable or unprofitable conversation ; particu- ly speaking evil of magistrates or of ministers. “Doing to others as we would not they should do un- to llS. g “Doing what we know is not for the glory of God; as the putting on gold or costly apparel; the taking such di- versions as cannot be used in the name of the Lord Jesus. “The singing those songs, or reading those books, which do not tend to the knowledge or love of God; soſt- ness, and needless self-indulgence ; laying up treasure upon the earth; borrowing without a probability of paying, or taking up goods without a probability of paying for them. “It is expected of all who continue in these societies that they should continue to evidence their desire of sal- Vation,-- “Secondly, by doing good; by being in every kind merciful after their power, as they have opportunity; do- Ang good of every possible sort, and as far as possible, to fill men; to their bodies, of the ability which God giveth; by giving food to the hungry, by clothing the nakcd, by visiting or helping them that are sick, or in prison ; to their souls, by instructing, reproving, or exhorting all we have any intercourse with ; trampling under ſoot that en- thusiastic doctrine of devils, that ‘We are not to do good, unless our hearts be free to it.” “By doing good, cspecially to them that are of the household of faith, or groaning so to be ; employing them preſerably to others; buying one of another; helping each other in business; and so much the more, because the world will love its own, and them only; by all possi- ble diligence and frugality, that the gospel be not blamed ; by running with patience the race set beſore them, deny. ing themselves, and taking up their cross daily; submit- ting to bear the reproach of Christ; to be as the filth and ofſscouring of the world, and looking that men should say all manner of evil of them falsely for the Lord's sake. “It is expected of all who desire to continue in these societies, that they should continue to evidence their de- sire of salvation,-- “Thirdly, by attending on all the ordinances of God: such are, the public worship of God; the ministry of the word, either read or expounded; the supper of the Lord ; family and private prayer; searching the Scriptures ; and fasting and abstinence, “These are the gencral rules of our societies, all which we are taught of God to observe, even in his written word: the only rule, and the sufficient rule, both of our faith and practice; and all these we know mis Spirit writes on every truly awakened heart. If there be any among us who observe them not, who habitually break any of them, let it be made known unto them who watch over that soul, as they who must give an account. We will admonish him of the error of his ways ; we will bear with him for a season ; but then, if he repent not, he hath no more place among us: we have delivered our own Souls. 3. Circuits and Conferences. In Mr. Wesley's conncx- ion, they have circuits and conſerences, which we find were thus formed :—When the preachers at first went out to exhort and preach, it was by Mr. Wesley's permission and direction; some from one part of the kingdom, and Some from another; and though frequently strangers to each other, and those to whom they were sent, yet on his credit and sanction alone they were received and provided for as friends, by the societies wherever they came. But, having little or no communication or intercourse with one another, nor any subordination among themselves, they must have been under the necessity of recurring to Mr. Wesley for directions how and where they were to labor. To remedy this inconvenience, he conceived the design of calling them together to an annual conference; by this means he brought them into closer union with each other, and made them sensible of the utility of acting in concert and harmony. He soon found it necessary, also, to bring their itinerancy under certain regulations, and reduce it to some fixed order, both to prevent confusion, and for his own ease; he therefore took fifteen -or twenty societies, more or less, which lay round some principal society in those parts, and which were so situated, that the greatest distance from one to the other was not much more than twenty miles, and unitcd them into what was called a circuit. At the yearly conference he appointed two, three, or four preachers to one of these circuits, according to its extent, which at first was often very considerable, some- times talking in a part of three or four counties. Here, and here only, were they to labor ſor one year, that is, until the next conſerence. One of the preachers on ovely circuit was called the assistant, because he assisted Mr. Wesley in Superintending the societies, and other preach- ers ; he took charge of the societies within the limits as- signed him ; he enforced the rules cverywhere, and direct- cd the labors of the preachers associated with him. IIay- ing received a list of the societics forming his circuit, he took his own station in it, gave to the other preachers a plan of it, and pointed out the day when each should be at the place ſixed for him, to begin a progressive motion round it, in such order as the plan directed. They now followed one another through all the societies belonging to that circuit, at stated distances of time, all being go- verncil by the same rules, and undergoing the same labor. By this plan, every preacher's daily work was appointed beforehand; each knew, cvery day, where the others were, and cach society when to expect the preacher, and how long he would stay with them. It may be observed, however, that Mr. Wesley's design in calling the preach- ers together annually, was not merely for the regulation of the circuits, but also for the review of their doctrines and discipline, and for the examination of their moral conduct; that those who were to administer with him in holy things might be thoroughly furnished for every good work. 4. Examination of Preachers. As to their preachers, the following cxtract ſrom the above-mentioned Minutes of Conference will show us in what manner they are cho- Sen and designated. Q. “How shall we try those who think they are moved by the Holy Ghost to preach f" A. “Inquire, 1. Do they know God as a pardoming God? Have they the love of God abiding in them : Do they desire and seek nothing but God? And are they holy in all manner of conversation ? 2. Have they gifts as well as grace for the work 2 Have they, in some tolerable de- gree, a clear, sound understanding 3 Have they a right judgment in the things of God? Have they a just com- ception of Salvation by faith? And has God given them M ET M. E. T. [ 803 ] any degree of utterance 3 Do they speak justly, readily, clearly $ 3. Have they fruit 2 Are any truly convinced of sin, and converted to God, by their preaching ! “As long as these three marks concur in any one, we believe he is called of God to preach. These we receive jºint proof that he is moved thereto by the Holy OSt. Q. “What method may we use in receiving a new help- er ?” A. “A proper time ſor doing this is at a conference, aſter solemn fasting and prayer. Every person proposed is then to be present, and each of them may be asked,— “Have you ſaith in Christ? Are you going on to per- fection? Do you expect to be perfected in love in this liſe ? Are you groaning after it? Are you resolved to devote yourself wholly to God and to his work 2 Have you considered the rules of a helper ? Will you keep them for conscience' sake 2 Are you determined to em- ploy all your time in the work of God? Will you preach every morning and evening 2 Will you diligently instruct the children in every place? Will you visit them from house to house? Will you recommend ſasting both by precept and example 2 “We then may receive him as a probationer, by giving him the Minutes of the Conſerence, inscribed thus:—“To A. B. You think it your duty to call sinners to repent- ance. Make ſull proof hereof, and we shall rejoice to receive you as a ſellow-laborer.” Lct him then read and carefully weigh what is contained therein, that if he has any doubt it may be removed.” “To the above it may be useful to add,” says Mr. Ben- son, “a few remarks on the method pursued in the choice of the itinerant preachers, as many have formed the most crroneous ideas on the subject, imagining they are em- ployed with hardly any prior preparation. 1. They are received as private members of the society on trial. 2. After a quarter of a year, if they are found deserving, they are admitted as proper members. 3. When their grace and abilities are sufficiently maniſest, they are ap- pointed leaders of classes. 4. If thcy then discover ta- lents ſor more important scrvices, they are cmployed to cxhort occasionally in the smaller congregations, when the preachers cannot attend. 5. If approved in this line of duty, they are allowed to preach. 6. Out of these men, who are called local preachers, are selected the itine- rant preachers, who are first proposed at a quarterly mecting of the stewards and local preachers of the circuit; then at a meeting of the travelling preachers of the dis- trict; and, lastly, in the conference; and, if accepted, are nominated for a circuit. 7. Their characters and conduct are czamined annually in the conference ; and, if they continue faithful for four years of trial, they are received into ſull connexion. At these conferences, also, strict in- quiry is made into the conduct and success of every preachcr, and those who are ſound deficient in abilities are no longer employed as itinerants; while those whose conduct has not been agreeable to the gospel, are expell- ed, and thereby deprived of all the privileges even of pri- vate members of the society.” 5. Duties of Preachers. The following extract from “The Larger Minutes,” will show what are considered to be the office and duty of a Methodist preacher:—Q. “What is the office of a Christian minister?” A. “To watch over souls, as he that must give an account. To feed and guide the flock.” Q. “How shall he be fully qualified for his great work?” with God, and having his work greatly at heart; by un- derstanding and loving every branch of our discipline; and by carefully and constantly observing the twelve rules of a helper : viz. 1. Be diligent; never be unemployed; never be triflingly employed; never while away time, nor spend more time at any place than is strictly necessary. 2. Be serious; let your motto be holiness to the Lord ; avoid all lightness, jesting, and foolish talking. 3. Con- verse sparingly and cautiously with women, particularly with young women. 4. Take no step towards marriage without solemn prayer to God, and consulting with your brethren. 5. Believe evil of no one; unless fully proved take heed how you credit it; put the best construction you can on every thing; you know the judge is always suppos- ed to be on the prisoner's side. 6. Speak evil of no one, A. “By walking closely . else your word especially would eat as doth a canker; keep your thoughts within your own breast, till you come to the person concerned. 7. Tell every one what you think wrong in him, lovingly and plainly, and as soon as may be, else it will fester in your own heart; make all haste to cast the fire out of your bosom. 8. Do not affect the gentleman : a preacher of the gospel is the servant of all. 9. Be ashamed of nothing but sin, no, not of clean- ing your own shoes when necessary. 10. Be punctual; do every thing exactly at the time; and do not mend our rules, but keep them, and that for conscience' sake. 11. You have nothing to do but to save souls; and therefore spend and be spent in this work; and go always, not on- ly to those who want you, but to those who want you most. 12. Act in all things, not according to your own will, but as a son in the gospel, and in union with your brethren. As such, it is your part to employ your time as our rules direct; partly in preaching and visiting from house to house; partly in reading, meditation, and prayer. Above all, if you labor with us in our Lord’s vineyard, it is needſul that you should do that part of the work which the conference shall advise, at those times and places which they shall judge most for his glory. “Observe :—It is not your business to preach so many times, and to take care merely of this and that society; but to save as many Souls as you can ; to bring as many sinners as you possibly can to repentance; and, with all your power, to build them up in that holiness without which they cannot see the Lord ; and, remember, a Me- thodist preacher is to mind every point, great and small, in the Methodist discipline; therefore you will need all the grace and all the sense you have, and to have all your wits about you.” i The discipline of the Wesleyan Methodists is rigidly uniform. No deviation whatever from prescribed rules is permitted. Every preacher, and indeed every member, is to render unqualified obedience to the dictates of the conference; the legal number of the preachers constituting which is one hundred, though it is often attended by about three hundred and fifty ministers. From the minutes of the conference held in 1831, it appears that the number of persons in the societies were as follows:–In Great Britain, 249,119 ; in Ireland, 22,470; and in foreign sta- tions, 42,743. Their regular preachers were 846, in Great Britain; 143 in Ireland; and 187, exclusive of cate- chists, in foreign stations. II. New ConNExions. Since Mr. Wesley’s death, his people have been divided ; but this division, it seems, re- spects discipline more than sentiment. At the first con- ference after his death, which was held at Manchester, the preachers published a declaration, in which they said that they would “take the plan as Mr. Wesley had left it.” This was by no means satisfactory to many of the preach- ers and people, who thought that religious liberty ought to be extended to all the societies which desired it. In order to favor this cause, so agreeable to the Spirit of Chris- tianity and the rights of Englishmen, several respectable preachers came forward; and by the writings which they circulated through the connexion, paved the way for a plan of pacification, by which it was stipulated, that in every society where a threeſold majority of class-leaders, stewards, and trustees desired it, the people should have preaching in church hours, and the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s supper administered to them. The spirit of inquiry being roused did not stop here; for it appeared agreeable both to reason and the customs of the primitive church, that the people should have a voice in the temporal concerns of the societies, vote in the election of church officers, and give their suffrages in spiritual concerns. This subject produced a variety of arguments on both sides of the question; many of the preachers and people thought that an annual delegation of the general stewards of the circuits, to sit either in the conference or the district meetings, in order to assist in the disbursement of the yearly collection, the Kingswood school collection, and the preachers' fund, and in making new or revising old laws, would be a bond of union be- tween the conference and connexion at large, and do away the very idea of arbitrary power among the travelling preachers. M ET MI E 'T [ 804 | In order to facilitate this good work, many Societies, in various parts of the kingdom, sent delegates to the con- ference held at Leeds, in 1797; they were instructed to request, that the people might have a voice in the forma- tion of their own laws, the choice of their own officers, and the distribution of their own property. The preachers proceeded to discuss two motions:—Shall delegates from the societies be admitted into the conference Shall cir: cuit stewards be admitted into the district meetings? Both motions were negatived, and consequently all hopes of accommodation between the parties were given up. Se- veral friends of religious liberty proposed a plan for a new itineramcy. In order that it might be carried into imme- diate effect, they formed themselves into a regular meet- ing, in Ebenezer chapel; Mr. William Thom being cho- sen president, and Mr. Alexander Kilham secretary. The meeting proceeded to arrange the plan for supplying the circuits of the new connexion with preachers; and desired the president and secretary to draw up the rules of church government, in order that they might be circu- lated through the societies for their approbation. . Accord- ingly, a form of church government, suited to an itinerant ministry, was printed by these two brethren, under the title of “Outlines of a Constitution proposed for the Ex- amination, Amendment, and Acceptance, of the members of the Methodist Itinerancy.” The plan was examined by select committees in the different circuits of the con- nexion, and, with a few alterations, was accepted by the conference of preachers and delegates. The preachers and people are incorporated in all meetings for business, not by temporary concession, but by the essential princi- ples of their constitution; for the private members choose the class-leaders; the leaders’ meeting nominates the stewards; and the society confirms or rejects the nomina- tion. The quarterly meetings are composed of the gene- ral stewards and representatives chosen by the different societies of the circuits, and the fourth quarterly meeting of the year appoints the preacher and delegate of every circuit that shall attend the general conference. For a further account of their principles and discipline, we must refer the reader to a pamphlet, entitled, “General Rules of the United Societies of Methodists in the New Connex- ion.” In 1829; the New Connexion Methodists had 162 cha- pels, 59 circuits, and 492 local preachers. Their numbers amounted to 11,777. III. PRIMITIVE METHODISTs, or RANTERs, who are in general very illiterate, and extremely noisy in their pub- lic demeanor, (proceeding, for instance, through the streets singing hymns,) broke off from the grand body of the Me- thodists, some years ago, on the ground that the original spirit of Methodism was not kept up among its members. They allow females to preach in promiscuous assemblies; a practice condemned by the conference. They have 403 chapels; the number of their preachers, chiefly local, is 2,700; and that of their members 33,720. IV. INDEPENDENT METHODISTs, and • V. Wesley AN PROTESTANT METHODISTs, are two minor bodies that have recently separated, in consequence of what they deemed acts of arbitrary and unconstitutional power on the part of the conference, and the claiming of an authority which they conceived to be unwarranted by the New Testament. One of the latter body goes so far as to say, that the power which has hitherto been exercis- ed by the Methodist conference, agrees in all things with that of the princes of this world, who rule over men only . for their own honor and advantage; but is utterly incom- patible with the power of moral suasion, and the power of Christian charity. The “Independents” have upwards of a hundred lay-preachers, and about 4,000 members; the “Protestants,” who reside chiefly in and about Leeds, are rapidly on the increase, and their cause has been warmly espoused by many in London, whd were weary of the yoke imposed upon them by the conference. What gave rise to the Independent branch was, we understand, a refusal on the part of the conference to admit lay-mem. bers to a share in the administration of the discipline and other affairs of the society. * VI, BRYANITEs, so called from a Mr. Bryan, one of their preachers, have about 13,000 members, They differ # very little from the Ranters. Coke's, Southey's, and Wat. son's Life of Wesley ; Macgonan's Shaver ; Wesley's Works ; Benson's Vindication and Apology for the Me- thodists ; Fletcher's Works; Bogue and Bennett's History of the Dissenters, vol. iii.; Walker’s Address to the Methodists. —Hend. Buck. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE UNI- TED STATES.* History. The first Methodist class in America was formed in the city of New York, by Mr. Philip Brmbury, in 1766. The community, however, arising out of the labors of Mr. Wesley and some early preachers, was not regularly formed till 1784, when Dr. Coke, a presby- ter of the church of England, having been ordained, was sent out in the capacity of superintendent of the Metho- dist societies in America. * On the 25th of December, 1784, the preachers, amount- ing in number to sixty-one, were assembled for conference in Baltimore, at which time the Methodist Episcopal church was duly organized. Agreeably to the instructions received from Mr. Wesley, Mr. Asbury, who was unani- mously elected by the suffrages of his brethren, was first ordained deacon, then elder, and afterwards superinten- dent or bishop, by Dr. Coke, with the assistance of the presbyters present. At the same conference, twelve of the preachers were elected and ordained elders, and sent forth like the apostles of old to preach the word of God, and to administer the holy sacraments. The doings of this conference resulted in giving great Satisfaction both to the preachers and people; for their plans of future ope- ration were now so regulated and systematized, that the wants of the societies were promptly met; and the great object of the preachers in spreading the gospel was greatly promoted by a well organized system of itinerancy. At this time, there were 14,988 members in the Society, and 83 preachers. (See ASBURY, and Coke.) Their number having so increased, and their fields of labor being so remote from each other, it was not long be. fore it was impracticable for them all to meet in one con- ſerence, as they had been accustomed to do; therefore they ſound it necessary to divide themselves into annual conferences, each conference including such numbers of the preachers as were so situated as to be able to meet with the least inconvenience to themselves : they always fixing the time of their annual sessions to suit the conve- nience of the bishops; for it pertains to their office to pre- side on these occasions; to direct the business of the conference, and to appoint the preachers to their work ſor the year. These several annual conferences soon found it neces- sary, in order to preserve a general harmony in their mode of operation, to appoint a general conference, which was then composed of all the elders belonging to the travelling connexion. This body soon became so large, that it was found expedient to reduce the number; this was done by adopting the plan of having a suitable number of delegates from each conference, fully to re- present the wants of the church in their several confe- Tel) CeS. - The first delegated general conference was held in the city of New York, in May, 1812. At this time there were 688 travelling preachers, and 196,357 members in the church. The increase of members this year was 10,790. This conference was composed of one member for every five members of each annual conference; but at the last general conference the number was changed to one for every fourteen. For a knowledge of the pow- ers and privileges of this body, we refer the readér to ºperline of the Church, Sec. 3, page 19, edition Statistics. There are now (1833) five bishops in the Methodist Episcopal church, who are constantly travel. ling over our whole extent of country; preaching the gospel, attending the several conferences, ordaining mi- º and taking the general oversight of the whole WOl' K. In the United States there are at present, annual con- ferences, 22. - * This articlo was prepared for the Encyclopedia b aw Rev, Shi ley W. Willson, editor of Zion's Herald, Boston. , 8 p. M ET [805 J M ET Travelling preachers, *" & tº . 2,230 Doctrine. As the doctrines of the church are embodiga White members, & tº • • 489,983 in the articles of religion, which give the sentiments of Colored, . & ſº g g & . 74,447 our denomination fully, we would refer the reader to the Indian, & e * d º 2,838 DiscIPLINE. [See also the article METHODIsTs, WesleyAN.] . . ; - A careful perusal of these articles, and a candid com- Total preachers and church members, 569,498 parison of these with the word of God, will enable the Increase this year, (1833,) 46,720 inquirer after truth to form an opinion for himself. This large number of preachers and people have been raised up in the United States within the short space of sixty-seven years; besides the thousands who have died in the faith, and gone to inherit the promises. In view of the wonderful success that has crowned the labors of the Methodist ministry, we may well exclaim, “What hath God wrought!” Truly, it may be said, “A little one has become a thousand, and a small one a great people; this is the Lord's doings, and it is marvellous in our eyes.” Enterprise. The Methodist Episcopal church has not been indifferent to the benevolent enterprises of the day, but has done much, and now has the prospect of doing much more, for the promotion of the general objects that engross the attention of the Christian world. . In 1819, the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episco- pal church was organized; and at the next general con- ference, in 1820, it received the approval and sanction of that body. Many auxiliary Societies have been formed, and the church generally takes a lively and deep interest in the missionary cause. There are now (1834) employed under the patronage of this society 100 missionaries, who have the charge, as nearly as can be ascertained, of 11,886 church members, and probably preach to five times this number of people. In connexion with these, there are 16 teachers and 672 scholars. -> Two missionaries are now in Liberia, (Africa,) and two are sent to the Flat Head Indians, beyond the Rocky mountains. The funds of the society have greatly increased during the past year. The receipts were $31,361 39, being an increase of $18,603 10 over that of the previous year. The church has also a Bible, Tract, and Sunday School Society ; and every department is in successful operation. The subject of temperance is regarded by the church as a matter of vital importance to its spiritual interests. There are many conference and church temperance socie- ties formed; and both preachers and people are deeply engaged in doing all in their power to promote the great objects of the temperance cause. - The Methodist Episcopal church has a large book con- cern, which is located in the city of New York. In this establishment there are thirty presses employed, one of which is a power press. The concern employs three edi- tors, two agents, seven clerks, one superintendent of the printing office, who has under his charge eighty-seven persons, including compositors, pressmen, roller boys, &c.; one superintendent of the bindery, who has under his charge forty-three males, and sixty-one females, mak- ing in all two hundred and five persons. In 1828, there was a publishing fund instituted, the ob- ject of which is to enable the book concern to print and sell Bibles, tracts, and Sunday school books at the low- cst possible prices. - The chartered fund of the Methodist Episcopal church was originally raised by the voluntary contributions of benevolent friends. It is located in Philadelphia, and is under the management of a board of nine trustees, mem- bers of the church. A charter was obtained of the legisla- ture of Pennsylvania for this fund, in 1797, and its income is equally divided among the several conferences, for the benefit of the deficient, superannuated, and supernume- rary preachers, their wives and children, and the widows and orphans of deceased preachers. Its capital is only about $25,000; and its income but about $1,500 a year. Literature has not been overlooked by this church, but has always received the attention that could be possibly spared from the more important work of Saving Souls. There are at present five colleges, and twelve or more academies under its particular patronage. These are all under good discipline, and are exerting an influence not only favorable to literature, but favorable also to morals and religion. - Government. The title of the church gives us a correct idea of the character of its government—it is strictly Episcopal. The general rules of governmenteare the same in this country as those given by Mr. Wesley, for the go- vernment of the Methodist societies in England. (See Discipline, chap. 2, Sec. 1, p. 75, &c.) All the members are received into the church on a pro- bation of six months; during which time they have am- ple time to make themselves acquainted with all the doc- trines and usages of the church ; and the church has also an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the Christian experience and the general character of the probationers: at the end of the probation, if there is a mutual agree- ment between the probationers and the church, they are received into full connexion ; but in case there is a disa- greement, probationers can withdraw, or the church can drop them without the formality of a church trial. Whenever there is a sufficient number of persons in a place, who wish to unite with the Methodist Episcopal church, it is customary for the preacher to form them into a class, and to appoint one of their number a leader, whose duty it is to take a special oversight of them, and to meet them once a week for the purpose of religious in- struction and improvement. (See Discipline, chapter 2, section 2, page 81.) Classes thus formed are united into a church, and the church is placed under the charge of a travelling preacher. The churches are situated on cir- cuits or stations, and they are annually supplied by a preacher from the conſerence. On each circuit or station there is a quarterly confe- rence, consisting of the presiding elder of the district, all the travelling and local preachers, exhorters, stewards, and leaders of the circuit or station, and none else. This conference possesses an appellate jurisdiction over the members of the church on the circuit or station, who may have appealed from the decisions of the church, and its decisions in all cases are final. It also attends to the general business of the church, both temporal and spiritu- al, which cannot so well be attended to by the members of the church in their more private capacity. It is pro- perly a connecting link between the church and the an- nual conference, and all the business of the church with the annual conference is prepared and forwarded by this body. A number of circuits and stations form districts, over which an elder is appointed to preside. And a number of the districts form a conſerence, which meets annually for the transaction of its appropriate business. And then, again, delegates from these several annual conferences form a general conference, which meets once in four years. There are three orders of ministers recognised in the Methodist Episcopal church ; bishops, elders, and deacons; and the duties pertaining to each, are plainly defined in the Discipline. [See Methodists, WesleyAN.] For the election, consecration, and duties of the bishops, see Discipline, chap. 1, sec. 4, p. 25. For the duties of presiding elders, see Dis., sec. 5, p. 28. For the election and ordination of travelling elders, and their duties, see sec. 6, p. 31. For the election and ordination of travel- ling deacons, see sec. 7, p. 32. And for the method of receiving travelling preachers, and their duties, see Sec. 8, p. 33. In addition to the travelling ministry, there is a large and useful class of ministers belongiig to the Me- thodist Episcopal church, denominated local preachers. As these men are so circumstanced in their affairs of life as not to be able to give themselves up exclusively to the work of the ministry, yet they do what they can on Sab- bath days, and at other times, in preaching the gospel, and in helping on the great work of evangelizing the world. For a knowledge of their duties, powers, and privileges, see Dis, chap. 1, sec. 20, p. 66. For the particular du- ties of the preachers to God, to themselves, and each oth. er, see Dis., sec. 12, p. 48. Mi E. T. M E Z [806 ) There are many other things connected with the his- tory, doctrine, and government of this church, which we cannot notice in this article, for the want of room; and even if we had, it would not be necessary, for there are a great plenty of works already before the public, which treat of all these matters in detail. Distinguished Men. The standard writers of the Me- thodists are Wesley, Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, and Wat- son, with many others, too numerous to mention. To these we would refer the reader for a full and particular knowledge of this numerous denomination of Christians. See Zion's Herald, for June, 1834. METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH. (See Pro- rest ANT METHoDIST CHURCH.) METHODISTS, WIIITFIELD, or CALVINISTIC. Under this term are generally comprised three distinct con- nexions. 1. The Tabernacle Connecion, or that formed by Mr. Whitfield, and so called from the name given to several of his places of worship, in London, Bristol, &c. (See WHITF1ELD.) In some of the chapels in this connexion the service of the church of England is read; in others the worship is conducted much in the same way as among the Congregationalists: while, in all, the system of sup- ply is more or less kept up, consisting in the cmployment, for a month or six weeks, of ministers from different parts of the country, who either take the whole duty, or assist the resident minister. Some of the congregations con- sist of several thousand hearers; and, by the blessing of God on the rousing and faithſul sermons which are usu- ally delivered to them, very extensive good is effected in the way of conversion. Most of the ministers now em- ployed as supplies in this connexion, are of the Congre- gational order, to which of late years there appears to be a gradual approximation; and it is not improbable that ere long both bodies will coalesce. 2. Lady Huntingdon's Connexion. For an account of the origin of this section of Calvinistic Methodists, see the article HUNTING DoN, Countess of. The number of cha- pels belonging to this body, at the present time, is about sixty, in all of which the liturgy of the church of England is read, and most of her forms scrupulously kept up. The ministers, who used formerly to supply at different chapels in the course of the year, are now become more stationary, and have assumed more of the pastoral character. They have a respectable college at Cheshunt, in Hertford- shire. 3. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. This body, which is now very numerous, takes its date from the year 1735, much about the time that Methodism began in England; and is to be traced to the zealous labors of Howel Harris, Isq., of Trevecca, in Brecknockshire, who had intended to take orders in the church of England, but was so shock- ed at the impiety which he witnessed among the students at Oxford, that he abandoned his purpose ; and returning to his native place, began to exert himself for the salvation of sinners, both in his own parish and in those which ad- joined it. A great revival was the result; and it being ſound necessary to have private conversations with such as were under concern about their souls, beyond what Mr. Harris could attend to, he formed societies, in which they could be carried on by experienced individuals appointed for the purpose. met with, he was so successful in his exertions, that in the course of ſour years, not fewer than three hundred societies werc formed in South Wales. It was not long before this zealous servant of Christ was joined by scveral ministers who left the established church, who be- came itinerants, and diffused the knowledge of the gospel very widely in the principality. The first association was held about the year 1743, and since which time associations have been held quarterly. The connexion continued to receive fresh accessions, both from among the ministers and members of the establish- ment, till the year 1785, when it was joined by the Rev. Thomas Charles, A. B., of Bala, who, in addition to other zealous labors in the gospel, set himself to organize the body, according to a more regular plan; so that to him its members now look as the principal instrument in re- ducing them to thcir present order. Notwithstanding the opposition that he Their constitution consists of the following combina- tions:— 1. Private societies. These include such, and such only, as discover some concern about their souls, their nced of Christ, a diligent attendance on the means of grace, freedom from doctrinal errors, and an unblamable walk and conversation, together with their children; and who meet once every week privately, under the superin- tendence of two or more leaders. These societies are sub- ject, as it regards subordination and government, to, 2. The monthly societies, the members of which are exclusively preachers, or leaders of private societies within the county, and such of the officers from neighboring counties as may conveniently attend. These take cognizance of the state of all the private Societies within their bounds, particu- larly that there be nothing, either in doctrine or discipline, contrary to the word of God, or dissonant from the rules of the connexion. 3. The quarterly societies, or associa- tions, which are convened once every quarter of a year, both in South and North Wales. At every such associa- tion the whole connexion is supposed to be present, through its representatives, the preachers and leaders and accordingly the decisions of this meeting are deemel of authority on every subject relating to the body through all its branches. The number of Calvinistic Methodists in Wales is very great, and is increasing from year to year. Their chapels more than treble the churches. In almost every village neat stone buildings, built expressly for places of dissent- ing worship, are to be met with, and most of these belong to this body; and had it not been for their exertions and those of the Independents, &c., the inhabitants of most parts of the principality must have remained in the gross- est state of ignorance; the gospel being very seldom preached in the pulpits of the establishment. They are high in their Calvinistic sentiments, taking the strictly commercial view of the atonement of Christ, and regarding the work of redemption as possessing no aspect or bearing but what regards the elect. See History of Methodism ; Gillie's Life of Whitfield, and Works; The History, Constitution, Rules of Discipline, and Confession of l'aith of the Calvinistic Methodists in Wales.—Hend. Buck. METHUSELAH, son of Enoch, (Gen. 5: 21, 22.) was born A. M. 687 : he begat Lamech, A. M. 874, and died A. M. 1656, aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years; the greatest age attained by any man. The year of his death was that of the deluge.—Calmet. METROPOLITAN ; a bishop of a mother-church, or of the chief church in the chief city. (See articles Bishop; Episcopacy.)—Hend. Buck. METUS; an aged and venerable Christian of Alexan- dria, who in the persecution in that city A. D. 249, for refusing to blaspheme his Savior, was first beaten with clubs, then pierced with sharp reeds, and ſinally stoned to death. QUINTA and APOLLONIA, two Christian females, and many others whose names are not preserved, were fellow-sufferers.-Fox, p. 26. MEZUZOTH, is a name the Jews give to certain pieces of parchment, which they fix on the door-posts of their houscs; taking literally what Moscs says, Deut. 6: 9,11,13: “Thou shalt never för. get the laws of thy God, but thou shalt write them on the posts of thy house, and on thy gates.” They pretend, that to avoid making themselves ridicu- lous, by writing the commandments of God with- out their doors, or rather to avoid exposing them to profanation, they ought to write them on parchment, and to inclose it. Therefore they write these words on a square piece of prepared parchment, with a particular ink, and a square kind of character, Deut. 6: 4–9: “Hear, O Is- rael, the Lord our God is one Lord,” &c. Then they leave a little space, and afterwards go on to Deut. 11: 13: “And it shall come to pass, if thou shall hearken dili- gently to my commandments,” &c. as far as, “thou shalt write them upon the door-posts of thy house.” After this they roll up the parchment, put it into a case, and write on it Shadai, (Almighty,) which is one of the names of God, and then attach it to the doors of their houses, and chambers, and to the knocker of the door on the right side. As often as they pass, they touch it in this place Aft M IC M. I. C 807 J with their finger, which they aſterwards kiss. The He- brew mezuza properly signifies a door-post of a house, but is a name also given to this roll of parchment.—Calmet. MICAH, the seventh in order of the twelve lesser pro- phets, is supposed to have prophesied about B. C. 750. He was commissioned to denounce the judgments of God against both the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, ſor their idolatry and wickedness. The principal predictions contained in this book are, the invasions of Shalmanezer and Sennacherib ; the destruc- tion of Samaria and of Jerusalem, mixed with consola- tary promises of the deliverance of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, and of the downſall of the power of their Assyrian and Babylonian oppressors; the cessa- tion of prophecy in consequence of their continued deceitfulness and hypocrisy; and a desolation in a then distant period, still greater than that which was declared to be impending. The birth of the Messiah at Bethlehem is also expressly foretold ; and the Jews are directed to look to the establishment and extent of his kingdom, as an unfailing source of comfort amidst general distress. The style of Micah is nervous, concise, and elegant, often elevated and poetical, but sometimes obscure from sudden transitions of subject; and the contrast of the ne- glected duties of justice, mercy, humility, and piety, with the punctilious observance of the ceremonial sacrifices, affords a beautiful example of the harmony which sub- sists between the Mosaic and Christian dispensations, and shows that the law partook of that spiritual nature which more immediately characterizes the religion of Jesus. The prophecy of Micah, contained in the fifth chapter, is, perhaps, the most important single prophecy in all the Old Testament, and the most comprehensive respecting the personal character of the Messiah, and his successive maniſestations to the world. It crowns the whole chain of predictions respecting the several limitations of the promised seed : to the line of Sheim ; to the family of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob ; to the tribe of Judah ; and to the royal house of David, terminating in his birth at Bethlehem, “the city of David.” It careſully distin- guishes his human nativity from his divine nature and etermal existence ; foretels the casting off of the Israelites and Jews for a season ; their ultimate restoration; and the universal peace which should prevail in the kingdom and under the government of the Messiah. This prophe- cy, therefore, forms the basis of the New Testament reve- lation, which commences with the birth of the Messiah at Bethlehem, the miraculous circumstances of which are recorded by St. Matthew and St. Luke in the introduction to their respective histories; the eternal subsistence of Christ as “the Word,” in the sublime introduction to St. John's gospel; his prophetic character and second com- ing, illustrated in the four gospels and in the apostolic cpistles.—Jones ; IWatson. MICAH, of Ephraim, son of a rich widow, who became an occasion of falling to Israel, (Judg. 17, 18.) by mak- ing an ephod (or priestly habit) and images of metal, for a domestic chapel. He made one of his own sons priest; and aſterwards a young Levite. It is believed this hap- pened in the interval, after the death of Joshua, and the elders that succeeded him, till Othniel judged Israel. Thus idolatry took root, and diffused its influence, like the deadly upas, throughout his country. Behold, how great a 'matter a little fire kindleth.—Calmet. MICAIAH ; son of Imlah, of Ephraim, and a prophet, who lived in the time of Ahab, 1 Kings 22: 8–38.- Calmet. MICHAEL ; the name given to the archangel who is represented as presiding over the Jewish nation. (See AN- GEI, and ARCIIANGEL.) Jude (9, 10.) speaks of his con- tending with the devil, and disputing about the body of Moses; an expression which has given rise to many opinions. Without detailing these, we remark, that the opinion of Macknight seems to be the most reasonable, and the least liable to exception. - ſº In Dan. 10: 13–21, and 12: 1, Michael, he remarks, is spoken of as one of the chief angels, who took care of the Israelites as a nation: he may, therefore, he thinks, have “been the angel of the Lord,” before whom Joshua the high-priest is said to have stood, “Satan being at his of a Hebrew Grammar, and other works. right hand to resist him ;” (Zech. 3: 1.) namely, in his de- sign of restoring the Jenish church and state, called by Jude, the body of Moses, just as the Christian church is call- ed by Paul, the body of Christ. Zechariah adds, “And the Lord,” that is, the angel of the Lord, as is plain from ver. 1, “ said unto Satan, The Lord rebuketh thee, O Satan : even the Lord who hath chosen Jerusalem, rebuketh thee!” Dr. A. Clarke adopts this view of the passage, and adds to the remarks of Macknight the following:— “Among the Hebrews, guph, Body, is often used for a thing itself; so Rom. 7:24, the body of sin, signifies sin it- self. So the body of Moses may signify Moses himself; or that in which he was particularly concerned ; namely, his institutes, religion, &c. (See JUDE.)—Calmet. MICHAELIS, (John Henry,) a learned divine and Oriental scholar, was born at Kettenberg, in Germany, in 1668. He studied at the university of Leipsic, and after- wards at Halle, where he became professor of Greek lite- rature in 1699. He subsequently obtained the office of librarian to the university, and at length was appointed to the chair of divinity and the Oriental languages. In 1720, he published, at Halle, a valuable edition of the He- brew Bible, with various readings from manuscripts and printed editions, and the Masoretic Commentary and An- notations of the Rabbins. A kind of appendix to this work at the same time appeared under the title of “An- notationes Philologico Exegeticae in Hagiographiis;” Halle, 1720, in three vols. 4to. He was also the author He died in 1738.—Hend. Buck. MICHAELIS, (Sir John DAVID,) son of Christian Benedict, and nephew of John Henry Michaelis, was born at Halle, in 1717. He was educated at the university of his native place, and devoted himself to the clerical pro- fession. Having visited England, he became acquainted with bishop Lowth, and other learned men, and for a while officiated as minister at the German chapel, St. James' palace. Returning to Germany, he was made professor of theology and Oriental literature at the uni- versity of Gottingen, of which he was also librarian. He was appointed director of the Royal Society of Gottingen; and by his writings and lectures he contributed greatly to the celebrity of that university as a school of theological literature. The order of the polar star was conferred up- on professor Michaelis in 1775, by the king of Sweden; and in 1786, he was made an aulic counsellor of Hano- ver. He died in 1791, at the age of seventy-five. His works are very numerous, amounting to about fifty diffe- rent publications, mostly relating to Scripture criticism, and the Oriental languages and literature. Among the most valued are his “Introduction to the New Testa- ment,” which has been translated into English by bishop Marsh ; his “Commentaries on the Law of Moses,” of which there is an English version by Dr. Smith, a clergy- man of the church of Scotland; his “Spicilegium Geo- graphiae Hebræorum ;” his “Supplementa ad Lexica He- braica;” his “Biblical and Oriental Library;” and his “Translation of the Bible, with Notes ; for the Un; learned.” & The adherence of Michaelis to the established system of Lutheranism, and his outward respect for the Chris- tian religion, have principally been attributed to the im- pressions made upon his mind by the intercourse of the Pietists, and especially by the education which he receiv. ed from his excellent father. Too light-minded, as he himself acknowledges, to adopt their tone of pious feel- ing, he nevertheless retained a certain conviction of the truth of Christianity; endeavored, by new and singularly ingenious theories, to remove objections to it ; and, much to the surprise of his younger contemporaries, whose ra- tionalistic views were ripening apace, he held, to the last, many parts of the older system, which they had either modified or thrown aside. The melancholy consequences, however, of this merely natural persuasion, are abun. dantly manifest. Destitute of that conviction which can alone give a comprehensive insight into the real character of revelation, and the harmonious relation of its several parts, he had no guide to enable him to perceive what might be safely admitted without detriment to the system itself; he consequently, according to the usual custom M. I. D *. M I L [ 80s . of persons taking only a partial view of subjects, fre- quently opposed the objection, instead of the principle on which the objection was founded; endeavored to remove it by theories in conformity with mere human systems, and strengthened it equally by his concessions and by his own inadequate and arbitrary defences, Possessed of no settled principles, every minute difficulty presented itself with intrinsic force and perplexity to his mind; his belief was a reed ready to be shaken by every fresh breeze; all that he had previously gained seemed againstaked on the issue of each petty skirmish; and, in the very descriptive comparison of Lessing, he was like the timid soldier who loses his life before an outpost, without once seeing the country of which he would gain possession. The theo- logical opinions of this celebrated man are never to be trusted; and, indeed, the serious student cannot but be disgusted with the levity which too frequently appears in his writings, and the gross obscenity which occasionally defiles them ; (as it did much more offensively his oral lec- tures;) the result of his intemperate habits and low mo- ral character.—Hend. Buck. - - MICHMAS; a city of Ephraim, on the confines of Ben- jamin, (Ezra 2: 27. Neh. 7: 31.) called also Michmash, 1 Sam. 13: 2. Isa. 10: 28. Comp. Neh. 11: 31. Euse- bius says, it was, in his time, a considerable place, about nine miles from Jerusalem, towards Rama.—Calmet. MIDDLETON, (ConyERs, D. D.,) a learned divine and elegant writer, was born, in 1683, at York, and was edu- cated at Trinity college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In the contest between the members of that college and Dr. Bentley he took a prominent part. In 1724, he visited Italy. He was, subsequently, Woodwardian pro- fessor of mineralogy, and librarian at Cambridge. His only church preferment was the living of Hascomb, in Surry, for his free spirit of inquiry was not calculated to conciliate clerical patronage. He had, however, a suffi- cient fortune to render him indifferent to the emoluments of his profession. He died in 1750. - His chief works are, a Life of Cicero, which ranks among the classical productions of our literature; and a Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the Church, which excited against him a host of vehement opponents; a Refutation of Tindal; a Letter from Rome, showing an exact conformity between Popery and Paganism. It certainly must be admitted that some of Middleton’s expressions were incautious, and some of his sentiments controvertible; but Middleton was too good a man to oppose truth, and too wise a man to disbelieve the ve- racity of the Holy Scriptures. He was an accomplished scholar, and wrote the English language with great ele- gance; but he was a man of independent mind, and not suited to pace in the trammels of the establishment. He exemplified, in his life and conversation, those Christian principles to which he was attached. His Miscellane- ous Pieces form five octavo volumes. See Life of Dr. Middleton.—Davenport; Jones' Chris. Biog. MIDDLETON, (ERASMUs,) author of the “Biographia Evangelica,” was born about 1750, and graduated, at King’s college, Cambridge. He was a predecessor of Legh Richmond, as rector of Turvey, Bedfordshire, and a man of warm piety, and of a catholic spirit. His great work in biography is a collection of invaluable materials, and must immortalize his memory, while doing immense good. It ought to be better known in this country. MIDDLETON, (THoMAs FANSHAw, D. D., F. R. S.,) first bishop of Calcutta, was the only son of the rector of Keddleston, in Derbyshire, where he was born in 1769. He received his education at Christ's hospital, and pro- ceeded from thence upon a school exhibition to Pembroke hall, Cambridge, where he took his first degree in 1792. The same year he took orders as curate of Gainsborough, in Lincolnshire, where he wrote for a periodical paper, un- der the title of “The Country Spectator.” In 1808, he took his doctor's degree, and the same year he gave to the pub- lic his learned work, entitled, “The Doctrine of the Greek Article, applied to the Illustration of the New Testament,”. in a large octavo volume, which, aſter being several years out of print, has been recently republished. In 1812, he was made archdeacon of Huntingdon; and when government came to the resolution of establishing a resident bish p in India, Dr. Middleton was selected for that eminent station; and, being consecrated at Lambeth, in May, 1814, he sailed for Calcutta, where he arrived in the month of November of the same year. He immedi- ately began to exert himself in his new and authoritative station with zeal and assiduity. In 1820, he laid the foundation-stone of a church at Calcutta, near to which a school was erected for the Christian poor, and soon after a missionary college; towards the erection of which endow- ment the Societies for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and for Missions to Africa and the East, contributed five thousand pounds each. In the midst of these labors, the learned bishop was attacked with a fever, of which he died, after a short illness, July 8th, 1822. His sermons and charges have been collected into a vo- lume by Dr. Bonney, to which a biographical memoir is prefixed. Life by Bonney.—Jones' Chris. Biog. MIDIAN, LAND OF, or country of the Midianites, de- rived its name and its inhabitants from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. This country extended from the east of the land of Moab, on the east of the Dead sea, southward, along the Eleanitic gulf of the Red Sea, stretching some way into Arabia. It further passed to the south of the land of Edom, into the peninsula of mount Sinai, where Moses met with the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian, whom he married. The Midianites, together with their neighbors, the Ishmaelites, were early engaged in the trade between the East and the West, as we find the party to whom Joseph was sold, carrying spices, the produce of the East, into Egypt; and taking Gilead in their way, to add the celebrated and highly-prized balm of that country to their merchandise. It appears that, at the time of the passage of the Israelites through the country of the Amo- rites, the Midianites had been subdued by that people, as the chiefs or kings of their five principal tribes are called dukes of Sihon, and dwelt in his country, Josh. 13: 21. It was at this time that the Midianites, alarmed at the num- bers and the progress of the Israelites, united with the Moabites in sending into Syria for Balaam, the soothsayer; thinking to do that by incantation which they despaired of effecting by force. The result of this measure, the constraint imposed on Balaam to bless instead of to curse, and the subsequent defeat and slaughter of the Midianites, form one of the most interesting narratives in the early history of the Jews, Num, 22—25, 31. About two hundred years after this, the Midianites, having recovered their numbers and their strength, were permitted by God to distress the Israelites, for the space of seven years, as a punishment for their relapse into ido- latry. But at length their armies, which had encamped in the valley of Jezreel, were miraculously defeated by Gideon, Judg. 6–8. The Midianites appear not to have survived this second discomfiture as a nation; but their remains became gradually incorporated with the Moabites and Arabians.—Jones ; Calmet ; Watson. - MIGDOL., Exod. 14: 2. It is not known whether Mig- dol was a city, or only a fortress ; probably the latter, in which a garrison was stationed.— Watson. MILE ; a measure of length, containing a thousand paces. Eight stadia or furlongs make a mile. The Ro- mans commonly measured by miles, and the Greeks by furlongs. The furlong was a hundred and twenty-five paces; the pace was five feet. The ancient Hebrews had neither miles, furlongs, nor feet, but only the cubit, the reed, and the line. The rabbins make a mile to consist of two thousand cubits, and ſour miles make a parasang. — Watson. MILETUS; a city on the continent of Asia Minor, and in the province of Caria, memorable for being the birth- place of Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece, of Anaximander and Anaximimes, the philosophers, and of Timotheus, the musician. It was about thirty-six miles south of Ephesus, and the capital of both Caria and Ionia. The Milesians were subdued by the Persians, and the country passed successively into the power of the Greeks and Romans. At present the Turks call it Molas, and it is not far distant from the true Meander, which encircles all the plain with many mazes, and innumerable wind- ings. In it was a magnificent temple of Apollo. It was to this place that St. Paul called the elders of the church MIL M I L [ 809 | of Ephesus, to deliver his last charge to them, Acts 20: 15, &c. There was another Miletus in Crete, mentioned 2 Tim. 4: 20. Whitby ; Wells ; Calmet ; Jones ; Smiley.— Watson. . . . MILITANT; (ſrom militans, fighting;) a term applied to the church on earth, as engaged in a warfare with the world, sin, and the devil; in distinction from the church triumphant in heaven.—Hend. Buck. - MILK. The first natural food or nutriment of infancy. It is pure, sweet, simple, wholesome, and its reception re- quires no labor of the yet tender organs, either to chew, swallow, or digest, in order to yield nourishment. Paul compares some of his converts to little children, to be fed with milk, and not with solid food;(1 Cor. 3:2, Heb. 5: 12.) and Peter exhorts the faithful universally, “As new- born babes, desire the sINCERE MILK of THE worD, that ye may grow thereby,” 1 Pet. 2: 2. Such Is THE SIMPLE TESTIMONY of God, To His chILDREN.—Whatever requires an effort of the reasoning powers, on the other hand, is called tº strong meat,” and is adapted to the mature stage of Christian knowledge and experience. Hence it is evident that the doctrines of human sinfulness and condemnation; of justification by faith in Christ only; of the Deity, in- carnation, and atonement of the Savior; of the necessity of regeneration by the Holy Spirit; of gratuitous election to salvation, according to God's eternal purpose and irre- vocable calling; and of the everlasting tenure of ſuture retribution ; with their kindred truths, belong strictly and properly to the first class, not the latter. They are to be received on divine testimony, without reasoning, in all their integrity, simplicity and sweetness, by the weakest believer; not as strong meat, but as the pure milk of the word. When thus received, their nourishing properties, as the sustenance of the divine life, will soon be conspicuous in the growth, health, and cheerful activity of the believer. Then in due time he will acquire the power of reasoning with a sound judgment on spiritual things, 1 Cor. 2: 15. A land flowing with milk and honey, is a country of extraordinary fertility. In the prophets the kingdom of the Messiah is represented as a time of great abundance, “when the mountains should flow with milk and honey,” Joel 3: 18. And Isaiah says to the church, (60: 16.) “Thou shalt also suck the milk of the Gentiles, and shalt suck the breasts of kings.”—Calmet, MILL. In the first ages they parched or roasted their grain; a practice which the people of Israel, as we learn from the Scriptures, long continued: afterwards they pounded it in a mortar, to which Solomon thus alludes: “Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him,” Prov. 27:22. This was succeeded by mills, of which there were two sorts : the first were large, and turned by the strength of horses or asses; the second were smaller, and wrought by women, or by slaves condemned to this hard labor, as a punishment for their crimes. Most of their corn is ground by these little mills. Chardin re- /~~ - º * - º $º-sº >s- * . –6. šš= *S*22 _e=3 SººHºº-º-º-es: Lº ...-es:=\s Hºº ==E- ». -5----- HºN *~~~ sº -:====º". Jº ºc * & -*-* * - sºssº: §º: & = 2 ==== (. --~ **-- º: == 235 - 2 -- º ="zºº º E =S㺠§§ 2.2% º #ſſiſſiº. 㺠tºº. | § §§ SS l º N tº a Hºuſtº iºn , sº * —a Hº º º t Sº, tº º - ń. *Tº | | | § |;| * § § $ $="# §Impºsº 'º): iii.; º; §§ §#(§§ & ###. * “º * B s: *Rºssº Sº Sº...º. ź Vº ºš. =ºssº marks, in his manuscript, that the persons employed are generally female slaves, who are least regarded, or are least fitted for any thing else; for the work is extremely laborious, and esteemed the lowest employment about the house. Hence we may see the propriety of the expres sion in the declaration of Moses : , “And all the first- born-in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne, even unto the first- born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill;” Exod. 11: 5. - The manner in which the hand-mills are worked is well described by Dr. E. D. Clarke, in his Travels: “Scarcely had we reached the apartment prepared for our reception, when, looking from the window into the court-yard be longing to the house, we beheld two women grinding at the mill, in a manner most forcibly illustrating the saying of our Savior: “Two women shall be grinding at the mill, the one shall be taken and the other left.” They were preparing flour to make our bread, as it is always customary in the country when strangers arrive. The two women, seated upon the ground opposite to each other, held between them two round flat stones, such as are seen in Lapland, and such as in Scotland are called querns. In the centre of the upper stone was a cavity for pouring in the corn, and by the side of this an upright wooden han- dle for moving the stone. As this operation began, one of the women opposite received it from her companion, who pushed it towards her, who again sent it to her compa- nion ; thus communicating a rotatory motion to the upper stone, their left hands being all the while employed in supplying fresh corn, as fast as the bran and flour escaped from the sides of the machine.” When they are not impelled, as in this instance, to premature exertions by the arrival of strangers, they grind their corn in the morning at break of day: the noise of the mill is then to be heard everywhere, and is often so great as to rouse the inhabitants of the cities from their slumbers; for it is well known they bake their bread every day, and commonly grind their corn as it is wanted. The females engaged in this operation, also endeavored to be- guile the lingering hours of toilSome exertion with a song. We learn ſtom an expression of Aristophanes, preserved by Athenaeus, that the Grecian maidens accom- panied the sound of the millstones with their voices. The noise of the millstone is therefore, with great propriety, selected by the prophets as one of the tokens of a popu- lous and thriving country : “Moreover, I will take from them the voice of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the sound of millstones and the light of a candle, and their whole land shall be a desolation,” Jer. 25: 10. Isa. 47: 1, 2. Rev. 18: 22. The morning shall no more be cheered with the joyful sound of the mill, nor the shadows of even- ing by the light of a candle; the morning shall be silent, and the evening dark and melancholy, where desolation reigns. The custom of daily grinding their corn for the family, shows the propriety of the law : “No man shall take the mether or the upper millstone to pledge, for he taketh a man's life to pledge;” because if he take either the upper or the nether millstone, he deprives him of his daily provision, which cannot be prepared without them. The fact that it was done only by women and menials, dis- plays, also, the vindictive contempt which suggested the punishment of Samson, the captive ruler of Israel, that the Philistines, with barbarous contumely, compelled him to perform the meanest service of a female slave ; they sent him to grind in the prison, (Judg. 16:21.) but not for himself alone; this, although extremely mortifying to the hero, had been more tolerable; they made him grinder for the prison, perhaps while the vilest malefactor was permitted to look on, and join in the mockery. , Samson; the ruler and avenger of Israel, labors, as Isaiah foretold the virgin daughter of Babylon should labor: “Come down, and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon : there is no throne,” no seat for thee, “O daughter of the Chaldeans. Take the millstones and grind meal,” but not with the wonted song : “sit thou silent, and get thee into darkness,” there to conceal thy vexation and disgrace, Isa. 47: 1, 2, 5.— FWatson. tº . . MILL, (Joun, D. D.,) a learned English divine and bi- blical critic, was born at Shapp, in Westmoreland, in 1645. He became a servitor in Queen’s college, Oxford, in 1661, where he graduated master of arts in 1669. Being aſter- - 102 M IL M II, I 810 ) . wards elected a fellow, he became an eminent tutor, and having entered into orders, was greatly admired for his pulpit eloquence. In 1680, he received from his college the living of Bletchingdon, in Oxfordshire; and proceeding D. D. became chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. The valuable edition of the New Testament, on which Dr. Mill employed thirty years of his life, appeared in 1707, under the title of “Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum 'lectionibus variantibus, ex MSS.,” &c. Of the great ..earning and critical acumen of Dr. Mill, this laborious work forms an indisputable testimony. The collection of such a mass of various readings, (gathered, it is said, from more than thirty thousand MSS.) instead of supply- ing arms for Infidelity, as some seem to have feared, has served to place the uncorrupted integrity of the Scriptures in a stronger light than ever. Cavil and suspicion on this point is forever precluded, and set at defiance. Dr. Bentley has ably vindicated the labors of Dr. Mill, in his “Remarks.” He survived the publication of his great work only a fortnight, dying of an apoplexy, in 1708, in the sixty-third year of his age.—Biog. Brit. ; Jones' Chris. Biog. MILLS, (SAMUEL J.,) was the son of the minister' of Torringford, Connecticut, and was born April 21, 1783. At an early period he had such a sense of his sins, that for two years he regarded his existence as a curse; but in answer to the fervent prayers of his pious parents he was cheered with the Christian hope. He graduated at Williams’ college, in 1809. While in that seminary his mind was deeply impressed with the importance of foreign missions, and he endeavored to awaken a similar feeling in the hearts of his fellow-stu- dents. At the theological seminary in Andover he united with Judson, Newell, Nott, and Hall, in a resolution to undertake a foreign mission. In 1812 and 1813, he and J. F. Schermerhorn made a missionary tour in the western states. He was ordained with other missionaries at New- buryport, June 21, 1815. He made a second tour with Mr. Smith in 1814 and 1815. He ascertained in March, 1815, that not a Bible could be found for sale or to be given away in New Orleans : in this city he distributed many Bibles in French and English, and visited the sick soldiers. Finding that seventy or eighty thousand fami- lies at the south and west were destitute of a Bible, he suggested at the close of his report the establishment of a national society like that of the British. His efforts con- tributed to the establishment of the American Bible Soci- ety, May 8, 1816. The plan of the United Foreign Mission Society, which, however, accomplished but little, originated with him, while residing with Dr. Griffin, at Newark, as did also the African school, which existed a few years at Parsippany, near Newark. He attended the first meeting of the Colonization society, January 1, 1817, which was established by the exertions of Dr. Finley. Appointed, with Mr. Burgess, to visit England and explore the coast of Africa for the society, he sailed in November, 1817, and in a wonderful manner escaped shipwreck on the coast of France. He sailed from England for Africa, February 2, 1818, and arrived on the coast March 12th. After a laborious inspection of more than two months, he embarked on his return in the brig Success, May 22, 1818. A severe cold, which he took early in June, was succeeded by a fever, of which he died, June 16, 1818, aged thirty-four. He was buried in the depths of the ocean. Samuel J. Mills was a Christian, eminently pious and benevolent; and, when the sea gives up its dead, he will rise to heavenly glory. Memoirs, by Rev. Gardiner Spring, D. D.—Allen, - - MILLENARIANS, or CHILIASTs ; a name given to those who believe that the saints will reign on earth with Christ a thousand years. See next article.—Hend. Buck. MILLENNIUM, “a thousand years;” generally em- ployed to denote the thousand years during which, accord- ing to an ancient tradition in the church, grounded on some doubtful texts in the Apocalypse and other Scrip- tures, our blessed Savior shall reign with the faithful upon. earth after the first resurrection, before the final comple- tion of beatitude. Though there has been no age of the church in which such views of the millennium were not admitted by indivi- dual divines, it is yet evident, from the writings of Euse- bius, Irenaeus, Origen, and others, among the ancients, as well as from the histories of Dupin, Mosheim, and all the moderns, that they were never adopted by the whole church, or made an article of the established creed in any nation. - About the middle of the fourth century, the millema- rians held the following tenets: 1. That the city of Jeru- salem should be rebuilt, and that the land of Judea should be the habitation of those who were to reign, on the earth a thousand years. 2. That the first resurrection was not to be confined to the martyrs, but that, after the fall of Antichrist, all the just were to rise, and all that were on the earth were to continue for that space of time. 3. That Christ shall then come down from heaven, and be seen on earth, and reign there with his servants. 4. That the saints, during this period, shall enjoy all the delights of a terrestrial paradise. These opinions were derived from several passages in Scripture, which the millenarians, among the fathers, un- derstood in no other than a literal sense; but which the moderns, who hold that opinion, consider as partly literal and partly metaphorical. Of these passages, that upon which the greatest stress has been laid, we believe to be the following:—“And I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit, and a great chain in his hand; and he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil and Satan, and bound him a thousand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled; and, after that, he must be loosed a little season. And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them : and I saw the Souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, nor in their hands; and they lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years. But the rest of the dead lived not again till the thousand years were finished. This is the first resurrection,” Rev. 20: 1–6. This pas. sage the ancient millenarians took in a sense grossly lite- ral, and taught that, during the millennium, the saints on earth were to enjoy every bodily delight. The moderns, on the other hand, consider the power and pleasures of this kingdom as wholly spiritual; but they represent them as not to commence till after the conflagration of the pre- sent earth. This last supposition is, however, a mistake, as the very next verse but one assures us; for we are there told, that, “when the thousand years are expired, Satan shall be loosed out of his prison, and shall go out to deceive the nations which are in the four quarters of the earth ;” and we have no reason to believe that he will have such power or such liberty in “the new heavens and the new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness.” These views have recently been revived in England, by the Rev. Edward Irving, and a party who arrogate to themselves the exclusive epithet of “The Students of Prophecy;” and partly in consequence of the ſamatical manner in which they have been propounded, partly owing to the absurd notions and practices, such as the pretended giſt of tongues, working of miracles, &c., which have been connected with them, have produced a conside- rable impression, principally on clergymen and laymen of the church of England. The few Dissenters that have been led away by them, are such as originally attended Mr. Irving's ministry. • . . . - Respecting the real millennium, we may observe the fol- lowing things:–1. That the Scriptures afford us ground to believe that the church will arrive at a state of prosperity which it never has yet enjoyed, Rev. 20: 4, 7, Ps. 72; 11. Is. 2: 2, 4, 11:9. 49; 23.60. Dan. 7:27. 2. That this will continue at least a thousand years, or a considerable space of time, in which the work of salva- tion may be fully accomplished in the utmost extent and glory of it. In this time, in which the world will soon be filled with real Christians, and continue full by early regeneration, to supply the place of those who leave the world, there will be many thousands born and live on the M I L M I L [ 811 ) earth, to each one that has been born and lived in the pre- ceding six thousand years; so that, if they who shall be born in that thousand years shall be all, or most of them saved, (as they will be,) there will, on the whole, be many thousands of mankind saved to one that shall be lost. 3. This will be a state of great happiness and glory. The Jews shall be converted, genuine Christianity be dif. fused through all nations, and Christ shall reign, by his spiritual presence, in a glorious manner. It will be a time of eminent holiness, clear light and knowledge, love, peace, and friendship, agreement in doctrine and worship. Human life, perhaps, will rarely be endangered by the poisons of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. Beasts of prey, perhaps, will be extirpated or tamed by the power of man. The inhabitants of every place will rest secure from fear of robbery and murder. War shall be entirely ended. Capital crimes and punishments be heard of no more. Governments placed on fair, just, and humane foundations. The torch of civil discord will be extinguished. Pagans, Turks, Deists, and Jews, will either be entirely converted, or will be as few in number as real Christians are now. Kings, nobles, magistrates, and rulers in churches, shall act with principle, and be forward to promote the best interests of men : tyranny, oppression, persecution, bigotry, and cruelty shall cease. Business will be attended to without contention, dishonesty, and covetousness. Trades and manufactures will be carried on with a design to promote the general good of mankind, and not with selfish interests as now. Mer- chandise between distant countries will be conducted without fear of an enemy; and works of ornament and beauty, perhaps, shall not be wanting in those days. Learning, which has always flourished in proportion as religion has spread, shall then greatly increase, and be employed for the best of purposes. Astronomy, geogra- phy, matural history, metaphysics, and all the useful sci- ences, will be better understood, and consecrated to the service of God; and by the improvements which have been made, and are making, in ship-building, navigation, electricity, medicine, &c., “the tempest will lose half its force, the lightning lose half its terrors,” and the human frame not be nearly so much exposed to danger. Above all, the Bible will be more highly appreciated, its har- mony perceived, its superiority owned, and its energy felt by millions of human beings. In fact, the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the Zord, as the waters cover the SČ(!. - 4. The time when the millennium will commence cannot be fully ascertained; but the common idea is, that it will be in the seven thousandth year of the world. It will, most probably, come on by degrees, and be in a manner introduced years before that time. And who knows but the present convulsions among different nations, the over- throw which popery has had in places where it has been so dominant for hundreds of years, the ſulfilment of pro- phecy respecting infidels, and the falling away of many in the last times; and yet, in the midst of all, the number of missionaries sent into different parts of the world, to- gether with the increase of gospel ministers; the thou- sands of ignorant children that have been taught to read the Bible, and the vast number of different societies that have been lately instituted for the benevolent purpose of inſorming the minds and impressing the hearts of the ig- norant; who knows but that these things are the forerum- ners of events of the most delightful nature, and which may usher in the happy morn of that bright and glorious day, when the whole world shall be filled with his glory, and all the ends of the earth see the salvation of our God? - How delightful them the prospects which open upon the eye of faith in prophetic vision | Christianity prevails universally. Our race assumes the appearance of one vast, virtuous, peaceful ſamily. Our world becomes the seat of one grand, triumphant, adoring assembly. At length, after a brief space of severe trial, the scene mingles with the heavens, and rising in brightness is blended with the glo- ries on high. The mysteries of God on earth are finished, “ the times of restitution of all things” are fulfilled. The Son of God descends. The scene closes with divine gran- deur; “And I heard as it were the voice of a great multi- tude, and as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of many thunderings, saying, Alleluia ; for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth.” “The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of our Lord and his Christ.” “And I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and the first earth were passed away; and there was no more sea. And I saw the holy city New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven. And I heard a great voice out of heaven, saying, Behold the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be their God,” Rev. 19: 6. 11:15. 21: 1–4. - See Apocalypse ; Hopkins on the Millennium ; Whitby's Treatise on it, at the end of the second vol. of his Annotations on the Neny Testament ; Scott's Commentary ; Hon’s Chris- tian Register, for 1816; Bishop Nervton on the Prophecies ; Bellamy's Treatise on the Millennium; Theol. Misc., 6th vol.; Lardner's Cred., 4th, 5th, 7th, and 9th vols.; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., cent. 3, p. 11, ch. 12; Taylor's Sermons on the Millennium ; Illustrations of Prophecy, ch, 31; Bogue, Emer- son, and Potter, on the Millennium ; Wardlan's Sermon an the Millennium ; Fuller's Works ; Jones' Lectures on the Apocalypse ; Jones' Bib. Cyclopedia ; Natural History of En- thusiasm; Works of Rev. Robert Hall ; Keith's Signs of the Times; Watson.—Hend. Buck ; Jones. MILLET, (dochan ; Ezek. 4: 9.) a kind of maize, so called from its thrusting forth such a quantity of grains. Thus in Latin it is called millium, as if one stalk bore a thousand seeds. It has been supposed that the dochan means what is now called in the East durra ; which, ac- cording to Niebuhr, is a sort of millet, and when made into bad bread with camel’s milk, oil, butter, or grease, is almost the only food which is eaten by the common people in Arabia Felix. “I found it so disagreeable,” says he, “that I should willingly have preferred plain barley bread to it.” This illustrates the appointment of it to the pro- phet Ezekiel as a part of his hard fare. It is also used in Palestine and Syria, and it is generally agreed that it yields much more than any other kind of grain.—Watson. MILLO ; originally a deep valley, between the old city of Jebus, or Jerusalem, and the city of David, on mount Zion. David and Solomon caused it to be filled up, and here made a place for the people to assemble, 2 Sam. 5: 9. 1 Kings 9:15. 2 Kings 12:20. 1 Chron. 11: 8, Solo- mon, also, on a part of it built a palace for his queen, the daughter of Pharaoh, 1 Rings 9: 24.—Calmet. MILNER, (ISAAC, D. D.;) an Episcopal divine, emi- nent as a mathematician and natural philosopher, and not less for ardent evangelical piety. He was born at Leeds, in the county of York, of humble parentage, and brought up to the employment of weaving, which he followed for some time, dedicating every moment of leisure to the study of classic literature and the mathematics. He was then employed as an assistant in a grammar-school, and afterwards admitted a student at Queen’s college, Cam- bridge. In 1774, he gained the first mathematical prize; and, becoming a tutor, he had among his pupils Mr. Pitt and Mr. Wilberforce, with whom he travelled abroad, and was the honored instrument of the conversion of the lat- ter. (See WILBERForce.) Returning to the university, he was chosen professor of natural philosophy in 1783, and master of his college in 1788, when he proceeded doctor in divinity; and about the same time he obtained the deanery of Carlisle. He was vice-chancellor of the university in 1792, and six years afterwards he became Lucasian professor of mathe- matics. He wrote “Animadversions on Dr. Haweis’ Impartial History of the Church of Christ,” octavo, 1800; “Strictures on some of the publications of the Rev. Her- bert Marsh, intended as a Reply to some of his Objections against the Bible Society,” octavo, 1813; besides various works of a mathematical kind. He died in 1820. Gent. Mag. ; London Christian Observer—Jones' Chris. Biog. MILNER, (Joseph,) brother of the preceding, was also originally a weaver, but raised himself by the exercise of his talents to eminence in the literary world. He was born at Leeds, in 1744, and educated at the free grammar. school, whence he proceeded to Catharine hall, Cambridge, where he took his bachelor's degree in 1766, and obtained one of the chancellor's medals. Entering into orders, he MI IL M I N [ 812 J became master of the grammar-School, and aſternoon lec- turer at Hull. He subsequently obtained the vicarage of North Ferriby, in Yorkshire, and also that of the Holy Trinity church, in Hull. He died on the 15th of Novem- ber, 1797, at the age of fifty-two. His works consist of “A History of the Christian Church,” in ſour volumes octavo ; the last volume of which was completed by his brother, dean Milner, who added to it a fifth volume, continuing the History of the Reſormation, executed with so much ability, that it is a matter of regret he did not live to continue the history to its completion. He also wrote an “Answer to Mr. Gib- bon's Attack on Christianity;” “Essays on the Influences of the Holy Spirit;” and published two volumes of Ser- II].OI) S. The author of the “Natural History of Enthusiasm,” in speaking of the characteristic defects of Mosheim and Milner as historians of Christianity, observes, that Mos- heim gives us the mere husk of history, and Milner no- thing but some separated particles of pure farina. We may add, that Jones has shown a sounder judgment, Waddington a finer taste, and Neander more learning and philosophic power, than either. Life of Rev. J. Mil- zler, by his brother, prefixed to his Sermons.—Jones' Chris. Biog. MILNER, (John, D. D.,) an eminent Romish theolo- gian and antiquary, whose real name was Miller, was born, in 1752, in London; was educated at the schools of Sedgely Park and Edgbaston, and at Douay; and, after having been a priest at Winchester, was appointed, in 1803, vicar apostolic in the midland district, with the title of bishop of Catalba. In 1814, he visited Rome. He re- mained there for twelve months, and had frequent audi- ences with pope Pius VII. He died April 19, 1826. Of all the advocates of the Papal church, no one has displayed more learning and acuteness than Milner, though not unmixed with partisan gall and misrepresentation. Proofs of this will be seen in his Letters to a Prebendary; The End of Religious Controversy ; and his other contro. versial treatises. As an antiquary he fully established his character by the History of Winchester : Dissertation on the modern Style of altering Cathedrals; and Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the Middle Ages. He was a ſellow of the Antiquarian soci- ety, and contributed many learned papers to the Archæo- logia.--Davenport. - MILTON, (Jojin,) the Christian Homer, was born, December 9, 1608, in Bread street, in London, and was educated at St. Paul's school, and Christ's college, Cam- bridge. IIis original purpose was to enter the church, but his dislike to subscription and to oaths, which in his opinion required what he emphatically termed, “an ac- commodating conscience,” prevented the fulfilment of his intention. After he quitted the university he passed five years of studious retirement at his father's house, at Hor- ton, in Buckinghamshire; during which period he pro- duced Comus, Lycidas, and some of his other poems. In 1638, he went to France, whence he proceeded to Italy. On his return, after an absence of fifteen months, he opened an academy at Aldersgate street, and began also to take a part in the controversies of the time. He mar: ried in 1643, but so scanty was his nuptial felicity, his wife leaving him to return to her parents in the course of a month, that he was stimulated to write his Treatise on ivorce, and to take measures for procuring another help. mate. On her becoming penitent, however, he not only received her again, but gave her royalist father and bró. thers an asylum in his house. He entered twice more into the marriage state. The zeal with which, in his Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, he vindicated the exe- cution of Charles I., induced the council of state to appoint him Latin Secretary, and he thus became, in a manner, the literary champion of the popular cause. In behalf of that cause he published his Iconoclastes, in answer to the Icon Basiliké, and his two Defences of the People of Eng- land against the libels of Salmasius and Du Moulin, lu the execution of this “noble task,” as he calls it, he lost his sight; his previous weakness of the eyes terminating in gutta Serena. - w - At the restoration he remained concealed for a while, but the interest of his friends, particularly of Marvell and Davenant, soon enabled him to reappear in safety. The rest of his life was spent in retirement, employed partly in the composition of that noble work which he had long meditated, and by which he at once immortalized his name, and shed a lustre over his country. The Paradise Lost appeared in 1667. The Maecenas of a bookseller paid him five pounds for the first edition of thirteen hun- dred copies, and liberally agreed to pay ten more, upon the sale of two subsequent editions of equal magnitude : The Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes, the History of Britain, were among his latest productions. The date of his recently discovered Treatise of Christian Doctrine is unknown. This work shows Milton to have been an Arian Baptist. His active imagination and impetuous spirit mingle too strongly with his theology, and in seve- ral particulars corrupt it ; but though like Locke he some- times mistakes the sense of Scripture, no man had a higher opinion of its supreme authority, or held fast more firmly its most vital truths. His name cannot be classed with modern Unitarians. He died November 8, 1674. The mists which prejudice and bigotry have spread over the bright name of Milton are not yet wholly scattered, though fast passing away. He was a seraph, burning with a calm love of moral grandeur and celestial purity. He thought not so much of what man is as of what he might become. His own mind was a revelation to him of a higher condition of humanity, and to promote this he thirsted and toiled for freedom, as the element for the growth and improvement of his nature. “Reſormation” was the first word of public warning which broke from his youthful lips, and the hope of it was a fire in his aged breast. Refined and spiritual in his habits, temperate almost to abstentiousness, Milton re- freshed himself, after intellectual effort, by music. His life was an echo of the noble sentiments inéalcated in his writings. See Milton's JLife, by Johnson, Symmons, and Ivimey, and his Character by Dr. Channing.—Davenport j Jones' Chris. Biog. MINA, or maneh ; properly, one part or ounce ; a species of money, usually translated pound. Ezekiel tells us, (45: 12.) that it was valued at sixty shekels, which, in gold, made of English money, is above fifty-four pounds, and in silver, almost seven pounds. The Greek or Attic mina, which is probably that mentioned in the books of the Maccabees, and in the New Testament, is valucd at a hundred drachmae, or about two pounds seventeen shil- lings. There was also a lesser mina, valued at seventy- five drachmae.—Calmet. MIND; a thinking, intelligent being; otherwise called spirit, or soul. (See SouL.; and KNowLEDGE.) Dr. Watts has given us some admirable thoughts as to the improvement of the mind. “There are five eminent means or methods,” he observes, “whereby the mind is improved in the knowledge of thirgs; and these are, ob- servation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversation, and meditation; which last, in a most peculiar manner, is called study. See Locke on the Human Understanding ; Bronn's Lectures on the Philosophy of the Mind; Reid, Stenart, and Upham ; Abercrombie and Chalmers ; and cs. pecially Watts on the Mind ; a book which no student should be without.—Hend. Buck. MINIMS; a religious order in the church of Rome, founded by St. Francis de Paula, towards the end of the fifteenth century. Their habit is a coarse black woollen stuff, with a woollen girdle of the same color, tied in five knots. They are not permitted to quit their habit and gir. MI N M I N [ 813 J ** ..ºf dle night nor day. Tormerly they went bareſooted, but are now allowed the use of shoes.—Hend. Buck. MINISTER, strictly denotes one who officiates, serves or waits upon another. Thus Joshua is called the minis- ter of Moses, (Exod. 24; 13.) and John Mark, the minis- ter of Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13: 5. But the term is applied variously by the sacred writers, such as to magiš- trates, (Rom. 13: 6.) to pastors and teachers, (1 Cor. 3: 5. and 4: 1.) to angels, (Ps. 104: 4. Heb. 1: 14.) and to the Son of God, who came into this world “not to be minis- tered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many,” Matt. 20: 28. Paul terms Christ “a minister of the circumcision for the truth of God, to confirm the promises made to the ſa- ..hers,” Rom, 15: 8. Jesus Christ was born a Jew, and be exercised his ministry among the Jews; hence his own words, “I am not sent but to the lost sheep of the house of Israel,” (Matt. 10; 6, and 15: 24.) and this, in order that God’s ancient promise to Abraham, namely, that “all the nations of the earth should be blessed in his seed,” might be ratified and confirmed to them. (See MINISTRY OF JE- sus CHRIST.) The glad tidings of Salvation were first, by Christ's express command, published to the Jews, Luke 24: 47. Acts 3: 26. And by Jewish converts the gospel was first preached among the Gentiles, Acts 15: 7. 26: 16–18. Eph. 3: 8, 9. - The same apostle also terms the Savior “a minister of the sanctuary,”(Heb. 8:2.) that is, of the heavenly sanc- tuary, the true holy of holies. There he is “set down on the right hand of the Majesty on high,” on his glorious throne; to officiate forever as our high-priest, advocate, and intercessor, Heb. 9:12–24.—Jones. MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL; a name applied to those who are pastors of a congregation, or preachers of God’s word. They are also called divines, and may be distinguished into polemic, or those who possess controversial talents; casuistic, or those who resolve cases of conscience ; experi- mental, those who address themselves to the feelings, cases, and circumstances of their hearers; and lastly, practical, those who insist upon the performance of all those duties which the word of God enjoins. An able minister will have something of all these united in him, though he may not excel in all ; and it becomes every one who is a can- didate for the ministry to get a clear idea of each, that he may not be deficient in the discharge of that work which is the most important that can be sustained by mortal be- ings. Many volumes have been written on this subject, but we must be content in this place to offer only a few remarks relative to it. In the first place, then, it must be observed, that minis- ters of the gospel ought to be sound as to their principles. They must be men whose hearts are renovated by divine grace, and whose sentiments are derived from the sacred oracles of divine truth. A minister without principles will never do any good; and he who professes to believe in a system, should see to it that it accords with the word of God. His mind should clearly perceive the beauty, harmony, and utility of the doctrines, while his heart should be deeply impressed with a sense of their value and importance. 2. They should be mild and affable as to their dispositions and deportment. A haughty, imperious spirit is a disgrace to the ministerial character, and generally brings contempt. They should learn to bear injuries with patience, and be ready to do good to every one; be courteous to all without cringing to any ; be affable without levity, and humble without pusillanimity; conciliating the affections without violating the truth; connecting a suavity of manners with a dignity of character; obliging without flattery; and throwing off all reserve without running into the op- posite extreme of volubility and triſling. 3. They should be superior as to their knowledge and talents. Though many have been useful without what is called learning, yet none have been so without some portion of knowledge and wisdom. Nor has God Almighty ever sanctified ignorance, or consecrated it to his service; since it is the effect of the fall, and the consequence of our de- parture from the fountain of intelligence. Ministers, therefore, especially, should endeavor to break these shack- les, get their minds enlarged, and stored with all useful knowledge. The Bible should be well studied, and that, especially, in the original languages. The scheme of sal- vation by-Jesus Christ should be well understood, with all the various topics connected with it. And in the present day, a knowledge of history, natural philosophy, logic, mathematics, and rhetoric, are peculiarly requisite. A clear judgment, also, with a retentive memory, inventive faculty, and a facility of communication, should be ob- tained. 4. They should be diligent as to their studies. Their time especially should be improved, and not lost by too much sleep, formal visits, indolence, reading useless books, stu- dying useless subjects. Every day should have its work, and every subject its due attention. Some advise a chap- ter in the Hebrew Bible, and another in the Greek Testa- ment, to be read every day. A well-chosen system of di- vinity should be accurately studied. The best definitions should be obtained, and a constant regard paid to all those studies which savor of religion, and have some tendency to public work. 5. Illinisters should be extensive as to their benevolence and candor. A contracted, bigoted spirit ill becomes those who preach a gospel which breathes the purest benevolence to mankind. This spirit has done more harm among all parties than many imagine, and is, in our opinion, one of the most powerſul engines the devil makes use of to oppose the best interests of mankind; and it is really shocking to observe how sects and parties have all, in their turns, anathematized each other. Now, while minis- ters ought to contend earnestly for the faith once deliver- ed to the saints, they must remember that men always think differently from cach other; that prejudice of edu- cation has great influence; that difference of opinion as to subordinate things is not of such importance as to be a ground of dislike. Let the ministers of Christ, then, pity the weak, forgive the ignorant, bear with the sincere though mistaken zealot, and love all who love the Lord Jesus Christ. - 6. Ministers should be zealous and faithful in their public nork. The sick must be visited ; children must be cate- chised; the ordinances administered ; and the word of God preached. These things must be taken up, not as a matter of duty only, but of pleasure, and executed with faithfulness; and, as they are of the utmost impor- tance, ministers should attend to them with all that since- rity, earnestness, and zeal which that importance demands. An idle, frigid, indifferent minister is a pest to society, a disgrace to his profession, an injury to the church, and of fensive to God himself. 7. Lastly, ministers should be consistent as to their conduct. No brightness of talent, no superiority of intellect, no ex- tent of knowledge, will ever be a substitute for this. They should not only possess a luminous mind, but set a good example. This will procure dignity to themselves, give energy to what they say, and prove a blessing to the circle in which they move. In fine, they should be men of pru- dence and prayer, light and love, zeal and knowledge, courage and humility, humanity and religion. See Epis- tles to Timothy and Titus ; articles DEcLAMATION, ELo- QUENCE, METHODISTs, PREACHING, and SERMons, in this work; Dr. Smith's Lect, on the Sacred Office ; Gerard's Pas- toral Care ; Macgill's Address to Young Clergymen ; Au- gustine on Preaching ; Chrysostom on the Priesthood; Mas- sillon's Charges ; Baxter's Reformed Pastor; Herbert's Country Parson ; Burnet's Pastoral Care ; Watts' Humble Attempt ; Dr. Edwards’ Preacher; Mason's Student and Pastor ; Brown's Address to his Students ; Gibbon’s Chris- tian Minister ; Mather's Student and Preacher; Ostervald's Lectures on the Sacred Ministry; Robinſon's Claude ; Doddridge's Lectures on Preaching ; Dwight's Theology; Miller's Letters on Clerical Manners ; Campbell's Lectures; Works of Robert Hall ; Burder's Hints; Ware's Lecture on the Connexion of Pulpit Eloquence and the Pastoral Care; Review of Cellerier's Three Lectures in Christian Examiner, 1833; and perhaps more comprehensive than all, if but one can be had, Bridge's Christian Ministry.—Hend. Buck. . MINISTERIAL CALL; a term used to denote that right or authority which a person receives to preach the gospel. This call is considered as twofold. divine and eccle- M. I. N MI N [ 814 siastical. The following things seem essential to a divine call : 1. A holy, blameless life—2. An ardent and con- stant inclination and zeal to do good.—3. Abilities suited to the work: such as knowledge, aptness to teach, cou- rage, &c.—4. An opportunity afforded in providence to be useful, See Prof. Knowles' Premium Tract. An ecclesiastical call consists in the election which is made of any person to be a pastor. But here the Episco- palian and the Dissenter differ; the former believing that the choice and call of a minister rest with the superior clergy, or those who have the gift of an ecclesiastical bene- fice; the latter supposes that it should rest on the suffrage of the people to whom he is to minister. Whoever will attentively examine the history of the primitive times, will find that all ecclesiastical officers for the first three hundred years were elected by the people. We must re- fer the reader for more on this subject to the articles ORDINATION, CHURCH, EpiscoPACY, CONGREGATIONALISTs, and BAPrists.-Hend. Buck, MINISTERIAL EDUCATION. It is said of Jeremy Taylor, that he once urged a negligent mother to be more careful of her child's education, in some such words as these : “Madam, be at the pains to educate your son, or be as- sured, Satan will do it for you.” The parent would seem to have been contenting herself with the thought, that, if her child were not instructed, the whole of the evil would be that he should remain in ignorance. But this in truth was not the state of the question. The inquiry was not, “Shall the child be educated—or shall he not ?” Edu- cated he must be. The only question was, by whom he should be instructed, and in what species of learning. Should his teachers be his own casual companions, how- ever vicious, and was his education to become one of pro- ſligacy and crime; or should his instructers be select, and their instruction appropriate to his station, and valuable in its character ? That such is the true state of the case would appear, if any parent were now inclined to make the cruel experi- ment. Preserve your son from the confinement of school, and the drudgery of study. Let him abjure all books, and gather his knowledge and glean his morals in careless freedom from our streets. No school bills would meet you, month aſter month, with their clamorous demands. No austere teacher would intimidate and repel your child by looks of harshness, and with lessons tedious and diffi- cult. He would not be seen pale and watchful as he bent over the midnight lamp. But gratuitously and impercepti- bly, without concern or care on your part, you would find him thoroughly educated. In squalid neglect and vice, in the language of proſanity and obscenity, in all dishones- ty, in all filthiness, and in all untractableness, he would return to your home an apt scholar, and an early proficient, a grief to your eyes, and the burden of your heart. If parents will not educate their families, the world will. And where no other teachers are provided, evil ex- ample and association will furnish them gratuitously, and their teachings will be constant, unwearied, and effectual. Have not many good men fallen into a similar error with the careless parent 2 Have they not believed, that with regard to ministerial education, the question was, “Shall our pastors be educated, or shall they remain ig- noraht º’ But this is not the true state of the case, and these are not really the two alternatives between which the church is left to choose. The demands of the churches, the state of society, and the indications of providence, have decided this question. Ministers must be educated.— The only room for inquiry now remaining is found here : “Who shall be their teachers, and what shall be the cha- racter and extent of their instructions?” Taught and scnt by the spirit of God, our youthful brethren need me. vertheless to study the Bible; they need to know the rules, and power, and the right use of their own language; it will not be to their injury should they know some- what of the languages which God honored by selecting then as the vehicles of his inspiration; and they will not be less prepared to repel the many forms of heresy that now assail the Christian's faith, were they to learn some- thing of the history of error, and the men and the arms by which it has been most successfully combatted. The true question is, “Who shall teach our ministers in these useſúl branches of knowledge f" Shall they be their own instructers, or shall their brethren of greater age, experi- ence, and knowledge, be allowed to aid and guide their ef. forts 2 When shall they study ? In the scattered and brief remnants of time which they shall be able to save or to steal from other pursuits; or shall they by the kind- ness of the churches be enabled to pursue their studies in retirement and at leisure ? Shall they be compelled by their brethren to gather their education whilst they dis- charge their ministry; or will they be encouraged in the years of youth to prepare for the active toils of maturer life? Shall they be coolly exhorted to buy, to..beg, or to borrow, as they best can, the books they may need, where they may first find them; or shall they be invited to use the well-stored library, aided by the counsel and supervi- sion of the faithful teacher ? Shall their instructers be com- petent or incompetent Shall they select for themselves, as their models of ministerial character, the men whom they may first meet, or easiest reach ; or will the church point them to men of approved piety, wisdom and know- ledge, as their patterns and tutors ? Shall they study in cheerless and melancholy solitude, with no associate to lighten the toil of research, and share the joy of discove- ry ; or shall they become inmates of those schools of the prophets, where they may aid and urge each one his bro- ther, and where they may form those friendships which shall draw into unity of feeling and effort the churches, over whom they may afterwards be placed 2 Shall they be left to that unamiable self-confidence and self-compla- cency which the successful labors of a solitary student are calculated to foster; or shall they be ushered into scenes where they will find rival or superior talent, ac- quirements more splendid, powers of mind more vigorous or more highly cultivated ; where, in short, all will teach them the folly of measuring themselves among themselves 2 These are in truth the alternatives between which the church is called to make her selection. - We know, and bless God for the fact, that there have been, and yet are, in the ministry, men of the largest usefulness, who have never profited by a theological semi- nary. They have been self-taught men. Yet nearly with One voice these men of deserved influence, and most com- petent to judge, have advocated theological schools. Their own struggles and sacrifices in the attainment of know- ledge have taught them its value, and made thcm desi- rous of its diffusion. Among them stands high and pro- minent the name of FULLER. But Andrew Fuller, though his own powers had been slowly developed in solitude and neglect, was the friend of ministerial education. Unedu- cated and self-made men have, by the ascendency of ge. nius, urged their way into our Senate chambers. But are they ever found advocating the general proposition, that it is best to leave a child to educate himselſ, because the perilous experiment has succeeded in their own case? If by these institutions it were intended to supersede the teachings of the Holy Spirit; if it were ever to be forgotten that only he can qualify and commission the he- ralds of the cross, and that his grace is needed to sanctify and to prosper every earthly “aid and appliance,” we should unite in execrating, as blasphemous arrogance, the attempt of those who would educate the youthful pastor and missionary. But such is not the intent and spirit of these institutions. Those youth only are instructed, who hopeſully, as members of the true church, have shared in divine teachings, and whom the church has deemed quali- fied for ministerial usefulness. That the teachings of the Spirit do not in such men supersede the employment of human instructers, we learn from the history of Apollos. He was mighty in the Scriptures, and ſervent in spirit, and as Luke assures us, “instructed in the way of the Lord;” yet was he taken by Aquila and Priscilla and “taught the way of God more perfectly.” And that a period of time may be wisely spent in retirement and preparation before entering upon the active proclamation of the gospel, would seem not unreasonable, when we look to the three years of constant intercourse with their Lord, and instruction from him, which fitted the apostles for evangelizing the world. We find Paul too going down into Arabia. No traces appear of his ministerial labors during the years spent there. Is there any violence in the supposition that ºr MI N MI N [ 815 J he visited the same scenes of Savage grandeur and soli- tude, which centuries before had been traversed by Moses as the guest of Jethro, there in solitary communings with his own heart and his God, to be fitted, like his holy prede- cessor, for large and lasting usefulness? And in the se- clusion of our Savior's youth, and in the solitary buffet- ings which he endured in the wilderness before commenc- ing his ministry, do we not learn that years past in retire- ment and meditation are not lost to the teacher or to the interests of his flock? We know the prejudices which have prevailed against learning. It has been supposed that it necessarily pro- duced pride. But even were this the case, is it true on the other hand that ignorance naturally produces and secures humility ? So thought many of the Romanists in the night of the dark ages. tency on this, their great discovery. And there existed in Italy an order of friars, whose name was not the “Bro- thers of Charity,” nor yet the “Poor Brothers,” as some in the same age were called, but the “BROTHERs of IGNo- RANce.” The oath or vow of the order was, that they did not know and would never know any thing; and to every question their constant and sufficient reply was, “ Nescio.” Was it from the monastery of these men, who thus secur- ed religion under the lock of ignorance, that God selected his own messengers Luther and Calvin, and sent them forth to liberate from the fetters of an unknown language the imprisoned gospel, and to proclaim to those that were bound the opening of their prison doors? On the contrary Luther was “a ripe scholar,” and Calvin a man of pre- eminent attainments. And laboring as they did, they found that ignorance, so far from producing piety and smoothing the way of the evangelist, had hedged up their path. risy, and through many a weary day did those faithful and holy men toil in uprooting the weeds of error, that had sprung tall and luxuriant in the ſat and heavy soil of ig- morance. Knowledge has been abused to the support of pride, and so has power, and so have intellect and health and strength. Shall we therefore abjure strength and health, intellect and power and knowledge 2 But it has been objected, that learning is unfriendly to spirituality of mind, and to that devotional character so ne- cessary in the Christian minister. But is this objection sustained by universal experience 2 Are not some of our most holy, also among our most studious divines 2 The American church yet kindles into earnest regret and ad- miration at the name of Payson, and Payson was no in- dolent student. Who gave more time to study than Jona- than Edwards, and who walked more close and humbly with God? Where shall we find metaphysical acumen and profound study of the human mind more happily dis- played than in the auto-biography of Halyburton, and where a more thorough mastery of scriptural quotation, more ardent piety, and more earnest and humble self-ex- amination ? Pascal, both as a scholar and a Christian, stands amongst the first names in the history of our race. Of all the various forms of learning, classical knowledge might be deemed the least friendly to simple and ſervid piety. Now in many of the works of Leighton, classical allusions are woven into the whole texture of the compo- sition. But difficult were it to find a character of more seraphic piety, and few are the human writings that more wonderfully resemble in every page the transparent purity and simplicity, and the holy but unstudied elevation, that distinguish the sacred Scriptures. Fenelon blended simi- lar qualities in his character, as a man and an author. The English non-conformists, certainly men who towered in theological science as in Christian piety, not only above their contemporaries, but alike over their predecessors and followers, were a race of thorough-bred scholars. And the men who stood in the fore-front of them, Owen, Good- win, Baxter, Howe, Poole and Gale, were champions, who, in learned encounter, feared not the face of man. Amongst them, were we called upon for an example of ardent piety and holy consistency, whose name would oc- cur more readily to every reader than that of Philip Hen: ry? and Philip Henry was “a ripe scholar and a good,” a favorite pupil of the rigid Busby, certainly no partial or merciſul critic in matters bf scholarship. . They acted with fearless consis- It had become the nurse of fanaticism and hypoc- . Look to the missionaries of our own times, and will it not be found that the most useful and holy have often been also the most eminent in earthly learning? Wanderkemp, distinguished among the early missionaries of the London Missionary society, was a man of rare and varied at- tainments. Brainerd was not an uneducated man. In the present age his mantle would seem to have fallen oil Henry Martyn, a man who brought to the altar of his God the wreaths that he had won in the lists of this world’s science ; and eminent as a scholar, he was yet more emi- nent as a Christian. Our own land sent forth a Pliny |Fiske, who to much fervor added much simplicity of cha- racter, and was withal an unwearied and successful stu- dent. Review those now in the field : and for piety as well as for scholarship whom shall we place before Carey, the matchless orientalist; Morrison, who has given to the three hundred millions of China in their own tongue the lively oracles; Wolff, the eccentric but devoted son of Abraham ; (of whom a fellow-traveller testified that he spent his days in preaching and disputing, and his nights in digging Hebrew roots ;) Gutzlaff, intrepid and enter- prising as an apostle, notwithstanding his accomplished scholarship; and our own Judson, who from the halls of Andover came forth not to dream or to declaim, but to write, to labor, to pray and to suffer, until the church in America awoke to her duty, and Burmah is beginning to rejoice in the light of the gospel ? But the topic is end- less. Were not even the staunchest advocates of igno- rance but the last Sabbath confuting themselves, as they sent up their praises to God in the hymns of delightful spirituality furnished them by a learned Watts, and a learned Doddridge 2 But it has been feared that theological seminaries will teach men an undue deference to human authority. And here again we may ask, is ignorance any protection against the same abuse? Look to the desolation in many churches at the west. Is not the authority of a name there as great and fatal as if they were the most learned of our community? And is it not on the other hand a charac- teristic of theological study in our own time, that the au- thority of the Scriptures, as the standard and source of truth, is continually rising, and the influence of human theory and tradition visibly declining 2 But these schools foster heresy. We reply, “look again to the west, and let us learn if ignorance prevents it.” On the contrary do not errors in that soil shoot with a luxuriance and rapidity of vegetation which they do not elsewhere display. From the times of Mohammed to the days of Mormonism, ignorance has been found the kindliest soil for the growth of error. The men who have thought to preserve piety and truth by banishing know- ledge, have unconsciously been acting on a system of phi- losophy which they have borrowed from the Catholic church. It was held by the ancient hermits that bodily health and strength favored the commission of sin. Who robbed—who murdered—who oppressed ? The man in the vigor of his years and health. When did he seem penitent, but when disease had weakened his strength and stretched him on the bed of languishing? To resist sin, the simple and obvious expedient therefore was, to de- stroy this dangerous strength, and to weaken and chastise the body. Let it fast, let it wear the rough haircloth, let it feel the knotted scourge, and it will not sin. But did they succeed 2 And did sin never enter the walls of a monastery 2 Was it an unheard of wonder that it should be found lurking beneath the cowl and the veil 3, Was holiness the constant inmate of the hermitage 2 The re- sult is notorious. Their failure was complete. We be- lieve fasting in its proper degree useful and obligatory; but continued fasting and abstinence unaccompanied by prayer never vanquished sin. Now what food is to the bodily strength, that is knowledge to the vigor of the mind. Withhold knowledge and you may starve the mind, but it does not follow of necessity that you will sanc- tify it. No man was ever yet starved into saintship, and mere ignorance can never seal the diploma of an apostle. The circumstances of the age show that a greater work is before the church than she has yet ventured to encoun- ter even in imagination. And much as the field of fo- reign missions needs more generosity in pecuniary contri- MII N MII R [ 816 J butions, it is well known that in men and not in money the deficiency is greatest and most distressing. Let the churches of Christ arise to consider their duty in this mat- ter to God and to man. Address of W. R. Williams ; N. Y. Bap. Rep. - - MINISTRY, (Gospel;) an ordinance appointed for the purpose of instructing men in the principles and know- ledge of the gospel, Eph. 4: 8, 11. Rom. 10: 15. Heb. 5: 4. That the gospel ministry is of divine origin, and in- tended to be kept up in the church, will evidently appear, if we consider the promises that in the last and best times of the New Testament dispensation there would be an in- stituted and regular ministry in her; (Eph. 4: 8, 11. Tit. 1: 5. 1 Pet. 5. 1 Tim. 1.) also from the names of office peculiar to some members in the church, and not common to all; (Eph. 4: 8, 11.) from the duties which are repre- sented as reciprocally binding on ministers and people; (Heb. 13: 7, 17. 1 Pet. 5: 2, 3, 4.) from the promises of assistance which were given to the first ministers of the new dispensation; (Matt. 28:20.) and from the importance of a gospel ministry, which is represented in the Scripture as a very great blessing to them who enjoy it, and the re- moval of it as one of the greatest calamities which can beſall any people, Rev. 2. and 3. See books under article MINISTER OF ghe GoSPEL.—Hend. Buck. MINISTRY OF JESUS CHRIST. The duration of this has been a subject of dispute among the learned. Sir Isaac Newton and some other critics make it to have last- ed five passovers; but the more general opinion is, that it only continued three years, and was included in four passovers. Some reduce it to even a still shorter period. The following chronology of our Lord’s public ministry is copied from Bowyer's Conjectures on the New Testa- ment, a work equally learned and curious. CHRONOLOGY OF CHRIST’S PUBLIC MINISTRY. The fifteenth of Tiberius began August 19, in the year 4742 of the Julian period. (Tiberius' reign began Au- gust 10, Am. J. P. 4727, A. D. 14.) So soon as winter was over, and the weather became warm enough, John began to baptize, Luke 3: 1. (Suppose in March.) A. D. Tib. The First Passover, (John 2: 33.) Wednesday, 31, 16-17. March 28, after Christ's baptism; (which was, we may suppose, in September, the 17th of Tiberius not beginning till August 19;) he came into Judea ; staid baptizing there, while John was baptizing in AEnon, John 3: 22, 23. John cast into prison in November. About the time of the winter solstice, (in December,) four months before the harvest, Jesus Christ went through Samaria into Cana of Galilee, Matt. 4: 12. A nobleman of Capernaum went to him there, and desired he would come and heal his son. He did not go, but said, “Go, thy son li- veth,” John 4. After some time there, he passed through the midst of the people, and dwelt in Capernaum, Luke 4. 32, 17–18. The Second Passover, Monday, April 14. He called Peter, Andrew, James, and John : preached the sermon on the mount, (Matt. 5.) whither multitudes followed him from Jerusa- lem, where he had been at the feast. When the winter was coming on, he went to the feast of tabernacles in September, Matt. 8: 19, 23. Luke 9: 51, 57. - He went about the villages of Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and working many mira- cles, Matt. 9. Sent forth the twelve, Matt. 10. Received a message from John the Baptist. Upbraided the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, because they repented not ; (Matt. 11.) which shows there was a considera- ble time from the imprisonment of John till now. 33 18 16. The Third Passover, Friday, April 3. Aſter which the disciples, going through the corn- fields, rubbed the ears in their hands, (Matt. 12. Luke 6: 1.) deuteroprotö, “on the second. prime Sabbath,” that is, the second of the two great feasts of the passover. A. D. Tib. He healed a man on the Sabbath day, Matt. 12: 9. Luke 5: 6. - The Pharisees consulted to destroy him, when he withdrew himself, Matt. 12: 14. He spake in a ship three parables; one of the seedsmen sowing the fields, (Matt. 13.) whence we may infer it was now seed-time; and that the feast of the tabernacles, in September or October, was past. - He went into his own country, and taught in the synagogues; but did not any mighty work, be- cause of their unbelief. The twelve returned, having been abroad a year, and told him of John's being beheaded. He departed privately in a ship to Bethsaida. Fed five thousand in the desert, Matt. 14. Luke 9. John 6:4. 34. 19-20. The Fourth Passover, Friday, April 23, (John 6: 4.) to which he went not up, John 7: 1. Hence- forward he was found on the coast of Tyre and Sidon, then by the sea of Galilee, next on the coast of Cesarea Philippi, and lastly, at Capernaum, Matt. 15: 21, 29. 16:13. 17: 24. Went privately to the feast of tabernacles in autumn, John 7: 2. The Jews thought to stone him, but he escaped, John 8: 59. Went to the feast of dedication in winter, John 10:22. The Jews seeking to kill him he fled beyond Jordan, John 10:39, 40. Matt. 19: 1. On the death of Lazarus came to Bethany, John 11: 7, 18. Walked no more openly, but retired to Eph- raim, a city in the wilderness, till 35. 20. The Fifth and last Passover, Wednesday, April 13, (John 11:53–55.) in the consulship of Fa- bius and Witellius. See further, concerning the above chronology, the third edition of Bowyer's Conjectures, 1782, 4to, p. 149, com- pared with preface, p. 24—32.—Jones; Nencome. MINNI, mentioned Jer. 51: 27, is thought by Calmet to denote Minias, a province of Armenia.-Jones. 4. MINNITH ; a city beyond Jordan; situated four miles from Heshbon, on the road to Philadelphia, Judges 11: 33.—Jones. MINT; (Matt. 23: 23. Luke 11:42.) a garden herb well known. The law did not oblige the Jews to give the tithe of this sort of herbs ; it only required it of those things which could be comprehended under the name of income or revenue. But the Pharisees, desirous of distinguishing themselves by a more scrupulous and literal observance of the law than others, gave the tithes “of mint, anise, and cummin,” Matt. 23: 23.− Watson. MIRACLES. A miracle, in the popular sense, is a prodigy, or an extraordinary event, which surprises us by its novelty. In a more accurate and philosophic sense, “a miracle is a work effected in a manner unusual, or different from the common and regular method of provi- dence, by the power of God himself, for the proof of some particular message, or in attestation of the autho- rity of some particular divine messenger.” In judging of miracles there are certain criteria, pecu- liar to the subject, sufficient to conduct our inquiries, and warrant our determination. Assuredly they do not appeal to our ignorance, for they presuppose not only the exis- tence of a general order of things, but our actual know- ledge of the appearance which that order exhibits, and of the secondary material causes from which it, in most cases, proceeds. If a miraculous event were effected by the immediate hand of God, and yet bore no mark of dis- tinction from the ordinary effects of his agency, it would impress no conviction, and probably awaken no attention. Our knowledge of the ordinary course of things, though limited, is real ; and therefore it is essential to a miracle, both that it differ from that course, and be accompanied with peculiar and unequivocal signs of such difference. The argument for the divine authority of the Jewish re- ligion, and more especially of Christianity, arising from the miracles that were wrought to confirm them, is a sub- ject of great importance, and deserves the particular at- tention of the biblical student. Happily for Christians of the present day, the doctrine of miracles has been investi- gated by a host of able writers during the last century; 9. M.I.R. M I R. [ 817 J * and by Drs. Campbell, Douglas, Farmer, Paley, Gregory, Chalmers, and others, it has been placed in such a lumi- nous point of view, that little remains to be added by any subséquent writer. The following observations on the subject will be ſound to exhibit a compendious statement of the question. . . ~~ . . I. Statement of the argument from miracles. Let us sup- pose any man assuming to be an inspired teacher, in any place, to tell his countrymen, that he did not desire them, on his ipse diſcit, to believe that he had any preternatural communion with the Deity, but that, for the truth of his assertion, he would give them the evidence of their own senses; and after this declaration, let us suppose him im- mediately to raise à person from the dead in their pre- sence, merely by calling upon him to come out of his grave. Would not the only possible objection to the man's veracity in making so extraordinary a claim, be removed by this miracle 2 and his solemn affirmation that he had received such and such doctrines from God be as fully credited as if it related to the most common occurrence 2 Undoubtedly it would ; for when so much preternatural power was visibly communicated to this person, no one could have reason to question his having received an equal portion of preternatural knomyledge. A palpable de- viation from the known laws of nature in one instance, by the infinitely wise Author of them, implies an end of the utmost importance ; and in such a case as this, it is nothing less than the witness of God to the truth of the Iſlal Il. Miracles, then, under which we include prophecy, are the only direct evidence which can be given of divine in- spiration. When a religion, or any religious truth, is to be revealed from heaven, they appear to be absolutely ne- cessary to enforce its reception among men; and this is the only case in which we can suppose them necessary, or believe for a moment that they ever have been or will be performed. - Now the history of almost every religion abounds with relations of prodigies and wonders, and of the intercourse of men with the gods; but we know of no religious sys- tem, those of the Jews and Christians excepted, which ap- pealed to miracles as the grand palpable evidence of its truth and divinity. The pretended miracles mentioned by pagan historians and poets, nyere not even pretended to have been publicly rurought to enforce the truth of a men, religion, contrary to the reigning idolatry. Many of them may be clearly shown to have been mere natural events; others of them are represented as having been performed in se- cret on the most trivial occasions, and in obscure and fa- bulous ages long prior to the era of the writers by whom they are recorded; and such of them as at first view ap- pear to be best attested, are evidently tricks contrived for interested purposes, to flatter power, or to promote the pre- vailing Superstitions. For these reasons, as well as on ac- count of the immoral character of the divinities by whom they are said to have been wrought, they are altogether unworthy of comparison, not to say of examination, and carry in the very nature of them the completest proofs of falsehood and imposture. II. Credibility of miracles. If we be asked whether mi- racles are credible, we reply, 1. That, abstractedly considered, they are not incredi- ble; that they are capable of indirect proof from analogy, and of direct, from testimony; that in the common and daily course of worldly affairs, events, the improbability of which, antecedently to all testimony, was very great, are proved to have happened, by the authority of compe- tent and honest witnesses; that the Christian miracles were objects of real and proper experience to those who saw them ; and that whatsoever the senses of mankind can perceive, their report may substantiate. Should it be asked whether miracles were necessary, and whether the end proposed to be effected by them could warrant so im- mediate and extraordinary an interference of the Al- mighty, as such extraordinary operations suppose ; to this we might answer, that, if the fact be established; all rea- sonings à priori concerning their necessity, must be frivo. lous, and may be false. We are not capable of deciding on a question which, however simple in appearance, is yet too complex in its parts, º too extensive in its ob- ject, to be fully comprehended by the human understand- ing. Üod is the best and indeed the only Judge how far miracles are proper to promote any particular design of his providence, and how far that design would have been left unaccomplished, if common and ordinary methods only had been pursued. So, from the absence of miracles, we may conclude, in any supposed case, that they were not necessary; from their existence, supported by fair tes- timony, in any given case, we may infer with confidence that they are proper. - - 2. A divine revelation is necessary to mankind. A view of the state of the world in general, and of the Jewish nation in particular, and an examination of the nature and tendency of the Christian religion, will point out very clearly the great expediency of a miraculous interpo- sition; and when we reflect on the gracious and impor- tant ends that were to be effected by it, we shall be con- vinced that it was not an idle and useless display of di- vine power; but that while the means effected and con- firmed the end, the end fully justified and illustrated the means. If we reflect on the extent and importance, as well as the singularity, of the Christian revelation; what was its avowed purpose to effect, and what difficulties it was necessarily called to struggle with, before that pur- pose could be effected; how much it was opposed by the opinions and the practice of the generality of mankind, by philosophy, by superstition, by corrupt passions and in- veterate habits, by pride and sensuality, in short, by every engine of human influence, whether formed by craft, or aided by power; if we reflect on the almost irresistible force of prejudice, and the strong opposition it universally made to the establishment of a new religion on the demo- lition of rites and ceremonies, which authority had made sacred, and custom had familiarized;—if we seriously re- flect on these things, and give them their due force, (and experience shows us that we can scarcely give them too much,) we shall be induced to admit even the necessity of a miraculous interposition, at a time when common means must inevitably, in our apprehensions, have failed of success. 3. Miracles are inseparable from divine revelation. The reve- lation of the divine will by inspired persons is, as such, miraculous; and therefore, before the adversaries of the gospel can employ with propriety their objections to the particular miracles on which its credibility is based, they should show the impossibility of any revelation. In what- ever age the revelation is given, that age can have no oth- er demonstration of its authority but miracles, and suc- ceeding ages can know it only from testimony; and if they admit the one, they cannot deny the other. That the apostles could not be deceived, and that they had no temptation to deceive, has been repeatedly demonstrated. So powerful, indeed, is the proof adduced in support of their testimony, that the infidels of these later days have been obliged to abandon the ground on which their prede- cessors stood; to disclaim all moral evidences arising from the character and relation of eye-witnesses; and to maintain, upon metaphysical, rather than historical, prin- ciples, that miracles are utterly incapable, in their own nature, of existing in any circumstances, or of being sup- ported by any evidence. Mr. Hume has insidiously or erroneously maintained that a miracle is contrary to experience; but, in reality, it is only different from ordinary experience. That dis. eases should generally be cured by the application of me- dicine, and sometimes at the mere word of a prophet, are facts not inconsistent with each other in the nature of things themselves, nor irreconcilable according to our ideas. Each fact may arise from its own proper cause ; each may exist independently of the other; and each is known by its own proper proof, whether of sense or testi- mony. To pronounce, therefore, a miracle to be false, be- cause it is different from ordinary experience, is only to conclude against its existence from the very circumstance which constitutes its specific character; for if it were not different from ordinary experience, where would be its singularity? or what proof could be drawn from it, in at- testation of a divine message? We have been told that the course of nature is fixed and unalterable, and therefore it is not consistent with the MII R. M I R. [ 818 ) immutability of God to perform miracles. But, Surely, they who reason in this manner beg the very point in question. We have no right to assume that the Deity has ordained such general laws for his own operations, as will exclude his acting in other modes, and we cannot sup- pose that he would forbear so to act where any important end could be answered. Besides, if the course of nature implies the whole order of events which God has ordained for the government of the world, it includes both his ordi- nary and extraordinary dispensations, and among them miracles may have their place, as an inseparable part of the universal plan. This is, indeed, equally consistent with sound philosophy, and with pure religion. He that acknowledges a God, must, at least, admit the possibility of a miracle. He who admits the creation of the world, believes in the actual occurrence of a miracle. He who concedes that the world is under the control of a wise and beneficent providence, cannot deny that a particu- lar operation of that providence for beneficent purposes is both consistent and desirable. - III. Miracles of the Jennish and Christian dispensations. Miracles may be classed under two heads: those which consist in a train or combination of events, which distin- guish themselves from the ordinary arrangements of pro- vidence; and those particular operations which are per- formed by instruments and agents incompetent to effect them without a preternatural power. 1. In the conduct of providence respecting the Jewish people, from the earliest periods of their existence, as a distinct class of society, to the present time, we behold a singularity of circumstance and procedure which we can- not account for on common principles. Comparing their condition and situation with that of other nations, we can meet with nothing similar to it in the history of mankind. So remarkable a difference, conspićuous in every revolution of their history, eould not have subsisted through mere ac- cident. There must have been a cause adequate to So ex- traordinary an effect. Now, what should this cause be, but an interposition of providence in a manner different from the course of its general government? for the phe- momenon cannot be explained by an application of those general causes and effects that operate in other cases. The original propagation of Christianity was likewise an event which clearly discovered a miraculous interposi- tion. The circumstances which attended it were such as cannot rationally be accounted for on any other postula- tum. (See the article CHRISTIANITY.) It may now be observed, that the institutions of the law and the gospel may not only appeal for their confir- mation to a train of events which, taken in a general and combined view, point out an extraordinary designation, and vindicate their claim to a divine authority; but also to a number of particular operations which, considered distinctly, or in a separate and detached light, evidently display a supernatural power, immediately exerted on the occasion. - 2. Particular miracles of our Lord. Since Christ him- self constantly appealed to these works as the evidences of his divine mission and character, we may briefly exa- mine how far they justified and confirmed his pretensions. That our Lord laid the greatest stress on the evidence. they afforded ; may, that he considered that evidence as sufficient to authenticate his claims to the office of the Messiah with all reasonable and well-disposed inquirers, is manifest, not only from his own words, John 10: 25. Matt 11:45, but also from a great variety of other passa- ges in the evangelists, especially John 10:37: “If I do not the works of my Father, believe me not : but if I do, though ye believe not me, believe the works.” This ap- peal to miracles was founded on the following just and ob- vious grounds:— - First : that they are visible proofs of divine approbation, as well as of divine power: for it would have been quite inconclusive to rest an appeal on the testimony of the lat- ter, if it had not at the same time included an evidence of the former; and it was, indeed, a natural inference, that working of miracles, in defence of a particular cause, was the seal of heaven to the truth of that cause. To suppose the contrary, would be to suppose that God not only permitted his creatures to be deceived, but that he deviated from the ordinary course of his providence, pur- posely with a view to deceive them. (See ApostLEs.) Secondly : when our Lord appealed to his miracles, as proofs of his divine mission, it presupposed that those mi- racles were of such a nature as would bear the strictest examination; that they had all those criteria which could possibly distinguish them from the delusions of enthusi- asm, and the artifices of imposture; else the appeal would have been ſallacious and equivocal. He appealed to them with all the confidence of an upright mind, totally possess- ed with a consciousness of their truth and reality. This appeal was not drawn out into any labored argument, nor adorned by any of the embellishments of language. It was short, simple, and decisive. He neither reasoned nor declaimed on their nature or their design : he barely pointed to them as ‘plain and indubitable facts, such as spoke their own meaning, and carried with them their own authority. The miracles which our Lord performed were too public to be suspected of imposture ; and, being objects of sense, they were secured against the charge of enthusiasm. An impostor would not have acted so ab- surdly as to have risked his credit on the performance of what, he must have known, it was not in his power to ef. fect; and though an enthusiast, from the warmth of ima- gination, might have flattered himself with a full persua- sion of his being able to perform some miraculous work, yet, when the trial was referred to an object of sense, the event must soon have exposed the delusion. The impos- tor would not have dared to say to the blind, Receive thy sight; to the deaf, Hear; to the dumb, Speak; to the dead, Arise; to the raging of the sea, Be still ; lest he should injure the credit of his cause, by undertaking more than he could perform ; and though the enthusiast, under the delusion of his passions, might have confidently com- manded disease to fly, and the powers of nature to be sub- ject to his control; yet their obedience would not have followed his command. - The miracles of Christ them were such as an impostor would not have attempted, and such as an enthusiast could not have effected. They had no disguise; and were in a variety of instances of such a nature as to preclude the very possibility of collusion. They were performed in the midst of his bitterest enemies; and were so palpa- ble and certain, as to extort the acknowledgment of their reality, even from persons who were most eager to oppose his doctrines, and to discredit his pretensions, John 11: 47, 48. They could not deny the ſacts, but they imputed them to the agency of an infernal spirit. Now, suppos- ing miracles to be in the power of an infernal spirit, can it be imagined that he would communicate an ability of performing them to persons who were counteracting his designs? Would he by them give credit to a cause that tended to bring his own into disgrace Matt. 12: 24 —26. Thus, as our Savior appealed to miracles as proofs of his power, so he appealed to the inherent worth and purity of the doctrines they were intended to bear wit- ness to, as a proof that the power was of God. In this manner do the external and internal evidences give and receive mutual confirmation, and mutual lustre. " 3, Particular miracles of the apostles. The truth of the Christian religion does not, however, wholly depend on the miracles wrought by its divine Founder, though suffi- cient in themselves to establish his claims: but in order to give the evidence of miracles the strongest force they could possibly acquire, that evidence was extended still farther; and the same power that our Lord possessed was communicated to his disciples, and their more immediate successors. Whilst yet on earth he imparted to them this extraordinary giſt, as the seal of their commission, when he sent them to preach the gospel: and after his glorious resurrection and ascension into heaven, they were endow. ed with powers yet more stupendous. Sensible of the va. lidity of this kind of evidence, the apostles of our Lord, with the same artless simplicity, and the same boldness of conscious integrity, which distinguished their great Master, constantly insisted upon the miracles they wrought, as strong and undeniable proofs of the truth of their doc- triñes. The heathen philosophers imputed them to some occult power of magic: and thus applied what has no existence in nature, in order to account for a phenome. MIR MII R [ 819 | non that existed out of its common course. But if we consider their nature, their greatness, and their number; and if to this consideration we add that which respects their end and design, we must acknowledge, that no one could have performed them, unless God was with him. These miracles were of a nature too palpable to be mis- taken. They were the objects of sense, and not the pre- carious speculations of reason concerning what God might do, or the chimerical suggestions of fancy concern- ing what he did. - - TV. Credibility of the evangelical records. The facts were recorded by those who must have known whether they were true or false. The persons who recorded them were under no possible temptations to deceive the world. We can only account for their conduct on the supposition of ..heir most perfect conviction and disinterested zeal. That they should assert what they knew to be false; that they should publish it with so much ardor; that they should risk every thing dear to humanity, in order to maintain it; and at last submit to death, in order to attest their persua- sion of its truth in those moments when imposture usually drops its mask, and cnthusiasm loses its confidence ; that they should act thus in opposition to every dictate of com- mon sense, and every principle of common honesty, every restraint of shame, and every impulse of selfishness, is a phenomenon not less irreconcilable to the moral state of things than miracles are to the natural constitution of the world. W. Duration of miracles in the Church. How long mi- racles were continued in the church, has been a matter uf keen dispute, and has been investigated with as much anxiety, as if the truth of the gospel depended upon the manner in which it was decided. Assuming, as we are here warranted to do, that real miraculous power was con- veyed in the way detailed by the inspired writers, it is plain, that it may have been exercised in different coun- tries, and may have remained, without any new commu- nication of it, throughout the first, and a considerable part of the second century. The apostles, wherever they went to execute their commission, would avail themselves of the stupendous giſt which had been imparted to them ; and it is clear, not only that they were permitted and ena- bled to convey it to others, but that spiritual gifts, inclu- ding the power of working miracles, were actually con- ferred on many of the primitive disciples. Allusions to this we find in the epistles of St. Paul ; such allusions, too, as it is utterly inconceivable that any man of a sound judgment could have made, had he not known that he was referring to an obvious fact, about which there could be no hesitation. Of the time at which several of the apostles died, we have no certain knowledge. St. Peter and St. Paul suf. fered at Rome about A. D. 66, or 67; and it is fully-es- tablished, that the life of John was much longer protract- ed, he having died a natural death, A. D. 100, or 101. Supposing that the two former of these apostles imparted spiritual giſts till the time of their suffering martyrdom, the persons to whom they were imparted might, in the course of nature, have lived through the earlier part of the second century; and if John did the same till the end of his life, such gifts as were derived from him might have remained till more than the half of that century had elapsed. That such was the fact, is asserted by ancient ecclesiastical writers. Whether, after the generation immediately succeeding the apostles had passed away, the power of working mi- racles was anew communicated, is a question, the solution of which cannot be so satisfactory. The probability is, that there was no such renewal; and this opinion rests upon the ground that the attestation of Christianity was already complete, and that other means were now suffi- cient to accomplish the end for which miracles are ori- ginally designed. - - VI. Spurious miracles confirm the reality of the genuine. As to the miracles of the Romish church, it is evident, as Doddridge observes, that many of them were ridiculous tales, according to their own historians; others were per- formed without any credible witnesses, or in circumstan- ces where the perſormer had the greatest opportunity for juggling: and it is particularly remarkable, that they were hardly ever wrought where they seem most necessary, i. e. in countries where those doctrines are renounced which that church esteems of the highest importance. It was in fact foretold that such “lying wonders” should be con- nected with the great apostasy, 2 Thess. 2. These counter- feits, therefore, not only presuppose the existence of the true, but fulfil the voice of prophecy. On the subject of the cessation of miracles, and the fictitious miracles of the modern Millenarians, see Modern Fanaticism Unveiled. See Fleetwood, Clarapede, Conybeare, Campbell, Lardner, Farmer, Adams, and Weston, on Mira- cles ; article Miracle, Ency. Brit. and Amer: ; Doddridge's Lect., lect. 101 and 135; Leland's Vien, of Deistical Wri- ters, letters 3, 4, 7 ; Hurrion on the Spirit, p. 299, &c.; Na- tural History of Enthusiasm.—Hend. Buck; Watson ; Jones. MIRAGE. Bishop Lowth translates the first clause of Ps. 35: 7, “And the glowing sand shall become a pool.”. In his note on the passage, he says, “The word is Arabic, as well as Hebrew, but it means the same thing in both languages, namely, a gloning, sandy plain, which in the hot countries, at a distance, has the appéarance of water. It sometimes tempts thirsty travellers out of their way, but deceives them when they come near ; either going forward,—for it always appears at the same distance,— or it quite vanishes. Dr. E. D. Clarke, in his Travels, has given a very lively view of this wonderful appearance. He says, “We ar. rived at the wretched, solitary village of Utko, near the muddy shore of the lake of that name, the entrance to which is called Maodic. Here we procured asses for all the party; and setting out for Rosetta, began to scour the desert, now appearing like an ocean of sand, but flatter and firmer as to its surface than before. The Arabs, uttering their harsh guttural language, ran chattering by the side of our asses, until some of them calling out “Raschid,” (or Rosetta,) we perceived its domes and turrets, apparent- ly upon"the opposite side of an immense lake or sea, that covered all the intervening space between us and the city. “Not having in my own mind at the time any doubt as to the certainty of its being water, and seeing the tall mi- narets and buildings of Rosetta, with all its groves of dates and sycamores, as perfectly reflected by it as by a mirror, insomuch that even the minutest detail of the ar. chitecture, and the trees, might have been delineated thence, I applied to the Arabs to know in what manner we were to pass the water. Our interpreter, although a Greek, and therefore likely to have been informed of such a spectacle, was as fully convinced as any of us that we were drawing near to the water's edge, and became indignant when the Arabs maintained that within an hour we should reach Rosetta, by crossing the sands in the direct line we then pursued, and that there was no water. “What ſ’ said he, giving way to his impatience, “do you suppose me to be an idiot, to be persuaded contrary to the evidence of my own senses? The Arabs, smiling, soon pacified him, and completely astonished the whole party, by desiring us to look back at the desert we had already passed, when we beheld a precisely similar appearance. It was in fact the mirage, a prodigy to which every one of us were then M. I. R * M is [820 ) strangers; although it afterwards became more familiar. Yet upon no future occasion did we behold this extraordi- nary illusion so marvellously displayed. The view of it afforded us ideas of the horrible despondency to which tra- vellers must be sometimes exposed, who, in travelling the ..interminable desert, destitute of water, and perishing with thirst, have sometimes this deceitful prospect before their eyes,” Job 6: 15–20. - In striking contrast to this, the prophet, speaking of the blessings to spring from the coming of the Messiah, ex. claims, -- The desert and the waste shall be glad, And the wilderness shall rejoice and ſlourish; Like the rose shall it beautifully flourish ; Then shall be unclosed the eyes of the blind, And the ears of the deaf shall be opened ; Then shall the lame bound as the hart; And the tongue of the dumb shall sing; For in the wilderness shall burst forth waters, And torrents in the desert ; And the glowing sand shall become a pool. MIRACULOUS CONCEPTION. By this is meant, that the human nature of Jesus Christ was formed, not in the ordinary method of generation, but out of the sub- stance of the virgin Mary, by the immediate operation of the Holy Ghost. The evidence upon which this article of the Christian faith rests is found in Matt. 1: 18–23, and in the more particular narration which St. Luke has given in the first chapter of his gospel. If we admit this evidence of the ſact, we can discern the emphatical mean- ing of the appellation given to our Savior when he is call- ed “the seed of the woman ;” (Gen. 3: 15.) we can per- ceive the meaning of a phrase which St. Luke has intro- duced into the genealogy of Jesus, (Luke 3: 23.) “being (as was supposed) the son of Joseph,”, and of which, otherwise, it is not possible to give a good account ; and we can discover a peculiar significancy in an expression of the apostle Paul, (Gal. 4: 4.) “God sent forth his Son, made of a woman.” - The conception of Jesus is the point ſrom which we date the union between his divine and human nature; and, this conception being miraculous, the existence of the Person in whom they are united, was not physically derived ſrom Adam. But, as Dr. Horsley speaks in his Sermon on the Incarnation, the union with the uncreated Word is the very principle of personality and individual existence in the Son of Mary. According to this view of the matter, the miraculous conception gives a complete- ness and consistency to the revelation concerning Jesus Christ. Not only is he the Son of God, but, as the Son of man, he is exalted above his brethren, while he is made like them. He is preserved from the contamination ad- hering to the race whose nature he assumed ; and when the only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, was made flesh, the intercourse which, as man, he had with God, is distinguished, not in degree only, but in kind, from that which any prophet ever enjoyed; and it is infi- nitely more intimate, because it did not consist in commu- nications occasionally made to him, but arose from the manner in which his human nature had its existence. See Jesus CHRIST, INCARNATION, and Horsley's Serm.—Watson. MIRIAM, sister. of Moses and Aaron, was born about A. M. 2424. She might be ten or twelve years old when her brother Moses was exposed on the banks of the Nile, since Miriam was watching there, and offered herself to Pharaoh’s daughter to fetch her a nurse. The princess accepting the offer, Miriam fetched her own mother, to whom the young Moses was given to nurse, Exod, 2:4, 5, &c. It is thought that Miriam married Hur, of the tribe of Judah ; but it does not appear that she had any children by him, Exod. 17: 10, 11. Miriam had the gift of prophecy, as she intimates: (Num. 12: 2.) “Hath the Lord indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us?” See also Exod. 15:21. Num. 12, and 20. —Watson. MIRRORS, usually, but improperly, rendered looking- glasses. The Eastern mirrors were made of polished me- ial, and for the most part convex. So Callimachus de- scribes Venus as “taking the shining brass,” that is, to adjust her hair. If they were thus made in the country of Elihu, the image made use of by him will appear very lively: “Hast thou with him spread out the sky, which is strong, and as a molten looking-glass?” Job 37: 18. Shaw informs us that “in the Levant, looking-glasses are a part of female dress. The Moorish women in Barbary are so fond of their ornaments, and particularly of their looking- glasses, which they hang upon their breasts, that they will not lay them aside, even when, after the drudgery of the day, they are obliged to go two or three miles with a pitcher or a goat's skin, to fetch water.” . The Israelitish women used to carry their mirrors with them, even to their most solemn place of worship. The word mirror should be used in the passages here referred to. To speak of “looking-glasses made of steel,” and “glasses molten,” is palpably absurd ; whereas the term mirror obviates every difficulty, and expresses the true meaning of the original.—Watson. - MIRTH; joy, gayety, merriment. It is distinguished from cheerfulness thus: Mirth is considered as an act; cheerfulness a habit of the mind. Mirth is short and transient; checrſulness fixed and permanent. Those are often raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy : on the contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not give such an exquisite gladness, prevents us from falling into any depths of sorrow. Mirth is like a ſlash of lightning, that breaks through a gloom of clouds, and glitters for a mo- ment; cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. Mirth is sinful, 1. When men rejoice in that which is evil. 2. When unreasonable. 3. When tending to com- mit sin. 4. When a hinderance to duty. 5. When it is blasphemous and profane.—Hend. Buck. MISANTHROPIST; (from the Greek miso, to hate, and anthrôpos, man;) a hater of mankind; one that abandons society from a principle of discontent. The consideration of the depravity of human mature is certainly enough to raise emotions of sorrow in the breast of every man of the least sensibility; yet it is our duty to bear with the follies of mankind; to exercise a degree of candor con- sistent with truth; to lessen, if possible, by our exertions, the sum of moral and natural evil; and by connecting ourselves with society, to add at least something to the general interests of mankind. The misanthropist, there- fore, is an ungenerous and dishonorable character. Dis- gusted with life, he seeks a retreat from it; like a coward, he flees from the scene of action, while he increases his own misery by his natural discontent, and leaves others to do what they can for themselves. - The following is his character more at large : “He is a man,” says Saurin, “who avoids society only to free him- self from the trouble of being useful to it. He is a man, who considers his neighbors only on the side of their de- fects, not knowing the art of combining their virtues with their vices, and of rendering the imperfections of other people tolerable by reflecting on his own. He is a man more employed in finding out and inflicting punishments on the guilty than in devising means to reform them. He is a man, who talks of nothing but banishing and execut- ing, and who, because he thinks his talents are not suffi- ciently valued and employed by his fellow-citizens, or ra- ther because they know his foibles, and do not choose to be subject to his caprice, talks of quitting cities, towns, and societies, and of living in dens or deserts, Saurin’s Sermons.—Hend. Buck. MISER, (Lat. unhappy;) a term formerly used in re- ſerence to a person in wretchedness or calamity; but it now denotes a parsimonious person, or one who is cove- tous to extremity; who denies himself even the comforts of life to accumulate wealth. - Avarice, says Saurin, may be considered in two differ- ent points of light. It may be considered in those men, or rather those public bloodsuckers, or, as the officers of the Roman emperor Wespasian were called, those sponges of society, who, infatuated with this passion, seek after riches as the Supreme good, determine to acquire it by any methods, and consider the ways that lead to Wealth, legal or illegal, as the only road for them to travel. Avarice, however, must be considered in a second point of light. It not only consists in committing bold crimes, but in entertaining mean ideas and practising low methods, * M I s M IS [ 821 J incompatible with such magnanimity as our condition ought to inspire. It consists not only in omitting to serve God, but in trying to associate the service of God with that of mammon. -, How many forms doth avarice take to disguise itself ſrom the man who is guilty of it, and who will be drench- ed in the guilt of it till the day he dies | Sometimes it is prudence, which requires him to provide not only for his present wants, but for such as he may have in future. Sometimes it is charity, which requires him not to give so- ciety examples of prodigality and parade. Sometimes it is parental love, obliging him to save something for his children. Sometimes it is circumspection, which requires him not to supply people who make ill use of what they get. Sometimes it is necessity, which obliges him to repel artifice by artifice. Sometimes it is conscience, which con- vinces him, good man, that he hath already exceeded in compassion and alms-giving, and done too much. Some: times it is equity, for justice requires that every one should enjoy the fruit of his own labors, and those of his ances- tors. Such, alas! are the awful pretexts and subterfuges of the miser. Saurin's Ser., vol. v. ser, 12. (See AvARICE ; CovetousNess.)— Hend. Buck. MISERY ; such a state of wretchedness, unhappiness, or calamity, as renders a person an object of compassion. —Hend. Buck. . -- MISHNA, § the Heb. meshna, repetition ;) a part of the Jewish Talmud. The Mishna contains the text; and the Gemara, which is the second part of the Talmud, contains the commenta- ries: so that the Gemara is, as it were, a glossary on the Mishna. The Mishna consists of various traditions of the Jews, and of explanations of several passages of Scripture: these traditions serving as an explication of the written law, and supplement to it, are said to have been delivered to Moses during the time of his abode on the mount ; which he afterwards communicated to Aaron, Eleazer, and his servant Joshua. By these they were transmitted to the seventy elders; by them to the prophets, who com- municated them to the men of the great Sanhedrim, from whom the wise men of Jerusalem and Babylon received them. Dr. Prideaux, rejecting the Jewish fictions, ob- serves, that after the death of Simeon the Just, about 299 years before Christ, the Mishnacal doctors arose, who by their comments and conclusions added to the number of those traditions which had been received and allowed by Ezra and the men of the great synagogue; so that towards the middle of the second century after Christ, under the empire of Antoninus Pius, it was found necessary to com- mit these traditions to writing; more especially as their country had considerably suffered under Adrian, and many of their schools had been dissolved, and their learned men cut off; ... and therefore the usual method of preserving their traditions had failed. Rabbi Judah on this occasion being rector of the school at Tiberias, and president of the sanhedrim in that place, undertook the work, and compil- ed it in six books, each consisting of several tracts, which altogether make up the number of sixty-three. Prid. Connez., vol. ii. p. 468, &c., ed. 9. . This learned author computes, that the Mishna was composed about the 150th year of our Lord ; but Dr. Lightfoot says, that rabbi Judah compiled the Mishna about the year of Christ 190, in the latter end of the reign of Commodus; or, as some compute, in the year of Christ 320. Dr. Lardner'ís of opinion that this work could not have been finished before the year 190, or later. Thus the book called the Mishna was formed ; a book which the Jews have generally received with the greatest vene- ration. The original has been published with a Latin translation by Surenhusius, with notes of his own, and others from the learned Maimonides, &c., in six vols, fol. Amster. A. D. 1698–1703. (See CABALA, GEMARA, TAI- MUD.) It is written in a much purer style, and is not nearly so full of dreams and visions as the Gemara– Piend. Buck. MISR; a name given to the land of Egypt. (See Miz. RAIM.) MISREPRESENTATION; the act of wilfully repre- senting a thing otherwise than it is. This, as an elegant writer observes, is one of the great est mischiefs of conversation. Self-love is continually at work to give to all we say a bias in our own favor. How often in society, otherwise respectable, are we pained with narrations in which prejudice warps, and self-love blinds ! How often do we see that withholding part of a truth answers the worst ends of a falsehood How often regret the unfair turn given to a cause by placing a sentiment in one point of view, which the speaker .# used in ano- ther! the letter of truth preserved, where its spirit is v1. olated a superstitious exactness scrupulously maintained in the underparts of a detail, in order to impress such an idea of integrity as shall gain credit for the misrepresenter, while he is designedly mistaking the leading principle ! How may we observe a new character given to a fact by a different look, tone, or emphasis, which alters it as much as words could have done the false impression of a ser- mon conveyed, when we do not like the preacher, or when through him we wish to make religion itself ridiculous; the care to avoid literal untruths, while the mischief is better ef- ſected by the unfair quotation of a passage divested of its context ; the bringing together detached portions of a subject, and making those parts ludicrous, when connected, which were serious in their distinct position the insidious use made of a sentiment by representing it as the opinion of him who had only brought it forward in order to ex- pose it! the relating opinions which had merely been put hypothetically, as if they were the avowed principles of him we would discredit ! that subtle falsehood which is so made to incorporate with a certain quantity of truth, that the most skilful moral chemist cannot analyse or se- parate them for a good misrepresenter knows that a suc- cessful lie must have a certain infusion of truth, or it will not go down. And this amalgamation is the test of his skill; as too much truth would defeat the end of his mis- chieſ, and too little would destroy the belief of the hearer. All that indefinable ambiguity and equivocation; all that prudent deceit, which is rather implied than expressed; those more delicate artifices of the school of Loyola and of Chesterfield, which allow us, when we dare not deny a truth, yet so to disguise and discolor it, that the truth we relate shall not resemble the truth we heard; these, and all the thousand shades of simulation and dissimulation, will be carefully guarded against in the conversation of vigilant Christians. Miss H. More on Education, vol. ii. p. 91; Dwight's Theology. (See TRUTH, and LYING.)— JHend. Buck. MISSAL; the Romish mass-book, containing the seve- ral masses to be said on particular days. It is derived from the Latin word missa, which, in the ancient Christian church, signified every part of divine service. It was formed by collecting the separate liturgical books former- ly used in the religious services, particularly the Oratorium, Lectionarium, Evangeliarum, Antiphonarium, the Canon, &c., for the convenience of the priest. Some of these prayers and ceremonies are very ancient. Pius V. required, in 1570, that the Missal which had been revised under his direction, should be adopted by the whole Catholic church; and this form has been retained till the present time ; the changes introduced by Clement VIII. and Urban VIII., being little more than the alteration of a few sentences, and the addition of some new masses to those already in use. (See LITURGY.)—Hend. Buck. MISSION', a power or commission to preach the gos- pel. Thus Jesus Christ gave his disciples their mission when he said, “Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature.” See Mark 16:16, and Note on the text in the Comprehensive Commentary. See also the two next articles.—Hend. Buck. MISSION ; an establishment of Christians, zealous ſo- the glory of God and the salvation of Souls, who go and preach the gospel in remote countries, and among infi- dels. No man possessed of the least degree of feeling or compassion for the human race, can deny the necessity and utility of Christian missions. Whoever considers that the major part of the world is enveloped in the gross est darkness, bound with the chains of savage barbarity, and immersed in the awful chaos of brutal ignorance, must; if he be not destitute of every principle of religion and humanity, concur with the design and applaud the M. 1 S MII S | 822 ) principes of tnose who engage in so benevolent a work, (See HEATHEN, &c.) We shall not, however, in this place, enter into a defence of missions, but shall present the rea, der with a short view of those that have been established, 1. Papal Missions.—In the sixteenth century, the Ro- mish church particularly exerted herself for the propagation of her religion. The Portuguese and Spaniards pretend to have done mighty exploits in the spread of the Chris- tian faith in Asia, Africa, and America; but, when we consider the superstitions they imposed on some, and the dreadful cruelties they inflicted on others, it more than counterbalances any good that was done. For a time, the Dominicans, Franciscans, and other religious orders, were very zealous in the conversion of the heathen; but the Jesuits outdid them all in their attempts in the conver- sion of African, Asian, and American infidels. Xavier spread some hints of the Romish religion through the Portuguese settlements in the East Indies, through most of the Indian continent, and of Ceylon. In 1549, he sailed to Japan, and laid the foundation of a church there, which at one time was said to have consisted of about six hun- dred thousand Christians. After him, others penetrated into China, and founded a church, which continued about one hundred and seventy years. About 1580, others pene- trated into Chili and Peru, in South America, and con- verted the natives. Others bestirred themselves to con- vert the Greeks, Nestorians, Monophysites, Abyssinians, and the Egyptian Copts. “It is, however,” as one ob- serves, “a matter of doubt whether the disciples of a Xavier, or the converts of a Loyola and Dominic, with their partisans of the Romish church, should be admitted among the number of Christians, or their labors be thought to have contributed to the promotion or to the hinderance of the religion of Christ. Certain it is, that the methods these men pursued tended much more to make disciples to themselves and the pontiffs of Rome, than to form the mind to the reception of evangelical truth.” With ardent zeal, however, and unwearied industry, these apostles la- bored in this work. In 1622, we find the pope established a congregation of cardinals, de propaganda fide, and en- dowed it with ample revenues, and every thing which could forward the missions was liberally supplied. In 1627, also, Urban added the college for the propagation of the faith ; in which missionaries were taught the langua- ges of the countries to which they were to be sent. France copied the example of Rome, and formed an establishment for the same purposes. The Jesuits claimed the first rank, as due to their zeal, learning, and devotedness to the holy see. The Dominicans, Franciscans, and others, disputed the palm with them. The new world and the Asiatic re- gions were the chief field of their labors. They penetra- ted into the uncultivated recesses of America. They vi- sited the untried regions of Siam, Tonquin, and Cochin- China. They entered the vast empire of China itself, and numbered millions among their converts. They dared affront the dangers of the tyrannical government of Ja- pan. In India they assumed the garb and austerities of the Brahmins, and boasted on the coasts of Malabar of a thousand converts baptized in one year by a single mis- sionary. Their sufferings, however, were very great; and in China and Japan they were exposed to the most dreadſul persecutions, and many thousands were cut off, with, at last, a final expulsion from the empires. In Af. rica, the Capuchins were chiefly employed, though it does not appear that they had any considerable success. And in America their laborious exertions have had but little in- fluence, we fear, to promote the real conversion of the na- tives to the truth. * 2. Protestant Missions.—In the year 1621, the Dutch opened a church in the city of Batavia, and from hence ministers were sent to Amboyna. At Leyden, ministers and assis- tants were educated for the purpose of missions under the tamous Walaeus, and sent into the East, where thousands embraced the Christian religion at Formosa, Columba, Java, Malabar, &c.; and though the work declined in some places, yet there are still churches in Ceylon, Suma- tra, Amboyna, &c. About 1705, Frederick IV., of Denmark, applied to the university of Halle, in Germany, for missionaries to preach the gospel on the coast of Malabar, in the East Indies; and Messrs. Ziegenbalg and Plutsche were the first em. ployed on this important mission; to them others were soon added, who labored with considerable success. It is said that upwards of eighteen thousand Gentoos have been brought up to the profession of Christianity. A great work has been carried on among the Indian nations in North America. One of the first and most emi- nent instruments in this work was the excellent Mr. El- liott, commonly called the Indian apostle, who, from the time of his going to New England, in 1631, to his death, in 1690, devoted himself to this great work by his lips and pen, translating the Bible and other books into the native dialect. Some years after this, Thomas Mayhew, Esq., governor and patentee of the islands of Martha's Vineyard, and some neighboring islands, greatly exerted himself in the attempt to convert the Indians in that part of America. His son John gathered and founded an In- dian church, which, after his death, not being able to pay a minister, the old gentleman himself, at seventy years of age, became their instructer for more than twenty years; and his grandson and great-grandson both succeed- ed him in the same work. Mr. D. Brainerd was also a truly pious and successful missionary among the Susque- hannah and Delaware Indians. His journal contains in- stances of very extraordinary conversions. But the Moravians have exceeded all in their missiona- ry exertions. They have various missions; and, by their persevering zeal, it is said, upwards of twenty-three thou- sand of the most destitute of mankind, in different regions of the earth, have been brought to the knowledge of the truth. Wast numbers in the Danish islands of St. Tho- mas, St. Jau, and St. Croix, and the English islands of Jamaica, Antigua, Nevis, Barbadoes, St. Kitts, and To- bago, have, by their ministry, been called to worship God in spirit and in truth. In the inhospitable climes of Green- land and Labrador, they have met with wonderful success, after undergoing the most astonishing dangers and diſſi- culties. The Arrowack Indians, and the negroes of Suri- nam and Berbice, have been collected into bodies of faith- ful people by them. Canada and the United States of North America have, by their instrumentality, aſſorded happy evidences of the power of the gospel. Even those esteemed the last of human beings, for brutishness and ignorance, the Hottentots, have been formed into their so- cieties; and upwards of seven hundred are said to be worshipping God at Bavians Cloof, near the cape of Good Hope. We might also mention their cfforts to illumine the distant East, the coast of Coromandel, and the Nico- bar islands; their attempts to penetrate into Abyssinia, to carry the gospel to Persia and Egypt, and to ascend the mountains of Caucasus. In fact, where shall we find the men who have labored as these have 2 Their invincible patience, their well-regulated zeal, their self-denial, their constant prudence, deserve the meed of highest approba- tion. Nor are they wearied in so honorable a service; for they have numerous missionaries still employed in different parts of the world. (See MoRAVIANs.) Good has been also done by the Wesleyan Methodists, who are certainly not the least in missionary work. They have several missionaries in the British dominions in Aune- rica, and in the West Indies. They have some thousands of members in their societies in those parts. (See ME- THoDISTs.) In 1791, a society was instituted among the Baptists, called “The Particular Baptist Society ſor propagating the Gospel among the Heathen ;” under the auspices of which mis- sionaries were Sent to India, where they have had consi- derable success, particularly in the translation of the Scrip- tures into many of the Indian languages and dialects. They have also missionaries in the West Indies, where their efforts have been signally blessed in the conversion of the negroes. The annual expenditure is about twenty thousand pounds. - - In the year 1795, the London Missionary society was formed. According to its constitution, it is not confined to one body of people, but consists of Episcopalians, Pres- byterians, and Independents, who hold an annual meeting in London, in May, Missions have been established by this society in the South seas, the West Indies, South Af. rica, India, China, and Siberia, in most of which places M. I. S. M I S [ 823 1 the labors of its devoted agents have been remarkably blessed, especially in the islands of the Pacific, where are upwards of twenty, on which idolatry has been entirel abolished, several Christian churches have been formed, and some thousands of the natives give satisfactory evi- dence of genuine conversion. According to the report for 1831, the society had eighty stations, with ninety Euro- pean missionaries, besides twenty-one printers, Schoolmas- ters, &c., and native teachers, amounting altogether to nearly four hundred. About twenty thousand children and adults receive instruction in the schools. The an- mual expenditure now amounts to upwards of forty thou- sand pounds. Besides the above-mentioned societies, others have been formed, in connexion with the Established church. In 1699, a Society was instituted in England for promoting Christian knowledge. In 1701, another was formed for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts. In Scot- land, about the year 1700, a society was instituted for the propagation of Christian knowledge. In 1800, the Church Missionary society was formed. Its stations are fifty-six in number,-in India, West Africa, Australia, the Medi- terranean, the West Indies, and British America. Its ex- penditure for 1831, was forty-four thousand two hundred and sixty-six pounds thirteen shillings and nine-pence. Societies for spreading the gospel also have been insti- tuted in various other places, especially in the United States; the missionaries of which country are laboring in the Sandwich islands, Africa, Palestine, Armenia, the Greek islands, India, Burmah, Siam, and China. See accounts of the several denominations, and the Missiona- ry Department at the end of this work. From the whole, it seems evident that the light and knowledge of the glorious gospel will be more diffused than ever throughout the earth. And who is there that has any concern for the souls of men, any love for truth and religion, but what must rejoice at the formation, num- ber, and success of those institutions, which have not the mere temporal concerns of men, but their everlasting wel- fare, as their object 2 Whose heart does not overflow with joy, and his eyes with tears, when he considers the happy and extensive effects which are likely to take place. The untutored mind will receive the peaceful principles of re- ligion and virtue; the savage barbarian will rejoice in the copious blessings, and feel the benign effects of civiliza- tion ; the ignorant idolater will be directed to offer up his prayers and praises to the true God, and learn the way of salvation through Jesus Christ. The habitations of cru- elty will become the abodes of peace and security, while ignorance and superstition shall give way to the celestial blessings of intelligence, purity, and joy. Happy men, who are employed as instfuments in this cause; who fore- go your personal comforts, relinquish your native country, and voluntarily devote yourselves to the most noble and honorable of services ! Peace and prosperity be with you! TWayland on the Moral Dignity of the Missionary Enterprise; IHall's Charge to Rev. Eustace Carey; Miller's History of the Propagation of Christianity; Kennett's ditto ; Gillies' Histori- cal Collection ; Carey's Enquiry respecting Missions; Loskiell’s History of the Moravian Missions ; Crantz’s History of Green- land ; Horne's and Snyan's Letters on Missions ; Sermons and Reports of the Missionary Societies, &c. &c, &c.; Williams' and Ednyards' Missionary Gazetteers ; London Quarterly Review, for 1825; and above all Choules' origin and History of Missions.—Hend. Buck. MISSIONARY SPIRIT. A question of prime impor- ance will unquestionably be started by a reflecting mind, whether the missionary spirit has its foundation in the religious constitution of the Christian; or in his natural propensity for the romantic, hazardous, and untrodden paths of existence; especially when associated with bene- volence to others, either real or apparent. Now this is not only an inquiry of importance, but it is one which leads us directly to the latent springs of moral action; and the only way to arrive at a correct and conclusive answer is, to ascertain whether the legitimate tendency of holy influence and sacred truth is to produce or sus- tain such views respecting the unconverted nations of the globe. - . Previous to entering on this investigation we may re- mark, that it is by no means necessary to divest the mis- sionary of that degree of passion for new scenes of enter- prise, which makes him very willing to forsake old ones. The instability of a rover may make a north-western hunter, but will never keep a man in the wilderness of human Society, patiently gathering the chosen vessels of divine mercy into the fold of the Redeemer.—To return to the question;– , - First ; the genuine spirit of missions exists only in the minds of those whose souls are lighted from above, who have tasted that the Lord is gracious, and are under the impelling influence of the love of God shed abroad in the heart. All this is the very spirit of heaven, of pure be- nevolence, of impartial love. It was the simple action of these principles that led the Son of God to die for the hap- piness of millions. It was this that devised and consum- mated the plan of mercy for earth’s unnumbered myriads. The very genius of the gospel; all its eternal provisions; all its promises; all its moral power; all its magnificent and unfading rewards, are directed with an undeviating aim to the salvation of sinners; to break down their ob- duracy, to pour into their minds the light and joy of heaven. What then, we ask, would be the natural, the inevitable tendency of these all-powerful and intensively active principles, if fully and cordially received into the immor- tal mind 2 Quiescent they cannot be; and if they act at all, it must be in a centrifugal direction. They do not centre in the bosom of the recipient alone, but rather in the im- mense field of sin and suffering discovered on every side ; these principles go forth, like the spirits of light, to seek out, and minister to the heirs of salvation. Most evi- dently then, the spirit of missions is the divine energy of the gospel. Second; the missionary spirit is most intimately connect- ed with, or rather is composed of those particular feelings, which are said to be the fruits of the spirit. For instance, love, patience, brotherly kindness, hope, peace, meekness, gentleness, &c. And to the cultivation and diffusion of these principles, the missionary consecrates his powers, and this is the way in which he becomes a worker toge- ther with God. It is the work of the spirit to convince of sim, and to lead the minds of men into all truth. To these efforts, also, the labors of missionaries are constantly devoted. Thus we see that the spirit of missions finds a correlate in that mighty power wherewith Christ will sub- due all things to himself. Third; the missionary spirit is most strongly intrench- ed behind the sacred Scriptures, so that it cannot be suc- cessfully attacked until a thousand declarations of the Bible are obliterated and forgotten. The whole life of Christ, and of the apostle Paul, must ever stand as practical illustrations of what a missionary should be ; and the very first essay to copy their exalted example would inevitably lead to a missionary life. The farewell commission given just before the heavens receiv- ed him out of the sight of mortal eye, is a perpetual in- junction from the Lord of glory, to foster and maintain the spirit of missions. Because no sooner does the be- liever ask, what shall I do in reference to souls 2 than he hears, breaking out of the cloud on Olivet, “Go ye—into all the world—preach the gospel—to every creature,”— four ideas of sufficient interest to move any thing but a man of marble. Fourth ; the organized existence of the church is such, as naturally, and almost necessarily to promote a mis. Sionary Spirit. At any rate, its present organization would be needless, if we are to have no missionaries to send or support. There must be those to send as well as to go ; and in the early ages of the church, particular churches supported foreign and domestic missionaries; and it would now be impossible for the great mass of Christians to do any thing whatever beyond the breath of prayer for the conversion of the heathen, if the missionary Spirit were to be extinguished, and they no more be called upon to contribute for their support. Fifth ; we must before closing this article advert to the facts in the case. Let it be recollected that there are now near seven hundred foreign missionaries in the four quar. ters of the globe, and many of them have grown hoary * M I Z M? L E I 824 headed in this work; they have had trials, disappoint- ments, mockery, and death around them, but their hearts never quailed in the work. The novelty of the enterprise has passed away, but they are patiently at their labor of love, winning souls to Christ. A few instances of fickle- mess may have existed, and it would have been surprising not to have found them; still, it is a delightful and an undisputed fact, that the missionary spark first struck in their hearts has burned with a steadiness which shows that it is fed with inextinguishable material. And the obvious conclusion is, that a genuine missionary spirit is deeply seated in the constituent parts of the Chris- tian character.—N. Y. Bap. Rep. MITCHELL, (JonATHAN,) minister of Cambridge, Massachusetts, was born in England, in 1624. He was brought to this country in 1635, by his parents, who sought a refuge from ecclesiastical tyranny in the wilderness. Mr. Mitchell was graduated at Harvard college in 1647, having made great acquisitions in knowledge and improve- ments in virtue. He was ordained at Cambridge, as the successor of Mr. Shepherd, August 21, 1650. Soon after his settlement president Dunstar embraced the principles of the Baptists. This was a peculiar trial to him; but, though he felt it to be his duty to combat the principles of his former tutor, he did it with such meekness of wis- dom, as not to lose his friendship. In 1662, he was a member of the synod, which met in Boston to discuss and settle a question concerning church-membership and church discipline, and the result was chiefly written by him. The determination of the question relating to the baptism of the children of those who did not approach the Lord's table, and the support thus given to what is called the half-way covenant, was more owing to him than to any other man. (See HALF-WAY CovenANT.) Time has shown that the views which this good man la- bored so hard to establish on this point, cannot be sus- tained without ruining the purity of the churches. What an instructive lesson —Mr. Mitchell was eminent for pie- ty, wisdom, humility, and love. He died in the hope of glory, July 9, 1668, aged forty-three. He published several Letters and Sermons. His Life, by C. Mather; Magnalia, iii. 158—185; ' His. Soc. vii. 23, 27, 47–52.-Allen. MITE ; a small piece of money, in value a quarter of a Roman penny, or denarius; in English money about se- ven farthings; in our currency, four cents. See Luke 12: 59. 21: 2.—Calmet. * - MITRE ; a sacerdotal ornament, worn on the head by the ancient Jewish high-priest, and in modern times by bishops and certain abbots, on Solemn occasions, being a sort of turban, or cap, pointed and cleft at the top. His holiness the pope uses four different mitres, which are more or less richly adorn- ed, according to the nature º of the festivals on which - Sº they are assumed. The mitre is frequently met with in early Christian manu- scripts, in illuminated missals, and upon the oldest eccle- siastical monuments. A statue of St. Peter, erected in the seventh century, bears this mark of distinction in the shape of a round, high, and pyramidal mitre, such as those which the popes have since worn, and offers, per- haps, one of the earliest instances of its usage in churches. —Hend. Buck. MITYLENE ; the capital of the island of Lesbos, through which Paul passed as he went from Corinth to Jerusalem, A. D. 58, Acts 20: 14.—Calmet. MIZPAH, or Mizpeh ; a city of the tribe of Benjamin, situated in a plain, about eighteen miles west of Jerusa- lem. Here Samuel dwelt, 1 Sam. 7. Here, also, Saul was anointed king, 1 Sam. 10:17–25. 1 Kings 15:22. There was another city of this name in Gilead, (Gen. 31: 49.) and a third in the land of Moab, 1 Sam. 22:3. It is to be observed, that Mizpeh implies a beacon or watch- tower, a pillar or heap of commemoration; and at all the laces bearing this name, it is probable that a single pil- ar, or a rude pile, was erected as the witness and the re- cord of some particular event. These, subsequently, became altars and places of convocation on public occa- sions, religious and civil.—Watson. MIZRAIM; son of Ham, and father of Ludim, Ana- min, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, and Casluhim, Gen. 10:6. He was father of the Mizraim, or Egyp- tians. Mizraim is also put for the country of Egypt : thus it has three significations, which are perpetually con- founded and used promiscuously; sometimes denoting the land of Egypt, sometimes he who first peopled Egypt, and sometimes the inhabitants themselves. (See EGYPT.) —Calmet. - M’LEAN, (ARCHIBAID,) a eminent Baptist writer, was born May 1, 1733, Old Style, at East Kilbride, a small village, about eight miles south of Glasgow. He was the third in descent from Brolus, eldest son of Duart, the chief of the clan of the M'Leans. - Mr. M'Lean’s parents were members of the Presbyterian church of Scotland, and trained up their son in a venera- tion for that national establishment of religion. He was brought to a saving acquaintance with the truth as it is in Jesus, under the preaching of the excellent Maclaurin, a minister of the Established church; he consequently en- tered into the communion of that church, and continued several years a very zealous member of it. In 1746, he was articled as an apprentice to a printer in Glasgow, by whom he was highly prized and esteemed. ... This was an employment every way congenial to his disposition. The variety of works which were constantly passing through his hands, proved at the same time a source of amusement and information; and he soon made himself perfectly acquainted with every branch of the printing business. His leisure hours were devoted to the study of the languages in which the Scriptures were originally written ; and to facilitate his acquaintance with them he constructed several grammars for his own use, some of which are still in the possession of the family. During the term of his apprenticeship, he also applied himself to a course of general reading, and to the particular study of some branches of science connected with theology, which laid the foundation of that extensive acquaintance with the Scriptures which he ultimately attained. In 1765, Mr. M'Lean became a Baptist, and was bap- tized by Mr. Carmichael, in Edinburgh. In 1767, having gone to London, he continued there, at his printing busi- ness, till the month of December, when, having been ap- plied to, to become overseer of the extensive printing con- cern of Messrs. Donaldson and Co. in Edinburgh, he ac- ceded to the proposal, and, quitting the metropolis, settled there with his family. He superintended this great esta- blishment eighteen years; a period of extraordinary exer- tion. In June, 1768, he was chosen colleague to Mr. Carmichael, and besides his pastoral labors, was rising to high distinction as an author. About the year 1785, in consequence of the varied ex- ertions of Mr. M'Lean, his health was much affected. The spread of the Baptist profession, in various parts of Scotland, and the discriminating principles of the church- es formed upon the plan of those of the Scotch Baptists, having extended also to various parts of England, occa- sioned numerous applications, at this period, to him, not only for information, by letter, on points of difficulty that arose among them, but also for visits, to set societies in order, and ordain elders over them. As his engagements in Mr. Donaldson's printing office precluded the possibility of a compliance with the greater part of these applica- tions, and as the church of Edinburgh was now respecta- ble in point of number, they urged it upon him to give up his secular employ, and accept such a salary from them as their ability enabled them to raise him. He complied with that request; consented to accept a salary from the church, of sixty guineas per annum, at which sum it conti- nued for several years; and though, when an extraordi- nary rise in all the necessaries of life took place, it was gradually augmented, yet it never exceeded a hundred and tnyenty pounds, which was the sum he was in receipt of at the time of his decease. - • The Baptist mission to India was an undertaking which, from 1795, engaged much of Mr. M'Lean's attention, and in furthering it he took a very lively interest. His zeal happily stimulated all classes of his countrymen to M O A M O A [825 J co-operate in promoting the interest of the Baptist mission to India. He died December 21, 1812, at the age of eighty, in the hope of that blessed gospel he had recom- mended so extensively to others. As a minister, a Christian, and an author, he was alike distinguished. An opinion has, indeed, very generally prevailed among the dissenters throughout England, that Mr. M'ſ lean and those with whom he walked in church fellowship, differed from the Sandemanians in scarcely any thing but the subject of baptism : but this opinion is totally unfounded. A handsome edition of his valuable works was published, in seven volumes, octavo, London, 1823, with a Memoir of his Life, &c. by W. Jones. Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Benedict's History of the Baptists.-Hend. JBuck. - M’MILLANITES. BYTER. - MNASON, of Cyprus; a Jew, converted by Christ him- self; and one of the seventy, Acts 21: 16. Paul lodged at his house at Jerusalem, A. D. 58.-Calmet. MOABITES ; the descendants of Moab, son of Lot, born A. M. 2108, whose habitation was east of Jordan, and adjacent to the Dead sea, on both sides the river Ar- non, on which their capital city was situated. (See AR.) This country was originally possessed by a race of giants called Emim, (Deut. 2: 11, 12.) whom the Moabites con- quered. Afterwards, the Amorites took a part from the Moabites, (Judg. 11: 13.) but Moses reconquered it, and gave it to the tribe of Reuben. The Moabites were spared by Moses, as God had restricted him ; (Deut. 2: 9.) but there always was a great antipathy between them and the Israelites, which occasioned many wars. Balaam se- duced the Hebrews to idolatry and uncleanness, by means of the daughters of Moab, Num. 25: 1, 2. God ordained that this people should not enter into the congregation of his people, or be capable of office, &c. even to the tenth generation, (Deut. 23: 3.) because they had the inhuma- mity to refuse the Israelites a passage through their coun- try, nor would supply them with bread and water in their necessity, Judg. 3: 12. 2 Kings 3: 4, 5, 16. Amos 1: 13. 2 Chron. 26:7, 8, 27: 5. Jer. 9:26. 12: 14, 15. 25: 11, 12. 48: 47. 49: 3, 6, 39. 50: 16. The principal deities of the Moabites were Chemosh and Baal-peor. Scripture speaks of Nebo, of Baal-meon, and of Baal-dibon, as gods of the Moabites; but it is likely these are rather names of places where Chemosh and Peor were worshipped : and that Baal-dibon, Baal- meon, and Nebo, are no other than Chemosh adored at Dibon, or at Meon, or on mount Nebo. The land of Moab lay to the east and south-east of Ju- dea, and bordered on the east, north-east, and partly on the south of the Dead sea. Its early history is nearly ana- logous to that of Ammon ; (see AMMON ;) and the soil, though perhaps more diversified, is, in many places where the desert and plains of salt have not encroached on its borders, of equal fertility. Wherever any spot is culti- wated the corn is luxuriant; and the riches of the soil cannot perhaps be more clearly illustrated than by the fact, that one grain of Heshbon wheat exceeds in dimen- sions two of the ordinary sort, and more than double the number of grains grow on the stalk. The prophecies concerning Moab are numerous and re- markable. There are, says Keith, abundant predictions which refer so clearly to its modern state, that there is scarcely a single feature peculiar to the land of Moab, as it now exists, which was not marked by the prophets in their delineation of the low condition to which, from the height of its wickedness and haughtiness, it was finally to be brought down. The whole country abounds with ruins ; and Burck- hardt, who encountered many difficulties in so desolate and dangerous a land, thus records the brief history of a few of them : “The ruins of Eleale, Heshbon, Meon, Medaba, Dibon, Aroer, still subsist to illustrate the his- tory of the sons of Israel.” And it might with equal truth have been added, that they still subsist to confirm the inspiration of the Jewish Scriptures, or to prove that the seers of Israel were the prophets of God; for the deso- lation of each of these very cities was the theme of a pre- diction. Every thing worthy of observation respecting (Sce SYNoD ; REForMed PRES- them has been detailed, not only in Burckhardt's “Travels in Syria,” but also by Seetzen, and, more recently, by captains Irby and Mangles, who, along with Mr. Bankes and Mr. Leigh, visited this deserted district. Mount Nebo was completely barren when Burckhardt passed over it, and the site of the ancient city had not been ascertained. “Nebo is spoiled.” None of the ancient cities of Moab now remain as tenanted by men. Kerek, which neither bears any resemblance in name to any of the cities of Moab which are men tioned as existing in the time of the Israelites, nor possesses any monuments which denote a very remote antiquity, is the only nominal town in the whole country, and, in the words of Seetzen, who visited it, “in its pre- sent ruined state it can only be called a hamlet; and the houses have only one floor.” But the most populous and fertile province in Europe, especially any situated in the interior of a country like Moab, is not covered so thickly with towns as Moab is plentiful in ruins, deserted and desolate though now it be. Burckhardt enumerates about fiſty ruined sites within its boundaries, many of them extensive. In general they are a broken down and undistinguishable mass of ruins; and many of them have not been closely inspected. But, in some instances, there are the remains of temples, se- pulchral monuments; the ruins of edifices constructed of very large stones, in one of which buildings some of the stones are twenty feet in length, and so broad that one constitutes the thickness of the wall; traces of hanging gardens; entire columns lying on the ground, three feet in diameter, and fragments of smaller columns; and many cisterns out of the rock. When the towns of Moab existed in their prime, and were at ease; when arrogance, and haughtiness, and pride prevailed amongst them; the desolation, and total desertion and abandonment of them all, must have utterly surpassed all human concep- tion. “ They shall cry of Moab, How is it broken down ſ” * The strong contrast between the ancient and the actual state of Moab is exemplified in the condition of the inha- bitants as well as of the land; and the coincidence be- tween the prediction and the fact is as striking in the one case as in the other. “The days come, saith the Lord, that I will send unto him (Moab) wanderers that shall cause him to wander, and shall empty his vessels.” The Bedouin (wandering) Arabs are now the chief and almost the only inhabitants of a country once studded with cities. They prevent any from forming a fixed settlement who are inclined to attempt it ; for although the fruitfulness of the soil would abundantly repay the labor of settlers, and render migration wholly unnecessary, even if the population were increased more than tenfold; yet the Bedouins forcibly deprive them of the means of subsist- ence, compel them to search for it elsewhere, and, in the words of the prediction, literally “cause them to wander.” “It may be remarked generally of the Bedouins,” says Burckhardt, in describing their extortions in this very country, “that wherever they are the masters of the cul- tivators, the latter are soon reduced to beggary by their unceasing demands.” “O ye that dwell in Moab, leave the cities and dwell in the rock, and be like the dove that maketh her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth.” In a general description of the condition of the inhabitants of that extensive desert which now occupies the place of these ancient flourishing states, Volney, in plain but unmeant illustration of this prediction, remarks, that the “wretched peasants live in perpetual dread of losing the fruit of their labors; and no sooner have they gathered in their harvest, than they hasten to secrete it in private places, and retire among the rocks which border on the Dead sea.’ But whether flocks lie down in the city without any to make them afraid, or whether men are to be found dwell- ing in the rocks, and are “like the dove that maketh her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth,” the wonderful tran- sition, in either case, and the close accordance, in both, of the fact to the prediction, assuredly mark it in charac- ters that may be visible to the purblind mind, as the word of that God before whom the darkness of futurity is as light, and without whom a sparrow cannot fall unto the * 104 M O D ‘M O H I 826 1 ground. Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy.—Calmet; Watson. MODALISTS; those who resolve the distinction be- tween the persons of the Trinity merely into the manner of their subsistence, as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. See NoFTIANs ; and SABELLIANs.)—Williams. . . . . MODERATE ; to moderate a call, in the church of Scot- land, is, under the presidency of one of the clergy, to pub- licly announce and give in an invitation to a minister or licentiate to take the charge of a parish; which announce- ment or invitation, thus given in the hearing of the as- sembled parishioners, is regarded as the first legal step towards a settlement.—Hend. Buck. MODERATION ; the state of keeping a due medium between extremes; calmness, temperance, or equanimity. It is sometimes used with reference to our opinions, (Rom. 12. 3.) but in general it respects our conduct in that state which comes under the description of ease or prosperity; and ought to take place in our wishes, pur- suits, expectations, pleasures, and passions. See Bishop Ball on Moderation, ser. 16; Blair's Sermons, vol. iii. Ser. 12; Toplady's Works, vol. iii. ser. 10.—Hend. Buck. MODERATOR ; a clergyman presiding in the general assembly of the church of Scotland, or in any of the Sub- ordinate courts of that church ; and likewise the person acting as chairman or president of any church court, or voluntary association.—Hend. Buck. - MODERN QUESTION, (THE) So is called the Ques: tion—“Whether it be the duty of all, to whom the gospel is preached, to repent and believe in Christ” and it is called Modern, because it is supposed never to have been agitated before the early part of the last century. The following is an abstract of Dr. Ryland's History of this controversy, which he considers to have originated in Northamptonshire, in the churches in which Mr. Davis, of Rothwell, preached; though it does not appear that he took an active part in it. Mr. Maurice, his successor, even strenuously opposed the negative side of the ques- tion, which had been maintained by some of Mr. Davis’ admirers, particularly by Mr. Lewis Weyman, of Kim- bolton; to whom Mr. Maurice wrote a reply, which, on TMr. Maurice dying before it was completed, was published. by the celebrated Mr. Bradbury. This was between 1737 and 1739. Mr. Gutteridge, of Oundle, took also the af. firmative side ; and, in 1743, Mr. Brine the negative; as did also the learned Dr. Gill, though he did not write ex- pressly on the subject. • The question, thus started, was pursued by a variety of inſerior writers down to the time of Andrew Fuller, who very ably supported the positive side of the question; namely, that faith is the duty of all men, although, through the depravity of human nature, men mill not be- lieve, till regenerated by the Holy Spirit. On the other side it was contended, “that ſaith was not a duty, but a grace;” the exercise of which was not required till it was bestowed. It is both. On this subject, Mr. Fuller published “The Gospel worthy of all acceptation ; or the Duty of all Men to believe in Jesus Christ.” “The lead- ing design of this performance (says Mr. Morris) is to prove that men are under indispensable obligations to be- lieve whatever God says, and to do whatever he com- mands; and a Savior being revealed in the gospel, the 7am in cffect requires those to whom he is made known to believe in him, seeing it insists upon obcdience to the whole will of God; that the inability of man to comply with the divine requirements is wholly of a moral nature, and consists in the prevalence of an evil disposition, which, being voluntary, is in the highest degree criminal.” On this subject, Mr. Fuller was attacked by Mr. Button, a supralapsarian, on the one hand; and by Mr. Daniel Taylor, an Arminian, on the other; to whom he replied, by “A Defence” of his former tract. There the question seems to rest ; and it appears hardly possible in the pre- sent state of things, to throw farther light upon the subject. The late Mr. Robinson shrewdly remarks, that those ministers who will not use applications, lest they should rob the Holy Spirit of the honor of applying the word, should, for the same reason, not use explications, lest they should deprive him of the honor of illustrating it. Dr. Ryland's Life of Fuller, pp, 6–11 ; Morris' do., ch. viii.; Wilson's Dissenting Churches, vol. ii. pp. 572–574; Ivimey's English Baptists, vol. iii. pp. 262—272–Williams. MODESTY, is sometimes used to denote humility, and sometimes to express chastity. The Greek word kosmios, signifies neat or well arranged. It suggests the idea of simple elegance. Modesty, therefore, consists in purity of sentiment and manners, inclining us to abhor the least appearance of vice and indecency, and to fear doing any thing which will justly incur censure. An excess of modesty is called bashfulness, and the want of it imperti- nence, or impudence. S º There is a false or vicious modesty, which influences a man to do any thing that is ill or indiscreet; such as, . through fear of offending his companions, he runs into their follies or cxcesses; or it is a false modesty which restrains a man from doing what is good or laudable; such as being ashamed to speak of religion, and to be seen in the exercises of piety and devotion.—Hend. Buck. MOHAMIMED, or MAHOMET, the founder of Islamism, was born in the reign of Anushirwan the Just emperor of Persia, about the end of the sixth century of the Chris. tian era. He came into the world under some disadvan- tages. His father, Abd'allah, was a younger son of Abd'almotalleb, and dying very young, and in his father's lifetime, left his widow and infant son in mean circum- stances, his whole subsistence consisting but of five camels and one Ethiopiari female slave. Abd'almotalleb was therefore obliged to take care of his grandchild Moham- med; which he not only did during his life, but at his death enjoined his eldest son, Abu Taleb, who was brother to Abd'allah by the same mother, to provide for him ſor the future; which he very affectionately did, and instruct- ed him in the business of a merchant, which he followed; and to that end he took him into Syria, when he was but thirteen. He afterwards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, ſor her factor; in whose service he behaved himself so well, that by making him her hus- band, she soon raised him to an equality with the richest in Mecca. It was after he began by this advantageous match to live at his ease, that he formed the scheme of establishing a new religion, or, as he expressed it, of replanting the only true and ancient one professed by Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets, by destroy- ing the gross idolatry into which the generality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding out the corruptions and Superstitions which the latter Jews and Christians had, as he thought, introduced into their religion, and re- ducing it to its original purity, which consisted chiefly in the worship of one God. - - Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly judged that it was necessary for him to begin with the conversion of his own household. Having, therefore, retired with his family, as he had done several times before, to a cave in mount Hara, he there opened the secret of his mission to his wife Khadijah ; and acquainted her, that the angel Gabriel had just before appeared to him, and told him that he was appointed the apostle of God : he also repeated to her a passage which he pretended had been revealed to him by the ministry of the angel, with those other circum- stances of this first appearance which are related by the Mohammedan writers. Khadijah received the news with great joy, swearing by Him in whose hands her soul was, that she trusted he would be the prophet of his nation; and immediately communicated what she had heard to * M O H. M. O. H. [ 827 her cousin Warakah Ebn Nawſal, who, being a Christian, could write in the Hebrew character, and was tolerably well versed in the Scriptures; and he readily came into her opinion, assuring her that the same angel who had formerly appeared unto Moses, was now sent to Moham- med. The first overture the prophet made, was in the month of Ramadan, in the ſortieth year of his age, which is therefore usually called the year of his mission. Encouraged by so good a beginning, he resolved to pro- ceed, and try for some time what he could do by private persuasion, not daring to hazard the whole affair by ex- posing it too suddenly to the public. He soon made pros- elytes of those under his own rooſ, viz.: his wife Khadi- jah, his servant Zeid Ebn Haretha, to whom he gave his freedom on that occasion, (which aſterwards became a rule to his followers,) and his cousin and pupil Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, though then very young; but this last, making no account of the other two, used to style himself the first of believers. The next person Mohammed applied to was Abd'allah Ebn Abi Kohaſa, surnamed Abu Becr, a man of great authority among the Koreish, and one whose in- terest he well knew would be of great service to him, as it soon appeared; for Abu Becr, being gained over, pre- vailed also on. Othman Ebn Aſſan, Abd'alraham Ebn Awf, Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkus, Al Zobeir, Al Awam, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal men of Mecca, to follow his example. These men were six chief compan- ions, who, with a few more, were converted in the space of three years: at the end of which, Mohammed having, as he hoped, a sufficient interest to support him, made his mission no longer a secret, but gave out that God had commanded him to admonish his near relations; and in -order to do it with more convenience and prospect of suc- cess, he directed Ali to prepare an entertainment, and in- vited the sons and descendants of Abd'almotalleb, intend- ing then to open his mind to them. This was done, and about forty of them came ; but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles, making the company break up before Mohammed had an opportunity of speaking, obliged him to give them a second invitation the next day; and when they were come, he made them the following speech :—“I know no man in all Arabia who can offer his kindred a more ex- cellent thing than I now do to you ; I offer you happiness both in this life and in that which is to come : God Al- mighty hath commanded me to call you unto him. Who, therefore, among you will be assistant to me herein, and become my brother and my vicegerent?” All of them hesitating and declining the matter, Ali at length rose up, and declared that he would be his assistant, and vehe- mently threatened those who should oppose him. Mo- hammed upon this embraced Ali with great demonstrations of affection, and desired all who were present to hearken to and obey him as his deputy; at which the company broke out into a great laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he must now pay obedience to his son. This repulse, however, was so far from discouraging Mohammed, that he began to preach in public to the peo- ple, who heard him with some patience, till he came to upbraid them with the idolatry, obstinacy, and perverse- ness of themselves and their fathers; which so highly provoked them, that they declared themselves his ene- mies; and would soon have procured his ruin, had he not been protected by Abu Taleb. The chief of the Koreish warmly solicited this person to desert his nephew, making frequent remonstrances against the innovations he was attempting ; which proving ineffectual, they at length threatened him with an open rupture if he did not prevail on Mohammed to desist. At this Abu Taleb was so far moved, that he earnestly dissuaded his nephew from pur- suing the affair any further, representing the great danger that he and his friends must otherwise run. But Moham- med was not to be intimidated, telling his uncle plainly, “ that if they set the sun against him on his right hand, and the moon on his left, he would not leave his enter- prise;” and Abu Taleb, seeing him so firmly resolved to proceed, used no further arguments, but promised to stand by him against all his enemies. - The Koreish, finding they could prevail neither by fair words nor menaces, tried what they could do by force and ill treatment; using Mohammed's followers so very inju- riously, that it was not safe for them to continue at Mecca any longer; whereupon Mohammed gave leave to such of them as had no friends to protect them, to seek for re- fuge elsewhere. And accordingly, in the fifth year of the prophet’s mission, sixteen of them, ſour of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia; and among them, Othman Ebn Affan, and his wife Rakiah, Mohammed's daughter. This was the first flight, but afterwards several others ſol- lowed them, retiring, one after another, to the number of eighty-three men and eighteen women, besides children. These refugees were kindly received by the Nagush, or king of Ethiopia, who refused to deliver them up to those whom the Koreish sent to demand them, and, as the Arab writers unanimously attest, even professed the Moham- medan religion. In the sixth year of his mission, Mohammed had the pleasure of seeing his party strengthened by the conver- sion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valor and merit; and of Omar Ebn al Kattab, a person highly esteemed, and once a violent opposer of the prophet. As persecution generally advances rather than obstructs the spreading of a religion, Islamism made so great a progress among the Arab tribes, that the Koreish, to suppress it effectually, if possible, in the seventh year of Mohammed's mission, made a solemn league or covenant against the Hashem- ites, and the family of Abd'almotalleb, engaging them- selves to contract no marriages with any of them, and to have no communication with them ; and to give it the greater sanction, reduced it into writing, and laid it up in the Kaaba. Upon this the tribe became divided into two factions; and the family of Hashem all repaired to Abu Taleb as their head ; except only Abd'al Uzza, surnamed Abu Laheb, who, out of inveterate hātred to his nephew and his doctrine, went over to the opposite party, whose chief was Abu Sossian Ebn Harb, of the family of Ommeya. The families continued thus at variance for three years; but in the tenth year of his mission Mohammed told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifestly showed his dis- approbation of the league which the Koreish had made against them, by sending a worm to eat out every word of the instrument except the name of God. Of this acci- dent Mohammed had probably some private notice; for Abu Taleb went immediately to the Koreish, and ac- quainted them with it ; offering, if it proved false, to deli- ver his nephew up to them ; but, in case it were true, he insisted that they ought to lay aside their animosity, and annul the league they had made against the Hashemites. To this they acquiesced; and, going to inspect the writing, to their great astonishment ſound it to be as Abu Taleb had said; and the league was thereupon declared void. In the twelfth year of his mission it was that Moham- med gave out that he had made his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and thence to heaven, so much spok- en of by all that write of him. Dr. Prideaux thinks he invented it either to answer the expectations of those who demanded some miracle as a proof of his mission; or else, by pretending to have conversed with God, to esta- blish the authority of whatever he should think fit to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and make his say- ings to serve the same purpose as the oral laws of the Jews. But it does not appear that Mohammed himself ever expected so great a regard should be paid to his say- ings as his followers have since done; and, seeing he all along disclaimed any power of performing miracles, it seems rather to have been a fetch of policy to raise his reputa- tion, by pretending to have actually conversed with God in heaven, as Moses had heretofore done in the mount, and to have received several institutions immediately from him ; whereas, before, he contented himself with persuading them that he had all by the ministry of Gabriel. However, this story seemed so absurd and incredible, that several of his followers leſt him upon it; and had probably ruined the whole design, had not Abu Becr vouched ſor his veracity, and declared, that if Moham- med affirmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole; which happy incident not only retrieved the prophet's credit, but increased it to such a degree, that he was secure of being able to make his disciples swallow whatever he MI O H M O H . | 828 ) pleased to impose on them for the ſuture. And this fic- tion, notwithstanding its extravagance, was one of the most artful contrivances Mohammed ever put in practice, and what chiefly contributed to the raising of his reputa- tion to that great height to which it afterwards arrived. The next year, being the thirteenth of Mohammed's mission, Masab returned to Mecca, accompanied by se- venty-three men, and two women of Medina, who had professed Islamism, besides some others who were as yet unbelievers. On their arrival they immediately sent to Mohammed, and offered him their assistance, of which he was now in great need; for his adversaries were by this time grown so powerful in Mecca, that he could not stay there much longer without imminent danger. Wherefore he accepted their proposal, and met them one night, by appointment, at Al Akaba, north of the city, attended by his uncle, Al Abbas ; who, though he was not then a be- liever, wished his nephew well, and made a speech to those of Medina, wherein he told them, that, as Moham- med was obliged to quit his native city, and seek an asy- lum elsewhere, and they had offered him their protection, they would do well not to deceive him ; that iſ they were not firmly resolved to defend, and not betray him, they had better declare their minds, and let him provide for his safety in some other manner. Upon their protesting their sincerity, Mohammed swore to be faithful to them, on condition that they should protect him against all in- sults as heartily as they would their own wives and fami- lies. ' They then asked him what recompense they were to expect if they should happen to be killed in his quarrel; he answered, Paradise. Whereupon they pledged their faith to him, and so returned home, after Mohammed had chosen twelve out of their number, who were to have the same authority among them as the twelve apostles of Christ had among his disciples. Hitherto Mohammed had propagated his religion by fair means ; so that the whole success of his enterprise, before his ſlight to Medina, must be attributed to persua- Sion only, and not to compulsion. For before the above oath of fealty or inauguration at Al Akaba, he had no permission to use any force at all; and in several places of the Koran, which he pretended were revealed during his stay at Mecca, he declares his business was only to preach and admonish ; that he had no authority to compel any person to embrace his religion; and that, whether people believe or not, was none of his concern, but be- longed solely unto God. And he was so ſar ſrom allowing his followers to use force, that he exhorted them to bear pa- tiently those injuries which were oſſered them on account of their faith; and, when persecuted himself, chose rather to quit the place of his birth, and retire to Medina, than - sº-º-, *...* ºffl º >S$# -------º-º-º-º-º- * ... 3 - --- * : * **, *, * & *e#t ºl. filliſh sºilſill Zºº -º t | d ! º gº ſº l till initrimm, #| | || ||||||| i!!! =º ~~~~~~<==2~ º The Hegira, or Flight to Mcdina, A. D. 621. to make any resistance. But this great passiveness and moderation seem entirely owing to his want of power, and the great superiority of his opposers, for the first twelve years of his mission; for no sooner was he enabled, by the assistance of those of Medina, to make head against his enemies, than he gave out that God had allowed him and his followers to defend themselves against the infi- dels; and at length, as his ſorces increased, he pretended to have the divine leave even to attack them, and destroy idolatry, and set up the true faith by the sword; finding, by *~. • * * * * ~ - * - - - - experience, that his designs would otherwise proceed very slowly, if they were not utterly overthrown; and knowing, on the other hand, that innovators, when they depend solely on their own strength, and can compel, seldom run any risk; from whence, says Machiavel, it follows, thrit all the armed prophets have succeeded, and the unarmed ones have failed. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus, would not have been able to establish the observance of their institutions for any length of time had they not been armed. The first passage of the Koran which gave Mo- hammed the permission of defending himself by arms, is said to have been that in the twenty-second chapter; after which a great number to the same purpose were re. vealed. The flight to Medina begins the Mohammedan €Tà.. Mohammed, being securely settled at Medina, and able not only to defend himself against the insults of his ene- mies, but to attack them, began to send out small parties to make reprisals on the Koreish; the first party consisting of no more than nine men, who intercepted and plundered a caravan belonging to that tribe, and in the action took two prisoners. But what established his affairs very much, and was the foundation on which he built all his succeed- ing greatness, was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, * † =ººººººº-ºº: H. ::::::...Sººº... º.º.º. T. Rººseº.º.º.º. Mohammed spreading his religion by the sword, which was fought in the second year of the Hegira, and is so famous in the Mohammedan history. Some reckon no less than twenty-seven expeditions, wherein Moham- med was personally present, in nine of which he gave battle, besides several other expeditions in which he was not present. His forces he maintained partly by the con- tributions of his followers for this purpose, which he called by the name of zacat, or alms, and the paying of which he very artfully made one main article of his religion; and partly by ordering a ſiſth part of the plunder to be brought into the public treasury for that purpose, in which matter, he likewise pretended to act by the divine direction. In the seventh year of the Hegira, Mohammed began to think of propagating his religion beyond the bounds of Arabia, and sent messengers to the neighboring princes, with letters to invite them to Mohammedanism. Nor was this project without some success. The eighth year of the Hegira was a very fortunate year to Mohammed. In the beginning of it, Khaled Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn al As, both excellent soldiers, the first of whom afterwards conquered Syria and other countries, and the latter Egypt, became proselytes to Mo- hammedanism. And soon aſter, the prophet sent three thousand men against the Grecian forces, to revenge the death of one of his ambassadors, who, being sent to the governor of Bosra, on the same errand as those who went to the above-mentioned princes, was slain by an Arab of the tribe of Ghassan, at Muta, a town in the territory of Balka, in Syria, about three days’ journey eastward from Jerusalem, near which town they encountered. The Gre. cians being vastly superior in number, (for, including the auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of one hundred thou- sand men,) the Mohammedans were repulsed in the first attack, and lost successively three of their generals, viz. Zeid Ebn Haretha, Mohammed's freedman; Jaasar, the son of Abu Taleb ; and Abdaliah Ebn Rawalia; but Kha. led Ebn al Walid, succeeding to the command, overthrew M. O. H. M O £f [829 & the Greeks with great slaughter, and brought away abun- dance of rich spoil; on occasion of which action Moham- med gave him the title of Seif min Soyuf Allah—“One of the swords of God.” r In this year also, Mohammed took the city of Mecca, the inhabitants whereoſ had broken the truce concluded two years before. The remainder of this year Mohammed employed in destroying the idols in and around Mecca, sending several of the generals on expeditions for that purpose, and to in- vite the Arabs to Islamism; wherein it is no wonder if they now met with success. The next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the Mo- hammedans call the year of embassies; for the Arabs had been hitherto awaiting the issue of the war between Mo- hammed and the Koreish ; but as soon as that tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the genuine descendants of Ishmael, whose prerogatives none offered to dispute, had submitted, they were satisfied that it was not in their power to oppose Mohammed; and, therefore, began to come in to him in great numbers, and to send embassies to make their submissions to him, both to Mecca, while he stayed there, and also to Medina, whither he returned this year. Among the rest, five kings of the tribe of Hamyer professed Mohammedanism, and sent ambassadors to no- tify the same. * , In the tenth year, Ali was sent into Yemen to propagate the Mohammedan faith there; and, as it is said, converted the whole tribe of IHamdan in one day. Their example was quickly followed by all the inhabitants ºf that pro- vince, except only those of Najran, who, being Christians, chose rather to pay tribute. Thus was Mohammedanism established, and idolatry rooted out, even in Mohammed's lifetime, (for he died the next year,) throughout all Arabia, except only Yamama, where Moseilama, who set up also as a prophet as Mo- hammed's competitor, had a great party, and was not re- duced till the caliphate of Abu Becr; and the Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one prince, found themselves in a condition for ſhalking those conquests which extended the Mohammedan faith over So great a part of the world. (See ARABIA; and MoHAMMEDANISM.) —Hend. Buck. - MOHAMMEDANISM; the system of religion founded and propagated by Mohammed, and still adhered to by his followers. It is professed by the Turks and Persians, and by several nations in Africa and Eastern Asia. It is di- vided by its adherents into two general parts : faith and practice, I. RELIGIOUS BELIEF. 1. That they believe both Mohammed, and those among his followers who are reckoned orthodox, had, and con- tinue to have, just and true notions of God and his attri- butes, appears so plain from the Koran itself, and all the Mohammedan divines, that it would be loss of time to refute those who suppose the God of Mohammed to be different from the true God, and only a fictitious deity or idol of his own creation. - 2. The existence of angels and their purity, are abso- lutely required to be believed in the Koran; and he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are such beings, or hates any of them, or asserts any distinction of sexes among them. They believe them to have pure and subtle bodies, created of fire; that they neither eat nor drink, mor propagate their species; that they have various forms and offices, some adoring God in different postures, others singing praises to him, or interceding for mankind. They hold, that some of them are employed in writing down the actions of men; others in carrying the throne of God, and other services. 3. As to the Scriptures, the Mohammedans are taught by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world, gave revelations of his will in writing to several prophets, the whole and every one of which it is absolutely necessary for a good Moslem to believe. The number of these Sa- cred books were, according to them, one hundred and four; of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Edris or Enoch, ten to Abraham ; and the other four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and the Koran, were successively delivered to Moses, David, Jestis, and Mohammed, which last being the seal of the prophets, those revelations are now closed, and no more are to be expected. All these divine books, except the four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, and the ir con- tents unknown ; though the Sabians have several books which they attribute to some of the antediluvian prophets. And of those four, the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel, they say, have undergone so many alterations and cor- ruptions, that, though there may possibly be some part of the true word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to the present copies in the hands of the Jews and Chris- tians. 4. The number of the prophets, who have been from time to time sent by God into the world, amounts to no less than two hundred and twenty-four thousand, accord- ing to one Mohammedan tradition ; or to one hundred and twenty-four thousand, according to another ; among whom three hundred and thirteen were apostles, sent with special commissions to reclaim mankind from infidelity and superstition; and six of them brought new laws or dispensations, which successively abrogated the pre- ceding : these were Adam, Noah, Abraham Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. All the prophets in general, the Mo- hammedans believed to have been free from great sins and errors of consequence, and professors of one and the same religion, that is, Islamism, notwithstanding the dif- ſerent laws and institutions which they observed. They allow of degrees among them, and hold some of them to be more excellent and honorable than others. The first place they give to the revealers and establishers of new dispensations, and the next to the apostles. In this great number of prophets they not only reckon divers patriarchs and persons named in Scripture, but not recorded to have been prophets, (wherein the Jewish and Christian writers have sometimes led the way,) as Adam, Seth, Lot, Ishmael, Nun, Joshua, &c., and introduced some of them under different names, as Enoch, Heber, and Jethro, who are called, in the Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoaib ; but several others whose very names do not appear in Scripture, (though they endeavor to find some persons there to fix them on,) as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl, C. 5. The belief of a general resurrection and a future judgment. The time of the resurrection the Mohammedans allow to be a perfect secret to all but God alone ; the angel Ga- briel himself acknowledging his ignorance in this point, when Mohammed asked him about it. However, they say, the approach of that day may be known from certain signs which are to precede it. After examination is past, (the account of which is tod long, and tedious for this place,) and every one's works weighed in a just balance, they say that mutual retaliation will follow, according to which every creature will take vengeance of another, or have satisfaction made them for the injuries which they have suffered. And, since there will then be no other way of returning like for like, the manner of giving this satisfaction will be by taking away a proportional part of the good works of him who offered the injury, and adding it to those of him who suffered it. Which being done, if the angels (by whose ministry this is to be performed) say, “Lord, we have given to every one his due, and there remaineth of this person's good works so much as equalleth the weight of an ant,” God will, of his mercy, cause it to be doubled unto him, that he may be admitted into Paradise; but if, on the contrary, his good works be exhausted, and there remain evil works only, and there be any who have not yet received satisfac- tion from him, God will order that an equal weight of their sins be added unto his, that he may be punished for them in their stead, and he will be sent to hell laden with both. . This will be the method of God’s dealing with mankind. As to brutes, aſter they shall have likewise taken vengeance of one another, he will command them to be changed into dust; wicked men being reserved to more grievous punishment, so that they shall cry out, on hear- ing this sentence passed on the brutes, “Would to God that we were dust also ſ” As to the genii, many Mohamme- dans are of opinion that such of them as are true believ- ers, will undergo the same fate as the irrational animals, M O H. MI O TH [ 830 J find have no other reward than the favor of being con- verted into dust; and for this they quote the authority of their prophet. The trials being over, and the assembly dissolved, the Mohammedans hold, that those who are to be admitted into Paradise will take the right hand way, and those who are destined ſor hell-fire will take the leſt ; but both of them must first pass the bridge called in Arabic Al Si- rat, which they say is laid over the midst of hell, and de- scribe to be finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword; so that it seems very difficult to conceive how any one shall be able to stand upon it : for which reason most of the sect of the Motazalites reject it as a fable ; though the orthodox think it a sufficient proof of the truth of this article, that it was seriously affirmed by him who never asserted a falsehood, meaning their prophet; who, to add to the difficulty of the passage, has likewise declar- ed, that this bridge is beset on each side with briars and hooked thorns, which will, however, be no impediment to the good; for they shall pass with wonderful ease and swiftness, like lightning, or the wind, Mohammed and his Moslems leading the way; whereas the wicked, what with the slipperiness and extreme narrowness of the path, the entangling of the thorns, and the extinction of the light which directed the former to Paradise, will soon miss their footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which is gaping beneath them. - As to the punishment of the wicked, the Mohammedans are taught, that hell is divided into seven stories or apart- ments, one below another, designed for the reception of as many distinct classes of the damned. The first, which they call Jchenan, they say will be the receptacle of those who acknowledged one God, that is, the wicked Moham- medans; who, after having been punished according to their demerits, will at length be released ; the second, named Jadha, they assign to the Jews; the third, named al-Hotama, to the Christians; the fourth, named al Sair, to the Sabians; the ſiſth, named Sakar, to the Magians; the sixth, named al Jahin, to the idolaters; and the se- venth, which is the lowest and worst of all, and is called al Harvyat, to the hypocrites, or those who outwardly pro- ſessed some religion, but in their hearts were of none. Over each of these apartments they believe there will be set a guard of angels, nineteen in number; to whom the damned will confess the just judgment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for some alleviation of their #. or that they may be delivered by being annihi- atCd. Mohammed has, in his Koran and traditions, been very exact in describing the various torments of hell, which, according to him, the wicked will suſſer both from intense heat and excessive cold. We shall, however, enter into mo detail of them here; but only observe, that the degrees of these pains will also vary in proportion to the crimes of the sufferer, and the apartment he is condemned to ; and that he who is punished the most lightly of all will be shod with shoes of fire, the ſervor of which will cause his skull to boil like a cauldron. The condition of these unhappy wretches, as the same prophet teaches, cannot be properly called either liſe or death; and their misery will be great- Iy increased by their despair of being ever delivered from that place, since, according to that frequent expression in thic Koran, “they must remain therein ſorcver.” It must be remarked, however, that the inſidels alone will be liable to eternity of damnation; for the Moslems, or those who have embraced the true religion, and have been guilty of heinous sins, will be delivered thence aſter thcy shall have expiated their crimes by their sufferings. The time which these believers shall be detained there, according to a tra- dition handed down from their prophet, will not be less than nine hundred years, nor more than seven thousand. And, as to the manner of their delivery, they say that they shall be distinguished by the marks of prostration on those parts of their bodies with which they used to touch the ground in prayer, and over which the fire will therefore have no power; and that, being known by this character- istic, they will be released by the mercy of God, at the intercession of Mohammed and the blessed: whereupon those who shall have been dead will be restored to life, as has been said ; and those whose bodies shall have con- tracted any-sootiness or filth from the flames and smoke of hell, will be immersed in one of the rivers of Paradise, called the river of life, which will wash them whiter than pearls. --- The righteous, as the Mohammedans are taught to be- lieve, having surmounted the difficulties, and passed the sharp bridge above mentioned, before they enter Paradise, will be refreshed by drinking at the pond of their prophet, who describes it to be an exact square, of a month's jour- ney in compass; its water, which is supplied by two pipes from al Carvthay, one of the rivers of Paradise, being whiter than milk or silver, and more odoriferous than musk, with as many cups set around it as there are stars in the firmament; of which water whoever drinks will thirst no more forever. This is the first taste which the blessed will have of their future, and now near approaching felicity. Though Paradise be so very freqûently mentioned in the Koran, yet it is a dispute among the Mohammedans, whether it be already created, or is to be created hereafter; the Motazalites and some other sectaries asserting, that there is not at present any such place in nature, and that the Paradise which the righteous will inhabit in the next life will be different ſrom that from which Adam was ex- pelled. However, the orthodox profess the contrary, maintaining that it was created even before the world, and describe it, from their prophet's traditions, in the fol- lowing manner:— - . They say it is situated above the seven heavens, (or in the seventh heaven,) and next under the throne of God; and to express the amenity of the place, tell us, that the earth of it is of the finest wheat flour, or of the purest musk, or, as others will have it, of saffron ; that its stones are péarls and jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched with gold and silver, and that the trunks of all its trees are of gold; among which the most remarkable is the tree called tuba, or the tree of happiness. Concerning this tree, they fable, that it stands in the palace of Moham- med, though a branch of it will reach to the house of every true believer; that it will be laden with pome- granates, grapes, dates, and other fruits, of surprising big- ness, and of tastes unknown to mortals; so that if a man desire to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will imme- diately be presented him; or if he choose flesh, birds ready dressed will be set before him, according to his wish. They add, that the boughs of this tree will spontaneously bend down to the hand of the person who would gather of its fruits, and that it will supply the blessed not only with food, but also with silken garments, and beasts to ride on ready saddled and bridled, and adorned with rich trappings, which will burst forth from its ſuits; and that this tree is so large, that a person mounted on the fleetest horse would not be able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in one hundred years. As plenty of water is one of the greatest additions to the pleasantness of any place, the ICoran often speaks of the rivers of Paradise as a principal ornament thereof; some of tilese rivers, they say, ſlow with water, some with milk, some with wine, and others with honey; all taking their rise from the root of the tree tuba. But all these glories will be colipsed by the resplendent and ravishing girls of Paradise, called, from their large black eyes, Hur al oyun, the enjoyment of whose company will be a principal felicity of the faithful. These, they say, are created not of clay, as mortal women are, but of pure musk; being, as their prophet oſten aſſirms in his Í(oran, free from all natural impurities, defects, and in- conveniences incident to the sex; of the strictest modesty, and secluded from public view in pavilions of hollow pearls, so large, that, as some traditions have it, one of them will be no less than ſour parasangs (or, as others say, sixty miles) long, and as many broad. The name which the Mohammedans usually give to this happy mansion is al Jannat, or “the Garden ;” and sometimes they call it with an addition, Jamnat al. Ferdamus, “ the Garden of Paradise;” Jannat Adam, “the Garden of Eden;” (though they generally interpret the word Eden not according to its acceptation in Hebrew, but according to its meaning in their own tongue, wherein it signifies “a settled or perpetual habitation;”) Jamnat al Mania, “ the Garden of Abode;” Jamnat al Naim, “the Garden of M O H MO L [831 | Pleasure,” and the like; by which several appellations some understand so many different gardens, or at least places of diſſerent degrees of felicity, (for they reckon no less than a hundred such in all,) the very meanest whereo, will afford its inhabitants so many pleasures and delights, that one would conclude they must even sink under them, had not Mohammed declared that, in order to qualify the blessed for a full enjoyment of them, God will give to every one the abilities of one hundred men. 6. God’s absolute decree and predestination both of good and evil. The orthodox doctrine is, that whatever hath or shall come to pass in this world, whether it be good or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and recorded from all eternity in the preserved table; God having secretly pre- determined not only the adverse and prosperous fortune of every person in this world, in the most minute particu- lars, but also his faith or infidelity, his obedience or diso- bedience, and consequently his everlasting happiness or misery aſter death; which fate or predestination it is not possible by any foresight or wisdom to avoid. II. RELIGIOUS PRACTICE. 1. The first point is prayer, under which are also com- prehended those legal washings or purifications which are necessary preparations thereto. For the regular performance of the duty of prayer among the Mohammedans, it is requisite, while they pray, to turn their faces towards the temple of Mecca; the quarter where the same is situated being, for that reason, pointed out within their mosques by a niche, which they call al Mehrab ; and without by the situation of the doors opening into the galleries of the steeples; there are also tables calculated for the ready finding out their Keblah, or part towards which they ought to pray, in places where they have no other direction. - 2. Alms are of two sorts, leggl and voluntary. The legal alms are of indispensable obligation, being commanded by the law, which directs and determines both the portion which is to be given, and of what things it ought to con- sist; but the voluntary alms are left to every one’s liberty, to give more or less, as he shall see fit. The former kind of alms some think to be properly called zacat, and the latter Sadakat, though this name be also frequently given ‘‘ the legal alms. They are called zacat, either because hey uncrease a man's store by drawing down a blessing thereon, and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality; or because they purify the remaining part of one’s sub- stance ſrom pollution, and the soul from the filth of ava- rice; and Sadakat, because they are a proof of a man's sincerity is the worship of God. Some writers have called the legal &lms tithes ; but improperly, since in some cases they fall short, and in others exceed that proportion. 3. Fash,tg is a duty of so great moment, that Moham- med used to say it was “the gate of religion;” and that the “odor of the mouth of him who fasteth is more grate- ful to God than that of musk;” and Al Ghazali reckons fasting one-ſourth part of the faith. According to the Mohammedan divines, there are three degrees of fasting. 1. The restraining of the belly and other parts of the body from satisfying their lusts.—2. The restraining the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet and other members, from sin.— 3. The fasting of the heart from worldly cares, and re- straining the thought from every thing besides God. 4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is so necessary a point of practice, that, according to a tradition of Mohammed, he who dies without performing it may as well die a Jew or a Christian ; and the same is expressly commanded in the Koran. (See PILGRIMAGE.) - III. MOHAMMEDANISM, CAUSES OF THE SUCCESS OF. The rapid success which attended the propagation of this new religion was owing to causes that are plain and evi- dent, and must remove, or rather prevent our surprise, when they are attentively considered. The terror of Mo- nammed's arms, and the repeated victories which were gained by him and his successors, were, no doubt, the irresistible arguments that persuaded such multitudes to embrace his religion, and submit to his dominion. Be- sides, his law was, artfully and marvellously adapted to the corrupt nature of man; and, in a most particular manner, to the customs and opinions of the Eastern ma- ..ions, and the vices to which they were naturally addicted: ſor the articles of the faith which it proposed were few in number, and extremely simple; and the duties it required were neither many nor diſficult, nor such as were incom. patible with the empire of appetites and passions. It is to be observed further, that the gross ignorance under which the Arabians, Syrians, Persians, and the greatest part of the Eastern nations, labored at this time, rendered many an easy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this bold ad- venturer. To these causes of the progress of Mohamme- danism we may add the bitter dissensions and cruel ani- mosities that reigned among the Christian sects, particu- larly the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians, and Monophy- sites; dissensions that filled a great part of the East with carnage, assassinations, and such detestable enormities, as rendered the very name of Christianity odious to many. We might add here, that the Monophysites and Nesto- rians, full of resentment against the Greeks, from whom they had suffered the bitterest and most injurious treat- ment, assisted the Arabians in the conquest of several provinces, into which, of consequence, the religion of Mo- hammed was afterwards introduced. Other causes of the sudden progress of that religion will naturally occur to such as consider attentively its spirit and genius, and the state of the world at this time.—For the two preceding articles see Prideaux’s Life of Mahomet ; Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. cent. vii. ch. 2; Sale's Preliminary Discourse, prefixed to his English Translation of the Koran ; Simpson's Key to Proph., sect. 19 ; Bishop Nevlon, Mede, and Gill, on Rev. 9. ; Miller’s Propag. of Christianity, vol. i. ch. 1; White's Sermons at Bampton Lec. ; Ency. Brit. ; Ency. Amer. ; Mill's Mohammedanism; Douglas on the Truths of Religion, and Errors regarding Religion.—Hend. Buck. - MOLE. This word, in our version of Lev. 11: 30, answers to the word tenshemeth, which Bochart has shown •. to be the chameleon; but he conjectures, with great propriety, that choled, Bºas translated “weasel,” in gº the preceding verse, is the § true word for the mole. The present name of the mole in the East is khuld, which is undeniably the same word as the Hebrew choled. The import of the Hebrew word is, “to creep into,” and the same Syriac word implies, “to creep underneath,” to creep into by burrowing; which are well known charac- teristics of the mole. Harris ; Abbott.—Watson. MOLINISTS; a sect in the Romish church who follow the doctrine and sentiments of the Jesuit Molina, relating to sufficient and efficacious grace. He taught that the operations of divine grace were entirely consistent with the freedom of the human will ; and introduced a new kind of hypothesis to remove the difficulties attending the doctrines of predestination and liberty, and to reconcile the jarring opinions of Augustines, Thomisis, Semi-Pela- gians, and other contentious divines. He affirmed that the decree of predestination to eternal glory was founded upon a previous knowledge and consideration of the merits of the elect ; that the grace, from whose operation these merits are derived, is not efficacious by its own intrinsic power only, but also by the consent of our own will, and because it is administered in those circumstances in which the Deity, by that branch of his knowledge which is called scientia, media, foresees that it will be efficacious, The kind of prescience, denominated in the schools sci- entia media, is that foreknowledge of future contingents that arises from an acquaintance with the nature and fa- culties of rational beings, of the circumstances in which they shall be placed, of the objects that shall be presented to them, and of the influence which their circumstances and objects must have on their actions.—Hend. Buck. MOLINOS, (MICHAEL DE,) founder of the Quietists, §. QUIETISTs,) was a Spaniard, of a rich and honorable amily. He entered into priest’s orders young, but would accept no preferment in the church. He possessed great talents, and was ardently pious without any of the austeri- ties of, the Romish religious orders. He went to Rome, where, in 1675, he published his Spiritual Guide, which M O L M O N [ 832 J gave him universal reputation. The Jesuits and Domini- eans, envious at his success, charged him with heresy, and at last succeeded in getting him condemned by the Inquisi- tion. He died of torment in their dungeons, a few years after-Fox, p. 204, , , - - Modiº, a spiritual and judicial officer among the Turks, who has civil and criminal jurisdiction over towns, or whole districts, and is therefore a superior judge, }. whom are the cadis, or inſerior judges.—Hend. uck. - MOLLIUS, (John,) a distinguished Protestant martyr of the sixteenth century, was born at Rome, of reputable parents, and at twelve years of age placed in the monas- tery of Grey Friars, where he made such rapid progress in arts, sciences, and languages, that at eighteen he was permitted to take priest’s orders. After pursuing his studies six years longer at Ferrara, he was made theologi- cal lecturer in the university of that city. He was subse- quently appointed professor of theology in the university of Bononia. There, on reading several treatises of the reformers, he became at heart a zealous Protestant, and began to expound in its purity the epistle to the Romans. Immense crowds began to attend his lectures, and the re- port coming to Rome, he was seized by order of the pope, and being denied a public trial, gave an account of his opinions in writing, confirming them by scriptural autho- rity. The pope for political reasons spared him at first, but after a while put him to death ſor his reformed faith. He was hung, and his body burnt to ashes, A. D. 1553.− Foz, p. 184. MOLOCH, Molecii, MILCOM, or MelchoM, was a god of the Ammonites. The word Moloch signifies “king,” and Melchom signifies “their king.” Moses in several places forbids the Israelites, under the penalty of death, to dedicate their children to Moloch, by making them pass through the fire in honor of that god, Lev. 18: 21. 20: 2– 5. God himself threatens to pour out his wrath against such offenders. There is great probability that the He- brews were addicted to the worship of this inhuman deity, before their coming out of Egypt, Amos 5:26. Acts 7: 43.1 Kings 11: 7. 2 Kings 21: 3–6. (See CHIUN.) Some are of opinion that they contented themselves with making their children leap over a fire sacred to Mo- loch, by which they consecrated them to some false deity; and by this lustration purified them ; this being an usual ceremony among the heathens on other occasions. Some believe that they made them pass through two fires oppo- site to each other, for the same purpose. But the word translated “to cause to pass through,” and the phrase “to cause to pass through the fire,” are used in respect to human sacrifices in Deut. 12; 31. 18: 10. 2 Kings 16:3. 21: 6. 2 Chron. 28; 3. 33: 6. They are synonymous with to burn, and to immolate, with whish they are inter- changed, as may be seen by an examination of Jer. 7: 31. 19: 5. Ezek. 16:20, 21. Psalm 106: 38. In the corrupt periods of the Jewish kingdom, this idol was erected in the valley south of Jerusalem, namely, in the valley of Hinnom, and in the part of that valley called Tophet, so named from the drums, which were beaten to prevent the groans and cries of children sacrificed from .."; heard, Jer, 7:31, 32. 19: 6–14. Isa. 30: 33. 2 Kings : 10. The rabbins assure us, that the image was of brass, sitting on a throne of the same metal, adorned with a royal crown, having the head of a calf, and his arms ex- tended as if to embrace any one ; that when they offered children to him, they heated the statue from within, by a great fire ; and when it was burning hot, put the misera- ble victim within its arms, where it was soon consumed by the violence of the heat; and, that the cries of the children might not be heard, they made a great noise with drums, and other instruments, about the idol. Others say, that his arms were extended, and reaching toward the ground, so that when they put a child within his arms, it immediately fell into a great fire which was burning at the foot of the statue. The place was so abhorrent to the minds of the more recent Jews, that they applied its name to the place of tor- ment in a future liſe. The word gehenna is used in this way, namely, for the place of punishment beyond the grave, very frequently in oriental writers, as far as India. (See GEHENNA; and HELL.) - There are various sentiments about the relation that Moloch had to the other pagan divinities. Some believe that Moloch was the same as Saturn, to whom it is well known that human sacrifices were offered; others think it was the same with Mercury; others, Venus; others, Mars, or Mithra. Calmet has endeavored, and we think successfully, to prove that Moloch signified the sun, or the king of heaven.— Watson ; Calmet. - MOLOKANS; a numerous sect in Russia, so called from their use of milk or milk diet on the Russian fasts. These fasts they entirely reject, but keep Saturday as a fast day. They are more enlightened than the generality of the members of the Greek church, and doubtless many truly pious people are to be found among them ; but they greatly need to be taught the way of God more perfectly. —Hend. Buck. - MONACHISM; the history of monks. and Mon AstERY.) - ~ - MONICA, the mother of the celebrated Augustine, lived towards the latter end of the fourth century. She was brought up when young in a Christian family, and being afterwards married to Patricius, a pagan of Tagasta, in Numidia, endeavored by her amiable manners to win him to her faith. She bore patiently with his passionate temper; when he was angry she was silent, but when he became cool, she would mildly expostulate with him. This course, sanctioned by the word of God, (1 Pet. 3: 1–4.) she also recommended to others, and they followed it with success. Her mother-in-law, who had been strongly prejudiced against Christianity, was entirely won over by her kind, faithful, and conciliating spirit. Her husband also permitted her to bring up her son in her own faith, and at last em- braced it himself. After his death, Augustine, who was her only son, became the object of her chief Soligitude, and for nine years she prayed and wept for him. A Christian bishop, , whom she had importuned to reason with him on one oc- casion, said to her, “Be gone, good woman ; it is not pos- sible that a child of such tears should perish.” (See AU- GUSTINE.) . At Rome, whither she had followed her son, and where she had the unspeakable happiness to witness his conver- sion to God, she died, in the fifty-sixth year of her age. In her last sickness, some one lamented that she was likely to die in a foreign land; to which this amiable woman replied, “Nothing is far from God; and I do not fear that he should not know where to find me at the re- surrection.” Milner's Church History; Betham's Celebrated Women. - MOMIER, (from momerie, mummery ;) a term of re- proach, applied to the dissenters from the modern church of Geneva. Malan's Swiss Tracts, no. i. p. 20.-Williams. MONARCHIANS ; a name given to those who seceded from the ancient orthodox faith, because they insisted upon the divine unity, which they considered to be infringed by the common doctrine, which taught that there are three eternal persons in the divine nature. Monarchiam tenemus was their frequent assertion when comparing themselves, with the orthodox fathers. This general class, however, comprehended many who differed more from each other than they did even from those reputed orthodox, and who, indeed, had nothing in common but a great zeal for mo- notheism, and a fear lest the unity of God should be en- dangered by the hypostases of the Alexandrine fathers. Thus Theodotus, Artemon, and Paul of Samosata, were placed by the side of Praxeus, Noetus, Beryllus of Bostra, and Sabellius, between whom and themselves, on every essential point of Christian doctrine, there was a total opposition. (See ARIANs ; UNITARIANs; and PATRIPAs- SIANs.)—Hend. Buck. MONASTERY ; a convent or house built for the re- ception of religious ; whether it be abbey, priory, nunnery, or the like. Monastery is only properly applied to the houses of monks, mendicant friars, and nuns : the rest are more proper.V called religious houses. For the origin of monas- teries, see Monk. - - The houses belonging to the several religious orders which obtail, ed in England and Wales, were cathedrals,. (See Monk; M O N M O N [ 833 J colleges, abbeys, priories, preceptories, commanderies, hospitals, friaries, hermitages, chantries, and free chapels. These were under the direction and management of va- rious officers. - The dissolution of houses of this kind began so early as the year 1312, when the Templars were suppressed; and in 1323, their lands, churches, advowsons, and liber- ties, in England, were given, by 17 Edw. II., stat. 3, to the prior and brethren of the hospital of St. John of Je- rusalem. In the years 1390, 1437, 1441, 1459, 1497, 1505, 1508, and 1515, several other houses were dissolved, and their revenues settled on different colleges in Oxford and Cambridge. The motive which induced Wolsey and many others, in the reign of Henry VIII., to suppress these houses, was the desire of promoting learning; and archbishop Cranmer engaged in it with a view of carrying on the Reformation. There were other causes that con- curred to bring on their ruin: many of the religious were loose and vicious ; the monks were generally thought to be in their hearts attached to the pope's supremacy; their revenues were not employed according to the intent of the donors; many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and counterfeit relics, had been discovered, which brought the monks into disgrace; the Observant friars had opposed the king's divorce from queen Catharine; and these cir- cumstances operated, in concurrence with the king's want of a supply and the people's desire to save their money, to forward a motion in parliament, that, in order to support the king's state, and supply his wants, all the religious houses might be conferred upon the crown, which were not able to spend above two hundred pounds a year; and an act was passed for that purpose, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 28. The number of houses and places suppressed from first to last, in England, so far as any calculations appear to have been made, seems to be as follows:— Of lesser monasteries, of which we have the valuation tº 374 Of greater monasteries 186 Belonging to the hospitallers $º ge & *48 Colleges. wo © & * * & . 90 Hospitals & e º . . e 110 Chantries and free chapels . 2374 Jºy. Total 3182 & Besides the friars' houses, and those suppressed by Wol- sey, and many small houses of which we have no parti- cular account. The sum total of the clear yearly revenue of the several houses at the time of their dissolution, of which we have any account, seems to be as follows:– Of the greater monasteries f104,919 13 3 Of all those of the lesser monasteries of which we have the valuation 29,702 1 10 I(nights hospitallers, head house in London . te e * * º 2,385 12 8 We have the valuation of only twenty- f eight of their houses in the country 3,026 9 5 Friars' houses, of which we have the valuation . te o 751 2 0 Total £140,784 19 2 If proper allowances are made for the lesser monasteries and houses not included in this estimate, and for the plate, &c. which came into the hands of the king by the dissolution, and for the valuation of money at that time, which was at least six times as much as at present, and also consider that the estimate of the lands was generally supposed to be much under the real worth, we must con- clude their whole revenues to have been immense. It does not appear that any computation hath been made of the number of persons contained in the religious houses. Those of the lesser monasteries dissolved by 27 Hen. VIII, were reckoned at about If we suppose the colleges and hospitals to have 10,000 contained a proportionable number, these will make about * © iº ſº . 5,347 If we reckon the number in the greater monas- teries according to the proportion of their re- venues, they will be about thirty-five thou- sand; but as, probably, they had larger allow- ances in proportion to their number than those of the lesser monasteries, if we abate upon that account five thousand, they will then be . 30,000 One for each chantry and free chapel tº . . 2,374 Total 47,721 But as there was probably more than one person to off- ciate in several of the free chapels, and there were other houses which are not included within this calculation, per- haps they may be computed in one general estimate at about fifty thousand. As there were pensions paid to almost all those of the greater monasteries, the king did not immediately come into the full enjoyment of their whole revenues; however, by means of what he did receive, he founded six new bishoprics, viz. those of Westminster, (which was changed by queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends and a school,) Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester, Bristol, and Oxford. And in eight other sees he founded deane- ries and chapters, by converting the priors and monks into deans and prebendaries; viz. Canterbury, Winchester, Durham, Worcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, and Car- lisle. He founded also the colleges of Christ church in Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge, and finished King's college there. He likewise founded professorships of di- vinity, law, physic, and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues in both the said universities. He gave the house of Grey Friars and St. Bartholomew's hospital to the city of Lon- don, and a perpetual pension to the poor knights of Wind- sor, and laid out great sums in building and fortifying many ports in the channel. e It is observable, upon the whole, that the dissolution of these houses was an act not of the church, but of the state, in the period preceding the Reformation, by a king and parliament of the Roman Catholic communion in all #. except the king's supremacy; to which the pope himself, by his bulls and licences, had led the way. As to the merits of these institutions, authors are much divided. While some have considered them as beneficial to learning, piety, and benevolence, others have thought them very injurious. We may form some idea of them from the following remarks of Mr. Gilpin. He is speak- ing of Glastonbury abbey, which possessed the amplest revenues of any religious house in England. “Its frater- nity,” says he, “is said to have consisted of five hundred established monks, besides nearly as many retainers on the abbey. Above four hundred children were not only educated in it, but entirely maintained. Strangers from all parts of Europe were liberally received, classed ac- cording to their sex and nation, and might consider the hospitable roof under which they lodged as their own. Five hundred travellers, with their horses, have been lodged at once within its walls; while the poor from every side of the country waited the ringing of the alms-bell; when they flocked in crowds, young and old, to the gate of the monastery, where they received, every morning, a plentiful provision for themselves and their families. All this appears great and noble. “On the other hand, when we consider five hundred persons bred up in indolence, and lost to the common- wealth; when we consider that these houses were the great nurseries of superstition, bigotry, and ignorance; the stews of sloth, stupidity, and perhaps intemperance; when we consider that the education received in them had not the least tincture of useful learning, good manners, or true religion, but tended rather to vilify and disgrace the human mind; when we consider that the pilgrims and strangers who resorted thither were idle vagabonds, who got nothing abroad that was equivalent to the occupations they left at home ; and when we consider, lastly, that indiscriminate alms-giving is not real charity, but an avo- cation from labor and industry, checking every idea of exertion, and filling the mind with abject notices, we are 105 M O N M O N [ 834 J led to acquiesce in the fate of these foundations, and view their ruins, not only with a picturesque eye, but with mo- ral and religious satisfaction.” Gilpin's Observations on the Western parts of England, pp. 138, 139; Bigland's Letters on Hist., p. 313.—Hend. Buck. - MONASTIC ; something belonging to monks, or the monkish life. (See Monk.)—Hend. Buck. MONEY. Scripture often speaks of gold, silver, brass, of certain sums of money, of purchases made with mo- mey, of current money, of money of a certain weight ; but we do not observe coined or stamped money till a late period; which makes it probable that the ancient He- brews took gold and silver only by weight; that they only considered the purity of the metal, and not the stamp, Gen. 23: 15, 16. 38; 28. 43: 21. 24; 22. Exod. 30: 24. 38: 29. 2 Sam. 14: 26. Isa. 46: 6. Jer. 32: 10. Amos 8: 5. - In all these passages three things only are mentioned : 1. The metal, that is, gold or silver, and never copper, that not being used in traffic as money. 2. The weight, a talent, a shelzel, a gerah, or obolus, the weight of the sanctuary, and the king's weight. 3. The alloy (stand- ard) of pure or fine gold and silver, and of good quality, as received by the merchant. The impression of the coin- age is not referred to ; but it is said they weighed the sil- ver, or other commodities, by the shekel and by the talent. This shekel, therefore, and this talent, were not fixed and determined pieces of money, but weights applied to things used in commerce. Hence those deceitful balances of the merchants, who would increase the shekel, that is, would augment the weight by which they weighed the gold and silver they were to receive, that they might have a great- er quantity than was their due ; hence the weight of the sanctuary, the standard of which was preserved in the temple to prevent fraud; hence those prohibitions in the law : “Thou shalt not have in thy bag divers weights,” in Hebrew, stones, “a great and a small;” (Deut. 25: 13.) hence those scales that the Hebrews wore at their girdles, (Hosea 12: 7.) and the Canaanites carried in their hands, to weigh the gold and silver which they received in pay- Iment. The shekel of silver, or the silverling, (Isa. 7: 23.) ori- ginally weighed three hundred and twenty barleycorns; but it was afterwards increased to three hundred and eighty-four barleycorns; its value, being considered equal to four Roman denarii, was two shillings and seven pence, or, according to bishop Cumberland, two shillings and four pence farthing. It is said to have had Aaron's rod on the one side, and the pot of manna on the other. The bekah was equal to half a shekel, Exod. 38: 26. The de- marius was one fourth of a shekel, seven pence three farthings English money. The gerah, or meah, (Exod. 30: 13.) was the sixth part of the denarius, or diner, and the twenty-fourth part of the shekel. The assar, or assarion, (Matt. 10: 29.) was the ninety-sixth part of a shelvel: its value was rather more than a farthing. The farthing, (Matt. 5: 26.) was in value the thirteenth part of a penny sterling. The mite was the half of a farthing, or the twenty-sixth part of a penny Sterling. The mina, or ma- neh, (Ezek. 45: 12.) was equal to sixty shekels, which, taken at two shillings and seven pence, was seven pounds fifteen shillings. The talent was fiſty minas; and its value, therefore, three hundred and eighty-seven pounds ten shillings. The gold coins were as follows: a shekel of gold was about fourteen and a half times the value of silver, that is, one pound seventeen shillings and five pence half. penny. A talent of gold, consisted of three thousand shekels. The drachma was equal to a Roman denarius, or seven pence three farthings of our money. The di. drachina, or tribute money, (Matt, 17:24) was equal to fifteen pence half-penny. It is said to have been stamped with a harp on one side, and a vine on the other. The stater, or piece of money which Peter found in the fish's mouth, (Matt, 17:27.) was two half shekels. A daric, dram, (1 Chron. 29: 7. Ezra 8: 27.) was a gold coin struck by Darius the Mede. According to Parkhurst its value was one pound five shillings. A gold penny is sta- ted by to have been equal to twenty-five silver pence * Hug derives a satisfactory argument for the veracity of the gospels from the different kinds of money mentioned in them :—The admixture of foreign manners and consti- tutions proceeded through numberless circumstances of life. Take, for example, the circulation of coin; at one time it is Greek coin; at another, Roman; at another time, ancient Jewish. But how accurately is even this stated according to history, and the arrangement of things! The ancient imposts which were introduced be- fore the Roman dominion were valued according to the Greek coinage; for example, the taxes of the temple, the didrachmon, Matt. 17: 24. The offerings were paid in these, Mark 12:42. Luke 21:2. A payment which pro- ceeded from the temple treasury was made according to the ancient national payment by weight; (Matt. 26: 15.) but in common business, trade, wages, sale, &c., the assis and denarius, and Roman coin were usual, Matt. 10: 29. 20: 3. Luke 12: 6. Mark 14: 5. John 12: 5. 6: 7. The more modern state taxes are likewise paid in the coin of the nation which exercises at the time the greatest authority, Matt. 22: 19. Mark 12:15. Luke 20: 24. Writers, who, in each little circumstance, which otherwise would pass by unnoticed, so accurately describe the period of time, must certainly have had a personal knowledge of it.— PVatson. - MONEY-CHANGERS, in the gospels, were persons who exchanged native for foreign coin, to enable those who came to Jerusalem from distant countries to purchase the necessary sacrifices. In our Lord's time they had established themselves in the court of the temple ; a pro- fanation which had probably grown up with the influence of Roman manners, which allowed the argentarii to esta- blish their usurious mensas, tables, by the statues of the gods, even at the feet of Janus, in the most holy places, in porticibus Basilicarum, or in the temples, pome a dem Cas- toris. The following extract from Buckingham’s Travels among the Arabs, is illustrative :–“ The mosque at the time of our passing through it was full of people, though these were not worshippers, nor was it at either of the usual hours of public prayers. Some of the parties were assembled to smoke, others to play at chess, and some apparently to drive bargains of trade, but certainly none to pray. It was, indeed, a living picture of what we might believe the temple at Jerusalem to have been, when those who sold oxen, and sheep, and doves, and the changers of money sitting there, were driven out by Jesus, with a scourge of cords, and their tables overturned. lt was, in short, a place of public resort and thoroughfare, a house of merchandise, as the temple of the Jews had become in the days of the Messiah.”—Watson. MONIC, anciently denoted “a person who retired from the world to give himself wholly to God, and to live in solitude and abstinence.” The word is derived from the Latin monachus, and that from the Greek monachos, “solitary.” The original of monks seems to have been this —The persecutions which attended the first ages of the gospel, forced some Christians to retire from the world, and live in deserts and places most private and unfrequented, in hopes of finding that peace and comfort among beasts, which were denied them among men ; and this being the case of some very extraordinary persons, their example gave such reputation to retirement, that the practice was continued when the reason of its commencement ceased. After the empire became Christian, instances of this kind were numerous; and those whose security had obliged them to live separately and apart, became afterwards uni ted into societies. We may also add, that the mystic theology, which gained ground towards the close of the third century, contributed to produce the same effect, ant. to drive men into solitude for the purposes of devotion. The monks, at least the ancient ones, were distinguish- ed into solitaries, canobites, and sarabites. The solitaries are those who live alone, in places remote from all towns and habitations of men, as do still some of the hermits. The caenobiles are those who live in commu- nity with several others in the same house, and under the same superiors. The sarabites were strolling monks, having no fixed rule or residence. ` M O N M O N [ 835 J monasteries and laura. The houses of monks, again, were of two kinds, viz., Those who are now called monks are coenobites, who live together in a convent or monastery, who make vows. of living according to a certain rule established by the founder, and wear a habit which distinguishes their order. - • . Those that are endowed, or have a fixed revenue, are most properly called monks, monachi ; as the Chartreux, Benedictines, Bernardines, &c. The Mendicants, or those that beg, as the Capuchins and Franciscans, are more properly called religious and friars, though the names are frequently confounded. - * The first monks were those of St. Anthony, who, to- wards the close of the fourth century, formed them into a regular body, engaged them to live in society with each other, and prescribed to them fixed rules for the direction of their conduct. These regulations, which Anthony had made in Egypt, were soon introduced into Palestine and Syria by his disciple Hilarion. Almost about the same time, Aones, or Eugenius, with their companions, Gadda- nas and Azyzas, instituted the monastic order in Meso- potamia, and the adjacent countries; and their example was followed with such rapid success, that in a short time the whole East was filled with a lazy set of mortals, who, abandoming all human connexions, advantages, pleasures, and concerns, wore out a languishing and miserable ex- istence, amidst the hardships of want, and various kinds of suffering, in order to arrive at a more close and raptu- rous communication with God and angels. . From the East this gloomy disposition passed into the West, and first into Italy and its neighboring islands; though it is uncertain who transplanted it thither. St. Martin, the celebrated bishop of Tours, erected the first monasteries in Gaul, and recommended this religious soli- tude with such power and efficacy, both by his instruc- tions and his example, that his funeral is said to have been attended by no less than two thousand monks. From hence the monastic discipline gradually extended its progress through the other provinces and countries of Europe. There were, besides the monks of St. Basil (called in the East Calogeri, from kalos gerön, “a good old man”) and those of St. Jerome, the hermits of St. Augustine, and afterwards those of St. Benedict and St. Bernard : at length came those of St. Francis and St. Do- minic, with a legion of others; all which see under their proper heads. Towards the close of the fifth century, the monks, who had formerly lived only for themselves in solitary retreats, and had never thought of assuming any rank among the sacerdotal order, were now gradually distinguished from the populace, and endowed with such opulence and ho- norable privileges, that they ſound themselves in a condi- tion to claim an eminent station among the pillars and supporters of the Christian community. The fame of their piety and sanctity was so great, that bishops and presbyters were often chosen out of their order; and the passion of erecting edifices and convents, in which the monks and holy virgins might serve God in the most commodious manner, was at that time carried beyond all bounds. However, their licentiousness, even in this cem- tury, was become a proverb ; and they are said to have excited the most dreadful tumults and seditions in various places. The monastic orders were at first under the im- mediate jurisdiction of the bishops, from which they were exempted by the Roman pontiff about the end of the seventh century ; and the monks, in return, devoted themselves wholly to advance the interest and to main- tain the dignity of the bishop of Rome. This immunity which they obtained was a fruitful source of licentious- ness and disorder, and occasioned the greatest part of the vices with which they were afterwards so justly charged. In the eighth century the monastic discipline was ex- tremely relaxed, both in the eastern and western pro- vinces, and all efforts to restore it were ineffectual. Ne- vertheless, this kind of institution was in the highest esteem ; and nothing could equal the veneration that was paid about the close of the ninth century to such as devot- ed themselves to the sacred gloom and indolence of a con- vent. This veneration caused several kings and empe- rors to call them to their courts, and to employ them in civil aſſairs of the greatest moment. Their reformation was attempted by Louis the Meek, but the effect was of short duration. In the eleventh century, they were exempted by the popes from the authority established ; insomuch, that in the council of Lateran, that was held in the year 1215, a decree was passed, by the advice of Innocent III., to prevent any new monastic institutions; and several were entirely suppressed. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it appears, from the testimony of the best wri- ters, that the monks were generally lazy, illiterate, profli gate, and licentious epicures, whose views in life were confined to opulence, idleness and pleasure. However, the Reformation had a manifest influence in restraining their excesses, and rendering them more circumspect and cautious in their external conduct. (See MonastERY.) Monks are distinguished by the color of their habits in- to black, white, gray, &c. Among the monks, some are called monks of the choir, others professed monks, and others lay monks ; which last are destined for the service of the convent, and have neither clericate nor literature. Cloistered monks are those who actually reside in the house; in opposition to extra monks, who have benefices depending on the monastery. . Monks are also distinguished into reformed, whom the civil and ecclesiastical authority have made masters of ancient convents, and put in their power to retrieve the ancient discipline, which had been relaxed ; and ancient, who remain in the convent, to live in it according to its establishment at the time when they made their vows, without obliging themselves to any new reform. Anciently the monks were all laymen, and were only distinguished from the rest of the people by a peculiar habit, and an extraordinary devotion. Not only the monks were prohibited the priesthood, but even priests were expressly prohibited from becoming monks, as ap- pears from the letters of St. Gregory. Pope Siricius was the first who called them to the clericate, on occasion of some great scarcity of priests that the church was then supposed to labor under; and since that time the priest- hood has been usually united to the monastical profession. Ency. Brit. ; British Monachism, or Manners and Customs of Monks and Nuns of England; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. ; Jones' Church. History; Natural History of Enthusiasm; and Fanaticism, by the same author.—Hend. Buck. MONOPHYSITES, (from monos, “single,” and phusis, “nature;”) a general name given to all those sectaries in the Levant who only own one nature in Jesus Christ ; and who maintain that the divine and human nature of Jesus Christ were so united as to form only one nature, yet without any change, confusion, or mixture of the two In attireS. The Monophysites, however, properly so called, are the followers of Severus, a learned monk of Palestine, who was created patriarch of Antioch, in 513, and Petrus Ful- lensis. The Monophysites were encouraged by the emperor Anastasius, but suppressed by Justin and succeeding em- perors. However, this sect was restored by Jacob Bara- daeus, an obscure monk ; insomuch that when he died bishop of Edessa, A. D. 588, he left it in a most flourish ing state in Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and other countries. The laborious efforts of Jacob were seconded in Egypt and the adjacent countries by Theodosius, bishop of Alexandria ; and he became so famous, that all the Monophysites of the East considered him as their second parent and founder, and are to this day called Jacobites, in honor of their new chief. The Monophysites are divided into two sects or parties, the one African and the other Asiatic : at the head of the latter is the patriarch of Antioch, who resides for the most art in the monastery of St. Athanias, near the city of ſerdin; the former are under the jurisdiction of the pa- triarch of Alexandria, who generally resides at Grand Cai- ro, and are subdivided into Copts and Abyssinians. From the fiſteenth century downwards, all the patriarchs of the Monophysites have taken the name of }. in order to show that they are the lineal successors of Ignatius, who, was bishop of Antioch in the first century, and con sequently the lawful patriarch of Antioch. In the seven- M O N M ON [836 ) teenth century, a small body of Monophysites, in Asia, abandoned for some time the doctrine and institution of their ancestors, and embraced the communion of Rome; but the African Monophysites, notwithstanding that po- verty and ignorance which exposed them to the seductions of sophistry and gain, stood firm in their principles, and made an obstinate resistance to the promises, presents, and attempts employed by the papal missionaries to bring them under the Roman yoke; and in the eighteenth cen- tury, those of Asia and Africa have persisted in their re- fusal to enter into the communion of the Romish church, notwithstanding the earnest entreaties and alluring offers that have been made from time to time by the pope's le- gates, to conquer their inflexible constancy. In the present day, the Monophysite churches are, 1. The Syrian Jacobite church. 2. The Coptic church. 3. The Abyssinian church, which, as acknowledging the Su- premacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Alexandria, may be considered as a branch of the Coptic. 4. The Nestorian- Chaldean church, the head of which is the patriarch of Babylon, residing at Mosoul. 5. The Armenian church ; and, 6. The Indo-Syrian church, under the metropolitan of Malabar, who acknowledges, however, the Supremacy of the patriarch of Antioch.-Hend. Buck ; , Watson. MONOTHEISM; (from monos, “single,” and theos, “God;”) the belief in and worship of one only God, in opposition to polytheism, which acknowledges a plurality of gods. All the different mythologies have, among the host of gods with which they people heaven and earth, some superior or supreme deity, more or less defined, but in every case distinguished above the others; and in the history of all the different nations where polytheism has obtained, we may trace a period when the idea of one God was more or less prevalent. The most ancient tra- ditions concur with the testimony of sacred Scripture in representing this as the primary and uncorrupted religion of mankind.—Hend. Buck. MONOTHELITES; (compounded of monos, “ single,” and thelema, “will ;”) an ancient sect, which sprung out of the Eutychians; thus called, as only allowing of one will in Jesus Christ. The opinion of the Monothelites had its rise in 630, and had the emperor Heraclius for an adherent : it was the same with that of the acephalous Severians. They al- lowed of two wills in Christ, considered with regard to the two natures; but reduced them to one, by reason of the union of the two natures, thinking it absurd that there should be two free wills in one and the same per- son. They were condemned by the sixth general council in 680, as being supposed to destroy the perfection of the humanity of Jesus Christ, depriving it of will and opera- tion. Their sentiments were afterwards embraced by the Maronites.—Hend. Buck. MONTAIGN.E, (Michael, DE,) a celebrated French essayist, was born, in 1533, at the castle of Montaigne, in Perigord. The utmost care was taken in his educa- tion. Latin and Greek he acquired by their being con- stantly spoken to him in his childhood. He finished his studies at Guienne college, in Bordeaux. About 1554, he became one of the counsellors of the parliament of Bor- deaux. He was twice mayor of Bordeaux; took a part in the assembly of the states of Blois; and received the order of St. Michael from Charles IX. In 1580, and 1581, he visited Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. His Essays were begun about 1572, and the first edition was publish- ed in 1580. He died in 1592. His Essays, of which in- numerable editions have appeared, have been translated into English. Pascal, in his Thoughts, &c., contests his principles and morals.-Davenport. MONTANISTS ; a sect which sprung up about the year 171, in the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, They were so called from their leader Montanus, a Phry- gian by birth ; whence they are sometimes called Phry- gians and Cataphrygians. Montanus, it is said, embraced Christianity, in hopes of rising to the dignities of the church. Iſe pretended to inspiration; and gave out that the Holy Ghost had in- structed him in several points which had not been revealed to the apostles. Priscilla and Maximilla, two enthusias- tic women of Phrygia, presently became his disciples, and in a short time he had a great number of followers. The bishops of Asia, being assembled together, condemned his prophecies, and excommunicated those that dispersed them. Afterwards they wrote an account of what had passed to the western churches, where the pretended pro- phecies of Montanus and his followers were likewise con- demned. The Montanists, finding themselves exposed to the censure of the whole church, formed a schism, and set up a distinct society, under the direction of those who called themselves prophets. Montanus, in conjunction with Priscilla and Maximilla, were at the head of this SeCt. These sectaries denied the doctrine of the Trinity; but they held that the Holy Spirit made Montanus his organ for delivering a more perfect form of discipline than what was delivered by his apostles. They suffered women to preach and to baptize. They refused communion forever to those who were guilty of motorious crimes, and believ- ed that the bishops had no authority to reconcile them. They held it unlawful to fly in time of persecution. They condemned second marriages, allowed the dissolution of marriage, and observed three lents. According to Robin- son, the practice of pedobaptism originated with this sect. See Robinson's History of Baptism, pp. 165–177; Lard- ner's Heretics, b. ii. c. 19.-Hend. Buck, X- - MONTE-NEGRINES. The inhabitants of an arid mountainous district, called Monté-negro, in Albania. They profess to be Greek Christians, but hate the pope equally as the Turks. They reject images, crucifixes, and pictures, and will not admit a Catholic without re- baptizing him. Their morals are very depraved : they are very ignorant in religion; yet very superstitious in their religious rites.—Nightingale's Religious. Ceremonies, pp. 99–112, from the Travels of Col. L. C. Wiella de Sommières.— Williams. -- MONTESQUIEU, (Baron de,) an illustrious French writer and magistrate, was born, in 1689, at the castle of Brede, near Bordeaux; became counsellor of the parlia- ment of Bordeaux in 1714; and in 1716 succeeded his un- cle as president à mortier. His first published work was his Persian Letters, which appeared in 1721. In 1726, he relinquished his office, in order to devote himself to literature. He then travelled over a considerable part of the continent, and visited England, where he resided for two years. On his return he retired to the castle of Brede. His two principal works, on the Greatness and Decline of the Romans; and the Spirit of Laws; the former given to the world in 1734, and the latter in 1748, were the re- sult of his long studies and meditations. He died in 1755. Burke characterizes him as “a genius not born in every country, or every time; a man giſted by nature with a penetrating aquiline eye; with a judgment pre- pared with the most extensive erudition; with a Hercule- an robustness of mind, and nerves not to be broken with labor.”—Davenport. MONTH. The ancient Hebrews had no particular names for their months; they said the first, the second, the third, &c. : Critics are not agreed about the origin of the subsequent Hebrew names of the months. Scaliger thought them borrowed from the Phoenicians. Grotius believes they came from the Chaldeans; and Hardouin deduces them from the Egyptians. But after the captivity of Babylon, the people continued the names of the months as they had ſound them among the Chaldeans and Per- Sla,InS. Originally, the Hebrews followed the same distribution of their years and months as in Egypt. Their year con- sisted of three hundred and sixty-five days, and of twelve months, each of thirty days. This appears by the enu- meration of the days of the year of the deluge, Gen 7. The twelfth month was to have thirty-five days, and they had no intercalary month, but at the end of one hundred and twenty years; when the beginning of the year ſol- lowing was out of its place thirty whole days. After the Exodus, which happened in the month of March, God ordained that the holy year, that is, the ca- lendar of religious feasts and ceremonies, should begin at Nisan, the seventh month of the civil year, (the civil year being left unchanged,) which the Hebrews continued to begin at the month Tisri, (September.) But we see M O O M O O [ 837 J lainly by Ecclesiasticus, (43; 6.) by the Maccabees, by Josephus, (Antiq., lib. iii. cap. 10,) and by Philo, (Wit. Mos. lib. iii.) that in their time they followed the custom of the Grecians; that is, their months were lunar, and their years solar. These lunar months were each of twenty-nine days and a half; or, rather, one was of thirty days, the following of twenty-nine, and so on alternately: that which had thirty days was called a full or complete month; that which had but twenty-nine days was called incomplete. e- The new moon was always the beginning of the month, and this day they called Neomenia, new-moon day, or new month. They did not begin it from that point of time when the moon was in conjunction with the sun, but from the time at which she first became visible, after that conjunction. And to determine this, it is said, they had people posted on elevated places, to inform the Sanhedrim as soon as possible. Proclamation was then made, “The feast of the new moon! The feast of the new moon ſ” and the beginning of the month was proclaimed by sound of trumpet. For fear of any failing in the observation of that command, which directed certain ceremonies at the beginning of each month, they continued the Neomenia two days; the first was called “the day of the moon's appearance,” the other “ of the moon's disappearance.” So say the rabbins: but there is great probability, that if this was ever practised, it was only in provinces distant from Jerusalem. In the temple, and in the metropolis, there was always a fixed calendar, or at least a fixed de- cision for festival days, determined by the house of judg- lment. Names of the Hebren months, according to the order of the - sacred and civil years. - - K - Z * : * > Sacred. Civil. 7 1 Nisan, answering to March, O. S. 8 2 Ijar, April. 9 3 Sivan, May. 10 4 Thammuz, June. 11 5 Ab, July. 12 6 Elul, August. 1 7 Tisri, September. 2 8 Marchesvan, October. 3 9 Casleu, November. 4 10 Thebet, December. 5 11 Shebat, January. 6 12 Adar, February. When we say that the months of the Jews answered to ours, Nisan to March, Jair to April, &c., we must be understood with some latitude; for the lunar months can- not be reduced exactly to solar, ones. The vernal equinox falls between the twentieth and twenty-first of March, ac- cording to the course of the solar year. But in the lunar year, the new moon will fall in the month of March, and the full moon in the month of April. So that the He- brew months will answer partially to two of our months, the end oſ one, and the beginning of the other. Twelve lunar months making but three hundred and fifty-four days and six hours, the Jewish year was short of the Roman by twelve days. To recover the equinoc- tial points, from which this difference of the solar and lu- nar year would separate the new moon of the first month, the Jews every three years intercalated a thirteenth month, which they called Ve-adar; the second Adar. By this means their lunar year equalled the solar; because in thirty-six solar months there would be thirty-seven lunar months. The Sanhedrim regulated this intercalation, and the thirteenth month was placed between Adar and Ni- san; so that the passover was always celebrated the firs full moon after the equinox-Calmet. - MOODY, (Joshua,) minister of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was born in England, in 1633. His father, William, one of the early settlers of Newbury, came to this country in 1634. He was graduated at Harvard col- lege in 1653. He began to preach at Portsmouth about the year 1658, but was not ordained till 1671. In 1684, he accepted of an invitation from the first church in Boston to be an assistant minister, and was so highly esteemed, that upon the death of president Rogers he was invited to take the oversight of the college; but he declined. In the days of the witchcraft delusion in 1692, he manfully resisted the unjust and violent mea- sures towards the imagined offenders. His zeal against this wretched delusion occasioned, however, his dismission from the church where he was preaching. In the follow- ing year he returned to Portsmouth, where he spent the rest of his life in usefulness and peace. On the approach of his last sickness he went for advice to Boston, where he died, July 4, 1697, aged sixty-four. Though he was deeply impressed with his unworthiness of the divine mercy, yet he indulged the hope of glory, and was de sirous of entering into the presence of the Redeemer, whom he had served in his gospel. He wrote upwards of four thousand sermons. He pub- lished a practical discourse concerning the choice benefit of communion with God in his house, being the sum of several sermons, 12mo, 1685, reprinted 1746; an election sermon, 1692. C. Mather's Funeral Ser. ; Magnalia, iv. 192–199.—Allen. - MOODY, (Joseph,) a Congregational minister of York, (Maine,) was born in 1701, and died in 1753. He had many eccentricities in his conduct; but he was eminent for piety, and was a remarkably useful minister of the gospel. In his younger years he often preached beyond the limits of his own parish, and wherever he went, the people hung upon his lips. In one of his excursions he went as far as Providence, where his exertions were the means of laying the foundation of a church. Though a zealous friend to the revival of religion, which occurred throughout the country a short time before his death, yet he gave no countenance to separations. Such was the sanctity of his character, that it impressed the irreligious with awe. To piety he united uncommon benevolence. While with importunate earnestness he pleaded the cause of the poor, he was very charitable himself. It was by his own choice, that he derived his support from a free contribution, rather than a fixed sala- ry in the usual way. In one of his sermons he men- tions, that he had been supported twenty years in a way most pleasing to him, and had been under no ne- cessity of spending one hour in a week in care for the World. Some remarkable instances of answers to his prayers, and of correspondences between the event and his faith, are not yet forgotten in York. The hour of dinner once came, and his table was unsupplied with provisions; but he insisted upon having the cloth laid, saying to his wiſe, he was confident that they should be furnished by the bounty of God. At this moment some one rapped at the door, and presented a ready cooked dinner. It was sent by persons who, on that day, had made an enter- tainment, and who knew the poverty of Mr. Moody. He was of an irritable temper, though he was con- stantly watchful against this infirmity. In one of his Sermons the doctrine which he drew from the text was this: “When you know not what to do, you must not do you know not what.” He published a discourse on the doleful state of the damned, especially of such as go to hell from under the gospel, 1710; election sermon, 1721; a summary account of the life and death of Joseph Quas- son, an Indian. Sullivan's Maine, 238; a Funeral Ser. on Moody.—Allen. - MOON. The Lord created the sun and the moon on the fourth day of the world, to preside over day and night, and to distinguish times and seasons, Gen. 1: 15, 16. As the sun presides over day, so the moon presides over night; the sun regulates the course of a year, the moon the course of a month; the sun is, at it were, king of the host of heaven, the moon is queen. The moon was appointed for the distinction of seasons, of festival days, and days of assembling, Gen. 1: 14. Ps. 104: 19. (See Month.), - *- - We do not know whether the Hebrews understood the theory of lunar eclipses; but they always speak of them in terms which intimate that they considered them as wonders, and as effects of the power and wrath of God. When the prophets speak of the destruction of empires, they often say, that the sun shall be covered with dark- M O O M O R | 838 ness; the moon withdraw her light; and the stars fall from heaven, Isa. 13: 10. 24; 23. Ezek, 32:7, 8, Joel 2: 10. 3: 15. But we cannot perceive that there is any direct mention of an eclipse. Among the Orientals in general, and the Hebrews in particular, the idolatrous worship of the moon was more extensive, and more famous than that of the sun. In Deut. 4: 19. 17:3, Moses bids the Israelites take care, when they see the sun, the moon, the stars, and the host of heaven, not to pay them any superstitious worship, be- cause they were only creatures appointed for the service of all nations under heaven. Job (31: 26, 27.) also speaks of the same worship, “If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart has been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand,” as a token of adoration. The Hebrews worshipped the moon, by the name of Meni, of Astarte, of the goddess of the groves, of the queen of heaven, &c. The Syrians adored her as Astarte, Urania, or Coelestis ; the Arabians as Alilat; the Egyptians as Isis; the Greeks as Diana, Venus, Juno, Hecate, Bellona, Minerva, &c. The moon was worshipped as a god, and not as a goddess, in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. The Sepharvites called her Anamelech, the gracious king. Strabo calls her Meen; as doth Isaiah, 65: 11. She was represented clothed like a man; and there are medals extant, on which she is repre- sented in the habit and form of a man armed, having a cock at his feet, covered with a Phrygian or Armenian bonnet. Several sorts of sacrifices were offered to the moon. We see in Isaiah 65: 11. and Jeremiah 7: 18, that they offered to her in the highways, and upon the roofs of their houses, sacrifices of cakes, and similar offerings. Thus the Greeks honored Hecate, or Trivia, which is the moon. Elsewhere they offered to her human sacrifices. Strabo relates, that in the countries bordering on the Arax- es, they especially worshipped the moon, who had there a famous temple. The goddess had several slaves, and every year they offered one of them in sacrifice to her, after having fed him daintily the whole year before. Lu- cian speaks of like sacrifices, offered to the Syrian god- dess, the Dea Coelestis, that is, the moon. Fathers carried their children, tied up in sacks, to the top of the porch of the temple, whence they threw them down upon the pave- ment; and when the unfortunate victims moaned, the fa- thers would answer, that they were not their children, but young calves. The Jews ascribed diſſerent effects to the moon. Mo- ses speaks of the fruits of the sun and the moon, (Deut. 33: 14.) these being considered as the two causes which produce the fruits of the carth. Some commentators think, that the fruits of the sun are those that come yearly, as wheat, grapes, &c.; and the fruits of the moon those that may be gathered at different months of the year, as cucumbers, figs, &c.—Calmet. MOORE, (BENAMIN, D. D.,) bishop of New York, was born at Newton, Long Island, Oct. 16, 1748, and edu- cated at King's college, New York. His father was a farmer. He was chosen the rector of Trinity church in 1800; was president of Columbia college from 1801 to 1811; and was for some years a bishop. He died at Greenwich, Feb. 27, 1816, aged sixty seven. He publish- ed a Sermon before the Convention, 1804 ; on Disobedi- ence, in Amcr. Preacher, vol. i.; Iniquity its own Accuser, in volume ii.—Allen. MOORE, (ZEPHANIAT, Swift, D. D.,) president of Wil- hams’ college and first president of Amherst college, was born at Palmer, Mass., Nov. 20, 1770; was graduated at Dartmouth college in 1793; and was the minister of Lei- cester from 1798 till 1811, when he was appointed pro- ſessor of languages in Dartmouth college. In Sept. 1815, he was chosen president of Williams’ college. Having co-operated in the ineffectual attempt to remove this col- lege to Hampshire county, his situation was rendered un- pleasant at Williamstown; so that when the collegiate seminary was established at Amherst, in 1821, and be- fore it was incorporated as a college, he was invited to preside over it. He died of the cholera at Amherst, June 25, 1823, aged ſiſty-two. He published a sermon at the ordination of Mr. Cotion, at Palmer, 1811; at the election, 1818.-Allen. MORAL ; relating to the actions or conduct of life; or that which determines an action to be good or virtuous. 2. A moral agent is a being capable of those actions that have a moral quality, and which can properly be denominated good or evil. (See MoRAL AGENcy.) 3. A "moral certainty is a very strong probability, and is used in contradistinction to mathematical probability. 4. Moral fitness is the agreement of the actions of any intelligent being with the nature, circumstances, and relation of things. 5. A moral impossibility is a very great or insu- perable difficulty arising from the state of the will; op. posed to a natural impossibility. (See INABILITY.) 6. Moral obligation is the necessity of doing or omitting any action in order to be happy and good. (See MoRAL OBLI. GATION.) . 7. Moral philosophy is the science of manners, the knowledge of our duty and felicity. (See PHILoso. PHY.) 8. Moral sense is that whereby we perceive the difference between right and wrong, and approve what is good, virtuous, and beautiful, in actions, manners, and character. Some call this natural conscience, others in- tuitive perception of right and wrong, &c. (See articles SENSE ; CoNscIENCE ; MoRAL OBLIGATION.) 9. Moral law. (See LAw; EvidencE.)—Hend. Buck. - MORAL AGENCY ; the capacity of acting voluntarily and deliberately in view of motives; or the action of one under moral obligation, law, and responsibility. The custom of considering the volitions and agency of man as a matter of abstract science, has favored the sup- position, that volition is simple or uniform in its mode of springing up in the mind. But if the real world of senti- ent beings is looked at, it will at once be seen, both that each species has its peculiar conditions of the voluntary principle, and that volition in each species results, at diffe- rent times, from very different internal processes. It would appear then to be the most natural course to look out first for the simpler instances of volition; and then to ascend from them to such as are complex, and not so readily analyzed. For, as we may fairly presume, the more complicated orders take up into their mental ma- chinery the elements that have been singly developed in the lower ranks of existence. To this general truth, however, there is one exception. Whatever principle of agency in the animal world is no element of the human constitution, is called INSTINCT ; and as this of course throws no light upon the agency of man, it must be ex- cluded from our process of induction. I. Conditions of Moral Agency. The agency of one class of animals is found to differ from that of another, by all the amount of an additional element. A horse may therefore be managed by means which it would be utterly absurd to address to a pig or a hen. And it would be highly unphilosophical to reason concerning the two classes, as if they were one and the same. We ascend many degrees on the scale of reason, oſ moral sensibility, and of complex volition, when we turn from the horse to the dog, who is the object of far more sentiment, and the subject of abundantly more cducation ; not arbitrarily or accidentally, but because he possesses more intellectual faculty, moral feeling, and fitness for Social companionship with man. Yet the dog is limited in his intellectual range to a narrow circle; and in compar. ing his powers with those of man, we discern the more clearly the foundation of that different treatment of which the higher nature is the subject; and discern too the in- eſſable absurdity of the metaphysical doctrine which as- sumes the agency of men, of brutes, and of machines, to be one and the same thing ! The want, or at least the extreme limitation of the power of abstraction, and of comparing complex relations, cffects, in an essential manner, the moral constitution of these inferior species, even of the most intelligent of them. And the possession of such powers gives to man his re- sponsibility; invests him with the anxious prerogative of being under God master of his destinies; and, in a word transſers him, in a great degree, from the present to a future system of retributive treatment. Man alone can be influenced by motives drawn from eternity. - Accordingly, an inward voluntary reformation of man- ners is never looked for from the brute. He may indeed be amended in his dispositions by cyternal treatment; he M O R. M O R. I 839 may become more or less bland and tractable, in conse- quence of changes in his constitution and diet; but he never changes in consequence of a mental process, bring- .ng two abstract moral qualities into comparison, and al- lowing the one to be chosen and followed, while the other is hated and avoided. If it be asked on what ground we infer these deficiencies of internal structure in the brute mind, we reply that the internal defect may fairly be im: plied from the absence of the proper outward results of the supposed faculty. In following even the most Saga- cious animal through his movements, in connexion with new and artificial occasions, we catch him at fault, pre- cisely for the want of the power of abstraction. The in- termal structure is as good as laid bare in such instances; and we cease to wonder, that a being so deficient should not provide for his welfare by artificial means. The very same deficiency necessitates his moral condi- tion ; and knowing it, though we feel complacency or displacency towards the dog, or the elephant, according to his dispositions, we neither assign to him in the one case the praise of virtue, nor in the other impute to him the blame of vice. The animal that does not observe propor- tions, nor use instruments, nor construct machines, for the same reason does not turn or remodel his own character; does not, in any degree, educate himself. His is not the power to choose what he shall be, in view of an unlimited futurity. Virtue, vice, praise, blame, law, government, retribu- tion, are proper conditions of the existence of a being, who, by his use of arbitrary signs, by his employment of complicated means, by his conversion of the powers of na- ture to his particular advantage, above all by his con- science, or ponyer of introverted, deliberative, directive thought, in connexion ruith his moral sensibilities, makes it evident that he possesses an agency which renders virtue, vice, praise, blame, law, government, retribution, the true correlatives of his nature, and which must attach to it forever. (See BLAME ; Account ABILITY; MoRAL OBLI- GATION.) The sophism which would sever these things from hu- man nature, contains an absurdity of precisely the same degree, as must belong to an argument that would attach them to the brute. It were a whim of the same order, to look for arts and accomplishments among tigers, kites, sharks, as not to look for them among men; and it is non- sense of the same magnitude, to deny that the being who builds, plants, writes, and calculates, can work upon his own dispositions, as to affirm that tigers, kites, and sharks, might, iſ they so pleased, become more amiable, and less rapacious, than they have hitherto shown them- selves. And when metaphysical abstractions of a certain order are attempted to be dovetailed upon the actual con- stitution of nature, the one set of principles calls the other fool, and both utterly refuse to coalesce. What man can do, and what he will do, are things perſectly distinct. (See DEPRAvity, HUMAN.) II. Development of Moral Agency. The conjunction of the higher elements of intellectual and moral being with the common ingredients of animal life, is beautifully de- veloped to the eye that with philosophical attention ob- serves the growth and expansion of the human mind from infancy to manhood. Man, throughout the period of his infancy, is, as an agent, below zero. Though launch- ed as a separate being in the world, he is still an embryo, - and exists only within the coil of maternal vigilance. At a very early period, however, the agency of the inſant is enriched and extended, by the development of the two correlative emotions, which, in their multiform combinations, are afterwards to constitute the moral life, Love and RE- sENTMENT. These feelings, liable as they are to perver- sion, are, when properly directed and governed, the con- servative elements of existence. The intelligent mo- ther uses her skill incessantly, as manager of the two elementary and antagonist principles of the moral life; and by avoiding as far as possible to excite the irascible emotion, and by giving the fullest play to the loving º she strengthens the latter by all the force of habit, and deprives the former of the corresponding ad- vantage. Train up a child in the may he should go, &c. (See RELIGIOUs Education.) That development of the reasoning faculty, and that power of complex thought, which are the grounds of in- telligent and responsible agency, are not apparently de- veloped, even in the lowest degree, until some time after the habits, both of the animal and moral life, have become firmly settled. It would be curious and entertaining, if not instructive, to trace by a series of exact observations, the influence of language, and other signs, in eliciting or hastening that last expansion of the mind, which imparts to it a de- liberative power; or which constitutes man a voluntary agent in the higher sense of the term ; and which, in its matured state, carries him to an immeasurable distance beyond the inſerior species of sentient beings. Daily, hourly, occasions arise in that little world of commence- ments, the nursery, whereon the hasty strides of desire are arrested by maternal vigilance, and other motives placed before the mind, and antagonist considerations urged upon its attention. HERE BEGINS THE PRocess of complex vo- LITION. At the moment of its commencement the little being sets foot upon a course that has no limit; is trans- lated from the lower world of animal life, into the higher sphere of rational and moral existence; is introduced into the community of responsible agents, and takes up his heirship of an interminable destiny. (See JUDGMENT, DAY OF.) For a more full development of this interesting subject, with the true grounds of moral approbation and disappro- bation, see an Essay Introductory to Edwards on the Will, by the author of the Natural History of Enthusiasm. Also Fuller's Works ; Griffin on the Atonement ; Upham on the Will ; and Hinton on the Work of the Holy Spirit. MORAL OBLIGATION. Different opinions have been held as to the ground of moral obligation. Grotius, Balguy, and Dr. Samuel Clarke, place it in the eternal and necessary fitness of things. To this there are two objections. The first is, that it leaves the distinction be- tween virtue and vice, in a great measure, arbitrary and indefinite, dependent upon our perception of fitness and unfitness, which, in different individuals, will greatly dif- ſer. The second is, that when a fitness or unfitness is proved, it is no more than the discovery of a natural essential difference or congruity, which alone cannot con- stitute a moral obligation to choose what is fit, and to re- ject what is unfit. When we have proved a fitness in a certain course of action, we have not proved that it is obligatory. A second step is necessary before we can reach this conclusion. Cudworth, Butler, Price, and oth- ers, maintain, that virtue carries its own obligation in it- self; that the understanding at once perceives a certain action to be right, and therefore it ought to be performed. Several objections lie to this notion : 1. It supposes the understandings of men to determine precisely in the same manner concerning all virtùous and vicious actions ; which is contrary to fact. 2. It supposes a previous rule, by which the action is determined to be right; but if the revealed word of God is not to be taken into considera- tion, what common rule exists among men 2 There is evidently no such rule, and therefore no means of cer- tainly determining what is right. 3. If a common stand- ard were known among men, and if the understandings of men determined in the same manner as to the con- formity, or otherwise, of an action to that standard, whât renders it a matter of obligation that any one should per- form it ! The rule must be proved to be binding, or no ground of obligation is established. An action is obligatory, say others, because it is agreeae ble to the moral sense. This is the theory of Lord Shaftes- bury and Dr. Hutcheson. It may, indeed, be conceded that such is the constitution of the human soul, that when those distinctions between actions, which have been taught by religious tradition or direct revelation, are known in their nature, relations, and consequences, the calm and sober judgments of men will approve of them ; and that especially when they are considered abstractedly, that is, as not affecting and controlling their own interests and passions immediately, virtue may command compla- cency, and vice provoke abhorrence; this is what wenean by conscience, or if you please, “the moral sense.” But that, independent of reſlection on their nature or their MI O R. .M O R. [840 consequences, there is an instinctive principle in man which abhors evil, and loves good, is contradicted by that variety of opinion and feeling on the vices and virtues, which obtains among all uninstructed nations. We ap- plaud the forgiveness of an injury as magnanimous; a savage despises it as mean. We think it a duty to sup- port and cherish aged parents; many nations, on the con- trary, abandon them as useless, and throw them to the beasts of the field. Innumerable instances of this con- trariety might be adduced, which are all contrary to the notion of instinctive sentiment. Instincts operate uni- formly, but this assumed moral sense does not. Besides, if it be mere matter of feeling, independent of judgment, to love virtue, and abhor vice, the morality of the exer- cise of this principle is questionable ; for it would be difficult to show, that there is any more morality, properly speaking, in the affections and disgusts of instinct than in those of the palate. If judgment, the knowledge and comparison of things, be included, then this principle sup- poses a uniform and universal individual revelation as to the nature of things to every man, or an intuitive faculty of determining their moral quality; both of which are too absurd to be maintained. The only satisfactory conclusion on this subject, is that which refers moral obligation to the will of God manifest- ed first in the moral relations we sustain, and secondly in his written word. “Obligation,” says Warburton, “ne- cessarily implies an obliger, and the obliger must be diffe- rent from, and not one and the same with, the obliged. Moral obligation, that is, the obligation of a free agent, further implies a law, which enjoins and forbids ; but a law is the imposition of an intelligent superior, who hath power to exact conformity thereto.” This lawgiver is God; and whatever may be the reasons which have led him to enjoin this, and to prohibit that, it is plain that the obligation to obey lies not merely in the fitness and pro- priety of a creature obeying an infinitely wise and good Creator, (though such a fitness exists,) nor in the useful coissequences flowing from obedience, (though such utili- ty really follows,) but in that obedience being enjoined. For, since the question respects the duty of a created be. ing with reference to his Creator, nothing can be more conclusive than that the Creator has an absolute right to the obedience of his creatures; and that the creature is in duty obliged to obey him from whom it not only has received being, but by whom that being is constantly sustained. It has, indeed, been said, that even if it be admitted, that I am obliged to obey the will of God, the question is still open, “Why am I obliged to obey his will?” and that this brings us round to the former answer; because he can only will what is upon the whole best for his crea- tures. But this is confounding that which may be, and doubtless is, a rule to God in the commands which he is- sues, with that which really obliges the creature. Now, that which in truth obliges the creature is not the nature of the commands issued by God; but the relation in which the creature itself stands to God. If a creature can have no existence, nor any power or faculty inde- pendently of God, it can have no right to employ its fa- culties independently of him ; and iſ it have no right to employ its faculties in an independent manner, the right to rule its conduct must rest with the Creator alone; and from this results the obligation of absolute and universal obedience. (See OBLIGATION.) Mackintosh's Vien, of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy; Witherspoon's Moral Phi- losophy; Dnight's Theology : Works of Robert Hall ; Green's Examination of Godnyin ; Gisborne's Sermons ; Chalmers on the Intellectual and Moral Constitution of Man ; Necker on the Importance of Religious Opinions.—Watson. MORALITIES; allegorical plays, so termed because they consisted of moral discourses in praise of virtue and condemnation of vice. They succeeded the mysteries, which see. The dialogues were carried on by such cha- racters as Good Doctrine, Charity, Faith, Prudence, Dis- cretion, Death, &c., whose discourses were of a serious cast; while the province of making merriment for the spectators was devolved upon Vice, Iniquity, or some bad quality, which was personified and acted its part. Mo- ralities were exhibited as late as the reign of Henry VIII., and, after various modifications, assumed the form of the Mask, which became a favorite entertainment at the court of Elizabeth and her successors.-Hend. Buck. MORALITY, is that relation or proportion which ac- tions bear to a given rule. (See BLAME.) - It is generally used in reference to a good, civil life. Morality in this sense, is distinguished from religion thus: “Morality is a studious conformity of our actions to the relations in which we stand to each other in civil society. Morality comprehends only a part of religion ; but reli- gion comprehends the whole of morality. Morality finds all her motives here below; religion fetches all her mo- tives from above. The highest principle in social morals is a just regard to the rights of men; the first principle in religion is the love of God.” The various duties of morality are considered in their respective places in this work. See Bishop Horsley's Charge, 1790; Paley's and Grove's Moral Philosophy; Beattie's Elements of Moral Science ; Evans' Sermons on Christian Temper; Watts' Ser- mons on Christian Mordls ; Mason's Christian Morals ; H. More's Hints, vol. ii. p. 245; Gisborne's Sermons designed to illustrate and enforce Christian Morality.—Hend. Buck. MIORAVIANS, Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren ; a body of Christians, generally said to have arisen under Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, a German nobleman of the last century, and thus called because the first converts to their system were some Moravian families. According to the society’s own account, however, they derive their origin from the Greek church in the ninth century, when, by the instrumentality of Methodius and Cyrillus, two Greek monks, the kings of Bulgaria and Moravia, being converted to the faith, were, together with their subjects, united in communion with the Greek church. Methodius was their first bishop, and for their use Cyrillus translated the Scriptures into the Sclavonian language. * - The antipathy of the Greek and Roman churches is well known, and by much the greater part of the brethren were in process of time compelled, after many struggles, to submit to the see of Rome. A few, however, adhering to the rites of their mother church, united themselves, in 1170, to the Waldenses, and sent missionaries into many countries. In 1547, they were called Fratres legis Christi, or Brethren of the Law of Christ; because, about that period, they had thrown off all reverence for human com- pilations of the ſaith, professing simply to follow the doc- trines and precepts contained in the word of God. There being at this time no bishops in the Bohemian church who had not submitted to the papal jurisdiction, three preachers of the society of United Brethren were, about the year 1467, ordained by Stephen, a bishop of the Waldenses, in Austria ; (see WALDENSEs ;) and these, on their return to their own country, ordained ten bishops, or seniors, from among the rest. In 1523, the United Bre- thren commenced a friendly correspondence, first with Luther, and afterwards with Calvin, and other leaders among the reformers. A persecution, which was brought upon them on this account, and some religious disputes which took place among themselves, threatened for a while the society with ruin; but the disputes were, in 1570, put an end to by a synod, which decreed that differences about non-essentials should not destroy their union ; and the persecution ceased in 1575, when the United Brethren obtained an edict for the public exercise of their religion. This toleration was renewed in 1609, and liberty granted them to erect new churches. But a civil war, which, in 1612, broke out in Bohemia, and a violent persecution which followed it in 1621, occasioned the dispersion of their ministers, and brought great distress upon the brethren in general. Some of them fled to England, others to Saxony and Brandenburg; whilst many, overcome by the severity of the persecution, conformed to the rites of the church of Rome. One colony of these, who retained in purity their original principles and practice, was, in 1722, con- ducted by a brother, named Christian David, from Ful- neck, in Moravia, to Upper Lusatia, where they put them- selves under the protection of Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, and built a yillage on his estate, at the foot of a hill, called Hutberg, or Watch Hill. They called their settlement Herrnhut, “the watch of the Lord.” The M O R. M O R. tsu count, who, soon after their arrival, removed from Dres- den to his estate in the country, showed every mark of kindness to the poor emigrants; but being a zealous member of the church established by law, he endeavored for some time to prevail upon them to unite themselves with it, by adopting the Lutheran faith and discipline. This they declined; and the count, on a more minute in- quiry into their ancient history and distinguishing tenets, not only desisted from his first purpose, but became him- self a convert to the faith and discipline of the United Brethren. - The synod, which, in 1570, put an end to the disputes which then tore the church of the Brethren into factions, had considered as non-essentials the distinguishing tenets of their own society, of the Lutherans, and of the Cal- vinists. In consequence of this, many of the reſormers of both these sects had followed the Brethren to Herrnhut, and been received by them into communion; but not be- ing endued with the peaceable spirit of the church which they had joined, they started disputes among themselves, which threatened the destruction of the whole establish- ment. By the indefatigable exertions of count Zinzen- dorf, these disputes were allayed; and statutes being, in 1727, drawn up and agreed to for the regulation both of the internal and of the external concerns of the congre- gation, brotherly love and union was again established; and no schism whatever, in point of doctrine, has since that period disturbed the church of the United Brethren. In 1735, the count, who, under God, had been the in- strument of renewing the Brethren's church, was ordained one of their bishops. Dr. Potter, then archbishop of Can- terbury, in England, congratulated him upon this event, and promised his assistance to a church of confessors, of whom he wrote in terms of the highest respect, for their having maintained the pure and primitive faith and disci- pline in the midst of the most tedious and cruel persecu- tlonS. This sect, like many others, has been shamefully mis- represented, and things laid to their charge of which they never were guilty. It must, however, be acknowledged, that some of their converts having previously imbibed ex- travagant notions, propagated them with zeal among their new ſriends in a phraseology extremely reprehensible; and that count Zinzendorf himself frequently adopted the very improper language of those fanatics, whom he wish- ed to reclaim from their errors to the soberness of truth; but much of the extravagance and absurdity which has been attributed to the count is not to be charged to him, but to those persons who, writing his extempore sermons in short hand, printed and published them without his knowledge or consent. This eminent benefactor to the United Brethren died in 1760, and it is with reason that they honor his memory, as having been the instrument by which God restored and built up their church. But they do not regard him as their head, nor take his writings, nor the writings of any other man, as the standard of their doctrines, which they profess to derive immediately from the word of God. The United Brethren allow to their bishops no elevation of rank or pre-eminent authority; their church having from its first establishment been governed by councils or synods, consisting of deputies from all the congregations, and by other subordinate bodies, which they call confe- rences. The synods, which are generally held once in seven years, are called together by the elders who were in the former synod appointed to superintend the whole Unity. In the first sitting a president is chosen, and these elders lay down their office; but they do not withdraw from the assembly; for they, together with all bishops, seniores civiles, or lay elders, and those ministers who have the general care or inspection of several congregations in one province, have seats in the synod without any particu- lar election. ‘The other members are, one or more depu- ties sent by each congregation, and such ministers or mis- sionaries as are particularly called to attend. Women, approved by the congregations, are also admitted, as hearers, and are called upon to give their advice in what relates to the ministerial labor among their sex; but they have no decisive vote in the synod. The votes of all the other members are equal. In questions of importance, or of which the consc. quences cannot be foreseen, neither the majority of votes nor the unanimous consent of all present can decide; but recourse is had to the lot. For adopting this unusua, mode of deciding in ecclesiastical affairs, the Brethren allege as reasons the practices of the ancient Jews and the apostles; the insufficiency of the human understand- ing, amidst the best and purest intentions, to decide for it self in what concerns the administration of Christ's king- dom; and their own confident reliance on the comfortable promises that the Lord Jesus will approve himself the head and ruler of his church. The lot is never made use of but after mature deliberation and fervent prayer; nor is any thing submitted to its decision which does not, after being thoroughly weighed, appear to the assembly eligible in itself. (See Lot.) - In every synod the inward and outward state of the Unity, and the concerns of the congregations and mis sions, are taken into consideration. If errors in doctrine or deviations in practice have crept in, the synod endea- vors not only to remove them, but, by salutary regula- tions, to prevent them for the future. It considers how many bishops are to be consecrated to fill up the vacan- cies occasioned by death; and every member of the synod gives his vote for such of the clergy as he thinks best qualified. Those who have the majority of votes are taken into the lot, and they who are approved are conse- crated accordingly ; but, by consecration, they are vested with no superiority over their brethren, since it behoves him who is the greatest to be the servant of all. Towards the conclusion of every synod a kind of ex- ecutive board is chosen, and called the elders’ conference of the Unity. At present it consists of ten elders, and is divided into four committees, or departments. 1. The missions’ department, which superintends all the con- cerns of the missions into heathen countries. 2. The helpers' department, which watches over the purity of doc- trine, and the moral conduct of the different congrega- tions. 3. The servants' department, to which the eco- nomical concerns of the Unity are committed. 4. The overseers' department, of which the business is to see that the constitution and discipline of the brethren be every- where maintained. No resolution, however, of any of these departments has the smallest force till it be laid be- fore the assembly of the whole elders' conference, and have the approbation of that body. The powers of the elders' conference are, indeed, very extensive ; besides the general care which it is commissioned by the synods to take of all the congregations and missions, it appoints and removes every servant in the Unity, as circumstances may require; authorizes the bishops to ordain presbyters or deaeons, and to consecrate other bishops; and, in a word, though it cannot abrogate any of the constitutions of the Synod, or enact new ones itself, it is possessed of the Supreme executive power over the whole body of the United Bre- thren, but is responsible to the synod. Besides this general conference of elders, which superin- tends the affairs of the whole Unity, there is another con- ference of elders belonging to each congregation, which directs its affairs, and to which the bishops and all other ministers, as well as the lay members of the congregation, are subject. This body, which is called the elders' confe- rence of the congregations, consists, 1. Of the minister, as president, to whom the ordinary care of the congregation is committed, except when it is very numerous, and then the general inspection of it is intrusted to a separate per- son, called the congregation helper. 2. Of the warden, whose office it is to superintend, with the aid of his coun- cil, all outward concerns of the congregation, and to as- sist every individual with his advice. 3. Of a married pair, who care particularly for the spiritual welfare of the married people. 4. Of a single clergyman, to whose care the young men are more particularly committed. And, 5. Of those women who assist in caring for the spiritual and temporal welfare of their own sex, and who, in this confe- rence, have equal votes with the men. As the elders’ con- ference of each congregation is answerable for its proceed- ings to the elders' conference of the Unity, visitations from the latter to the former are held from time to time, that the affairs of each congregation, and the conduct of its 106 M O R. M O R. I 842 immediate governors, may be intimately known to the su- preme executive government of the whole church. In their opinion, episcopal consecration does not confer any power to preside over one or more congregations; and a bishop can discharge no office, but by the appoint- ment of a synod, or of the elders' conference of the Unity. Presbyters among them can perform every function of the bishop, except ordination. Deacons are assistants to the presbyters; and in the Brethren's churches, deaconesses are retained for the purpose of privately admonishing their own sex, and visiting them in their sickness; but though they are solemnly blessed to this office, they are mot permitted to teach in public, and far less to administer the sacraments. They have likewise seniores civiles, or lay elders, in contradistinction to spiritual elders, or bish: ops, who are appointed to watch over the constitution and discipline of the Unity of the Brethren, over the observ- ance of the laws of the country in which congregations or missions are established, and over the privileges grant- ed to the Brethren by the governments under which they live. They have economies, or choir houses, where they five together in community; the single men and single women, widows and widowers, apart, each under the su- perintendence of elderly persons of their own class. In these houses every person who is able, and has not an in- dependent support, labors in their own occupation, and contributes a stipulated sum for their maintenance. “No marriage takes place without the consent of the board of elders of the Congregation. Upon due applica- tion this consent is signified to the parties; whereupon they are solemnly betrothed, in presence of the elders and nearest connexions, and the marriage then takes place, according to the forms prescribed by law in each country.” “The education of youth is regarded by the Brethren as worthy of the greatest attention, being persuaded that a good education is the most valuable legacy which parents can leave to their children. It is therefore their principal aim, that their youth, from their tenderest age, be not only screened as far as possible from all pernicious examples, hurtful impressions, and seductions to evil; but that the love of GOD in Christ Jesus may be implanted in the tender hearts of their children; that virtue may be repre- sented to them in the most amiable light ; and that they, as the property of the Lord, who created and redeemed them, may live wholly to his joy and honor, and become useful members of human society.” “Whoever does not walk conformably to the rules established, thus losing sight of the aim of his living in a congregation of the Brethren, incurs that church disei- pline which has been introduced agreeably to the ex- ample of the apostolic age and the ancient church of the Brethren.” But what characterizes the Moravians most, and holds them up to the attention of others, is their missionary zeal. In this they are superior to any other body of peo. ple in the world. “Their missionaries,” as one observes, “are all of them volunteers; for it is an inviolable max. im with them to persuade no man to engage in missions. They are all of one mind as to the doctrines they teach, and Seldom make an attempt where there are not half a dozen of them in the mission. Their zeal is calm, Steady, persevering. They would reform the world, but are care- ful how they quarrel with it. They carry their point by address, and the insinuations of modesty and mildness, which commend them to all men, and give offence to none. The habits of silence, quietness, and decent re- serve, mark their character. If any of their missionarics are carried off by sickness or casualty, men of the same stamp are ready to supply their place.” The following are the names of the settlements of the United Brethren in heathen countries:— “Begun in 1732, in the.Danish West India islands. In St. Thomas; New Herrnhut, Nisky. In St. Croix; Frie- densberg, Friedensthal. In St. Jan ; Bethany, Emmaus. In 1733; in Greenland; New Herrnhut, Lichtenfels, Lich- tenau; In 1734; in North America; Fairfield in Upper Canada, Goshen on the river Muskingum. In 1736: at the cape of Good Hope; Bavians Klooſ, (renewed in 1792.) In 1738; in South America; among the negro of Stapleton, Gloucestershire. slaves at Paramaribo and Sommelsdyk; among the ſree negroes at Bambey, on the Sarameca ; among the native Indians at Hope, on the river Corentyn. In 1754 : in Ja- maica ; two settlements in St. Elizabeth’s parish. In 1756: in Antigua ; at St. John’s, Grace Hill, Grace Bay. In 1760: near Tranquebar, in the East Indies; Brethren's Garden. In 1764 : on the coast of Labrador; Nain, Ok- kah, Hopedale. In 1765: in Barbadoes; Sharon, near Bridgetown. In 1765: in the Russian part of Asia; Sa- repta. In 1775: in St. Kitt's ; at Basseterre. In 1789 : in Tobago; Signal Hill, (renewed in 1798.) (See also the missionary department of this work.) “A Society for the furtherance of the gospel among the heathen was instituted by the Brethren in London as early as the year 1751, for the more effectual co-operation with and assistance of the said missions' department, in caring for those missionaries who might pass through London to their several posts. The society was, after some interrup- tion in their meetings, renewed in 1756, and took the whole charge of the mission on the coast of Labrador upon themselves ; besides continuing to assist the other missions as much as lay in their power, especially those in the British dominions. As no regular communication was kept up with the coast of Labrador by government, a small vessel was employed to convey the necessaries of life to the missionaries once a year. “In Amsterdam, a similar society was established by the Brethren in 1746, and renewed in 1793, at Zeist, near Utrecht. This society took particular charge of the mis- Sion at the cape of Good Hope; but the late troubles in Holland have rendered them unable to lend much assis- tance for the present. The Brethren in North America established a society for propagating the gospel among the heatben in the year 1787, which was incorporated by the State of Pennsylvania, and has been very active in as- sisting the missions among the Indians. These three so- cieties do all in their power to help support the great and accumulated burthens of the above-mentioned mis- sions' department, and God has laid a blessing upon their exertions. But they have no power to begin new mis- Sions, or to send out missionaries, which, by the synods of the Brethren's church, is vested solely in the elders' conference of the Unity.” The number of converts and persons under instruction in the different missions, amount to about 55,150, and the number of missionaries to about 163. As to the tenets of the Moravians, though they acknow. ledge no other standard of truth than the sacred Scriptures, they adhere to the Augsburg confession; (see that article.) They profess to believe that the kingdom of Christ is not confined to any particular party, community, or church; and they consider themselves, though united in one joined body, or visible church, as spiritually in the bond of Chris- tian love to all who are taught of God, and belong to the universal church of Christ, however much they may differ in forms, which they deem non-essentials. The Moravians are often called Herrnhuters, from IIerrnhut, the name of the village where they were first Settled. They also go by the name of Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren. If the reader wish to have a fuller ac- count of this Society, he may consult Crantz's Ancient and Modern History of the Church of the United Brethren, 1780; Spangenberg's Exposition of the Christian Doctrine, 1784; Dr. Harvels’ Church. History, vol. iii. p. 184, &c.; Crantz's History of their Mission in Greenland; . The Periodical Ac. counts of their Missions ; Loskiel's History of the North American Indian Missions ; Oldendorp's History of the Bre. thren's Missions in the Danish West Indian Islands; and Choules' History of Missions.—Hend. Buck. - M9F.E, (HANNAH,) the most brilliant female ornament of Christian literature, was born in 1744, at the village * She was the youngest of five sisters, none of whom entered into the marriage state, Her father, who died while she was young, was a clergy- nºn, eminent for his classical attainments, but equally eminent for the excellence of his character and disposi- tiºn...Of her mother we know nothing. Very early in life, Hannah evinced a taste for literature, and an insatia. ble appetite for books. She speedily devoured the con. tents of her ſather's library, and then had recourse to M O R. M O R [.843 J those of some friends in the village of Hannam, near Bristol. It is said that Richardson's Pamela was the first book that fell in her way, and that inspired her with a passion for reading. As she grew up towards woman- hood, her remarkable attainments and excellent character attracted the esteem and admiration of her neighbors, and becoming more widely known, acquired for her the pa- tronage of several persons of superior station and talents. Her sisters, who, though less gifted than she, were amia- ble and talented women, had, in the meantime, opened a small school, which, as their reputation increased, was re- linquished for one of higher pretensions. While they were engaged in tuition, she was trying her powers in the composition of verse. About the year 1766, the Misses More had acquired so much celebrity, as instructers of youth, that, on the re- commendation of several ladies of fortune and discern- ment, they removed to Bristol, and opened a boarding- school in Park street. In a short time, it was esteemed the first establishment of the kind in the west of England, and was selected by many persons of rank for the educa- tion of their daughters. - Miss Hannah More accompanied her sisters to Bristol, where she acquired the friendship of Dr. Stonehouse, a gentleman from whose urbanity, influence, and general knowledge, she derived material worldly advantages; but it is doubtful whether her acquaintance with him, though he was a clergyman, resulted in her religious improve- ment. He it was, however, who prepared for the press her first work, “The Search aſter Happiness.” She after- wards turned her attention to dramatic composition. Her first play was “Fatal Falsehood,” which was “brought out” under the patronage of Garrick, with whom Dr. Stonehouse was intimate. It was tolerably well received; but, “Percy,” her second effort in this department, was much more successful. “The Inſlexible Captive,” the only other drama she prepared for the stage, was greatly inferior to its predecessors. During these engagements, she came in contact with several distinguished men of that day. She was honored with the intimate acquaintance of Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds, and of many other highly eminent individuals, who equally appreciated her amiable qualities and her superior intellect. The fact that Hannah More wrote for the stage, will, with most religious persons, be deemed proof enough that she was not then so decided a Christian as she afterwards became. She at length began to doubt its propriety. We are disposed to date the conversion of Hannah More from the period when her publications assumed a decidedly religious character and tendency. Then it was, that, under a deep conviction that to live to the glory of God, and to the good of our fellow-creatures, is the great object of human existence, and the only one which can bring peace at the last, she quitted the bright circle of fashion and literature, and devoted herself to a life of active Christian benevolence, and to the composition of various works, having for their object the real improve- ment of mankind. Among this class of works, her “Sa- cred Dramas” must be mentioned as the first ; for these, though composed at a very early period of her life, were not printed till the year 1782. The fact that she had written for the stage in the mean time, would have led us to suspect the truth of the declaration, that the “Sacred Dramas” were composed while she was a girl, but that it rests on the evidence of a respectable American, who had it from her own lips. It serves to show that she derived no religious advantage from the notice into which her talents brought her, and to attest the power of divine grace, by which she was ultimately rescued from the dan- gerous tendency of worldly associations and of public ap- plause. Her first work of a didactic nature was entitled * Essays to Young Ladies.” To this, in 1786, succeeded an anonymous volume, “Thoughts on the Manners of the Great,” which excited much interest and curiosity. Some attributed it to the bishop of London, and others to the late Mr. Wilberforce. It was at length traced to the mas- culine pen of Miss Hannah More. Its object was to expose and correct the licentious manners of the great, and it proved that she had not moved in ſashionable cir- cles with perfect satisfaction of mind. returns of grateful love. In 1799, while residing at Bath, Miss More gave to the public her invaluable “Strictures on the Modern System oſ Female Education.” - Perhaps the highest testimony to the talents and virtues of Hannah More, was borne by bishop Porteus, who strongly recommended her as every way qualified to su- perintend the education of the princess Charlotte. By those in power, however, the charge was thought too great for an individual without title, though they were willing enough to engage her service in a subordinate capacity. But she declined the offer, and the negotiation ended. That she had indulged the prospect of receiving the higher appointment, may be presumed from the subsequent ap- pearance, in 1805, of her “Hints towards ſorming the Cha- racter of a Young Princess,” a work which fully justified the aspirations which her right reverend friend had taught her to indulge, but yet a work of more universal applica- tion than the title intimates. Before this volume appeared, Miss Hannah More and her-sisters, by their reputation and industry, first in Bris- tol and afterwards in Bath, had realized sufficient property to enable them to retire from public life, and purchase a residence called Barley Wood, delightfully situated at the foot of the Mendip hills. In 1809, she published her “Coelebs in Search of a Wife,” a novel of unexceptionable moral tendency, though ſar from being perfect as a work of art. Her “Practical Piety” appeared in 1811, and her admirable “Essay on the Character and Writings of St. Paul” in 1815. Besides the works already noticed, Miss More gave to the world several other publications, alike distinguished by the talent they display, and their excellent moral and religious tendency. Her best work, that which deserves to be most widely known, and most highly appreciated, is her “Christian Morals,” printed in 1812. This truly valuable work will be read with pleasure and improve- ment by generations yet unborn. , * The last work on which she was engaged, and which was published five or six years since, is a small volume, entitled “The Spirit of Prayer,” which is an assemblage of the most devotional passages in her various writings. It opens with a striking definition of prayer, which may be instanced as one of the finest specimens of the au- thor’s powers of composition. The motto which she pre- fixed to this interesting collection, “Knowing that shortly I must put off this my tabernacle,” shows that she was then anticipating her dissolution, and that in the tem- per of mind Suited to the Christian character and profes- S1 Oll. But literary occupations did not absorb her whole time in the delightſul retirement of Barley Wood. She insti- tuted a number of schools in the vicinity, at which many hundreds of children were educated under her direction. Her constitution, she said, was very strong, for it had car- ried her, with the blessing of Providence, through the as- saults of twenty mortal diseases. On the death of her sister Martha, which took place a few years since, Miss Hannah More exchanged her resi- dence at Barley Wood for Clifton, near Bristol, where, notwithstanding the increasing infirmities of age, she maintained her wonted cheerfulness of temper, and con- timued to distribute her superſluous wealth in acts of the purest benevolence and highest charity, until death put an end to her long and useful career. This event occur- red on 7th of September, at her residence in Windsor Terrace, Clifton, in the eighty-ninth year of her age; and her remains were interred on Friday the 13th, in the vault at Wrington, which contains those of her beloved sisters. She had endured a painful and protracted ill- ness, accompanied by feverish delirium ; but the blessed influence of Christian habit was strikingly exemplified even under the decay of extreme old age and its attend- ant consequences. She frequently broke forth into earnest prayer and devout ejaculation, and invariably met the affectionate attention of the friends who sedulously watch- ed over her sick bed, by unceasing and most expressive An individual who saw her in the day of her last seizure, which was in November, 1832, states that “she expressed to him, in a most impressive manner, the sentiments of an humble, penitent benever M O R M O R [ 844 ) in Jesus Christ, assuring him that she reposed her hopes of salvation on his merits alone, and expressing at the same time a firm and joyful affiance on his unchanging promises.”—Lond. Chris. Obs. ; Am. Ed. of her Works. MORDECAI, was the son of Jair, of the race of Saul, and a chief of the tribe of Benjamin. He was carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, with Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah, king of Judah, A. M. 3405, Esther 2: 5, 6. He settled at Shushan, and there lived to the first year of Cyrus, when it is thought he returned to Jerusalem, with several other captives; but he afterwards returned to Shushan. There is great probability that Mordecai was very young when taken into captivity. The book of Es. ther gives the whole history of Mordecai's elevation, the punishment of Haman, and the wonderful deliverance of the Jews, in clear and regular narrative. - But it may be asked, for what reason did Mordecai re- fuse to pay that respect to Haman, the neglect of which incensed him against the Jews? Esther 3: 1–6. Some think the reason was, because Haman was an Amalekite; a people whom the Israelites had been commissioned from God to destroy, because of the injuries they had for- merly done them, Deut. 25: 17–19. But this scarcely seems to be a sufficient account of Mordecai's refusing civil respect to Haman, who was first minister of state; especially when by so doing he exposed his whole nation to imminent danger. Besides, if nothing but civil respect had been intended to Haman, the king need not have en- Joined it on his servants aſter he had made him his first minister and chief favorite; (Esther 3: 1, 2.) they would have been ready enough to show it on all occasions. Pro- bably, therefore, the reverence ordered to be done to this great man was a kind of divine honor, such as was some- times addressed to the Persian monarchs themselves; which, being a species of idolatry, Mordecai refused for the sake of a good conscience. And perhaps it was be- cause Haman knew that his refusal was the result of his Jewish principles, that he determined to attempt the de- struction of the Jews in general, knowing they were all of the same mind. 2. As to another question, why Haman cast lots, in order to fix the day for the massacre of the Jews, (Esther 3: 7.) from whence the feast of purim, which is a Persic word, and signifies lots, took its name; (Esther 9: 26.) it was no doubt owing to the superstitious conceit which anciently prevailed, of some days being more fortunate than others for any undertaking; in short, he endeavered to find out, by this way of divining, what month, and what day of the month, was most unfortunate to the Jews, and most fortunate for the success of his bloody design against them. It is very rumarkable, that while Haman sought for direction in this affair from the Persian idols, the God of Israel so overruled the lot as to fix the intended massa- cre to almost a year’s distance, from Nisan the first month to Adar the last of the year, in order to give time and op- portunity to Mordecai and Esther to defeat the conspi- T3C W. 3. We learn from Chardin, (1.) That to inquire what passes in the harem of an Eastern monarch, is a crime. (2.) That it is possible, “by a great deal of art,” and weighly reasons, no doubt, to make the black eunuchs * “speak,” on some occasions. (3.) That a man may walk by the court of the harem a hundred days, one aſter another yet obtain no intelligence ſrom thence. (4.) That “bloody doings” are occasionally transacted there. These hints may account for the conduct of Mordecai, who nalked every day before the court of the momen’s house, to gather any intelligence that might chance to come with- in his cognizance, respecting his neice. We learn also, that there are “bloody doings” in the harem ; this agrees with the remark of Mordecai, (chap. 4: 13.) “think not that thou shalt escape in the king's house, more than all the Jews.” He certainly, means that Haman would pro- cure her death, even in the harem.—Watson; Calmet. MORE, (HENRY, D. D.,) a divine and platonic philoso- É. was born, in 1614, at Grantham; was educated at ton, and Christ college, Cambridge; refused the high- est preferments; and died, universally beloved, in 1687. His Works, in which are many fine passages, form two folio volumes. As a poet, he is known by his Pyschozoia, or Song of the Soul, in which, though it is oſten obscure and prosaic, there is much poetical imagery.—Davenport. MORGAN, (ABET,), an eminent Baptist minister of Pennepek, Penn., was born in Wales, in 1637, and came to this country in 1711. He died Dec. 16, 1722. . . He compiled a folio concordance to the Welsh Bible, printed at Philadelphia; and also translated “Century Confes- sion” into Welch, with additions. Benedict, i. 583.—Allen. MORIAH, MoUNT. A hill on the north-east side of Je- rusalem, once separated from that of Acra by a broad välley, which, according to Josephus, was filled up by the Asmoneans, and the two hills converted into one. In the time of David it stood apart from the city, and was under cultivation; for here was the threshing-floor of Araumah the Jebusite, which David bought, on which to erect an altar to God, 2 Sam. 24: 15–25. On the same spot Solo- ymon afterwards built the temple, ſº Chron. 3: 1.) when it was included within the walls of the city. Here, also, Abraham is supposed to have been directed to offer his son Isaac, Gen. 22: 1, 2. Moriah implies “vision ;” and the “Land of Moriah,” mentioned in the above passage in the history of Abraham, was probably so called from being seen “aſar off.” It included the whole group of hills on which Jerusalem was afterwards built.— Watson. MORMONITES ; believers in the “Book of Mormon.” This famous book, which its misguided followers regard as a second Bible, or more properly as the Mohammedans do the Koran, is said to be a translation from certain brass plates, found by one Joseph Smith, in the town of Pal- myra, (N. Y.) in 1826. They were inclosed in a box, which had to all appearance been used for common sized window glass. Smith pretended to interpret them, with a stone in his hat, and this hat over his face, while one Martin Harris was employed to write down the contents at his dictation. Some disagreement arising between the parties, Harris went away, and Oliver Cowdry came and wrote for Smith, while he interpreted as above described, till the “Book of Mormon” was completed. Smith then gave out that it was a revelation from heaven, and that he himself was a prophet; and thus collected around him a class of simple and credulous people, whom he persuad- ed to dispose of their property, and follow him to the New Zion which he was commissioned to establish in Missouri, west of the Mississippi river, “in the centre of the world.” They accordingly settled in Jackson county, in that state; and there under the guidance of the new prophet esta- blished a new society, from which they send out preachers in all directions to collect proselytes. A weekly periodi- cal has also been established, through which new revela- tions are from time to time circulated among the commu- nity. Many of them find their way to New England, and not a few weak, and some pious people, are caught in the Smare. The contents of the book of Mormon are a series of puerile eastern romance, with abundance of names, but no dates, localities, or connexion of any sort with sober history. Its style affects an imitation of Scripture, which, with the ignorant, gives it an air of sacredness, like that of a revelation from heaven. The above account of its origin is taken from a statement affirmed and subscribed to, before Charles Dimon, justice of the peace, March 29, 1834, by Mr. Isaac Hale, father-in-law of Joseph Smith, the pretended prophet. While in common with every friend of humanity we deeply deplore the outrages recently committed by some of the citizens of Missouri on the Mormon community, we deem it important that the facts should be known, which show the real foundation of the imposture.—See the Cross and Baptist Journal, 1834. MORNAY, (PHILIP DE,) lord of Plessis Marly, an il. lustrious French Protestant, and governor of Saumur, privy counsellor of Henry IV., was born at Buhi, in Wex- en, Nov. 5, 1549. He was designed by his father for the Romish church. His excellent mother, however, took care to inspire his mind with Protestant principles, which she secretly cherished. This circumstance, combined with the perusal of the New Testament, when only twelve years of age, fixed his faith. His literary education was of the first order, and was improved by his travels in al- most all parts of Europe. He made that use of travelling which a wise man will ever make, and everywhere, M. O. R. M O S t 845 ) though yet a young man, discoverod the spirit of a Chris- tian and a philosopher. In 1572, he visited England, whither his ſame had already preceded him, and where his presence was courted by the great and noble. In 1576, he joined the court of Henry, then king of Navarre. In 1576, he published a treatise concerning Life and Death. In 1578, a treatise concerning the Church, in which he explained his motives for embracing the Protes- tant faith. In 1582, appeared his justly celebrated book upon the Truth of the Christian Religion. In 1596, came out his Just procedures of those of the Reformed Religion, and in 1598, his treatise on the Eucharist, which raised his reputation so high that he was called by some of his ene- mies “the Protestant's pope.” In 1607, he published the Mystery of Iniquity, or History of the Papacy, and an Exhortation to the Jews concerning the Messiah. He died in 1623, saying that he was perfectly, though humbly, persuaded of his future happiness through the Savior, “by a demonstration more powerful, more clear, and certain, than any demonstration of Euclid—the demon- stration of the Holy Spirit.” (1 Cor. 2: 4. 2 Cor. 5: 5.) —Middleton, vol. ii. p. 436–442. MORNING LECTURES. (See LECTUREs.) MORROW. “But God prepared a worm in the rising of the dann for the morron,” or, against the morrow, which is in our translation, when the morron, rose the next day, Jonah 4: 7. This phrase shows that the Hebrew morrow did not commence before the light. See also Num. 11: 32. The Anglo-Saxon morron, is, no doubt, derived from the Menyher ; and as it is evident from Tacitus and Julius Caesar, that both the Germans and the Gauls computed time in the manner of the Hebrews, and other Eastern nations, there is the greater reason for supposing that our ancestors used the word morrow according to the idea of the Hebrew Memyher.—Calmet. MORRIS, (GouverNEUR,) an eminent statesman and orator, was born at Morrisania, near the city of New York, in 1752, was graduated at King's college in 1768, and li- censed to practise law in 1771. In 1775, he was a mem- ber of the provincial congress of New York, and was one of the committee which drafted a constitution for the state of New York. In 1777, he was chosen a delegate to the continental congress, and in the following year wrote the celebrated Observations on the American Revolution. In 1781, he accepted the post of assistant superintendent of finance, as colleague of Robert Morris; and in 1787, was a member of the convention which framed the constitu- tion of the United States. In 1792, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to France, and held this station till his recall by the request of the French government, in 1794. In 1800, he was elected a senator in congress, from the state of New York, and in this body was very con- spicuous for his political information and his brilliant elo- quence. Many of his speeches in congress and orations have been published; and a selection from his correspond- ence and other valuable papers, with a biographical sketch, by Mr. Jared Sparks, was issued in 1832. Mr. Jefferson has represented Mr. Morris as a disbelie- verin Christianity. But this is a mistake ; or if at one time true, his views altered. He delivered two months be- fore his death an address to the Historical society, in which he points out the superiority of scriptural history to all other history. He regarded religious principle indeed as necessary to national independence and peace. “There must be something more to hope, than pleasure, wealth, and power. Something more to fear than poverty and pain. Something after death more terrible than death. There must be religion. When that ligament is torn, so- ciety is disjointed and its members perish.”—Davenport; Allen. MORTALITY; subjection to death. It is a term also used to signify a contagious disease which destroys great numbers of either men or beasts. Bills of mortality are accounts or registers specifying the numbers born, mar- ried, and buried, in any parish, town, or district. In gene- ral, they contain only these numbers, and even when thus limited are of great use, by showing the degrees of healthi- ness and prolificness, and the progress of population in the place where they are kept—Hend. Buck, MORTAR. There is a remarkable bassage in Prov. 27:22 : “Though thou shouldest bray a ſool in a mortar among wheat, with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him.” The mode of punishment here refer. red to may be proved to exist in the East, by the positive testimony of Wolney and others. “Fanaticism has enacted, in Turkey, in favor of the Ulemats, (or body of lawyers,) that their goods shall never be confiscated nor themselves put to death, but by being bruised in a mortar. The honor of being treated in so dis- tinguished a manner, may not, perhaps, be sensibly felt by every one ; examples are rare; yet the insolence of the mufti irritated Sultan Osman to such a degree, that he ordered the mortars to be replaced, which, having been long neglected, had been thrown down, and almost cover- ed with earth. This, order alone produced a surprising effect: the body of Ulemats, justly terrified, submitted.” (Baron du Tott, vol. i. page 28.) “As for the guards ciſ the towers, who had let prince Coreskie [a prisoner] es- cape, some of them were empayled, and some mere pounded, or beaten to pieces, in great mortars of yron, nherein they doe vsually pound their rice, to reduce it to meale.” Knolles' History of the Turks, p. 1374. This last quotation is the very case in point; except that Solomon seems to suppose the fool was pounded to- gether nwith the wheat; whereas in this instance the guards were beaten to death, certainly, without any such accom. paniment.—Calmet. ... • MORTIFICATION, among the Romanists, is any se. vere penance observed on a religious account. The mortification of sin in believers is a duty enjoined in the Sacred Scriptures, Rom. 8: 13. Col. 3: 5. It con- sists in breaking the league with sin; declaration of open hostility against it; and strong resistance to it, Eph. 6: 10, &c. Gal. 5: 24. Rom. 8: 13. The means to be used in this work are, not macerating the body, seclusion from society, or our own resolutions; but the Holy Spirit is the chief agent, (Rom 8: 13.) while faith, prayer and depend- ence are subordinate means to this end. The evidences of mortification are, not the cessation from one sin, for that may be only exchanged for another; or it may be re- nounced because it is a gross sin; or there may not be an occasion to practise it: but if sin be mortified, we shall not yield to temptation ; our minds will be more spiritual ; we shall find more happiness in spiritual services, and bring forth the fruits of the Spirit. Dr. Onven on the Mor- tification of Sin, and on the Holy Spirit, ch. viii. book 4; Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 1313; Bryson's Sermons on Rom. 8, p. 97, &c.—Hend. Buck. MOSAIC DISPENSATION ; inferior to the gospel dis. pensation. (See DISPENSATION.)—Hend. Buck. MOSAIC LAW, or the law of Moses, is the most an- cient that we know of in the world, and is of three kinds; the moral law, the ceremonial law, and the civil or judi- cial law. Some observe, that the different manner in which each of these laws was delivered may suggest to us a right idea of their different natures. The five books of Moses, called the Pentateuch, are fre- quently styled, by way of emphasis, the larv. This was held by the Jews in such veneration, that they would not allow it to be laid upon the bed of any sick person, lest it should be polluted by touching the dead. (See Law.) —Hend. Buck. MOSEROTH, or Moser AH; (Num. 32: 30.) a station of the Israelites, probably the same as Hazeroth, or Haze- rah, near Kadesh, and mount Hor. Burckhardt mentions a valley east of mount Hor, called Wady Mousa, which is probably a corruption of Moserah. (See Exodus.)— Calmet. - MOSES. This illustrious legislator of the Israelites was of the tribe of Levi, in the line of Koath and Amram, whose son he was, and therefore in the fourth generation after the settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. The time of his birth is ascertained by the exode of the Israelites, when Moses was eighty years old, Exod. 7: 7. By a singular providence, the infant Moses, when expos. ed on the river Nile, through fear of the royal decree, after his mother had hid him three months, because he was a goodly child, was taken up and adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, and nursed by his own mother, whom she hired at the suggestion of his sister Miriam. Thus did he find M O S M O S [846 tifi asylum in the very palace of his intended destroyer; while his intercourse with his own family and nation was still most naturally, though unexpectedly, maintained : so mysterious are the ways of Heaven, And while he was instructed “in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” and bred up in the midst of a luxurious court, he acquired at home the knowledge of the promised redemption of Israel; and, “by faith” in the Redeemer Christ, “refused to be called the son of Pharaoh’s daughter; choosing rather to suffer #ffliction with the people of God, than to enjoy the plea- sures of sin for a season : esteeming the reproach of Christ,” or persecution for Christ's sake, “greater riches than the treasures of Egypt: for he had respect to the recompense of reward,” or looked forward to a future state, Exodus 2: 1–10. Acts 7: 20–22, Heb. 11; 23--26. 2. When Moses was grown to manhood, and was full forty years old, he was moved by a divine intimation, as it seems, to undertake the deliverance of his countrymen; “for he supposed that his brethren would have understood how that God, by his hand, would give them deliverance ; but they understood not.” For when, in the excess of his zeal to redress their grievances, he had slain an Egyptian, who injured one of them, in which he probably went beyond his commission, and afterwards endeavored to re- concile two of them that were at variance, they rejected his mediation; and “the man who had done wrong said, Who made thee a judge and a ruler over us? Intendest thou to kill me, as thou killedst the Egyptian yesterday?” So Moses, finding it was known, and that Pharaoh sought to slay him, fled for his life to the land of Midian, in Arabia. Petraea, where he married Zipporah, the daughter of Je- thro, or Reuel, prince and priest of Midian ; and, as a Shepherd, kept his flocks in the vicinity of mount Horeb, or Sinai, for forty years, Exod. 2: 11–21. 3: 1. 18; 5. Num. 10: 29. Acts 7: 23–30. During this long exile Moses was trained in the school of humble circumstances for that arduous mission which he had prematurely anticipated; and, instead of the un- thinking zeal which at first actuated him, learned to dis- trust himself. His backwardness, afterwards, to under- take that mission for which he was destined from the womb, was no less remarkable than his forwardness be- fore, Exod. 4: 10–13. 3. At length, when the oppression of the Israelites was come to the full, and they cried to God for succor, and the king was dead, and all the men in Egypt that sought his liſe, “the God of glory” appeared to Moses in a flame of fire, from the midst of a bush, and announced himself as “ the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob,” under the titles of Jahoh and Æhjeh, expressive of his unity and sameness; and commissioned him first to make known to the Israelites the divine will for their deliverance; and next to go with the elders of Israel to Pharaoh, requiring him, in the name of “the Lord, the God of the Hebrews, to Suſſer the people to go three days’ journey into the wil- derness, to sacrifice unto the Lord their God,” aſter such sacrifices had been long intermitted during their bondage; for the Egyptians had sunk into bestial polytheism, and would have stoned them, had they attempted to sacrifice their principal divinities, the apis, or bull, &c., in the land itself: foretelling, also, the opposition they would meet with from the king, the mighty signs and wonders that would ſinally counpel his assent, and their spoiling of the Egyptians, by asking or demanding of them (not borrow- ing) jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and raiment, (by way of wages or compensation for their services,) as ori- ginally declared to Abraham, that “thcy should go out from thence with great substance,” Gen. 15: 14. Exod, 2: 23–25. 3: 2–22. 8: 25, 26. 4. To vouch his divine commission to the Israelites, God enabled Moses to work three signal miracles : 1. Turning his rod into a serpent, and restoring it again; 2. Making his hand leprous as snow, when he first drew it out of his bosom, and restoring it sound as before when he next drew it out; and, 3. Turning the water of the river into blood. And the people believed the signs, and the promised deliverance, and worshipped. For the conduct of Moses as the deliverer and lawgiver of the Israelites, see PHARAOH, PLAGUES OF Egypt, Red SEA, and LAw. 5. At mount Sinai the Lord was pleased to make Mo- ses, the redeemer of Israel, an eminent type of the Re- deemer of the world. “I will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put my words in his mouth; and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him : and it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto my words, which he shall speak in my name, I will require it of him :” which Moses communicated to the people. “The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet, from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me: unto him shall ye hearken,” Deut. 18: 15–19. This prophet like unto Moses was our Lord Jesus Christ, who was by birth a Jew, of the middle class of the people, and resembled his predecessor in per- sonal intercourse with God, miracles, and legislation, which no other prophet did, (Deut. 34: 10–12.) and to whom God, at his transfiguration, required the world to hearken, Matt. 17: 5. See also Acts 3:22. -- 6. The offence of Moses, at Meribah, (Num. 20: 1–13. 27: 14.) as far as may be collected from so concise an ac- count, seems to have been, 1. He distrusted or disbelieved that water could be produced from the rock only by speak- ing to it; which was a higher miracle than he had per- formed before at Rephidim, Exod. 17:6. 2. He unne- cessarily smote the rock twice; thereby betraying an un- warrantable impatience. 3. He did not, at least in the phrase he used, ascribe the glory of the miracle wholly to God, but rather to himself and his brother : “Must we fetch you water out of this rock º’ And he denouminated them “rebels” against his and his brother's authority, which, although an implied act of rebellion against God, ought to have been stated, as on a former occasion : “Ye have been rebels against the Lord, from the day that I knew you;” (Deut. 9: 24.) which he spake without blame. See Ps. 106: 33. Deut. 3: 23–27. 7. The faculties of this illustrious legislator, both of mind and body, were not impaired at the age of a hun- dred and twenty years, when he died. “His eye was not dim, nor his natural strength abated ;” (Deut. 34: 7.) and the noblest of all his compositions was his Song, or the Divine Ode, which bishop Lowth elegantly styles, Cycnca Oratio, “the Dying Swan's Oration.” His death took place aſter the Lord had shown him, from the top of Pis- gah, a distant view of the promised land, throughout its whole extent. “He then buried his body in a valley op- posite Beth-peor, in the land of Moab; but no man know- eth his sepulchre unto this day,” observes the sacred histo. rian, probably Ezra, who annexed the circumstances of his death to the book of Deuteronomy, 34:6. (See EzRA, and Michael.) 8. The history of Moses was so ſamous for many ages, in almost all countries, that it is no wonder writers of diſ. ferent nations have each represented it after his own man- ner. The Orientals, the ancient Grecians, the Egyptians, the Chaldeans, the Romans, have all made additions to his history. Some of them have improved on the mira, cles that the Scripture relates concerning his life; others have disguised his story by adding to it not only false, but mean and triſling circumstances. - His institutes have not only been maintained for severa thousands of years, and by Jews, however dispersed in all parts of the globe, but they retain a vigor that promis- es a perpetuity, unless disturbed by some omnipotent in- terference. They have withstood the ſtury of persecution, and the more dangerous snares of seduction. They are essentially the same in China and in India, as in Persia and in Europe. The character and life of this legislator is, indeed, one of the finest subjects for the pen of a phi. losophical historian, who is at the same time a competent antiquary. 9. So marked and hallowed is the character of this, the most eminent of mere men, that it has often been success- fully made the basis of an irresistible argument ſor the truth of his divine mission. Thus Cellérier observes : “Every imposture has an object in view, and an aim more or less selfish. Men practise deceit ſor money, for pleas- ure, Qr for glory. If, by a strange combination, the love of mankind ever entered into the mind of an impostor, doubtless, even then, he has contrived to reconcile, at least, his own selfish interests with those of the human race. If men äccelve others, for the sake of causing their own M O S Mos . [847 | opinions or their own party to triumph, they may some- times, perhaps, forget their own interests during the strug- gle, but they again remember them when the victory is achieved. It is a general rule, that no impostor forgets himself long. But Moses forgot himself, and forgot him- self to the last. Yet there is no middle supposition. If Moses was not a divinely inspired messenger, he was an impostor in the strongest sense of the term. It is not, as in the case of Numa, a slight and single fraud, designed to secure some good end, that we have to charge him with, but a series of deceits, many of which were gross; a proſound, dishonest, perfidious, sanguinary dissimula- tion, continued for the space of forty years. When we consider these several things; when, we reflect on all the ministry of Moses, on his life, on his death, on his cha- racter, on his abilities, and his success; we are powerfully convinced that he was the messenger of God. If we con- sider him only as an able legislator, as a Lycurgus, as a Numa, his actions are inexplicable : we find not in him the aſſections, the interests, the views which usually be- long to the human heart. The simplicity, the harmony, the verity of this natural character are gone ; they give place to an incoherent union of ardor and imposture; of daring and of timidity, of incapacity and genius, of cru- elty and sensibility. No! Moses was inspired by God : he received from God the law which he left his country- men.”— TWatson ; Calmet ; Jones. MOSES, (Books of.) To Moses we owe that impor- tant portion of Holy Scripture, the Pentateuch, which brings us acquainted with the creation of the world, the entrance of sin and death, the first promises of redemp- tion, the flood, the peopling of the postdiluvian earth, and the origin of nations, the call of Abraham, and the giving of the law. We have, indeed, in it the early history of religion, and a key to all the subsequent dispensations of God to man. The genuineness and authenticity of these most venerable and important books have been establish- eil by various writers; but the following remarks upon the veracity of the writings of Moses have the merit of compressing much argument into ſew words:—1. There is a minuteness in the details of the Mosaic writings, which bespeaks their truth; for it often bespeaks the eye-witness, as in the adventures of the wilderness; and often seems intended to supply directions to the artificer, as in the construction of the tabernacle. 2. There are touches of nature in the narrative which bespeak its truth, for it is not easy to regard them otherwise than as strokes from the life; as where “the mixed multitude,” whether half- castes or Egyptians, are the first to sigh for the cucum- bers and melons of Egypt, and to spread discontent through the camp; (Num. 11: 4.) as the miserable excul- ration of himself which Aaron attempts, with all the cow- ardice of conscious guilt: “I cast into the fire, and there came out this calf;” the fire, to be sure, being in the fault, lºxod. 32: 24. 3. There are certain little inconveniences represented as turning up unexpectedly, that bespeak truth in the story; for they are just such accidents as are characteristic of the working of a new system and untried machinery. What is to be done with the man who is found gathering sticks on the Sabbath day ? Num. 15:32. (Could an impostor have devised such a triſle?) How is the inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad to be dis- posed of, there being no heir-male 2 (Num. 36: 2.)—either of them inconsiderable matters in themselves, but both giving occasion to very important laws; the one touching life, and the other property. 4. There is a simplicity in the manner of Moses, when telling his tale, which be- speaks its truth; no parade of language, no pomp of cir- cumstance even in his miracles, a modesty and dignity throughout all. Let us but compare him in any trying scene with Josephus; his description, for instance, of the passage through the Red sea, (Exod. 14.) of the murmur- ing of the Israelites and the supply of quails and manna, with the same as given by the Jewish historian, or rheto- rician we might rather say, and the force of the observa- tion will be felt. 5. There is a candor in the treatment of his subject by Moses, which bespeaks his truth ; as when he tells of his own want of eloquence, which unfit- ted him for a leader, (Exod. 4: 10.) his own want of faith, which prevented him from entering the promised land, * (Num. 20: 12.) the idolatry of Aaron his brother, 'Exod. 32: 21.) the profaneness of Nadab and Abihu, his ne- phews, (Lev. 10.) the disaffection and punishment of Mi- riam, his sister, Num. 12: 1. 6. There is a disinterested- ness in his conduct, which bespeaks him to be a man of truth; for though he had sons, he apparently takes no measures during his life to give them offices of trust or profit; and at his death he appoints as his successor one who had no claims upon him, either of alliance, of clanship, or of blood. 7. There are certain prophetical passages in the writings of Moses, which bespeak their truth; as, several respecting the future Messiah, and the very sub- lime and literal one respecting the final fall of Jerusalem, Deut. 28. 8. There is a simple key supplied by these wri- tings, to the meaning of many ancient traditions current amongst the heathens, though greatly disguised, which is another circumstance that bespeaks their truth : as, the golden age ; the garden of the Hesperides; the fruit-tree in the midst of the garden which the dragon guarded ; the destruction of mankind by a flood, all except two per- Sons, and those righteous persons, Innocuos ambos, aultores numinis ambos ; the rainbow, “which Jupiter set in the cloud, a sign to men;” the seventh day a sacred day; with many others, all conspiring to establish the reality of the facts which Moses relates, because tending to show that vestiges of the like present themselves in the traditional history of the world at large. 9. The concurrence which is found be- tween the writings of Moses and those of the New Testa- ment bespeaks their truth; the latter constantly appealing to them, being indeed but the completion of the system which the others are the first to put forth. Surely it is a very improbable thing, that two dispensations, separated by an interval of some fiſteen hundred years, each exhibit- ing prophecies of its own, since fulfilled; each asserting miracles of its own, on strong evidence of its own ; that two dispensations, with such individual claims to be be- lieved, should also be found to stand in the closest relation to one another, and yet both turn out impostures after all. 10. Above all, there is a comparative purity in the theolo- gy and morality of the Pentateuch, which argues not only its truth, but its high original ; for how else are we to ac- count for a system like that of Moses, in such an age and amongst such a people; that the doctrine of the unity, the self-existence, the providence, the perfections of the great God of heaven and earth, should thus have blazed forth (how far more brightly than even in the vaunted schools of Athens at its most refined era !) from the midst of a nation, of themselves ever plunging into gross and grovelling idolatry; and that principles of social duty, of benevolence, and of self-restraint, extending even to the thoughts of the heart, should have been the produce of an age, which the very provisions of the Levitical law itself show to have been full of savage and licentious abominations 2 Exod. 3: 14. 20:3–17. Lev. 19: 2, 18. Beut. 6: 4. 30: 6. Such are some of the internal evi- dences for the veracity of the books of Moses. Still, after all, says Mr. Blunt, unbelievers may start difficulties; this I dispute not ; difficulties, too, which we may not always be able to answer, though I think we may be always able to neutralize them. It may be a part of our trial, that such difficulties should exist and be encoun- tered; for there can be no reason why temptations should not be provided for the natural pride of our understand- ing, as well as for the natural lusts of our flesh. To many, indeed, they would be the more formidable of the two ; perhaps to the angels who kept not their first estate they proved so. With such facts, however, before me, as these which I have submitted to my readers, I can come to no conclusion but one,—that when we read the writings of Moses, we readno cunningly devised fables, but solemn and safe records of great and marvellous events, which court examination, and sustain it; records of such appa- rent veracity and faithfulness, that I can understand our Lord to have spoken almost without a figure, when he said, that he who believed not Moses, neither would he be per suaded though one rose from the dead.—Watson; Calmé, MOSHEIM, (John LAURENCE, D. D.,) a German Prº. testant theologian, was born, in 1695, at Lubeck, and, aſte, • - M O T M O T | 848 J having filled professorships in Denmark and Brunswick, died in 1755, professor of theology and chancellor of the eniversity of Gottingen. His sermons were much admir- ea for their pure, elegant, and mellifluous style. In his private character he is said to have resembled Fenelon. 'He wrote above a hundred and sixty works, among which may be mentioned, The Morality of the Holy Scriptures; and an Ecclesiastical History; the latter of which was translated by Dr. Maclaine, and still more recently in closer conformity to the simple style of the original, by Dr. Murdock, of New Haven, Connecticut.--Davenport. MOSQUE, (Arab. Mesſed ;) a temple or place of reli- gious worship among the Mohammedans. All mosques are square buildings, generally constructed of stone. Be- fore the chief gate there is a square court paved with white marble, and low galleries round it, whose roof is supported by marble pillars. In these galleries the Turks wash themselves before they go into the mosque. In each mosque there is a great number of lamps; and between these hang many crystal rings, ostrich's eggs, and other curiosities, which, when the lamps are lighted, make a fine show. As it is not lawful to enter the mosque with stockings or shoes on, the pavements are covered with pieces of stuff sewed together, each being wide enough to hold a row of men kneeling, sitting, or prostrate. The women are not allowed to enter the mosque, but stay in # = cº----~~~ - About every mosque there are six tigh towers, called minarets, each of which has three little open galleries, one above another: these towers, as well as the mosques, are covered with lead, and adorned with gilding end other ornaments : and from thence, instead of a bell, the people are called to prayers by certain offi- the porches without. cers appointed for that purpose. Most of the mosques have a kind of hospital, in which travellers of what reli- gion soever are entertained three days. Each mosque has also a place called tarbe, which is the burying-place of its ſounders; within which is a tomb six or seven feet long, covered with green velvet or satin; at the ends of which are two tapers, and round it several seats for those who read the Koran, and pray for the souls of the de- ceased.—Hend. Buck. - MOTE. Small faults and errors discovered in others through the magnifying medium of prejudice, are com- pared by our Lord to motes in the eye, which the cen- Borious only are proud of detecting, Matt. 7: 1–5. (See Eye, and JUDGING...) MOTH ; (oish, Job 4: 19, and oshsh, Job. 13: 28. 27. }8, Psalm 6: 7. 31: 9, 10. 39: 11. Isaiah 50: 9. Hosea 5: 12.) The clothes moth is the tinea argentca ; of a white, shining silver, or pearl color. It is clothed with shells, ſour- teen in number, and these are scaly. Albin asserts this to be the in- sect that eats woollen stuffs; and says that it sº & * g§ º§ s§ : -- º #- º: : 3.tº* *:º *:~g t; s &-: É:*: §# **ſ | . . i. "...ºfſº º º is produced from a gray jº speckled moth, that ſlies ºf . º. woollens, and there lays her eggs, which, after a little time, are hatched as worms; and in this state they feed on their habitation, till they change into a chrysalis, and thence emerge into moths. “The young moth, or moth-worm,” says the abbé Pluche, “upon leaving the egg which a papilio had lodged upon a piece of stuff commodious for her purpose, finds a proper place of residence, grows and ſeeds upon the nap, and like- nº lºſſºglºſſ ſº º º 'º fºliº , , :=ºsºsºs tº-W-2S→SAS "..., . - . - . #: * -: , i. ...º. ºr . . * * * * wise builds withitan apartment, which is fixed to the ground work of the stuff with several cords and a little glue. From an aperture in this habitation, the moth-worm de- vours and demolishes all about him; and, when he has cleared the place, he draws out all the fastenings of his tent; after which he carries it to some little distance, and then fixes it with the slender cords in a new situation. In this manner he continues to live at our expense, till he is satisfied with his food, at which period he is first trans- formed into the nympha, and then changed into the papilio.” The allusions to this insect in the sacred writings are very striking’: “Fear ye not the reproach of men, meltner &D | be ye afraid of their revilings. For the moth small eat them up like a garment, and the worm shall eat them like wool.” They shall perish with as little noise as a gar- ment under the tooth of a moth, Isaiah 51: 7, 8. In the prophecies of Hosea, God himself says, “I will be as a moth unto Ephraim, and as a lion;” that is, I will send silent and secret judgments upon him, which shall imper- ceptibly waste his beauty, corrode his power, and dimi- mish his strength, and will finish his destruction with open and irresistible calamities. The same allusion is involved in the direction of our Lord to his disciples: “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon the earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal,” Matt. 6: 19, 20. The Jews had treasures of raiment; as well as of fruits, of corn, of wine, of oil, of honey, (Jer, 41; 8.) and of gold, silver, and brass, (Ezek. 33: 4. Dan. 11:43.) upon which the persevering industry of the moth could make no im- pression. (See HABITS IN DRess.) It is also likely, that by “moth” our Lord meant to suggest all the kinds of in- sects which devour or spoil the different kinds of property, which were treasured up for the future. These, in warm countries, are very numerous and destructive.—Watson. MOTHER. God has declared in almost every part of his.living creation, that the mother for a certain time is . the natural protector of her offspring. To myoman he has been particularly emphatic, by implanting in her affections which are rarely subdued, and by giving her an organization most wonderfully fitted for the exercise of her best and MoU M UF [ 849 | ..most enviable feelings. It truly requires all the aſſection of a fond mother to administer duly to the numerous wants of a young child. The care really essential to its health and comfort, consists in a due attention to its food, cloth- ing, and cleanliness, and the establishment of regular and useful habits, as regards exercise, exposure, sleep, and evacuations; as well as whatever belongs to the higher education of the moral feelings and religious principles. To constitute a mother, therefore, in the best sense of the erm, much more is required than giving birth to progeny —it requires qualifications both rare and estimable. It exacts a patient endurance of fatigue, and anxious solici- tude ſor their welfare, as well as a submission to priva- tions, which nothing renders supportable but a mother's love. What a responsibility, also, rests upon her office . It has been said with some truth, that “every man is nothing more nor less than what his mother has made him.” There is nothing indeed more worthy of admiration, than that imperious sentiment, at once so mild and so ten- der, which unites the mother to her child; and which as it were makes but one existence of two individuals, so different in age, and apparently in necessities. Children would perish, and with them the whole human race would be extinct, did not woman take an active and continual care of them, did she not consecrate to them every mo- ment, did she not sacrifice to them her whole life, health, youth, beauty, ease, every thing. What wonder then that this vivid sentiment should be so often alluded to in the sacred volume, to-illustrate the love of God to his people, and of Christian ministers to the souls of men 2 See particularly those exquisite pas- sages, Isa. 49: 15. 1 Cor. 3: 2. Gal. 4: 19, 20. 1 Thess. 2: 7, 8, (See MARRIAGE ; RELIGIOUS EpucATION.) . - Mother is sometimes used, also, for a metropolis, the capital city of a country, or of a tribe; and sometimes for a whole people, 2 Sam. 20; 19. Isa. 50: 1. Gal. 4: 26. Rev. 17: 5. - “A mother in Israel” signifies a woman, whom God uses to cherish or deliver his people. This name is given to Deborah, Judg. 5: 7. Wisdom in the Apocrypha calls herself the mother of chaste love. The earth, to which at our death we must all return, is called the mother of all men. Job has a still stronger image, Job. 17: 14.— Calmet; Maygrier ; Denvees on Children. MOTIVE ; that which moves, excites, or invites the mind to volition. It may be one thing singly, or many things conjunctly. It may be adequate or inadequate; strong or weak. It may also be internal or external. In- ternal motives, or such as arise from the affections, are again distinguishable into pure and impure. Sce MoRAL AGENcy, and WILL ; Edwards, and Upham on the JVill; Toplady's Works ; Lond. Chris. Observer.—Hend. Buck. MOTIVITY; the capacity of being influenced by mo- tives; moral agency. (See MoRAL AGENcy.) MOUNTAIN. Judea is a mountainous country, but the mountains are generally beautiful, fruitful, and culti- vated. Moses says, (Deut. 32: 13.) that the rocks of its mountains produce oil and honey, by a figure of speech, which elegantly shows their fertility. . He says, (Deut. 8. 7, 9.) that in the mountains of Palestine spring excellent fountains; and that their bowels yield iron and brass. He desired earnestly of the Lord, that he might see the fine mountains of Judea and Libanus, Deut. 3:25. They were sometimes retired to as places of Security. The most famous mountains mentioned in Scripture, are SEIR, in Idumea; HoREB, near Sinai, in Arabia Pe- traca; SINA1, in Arabia Petraea; HoR, in Idumea; GIL- 10A, south of the valley of Jezreel; NEBO, a mountain of Abarim ; TABOR, in Lower Galilee; EN-GED1, near the Dead sea ; LIBANUs and ANTI-LIBANUs ; GERIZIM, in , Sa- maria; EBAI, near to Gerizim ; GILEAD, beyond Jordan; AMALEK, in Ephraim; MoRIAH, where the temple was built; PARAN, in Arabia Petraea ; GAHASH, in Ephraim; Oliviºr; Pisgah, beyond Jordan; HERMON, beyond Jor- dan, near Libanus; CARMEL, near the Mediterranean Sea, between Dora and Ptolemais.--Calmet. MOUNTAIN MEN. (See SYNoD ; REFORMED PRESBY- tERIAN.). MOURNING ; sorrow, grief. (See SoRRow.)—H. Buck. MOURNING: a particular dress or habit, worn to signi- fy grief on some melancholy occasion, particularly, the death of friends, or of great public characters. . . . The modes of mourning are various in various coun. tries; as also are the colors that obtain for that end. In Europe, the ordinary color for mourning is black; in China, it is white; in Turkey, blue or violet; in Egypt yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. Each people pretend to have their reasons for the particular color of their mourn- ing. White is supposed to denote purity; yellow, that death is the end of human hopes, as leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade, become yellow; brown denotes the earth, whither the dead return; black, the privation of life, as being the privation of light; blue ex- presses the happiness which it is hoped the deceased en joys ; and purple or violet, sorrow on the one side, and hope on the other, as being a mixture of black and blue. For an account of the mourning of the Hebrews, see Lev. 19. and 21. Jer. 16. 6. Num. 20. Deut. 34:8. (See BURIAL, and DEAD.) The propriety of following the customs prevalent on this point, has been of late very extensively called in question, by Christians in this country. Many individu- als and religious bodies have objected against it. 1. That it is a useless ceremony. 2. That it involves needless ex- pense, especially to the poor. 3. That the bustle of pre- paring it interferes with the moral and religious purposes of affliction.—Hend. Buck; Chris. TWatchman, 1830. MOUSE ; (Heb. achbar, in Chaldee acalbar, probably the same with the aliarbui of the Arabians, or the jerboa, described by Bruce, Lev. 11; 29. 1 Sam. 6: 4, 5, 11, 18. Isa. 46: 17.) All interpreters acknowledge that the He- brew word achbar signifies a “mouse,” and more especial- ly a “field mouse.” Moses declares it to be unclean, which insinuates that it was sometimes eaten ; and, in- deed, it is affirmed that the Jews were so oppressed with famine during the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans, that, notwithstanding this prohibition, they were compelled to eat dogs, mice, and rats. Isa. 66:17, justly reproaches the Jews in his time with eating the flesh of mice and other things that were impure and abominable. It is known what spoil was made by mice in the fields of the Philistines, 1 Sam. 6: 5, 6. Bochart has collected many curious accounts relative to the terrible devastation made by these animals.-Watson. MOUTH. The Hebrews, by a beautiful pleonasm, often say, he opened his mouth, and spoke, sung, cursed, &c. Also, that God opens the mouth of the prophets, puts words into their mouth, that is, bids them speak what he inspires them with. To inquire at the mouth of the Lord, is to consult him, Josh. 9: 14. To “set their mouth against the heavens,” (Psal. 73: 9.) is to speak arrogantly, insolently, and blasphemously of God. God directs that his law should be always in the mouth of his people ; i. e. that they should commune frequently with one another about it, and constantly inculcate it upon their children. “From the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh ;” (Matt. 12: 34.) i. e. our discourses are the overflowing, or echo of the sentiments of our hearts. Isaiah says of the Messiah, (11: 4.) “He shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked.” These expressions denote his sovereign authority and absolute power, and that it requires only one breath to destroy his enemies; perhaps by his judicial sentence.—Calmet. MIUFTI; the chief of the ecclesiastical order, or pri- mate of the Mussulman religion. The authority of the mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire; for even the sultan imself. if he will preserve any appearance of reli- gion, cannot, without first hearing his opinion, put any person to death, or so much as inflict any corporal punish- ment. In all actions, and especially criminal ones, his opinion is required, by giving him a writing in which the case is stated under feigned names, which he subscribes with the words Olur, or Olmaz, i. e. he shall or sha.. not be punished. Such outward honor is paid to the mufti, that the grand seignior himself rises up to him, and advances seven steps towards him when he comes into his presence. He alone has the honor of kissing the sultan’s left shoulder, whilst the prime vizier kisses only the hem of his garment, 107 M U L M U R. [ 850 ) When the grand seignior addresses any writing to the mufti, he gives him the following titles:–“To the Esad, the wisest of the wise; instructed in all knowledge; the most excellent of excellents; abstaining from things unlawful; the spring of virtue and true Science; heir of the prophetic doctrines; resolver of the problems of faith; revealer of the orthodox articles; key of the treasures of truth ; the light to doubtful allego.ies; strengthened with the grace of the Supreme Legislator of Mankind. May the Most High God perpetuate thy favors.” The election of the mufti is solely in the grand seignior, who presents him with a vest of rich sables, and allows him a salary of a thousand aspers a day, which is about five pounds sterling. Besides this, he has the disposal of certain benefices belonging to the royal mosques, which he makes no scruple of selling to the pest advantage; and, on his admission to his office, he is complimented by the agents of the bashas, who make him the usual presents, which generally amount to a very considerable sum. Whatever regard was formerly paid to the muſti, it is now become very little more than form. If he interprets the law, or gives sentence contrary to the sultan's pleas- ure, he is immediately displaced, and a more pliant person put in his room. If he is convicted of treason, or any very great crime, he is put into a mortar kept for that purpose in the seven towers of Constantinople, and pound- ed to death. (See MoRTAR.)—Hend. Buck. MUGGLETONIANS; the followers of Ludovic Mug. gleton, a journeyman tailor, who, with his companion Reeves, (a person of equal obscurity,) set up for great prophets, in the time of Cromwell. They pretended to ab- solve or condemn whom they pleased; and gave out that they were the two last witnesses spoken of in the Revela- tion, who were to appear previous to the final destruction of the world. They affirmed that there was no devil at all without the body of man or woman; that the devil is man's spirit of unclean reason and cursed imagination ; that the ministry in this world, whether prophetical or ministerial, is all a lie and abomination to the Lord ; with a variety of other vain and inconsistent tenets.-Hend. 18wck ; Williams. MUEHLENBERG, (HENRY MELCHIOR, D.D.,) the found. er of the German Lutheran church in the United States, was born at Eimbeck, in Hanover, Germany, in 1711, and came to Philadelphia, where he was the pastor of a German Lutheran church forty-five years, and distinguish- ed for his piety and learning. He died in 1787, aged Seventy-six.--Allen. MUEHLENBERG, (HENRy ERNST, D. D.,) a Lutheran divine and botanist, the son of Rev. Henry Muehlenberg, was born in New Providence, Montgomery county, Penn- sylvania, November 17, 1753. In 1763, he was sent to Halle with his two elder brothers to finish his education. On his return in 1770, he was ordained at the early age of seventeen, and in 1774 appointed one of the assistants of his father in the Philadelphia congregation. In 1780, he ac- cepted a call from Lancaster, where he lived about thirty- five years in the exemplary discharge of the duties of his office. He died of the apoplexy, May 23, 1815, in the rich peace and hope of the Christian, aged sixty-one. While he was a learned theologian and well acquainted with the ancient languages, and skilful also in medicine, chemistry, and mineralogy, he was particularly distin. guished for his knowledge of botany. He was induced first to cultivate this Science in 1777, when he was driven from Philadelphia in consequence of its being occupied by the British. From this time he corresponded with many learned botanists in Europe and America. Of many learned Societies he was a member. His herbarium was purchased and presented to the American Philosophical society. He published Catalogus Plantarum Amer. Sep- tent. 1713; Descriptio Uberior Graminium. &c. 1816. He left Flora Lancastriensis in manuscript. Ency. Amer. ; Bénédict's History of all Religions.—Allen. MULBERRY-TREE ; (baca, 2 Sam. 5: 23, 24. 1 Chron. 14: 14, 15: Psalm 84; 7.) The LXX., in Chronicles, render the word by apion, “pear-trees;” so Aquila and the Vul- gate both in Samuel and Chronicles, “pyrorum.” Others translate it the “mulberry-tree.” Moré probably it is the large shrub which the Arabs still call “baca ;" and which gave name to the valley where it abounded. Of this val- ley Celsius remarks, that it was “rugged and embarrass- ed with bushes and stones, which could not be passed through without labor and tears;” referring to Psalm 84: 7, and the “rough valley;” (Deut. 21: 4.) and he quotes from a manuscript of Abu'l Fideli a description of the tree which grew there, and mentions it as bearing a fruit of an acrid taste. The passage in 2 Sam. 5: 23, 24, Dr. Harris thinks should read, “When thou hearest a noise as of many people marching, upon the hills of Bochim, then fall immediately upon the enemy.”— Watson. MULE ; the offspring of two animals of different spe- cies, as a horse and an ass, There is no probability that the Jews bred mules, be- cause it was forbidden to couple creatures of different spe- cies, Lev. 19:19. But they were not forbidden to use them. Thus we may observe, especially after David's time, that mules, male and female, were common among the Hebrews: formerly they used only male and female asses, 2 Sam. 13:29. 18; 9. 1 Kings 1:33, 38, 44. 10; 25. 18: 5, &c. - Some have thought that Anah, son of Zibeon, of the posterity of Seir, being in the desert, found out the man- ner of breeding mules. This opinion was much espoused by the ancients. But Jerome, who notices it in his Hebrai- cal questions on Genesis, translates, “that Anah ſound hot springs.” The Syriac says, a fountain ; but rather it signifies a people whom Anah surprised and defeated. See ANAH.)—Calmet. MUNSON, (ENEAs, M.D.,) a Christian physician, was born in New Haven, June 24, 1734; graduated at Yale college in 1753; and, having been a tutor, was a chap. lain in the army in 1755 on Long Island. Ill health in- duced him to study medicine with John Darly, of East- hampton. He practised physic at Bedford in 1756, and removed in 1760 to New Haven, where he died, June 16, 1826, aged nearly ninety-two. . For more than half a century he had a high reputation as a physician, and was in the practice seventy years. Of the medical society of Connecticut he was the president. He was a man of piety from an early period his life. At the bedside of his patients he was accustomed to commend them to God in prayer. It was with joyous Christian hope that this venerable old man went down to the dead. Thacher.—Allen. MURDER ; the act of wilfully and feloniously killing a person upon malice or forethought. (See LAw.) Heart murder is the secret wishing or designing the death of any man ; yea, the Scripture saith, “Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer,” 1 John 3: 15. We have instances of this kind of murder in Ahab, (1 Kings 22: 9.) Jezebel, (2 Kings 19: 2.) the Jews, (Mark 11: 18.) David, (1 Samuel 25: 21, 22.) Jonah, ch. 4: 1, 4. Murder is contrary to the authority of God, the sove- reign disposer of life; (Deut. 32: 39.) to the goodness of God, who gives it; (Job 10: 12.) to the law of nature ; (Acts 16: 28.) to the love a man owes to himself, his neighbor, and society at large. Not but that life may be taken away, as in lawful war; (1 Chron. 5: 22.) by the hand of the civil magistrate for capital crimes; (Deut. 17: 8, 10.) and in self-defence. (See SELF-DEFENCE.) According to the divine law, murder is to be punished with death, Gen. 9: 6. Deut. 19:11, 12. 1 Kings 2:28, 29. It is remarkable that God often gives up murderers to the terrors of a guilty conscience, Gen 4: 13, 15, 23, 24. Such are followed with many instances of divine vengeance ; (2 Sam. 12:9, 10.) their lives are often short- ened ; (Psalm 55: 23.) and judgments for their sin are ºnes transmitted to posterity, Gen. 49: 7. 2 Sam. When a dead body was found in the fields, and the murderer was unknown, Moses commanded that the el- ders and judges of the neighboring places should resort to the spot, Deut. 21: 1–8. The elders of the city nearest to it were to take a heiſer, which had never yet borne the yoke, and were to lead it into some rude and uncultivated place, which had not been ploughed or sowed, where they were to cut its throat; the priests of the Lord, with the elders and magistrates of the city, were to come near the M U R M U S [ 851 ) dead bot.y, and washing their hands over the heiſer that had been slain, they were to say: “Our hands have not shed this blood, nor have our eyes seen it shed. Lord, be favorable to thy people Israel, and impute not to us this blood which has been shed in the midst of our coun- try.” This ceremony may inform us what idea they had of the heinousness of murder, and how much horror they conceived at this crime; also, their fear that God might avenge it on the whole country; and the pollution that the country was supposed to contract, by the blood spilt in it, unless it were expiated or avenged on him who had occasioned it, if he could be discovered. Comp. Psalm 73: 13; also the action of Pilate, Mätt. 27:4. Calmet ; Jahn ; Jones; Divight's Theology.—Hend. Buck. MURMIURING ; a complaint made for wrong supposed to have been received. Paul frequently forbids murmur- ing, 1 Cor. 10: 10. Phil. 2: 14. God severely punished the Hebrews who murmured in the desert, and was more than once on the point of forsaking them, and even of de- stroying them, had not Moses appeased his anger by ear- nest prayer, Num, 11:33, 34. 12, 14:30, 31. 16:3. 21: 4–6. Psal. 78; 30. (See RESIGNATION.)—Calmet. MURRAY, (John,) first Universalist minister in Boston, was born at Alton, Hampshire county, England, about 1741. His father was an Episcopalian ; his mother a Presbyterian. They removed ſrom Alton to Ireland. In early life he believed the doctrine of election ; then he be- came a Methodist preacher in Mr. Wesley's connexion; and afterwards he was attached to Mr. Whitfield. Re- pairing to London, he soon forgot the character of a mi- nister. Good company, music, dancing, Vauxhall, and the play houses intoxicated him. He says, “I plunged into a vortex of pleasure.” Visiting a young lady to convert her from the error of Universalism, the following was the argumentation. She asked, For not believing what is an unbeliever damned 2 He replied, For not believing that Jesus Christ is his com- plete Savior. She again asked, Must the unbeliever be- lieve that Jesus Christ is his Savior 2 Must he believe a lie 7 Is Christ the Savior of the unbeliever ? By this argument he was overwhelmed. His own erroneous de- finition of faith was indeed refuted by the questions of the lady; but, instead of abandoning that fundamental error, he only followed it out to its natural consequences, and became a Universalist. Having lost his wife and child, he came to America in poverty, in September, 1770. His talents and eloquent en- thusiasm, combined with many just and evangelical senti- ments, soon raised him to popularity. He preached at Brunswick, New Jersey, Newport, and Providence, and first in Boston October 30, 1773; afterwards in Newbury. port and New London, in New York and Pennsylvania. In May, 1775, he was a chaplain in a Rhode Island regi- ment. After preaching in Gloucester, he was established in Boston about the year 1785, and passed the remainder of his life there. After six years of helplessness he died in peace, September 3, 1815, aged seventy-four. Mr. Murray, as well as Mr. Winchester, was a Trinita- rian. He regarded Winchester, however, as a believer in purgatorial satisfaction, and as teaching that every man is his own Savior. He himself believed that myriads of men would rise to the resurrection of damnation, and would call on the rocks to hide them from the wrath of the Lamb; yet considered that damnation as ending at the judgment-day. He supposed, that in the day of judg- ment the devil and his angels would be placed, as the goats, on the left hand of the judge, and all men on the right hand, in most obvious contradiction to the Scripture, which says, that “all nations” will be gathered, to be se- parated, the just from the unjust. This amounts in fact to a denial of the future judgment. - - Since his death Mr. Balfour, with Mr. Ballou and others, has explicitly maintained, that there will be no future reckoning day. See 2 Tim. 3: 13. At last this error of denying a future judgment, and thus subverting the IIMO- ral government of God, appeared so great and perilous to a number of Universalist ministers, who assert a future retribution and the punishment, though not everlasting, of the wicked, that in August, 1831, they announced their full and entire separation from the denomination of Uni- versalists, and the establishment of a religious community by the name of the “Massachusetts Association of Uni- versal Restorationists.” (See UNIVERSAL RESTORATION. ISTs.) Mr. Murray published Letters and Sketches of Sermons, 3 vols. His Life, by himself, was published in 1816, and two editions have been published since his death. Life of Murray, ed. 1833.—Allen. MURRAY, (LINDLEY,) a grammarian, and member of the society of Friends, was born, in 1745, at Smetara, near Lancaster, in Pennsylvania ; was originally an American barrister, but quitted the bar to become a mer chant; acquired a competency by his mercantile pursuits; settled in England, and became known by his school books; and died January 10, 1826. Among his works are, English Grammar; Exercises; Key; Spelling Book; and Reader; two French Selections; the Power of Reli. gion on the Mind; and the Duty and Benefit of Reading the Scriptures.—Davenport. MUSCULUS, (Wolfgangus,) a celebrated German di. vine and reformer, was born at Dieuze, upon Lorrain, September 8, 1497. His father was a poor cooper; the son found friends, and was educated in a monastery at Westriek, where the prior treated him as his own son. At the age of twenty he began the study of theology, when a pious old monk said to him, “If you intend to become a good preacher, you must endeavor to be fami- liar with the Bible.” By means of this advice, Musculus became a Christian and a Protestant, and was the instru- ment of converting to his principles almost all his brother friars in the monastery. After various successful labors in Leixheim, Strasburg, and Augsburg, he was settled as professor of theology at Bern, in 1549, where he died, August 30, 1563. He left many valuable works, chiefly commentaries on the Scriptures. His Dying Hymn in Latin has been much admired.—Middleton, ii. pp. 85–89. THE DYING HYMN OF MUSCULUS. 1. Nil superest vitae, frigus praccordia captat : . Sed tw. CHRISTE, mihi vita perennis ades. 2. Quid trepidas anima 3 ad sedes ahitura quietis, En tibi ductor, adest ANGELUs ille tuus. 3. Linque domum hanc miseram, nunc in sua fata ruentem, Głuam tibi fida DEI deatera restituet. 4. Peccasti f scio: sed CHRIstus credentibus in se Peccata expurgat sanguine cuncta swo. 5. Horribilis mors est 2 fatcor: sed proxima vita est, Ad quam te CHRISTE gratia certa vocat. 6. Praesto est de Satana, peccato, et morte triumphans CHRISTUS: ad HUNc igitwr lasta alacrisque migra. of this beautiful effusion of Christian piety and genius the editor of this work begs leave to offer the following NEW TRANSLATION. 1. The vital flame shall burn no more : The blood around my heart is cold ! But thou, O CHRIST, my soul shalt warm, With liſe of more than mortal mould ! 2. Why them, my soul, why tremble thus, To wing thy flight to seats of rest ? Behold thy guide, thine ANGEL, waits To lead thee there among the blest. º 3. . Leave then this wretched mansion, leave, In ruins it around thee lies; For God’s right hand is faithful still, * . And thou shalt see it ſairer rise. 3 4. But hast thou sinned 3 and hence thy ſcar. Sad truth ! but yet believers know, *. That crimson as the stain may be, The blood of CHRIST doth cleansing ſlow. 5. Does death a face of horror wear 1 Most true, my soul, but liſe is might That life to which thy SAvroR calls, By grace so sure thou canst not dic. 6. Victor o'er Satan, sin, and death, Yonder thy Lord in triumph reigns; Stretch, O my soul, thy joyful wings, And fly to those celestial plains ! MUSIC ; the harmonious combination of sounds; an art of great antiquity, and early employed as a medium * M U S Mus [ 852 of religious worship, . As practised in public worship among both Jews and Christians, it is of two kinds :- 1. Vocal music. This species, which is the most natu- ral, may be considered to have existed before any other. It was continued by the Jews, and it is the only kind that is permitted in the Greek and Scotch churches, or, with few exceptions, in dissenting congregations in England. The Christian rule requires its use, both for personal and social edification, Ephes. 5. Col. 3. The vocal music of the imperial choristers in St. Petersburgh incomparably surpasses, in sweetness and effect, the sounds produced by the combined power of the most exquisite musical in- StrumentS. & § 2. Instrumental music is also of very ancient date, its invention being ascribed to Tubal, the sixth descendant from Cain. That instrumental music was not practised by the primitive Christians, but was an aid to devotion of later times, is evident from church history. The organ was first introduced into the church service by Marianus Sanutus, in the year 1290; and the first that was known in the West, was one sent to Pepin, by Constantinus Co- pronymus, about the middle of the eighth century. In- strumental music is becoming quite common in the churches of this country; nor is this to be regrettcd, so long as it is made subservient to vocal, not a substitute for it. - Music, indeed, is probably nearly coeval with our race, or, at least, with the first attempts to preserve the memo- ry of transactions. Before the invention of writing, the history of remarkable events was committed to memory, and handed down by oral tradition. The knowledge of laws and of useful arts was preserved in the same way. Rhythm and song were probably soon found important helps to the memory; and thus the muses became the early instructers of mankind. Nor was it long, we may conjecture, before dancing and song united contributed to festivity, or to the Solemnitics of religion. The first in- Musical Instruments. struments of music were probably of the pulsatile kind; and rhythm, it is likely, preceded the observation of those intervals of Sound which are so pleasing to the ear. About five hundred and fiſty years aſter the deluge, or B. C. 1800, according to the common chronology, both vocal and instrumental music are spoken of as things in general use : “And Laban said, What hast thou done, that thou hast stolen away unawares to me, and carried away my daughters, as captives taken with the sword 2 Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly, and steal away from me ; and didst not tell me, that I might have sent thee away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp 2" Gen. 31: 26, 27. Egypt has been called the cradle of the arts and sciences, and, there can be no doubt of the very early civilization of tha' country. To the Egyptian Mercury, or Thoth, who is called Trismegistos, or “thrice illustrious,” is as: cribed the invention of the lyre, which had at first only three strings. It would be idlé to mention the various conjectures how these strings were tuned, or to try to set- tle the chronology of this invention. The single flute, which they called pholina, is also ascribed to the Egyp. tians. Its shape was that of a horn, of which, no doubt, it was originally made. Before the invention of these in- struments, as Dr. Burney justly observes, “music could have been little more than metrical, as no other instru- ments except those of percussion were known. When the art was first discovered of refining and sustaining tones, the power of music over mankind was probably irresistible, from the agreeable surprise which soft and lengthened sounds must have occasioned.” The same learned writer has given a drawing, made under his own eye, of an Egyptian musical instrument, represented on a very ancient obelisk at Rome, brought from Egypt by Augustus. This obelisk is supposed to have been erected at Heliopolis, by Sesostris, near four hundred years before the Trojan war. The most remarkable thing in this in- strument is, that it is supplied with a neck, so that its two strings were capable of furnishing a great number of sounds. This is a contrivance which the Greeks, with all their ingenuity, never hit upon. “I have never been able,” says the doctor, “to discover in any remains of Greek sculpture, an instrument ſurnished with a neck; and father Montfaucon says, that in examining the repre- sentations of near five hundred ancient lyres, harps, and citharas, he never met with one in which there was any contrivance for shortening the strings during the time of performance, as by a neck and finger-board.” From the long residence of the Hebrews in Egypt, it is no impro- bable, conjecture that their music was derived from that Source. However that may be, music, vocal and instru- mental, made one important part of their religious service. If the excellence of the music was conformable to the sublimity of the poetry which it accompanied, there would be no injustice in supposing it unspeakably superior to that of every other people; and the pains that were taken to render the tabernacle and temple music worthy of the subjects of their lofty odes, leaves little doubt that it was so. That the instruments were loud and sonorous, will appear from what follows; but as the public singing was performed in alternate responses, or the chorus of all succeeded to those parts of the psalm which were sung only by the appointed leaders, instruments of this kind were necessary to command and control the voices of so great a number as was usually assembled on high OCCaS10n S. The Hebrews insisted on having music at marriages, on anniversary birthdays, at victories, at the inauguration of their kings, in their public worship, and when they were coming from afar to attend the great festivals of their nation, Isa. 30: 29. 4. Instrumental music was first introduced into the Jewish * Service by Moses; and afterward, by the express command of God, was very much improved with the addition of se- veral instruments in the reign of David. When Hezekiah restored the temple service, which had been neglected in his predecessor’s reign, “he set the Levites in the house of the Lord, with cymbals, with psalteries, and with harps, according to the commandment of David, and of Gad the king's seer, and Nathan the sprophet; for so was the §commandment of the Lord #: by his prophets,” 2 Chron. 29; 25. The harp, or ancient lyre, kinnor, was the most ancient of the class of stringed in- struments, Gen. 4; 21. Ji , was sometimes called sam- bac, or “eight-stringed,” (I Chron. 15: 21. PS. 6: 1. 12: 1.) although, as we may gather from the coins or medals of the Maccabean age, there were some harps which were furnished with only three strings. The “ nablum, or psaltery, is first Harp. mentioned in the Psalms of David. In Psalms, 33: 2, and 144: 9, it is callel ashcor, “a ten stringed instrument;” but in Psalm 92: M US M Y R. [853 3, it is distinguished ſrom it. Josephus assigns to it twelve strings, which, taken in connexion with the fact above stated, leaves us to conclude that it sometimes had ten and sometimes twelve strings. It was not played with a bow or ſret, but with the fingers. It resembled in ſorm a right angled triangle, or the Greek delta inverted. The body of it was of wood and hollow, and was inclosed with a piece of leather tensely drawn. The chords were extended on the outside of the leather, and were fixed at one end into the transyerse part of the triangular body of the instrument. . Such is its form at the present day in the East; but it has only five strings in its modern shape, 2 Sam. 6: 5. 1 ſings 10: 12. There was another instru- ment of this kind used in Babylonia : it was triangular in form. It had originally only four, but subsequently twenty strings, Dan. 3: 5, 7, 10, 15. Among their wind instruments was the organ, so called in the English version, in Hebrew, huggab, Gen. 4:21. It º may be styled the ancient shepherd's pipe, corresponding most nearly to the surigz, or the pipe of Pan, among the Greeks. It consisted at first of only one or two, but afterwards of about seven pipes, made of reeds, and differing from each other in length. Chalil, nechiloth, and nekeb, are wind instruments made of various materi- als, such as wood, reeds, horns, and bones. As far as we may be permitted to judge from the three kinds of pipes now used in the East, the Hebrew instrument called nechiloth is the one that is double in its structure; chalil is perhaps the one of simpler form, having a single stem with an orifice through it; while nekeb answers to the one without an orifice, Isa. 5: 12. 30: 29, Jer. 48: 36. Ps. 5: 1. Ezek. 28: 13. The horn, or crooked trumpet, was a very ancient in- strument. It was made of the horns of oxen, which were cut oſſ at the smaller extremity, and thus presented an orifice, which extended through. In progress of time, rams' horns were hollowed and employed for the same purpose. It is probable that in some instances it was made of brass, fashioned so as to resemble a horn. It was greatly used in war, and its sound resembled thunder. Chatsoteroth, the silver trumpet, was straight, a cubit in length, hollow throughout, and at the larger extremity shaped so as to resemble the mouth of a small bell. In times of peace, when the people or the rulers were to be assembled together, this trumpet was blown softly. When the camps were to move ſorward, or the people to march to war, it was sounded with a deeper note. There were several sorts of drums. The toph, rendered in the English version tabret and timbrel, (Gen. 31: 27.) te consisted of a circular hoop, either of wood or brass, three inches and six-tenths wide, was covered with a skin tensely drawn, and hung round with Small bells. It was held in the left hand, and beaten to motes of music with the right. The ladies through all the East, even to this day, dance to the sound of this instrument, Exod. 15:20. Job 17; 6. 21: 12, 2 Sam. 6: 5. The cymbals, tseltselim, were of two kinds formerly, as there are to this day, in the East. The first consisted of two flat pieces of metal or plates; the musician held one of them in his right hand, the other in his left, and smote them together, as an ac- companiment to other instruments. This cymbal and the mode of using it may be often seen in modern armies. The second kind of cymbals consisted of four small plates attached, two to each hand, which the ladies, as they danced, smote together. But mezilots, (Zech. 14:20.) rendered in the English version bells, are not musical in- struments, as some suppose, nor indeed bells, but concave pieces or plates of brass, which were sometimes attach- ed to horses for the sake of ornament.-Hend. Buck ; JWatson. MUSSULMAN. (See IsIAMISM.) Organ. Drum. MUSTARD; (sinapi, Matt. 13:32. 17:20. Mark 4: 34. Luke 13; 19. 17; 6.) a well-known garden herb, , Christ compares the kingdom of heaven to “a grain of mustard-seed, which a man took and sowed in the earth, which in- deed,” said he, “is the least of all seeds ; but when it is grown is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a trec, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof.” Matt. 13:31, 32. “This expression will not ap- pear strange,” says Sir Thomas Browne, “if we recollect that the mustard-seed, though it be not simply and in itself the smallest of seeds, yet may be very well believed to be the smallest of such as are apt to grow unto a lig. neous substance, and become a kind of tree.” The expression, also, that it might grow into such dimensions that birds might lodge on its branches, may be literally conceived, if we allow the luxuriancy of plants in India above our northern regions. And he quotes upon this occasion what is recorded in the Jewish story, of a mustard tree that was to be climbed like a fig-tree. The Talmud also mentions one whose branches were so extensive as to cover a tent. Without insisting on the accuracy of this, we may gather from it that we should not judge of Eastern vegetables by those which are familiar to ourselves. Scheuchzer de- scribes a species of mustard which grows several fect high, with a tapering stalk, and spreads into many branches. Of this arborescent or tree-like vegetable he gives a print; and Linnaeus mentions a species whose branches were real wood, which he names sinapi eru- coides. But whatever kind of tree our Lord meant, it is clear, from the fact that he never takes his illustrations from any objects but such as were familiar, and oſten present in the scene around him, that he spoke of one which the Jews well knew to have minute seeds, and yet to be of so large growth as to afford shelter for the birds of the air.— TWatson ; Harris ; Abbott. MYCONIUS, (FREDERIck,) an intimate friend of Lu- ther, and one of the reformers of the sixteenth century, was born at Litchtenfeldt, Franconia, in 1491, of religious parents, and educated at Annaberg. At the age of twenty he was persuaded to enter a monastery, where he devoted seven years chiefly to the study of the Bible, the school. men, and the works of Augustine. After he entered into orders, he was preacher at Winaria, where Luther's works ſell into his hands, and his mind becoming enlightened, he began to proclaim the truth with boldness; and it spread, says his biographer, “as iſ the angels had been the car riers of it.” In 1524, he was called to Gotha, where he labored among the Thuringian churches twenty-two years. He often accompanied the elector of Saxony into the Netherlands, and preached the gospel at the hazard of his life. He was once his ambassador to England. He was also employed to visit and reform the churches of Misnia. His health ſailing in 1541, he wrote to Luther “that he was sick not unto death, but unto life.” But he recovered, and, according to Luther's prayer, outlived him several months. He died in 1546, glorifying God for all the rich mercies of the Reformation. He published nu- merous works,—Middleton, vol. i. p. 250. MYRRH; (mir, Exod. 30:23. Esther 2: 12. Ps. 45: 8. Prov. 7: 17. Cant. 1: 13. 3: 6. 4: 6, 14. 5:1, 5, 13; smur- na, Ecclus. 24: 15. Matt. 2: 11. Mark 15:23. John 19: 39.) a precious kind of gum, issuing by incision, and Sometimes spontaneously, from the trunk and larger branches of a tree growing in Egypt, Arabia, and Abys- sinia. Its taste is extremely bitter, but its smell, though strong, is not disagreeable; and among the ancients it . entered into the composition of the most costly ointments'. As a perfume, it appears to have been used to give a pleasant fragrance tº vestments, and to be carried by fo M. Y S Mys [ 854 J .nales in little caskets in the bosoms. The Magi, who came from the East to worship our Savior at Bethlehem, made him a present of myrrh among other things, Matt. 2: 11. - In the gospel (Mark 15:23.) is mentioned myrrh and wine, or wine mingled with myrrh, which was offered to Jesus, previous to his crucifixion, and intended to deaden in him the anguish of his sufferings. It was a custom among the Hebrews to give such kind of stupefying liquors to persons who were about to be capitally punished, Prov. 31: 6. Some have thought that the myrrhed wine of Mark is the same as the “wine mingled with gall” of Matthew; but others distinguish them. They suppose the myrrhed wine was given to our Lord from a sentiment of sympa- thy, to prevent him from feeling too sensibly the pain of his sufferings; while the potation, mingled with gall, of which he would not drink, was given from cruelty. Others, however, think that Matthew, writing in Syriac, used the word marra, which signifies either myrrh, bitter- ness, or gall; which the Greek translator took in the sense of gall, and Mark in the sense of myrrh, Wine mingled with myrrh was highly esteemed by the ancients. —Watson ; Calmet, MYRTLE ; , (rush, Neh. 8: 15. Isa. 41: 19, 55: 13. Zech. 1: 8–10.) a shrub, sometimes growing to a small tree, very common in º Judea. It has a hard NA. Aſ 3. wood t, that sends SS §§ s\. ody root, SCIn =\l. º forth a great number of small flexible branches, furnished with leaves like those of box, but much less, and more pointed: they are soft to the touch, shining, smooth, of a beautiful green, and have a Swect smell. The flow- ers grow among the leaves, and consist of five white petals disposed in the form of a rose: they have an agreeable per- fume, and ornamental appearance. Savary, describing a scene at the end of the forest of Platanea, says, “Myrties, intermixed with laurel roses, grow in the valleys to the height of ten feet. Their snow- white flowers, bordered with a purple edging, appear to peculiar advantage under the vendant foliage. Each myrtle is loaded with them, and they emit perfumes more exquisite than those of the rose itself. They enchant every one, and the soul is filled with the softest sensa- tions.” -- The myrtle is mentioned in Scripture among loſty trees, not as comparing with them in size, but as contributing with them to the beauty and richness of the Scenery. Thus Isaiah, (41; 19.) intending to describe a scene of va- ried excellence: “I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, and the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree ;” that is, I will adorn the dreary and barren waste with trees famed for their stature and the grandeur of their ap- pearance, the beauty of their form, and also the fragrance of their odor. The apocryphal Baruch, (5:8.) Speaking of the return ſrom Babylon, expresses the protection af. ſorded by God to the people by the same image: “Even the woods and every sweet-smelling tree shall over- shadow Israel by the commandment of God.” Harris, Watson. MYSIA ; a country of Asia Minor, having the Propon- tis on the north, Bithynia on the north-east and east, Phrygia on the south-east, Lydia (from which it was sepa- rated by the river Hermus) on the south, the Ægean sea on the west, and the narrow strait, called the Hellespont, on the north-west. Mysia was visited by St. Paul in his circast through Asia Minor; but he was not suffered by the Spirit to remain there, being directed to pass over into Macedonia, Acts 16: 7–10. In this country stood the ancient city Troy; as also that of Pergamus, one of the seven churches of Asia. Under the Romans it was made a province of the empire, and called Hellespontus; and ** its inhabitants are represented by Cicero as base and con- temptible to a proverb.—Watson, MYSTERY; secret; a wonder; (from mucin to stoma, to shut the mouth.) It is taken,-1. For a truth revealed by God which we could not have discovered without reve- lation; such as the call to the Gentiles, (Eph. 1; 9.) the transforming of some without dying, &c., 1 Cor. 15: 51– 2. The word is also used in reference to things which re- main in part incomprehensible after they are revealed; such as the incarnation of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, &c., 1 Tim, 3:12. Some critics, however, observe that the word in the Scripture does not usually import what is incapable in its own nature of being understood by man, but barely a secret, anything not disclosed or pub- lished to the world, Ephes. 1:9. 3: 3–12. 1 Cor. 13:1–3. In respect to the mysteries of religion, divines have run into two extremes. Some, as one observes, have given up all that was mysterious, thinking that they were not called to believe any thing but what they could compre- hend. “Where mystery begins,” says Dr. James Foster, “religion ends.” But the truth is, as Robert Hall ob- serves, that they begin and end together; a portion of that which is inscrutable to our faculties attaching to every truth of nature and revelation. A religion without mystery is a temple without its God, 1 Cor. 2: 6–10. But if it can be proved that mysteries make a part of a religion coming from God, it can be no part of piety to discard them, as if we were wiser than he. And besides, upon this principle, a man must believe nothing : the va- rious works of nature, the growth of plants, instincts of brutes, union of body and soul, properties of matter, the nature of spirit, and a thousand other things, are all re- plete with mysteries. If so in the common works of na- ture, we can hardly suppose that those things which more immediately relate to the Divine Being himself, can be without mystery. The other extreme lies in an attempt to explain the mysteries of revelation so as to free them from all obscurity. To defend religion in this manner is to expose it to contempt. - The following maxim points out the proper way of de- fence, by which both extremes are avoided. Where the truth of a doctrine depends not on the evidence of the things themselves, but on the authority of him who re- veals it, there the only way to prove the doctrine to be true is to prove the testimony of him that revealed it to be infallible. Dr. South observes, that the mysteriousness of those parts of the gospel called the credenda, or matters of our faith, is most subservient to the great and important ends of religion, and that upon these accounts:—First, because religion in the prime institution of it was designed to make impressions of awe and reverential fear upon men's minds. 2. To humble the pride and haughtiness of man's reason. 3. To engage us in a closer and more diligent search into them. 4. That the full and entire knowledge of divine things may be one principal part of our felicity hereafter. Robinson’s Claude, vol. i. pp. 118, 119, 304, 305; Campbell's Preliminary Dissertation to the Gospels, vol. i. p. 383; Stillingfleet's Origines Sacra, vol. ii. c. 8; Ridgley's Div., qu. 11; Calmet's Dict, ; Cruden’s Concordance ; South's Serm., ser. 6, vol. iii.; Works of Robert Hall.—IIend. Buck. MYSTERIES; a term used to denote the secret rites of the pagan superstition, which were carefully concealed from the knowledge of the vulgar. The learned bishop Warburton supposed that the mys- teries of the pagan religion were the invention of legisla- tors and other great personages, whom fortune or their own merit had placed at the head of those civil societics which were formed in the earliest ages in different parts of the world. . Mosheim was of opinion that the mysteries were en- tirely commemorative ; that they were instituted with a view to preserve the remembrance of heroes and great men, who had been deified in consideration of their mar- tial exploits, useful inventions, public virtues, and espe- cially in consequence of the benefits by them conferred on their contemporaries. Others, however, suppose that the mysteries were the offspring of bigotry and priestcraſt, and that they origi- nated in Egypt, the native land of idolatry. In that M. Y S M. Y S | 855 J country, the priesthood ruled predominant. The kings were engrafted into their body before they could ascend the throne. They were possessed of a third part of the land of all Egypt. The sacerdotal function was confined to one tribe, and was transmitted from father to son. All the Orientals, but more especially the Egyptians, delighted in mysterious and allegorical doctrines. Every maxim of morality, every tenet of theology, every dogma of phi- losophy, was wrapt up in a veil of allegory and mysticism. This propensity, no doubt, conspired with avarice and ambition to dispose them to a dark and mysterious system of religion. Besides, the Egyptians were a gloomy race of men ; they delighted in darkness and solitude. Their sacred rites were generally celebrated with melancholy airs, weeping, and lamentation. This gloomy and unso- cial bias of mind must have stimulated them to a conge- nial mode of worship.–Hend. Buck. . MYSTERIES, or, as they were also called, MIRACLES; a kind of rude drama, which was a favorite spectacle in the middle ages, represented at solemn festivals. The sub- jects were of a religious character, and the ecclesiastics were at first the authors and performers. They received the above name because they professedly taught the mys- terious doctrines of Christianity, and represented the mi- racles of the saints and martyrs. The first play of this sort, mentioned by name, appears to have been St. Catha- rine, written, according to Matthew Paris, by Geoffrey, a Norman, about 1110. They sometimes lasted several days. One which lasted eight days contained a great part of the Scripture history. The Corpus Christi, or famous Coventry mystery, begins with the creation, and ends with the day of judgment. The slaughter of the children at Bethlehem, the sufferings of Christ, &c. were repre- sented.--Hend. Buck. . MYSTICAL. The mystical sense of Scripture is that which is evidently symbolical or metaphorical. For ex- ample, Babylon signifies literally a city of Chaldea, the habitation of kings who persecuted the Hebrews, and who were overwhelmed in idolatry and wickedness. But John, in the Revelations, gives the name of Babylon, mystically, to the city of Rome. So Jerusalem is literally a city of Judea ; but mystically, the heavenly Jerusalem; the habi- tation of the saints, &c.—Calmet. MYSTICS, who have also been sometimes called Qui- etists, are those who profess a pure and sublime devotion, accompanied with a disinterested love of God, free from all selfish considerations; and who believe that the Scrip- tures have a mystic and hidden sense, which must be sought after, in order to understand their true import. Under this name some improperly comprehend all those who proſess to know that they are inwardly taught of God. . The system of the Mystics proceeded upon the known doctrine of the Platomic school, which was also adopted by Origen and his disciples, that the divine nature was diffused through all human souls; or that the faculty of reason, from which proceed the health and vigor of the mind;"was an emanation from God into the human soul, and comprehended in it the principles and elements of all truth, human and divine. They denied that men could by labor or study excite this celestial flame in their breasts; and, therefore, they disapproved highly of the attempts of those who, by definitions, abstract theorems, and profound speculations, endeavored to form distinct motions of truth, and discover its hidden nature. On the contrary, they maintained that silence, tranquillity, repose, and solitude, accompanied with such acts as might tend to attenuate and exhaust the body, were the means by which the hidden and intermal word was excited to pro- duce its latent virtues, and to instruct men in the know- ledge of divine things. They reasoned as follows: “Those who behold with a noble contempt all human affairs, who turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities, and shut all the avenues of the outward senses against the conta- gious influence of a material world, must necessarily re- turn to God, when the spirit is thus disengaged from the impediments which prevented that happy union. And, in this blessed frame, they not only enjoy inexpressible raptures from that communion with the Supreme Being, but also are invested with the inestimable privilege of contemplating truth undisguised and uncorrupted in its pire. native purity, while others behold it in a vitiated and de- lusive form.” The number of the Mystics increased in the fourth century, under the influence of the Grecian fa- natic, who gave himself out for Dionysius the Arenpagite, a disciple of St. Paul, and who probably lived about this period; and, by pretending to higher degrees of perfection than other Christians, and practising great austerities, their cause gained ground, especially in the eastern pro: vinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the pretended works of Dionysius was sent by Balbus to Lewis the Meek, A. D. 824, which kindled the holy flame of Mysti- cism in the western provinces, and filled the Latins with the most enthusiastic admiration of this new system. In the twelfth century, these Mystics took the lead in their method of expounding the Scriptures. In the thirteenth, they were the most formidable antagonists of the school- men; and, towards the close of the ſourteenth, many of them resided and propagated their tenets in almost every part of Europe. They had, in the fifteenth century, many persons of distinguished merit in their number. In the sixteenth, previously to the Reformation, if any sparks of real piety subsisted under the despotic empire of supersti- tion, they were chiefly to be found among the Mystics; and in the seventeenth, the radical principle of Mysti- cism was adopted by the Behmists, Bourignonists, and Quietists. The Mystics propose a disinterestedness of love, with- out other motives, and profess to feel, in the enjoyment of the temper itself, an abundant reward; and passive contemplation in the state of perfection to which they as- They lay little or no stress upon the outward cere- monies and ordinances of religion, but dwell chiefly upon the inward operations of the mind. It is not uncommon for them to allegorize certain passages of Seripture, (at the same time they do not deny the literal sense,) as hav- ing an allusion to the inward experience of believers. Thus, according to them, the word Jerusalem, which is the name of the capital of Judea, signifies, allegorically, the church militant; morally, a believer; and mysteriously, heaven. That sublime passage also in Genesis, “Let there be light, and there was light,” which is, according to the letter, corporeal light, signifies, allegorically, the Messiah; morally, grace; and mysteriously, beatitude, or the light of glory. All this appears to be harmless; yet we must be careful not to give way to the Sallies of a lively imagination in interpreting Scripture. Woolston is said to have been led to reject the Old Testament by spiri- tualizing and allegorizing the New. The Mystics are not confined to any particular denomi nation of Christians, but may be found in most countries, and among many descriptions of religionists. Among the number of Mystics may be reckoned many singular characters, especially Behmen, a shoemaker at Gorlitz, in Germany; Molinos, a Spanish priest, in the seventeenth century; Madame Guion, a French lady, who made a great noise in the religious world; and the celebrated Madame Bourignon, who wrote a work, entitled, “The Light of the World,” which is full of Mystic extravagancies. Fenelon, also, the learned and amiable archbishop of Cambray, favored the same sentiments, for which he was repri. manded by the pope. His work, entitled, “An Explica- tion of the Maxims of the Saints,” which abounds with Mystical sentiments, was condemned ; and to the pope's sentence against him the good archbishop quietly sub- mitted, and even read it publicly himself in the cathedral of Cambray. In this whole affair, his chief opponent is said to have been the famous Bossuet, bishop of Meaux. Mr. William Law, author of the “Serious Call,” &c., de- generated, in the latter part of his life, into all the singu- larities of Mysticism. In the best sense, Mysticism is to be regarded as an error arising out of partial views of the truth, or truth made erroneous, as being put out of its proper relation to, and connexion with other truths. As it respects the inward life of religion, its tendency is to a species of fanaticism, and to induce a contempt for di- Vinely appointed ordinances. In many, however, it has been happily tempered by good principles; and too fre- quently has all scriptural Christianity, in its inward in- fluence, been branded with the name of Mysticism.—- Watson; Hend. Buck ; Douglas on Errors, N A B N A. H. [ 856 | MYTHOLOGY, in its original import, signifies any kind of fabulous doctrine. In its more appropriated sense, it means those fabulous details concerning the objects of worship, which were invented and propagated by men who lived in the early ages of the world, and by them transmitted to succeeding generations, either by written NAAMAH; daughter of Lamech and Zillah, and sister of Tubal-cain, (Gen. 4; 22.) who is believed to have found out the art of spinning wool, and of making or enriching cloth and stuffs.-Calmet. NAAMAN ; a general in the army of Benhadad, king of Syria, who, being afflicted with a leprosy, was cured by bathing seven times in the Jordan, agreeably to the command of Elisha the prophet, 2 Kings 5. Comp. Lev. 14: 7, &c. (See LEPRosy ; and ABANA.) The prophet having refused to receive a present offered to him by Naaman, the latter begged that he might be permitted to carry home two mules’ burden of the earth of Canaan, assigning as a reason, that henceforth he would serve no God but Jehovah. It seems that his in- tention was to build an altar in Syria formed of that holy ground, as he conceived it to be, to which God had as- signed the blessing of his peculiar presence, that he might daily testify his gratitude for the great mercy which he had received, that he might declare openly his renuncia- tion of idolatry, and that he might keep a sort of commu- nication, by similitude of worship, with the people who inhabited the land where Elisha dwelt, who had so miracu- lously cured him. This is perfectly consistent with the precept, (Exod. 20: 24.) “An altar of earth shalt thou make unto me:” and it is very credible, that the tempo- rary altars were usually of earth; especially on the high ]"aces. To such an altar, apparently, Elijah, after re- pairing it, added twelve stones, in allusion to the twelve tribes of Israel, 1 Kings 18; 31. Elishº having consented to this request, Naaman again addressed the prophet thus : “In this thing the Lord par- don thy servant, that when my master goeth into the house of Rimmon to worship there, and he leaneth on my hand, and I bow myself in the house of Rimmon : when I bow myself in the house of Rimmon, the Lord pardon thy servant in this thing.” And Elisha said to him, “Go in peace.” This passage has given rise to many seru- ples. Many commentators think, that Naaman only asks leave to continue those external services to his mastor Benhadad, which he had been used to render him, when he entered the temple of Rimmon; and that Elisha suf. fered him to accompany the king into the temple, provided he paid no worship to the idol. Others, with more reason, translating the Hebrew in the past tense, suppose that Naaman mentions only his former sin, and asks pardom for it.—Calmet ; Watson ; Jones. NABAL ; a rich but churlish man, of the tribe of Judah, and race of Caleb, who dwelt in the south of Judah, and who had a very mumerous flock on Carmel, but refused to give David and his followers, in their distress, any provi- sions, though modestly requested to do so, 1 Sam. 25: 25, &c. His name is proverbial for miserly coveteousness.— Calmet. NABATHEANS, or NABATHENIANs ; Arabians de- scended from Nebajoth. Their country is called Naba- thasa, and extends from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, the chief cities of which are Petra, the capital of Arabia De- Serta, and Medaba.—Calmet. INABONASSAR ; king of Babylon, the same as Bala- dan. (See BABYLoN, HISTORY OF.)—Calmet. NABOPOLASSAR, father of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, was a Babylonian, and chief of the army of Sara- cus, king of Assyria. He made a league with Astyages, who gave his daughter Amyitis in marriage to his son Nebuchadnezzar. Ahasuerus and Nabopolassax, joining their forces, revolted against Saracus, lºing of Nineveh, besieged him in his capital, took him prisoner, and on the records, or by oral tradition. See articles HEATHEN ; PA- GANISM ; and Gale's Court of the Gentiles ; a work calcu. lated to show that the pagan philosophers derived their most sublime sentiments from the Scriptures,-Hend. Buck ; Bryant's System of Ancient Mythology; Lempriere's Classical Dictionary; Dnight's Theology; Douglas on Errors N. destruction of the Assyrian monarchy raised two king- doms; that of the Medes, possessed by Astyages, or Aha- suerus, and that of the Chaldeans, or of Babylon, founded by Nabopolassar, A. M. 3378. He died A. M. 3399. (See ABYssini A ; and BABYLON, HISTORY OF.)—Calmet. NABOTH; an Israelite of the city of Jezreel, who lived under Ahab, king of the ten tribes, and had a fine vine- yard near the king's palace, Ahab coveted his properly; but Naboth, according to the law, (Lev. 25: 23, 24.) re- fused to sell it : and besides, it was a disgrace for a He- brew to alienate the inheritance of his ancestors. Through the arts of Jezebel, Naboth was falsely condemned and stoned for a supposed crime, which brought upon Ahab and Jezebel the severest maledictions, 1 Kings 21. (See AHAB.)—Watson. . NABUCHODONOSOR. (See Assyria.) NACHON. The floor of Nachon (2 Sam. 6: 6.) was either so called from the name of its proprietor; or, which is more probable, the Hebrew denotes the prepared floor, that is, the floor of Obed-edom, which was near, and was prepared to receive the ark. This place, wherever it might be, was either in Jerusalem, or very near Jeru- Salem, and near the house of Obed-edom, in that city.— Calmet. . NADAB. (See ABIH.U.) NAHASH; a king of the Ammonites, who, besieging Jabesh-Gilead, was defeated and killed by Saul, 1 Sam. 11. The piece of mutilating barbarity proposed to the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead by Nahash, “That I may thrust out all your right eyes, and lay it for a reproach upon Israel,” perhaps, by altering the name of the town to that of “those who have -lost their right eyes,” is worthy of notice.—We must, however, recollect, that the loss of the eyes is a punishment regularly inflicted on rebels and others in the East. Mr. Hanway, in his “Journey in Persia,” gives very striking instances of this practice; the cruelty of which, and the sight of the streaming blood, were felt by that gentleman as a man of humanity and a Christian must feel them.—Calmet. , NAHASH, father of Abigail and Zeruiah, is thought to be the same as Jesse, father of David. Comp. 2 Sam. 17; 25. and 1 Chron. 2: 13, 15, 16. This perhaps might be his surname.—Calmet. - NAHOR ; son of Terah, and brother of Abraham, Gen. 11:26. Neither the year of his birth nor of his death is exactly known. Nahor married Milcah, the daughter of Haran, by whom he had several sons, namely, Huz, Buz, Kemuel, Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph, and Bethuel. Nahor fixed his habitation at Haran, which is therefore called the city of Nahor, Gen. 11:29. 22: 20–22. 24: 10. — Watson. i. NAHUM, is supposed to have been a native of Elcosh, or Elcosha, a village in Galilee, and to have been of the tribe of Simeon. There is great uncertainty about the exact period in which he lived; but it is generally allowed that he deliveréd his predictions between the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, and probably about B. C. 715. They relate solely to the destruction of Nineveh by the Babylonians and Medes, and are introduced by an ami- mated display of the attributes of God. Of all the minor prophets, says bishop Lowth, none seems to equal Nahum in sublimity, ardor, and boldness. His prophecy forms an entire and regular poem. The exordium is magnificent and truly august. The prepara- tion for the destruction of Nineveh, and the description of that destruction, are expressed in the most glowing co- lors; and at the same time the prophet writes with a per N A. K. M A M | 8b7 | spicuity and elegance which have a highest admiration.— Walson. NAIL. The nail of Jael's tent with which she killed. Sisera, is called itad; it was formed for penetrating earth, or other hard substances, when driven by sufficient ſorce, as with a hammer, &c.; it includes the idea of strength. The Orientals, in fitting up their houses, were by no means inattentive to the comfort and satisfaction arising from order and method. Their furniture was scanty and plain ; but they were careful to arrange the few household utensils they needed, so as not to encumber the apartments to which they belonged. Their devices for this purpose, which, like every part of the structure, bore the character of remarkable simplicity, may not correspond with our ideas of neatness and propriety; but they accorded with their taste, and sufficiently answered their design. One of these consisted in a set of spikes, nails, or large pegs fixed in the walls of the house, upon which they hung up the movables and utensils in common use that be- longed to the room. These mails they do not drive into the walls with a hammer or mallet, but fix them there when the house is building; for if the walls are of brick, they are too hard, or if they consist of clay, too soft and mouldering, to admit the action of the hammer. The spikes, which are so contrived as to strengthen the walls, by binding the parts together, as well as to serve for con- venience, are large, with square heads like dice, and bent at the ends so as to make them cramp-irons. They com- monly place them at the windows and doors, in order to hang upon them, when they choose, veils and curtains, although they place them in other parts of the room, to hang up other things of various kinds. The care with which they fixed these nails, may be in- ferred, as well from the important purposes they were meant to serve, as from the promise of the Lord to Elia- kim : “And I will fasten him as a nail in a sure, place,” Isa. 22:23. It is evident from the words of the prophet, that it was common in his time to suspend upon them the utensils belonging to the apartment: “Will men take a pin of it to hang any vessel thereon 2'' Ezek. 15: 3. The word used in Isaiah for a nail of this sort, is the same which denotes the stake, or large pin of iron, which fas- tened down to the ground the cords of their tents. These nails, therefore, were of necessary and common use, and of no small importance in all their apartments; and if they seem to us mean and insignificant, it is because they are unknown to us, and inconsistent with our notions of propriety, and because we have no name for them º what conveys to our ear a low and contemptible 1Uted. It is evident from the frequent allusions in Scripture to these instruments, that they were not regarded with con- tempt or indifference by the natives of Palestine. “Grace has been showed ſrom the Lord our God,” said Ezra, “to leave us a remnant to escape, and to give us a mail in his holy place;” º 9: 8.) or, as explained in the margin, a constant and sure abode. The dignity and propriety of the metaphor appear from the use which the prophet Ze- chariah makes of it : “Out of him cometh forth the cor- ner, out of him the nail, out of him the battle bow, out of him every oppressor together,” Zech. 10; 4. The whole frame of government, both in church and State, which the chosen people of God enjoyed, was the contrivance of his wisdom and the gift of his bounty; the foundations upon which it rested, the bonds which kept the several parts together, its means of defence, its officers and executors, were all the fruits of distinguishing goodness; even the oppressors cf his people were a rod of correction in the hand of Jehovah, to convince them of sin, and restore them to his service.— PVaison. NAIN ; a city of Palestine, where Jesus restored a widow's son to life, as they were carrying him out to be buried. Eusebius says, it was in the neighborhood of Endor and Scythopolis; and elsewhere, that it was two miles from Tabor, south ; at the foot of the lesser mount Hermon, near the town of Endor. The brook Kishon ran between Tabor and Nain.—Calmet. * NAKEDNESS; NUDITY. These terms, besides their ordinary and literal meaning, sometimes signify, put to shame, stripped of resources, void of Succor, disarmed. just claim to our So, aſter worshipping the golden calf, the Israelites found themselves naked in the midst of their enemies. The nakedness of Adam and Eve was unknown in their innocence, that is, unfelt ; they were unconscious of shame before they sinned, because concupiscence and irregular desires had not yet excited the flesh against the spirit. *ied is put ſor discovered, known, manifest. So Job 26: 6: “Hell is naked before him.” The unseen state of the dead is open to the eyes of God. St. Paul says, in the same sense, “Neither is there any creature that is not manifest in his sight; but all things are naked and open untô the eyes of him with whom we have to do,” Heb. 4: 13 “Nakedness of the feet” was a token of respect. Moses put off his shoes to approach the burning bush. Most commentators are of opinion, that the priests served in the tabernacle with their feet naked; and afterwards in the temple. In the enumeration that Moses makes of the habit and ornaments of the priests, he nowhere mentions any dress for the feet. Also the frequent ablutions ap- pointed them in the temple seem to imply that their feet were naked. To uncover the nakedness of any one, is commonly put for a shameful and unlawful conjunction, or an incestuous marriage, Lev. 20: 19. Ezek. 16:37. Nakedness is sometimes put for being partly undressed; en déshabillé. Thus Saul continued naked among the prophets; that is, having only his under garments on. Isaiah received orders from the Lord to go naked; that is, clothed as a slave, half clad. Thus it is recommended to clothe the naked ; that is, such as are ill clothed. St. Paul says, that he was in cold, in nakedness; that is, in poverty and want of suitable raiment.—Watson ; Calmet. NAME. A name was given to the male child at the time of its circumcision, but it is probable, previous to the introduction of that rite, that the name was given imme- diately aſter its birth. Among the Orientals the appellations given as names are always significant. In the Old Testament, we find that the child was named in many instances from the cir- cumstances of its birth, or from some peculiarities in the history of the family to which it belonged, Gen. 16: 11. 19:37. 25: 25, 26. Exod. 2: 10. 18; 3, 4. Frequently the name was a compound one, one part being the name of the Deity, and among idolatrous nations the name of an idol. The following instances may be mentioned among others, and may stand as specimens of the whole; namely, Samuel, “hear God;” Adonijah, “God is lord;” Josedech, “God is just ;” Ethbaal, a Canaanitish name, the latter part of the compound being the name of the idol deity, Baal; Belshazzar, “Bel,” a Babylonish deity, “is ruler and king.” Sometimes the name had a prophetic mean- ing, Gen. 17: 15. Isa. 7: 14. 8: 3. Hosea 1: 4, 6, 9, Matt. 1:21. Luke 1: 13, 60, 63. In the later times, however, names were selected from those of the progenitors of a family; hence in the New Testament hardly any other than ancient names occur, Matt. 1: 12. Luke 1: 61. 3: 23, &c. The inhabitants of the East very frequently change their names, and sometimes do it for very slight reasons. This accounts for the fact of so many persons having two names in Scripture, Ruth 1:20, 21. 1 Sam. 14:49, 31: 2. 1 Chron. 10: 2. Judg. 6: 32. 7: 1. 2 Sam. 23:8. Kings and princes very often changed the names of those who held offices under them, particularly when they first at- tracted their notice, and were taken into their employ, and when subsequently they were elevated to some new sta- tion, and crowned with additional honors, Gen. 41: 45. 17: 5. 32: 28. 35: 10. 2 Kings 23: 34, 35. 24; 17. Dan. 1: 6. John 1: 42. Mark 3: 17. Hence a name, a new name, occurs tropically, as a token or proof of distinc- tion and honor in the following among other passages : Philip. 2: 9. Heb. 1: 4. Rev. 2; 17. Sometimes the names of the dead were changed; for instance that of Abel, given to him after his death, in allusion to the shortness of his life, Gen. 2: 8. Sometimes proper names are translated into other languages, losing their original form, while they preserve their signification. This appears to have been the case with the proper names which occur in the first eleven chaoters of Genesis, and which were N A M N A S [ 858 ) translated into the Hebrew from a language still more ancient. The Orientals in some instances, in order to dis- tinguish themselves from others of the same name, added to their own name the name of their father, grandfather, and even great-grandfather. “To raise up the name of the dead,” (Ruth 4: 5, 10, &c.) is said of the brother of a man who died without children, when his brother married the widow of the de- ceased, and revived his name in Israel, by means of the children which he might beget; and which were deemed to be children of the deceased. In a contrary sense to this, to blot out the name of any one, is to exterminate his memory; to extirpate his race, his children, works, or houses, and in general whatever may continue his name on the earth, Ps. 9: 5. Prov. 10: 7. Isa. 4: 1. To know any one by his name, (Exod. 33: 12.) ex- presses a distinction, a friendship, a particular familiarity. The kings of the East had little communication with their subjects, and hardly ever appeared in public ; so that when they knew their servants by name, vouchsafed to speak to them, to call them, and to admit them into their presence, it was a great mark of favor. In many Eastern countries the true personal name of the king is unknown to his subjects: in Japan, to pronounce the em- peror's real name is punishable ; his general name, as emperor, is held to be sufficiently sacred. Titles often became names, or parts of names; by these titles many sovereigns are known in history; and varying with inci- dents and occurrences, they occasion great confusion. God often complains that the false prophets prophesied in his name; (Jer, 14: 14, 15, 27: 15, &c.) and Christ says, (Matt. 7:22.) that in the day of judgment many shall say, “Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name, and in thy mame cast out devils, and in thy name done many wonderful works?” He also says, (Mark 9: 4.1.) whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in his name, shall not lose his reward; and he that receives a prophet or a just man, in the name (character) of a prophet or a just man, shall receive a recompense in proportion, Matt. 10.41. In all these instances the “name” is put for the perscn, for his commission, his service, his sake, his au- thority, in a word, his character. So names of men are sometimes put for persons, espe- cially persons of distinction, Rev. 3: 4. “Thou hast a few names even in Sardis, which have not defiled their garments.” And chap. 11: 13. seven thousand men pe. rished in the earthquake—(names of men ; Gr.) Perhaps this should be considered as implying men of name, per- sons of consequence, nobles, &c., Num. 16: 2. It is pro- bable, also, that this phrase contains some allusion to a list or catalogue of names; for we find it in Acts 1: 15. Of the Messiah it is said, “And he hath on his vesture and on his thigh a name written, King of kings, and Lord of lords,” Rev. 19: 16. In illustration of this it may be remarked, that it appears to have been an ancient custom among several nations, to adorn the images of their dei- ties, princes, victors at their public games, and other eminent persons, with inscriptions expressive of their names, character, titles, or some circumstance which might contribute to their honor. There are several such images yet extant, with an inscription written either on the garment, or breast, or one of the thighs.-Watson ; Calmet. - NAME OF GOD. By this term we are to understand, 1. God himself, (Ps. 20: 1.) or, whatever unfolds to us the glory of the divine character. 2. His titles peculiar to himself, Exod. 3: 13, 14. 3. His word, Ps. 5: 11. Acts 9. 15. 4. His works, Ps. 8:1. 5. His worship, Exod. 20: 24. 6. His perfections and excellencies, Exod. 34:6. John 17: 26. The properties or qualities of this name are these :—1. A glorious name, Ps. 72: 17. 2. Transcendent and in- comparable, Rev.19; 16.3, Powerful, Phil. 2: 10. , 4. Holy and reverend, Ps. 111:9. 5. Awful to the wicked. 6. Perpetual, Is. 55: 13. Thus the Psalmist, to illustrate the attractive excellence of the divine character, says, “They that know thy name, will put their trust in thee.” So Moses, (Deut. 28:58.) “That thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful, name, The Lord Thy God.” (See Gop; Jehovali ; and Lord, NAME of, TAKEN IN vain.) Cruden’s Concordance ; Hannam's Anal. Comp., p. 20.— Hend. Buck. . . - NANTES, EDICT of ; a decree of Henry IV. in favor of his Huguenot, or Protestant subjects, in the year 1598, about twenty-six years after the horrible Parisian massa- cre; and the sudden repeal of which decree, by Louis XIV., occasioned the most terrible persecution ever suſ. ferred in France. (See HUGUENOTs ; PERSECUTION.)— Williams. NAOMI. (See RUTH.) NAPHTALI; the sixth son of Jacob by Bilhah, Ra- chel’s handmaid. The word Naphtali signifies wrestling, or struggling. When Rachel gave him this name, she said, “With great wrestlings have I wrestled with my sister, and I have prevailed,” Gen. 30: 8. (See HIND.) Naphtali had but four sons, and yet at the coming out of Egypt his tribe made up fifty-three thousand four hun- dred men, able to bear arms. Moses, in the blessing he gave to the same tribe, says, “O Naphtali, satisfied with favor, and full with the blessing of the Lord, possess thou the west and the south,” Deut. 33: 23. The Vulgate reads it, “the sea and the south,” and the Hebrew will admit of either interpretation, that is, the sea of Gennesa- reth, which was to the south by the inheritance of this tribe. His soil was very fruitſul in corn and oil. His limits were extended into Upper and Lower Galilee, having Jordan to the east, the tribes of Asher and Zebulum to the west, Libanus to the north, and the tribe of Issachar to the south. The residence of the tribe of Naphtali was a beautiful woodland country, which extended to mount Lebanon, and produced fruits of every sort. Of the adjacent district of Resroan, which Wolney says is similar to this side of mount Lebanon, Le Roque says, (p. 220,) “Nothing equals the fertility of the lands in Kesroan : mulberry-trees for the silkworms; vineyards yielding excellent wine; olive trees tall as oaks; meadows, pasturages, corn, and fruits of all kinds. Such are the riches of this agreeable coun- try, which besides abounds in cattle, large and Small, in birds of game, and in beasts of chase. So beautiful a country, situated in a climate which I think is the mildest and most temperate of Syria, seems to contribute, in some manner, to the kindness of disposition, to the gentle incli- nations, and to the praiseworthy manners of the inha- bitants.” - - Under Barak, their general, they and the Zebulunites fought with distinguished bravery against the army of Ja- bin the younger; and at the desire of Gideon they pursued the Midianites, Judg. 4: 10. 5: 18, 7: 23. A thousand of their captains, with thirty-seven thousand of their troops, assisted at David’s coronation, and brought great quanti- ties of provision with them, 1 Chron. 12:34, 40. We find no person of distinguished note among them, save Barak, and Hiram the artificer. Instigated by Asa, Benhadad the elder, king of Syria, terribly ravaged the land of Naphtali; and what it suffered in after invasions by the Syrians we are partly told, 1 ICings 15:20. The Naphta- lites were, many, if not most of them, carried captive by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, 2 Kings 15:29. Josiah purged their country from idols. Our Savior and his dis- ciples, during his public ministry, resided much and preached frequently in the land of Naphtali, Isa. 9:1. Matt. 4: 13, 15.- Watson ; Calmet. NAPHTUHIMI; a son, or rather the descendants of a son, of Mizraim, whose proper name is Naphtuch. Naph- tuch is supposed to have given his name to Naph, Noph, or Memphis, and to have been the first king of that divi- sion of Egypt. He is, however, placed by Bochart in Libya; and is conjectured to be the Aphtuchus, or Autu- chus, who had a temple somewhere here. He is further conjectured, and not without reason, to be the original of the heathen god Neptune; who is represented to have been a Libyan, and whose temples were generally built near the sea-coast. By others, he is supposed to have peopled that part of Ethiopia between Syene and Meroe, the capital of which was called Napata.-TVatson. NASSARIANS, or Nosai.R1, a Mohammedan sect of the Shiite party, formed in the two hundred and seventieth year of the Hegira, received its name from Nasar, in the environs of Koufa, the birthplace of its founder. They NAT N A T [ 859 J occupy a strip of motint Lebanon, and are tributary to the Turks. They have àbout eight hundred villages, and their chief town is Sasita; eight leagues from Tripoli. Here their scheik resides. Their manners are rude, and corrupted by remnants of heathenish customs, which re- mind us of the Lingam worship. Although polygamy is not allowed, yet, on certain festival days, they permit the promiscuous intercourse of the sexes, and are divided, after the manner of the Hindoos, into numerous castes, which oppress one another. They profess to be worship- pers of Ali, believe in the transmigration of souls, but not in a heaven or hell. They are friendly to Christians, and observe some of their festivals and ceremonies, but with- out understanding their meaning. A spiritual head, scheik khalil, directs their religious concerns, and travels about among them as a prophet. The opinion formerly current, that this sect were Syrian Sabians, or disciples of St. John, has been completely ex- ploded by Niebuhr, and the accounts of Rosseau, the French consul at Aleppo. (See CHRISTIANs of ST. John.) —Hend. Buck. - NATHAN ; a prophet illustrious for his union of pru- dence and faithfulness. He lived under David, and had much of the confidence of that prince, whom he served in a number of ways. See 2 Sam. 11, 12, &c. The time and manner of Nathan’s death are not known. 1 Chron. 29:29. notices that he, with Gad, wrote the his- tory of David. There are several other persons of this name mentioned in Scripture.—Calmet. NATHANAEL; a disciple of Christ, remarkable for his transparent sincerity of character, the manner of whose conversion is related John 1:46, &c. Many have thought that Nathanael was the same as Bartholomew. (See BAR- THOLOMEw.)—Calmet. NATION ; all the inhabitants of a particular country; (Deut. 4:34.) a country or kingdom; (Exod. 34: 10. Rev. 7: 9.) countrymen, natives of the same stock; (Acts 26: 4.) the father, head, and original of a people; (Gen. 25: 23.) the heathen or Gentiles, Isa. 55: 5. (See GENTILEs ; or Heath EN.)—Calmet. - NATIWITY OF CHRIST. The birth of our Savior was exactly as predicted by the prophecies of the Old Tes- tament, Isa. 7: 14. Jer. 31: 22. He was born of a virgin, of the house of David, and of the tribe of Judah, Matt. 1. Luke 1:27. His coming into the world was after the manner of other men, though his generation and concep- tion were extraordinary. The place of his birth was Beth- lehem, (Mic. 5: 2. Matt. 2: 4, 6.) where his parents were wonderfully conducted by providence, Luke 2: 1, 7. The time of his birth was foretold by the prophets to be before the sceptre or civil government departed from Judah, Gen. 49: 10. Mal. 3: 1. Hag. 2: 6, 7, 9. Dan. 9: 24. The exact year of his birth is not agreed on by chronolo- gers, but it was about the ſour thousandth year of the world; nor can the precise season of the year, the month, and day in which he was born be ascertained. The Egyp- tians placed it in January ; Wagenseil in February; Bo- chart in March ; some, mentioned by Clement of Alexan- dria, in April; others in May ; Epiphanius speaks of some who placed it in June, and of others who supposed it to have been in July; Wagenseil, who was not sure of Feb- ruary, fixed it probably in August; Lightfoot on the 15th of September; Scaliger, Casaubon, and Calvisius, in Oc- tober; others in November; and the Latin church in De- cember. It does not, however, appear probable that the vulgar account is right; the circumstance of the shep- herds watching their flocks by night, agrees not with the winter season. Dr. Gill thinks it was more likely in au- tumn, in the month of September, at the feast of taberna- cles, to which there seems some reference in John 1: 14. The Scripture, however, assures us that it was in the “fulness of time;” (Gal. 4: 4.) and, indeed, the wisdom of God is evidently displayed as to the time when, as well as the end for which Christ came. It was in a time when the world stood in need of such a Savior, and was best prepared for receiving him. * - 1. About the time of Christ's appearance, says Dr. Ro- bertson, there prevailed a general opinion that the Al- mighty would send forth some eminent messenger to com- municate a more perfect discovery of his will to mankind. The dignity of Christ, the virtues of his character, the glory of his kingdom, and the signs of his coming, were described by the ancient prophets with the utmost perspi- cuity. Guided by the sure word of prophecy, the Jews of that age concluded the period predetermined by God to be then completed, and that the promised Messiah would suddenly appear, Luke 2: 25–38. Nor were these ex- pectations peculiar to the Jews. By their dispersion among so many nations, by their conversation with the learned men among the heathen, and the translation of their inspired writings into a language almost universal, the principles of their religion were spread all over the East; and it became the common belief that a Prince would arise at that time in Judea, who should change the face of the world, and extend his empire from one end of the earth to the other. Now, had Christ been manifested at a more early period, the world would not have been prepared to meet him with the samg fondness and zeal; had his appearance been put off for any considerable time, men's expectations would have begun to languish, and the warmth of desire, from a delay of gratification, might have cooled and died away. - 2. The birth of Christ was also in the fulness of time, if we consider the then political state of the world. The world, in the most early ages, was divided into small in- dependent states, differing from each other in language, manners, laws, and religion. The shock of so many op- posite interests, the interfering of so many contrary views, occasioned the most violent convulsions and disorders; perpetual discord subsisted between these rival states, and hostility and bloodshed never ceased. Commerce had not hitherto united mankind, and opened the communication of one nation with another: voyages into remote coun- tries were very rare; men moved in a narrow circle, little acquainted with any thing beyond the limits of their own Small territory. At last the Roman ambition undertook the arduous enterprise of conquering the world. They trod down the kingdoms, according to Daniel’s prophetic description, by their exceeding strength they devoured the whole earth, Dan. 7: 7, 23. However, by enslaving the world, they civilized it, and while they oppressed man- kind, they united them together; the same laws were everywhere established, and the same languages under- stood ; men approached nearer to one another in senti- ments and manners, and the intercourse between the most distant corners of the earth was rendered secure and agreeable. Satiated with victory, the first emperors aban- doned all thoughts of new conquests; peace, an unknown blessing, was enjoyed through all that vast empire; or if a slight war was waged on an outlying and barbarous’ frontier, far from disturbing the tranquillity, it scarcely drew the attention of mankind. The disciples of Christ, thus favored by the union and peace of the Roman em- pire, executed their commission with great advantage. The success and rapidity with which they diffused the knowledge of his name over the world are astonishing. Nations were now accessible which formerly had been unknown. Under this situation, into which the provi- dence of God had brought the world, the joyful sound in a few years reached those remote corners of the earth, into which it could not otherwise have penetrated for many ages. Thus the Roman ambition and bravery paved the way, and prepared the world for the reception of the Christian doctrine. - 3. If we consider the state of the world with regard to morals, it evidently appears that the coming of Christ was at the most appropriate time. The Romans, (continues our author,) by subduing the world, lost their own liberty. Many vices engendered or nourished by prosperity, deli- vered them over to the vilest race of tyrants that ever afflicted or disgraced human nature. The colors are not too strong which the apostle employs in drawing the cha- racter of that age See Eph. 4: 17, 19. In this time of universal corruption did the wisdom of God manifest the Christian revelation to the world. What the wisdom of men could do for the encouragement of virtue in a corrupt world had been tried during several ages, and all human devices were found by experience to be of very small avail; so that no juncture could be more proper for pub- lishing a religion, which, independent of human iaws and N A T' N A W. [ 860 ) institutions, explains the principles of morals with admi- rable perspicuity, and enforces the practice of them by most persuasive arguments. 4. The wisdom of God will still further appear in the time of Christ's coming, iſ we consider the world with re- gard to its religious state. The Jews seem to have been deeply tinctured with superstition. Delighted with the ceremonial prescriptions of the law, they utterly neglected the moral. While the Pharisees undermined religion, on the one hand, by their vain traditions and wretched inter- pretations of the law, the Sadducees denied the immorta- lity of the soul, and overturned the doctrine of future re- wards and punishments; so that between them the know- ledge and power of true religion were entirely destroyed. But the deplorable situation of the heathen world called still more loudly for an immediate interposal of the divine hand. The characters of their heathen deities were infa- mous, and their religious worship consisted frequently in the vilest and most shameful rites. According to the apostle's observation, they “were in all things too super- stitious.” Stately temples, expensive sacrifices, pompous ceremonies, magnificent festivals, with all the other circumstances of show and splendor, were the objects which false religion presented to its votaries; but just no- tions of God, obedience to his moral laws, purity of heart, and sanctity of life, were not once mentioned as ingredi- ents in religious service. Rome adopted the gods of al- most every nation whom she had conquered, and opened her temples to the grossest superstitions of the most bar- barous people. Her foolish heart being darkened, she changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things, Tom. 1:21, 23. No period, therefore, can be mentioned when instructions would have been more seasonable and necessary; and no wonder that those who were looking for salvation should joyfully ex- claim, “Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, for he hath visited and redeemed his people.” The nativity of Christ is celebrated in Tºngland on the 25th day of December, and divine service is performed in the church, and in many places of worship among dissen- ters; but, alas ! the day, we fear, is more generally pro- faned than impróved. Instead of being a season of real devotion, it is a season of great diversion. The luxury, extravagance, intemperance, obscene pleasures, and drunkenness that abound, are striking proofs of the im- moralities of the age. It is a matter of just complaint, says a divine, that such irregular and extravagant things are at this time commonly done by many who call them- *selves Christians; as if, because the Son of God was at this time made man, it were fit for men to make them- selves heasts Manne's Dissertalion on the Birth of Christ ; Jardner's Cred., p. 1, vol. ii. pp. 796, 963; Gill's Body of JDivinity, on Incarnation ; JSishop Jan's Theory of Religion ; Nemton's Review of Ecclesiastical IIistory; Dr. Robertson's Sermon on the Situation of the TVorld at Christ’s Appearance ; Puckminster's Sermons; Edwards' Redemption, pp. 313, 316; I'obinson's Claude, vol. i. pp. 276, 317; John Edwards’ Sur- vey of all the Dispensations and Methods of Religion, vol. i. chap. 13; Works of JIannah More.—Hend. Buck. NATURAL, is, (1.) What proceeds from birth, and natural causes, 1 Cor. 15:44. (2.) What is agreeable to natural design, form, or inclination, Rom. 1: 26, 27.- Bromwn. NATURAL MAN, (psuchikos anthropos,) is a peculiar designation that occurs in the apostolic writings: “The natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God, neither can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned,” 1 Cor. 2: 14. See also Jude 10. Here it is plain, first, that by “the natural man” is not meant a person devoid of natural judgment, reason, or conscience, in which sense the expression is often used among men. Nor does it signify one who is entirely governed by his fleshly appetites, or what the world calls a voluptuary, or sensualist. Neither does it signify merely a man in the rude state of nature, whose faculties have not been culti- vated by learning and study, and polished by an inter- course with society. The context forbids either of these interpretations. The apostle manifestly takes his “natu- ral man” ſrom among such as the world hold in the high- est repute for their natural parts, their learning, and their religion. Iſe selects him from among the philosophers of Greece, who sought after wisdom, and from among the Jewish scribes, who were instructed in the revealed law of God, 1 Cor. 1:22, 23. These are the persons whom he terms the wise, the scribes, the disputers of this world; men to whom the gospel was a stumbling-block and fool- ishness, 1 Cor. 1: 20, 23. - - The “natural man” is also here evidently opposed to the pneumatikos, “him that is spiritual,” (1 Cor. 2: 15.) even as the natural body which we derive from Adam is opposed to the spiritual body which believers will receive ſrom Christ at the resurrection, according to 1 Cor. 15:44, 45. Now the spiritual man is one who has the Spirit of Christ dwelling in him, (Rom. 8: 9.) not merely in the way of miraculous gifts, as some have imagined, (for these were peculiar to the first age of the Christian church, and even then not common to all the saints, nor inseparably con- nected with salvation, 1 Cor. 13: 1–4. Heb. 6: 4–7.) but in his saving inſluences of holiness, light, and conso- lation, whereby the subject is made to discern the truth and excellency of spiritual things, and so to believe, love, and delight in them as his true happiness. If therefore a man is called “spiritual” because the Spirit of Christ dwells in him, giving him new views, dispositions, and enjoyments, then the “natural man,” being opposed to such, must be one who is destitute of the Spirit, and of all his supernatural and saving effects, whatever may be his attainments in human learning and science. It is ob- viously upon this principle that our Lord insists upon the necessity of the new birth in order to our entering into the kingdom of heaven, John 3: 3, 5.— Watson. NATURE ; the essential properties of a thing, or that by which it is distinguished from all others. It is used also ſor the system of the world, and the Creator of it ; for the specific constitution of the sexes; and for common sense, Rom. 1:26, 27. 1 Cor. 11: 14. The word is also used in reference to a variety of other objects, which we shall here enumerate. 1. The divine nature is not any external form or shape, but his glory, excellency, and per- fections, peculiar to himself. 2. Iłuman nature signifies the state, properties, and peculiarities of man. 3., Good nature is a disposition to "please, and is compounded of kindness, forbearance, forgiveness, and schf-denial. 4. The law of nature is the will of God relating to human actions, grounded in the moral diſſerences of things. Some understand it in a more comprehensive sense, as signifying those stated orders by which all the parts of the material world are governed in their several motions and operations. 5. The light of nature does not consist merc- ly in those ideas which heathens have actually attained, but those which are presented to men by the works of creation, and which, by the exertion of reason, they may obtain, if they be desirous of retaining God in their mind. (See RELIGION.) 6. By the dictates of nature, with re- gard to right and wrong, we understand those things which appear to the mind to be natural, fit, or reasonable. 7. The state of nature is that in which men have not by mutual engagements, implicit or express, entered into communities. 8. Depraved nature is that eorrupt state in which all mankind are born, and which inclines them to evil. (See DEPRAVITY, HUMAN.) . Peter inſorms us, (2 Ephes. 1: 4.) that our Savior has made us partakers of a divine nature: he has imparted to us the character of children of God, and grace to prac- tise godliness, &c. like our Pather who is in heaven. Comp, 1 John 3: 1.-Hend. Buck; Calmet, NAVIGATION, was little cultivated among the He- brews till the days of their kings: Solomon had a fleet, but he had not sailors equal to the management of it; no doubt, from their want of habit. Moses mentions nothing of navigation, and David, it should seem, rather acquired his great wealth by land commerce, than by sea voyages. It is not easy to say what assistance the wisdom of Solo- mon contributed to his fleet and officers on the mighty ocean. Perhaps his extensive knowledge of natural things first suggested the plan of these voyages. We know that Judea had ports on the Mediterranean, as Jop- a, &c., but probably the coast, during the days of the judges, was in the hands of the Philistines, to the exclusion N. A 2. N A. Z. | 861 | of Hebrew mariners; and this accounts for the means by which the Philistines, on so narrow a slip of land, could become powerful, and could occasionally furnish immense armies, because they were free to receive reinforcements by sea. In later ages the Greeks and Romans invaded Syria by sea, and the intercourse between Judea and Rome was direct; as we learn from the voyage of Paul, &c. Comp. Joppa. There were also many boats and lesser vessels employed in navigating the lakes, or seas, as the Hebrews called them, which are in the Holy Land; and there must have been some embarkations on the Jordan; but the whole of these were trifling; and it appears, that though Provi- dence taught navigation to mankind, yet it was not the design of Providence that the chosen people, and the de- positaries of the Messiah, should have been other than a settled or local nation, attached to one country, to which country, and even to certain of its towns, peculiar privi- leges were attributed in prophecy, and by divine appoint- ment. The legal observances, distinction of meats, &c. were great impediments to Jewish sailors, and prevented their attainment of any great skill in navigation.—Calmet. NAZARETH ; a little city in the tribe of Zebulun, in Ilower Galilee, to the west of Tabor, and to the east of Ptolemais. This city is much celebrated in the Scriptures for having been the usual place of the residence of Jesus Christ, during the first thirty years of his life, Luke 2: 51. It was here he lived in obedience to Joseph and Mary, and hence he took the name of Nazarene. After he had begun to execute his mission, he preached here sometimes in the synagogue, Luke 4: 16. But because his country- men had no faith in him, and were offended at the mean- ness of his original, he did not many miracles here, (Matt. º 13:54, 58.) nor would he dwell in the city. So he fixed his habitation at Capernaum for the latter part of his life, Matt. 4: 13. The city of Nazareth was situated upon an eminence, and on one side was a precipice, from whence the Nazarenes designed, at one time, to cast Christ down headlong, because he upbraided them for their incredulity, Luke 4: 29. The present state of this celebrated place is thus de- scribed by modern travellers:—Nassara, or Naszera, is one of the principal towns in the pashalic of Acre. Its inhabitants are industrious, because they are treated with less severity than those of the country towns in general. The population is estimated at three thousand, of whom five hundred are Turks; the remainder are Christians. There are about ninety Latin families, according to Burckhardt; but Mr. Connor reports the Greeks to be the most numerous: there is, besides, a congregation of Greek Catholics, and another of Maronites. The Latin convent is a very spacious and commodious building, which was thoroughly repaired and considerably enlarged in 1730. The remains of the more ancient edi- fice, ascribed to the mother of Constantine, may be ob- served in the form of subverted columns, with fragments of capitals and bases of pillars, lying near the modern building. Pococke noticed, over a door, an old alto-relief of Judith cutting off the head of Holofernes. Within the convent is the church of the Annunciation, containing the house of Joseph and Mary, the length of which is not quite the breadth of the church; but it forms the principal part of it. The columns and all the interior of the church are hung round with damask silk, which gives it a warm and rich appearance. Behind the great altar is a subterranean cavern, divided into small grottoes, where \ | ES ºffiliºſº the Virgin is said to have lived. Her kitchen, parlor, and bedroom, are shown, and also a narrow hole in the rock, in which the child Jesus once hid himself from his perse- cutors : The pilgrims who visit these holy spots are in the habit of knocking off small pieces of stone from the walls, which are thus considerably enlarging. Burckhardt says that this church, next to that of the holy Sepulchre, is the finest in Syria, and contains two tolerably good organs. Within the walls of the convent are two gardens, and a small burying-ground : the walls are very thick, and serve occasionally as a fortress to all the Christians in the town. There are, at present, eleven friars in the convent: they are chiefly Spaniards. To the north-west of the convent is a small church, built over Joseph's workshop. Both Maundrell and Pococke describe it as in ruins ; but Dr. E. D. Clarke says, “This is now a small chapel, perfectly modern, and neatly whitewashed.” To the west of this is a small arched building, which, they say, is the synagogue where Christ exasperated the Jews, by applying the language of Isaiah to himself. Dr. E. D. Clarke remarks that the situation of the mo- dern town answers exactly to the description of St. Luke. “Induced, by the words of the gospel, to examine the place more attentively than we should otherwise have done, we went, as it is written, out of the city, ‘to the brow of the hill whereon the city is built,’ and came to a precipice corresponding to the words of the evangelist. It is above the Maronite church, and, probably, the pre- cise spot alluded to by the text.”— Watson. NAZARENE: Matt. 2: 23. We find no particular place in the prophets expressly affirming that the Mes- siah should be called a Nazarene; and Matthew only Imentions the prophets in general. Perhaps he would in- fer that the consecration of Nazarites, and their great purity, was a type and prophecy referring to our Savior; (Num. 6: 18, 19.) or, that the name Nazir, or Nazarite, given to the patriarch Joseph, had some reference to Christ, Gen. 49:26, Deut. 33: 16. Jerome was of opinion, that Matthew alludes to Isa. 11: 1. 60: 21 : “ There shali come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch (Heb. Nazer) shall grow out of his roots.” This branch, or Nazer, and this rod, are certainly intended to denote the Messiah, by the general consent of the fathers and interpreters—Or, possibly, in a more general sense, “He shall be vilified, despised, neglected,” as every thing was that came from Nazareth ; and this might be a kind of prophetic proverb.-Calmet. NAZARENES; Christians converted from Judaism, whose chief error consisted in defending the necessity of expediency of the works of the law, and who obstimately adhered to the practice of the Jewish ceremonies. The name of Nazarenes, at first, had nothing odious in it, N E A N E C [862 ) ºr and it was often given to the first Christians. The ſathers frequently mention the gospel of the Nazarenes, which differs nothing from that of St. Matthew, which was either in Hebrew or Syriac, for the use of the first converts, but was afterwards corrupted by the Ebionites. These Naza- renes preserved their first gospel in its primitive purity. Some of them were still in being in the time of Jerome, who does not reproach them with any gross errors. They were very zealous observers of the law of Moses, but held the traditions of the Pharisees in very great contempt. Some have considered the Nazarenes and the Ebionites to have been identical; but this cannot be proved to be fact; and nothing can be more fallacious than the Socinian ar- gument, which is ſounded on the mere assumption of this identity, and according to which, the Nazarenes, being orthodox judaizing Christians, held that Jesus was a mere man, . See EBIONITEs, and Bishop Horsley's Reply to Dr. Priestley, and Burton's Early Heresics. The name Nazarene was given to Jesus Christ and his disciples; and is commonly taken in a sense of derision and contempt in such authors as have written against Christianity.—Hend. Buck. NAZARITES ; those under the ancient law who en- gaged by a vow to abstain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, to let their hair grow, not to enter any house pol- luted by having a dead corpse in it, nor to be present at any funeral. their presence, they recommenced the whole of their con- secration and Nazariteship. This vow generally lasted eight days, sometimes a month, and sometimes their whole lives. Perpetual Nazarites, as Samson and John the Baptist, were consecrated to their Nazariteship by their parents, and continued all their lives in this state, without drinking wine or cutting their hair. Those who made a vow of Nazariteship out of Palestine, and could not come to the temple when their vow was expired, contented themselves with observing the abstinence required by the law, and cutting off their hair in the place where they were : the offerings and sacrifices prescribed by Moses, to be offered at the temple, by themselves or by others for them, they deferred till a convenient opportunity. Hence it was that St. Paul, being at Corinth, and having made the vow of a Nazarite, had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, a port of Co- rinth, and deferred the rest of his vow till he came to Jeru- salem, Acts 18: 18. 21:23, 24. The institution of Nazaritism is involved in much mys- tery; and no satisfactory reason has ever been given of it. This is certain, that it had the approbation of God, and may be considered as affording a good example of self-de- denial in order to be given up to the study of the law, and the practice of exact righteousness.-Watson. NEAL, (DANIEL,) a dissenting minister, was born, in 1678, in London; was educated at Merchant Tailors' school, and at Utrecht; became minister to a congrega- tion in Jewin street; and died in 1743. He wrote a His- tory of the Puritans; and a History of New England.— Davenport. - NEAPOLIS, now called Napoli; (Acts 16: 11.) a city of Macedonia, near the borders of Thrace.—Calmet. NEAR ; at hand. God is near, he is everywhere pre- sent, and is ready to help his people in every case; or when he offers to save, uphold, and comfort, Jer. 23: 23. Isa. 55.6, and 41: 5. Deut. 4: 7. 1 Kings 2: 7. Ps. 69: 18, and 75: 1, and 119: 151, and 32: 9. Lam. 3: 57. He is near in people's mouth, but far from their reins, when they are oft talking of him, but are far from loving, desiring, and delighting in him, Jer. 12; 2. God's name is near ; he is closely related to his people and they intimate in their fel- lowship with him. His work is near, exerted in upholding, protecting, and comforting them. His word is nigh in their mouth, and in their heart, preached to their ear, spo- ken by their lips, conceived by their mind, and powerfully applied to and believed by their heart. Israel was a peo- ple near to God; while the Gentiles were far off, they were closely related to him as his peculiar people; they had his ordinances and symbols of his presence among them; and he was ready to support and defend them, Ps. 148: 14, and 57; 19. . We dran, near to God when we worship him, and by faith, prayer, &c., have intimate fellowship with him, Lev. 16: 1. 1 Sam. 14: 36.-Bronn. If, by accident, any one should have died in ( NEBO ; the name of an idol of the Babylonians: “Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth,” Isa. 46: 1. The word Nebo comes from a root that signifies “to prophesy,” and there- fore may stand for an oracle. There is some probability in the opinion of Calmet, that Bel and Nebo are but one and the same deity, and that Isaiah made use of these names as synonymous. The god Bel was the oracle of the Babylonians. The name Nebo, or Nabo, is found in the composition of the names of several princes of Baby- lon; as Nabomassar, Nabopolassar, Nebuchednezzar, Ne- buzar-adan, Nebushasban, &c. (See also ABARIM.)— Watson. - - NEBUCHADNEZZAR, or NABoroLAssaR, father of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, was a Babylonian, and chief of the army of Saracus, king of Assyria. He made a league with Astyages, who gave his daughter Amyitis in marriage to his son Nebuchadnezzar. Ahasuerus and Nabopolassar, joining their forces, revolted against Sara- cus, king of Nineveh, besieged him in his capital, took him prisoner, and on the destruction of the Assyrian mo- narchy raised two kingdoms; that of the Medes, possessed by Astyages, or Ahasuerus, and that of the Chaldeans, or of Babylon, founded by Nabopolassar, A. M. 3378. He died A. M. 3399.—Calmet. - NEBUCHADNEZZAR, son and successor of Nabopo- lassar, succeeded to the kingdom of Chaldea A. M. 3399. See BABYLoN.) - Nebuchadnezzar, being at Babylon, in the second year of his reign, had a mysterious dream, in which he saw a statue composed of several metals; the interpretation of which was given by Daniel, and procured his elevation to the highest post in the kingdom. (See DANIEL, ABEDNEGo, and BABYLon.) Nebuchadnezzar died A. M. 3442, aſter having reigned forty-three years.--Calmet. NECESSITARIANS; an appellation which may be giv- en to all who maintain that moral agents act from neces- sity. (See next article, and MATERIALISTs.)—Hend. Buck. NECESSITY; constraint, or restraint, by irresistible power; in which sense it is opposed to freedom. The doctrine of necessity regards the origin of human actions, and the specific mode of the divine government; and it seems to be the immediate result of the materiality of man; for literal mechanism is the undoubted conse- quence of materialism. Hence all materialists are of course necessitarians; but it does not follow that all ne- cessitarians are or must be materialists. Whether man is a necessary or a free agent, is a ques- tion which has been debated by writers of the first emi- nence. Hobbes, Collins, Hume, Leibnitz, Kames, Hartley, Priestley, Crombie, Toplady, and Belsham, have written on the side of necessity; while Edwards, Clarke, King, Law, Reid, Butler, Price, Bryant, Wollaston, Horsley, Beattie, Necker, Mackintosh, Gregory, Butterworth, and Dwight, have written against it. To state all their arguments in this place would take up too much room ; suffice it to say, that the anti-necessitarians suppose that the doctrine of necessity charges God as the author of sin; that it takes away the freedom of the will, renders man unaccountable, makes sin to be no evil, and morality or virtue to be no good; precludes the use of means, and is of the most gloomy tendency. The necessitarians deny these to be le- gitimate consequences. All necessity, say they, doth not take away freedom. The actions of a man may be at one and the same time free and necessary too. It was infallibly certain that Judas would betray Christ, yet he did it volun. tarily. Jesus Christ necessarily became man, and died, yet he acted freely. A good man doth naturally and ne- cessarily love his children, yet voluntarily. It is part of the happiness of the blessed to love God unchangeably, yet freely, for it would not be their happiness if done by compulsion. Nor does it, says the necessitarian, render man unaccountable, since the Divine Being does no injury to his rational faculties; and man, as his creature, is an- swerable to him; besides, he has a right to do what he will with his own. That all necessity doth not render actions less morally good, is evident; for if necessary virtue be neither moral nor praiseworthy, it will follow that God himself is not a moral being, because he is a necessary one; and the obedience of Christ cannot be good, because it was necessary. Further, say they, moral necessity does not sos * M. E. H. preclude the use of means; for means are no less ap: pointed than the end. It was ordained that Christ should be delivered up to death; but he could not have been be- trayed without a betrayer, nor crucified without crucifiers. That it is not a gloomy doctrine, they allege, because no- thing can be more consolatory than to believe that all things are under the direction of an all-wise Being ; that his kingdom ruleth over all, and that he doth all things well. So far from its being inimical to happiness, they suppose there can be no solid, true happiness without the belief of it; that it inspires gratitude, excites confidence, teaches resignation, produces humility, and draws the soul to God. It is also observed, that to deny necessity is to deny the ſoreknowledge of God, and to wrest the sceptre from the hand of the Creator, and to place that capricious and undefinable principle, the self-determining power of man, upon the throne of the universe. Besides, say they, the Scripture places the doctrine beyond all doubt, Job 23: 13, 14. 34:29. Prov. 16:4. Isa. 45: 7. Acts 13: 48. ISph. 1: 11. 1 Thess. 3: 3. Matt. 10: 29, 30. 18; 7. Luke 24; 26. John 6: 37. In these statements, however, as president Edwards re- marks, there is obviously a confused use of terms in differ- ent meanings, so as to mislead the unwary. For instance: necessity is confounded with certainty; but an action may be certain, though free; that is to say, certain to an om- miscient Being, who knows how a free agent will finally resolve ; but this certainty is, in fact, a quality of the prescient being, not that of the action, to which, however, men delusively transfer it. Again: God is called a neces- sary Being, which, if it mean anything, signifies, as to his moral acts, that he can only act right. wrong application of the term necessity, which properly implies such a constraint upon actions, exercised ab extra, as renders choice or will impossible. But such necessity cannot exist as to the Supreme Being. Again : the obe- dience of Christ unto death was necessary; that is to say, unless he had died guilty men could not have been forgiv- en; but this could not make the act of the Jews who put him to death a necessary act, that is to say, a forced and con- strained one; nor did this necessity affect the act of Christ himself, who acted voluntarily, and might have left man without salvation. That the Jews acted freely, is evident from their being held liable to punishment, although un- consciously they accomplished the great designs of Hea- ven, which, however, was no excuse for their crime. Fi- nally: as to the allegation, that the doctrine of free agency puts man's self-determining power upon the throne of the universe, that view proceeds upon notions unworthy of God, as though he could not accomplish his plans without compelling and controlling all things by a fixed fate; whereas it is both more glorious to him, and certainly more in accordance with the Scriptures, to say that he has a perfect foresight of the manner in which all creatures will act, and that he, by a profound and infinite wisdom, subordinates every thing without violence to the evolution and accomplishment of his own glorious purposes. No writer, however, has set this difficult subject in so clear a light as the great but unknown author of the Na- tural History of Enthusiasm, in his Essay introductory to Edwards on the Will; to which we beg leave to refer the reader. See also the works of the above-mentioned writers on this subject; and articles MATERIALISTs; MoRAI, AGEN- cy; Decrees of GoD ; PREDESTINATION.—Watson; H. Buck. NECHO, king of Egypt, carried his arms to the Eu- phrates, where he conquered the city of Carchemish. He is known not only in Scripture, but in Herodotus, who says’that he was son of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, and that having succeeded him in the kingdom, he raised great armies, and sent out great fleets, as well on the Mediterra- mean as the Red sea; that he fought the Syrians near the city of Migdol, obtained the victory, and took the city of Cadytis, which some think to be Jerusalem. (See Josiah; BABYLon; CARCHEMISH.)—Calmet. -- NECK. To harden the neck is a metaphor drawn from ‘the practice of a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke. NECKER, (JAMEs,) an eminent financier and religious statesman, the father of Madame De Stael, was born, in 1732, at Geneva, and for many years carried on the busi- ness of a banker at Paris. His Eulogy on Colbert, his But then this is a treatise on the Corn Laws and Trade, and some essays Git. the Resources of France, inspired such an idea of his tas lents for finance, that, in #. he was appointed directof of the treasury, and, shortly after, comptroller-general. Before his resignation, in 1781, he published a statement of his operations, addressed to the king; and, while in re- tirement, he produced a work on the Administration of the Finances, and another on the Importance of Religious Opi. nions. The latter work, notwithstanding some imperfec- tions, is worthy of immortality. It has been translated into English. He was reinstated in the comptrollership in 1788, and advised the convocation of the states general ; was abruptly dismissed, and ordered to quit the kingdom, in July, 1789; but was almost instantly recalled, on ac- count of the ferment which his departure excited in the public mind. Necker, however, soon became as much an object of antipathy to the fickle people as he had been of their idolatry, and in 1790 he left France forever. M. Necker was a decided Protestant, and worthy of better treatment than papal and infidel France was disposed to give him. In 1798, he published a work of much interest on the French Revolution, and, in 1800, his last great and eloquent work on the Religious View of Morality, in three volumes. Necker and Burke belong to the same class of men. He died, at Copet, in Switzerland, in 1804. The whole of his works form fifteen volumes.—His wife, SU- SANNA, whose maiden name was Curchod, was a woman of talent, and wrote Reflections on Divorce; and Miscella- nies.—Davenport; Ency. Amer. NECROLOGY, (formed of nekros, dead, and logos, dis. course, or enumeration;) a book anciently kept in churches and monasteries, wherein were registered the benefactors of the same, the time of their deaths, and the days of their commemoration ; as also the deaths of the priors, abbots, religious canons, &c. This was otherwise called calendar and obituary.—Hend. Buck. NECROMANCY, (from nekros and manteia,) is the art of raising up the ghosts of deceased persons, to get infor- mation from them concerning future events. This prac- tice, no doubt, the Israelites brought with them from Egypt, which affected to be the mother of such occult sci- ences; and from thence it spread into the neighboring countries, and soon infected all the East. The injunction of the law is very express against this vice; and the pu- nishment to be inflicted on the practisers of it was stoning to death, Lev. 20: 27. What forms of enchantment were used in the practice of necromancy we are at a loss to know, because we read of none that the pythoness of En- dor employed; however, that there were several rites, spells, and invocations used upon these occasions, we may learn from almost every ancient author, but from none more particularly than from Lucan in his Pharsalia. Whether the art of conversing with the dead was mere imposture, or grounded upon diabolical agency, is a ques- tion which has been disputed in all ages.—Watson. NEGINOTH ; a term which is read before some of the psalms, and signifies stringed instruments of music, to be played on by the fingers, or by female musicians. The titles of these psalms may be translated, A Psalm of Da- vid to the master of music, who presides over the stringed instruments.-Calmet. NEHEMIAH, an illustrious Jewish reformer and ruler, professes himself the author of the book which bears his name, in the very beginning of it, and he uniformly writes in the first person. He was of the tribe of Judah, and was probably born at Babylon during the captivity. He was so distinguished for his family and attainments, as to be selected for the office of cup-bearer to the king of Per- sia, a situation of great honor and emolument. He was made governor of Judea, upon his own application, by Artaxerxes Longimanus; and his book, which in the He- brew canon was joined to that of Ezra, gives an account of his appointment and administration through a space of about thirty-six years, to A. M. 3595, at which time the Scripture history closes; and, consequently, the historical books, from Joshua to Nehemiah inclusive, contain the history of the Jewish people from the death of Moses, A. M. 2553, to the reformation established by Nehemiah, after the return from captivity, being a period of one thou- sand and forty-two years "#. - N E O N E O [864 ) NEHILOTH; a word found at the beginning of the fifth Psalm, and which signifies the dances, or the flutes. This psalm is addressed to the master who presided over the dances, which were performed in certain religious ceremonies, or the band of music which performed on the flute. “A Psalm of David, addressed to the master of music pre- siding over the dancers, or over the flutes.”—Calmet. NEHUSHTAN ; a name given by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to the brazen serpent that Moses had set up in the wilderness, (Num. 21:8.) and which had been preserved by the Israelites to that time. The superstitious people having made an idol of this serpent, Hezekiah caused it to be burnt, and in derision gave it the name of Nehushtan, q. d. this little brazen serpent, 2 Kings 18: 4.—Calmet. NEIGHBOR, signifies a person near; and generally, any man connected with us by the bonds of humanity, and whom charity requires that we should consider as a friend and relation. At the time of our Savior, the Pharisees had restrained the meaning of the word neighbor to those of their own nation, or to their own friends; holding, that to hate their enemy was not forbidden by the law, Matt. 5: 43. Luke 10: 20. But our Savior informed them, that the whole world were neighbors; that they ought not to do to another what they would not have done to themselves; and that this charity extended even to enemies. See the beautiful parable of the good Samaritan, the real neighbor to the distressed, Luke 10: 29. (See Love of our NEIGH- BOR. & is called a neighbor [near] to those who fear him, and call upon him, Ps. 85: 9. 145: 18. He gives them to- kens of his presence and protection: “Am I a God at hand, and not a God afar off?” am I ome of those gods that men have made not above two days ago? am not I an eternal God? Otherwise; I am a neighbor God, that sees every thing, knows every thing, and not an absent or a distant God, Jer. 23:23. Compare Elijah and Baal's prophets.- Calmet. Tº OLOGY. This term, which signifies new doctrine, has been used w designate a species of theology and biblical criticism which has of late years much prevailed among the Protestant divines of Germany, and the professors of their universities. It is now, however, more frequently termed rationalism, and is supposed to occupy a sort of middle place between the orthodox system and pure deism. 1. Its definitions and forms.-The German divines them- selves speak of naturalism, rationalism, and supernatural- ism. The term naturalism arose first in the sixteenth cen- tury, and was spread in the seventeenth. It was understood to be the system of those who allowed no other knowledge of religion than the natural, which man could shape out by his own strength, and, consequently, excluded all su- pernatural revelation. As to the different forms of matu- ralism, theologians say there are three: the first, which they call Pelagianism, and which considers human dispo- sitions and notions as perfectly pure, and the religious knowledge derived from them as sufficiently explicit. A grosser kind denies all particular revelation; and the grossest of all considers the world as God. Rationalism has been thus explained : “Those who are generally termed rationalists,” says Dr. Bretschneider, “admit universally in Christianity, a divine, benevolent, and positive appointment for the good of mankind, and Jesus as a Messenger of divine Providence, believing that the true and everlasting word of God is contained in the Holy Scripture, and that by the same the welfare of man- kind will be obtained and extended. But they deny there- in a supernatural and miraculous working of God, and consider the object of Christianity to be that of introducing into the world such a religion as reason can comprehend ; and they distinguish the essential from the unessential, and what is local and temporáry from that which is uni- versal and permanent in Christianity.” There is, how- ever, a third class of divines, who, in fact, differ very little from this, though very widely in profession. They affect to allow a revealing operation of God, but establish on internal proofs rather than on miracles the divine nature of Christianity. They allow that revelation may contain much out of the power of reason to explain, but say that it should assert nothing contrary to reason, but rather what The title of the fifth Psalm may be thus translated: may be proved by it. Supernaturalism consists in general in the conviction that God has revealed himself superna- turally and immediately. The notion of a miracle cannot well be separated from such a revelation, whether it hap- pens out of, on, or in men. What is revealed may belong to the order of nature, but an order higher and unknown to us, which we could never have known without miracles, and cannot bring under the laws of nature. 2. Its principles.—The difference between the naturalists and the rationalists, as Mr. Rose justly remarks, is not quite so wide either as it would appear to be at first sight, or as one of them assuredly wishes it to appear. For if I receive a system, be it of religion, of morals, or of politics, only so far as it approves itself to my reason, whatever be the authority that presents it to me, it is idle to say that I receive the system out of any respect to that authority. I receive it only because my reason approves it; and I should, of course, do so if an authority of far inſerior value were to present the system to me. This is what that divi- sion of rationalists, which professes to receive Christianity, and at the same time to make reason the supreme arbiter in matters of faith, has done. Their system, in a word, is this: They assume certain general principles, which they maintain to be the necessary deductions of reason from an extended and unprejudiced contemplation of the natural and moral order of things, and to be in themselves immu- table and universal. Consequently, any thing which, on however good authority, may be advanced in apparent op- position to them, must either be rejected as unworthy of rational belief, or, at least, explained away till it is made to accord with the assumed principles; and the truth or falsehood of all doctrines proposed is to be decided accord- ing to their agreement or disagreement with those prin- ciples. 3. Its operation.—It is easy, them, to anticipate, how, with such principles, the biblical critics of Germany, dis- tinguished as many of them have been for learning, would proceed to interpret the Scriptures. Many of the sacred books and parts of others have, of course, been rejected by them as spurious, the strongest external evidence being thought by them insufficient to prove the truth of what was determined to be contradictory to their reason; and the inspiration of the rest was understood in no higher a sense, to use the language of one of their professors, than the expressions of Cicero as to the inspiration of the poets, or those of Quintilian respecting Plato. But where the supermatural and miraculous accounts were not rejected, they were, by many of the most eminent of these writers, explained away by a monstrous ingenuity, which, on any other subject, and applied to any ancient classic or other writer, would provoke the most contemptuous ridicule. When Korah, Dathan, and Abiram were swallowed up, Moses had previously “secretly undermined the earth.” Ja- cob wrestled with the angel “in a dream ;” and a rheuma- tic pain in his thigh during sleep suggested the incident in his dream of the angel touching the sinew of his thigh. In like manner the miracle of feeding the five thousand in the desert is resolved into the opportune passing by of a caravan with provisions, of which the hungry multitude were allowed to partake, according to eastern hospitality; and the apostles were merely employed in conveying it out in baskets. Christ's walking upon the sea is explained by his walking upon the sea-shore, and St. Peter's walking on the sea is resolved into swimming. The miracles of healing were the effect of fancy operating favorably upon the disorders; and Ananias and Sapphira died of a fright; with many other absurdities, half dreams and half blasphe- mies; and of which the above are given but as a specimen. These principles of unbelief have, under various modifi- cations, been propagated by means of systems of philoso- phy, new versions of the Scriptures, commentaries, intro- ductions, works on biblical criticism and interpretation, grammars, lexicons, lectures, sermons, catechisms, tracts, reviews, newspapers, and, in short, through almost every possible vehicle of communication. Their advocates have been found in the professor at the university, the preacher, In the pulpit, the village schoolmaster, and even the mo- ther and the nursery-maid. Sometimes they have been propounded with all the gravity of a philosopher, and at other times taught with all the fluppancy and levity of a N E O N E O sº buſſoon. With such instruments and such efforts, Chris- tianity lias now had to struggle for more than half a cen- tury; and awful have been the examples of religious shipwreck which that period of time has presented. 4. Its sources.—The first step in this sorrowful grada- tion down to a depth of falsehood, and blasphemy, into which certainly no body of Christian ministers, so large, so learned, and influential, in any age or period of the church ever before fell, was, contempt for the authority of the divines of the Reformation, and of the subsequent age. They were about to set out on a voyage of discovery; and it was necessary to assume that truth still inhabited some terra incognita, to which neither Luther, Melancthon, nor their early disciples, had ever found access. School is pleased, indeed, to denominate the whole even of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centu- ry, the age of theological barbarism. - The vain conceit that the doctrines of religion were ca- pable of philosophic demonstration, which obtained among the followers of Wolf, is considered by Mr. Rose as having hastened onward the progress of error. The effect in Germany was speedily developed, though Wolf, the ſoun- der of this school, and most of his followers, were pious and faithful Christians. By carrying demonstrative evi- dence beyond its own province, they had nurtured in their followers a vain confidence in human reason; and the next and still more fatal step was, that it was the province of human reason in an enlightened and intellectual age to perfect Christianity, which, it was contended, had hitherto existed in a low and degraded state, and to perfect that system of which the elements only were contained in the Scripture. All restraint was broken by this principle. Philosophy, good and bad, was left to build up these “ele- ments” according to its own views; and as, after all, many of these elements were ſound to be too untractable and too rudely shaped to accord with the plans of these manifold constructions, formed according to every “pat- tern,” except that “in the mount;” when the stone could not be squared and framed by any art which these builders possessed, it was “rejected.” Semler appears to have been the author of that famous theory of accommodation, which, in the hands of his fol- lowers, says Mr. Rose, became “the most formidable wea- pon ever devised for the destruction of Christianity.” (See Accommol)ATION.) As far as Germany is concerned, this language is not too strong; and we may add, that it was the most impudent theory ever advocated by men profess- ing still to be Christians, and one, the avowal of which can scarcely be accounted for, except on the ground, that as, because of their interests, it was not convenient ſor these teachers of theology and ministers of the German churches to disavow Christianity altogether, it was de- vised and maintained, in order to connect the profits of the Christian profession with substantial and almost undis- guised deism. Thus the chairs of theology and the very pulpits were turned into “the seats of the scornful;” and where doctrines were at all preached, they were too fre- quently of this daring and infidel character. It became even, at least, a negative good, that the sermons delivered were often discourses on the best modes of cultivating corn and wine, and the preachers employed the Sabbath and the church in instructing their flocks how to choose the best kinds of potatoes, or to enforce upon them the benefits of vaccination. Undisguised infidelity has in no country treated the grand evidences of the truth of Chris- tianity with greater contumely, or been more offensive in its attacks upon the prophets, or more ridiculous in its at- tempts to account, on natural principles, for the miracles. Extremes of every kind were produced, philosophic mysti- cism, pantheism, and atheism. We have hitherto referred chiefly to Mr. Rose's work on this awful declension in the Lutheran and other conti- nental churches. In a work on the same subject by Mr. Pusey, the stages of the apostasy are more carefully marked, and more copiously and deeply investigated. Our limits will, however, but allow us to advert to two or three points. In Mr. Pusey's account of the state of Ger- man theology in the seventeenth century, he opens to us the sources of the evil. Francke, he observes, assigns as a reason for attaching the more value to the opportunities One of this y provided at Halle for the study of Scripture, that “in for- mer times, and in those which are Scarcely past, one gene- rally found at universities opportunities for every thing rather than a solid study of God's word.” “In all my university years,” says Knapp, “I was not happy enough to hear a lecture upon the whole of Scripture ; we should have regarded it as a great blessing which came down from heaven.” It is said to be one only of many instan- ces, that at Leipzic, Carpzoff, having in his lectures for one half year completed the first chapter of Isaiah, did not again lecture on the Bible for twenty years, while Olearius suspended his for ten. Yet Olearius, as well as Alberti, Spener says, “were diligent theologians, but that most pains were employed on doctrinal theology and controver- sy.” It is, moreover, a painful speaking fact, which is mentioned by Francke, (1709,) that in Leipzic, the great mart of literature as well as of trade, “twenty years ago, in no bookseller's shop was either Bible or Testament to be found.” Of the passages in Francke, which prove the same state of things, I will select one or two only : “Youth are sent to the universities with a moderate knowledge of Latin; but of Greek, and especially of Hebrew, next to none. And it would even then have been well, if what had been neglected before, had been made up in the universities. There, however, most are borne, as by a torrent, with the multitude; they flock to logical, metaphysical, ethical, po- lemical, physical, pneumatical lectures, and what not ; treating least of all those things whose benefit is most permanent in their future office, especially deferring, and at last neglecting, the study of the sacred languages.” Yet these were but effects of a still higher cause,_the rapid decay of piety in this century, of which the statements of Mr. Pusey, and the authorities he quotes, present a me- lancholy picture. Speaking of J. W. Andrea, he says, the want of practical religious instruction in the early schools, the perverted state of all education, the extravagance and dissoluteness of the universities, the total unfitness of the teachers whom they sent forth and authorized, the de- graded state of general as well as theological science, the interested motives for entering into holy Orders, the can- vassing for benefices, the simony in obtaining them, the especial neglect of the poor, the bad lives, the careless- ness and bitter controversies of the preachers, and the ge- neral corruption of manners in all ranks, are again and again the subjects of his deep regrets or of his censure. Into the state of the clergy Francke enters more fully in another work. “I remember,” he says, “that a theologian of no common learning, piety, and practical knowledge, (nun en hagiois,) told me, that a certain monarch, at his suggestion, applied to a university, where there was a large concourse of students of theology, for two candidates for holy orders, who, by the excellence and purity of their doctrine, and by holiness of life, might serve as an example to the congre- gation committed to their charge ; the professors candidly answered that there was no such student of theology among them. Nor is this surprising. I remember that Kortholt used to say with pain, that in the disgraceful strifes, disturbances, and tumults in the universities, which were, alas, but too frequent, it scarcely ever hap- pened that theological students were not found to be ac- complices, may, the chiefs. I remember that another theo- logian often lamented, that there was such a dearth in the church of such persons as the apostle would alone think worthy of the ministerial functions, that it was to be re- garded as a happiness if, of many applicants, some one of outwardly decent life could at length be found.” - 5. Its effects.—With several happy exceptions, and the raising up of a few pious people in some places, and a partial revival of evangelical doctrines, which, however, often ran at length into mysticism and Antinomianism, the evil, both doctrinally and morally, continued to in- * crease to our own day; for if any ask what has been the moral effect of the appalling apostasy of the teachers of religion, above described, upon the people of Germany, the answer may be given from one of these rationalizing divines themselves, whose statement is not therefore likely to be too highly colored. It is from a pamphlet & Bret- schneider, published in 1822, and the substance is, “‘ndif. ference to religion among all classes; that formerly the Bible used to be in every house, but now the people either 109 N E O N E O sº | do not possess it, or, as formerly, read it; that few attend the churches, which are now too large, though fifty years ago they were too small ; that few honor the Sabbath ; that there are now few students of theology, compared with those in law and medicine; that if things go on so, there will shortly not be persons to supply the various ecclesias: . tical offices; that preaching had fallen into contempt; and that distrust and suspicion of the doctrines of Christianity prevailed among all classes.” Melancholy as this picture is, nothing in it can surprise any one, except that the very persons who have created the evil should themselves be astonished at its existence, or even affect to be so. 6. Recent reaction and revival of religion.—At length, how- ever, a powerful reaction has taken place. The high places of literature and influence are no longer exclusively held by men inimical to the truth as it is in Jesus, but are, many of them, occupied by individuals of acknowledged literary and scientific merit, who are bending all their energies to undeceive the public with respect to the unsatisfactory, un- tenable, and self-contradictory theories of rationalism, false- ly so called. A spirit of piety is rapidly spreading among those who are destined to be the future instructers of the people; the Scriptures and evangelical tracts are being ex- tensively circulated; and some able periodicals have recent- ly been set on foot, under the editorial superintendence of men of orthodox principles and high literary attainments. It has been justly observed, that no men ever undertook to deny the divine origin of Christianity, or to explain away its principal facts and doctrines, under circumstances so favorable for the experiment as those of the neolo- gists of Germany. The hand of power, instead of being against them, was most frequently with them. They had possession of the seats of learning, commanded a vast band of journals which kept any thing of the kind in the shape of orthodoxy entirely out of the market. They had all the advantages which facilities in literature could give; they had numbers, and wealth, and clamor on their side ; they had, in a word, ample room and verge enough to work their will, iſ that will could have been effected. And yet, in spite of all that metaphysical and mythological re- searches could effect to get rid of the divine authority of the Bible; in spite of all that sophistry and ridicule could effect to introduce the misnamed religion of reason, it re- mains precisely where it was ; and the religion of reason is being overthrown and rejected. The Bible has laughed its enemies and all their efforts to scorn. “The word of God shall stand forever.” For further information on this subject, see Robinson's Biblical Repository; Christian Examiner ; and Spirit of the Pilgrims.-Watson ; Hend. Buck. NEOMENIA : (Col. 2: 16.) a Greek word, signifying the first day of the moon or month. The Hebrews had a particular veneration for the first day of every month, for which Moses appointed peculiar sacrifices; (Num. 28: 11, 12.) but he gave no orders that it should be kept as a holy day, nor can it be proved that the ancients observed it so; it was a festival of merely voluntary devotion. (See MonTH.) It appears that even from the time of Saul they made, on this day, a sort of family entertainment, since Da- vid ought them to have been at the king's table; and Saul took his absence amiss, 1 Sam. 20: 5, 18. Moses insinu- ates, that besides the national sacrifices then regularly offered, every private person had his particular sacrifices of devotion, Num. 10: 10. The beginning of the month was proclaimed by sound of trumpet, at the offering of solemn sacrifices, ibid. But the most celebrated neomenia was that at the beginning of the civil year, or first day of the month Tisri, Lev. 23:24. This was a sacred ſestival, on which no servile labor was performed. In the kingdom of the ten tribes, the people used to assemble at the houses of the prophets, to hear their instructions, 2 Kings 4: 23. Isa. 1: 13, 14. Ezekiel says (45:17; see also 1 Chron. 23: 31. 2 Chron. 8: 13.) that the burnt-offerings offered on the day of the new moon, were provided at the king's expense, and that on this day was to be opened the eastern gate of the court of the priests, chap. 46: 1, 2. Spencer has a long dissertation on the neomenia, in which he shows that the Gentiles honored the first day of the month, out of veneration to the moon. He would inſer, that the Hebrews borrowed this practice from strange and idolatrous people. But he by no means proves this; and it is much more probable, that without any design of imitating the Hebrews, the Gentiles thought fit to honor the moon at the beginning of the month, that is, her first appearance.—Calmet. NEONOMIANS ; so called from the Greek neos, new, and nomos, law; signifying a new lany, the condition whereof is imperfect though sincere and persevering obedience. Neonomianism seems to be an essential part of the Ar- minian system. “The new covenant of grace which, through the medium of Christ's death, the Father made with men, consists, according to this system, not in our be- ing justified by faith, as it apprehends the righteousness of Christ ; but in this, that God, abrogating the exaction of perfect legal obedience, reputes or accepts of faith itself, and the imperſect obedience of faith, instead of the perfect obedience of the law, and graciously accounts them worthy of the reward of eternal life.”—This opinion was examined at the synod of Dort, and has been canvassed between the Calvinists and Arminians on various occasions. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, a contro- versy was agitated amongst the English Dissenters, in which the one side, who were partial to the writings of Dr. Crisp, were charged with Antinomianism, and the other, who favored Mr. Baxter, were accused of Neonomi- anism. Dr. Daniel Williams, who was a principal writer on what was called the Neonomian side, after many things had been said, gives the following as a summary of his faith in reference to those subjects:—“1. God has eter- nally elected a certain definite number of men whom he will infallibly save by Christ in that way prescribed by the gospel.—2. These very elect are not personally justified un- til they receive Christ, and yield up themselves to him, but they remain condemned whilst unconverted to Christ.—3. By the ministry of the gospel there is a serious offer of pardon and glory, upon the terms of the gospel, to all that hear it; and God thereby requires them to comply with the said terms.-4. Ministers ought to use these and other gospel benefits as motives, assuring men that if they be- lieve they shall be justified; if they turn to God, they shall live; if they repent, their sins shall be blotted out; and whilst they neglect these duties, they cannot have a per- sonal interest in these respective benefits.—5. It is by the power of the Spirit of Christ freely exerted, and not by the power of free-will, that the gospel becomes effectual for the conversion of any soul to the obedience of faith.- 6. When a man believes, yet is not that very faith, and much less any other work, the matter of that righteousness for which a sinner is justified, i. e. entitled to pardon, ac- ceptance and eternal glory, as righteous before God; and it is the imputed righteousness of Christ alone, for which the gospel gives the believer a right to these and all saving blessings, who in this respect is justified by Christ's right- eousness alone. By both this and the fifth head it appears that all boasting is excluded, and we are saved by free grace.—7. Faith alone receives the Lord Jesus and his righteousness, and the subject of this faith is a convinced, penitent soul; hence we are justified by faith alone, and yet the impenitent are not forgiven.—8. God has freely promised that all whom he predestinated to salvation shall not only savingly believe, but that he by his power shall preserve them from a total or a final apostasy.—9. Yet the believer, whilst he lives in this world, is to pass the time of his sojourning here with fear, because his warfare is not accomplished, and that it is true, that if he draw back, God will have no pleasure in him; which with the like cautions God blesseth as means to the saints' perseverance, and these by ministers should be so urged.—10. The law of innocence, or moral law, is so in force still as that every precept thereof constitutes duty, even to the believer; eve- ry breach thereof is a sin deserving of death. This law binds death by its curse on every unbeliever, and the righteousness for or by which we are justified before God, is a righteousness (at least) adequate to that law, which is Christ's alone righteousness: and this so imputed to the believer as that God deals judicially with them according thereto.—11. Yet such is the grace of the gospel, that it promiseth in and by Christ a freedom from the curse, for. giveness of sin, and etermal life, to every sincere believer; N E O N E S [ 867 J which promise God will certainly perform, notwithstand- ing the threatening of the law.” Dr. Williams maintains the conditionality of the cove- nant of grace; but admits, with Dr. Owen, who also uses the term condition, that “Christ undertook that those who were to be taken into this covenant should receive grace enabling them to comply with the terms of it, fulfil its conditions, and yield the obedience which God required therein.” x On this subject Dr. Williams further says, “The ques- tion is not whether the first (viz. regenerating) grace, by which we are enabled to perform the condition, be abso- lutely given. This I affirm, though that be dispensed or- dinarily in a due use of means, and in a way discounte- nancing idleness, and fit encouragement given to the use of means.” - The following objection, among others, was made by several ministers, in 1692, against Dr. Williams’ “Gospel Truth Stated,” &c.;—“To supply the room of the moral law, vacated by him, he turns the gospel into a new law, in keeping of which we shall be justified for the sake of Christ’s righteousness, making qualifications and acts of ours a disposing subordinate righteousness, whereby we become capable of being justified by Christ's righteous- ness.” To this among other things he answers, “The difference is not, 1. Whether the gospel be a new law in the Socini- an, Popish, or Arminian sense. This I deny. Nor, 2. Is faith, or any other grace or act of ours, any atonement for sin, satisfaction to justice, meriting qualification, or any. part of that righteousness for which we are justified at God our Creator's bar. This I deny in places innumera- ble. Nor, 3. Whether the gospel be a law more new than is implied in the first promise to fallen Adam, proposed to Cain, and obeyed by Abel, to the differencing him from his unbelieving brother. This I deny. 4. Nor whether the gospel be a law that allows sin, when it accepts such graces as true, though short of perfection, to be the condi- tions of our personal interest in the benefits purchased by Christ. This I deny. 5. Nor whether the gospel be a law, the promises whereof entitle the performers of its conditions to the benefits as of debt. This I deny. “The difference is, 1. Is the gospel a law in this sense; viz. God in Christ thereby commandeth sinners to repent of sin, and receive Christ by a true operative faith, pro- mising that thereupon they shall be united to him, justified by his righteousness, pardoned, and adopted; and that, persevering in faith and true holiness, they shall be finally saved; also threatening that if any shall die impenitent, unbelieving, ungodly, rejecters of his grace, they shall perish without relief, and endure sorer punishments than if these offers had not been made to them 2–2. Hath the gospel a Sanction, i. e. doth Christ therein enforce his commands of faith, repentance, and perseverance, by the aforesaid promises and threatenings, as motives of our obedience 2 . Both these I affirm, and they deny ; saying the gospel in the largest sense is an absolute promise without precepts and conditions, and a gospel threat is a bull.—3. Do the gospel promises of benefits to certain graces, and its threats that those benefits shall be withheld and the contrary evils inflicted for the neglect of such graces, render those graces the condition of our personal title to those benefits 2—This they deny, and I affirm,” &c. It does not appear to have been a question in this con- troversy, whether God in his word commands sinners to repent and believe in Christ, nor whether he promises life to believers, and threatens death to unbelievers; but whe- ther it be the gospel under the form of a new law that thus commands or threatens, or the moral law on its behalf, and whether its promises to believing, render such believ- ing a condition of the things promised. . In another con- troversy, however, which arose about forty years after- wards among the same description of people, it became a question whether God did by his word (call it law or gos- pel) command unregenerate sinners to repent and believe in Christ, or to do any thing which is spiritually good. (See CALLING...) Of those who took the affirmative side of this question, one party attempted to maintain it on the ground of the gospel being a new law, consisting of com- mands, promises, and threatenings, the terms or conditions # of which were repentance, faith, and sincere obedience But those who first engaged in the controversy, though. they allowed the encouragement to repent and believe to arise merely from the grace of the gospel, yet considered the formal obligation to do so as arising merely from the moral law, which, requiring supreme love to God, requires acquiescence in any revelation which he shall at any time make known. (See MoDERN QUESTION.) . Witsius’ Ireni. cum ; Ednyards on the Will, p. 220; Williams' Gospel Truth; Ednyards' Crispianism Unmasked ; Chauncey’s Neonomianism Unmasked ; Adams' Vien, of Religions.—Hend. Buck. NEOPHYTE, (from neos, new, and phutos, a plant;) in the Eleusinian and other mysteries, a person recently initi- ated; among the primitive Christians, a new convert from Judaism or paganism; in the monasteries, a novice, or candidate of either sex for a religious order.—Hend. Buck. NEPHATH-DOR ; a city in Manasseh, called also Dor, (1 Kings 4: 11.) where it is corruptly read Nephad-Dor. From the Hebrew it might be rendered—in all the confines of Dor.—Calmet. NERO. The emperor Nero is not named in Scripture; but he is indicated by his title of emperor, and by his sur- name Caesar. To him St. Paul appealed aſter his impri- sonment by Felix, and his examination by Festus, who was swayed by the Jews. St. Paul was therefore carried to Rome, where he arrived A. D. 61. Here he continued two years, preaching the gospel with freedom, till he be- came famous even in the emperor's court, in which were many Christians; for he salutes the Philippians in the name of the brethren who were of the household of Caesar; that is, of Nero's court, Philip. 1: 12, 13. 4: 22. We have no particular information how he cleared himself from the accusations of the Jews, whether by answering before Nero, cr whether his enemies dropped their prosecutions, which seems probable, Acts 28: 21. However, it appears that he was liberated in the year 63. Nero, the most cruel and savage of all men, and also the most wicked and depraved, began his persecution against the Christian church, A. D. 64, on pretence of the burning of Rome, of which some have thought himself to be the 2uthor. He endeavored to throw all the odium on the Christians: those were seized first that were known publicly as such, and by their means many others were discovered. They were condemned to death, and were even insulted in their sufferings. Some were Sewed up in the skins of beasts, and then exposed to dogs to be torn in pieces; some were nailed to crosses; others perished by fire. The latter were sewed up in pitched coverings, which, being set on fire, served as torches to the people, and were lighted up in the night. Nero gave leave to use his own gardens, as the scene of all these cruelties. From this time edicts were published against the Christians, and many martyrs suffered, especially in Italy. St. Peter and St. Paul are thought to have suffered martyrdom, conse- quent on this persecution, A. D. 65. - The revolt of the Jews from the Romans happened about A. D. 65 and 66, in the twelfth and thirteenth of Nero. The city of Jerusalem making an insurrection, A. D. 66, Florus there slew three thousand six hundred persons, and thus began the war. A little while afterwards, those of Jerusalem killed the Roman garrison. Cestius on this came to Jerusalem to suppress the sedition; but he was forced to retire after having besieged it about six weeks, and was routed in his retreat, A. D. 66. About the end of the same year, Nero gave Vespasian the command of his troops against the Jews. This general carried on the war in Galilee and Judea during A. D. 67 and 68, the thirteenth and fourteenth of Nero. But Nero killing himself in the fourteenth year of his reign, Jerusalem was not besieged till after his death, A. D. 70, the first and second of Vespa- sian.— TWatson. - NESTORIANS ; a denomination which arose in the fifth century, from Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, a man of considerable learning and eloquence, and of an independent spirit. The Catholic clergy were fond of call- ing the virgin Mary “Mother of God,” to which Nestorius objected, as implying that she was mother of the divine nature, which he very properly denied; and this raised against him, from Cyril and others, the cry of heresy, and perhaps led him into some improper forms of expression N E T N E W ses and explication. It is generally agreed, however, by the moderns, that Nestorius showed a much better spirit in controversy than his antagonist, St. Cyril. As to the doc- trine of the Trinity, it does not appear that Nestorius dif. fered from his antagonists, admitting the coequality of the divine persons; but he was charged with maintaining two distinct persons, as well as natures, in the mysterious cha- racter of Christ. This, however, he solemnly and constant- ly denied; and from this, as a foul reproach, he has been cleared by the moderns, and particularly by Martin Luther, who lays the whole blame of this controversy on the turbu- lent and angry Cyril. (See Hypost ATICAL UNION.) The discordancy not only between the Nestorians and other. Christians, but also among themselves, arose, no doubt, in a great measure, from the ambiguity of the Greek terms hypostasis and prosópon. The councils assembled at Seleu- cia on this occasion decreed that in Christ there were two hypostases. But this word, unhappily, was used both for person and nature; hence the difficulty and ambiguity : and of these hypostases it is said the one was divine, and the other human ;-the divine Word, and the man Jesus. Now of these two hypostases it is added, they had only one appearance, (barsopa, the original term used by Nestorius, and usually translated by the Greeks, “person.”) To avoid the appearance of an express contradiction, Dr. Mosheim translates this barbarous word “aspect,” as meaning a union of will and affection, rather than of mature or of per- son. And thus the Nestorians are charged with rejecting the union of two natures in one person, from their peculiar manner of expressing themselves, though they absolutely denied the charge. In the earliest ages of Nestorianism, the various branch- es of that numerous and powerful sect were under the spi- ritual jurisdiction of the Catholic patriarch of Babylon, a vague appellation which has been successively applied to the sees of Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad, but who now resides at Mousul. In the sixteenth century the Nes- torians were divided into two sects; for in 1551 a warm dispute arose among them about the creation of a new patriarch, Simeon Barmamas, or Barmama, being proposed by one party, and Sulaka, otherwise named Siud, earnestly desired by the other; when the latter, to support his pre- tensions the more effectually, repaired to Rome, and was consecrated patriarch in 1553, by pope Julius III., whose jurisdiction he had acknowledged, and to whose commands he had promised unlimited submission and obedience. Upon this new Chaldean patriarch's return to his own country, Julius sent with him several persons skilled in the Syriac language, to assist him in establishing and ex- tending the papal empire among the Nestorians; and from that time, that unhappy people have been divided into two factions, and have often been involved in the greatest dan- gers and difficulties, by the jarring sentiments and perpe- tual quarrels of their patriarchs. In 1555, Simeon Denha, archbishop of Gelu, adopted the party of the fugitive patri- arch, who had embraced the communion of the Latin church; and, being afterwards chosen patriarch himself, he fixed his residence in the city of Wan, or Ormus, in the mountainous parts of Persia, where his successors still continue, and are all distinguished by the name of Sime- on; but they seem of late to have withdrawn themselves from their communion with the church of Rome. The great Nestorian pontiffs who form the opposite party, and who have, since 1559, been distinguished by the general denomination of Elias, and reside constantly at Mousul, look with a hostile eye on this little patriarch ; but since 1617 the bishops of Ormus have been in so low and declining a state, both in opulence and credit, that they are no longer in a condition to excite the envy of their. brethren at Mousul, whose spiritual dominion is very ex- tensive, taking in great part of Asia, and comprehending within its circuit the Arabian Nestorians, as also the Chris- tians of St. Thomas, who dwell along the coast of Mala- bar.—Watson, NET. Surely in vain the net is spread in the sight of any bird; that is, the very birds of the air are wiser than sinners, since they take warmings which sinners refuse to observe, Prov. 1: 17. NETHINIM, (given, or offered ;) servants dedicated to the service of the tabernacle and temple, to perform the most laborious offices; as carrying of wood and water, At first the Gibeonites were destined to this station; after- wards, the Canaanites who surrendered themselves, and whose lives were spared. We read, in Ezra 8:20, that the Nethinim were slaves devoted by David, and other princes, to the service of the temple; and in Ezra 2: 58, that they were slaves given by Solomon; the children of Solomon’s servants. From 1 Kings 9:20, 21, we see that he had subdued the remains of the Canaanites, and it is very probable that he gave a good number of them to the priests and Levites, for the temple service. The Nethinim were carried into captivity with the tribe of Judah, and great numbers were placed not far from the Caspian sea, whence Ezra brought two hundred and twenty of them into Judea, chap. 8: 17. Those who followed Zerubbabel, made up three hundred and ninety-two, Neh. 3: 26. This number was but small in regard to their offices; so that we find afterwards a solemnity called a ylophoria, in which the people carried wood to the temple, with great ceremony, to keep up the fire of the altar of burnt sacrifices.—Calmet. NETOPHA; a city and district between Bethlehem and Anathoth, Ezra 2: 22. Neh. 7; 26. Jer. 11; 8. 1 Chron. 9: 16.--Calmet. . NETTLES. We find this name given to two different words in the original. The first is cherul, Job 30: 7. Prov. 24; 31. Zeph. 2:9. It is not easy to determine what spe- cies of plant is here meant. From the passage in Job, the nettle could not be intended; for a plant is referred to large enough for people to take shelter under. The follow- ing extract from Denon's Travels may help to illustrate the text, and show to what an uncomfortable retreat those vagabonds must have resorted. “One of the inconve- niences of the vegetable thickets of Egypt is, that it is diſ. ficult to remain in them ; as nine-tenths of the trees and the plants are armed with inexorable thorns, which suffer only an unquiet enjoyment of the shadow which is so constantly desirable, from the precaution necessary to guard against them.” The kimosh, (Prov. 24; 31. Isa. 34: 13. Hos. 9: 6.) is by the Vulgate rendered “urtica,” which is well defended by Celsius, and very probably means “the nettle.”— Watson. NEW ; fresh; recent; unused before; endued with new qualities. (See Judg. 5: 8. Num. 16: 30.). God pro- mises a new heaven and a new earth, in the time of the Messiah, (Isa. 65. 17.66: 22.) that is, a universal renova- tion of manners, sentiments, and actions, throughout the world. This passage is referred to the end of the world, when will commence a new heaven and a new earth ; not that the present heaven and earth will be annihilated; but the air, the earth, and the elements, will be made more perfect, or at least, together with the inhabitants, shall be of a nature superior to those vicissitudes and alterations that now affect these elements. (See ConFLAGRATION.) God also promises to his people “a new covenant, a new spirit, a new heart;” and this promise was fulfilled in the covenant of grace, the gospel, Ezek. 11:19. 18; 31. 36: 26. Jer. 31:33. Heb. 8: 10. (See CovenANT, and REGE. NERATION.)—Calmet. NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. (See SwedenBorg- ANs.) - NEWELL, (SAMUEL,) American missionary at Bombay, was graduated at Harvard college, in 1807, and studied the- ology at Andover. With Judson, Nott, and Mills, he of. ſered himself as a missionary to the General Association of ministers at Bradford, June 27, 1810; was ordained at Salem, with Judson, Nott, and Rice, February 6, 1812; and sailed on the 19th for Calcutta. On his arrival he was ordered by the Bengal government to leave the coun- try. Proceeding first to the Isle of France, he suffered the affliction of losing his wife and child; he afterwards went to Ceylon, and was useful in preparing the way for the subsequent mission in that island. He afterwards joined Mr. Hall at Bombay, and, in 1817, was joined by Mr. Graves and Mr. Nichols. He continued at . Bombay, a faithful laborer in the service of Jesus Christ, until his death, by the cholera, May 30, 1821, aged about thirty-five. The same disease in four years had swept over India, Bur- mah, and the Asiatic islands, and hurried millions to the tomb. At that time, from sixty to one hundred were dy. ing daily in Bombay. ‘...º. N E W Mr. Newell was very modest and humble, possessed great tenderness of feeling, and was entirely devoted to the arduous and important ſabors of a missionary. He wrote, with Mr. Hall, The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hundred Millions, &c., 2d edit. 1818.- Allen ; Memoirs of American Missionaries. - NEWELL, (HARRIET,) the wife of the preceding, the daughter of Moses Atwood, of Haverhill, (Mass.,) was born October 10, 1793, and received an excellent educa- tion. She was naturally cheerful and unreserved ; pos- sessed a lively imagination and great sensibility; and, at a very early age, discovered a retentive memory, and a taste for reading. Before the age of thirteen, she received no particular or lasting impressions of religion, but was uniformly obedient, attentive, and affectionate. In the summer of 1806 she was roused to attend to the one thing needſul; to turn her eyes from beholding vanity; and to prepare for that important change which, in her, was so soon to take place. At a school, at Bradford, she was the subject of those solid and serious impressions, which laid the foundation of her Christian life. From that time she employed herself assiduously, and with earnestness, in the promotion of her Redeemer’s cause; and by her conduct and advice, became an honorable and truly valuable mem- ber of society. The uniform piety and seriousness of her mind is forcibly displayed in her letters to her young friends, and in her diary. Her health was delicate, but she bore indisposition with that calmness and submission to the dictates of Providence which always signalized her character. She complained much of the want of humility, and lamented her deficiency in that Christian grace : she longed for that meek and lowly spirit, which Jesus exhi- bited in the days of his flesh. At the age of fifteen, she made a profession of religion. She sailed with her hus- band from Calcutta for the Isle of France, August 4, 1812. Mrs. Newell died of the consumption, at the Isle of France, November 30, 1812, aged nineteen. She departed in the peace and triumph of an eminent Christian. Her Life, written by Dr. Woods, has passed through many edi- tions. The cause of missions was greatly promoted by the delineation of her character and the description of her sufferings. See her Life.—Allen ; Jones' Chris. Biog. NEWCOME, (Abp. WILLIAM, D. D.,) a learned prelate, was born, in 1729, at Barton le Clay, in Bedfordshire; was educated at Abingdon School, and at Pembroke col- lege, Oxford ; was successively bishop of Dromore, Osso- ry, and Waterford, in Ireland; was raised to the archbi- shopric of Armagh ; and died in 1800. Of his works the principal are, Observations on the Character of our Lord ; A Harmony of the Gospels; An Historical View of the English Biblical Translations; and Attempts towards an improved Version of Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets.- Davenport. NEW PLATONICS, or AMMONIANs; so called from Ammonius Saccas, who taught with the highest applause in the Alexandrian school, about the conclusion of the se- cond century. This learned man attempted a general re- conciliation of all sects, whether philosophical or religious. He maintained that the great principles of all philosophical and religious truth were to be found equally in all sects, and that they differed from each other only in their method of expressing them, in some opinions of little or no impor- tance; and that by a proper interpretation of their respec- tive sentiments they might easily be united in one body. Ammonius supposed that true philosophy derived its origin and its consistence from the eastern nations, that it was taught to the Egyptians by Hermes, that it was brought from them to the Greeks, and preserved in its original purity by Plato, who was the best interpreter of Piermes and the other Oriental sages. He maintained that all the different religions which prevailed in the world : were, in their original integrity, conformable to this an- cient philosophy; but it unfortunately happened, that the symbols and fictions under which, according to the ancient manner, the ancients delivered their precepts and doc- trines, were in process of time erroneously understood, both by priests and people, in a literal sense; that in con- sequence of this, the invisible beings and demons whom the Supreme Deity had placed in the different parts of the universe as the ministers of his providence, were by the [ 869 º N E W suggestions of superstition converted into gods, and wor- shipped with a multiplicity of vain ceremonies. He there. fore insisted that all the religions of all nations should be restored to their primitive standard : viz., the ancient phi- losophy of the East; and he asserted that his project was agreeable to the intentions of Jesus Christ, whom he ac- knowledged to be a most excellent man, the friend of God; and affirmed that his sole view in descending on earth, was to set bounds to the reigning superstition, to remove the errors which had crept into the religion of all nations, but not to abolish the ancient theology from which they were derived. - * Taking these principles for granted, Ammonius associ: ated the sentiments of the Egyptians with the doctrines of Plato; and to finish this conciliatory scheme, he so inter- preted the doctrines of the other philosophical and religious sects, by art, invention, and allegory, that they seemed to bear some semblance to the Egyptian and Platonic systems. With regard to moral discipline, Ammonius permitted the people to live according to the law of their country, and the dictates of nature; but a more sublime rule was laid down for the wise. They were to raise above all ter- restrial things, by the towering efforts of holy contempla: tion, those souls whose origin was celestial and divine. They were ordered to extenuate by hunger, thirst, and other mortifications, the sluggish body, which restrains the liberty of the immortal spirit, that in this life they might enjoy communion with the Supreme Being, and as- cend after death, active and unencumbered, to the univer- sal parent, to live in his presence forever. See Robinson's Bibl. Repos. for 1834.—Hend. Buck. NEW TESTAMEMT. (See BIBLE ; Gospels; Acts; Epist Les; INSPIRATION ; and ScFIPTURE.) NEWTON, (Sir Isaac,) the greatest of philosophers, was lorn, December 25, 1642, at Colsterworth, in Lincoln- ///, / N shire, and early displayed a talent for mechanics and draw- ing. On one occasion, having been sent to market with corn and other products of the farm, young Newton left the sale of his goods to a servant, while he himself retired to a hay-loſt at an inn in Grantham, to ruminate cver the problems of Euclid, and the laws of Kepler, in which situ- ation the uncle happened to find him, probably meditating discoveries of his own, which should eclipse the glory of his predecessors. He was educated at Grantham school, and at Trinity college, Cambridge, and studied mathema- tics with the utmost assiduity. In 1667, he obtained a fel- lowship; in 1669, the mathematical professorship; and in 1671, he became a member of the Royal society. It was during his abode at Cambridge that he made his three great discoveries, of fluxions, the nature of light and co- lors, and the laws of gravitation. To the latter of these his attention was first turned by his seeing an apple fall from a tree. The Principia, which unfolded to the world the theory of the universe, was not published till 1687. In that year also Newton was chosen one of the delegates, to defend the privileges of the university against James II. ; and in 1688 and 1701 he was elected one of the members of the university. He was appointed warden of the mint in 1696; was made master of it in 1699; was chosen presi- dent of the Royal Society in 1703; and was knighted in 1705. He died March 20, 1727. His “Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse” appeared in 1733, in quarto. “It is asto- nishing,” says Dr. Hutton, “what care and industry New- ton employed about the papers relating to chronology, church history, &c.; as, on examining them, it appears that many are copies over and over again, often with little N E W N I C [ 870 ) sopher were published by Dr. Samuel Horsley, in 1779, in five volumes, quarto; and an English translation of his “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” is extant. The character of this great man has been thus drawn by Mr. Hume, at the close of his History of England: “In Newton, this island may boast of having produced the greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the human species. Cautious in admit- ting no principles but such as were founded on experi- ment; but resolute to adopt every such principle, however new or unusual: from modesty, ignorant of his superiority above the rest of mankind; and thence less careful to ac- commodate his reasonings to common apprehensions : more anxious to merit than acquire fame : he was, from these causes, long unknown to the world; but his reputa- tion at last broke out with a lustre, which scarcely any writer, during his own lifetime, had ever before attained. While Newton seemed to draw off the veil from some of the mysteries of nature, he showed at the same time the imperfections of the mechanical philosophy; and thereby restored her ultimate secrets to that obscurity in which they ever did and ever will remain.” - The remains of Sir Isaac Newton were interred in West- minster abbey, where a magnificent monument is erected to his memory, with a Latin inscription, concluding thus:– “Let mortals congratulate themselves, that so great an or- Inament of human nature has existed.” His character is shown by Dr. Brewster to have been that of the ortho- dox, humble and sincere Christian. Of nature, antiquity, and the Holy Scriptures, he was a diligent, sagacious, and faithful interpreter. He maintained, by his philosophy, the dignity of the SUPREME BEING, and in his manners he exhibited the simplicity of the gospel. “I seem to my- self,” he said, “to be like a child, picking up a shell here and there, on the shore of the great ocean of truth.” Mar- tin's Biog. Philos. ; Hutton's Math. Dict. ; Brenster's Life of Sir Isaac Newton.—Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog. : Chal- 7ncrs’, ‘Works. NEWTON, (BP. Tuom As,) a learned prelate, was born, in 1704, at Litchfield; was educated there, at Westminster, and at Trinity college, Cambridge; and, after having filled various minor preferments, was made bishop of Bristol, in 1761. He died in 1782. His principal work is, Disserta- tions on the Prophecies. He also published editions, with notes, of Paradise Lost, and Paradise Regained.—Davenport. NEWTON, (John,) rector of St. Mary Woolnoth, and St. Mary Woolchurch Haw, was born in London, on the 24th of July, 1722, O. S. . His parents, though not wealthy, were respectable. His father was for many years master of a ship in the Mediterranean trade. His mother was a dissenter, a pious woman, and a member of the late Dr. Jenning's church, but, unfortunately, she died before he had attained the age of seven years. When he was four years old, he could read well, repeat the Assembly’s Shorter Catechism, with the proofs, all Dr. Watts' small- er catechisms, and his Children’s Hymns. He was ne- wer at school longer than two years, ſrom his eighth to his tenth year; it was a boarding-school at Stratford, in Essex. When he was eleven years of age, he made five voyages with his father to the Mediterranean; during his last voyage he left him with a friend at Alicant, in Spain. In 1742, his father leſt the sea, and he aſterwards made one voyage to Venice, before the mast, and on his return was impressed on board the Harwich. Becoming, in pro- cess of time, master of a vessel employed in the slave trade, he made several voyages to the coast of Africa, for the purpose of carrying on that abominable traffic, during which time he contracted habits of dissipation and vice, which the brutalizing scenes he witnessed tended to origi- nate and conſirm. Aſter spending several years in this disgusting employ- ment, his heart grew sick of it; and the compunctious visitings of conscience, seconded and enforced by the word of C')d, determined him to abandon it. He grew serious and fond of study, and having relinquished the occupation of a mariner, he, in 1775, obtained the office of tide sur- veyor of the port of Liverpool. When he had been about three years in that situation he turned his attention towards the profession of a clergyman in the cstablished church, or no variation.” All the works of this eminent philo- and made an unsuccessful effort to obtain episcopal or dination from the archbishop of York, having been com- plimented with a title to a curacy by a friend. Disap- pointed, however, in his hopes, he began to exercise himself in the way of exhorting or expounding the Scrip- tures at Liverpool, wherever providence opened a door to him, we suppose, among the dissenters. In this way he appears to have passed seven or eight years of his liſe ; until, in 1764, having an offer made him of the curacy of Olney, in Bucks, he renewed his application for ordination, and, on the 29th of April, obtained it ſrom the hands of Dr. Green, bishop of Lincoln, at the palace of Buckden. During a residence of fifteen years at that place, he formed an intimate friendship with the poet Cowper, whence ori- ginated a volume of hymns, well known under the title of “Olney Hymns,” their joint composition. In 1779 Mr. Newton removed to London, having been presented, by the late Mr. John-Thornton, with the rectory of the united parishes of St. Mary Woolnoth, and St. Mary Woolchurch Haw, in Lombard street. Here a new and wide field of usefulness opened before him, which he con- tinued to fill for about twenty-seven years, until the 21st of December, 1807, when he departed this life, at the ad- vanced age of eighty-five ; but, for the last ten or twelve years, his mental powers were greatly impaired. Mr. Newton was a man of real originality, and his ha- bits of observation were eminently philosophical. His doctrinal sentiments were moderately Calvinistic, and his writings have been collected, and frequently printed, in six volumes octavo, or twelve volumes duodecimo. Few theologians of the last century contributed more to the re- commendation and advancement of experimental religion. A handsome stereotype edition of his Works, compressed in two volumes octavo, with his Life by Mr. Cecil prefixed, appeared in Philadelphia in 1831. The price of this edi- tion puts it within the reach of the poor.—Jones' Chris. Ili- og. ; Hend. Buck. NIBHAZ; a god of the Hivites. (See ANUBIs.) NICANDER and MARCIAN ; two Christian martyrs of the fourth century. Both were Roman military officers of great ability, and great efforts were made to induce them to renounce Christianity, but in vain. Crowds of people attended their execution. The wife of Nicander, being herself a Christian, encouraged her husband to Suſſer pa- tiently for Christ; but the wife of Marcian, being a pagan, entreated her husband to save his life for the sake of her, and of his child. Marcian embraced her and her babe, gently reproving her idolatry and unbelief; and then, to- gether with Nicander, who also in the most affectionate manner had taken leave of his Christian wiſe, submitted joyfully to the fatal stroke, which conferred on them the crown of martyrdom, A. D. 306.-Fox, p. 56. NICENE CREED. (See CREED.) NICETAS, a Christian martyr of the fourth century, was of Gothic descent, born near the Danube. Though he had long been a Christian, he met with no molestation on that account until the persecution under Athanarick, in A. D. 370. That monarch of the eastern Goths ordered an idol to be drawn about on a chariot, through all the places where Christians lived. The chariot stopped at the door of every professed Christian, and he was ordercq to pay it adoration. Upon a refusal the house was immedi ately set on fire, and all within were burnt. This was the case with Nicetas, who became a martyr to his Christian constancy, being consumed to ashes in his own house, September 15, A. D. 372.-Fox, p. 71. - NICHOLS (John,) American missionary to Bombay, was born at Antrim, (N.H.) June 20, 1790; graduated at Dartmouth college in 1813. Two years before, during a revival of religion in college, his mind became perma- nently affected with religious truth. He yielded his heart to Christ, and on being convinced that it was his duty to serve him in the gospel, entered the theological Seminary at Andover, in Oct. 1813. He was ordained at Boston, with the missionaries, Swiſt, Graves, Parsons, and But- trick, Aug. 2, 1817. He sailed for Bombay with his wiſe, Sépt. 5, 1817, and arrived Feb. 23, 1818. After toiling in his benevolent work nearly seven years, he died of a ſever at Bombay, Dec. 10, 1824. Memoirs of Am. Miss.—Allen. NICODEMUS ; a disciple of Jesus Christ, a Jew by N I C N I G. nation, and by sect a Pharisee. He was one of the sena- tors of the sanhedrim, (John 3.) and at first concealed his belief in the divine character of our Lord. After- wards, however, he avowed himself a believer, when he came with Joseph of Arimathea to pay the last duties to the body of Christ, which they took down from the cross, embalmed, and laid in the sepulchre.—Calmet. NICOLAITANS ; heretics who assumed this name from Nicolas of Antioch ; who, being a Gentile by birth, first embraced Judaism and then Christianity; when his zeal and devotion recommended him to the church of Je- rusalem, by whom he was chosen one of the first deacons. Many of the primitive writers believed that Nicolas was rather the occasion than the author of the infamous prac- tices of those who assumed his name, who were expressly condemned by the Spirit of God himself, Rev. 2:6. And, indeed, their opinions and actions were highly extrava- gant and criminal. They allowed a community of wives, and made no distinction between ordinary meats and those offered to idols. According to Eusebius, they sub- sisted but a short time; but Tertullian says, that they on- ly changed their name, and that their heresies passed into the sect of the Cainites. We have the testimony of St. John, (Rev. 2: 14, 20.) as well as of the fathers, that the lives of the Nicolaitans were proſligate and vicious; to which we may add, that they ate things sacrificed to idols. This is expressly said of Basilides and Valentinus, two celebrated leaders of Gnostic sects: and we perhaps are not going too far, if we infer from St. John, that the Nicolaitans were the first who enticed the Christians to this impious practice, and obtained from thence the distinction of their peculiar ce- lebrity. Their motive for such conduct is very evident. They wished to gain proselytes to their doctrines; and they therefore taught that it was lawful to indulge the passions, and that there was no harm in partaking of an idol-sacrifice. This had now become the test to which Christians must submit, if they wished to escape persecu- tion; and the Nicolaitans sought to gain converts by tell- ing them that they might still believe in Jesus, though “they ate of things sacrificed unto idols.” The fear of death would shake the faith of some ; others would be gained over by sensual arguments: and thus many un- happy Christians of the Asiatic churches were ſound by St. John in the ranks of the Nicolaitans. We might wish perhaps to know at what time the sect of the Nicolaitans began ; but we cannot define it accurately. If Irenaeus is correct in saying that it preceded by a considerable time the heresy of Cerinthus, and that the Cerinthian heresy was a principal cause of St. John writing his gos- pel, it follows, that the Nicolaitans were in existence at least some years before the time of their being mentioned in the Revelation ; and the persecution under Domitian, which was the cause of St. John being sent to Patmos, may have been the time which enabled the Nicolaitans to exhibit their principles. Irenaeus indeed adds, that St. John directed his gospel against the Nicolaitans as well as against Cerinthus ; and the comparison which is made between their doctrine and that of Balaam, may perhaps authorize us to refer to this sect what is said in the second epistle of St. Peter. The whole passage contains marked allusions to Gnostic teachers.-Watson ; Calmet. NICOLAS ; a proselyte of Antioch, that is, converted from paganism to the religion of the Jews. He after- wards embraced Christianity, and was among the most zealous and most holy of the first Christians; so that he was chosen for one of the first seven deacons of the Church at Jerusalem, Acts 6: 5. His memory has been tarnished in the church by a blemish, from which it has not been possible hitherto to clear him. Certain heretics were called Nicolaitans from his name; and though perhaps he had no share in their errors, nor their irregularities, yet he is suspected to have given some occasion to them. (See NICOLAITANs.) —Calmet. NICOMEDES; a Christian of some distinction at Rome, who, during the yage of Domitian's persecution, A. D. 98, did all he could to serve the afflicted followers of Christ; comforting the poor, visiting the confined, exhorting the wavering, and confirming the faithful. For thus acting, he was seized by the ſerocious hand of power, sentenced as a Christian, and scourged to death; through which he passed to meet the approving sentence of his Lord, Matt. 25: 40.-Foz, . 14. NICOPOLIS; a city of Epirus, on the gulf of Ambra- cia, whither, as ‘some think, St. Paul wrote to Titus, then in Crete, to come to him; (Titus 3: 12.) but others, with greater probability, are of opinion, that the city of Nico: polis, where St Paul was, was not that of Epirus, but that of Thrace, on the borders of Macedonia, near the river Nessus. Emmaus in Palestine was also called Nicopolis by the Romans.—Watson. NIDDUI: the lesser sort of excommunication used among the Hebrews. He who had incurred this, was to withdraw himself from his relations, at least to the dis- tance of four cubits. It commonly continued thirty days. If it was not then taken off, it might be prolonged for sixty, or even ninety days. But iſ within this term the excommunicated person did not give satisfaction, he fell into the cherem, which was the second sort of excommuni- cation; and thence into the third sort, called schammatha, the most terrible of all. (See ANATHEMA.)—Calmet. NIEBUHR, (CARSTEN,) a celebrated traveller, was born in 1733, at Ludingsworth, in the duchy of Lauenberg; was sent, in company with four other learned men, by the Danish government, in 1761, to explore Arabia ; was em- ployed for six years on that mission, and was the only one who returned; was liberally rewarded by the Danish mo- narch; and died in 1815. Among his works are, a De- scription of Arabia; and Travels in Arabia, and the neighboring Countries. Bib. Repos. no. viii-Davenport. NIEBUHR, (G. B.,) a son of the foregoing, was, suc- cessively, professor at the university of Berlin, counsellor of state, and Prussian ambassador to the pope. While he was at Rome, he discovered some valuable fragments of two of Cicero's orations. He died in 1830. His great work is The History of Rome, which is far superior td. most of its rivals, Davenport. * NIGER ; the surname of Simon, (Acts 13: 1.) a prophet and teacher at Antioch, and one who laid his hands on Saul and Barnabas, for the execution of that office to which the Holy Ghost had appointed them. Some believe he is that Simon the Cyrenian, who carried the cross of Christ to mount Calvary; but this opinion is founded only on a similitude of names. Epiphanius speaks of one Niger among the seventy disciples of our Savior.—Calmet. NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began their artificial day in the evening, and ended it the next evening; so that the night preceded the day; whence it is said, “eve: ming and morning one day,” Gen. 1: 5. They allowed twelve hours to the night, and twelve to the day. -- Night is put metaphorically for a time of affliction and adversity : “Thou hast proved mine heart, thou hast vi. sited me in the night, thou hast tried me;” (Psal. 17: 3. that is, by adversity and tribulation. And “ the morning cometh, and also the night,” Isaiah 21: 12. Night is also put for the time of death : “The night cometh, wherein no man can work,” John 9: 4. Children of the day, and children of the night, in a moral and figurative sense, de- note good men and wicked men, Christians and Gentiles. The disciples of the Son of God are children of light: they belong to the light, they walk in the light of truth; while the children of the night walk in the darkness of ignorance and infidelity, and perform only works of dark- ness. “Ye are all the children of the light, and the children of the day; we are not of the night, nor of dark- ness,” 1 Thess. 5: 5.- Watson. NIGHT-HAWK ; (techmem; ), Lev. 11: 16. Deut. 14: 15. That this is a voracious bird seems clear from the import of its name; and interpreters are generally agreed to describe it as flying by night. On the whole, it should seem to be the stric Orientalis, which Hasselquist thus describes: It is of the size of the common owl, and lodges in the large buildings or ruins of Egypt and Syria, and sometimes even in the dwelling-houses. The Arabs set- tled in Egypt call it “Massasa,” and the Syrians “Banu.” It is extremely voracious in Syria : to such a degree, that if care is not taken to shut the windows at the coming on of night, he enters the houses and kills the children : the women, therefore, are very much afraid of him.—Watson. N I MI N IN I 872 ) NILE ; the river of Egypt, whose fountain, is in the Upper Ethiopia. After having watered several kingdoms, the Nile continues its course far into the kingdom of Goi- am. Then it winds about again, from the east to the north. Having crossed several kingdoms and provinces, it falls into Egypt at the cataracts, which are waterfalls over steep rocks of the length of two hundred feet. At the bottom of these rocks the Nile returns to its usual pace, and thus flows through the valley of Egypt. Its channel, according to Villamont, is about a league broad. At eight miles below Grand Cairo, it is divided into two arms, which make a triangle, whose base is at the Me- diterranean sea, and which the Greeks call the Delta, be- cause of its figure. These two arms are divided into others, which discharge themselves into the Mediterra- mean, the distance of which from the top of the Delta is about twenty leagues. These branches of the Nile the ancients commonly reckoned to be seven. Ptolemy makes them nine, some only four, some eleven, some fourteen. Homer, Xenophon, and Diodorus Siculus testify, that the ancient name of this river was Egyptus; and the lat- ter of these writers says, that it took the name Nilus only since the time of a king of Egypt called by that name. The Greeks gave it the name of Melas; and Diodorus Siculus observes, that the most ancient name by which the Grecians have known the Nile was Oceanus. Egyptians paid divine honors to this river, and called it Jupiter Nilus. Very little rain ever falls in Egypt, never sufficient to fertilize the land; and but for the provision of this boun- tiful river, the country would be condemned to perpetual sterility. As it is, from the joint operation of the regu- larity of the flood, the deposit of mud from the water of the river, and the warmth of the climate, it is the most fertile country in the world; the produce exceeding all calculation. It has in consequence been, in all ages, the granary of the East ; and has on more than one occasion, an instance of which is recorded in the history of Joseph, saved the Ileighboring countries from starvation. It is probable, that, while in these countries, on the occasion referred to, the seven years’ famine was the result of the absence of rain, in Egypt it was brought about by the in- undation being withheld : and the consternation of the Egyptians, at witnessing this phenomenon for seven suc- cessive years, may easily be conceived. See a most painfully interesting account of a famine occasioned by this cause, in Robinson's Bibl. Repos. for October, 1832. The origin and course of the Nile being unknown to the ancients, its stream was held, and is still held by the natives, in the greatest veneration; and its periodical overſlow was viewed with mysterious wonder. But both of these are now, from the discoveries of the moderns, better understood. It is now known, that the sources, or permanent springs of the Nile, are situated in the moun- tains of Abyssinia, and the unexplored regions to the west and south-west of that country; and that the occasional supplies, or causes of the inundation, are the periodical rains which fall in those districts. For a correct know- ledge of these facts, and of the true position of the source of that branch of the river, which has generally been con- sidered to be the continuation of the true Nile, we are in- debted to the intrepid and indefatigable Bruce. - Although the Nile, by way of eminence, has been called “ the river of Egypt,” it must not be confounded with another stream so denominated in Scripture, an insignifi- cant rivulet in comparison, which falls into the Mediter- ranean below Gaza.-Watson. NIMRAH; a city of Gad, or rather of Reuben, east of the pead sea, Num. 32: 3. . Calmet thinks that Nemra, Nimra. Nimrim, Nemrim, and Beth-nemra, are the same city. Jeremiah (48: 34.) speaks of Nimrim and its pleasant wa- ters; Isaiah ( 15: 6.) also mentions the waters of Nim: rim, Jerome says, that Nimrim is situated on the Dead sea, and takes name from the bitterness of its waters.- Calmet. * NIMROD. He is generally supposed to have been the immediate son of Cush, and the youngest, or sixth, from the scriptural phrase, “Cush begat Nimrod,” after the The mention of his five sons, Gen. 10: 8. But the phrase is used with considerable latitude, like “father,” and “son,” in Scripture, Gen. 10: 8–12. Though the main body of the Cushites was miraculously dispersed, and sent by Providence to their destinations along the sea-coasts of Asia and Africa, yet Nimrod remained behind, and found- ed an empire in Babylonia, according to Berosus, by usurping the property of the Arphaxadites in the land of Shinar; where “the beginning of his kingdom was Ba- bel,” or Babylon, and other towns : and, not satisfied with this, he next invaded Assur, or Assyria, east of the Tigris, where he built Nineveh, and several other towns. The marginal reading of our English Bible, “He went out into Assyria,” or to invade Assyria, is here adopted in preference to that in the text, &c. The meaning of the word Nineveh may lead us to his original name, Nin, signifying “a son,” the most cele- brated of the sons Cush. That of Nimrod, or “Rebel,” was probably a designation given him by the oppressed Shemites, of which we have several instances in Scripture, 2 Kings 18:4. Nimrod, who first subverted the patriarchal government, introduced also the Zabian idolatry, or wor- ship of the heavenly host; and, after his death, was dei- fied by his subjects, and supposed to be translated into the constellations of Orion, attended by his hounds, Sirius and Canicula, and still pursuing his favorite game, the great bear. And it is highly probable that the Assyrian Nimrod, or Hindoo Bala, was also the prototype of the Grecian Hercules, with his lub and lion's skin. Nimrod is said to have leen “a mighty hunter before the Lord ;” which the Jerusalem paraphrast interprets of persecution, a sinful hunting after the sons of men, to turn them off from the true religion. But it may be taken in a more literal sense, for hunting of wild beasts; inas- much as the circumstance of his being a mighty hunter is mentioned with great propriety to introduce the account of his setting up his kingdom ; the exercise of hunting be- ing looked upon in ancient times as a means of acquiring the rudiments of war; for which reason, the principal heroes of heathen antiquity, as Theseus, Nestor, &c., were, as Xenophon tells us, bred up to hunting. Besides, it may be supposed, that by this practice Nimrod drew to: gether a great company of robust young men to attend him in his sport, and by that means increased his power. And by destroying the wild beasts, which, in the compara- tively defenceless state of society in those early ages, were, no doubt, very dangerous enemies, he might, per- haps, render himself farther popular; thereby engaging numbers to join with him, and to promote his chief design of subduing men, and making himself master of many nations. We incline, however, to the version, “a mighty persecutor in the sight of Jehovah.”—Watson. - NINEVEH. This capital of the Assyrian empire could boast of the remotest antiquity. Tacitus styles it, tº Vetustissima sedes Assyria: ;” and Scripture informs us that Nimrod built Nineveh, and several other cities, Gen. 10: 11. Its name denotes “the habitation of Nin,” which seems to have been the proper name of “that rebel,” as Nimrod signifies ; and it is uniformly styled by Herodo- tus, Xenophon, Diodorus, Lucian &c., “the city of Ni- nus.” And the village of Nunia, opposite Mosul, in its name, and the tradition of the natives, ascertains the site of the ancient city, which was near the castle of Ar- bela, according to Tacitus, so celebrated for the decisive victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians there ; the site of which is ascertained by the village of Arbil, about ten German miles to the east of Nunia, according to Niebuhr's map. Nineveh at first seems only to have been a small city, and less than Resen, in its neighbor- hood; which is conjectured by Bochart, and not without reason, to have been the same as Larissl, which Xeno- Shon describes as “the ruins of a great city, formerly in- abited by the Medes,” and which the natives might have described as belonging la Resen, “to Resen.” Nineveh did not rise to greatness for many ages after, until its second founder, Ninus II., about B. C. 1230, enlarged and made it the greatest city in the world. According to Diodorus, it was of an oblong form, a hundred and fifty stadia long, and ninety broad, and, con- sequently, four hundred and eighty in circuit or fºrty- * : *- º i i | | .” “A \ , , ºn . . Sº 2. S. ... ." %. * * **u. bº V . º, . snº º º, ſº º Nºš º: | \ - | º, sº º t :...Sº d 8 * i t i. W #|}º º ſt/ *†. siliſ ſºilſ ---…} : Ars T : |llu" º = r ºntº W N IN N IN [ 873 eight miles, reckoning ten stadia to an English m.º.e, with major Rennel. And its walls were a hundred feet high, and so broad that three chariots could drive on them abreast; and on the walls were fifteen hundred towers, each two hundred feet high. We are not, however, to imagine that all this vast inclosure was built upon : it contained great parks and extensive fields, and detached houses and buildings, like Babylon, and other great cities of the East even at the present day, as Bassorah, &c. And this entirely corresponds with the representations of Scripture. In the days of the prophet Jonah, about B. C. 800, it seems to have been a “great city, an exceeding great city, of three days’ journey,” (Jonah 1: 2. 3: 3.) perhaps in circuit. The population of Nineveh, also, at that time was very great. It contained “more than six- score thousand persons that could not discern between their right hand and their left, beside much cattle,” Jonah 4; 11. Reckoning the persons to have been infants of two years old and under, and that these were a fifth part of the whole, according to Bochart, the whole population would amount to six hundred thousand souls. The same number Pliny assigns for the population of Seleucia, on the decline of Babylon. This population shows that a great part of the city must have been leſt open and un- built. - - The threatened overthrow of Nineveh within three days, was, by the general repentance and humiliation of the inhabitants, from the highest to the lowest, suspended for near two hundred years, until “ their iniquity came to the full;” and then the prophecy was literally accom- plished, in the third year of the siege of the city, by the combined Medes and ºabylonians; the king, Sardana- palus, being encouraged to hold out in consequence of an ancient prophecy, that Nineveh should never be taken by assault, till the river became its enemy ; when a mighty inundation of the river, swollen by continual rains, came up against a part of the city, and threw down twenty stadia of the wall in length ; upon which, the king, con- ceiving that the oracle was accomplished, burnt himself, his concubines, eunuchs, and treasures; and the enemy entering by the breach, sacked and razed the city, about B. C. 606. The complete demolition of such immense piles as the walls and towers of Nineveh, may seem mat- ter of surprise to those who do not consider the nature of the materials of which they were constructed, that is, of _º Bi cipal mounds, few in number, which show neither bricks, stones, nor other materials of building, but are in many places overgrown with grass, and resemble the mounds left by intrenchments and fortifications of ancient Roman scamps, and the appearances of other mounds and ruins less marked than even these, extending for ten miles, and widely spread, and seeming to be the wreck of former buildings, show that Nineveh is left without one monu- ment of royalty; without any token whatever of its splen- bricks, dried or baked in the sun, and cemented with bitu. men, which were apt to be “dissolved” by water, or to moulder away by the injuries of the weather. Besides, in the East, the materials of ancient cities have been often employed in the building of new ones in the neigh- borhood. Thus Mosul was built with the spoils of Nine- veh. The book of Nahum was avowedly prophetic of the destruction of Nineveh ; and it is there foretold that “the gates of the river shall be opened, and the palace shall be dissolved. Nineveh of old, like a pool of water, with an overflowing flood he will make an utter end of the place thereof.” Nahum 2: 6, 1: 8, 9. The historian describes the facts by which the other predictions of the prophet were as literally fulfilled. He relates that the king of Assyria, elated with his former victories, and ignorant of the revolt of the Bactrians, had abandoned himself to Scandalous inaction ; had appointed a time of festivity, and supplied his soldiers with abundance of wine; and, that the general of the enemy, apprised, by deserters, of their negligence and drunkenness, attacked the Assyrian army while the whole of them were fearlessly giving way to indulgence, destroyed great part of them, and drove the rest into the city. The words of the prophet were hereby verified : “While they be folden together as thorns, and while they are drunken as drunkards, they shall be de- voured as stubble fully dry,” Nahum 1: 10. The prophet promised much spoil to the enemy: “Take the spoil of silver, take the spoil of gold; for there is no end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture,” Nahum 2: 9. And the historian affirms that many talents of gold and silver, preserved from the fire, were carried to Ec- batana. According to Nahum, (3: 15.) the city was not only to be destroyed by an overflowing flood, but the fire, also, was to devour it; and, as Diodorus relates, partly by water, partly by fire, it was destroyed. The utter and perpetual destruction and desolation of Nineveh were ſoretold : “The Lord will make an utter end of the place thereof. Affliction shall not rise up the second time; she is empty, void, and waste,” Nahum 1: 8, 9. 2: 10. 3: 17–19. And if now the only spot that bears its name, or that can be said to be the place where it was, be indeed the site of one of the most extensive of cities on which the sun ever shone, and which continued for many centuries to be the capital of Assyria; the prin- rs Nimrod, one of the ruins of Ninevch. dor or wealth; that their place is not known where they were ; and that it is indeed a desolation, “empty, void, and waste,” its very ruins perished, and less than the wreck of what it was. Such an utter ruin, in every view, has been made of it; and such is the truth of the divine pre: dictions. See Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy.—Watson. NINUS ; Son of Belus the Assyrian, and founder of the Assyrian monarchy, A. M. 2737, about the time of the government of Deborah and Barak in Israel.–Calmet 110 N O A N O A [ 874 ) NISAN ; a Hebrew month, partly answering to our March; and which sometimes takés from February or April, according to the course of the moon. It was the seventh month of the civil year; but was made the first month of the sacred year, at the coming out of Egypt, Exod. 12: 2. In Moses it is called Abib. The name Ni- san is only since the time of Ezra, and the return from the captivity of Babylon. See the Jewish CALENDAR.— Calmet. - NISROCH, or NESRoch; a god of the Assyrians, 2 Kings 19:37. The LXX. call him Nesrach; Josephus, Aras- kes; and the Hebrew of Tobit, published by Munster, Dagon.—Calmet. NITRE ; (nether,) Prov. 25: 20. Jer. 2: 22. This is not the same that we call nitre, or saltpetre, but a native salt of a different kind, distinguished among maturalists by the name of natrum. The matrum of the ancients was an earthy alkaline salt. It was found in abundance separated from the water of the lake Natron, in Egypt. It rises from the bottom of the lake to the top of the wa- ter, and is there condensed by the heat of the sun into the hard and dry form in which it is sold. This salt thus Scummed cff is the same in all respects with the Smyrna soap earth. Pliny, Matthiolus, and Agricola have de- scribed it to us; Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides, and others, mention its uses. It is also found in great plenty in Sindy, a province in the inner part of Asia, and in many other parts of the East; and might be had in any quantities. The learned Michaëlis plainly demonstrates, from the nature of the thing and the context, that this fossil and natural alkali must be that which the Hebrews called ne- ther. Solomon must mean the same when he compares the effect which unseasonable mirth has upon a man in affliction to the action of vinegar upon nitre; (Prov. 25: 20.) for vinegar has no effect upon what we call nitre, but upon the alkali in question has a great effect, making it rise up in bubbles with much effervescence. It is of a Soapy nature, and was used to take spots from clothes, and even from the face. Jeremiah alludes to this use of at, 2: 22.—Watson. (See Noph.)— NO, or No-AMMON ; a city of Egypt. Calmet. NOACHIDAE ; a name given to the children of Noah, And in general, to all men not of the chosen race of Abra- ham.—Calmet. - NOAH, (repose or rest,) son of Lamech, was born A. M. 1056. Amidst the general corruption of mankind, he found favor in the eyes of the Lord, and received a divine command, to build an ark for the saving of his house from the general deluge which the Lord was about to bring upon the earth. Influenced by faith and religious fear he obeyed. (See ARK, and DeLUGE.) After having left the ark, Noah offered as a burnt-sacrifice to the Lord one of all the pure animals that had been preserved. His sacrifice was accepted, and the Lord promised to bring no more a deluge over the earth ; of which promise the sign he gave to Noah was the rainbow. - Noah seems, in the first instance at least, to have taken up his residence in the vicinity of mount Ararat, inas- much as no notice is taken of his journeying thence prior to his commencement of husbandry. And this idea is strengthened by the fact of the existence of a city or town at the foot of that mountain at this very day, denominated “The Place of Descent;” which city appears, from this circumstance, to have been founded by Noah himself. In the opinion of some, he spent the remainder of his days at the place above mentioned; but others suppose that he emigrated from thence to China. We will briefly consider this subject. Mankind are represented as journeying from the East, when they found the plain of Shinar. Now mount Ara- rat, in Armenia, is northerly from Shinar. It follows, therefore, that the mountain now denominated Ararat is not the Ararat near which Noah settled after the deluge; or, that the posterity of Noah must have wandered in their journeyings a great distance from that place, in or- der to bring them to a position whence, by journeying westward, they would reach Shinar. Waiving, thereſore, tº consideration of the question where the real Ararat is the same person as Noah. situated, we are driven to the conclusion that the great body of mankind ºvere, some time previous to their arriv- ing at Shinar, eastward of that country. - Noah lived till after the period of the confusion of tongues. Had he accompanied his posterity to Shinar, it is morally certain that a person of his eminence, and of his relation to them, must have figured conspicuously among them. But as no mention is made of him in con- nexion with the journeying from the East, and the disper- sion at Babel, we conclude that he either continued where he first settled, viz. at the base of mount Ararat, or else that he journeyed in some other direction with a portion of his descendants, while the remainder journeyed west to Shinar. The latter is the more probable supposition. “Two hundred and fifty years before Ninus,” says Portius Cato, “the earth was overflowed with waters, and mankind began again in Saga Scythia.” Saga Scythin is in the same latitude with Bactria, between the Caspiaut sea and Imaus, north of mount Paraponisus. Noah. might have continued his journey to Saga Scythia, and formed a settlement there, if the ark did not rest in that quarter at the subsiding of the waters; and hence there is nothing in the foregoing fragment of Portius Cato in- consistent with the idea, that Ararat is in Armenia. That he and some of his posterity did actually separate from the main body, is rendered still further probable by the Chaldean tradition which we have already adduced, viz. that after Xisuthrus, his wife, his daughter, and the pi- lot had left the ark, and sacrificed to the gods, they dis- appeared and were seen no more ; although the voice of Xisuthrus could be still distinguished in the air, admo- nishing those who remained to payºue respect to the gods, and directing them to make their way to Babylonia. From the foregoing consideration it seems clear, that Noah and some of his posterity separated from the rest, the former journeying eastward, the latter westward, be fore the confusion of tongues at Babel, and the subse. quent dispersion of mankind. - But whither went Noah and his party 2 Most probably to China. The language, the literature, the policy, and the history of the Chinese, combine to sustain this idea. Their language appears not to have changed from its primitive character by the confusion of tongues at Babel. Their literature is as ancient as any whatever. Their go- vernment retains the patriarchal character. And their history evidently reaches back to the time of Noah. The first king of China was Fohi, who was undoubtedly The Chinese say Fohi had no father. So Noah, being the great progenitor of the post- diluvians, stands in relation to them as did Adam to the antediluvians—fatherless. Fohi's mother is said to have conceived him, encompassed by a rainbow; an evident allusion to the token of the rainbow in the case of Noah. Fohi is said carefully to have bred seven kinds of crea- tures, which he used to sacrifice to-the Supreme Spirit of heaven and earth. Noah took into the ark clean beasts and fowls by sevens; of which he offered burnt-offerings to the Deity on the subsiding of the deluge. Add to this the circumstance heretofore brought into view, that the Chou’king represents the monarch of China as occupied in drawing off the waters which had deluged the earth; and little doubt indeed can remain, that Noah must have been he founder of the Chinese empire. If, however, any confirmation of this supposition were wanting, it could be ſound in the history of the world in the early ages, which shows that those eastern regions were as early peo: pled as the land of Shinar. For in the days of Ninus and Semiramis, several hundred years after the disper- sion, the dispersed nations attacked the inhabitants of the East with their combined forces, but found the nations about Bactria, and the parts where we have supposed Noah finally settled, able to repulse them. Noah lived, after the deluge, three hundred and fifty years; his whole life being nine hundred and ſiſty years. He died A. M. 2006, leaving three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, (see those articles,) among whom he divided the e whole world, giving to Shem Asia, to Ham Africa, and to Japheth Europe. . (See Division of THE EARTH.) Peter calls Noah a preacher of righteousness, (2 Pet. 2: 5.) because, before the deluge, he was incessantly declar. TN O D. N O N I 875 ing, not only by his discourses, but by his unblamable life, and by building the ark, in which he was employed one hundred and twenty years, the coming of the wrath of God, Matt. 24; 37. The passage in 1 Pet. 3:18—20. has been the theme of much controversy. Several of the ancient fathers took the words literally; as if Christ aſ- ter his death had really preached to those men, who be- fore the deluge were disobedient to the preaching of Noah. But it is certain, that the term “he ment and preached,” may signify only “he preached;” as in Eph. 2: 15. “he came and preached peace to you who were afar off;” not in person; but by his agents, his apostles. In this sense Noah, in his day, was an agent of Christ, being actuated by his Spirit. It is probable, also, that as fallen angels are described as being held in chains of darkness, unto judgment, so disobedient human spirits may be described as being in prison, that is, reserved to future judgment. Comp. Job 26: 5, as usually understood. (See HELL, CHRIST's. DEscENT INTo.) Several learned men have observed, that the pagans confounded Saturn, Deucalion, Ogyges, the god Coelus or Ouranus, Janus, Protheus, Prometheus, Wertumnus, Bacchus, Osiris, Vadimon, and Xisuthrus, with Noah. The fable of Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha is mani- festly derived from the history of Noah. Deucalion, by the advice of his father, built an ark, or vessel of wood, in which he stored all sorts of provisions necessary for life, and entered it, with his wife Pyrrha ; to secure them- selves from a deluge, that drowned nearly all Greece. All the people almost of this country were destroyed; none escaped but those - who took refuge on the tops of the highest mountains. When the flood was over, Deu- calion came out of his ark, and ſound himself on mount Parnassus. There he offered sacrifices to Jupiter, who sent Mercury to him, to know what he desired. He re- quested that he might become the restorer of mankind, which Jupiter granted to him. He and Pyrrha were or- dered to cast stones behind them, which immediately becaume so many men and women. The name Nu- raito given to the wife of Noah by the Syro-Chaldee, is derived from the Syriac, mura, which signifies fire ; hence Pyrrha (fire) is, by the Greeks, said to have been the name of the wife of Deucalion; and so far the Gre- cian story rests on authority more Oriental than itself. Epiphanius has a reference to this derivation: he calls her “ Noria, said to be the wiſe of Noah, whose name is, by interpretation, Pyrrha.” There is, also, much allegory couched under the names of Deucalion’s father, Prome- theus, (foresight,) by whom he was advised to build a vessel, and Pyrrha's ſather, Epimetheus, whose wife was Pandora, accomplished by gifts from all the gods, with her box of evils, in which, when opened, remained only Hope, &c.—Calmet. - NOB ; a sacerdotal city of Benjamin or Ephraim, not far from Diospolis. When David was driven away by Saul he came to Nob, the priests of which city were slain by Saul, 1 Sam. 22:9, &c. 21: 6, &c.—Calmet. . . NOBLEMAN, John 4: 46. This was probably an officer of Herod’s court, and of considerable distinction; not an hereditary nobleman. The word basilekos signifies a servant of the king ; as the Syriac and Arabic versions render it. Many have conjectured that this nobleman, or royal servant, was Chuza, Herod's steward, whose wiſe is thought to have been converted on this occasion, and aſterwards to have become an attendant on Jesus, Luke 8: 3.—Calmet. - NOD, (LAND of ;) the country to which Cain withdrew aſler the murder of Abel. As the precise situation of this country cannot possibly be known, so it has given rise to much ingenious speculation. All that we are told of it is, that it was “on the east of Eden,” or, as it may be rendered, “before Eden;” which very country of Eden is no sure guide for us, as the situation of that, also is disputed. But, be it on the higher or lower Euphrates, (see EDEN,) the land of Nod, which stood before it with respect to the place where Moses, wrote, may still preserve the curse of barrenness passed on it for Cain's sake, namely, in the deserts of Syria or Arabia. The Chaldee interpreters render the word Nod, not as the pro- per name of country, but as an appellative applied to a Cain himself, signifying a vagabond or fugitive, and read, “He dwelt a fugitive in the land.” But the Hebrew reads expressly, “He dwelt in the land of Nod.”—Watson. NOETIANS; Christian heretics in the third century, followers of Noetius, a philosopher of Ephesus, who pre- tended that he was another Moses, sent by God, and that his brother was a new Aaron. His heresy consisted in affirming that there was but one person in the Godhead; and that the Word and the Holy Spirit were but external denominations given to God in consequence of different operations; that, as Creator, he is called Father; as in- carnate, Son ; and as descending on the apostles, Holy Ghost. (See SABELLIANs.)—Hend. Buck. - NOGAROLE, (Isotta,) a lady of Verona, of a family celebrated for the wisdom, piety, and beauty of its women, was born in 1428. She was a great philosopher and di- vine, mistress of several languages, and of an eloquence surpassing all the orators of Italy. She made a most elaborate speech at the council of Mantua, convened by pope Pius II., that all Christian princes might enter into a league against the Turks. She wrote eloquent epistles not only to him, but to his predecessor, Nicholas V., and a Dialogue, in which she disputed, which was most guilty, Adam or Eve. Some of her works coming to the sight of cardinal Bessarion, that illustrious patron of literature was so taken with her genius, that he made a journey from Rome to Verona, purely to pay her a visit. She died in 1446, aged thirty-eight.—Betham. NON-CONFORMISTS ; dissenters from the church of England; but the term applies more particularly to those ministers who were ejected from their livings by the act of uniformity in 1662; the number of whom, according to Dr. Calamy, was nearly two thousand; and to the laity who adhered to them. The celebrated Mr. Locke says, “Bartholomew-day (the day fixed by the act of uniformi- ty) was fatal to our church and religion, by throwing out a very great number of worthy, learned, pious, and or- thodox divines, who could not come up to this and other things in that act. And it is worth your knowledge, that so great was the zeal in carrying on this church affair, and so blind was the obedience required, that if you compare the time of passing the act with the time allowed for the clergy to subscribe the Book of Common Prayer thereby established, you shall plainly find, it could not be printed and distributed, so as one man in forty could have seen and read the book before they did so perfectly assent and consent thereto.” By this act, the clergy were required to subscribe, ex animo, their “assent and consent to all and every thing contained in the Book of Common Prayer,” which had never before been insisted on, so rigidly as to deprive them of their livings and livelihood. Several other acts were passed about this time, very oppressive both to the clergy and laity. In the preceding year, 1661, the Corpo- ration act, incapacitated all persons from offices of trust and honor in a corporation, who did not receive the sacra- ment in the established church. The Conventicle act, in 1663 and 1670, forbade the attendance at conventicles; that is, at places of worship other than the establishment, where more than five adults were present beside the resi- dent family; and that under penalties of fine and impri. sonment by the sentence of magistrates, without a jury. The Oxford act of 1665 banished non-conforming ministers five miles from any corporate town sending members to parliament, and prohibited them from keeping or teaching schools. The Test act of the same year required all per- sons, accepting any office under government, to receive the sacrament in the established church. Such were the dreadful consequences of this intolerant spirit, that it is supposed that near eight thousand died in prison in the reign of Charles II. It is said that Mr. Jere- miah White had carefully collected a list of those who had suffered between Charles II. and the revolution, which amounted to sixty thousand. The same persecutions were carried on in Scotland; and there, as well as in Eng- land, numbers, to avoid the persecution, left their country. But, notwithstanding all these dreadful and furious at- tacks upon the dissenters, they were not extirpated. Their very persecution was in their favor. The infamous cha- racter of their informers and persecutors; their piety, N O N N O P [ 876 ) zeal, and fortitude, no doubt, had influence on considerate minds; and, indeed, they had additions from the esta- blished church, which several clergymen in this reign de- serted as a persecuting church, and took their lot among them. King William coming to the throne, the famous Toleration act passed, by which they were exempted from suffering the penalties above mentioned, and permission was given them to worship God according to the dictates of their own consciences. In the reign of George III., the act for the protection of religious worship superseded the act of toleration, by still more liberal provisions in favor of religious liberty; and in the reign of George IV., the Test and Corporation acts were repealed. See Bogue's Charge at Mr. Knight's Ordination ; Neal's IHistory of the Puritans; De Laune's Plea for the Non-con- formists; Palmer's Non-conformists' Mem. ; Martin's Letters on Non-conformity ; Robinson's Lectures ; Cornish’s History of Non-conformity; Dr. Calamy’s Life of Bazter ; Pierce's Windication of the Dissenters ; Bogue and Bennet's History of the Dissenters ; Conder, J. Fletcher, and Dobson on Non- conformity.—Watson ; Hend. Buck. NON-CONFORMITY; a relative term, which supposes some previously existing system of observances, establish- ed either by political authority or general consent, and de- notes a practical secession or non-communion, on grounds conceived by the parties to require and justify it. Like the term Protestantism, it is general and comprehensive. It applies to the various grounds of secession from a na- tional establishment of religion, and includes different systems of ecclesiastical polity. No wise man would choose to differ ſrom those around him, in reference to matters either civil or religious, unless, in his own estima- tion, he had good reasons for that difference; and in such cases it is the obvious dictate of duty to investigate the questions at issue, with calmness and deliberation ; that conviction and not caprice, principle and not passion, may regulate the inquiry and form the decision. Many regard the non-conformist controversy as a very unattractive subject, a mere debate about words and names and questions, which gender strife rather than godly edi- fying. Assuming either that there is no authority or standard in such matters, or that the authority of certain ecclesiastical superiors ought to be submitted to without murmuring or disputing, they pronounce their disapproba- tion on all discussions of such subjects, and on the par- ties who engage in them. High-churchmen are offended that the doctrine of conformity should be called in ques- tion at all. Those who profess high spirituality, look on the subject as unworthy of their regard, and as fit for such as mind the carnal things of the kingdom of God. Dissenters, as well as others, frequently speak of it as be- ing among non-essential matters, and scarcely deserving of profound consideration; and while they luxuriate in the privileges which their forefathers purchased for them at so dear a rate, almost pity and condemn the measures which procured them. It is impossible for any one to form a correct view of English history for nearly three hundred years, without an acquaintance with this controversy, and with the cha- racters and principles of the men who engaged in it. It is almost coeval with the English Reformation; and the great questions then started cannot be considered as yet finally settled. The Puritans, under the Tudors, became non-conformists under the Stuarts, and dissenters under the family of Hanover. They have been men of the same principles substantially throughout. In maintain- ing the rights of conscience they have contributed more than any other class of persons to set limits to the power of the crown, to define the rights of the subjects, and to secure the liberties of Britain. They have wrested a rod of iron from the hand of despotism, and substituted in its place a sceptre of righteousness and mercy. They have converted the divine right of kings into the princi. ples of a constitutional government, in which the privi. leges of the subject are secured by the same charter which guards the throne. The history of the principles of such a body ought not, therefore, to be regarded as unimportant by any friends of British freedom. The non-conformist controversy contributed greatly to ascertain the distinct provinces of divine and human le. gislation ; to establish the paramount and exclusive au. thority of God, and of the revelation of his will, over the conscience of man ; and to define the undoubted claims of civil government to the obedience of its subjects in all matters purely civil. To the same controversy we are indebted for the correct and scriptural sentiments which are now extensively entertained respecting the unsecular mature of the kingdom of Christ. The intermixture of heavenly and earthly things does indeed still prevail, and its pernicious tendency is yet imperfectly estimated by many; but considerable progress has been made towards the full discovery of the entire spirituality of Messiah’s kingdom. Its independence of secular support and de- ſence; its resources both of propagation and mainten- ance; its uncongeniality with the principles, spirit, and practice of earth-born men, are now much more generally admitted than they once were. In fact the ablest defend- ers of ecclesiastico-civil establishments have now entirely. abandoned the doctrine of divine right, and boldly avow that they are no part of Christianity, but only a human expedient for its propagation. Orme's Life of Bazter, vol. ii. p. 254; Memoir of Roger Williams-Hend. Buck. NON-JURORS ; those who refused to take the oaths to the English government, and who were in consequence under certain incapacities, and liable to certain severe penalties. It can scarcely be said that there are any non- jurors now in that kingdom; and it is well known that as well in Scotland as in England, all penalties have been re- moved both from papists and Protestants, formerly of that denomination. The members of the Episcopal church of Scotland have long been denominated non-jurors; but perhaps they are now called so improperly, as the ground of their difference from the establishment is more on ac- º of ecclesiastical than political principles,—Hend. uck. . NON-RESIDENCE ; the act of not residing on an ecclesiastical benefice. Nothing can reflect greater dis. grace on a clergyman of a parish, than to receive the emoluments without ever visiting his parishioners, and being unconcerned for the welfare of their souls; yet this, in England, has been a reigning evil, and proves that there are too many who care little about the flock, so that they may but live at ease. Let such remember what an awful account they will have to give of talents misapplied, time wasted, Souls neglected, and a sacred office abused. —Hand: Buck; Am: Bap. Mag. for 1832. NOON. ; the middle time of the day, when the sun is highest in his daily course; in modern language, when he is direct south, on the meridian of any place, 1 Kings 18: 27. Psal. 55; 17. This time of the day being the bright- est, is made a subject of comparison in several places of Scripture, Job 5: 14. Psal, 37; 6. The apostle Paul says the brightness in which he beheld the Lord Jesus, was Superior to that of the Sun at noon, Acts 26: 13.−Calmet. NOPH; a city of Egypt, (Isa. 19:13. Jer. 2: 16. 44: 1. 46: 14. Ezek. 30: 13, 16.) generally believed to have been the same with Moph, the Menouſ of the Copts and Arabs; that is, Memphis. Memphis is the Greek form of the Egyptian name, which, according to Plutarch, signi- fies the port of the good. - The situation of Memphis, formerly the capital of Egypt, has been a subject of considerable dispute, and has aſ: forded materials for long and laborious investigation by the learned. Bruce's Travels; the Fragments to Calmet, no. 546; and the Modern Traveller, (Egypt, vol. i. p. 339—352,) will supply the necessary information. Memphis was the residence of the ancient kings of Egypt, till the times of the Ptolemies, who commonly re- sided at Alexandria. The prophets, in the places above referred to, ſoretell the miseries Memphis was to suffer from the kings of Chaldea and Persia, and they threaten the Israelites who should retire into Egypt, or should have recourse to the Egyptians, that they should perish in that country. In this city they fed the ox Apis; and Ezekiel says, that the Lord will destroy the idols of Memphis, chap. 30: 13, 16. Memphis retained its splendor till it was conquered by the Arabians, in the eighteenth or nine- teenth year of the Hegira, A. D. 641. Amrou Ben-As, who took it, built another near it, which was called Fus. thath, from the general's tent, which had long occupied N O S N O V [ 877 J that place. The Fatimite caliphs, becoming masters of Egypt, added another city, which they named Caherah, “ the victorious,” the present Grand Cairo, which is built on the eastern shore of the Nile.—Calmet. NOPHET, in Josh. 17: 11, and elsewhere, is taken for a district, or province. It is often joined to Dor, as No- phet-dor, (Josh. 11; 2. 12:23.) the district round the city or, on the Mediterranean, south of mount Carmel, and north of Caesarea of Palestine. Two-thirds of it was possessed by Zebulun, and one-third by Manasseh- Calmet. - - NORRIS, (John,) one of the ſounders of the theological seminary in Andover, was for many years a respectable merchant in Salem, Massachusetts. March 21, 1808, he gave ten thousand dollars towards establishing the institu- tion at Andover. This was a day of unequalled munifi- cence, for on the same day Messrs. Brown and Bartlet, merchants of Newburyport, gave towards the same ob- ject, the former ten thousand, and the latter twenty thou- sand dollars. Mr. Norris lived to see the seminary opened, on September 28th. He died December 22, 1808, aged fifty seven. His widow, Mary Norris, died at Salem, in 1811, be- queathing thirty thousand dollars to the theological semi- nary at Andover, and the same sum to trustees, for the benefit of foreign missions to the heathen. - In such esteem was Mr. Norris held by his fellow-citi- zens, that he was for several years elected a member of the senate of Massachusetts. Obtaining, through the di- vine blessing upon his industry, an ample fortune, he con- sidered himself as the steward of God, and his abundant liberality flowed in various channels. Extreme self-dif. fidence prevented him from making a public profession of religion; yet his house was a house of prayer, in which the morning and evening sacrifice ascended to the mercy- seat; and he once said in a solemn manner, “I would not relinquish my hope that I am a child of God for a thou- sand worlds.”—Allen. - NORTH. As it was customary for the Hebrews to consider the cardinal points of the heavens in reference to a man whose face was turned toward the East, the north was consequently to his left hand. The north wind dissipates rain, (Prov. 25: 23.) but this must depend on the situation of a place; as in different places the same wind has different effects.-Calmet, - NORTON, (John,) an eminent minister of Boston, was born in Hertfordshire, England, in 1606, and educated at the university of Cambridge. A lecture was at this time supported at Starford by a number of pious ministers, and through their labors Mr. Norton, who was himself a preach- er, though like many others ignorant of his own character, and unacquainted with the truth as it is in Jesus, was im- pressed with a sense of his sin, and by the agency of the Ho- ly Spirit was brought to repentance. The view of his own heart and life, compared with the holy law of God, almost overwhelmed him with despair; but a length the promises of the gospel administered to him inexpressible joy. His attention had been hitherto occupied in literary and sci- entific pursuits, but he now devoted himself exclusively to the study of theology; and being by his own experience acquainted with repentance, and faith, and holiness, he preached upon these subjects with zeal and effect. He soon became eminent. He adopted the creed and practice of the Puritans, and in 1635 emigrated to New England. * He was first settled in the ministry at Ipswich, but was afterwards prevailed on to remove to Boston. In 1662, he was appointed one of the two agents of the colony to address king Charles on his restoration, but they did not fully succeed in the objects of their mission. He died in 1663, aged fifty-six. In his natural temper Mr. Norton was somewhat irascible, but, being taught by the grace of God to govern his passions, his renewed heart rendered him meek, courteous, and amiable. Still a mistaken zeal for the truth made him, as it made his contemporaries, friendly to persecution. His theological works were nu- merous, and he published several political tracts.--Daven- port; Elliot ; Allen. - NOSE. . The Hebrews commonly place the strongest manifestation of anger in the nose: “There went up a smoke out of his nostrils' 2 Sam. 22:9, Psal. 18; 8. * Deut. 29; 20. Job 41: 21. The ancient Greek and Latin authors speak much after the same manner. Solomon alludes to the custom of women wearing gold- en rings in their nostrils, when he says, (Prov. 11:22.) “As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman without discretion.” And Ezekiel, (16: 12.) “I will put a jewel on thy forehead, [Heb. nose,] and ear-rings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon thine head.” They also put rings in the nostrils of oxen and camels, to guide them by: “I will put my hook in thy nose, and my bridle in thy lips,” 2 Kings 19:28. See also Job 41: 2.—Calmet. NOTES OF THE CHURCH; certain marks or cha- racteristics to which the Roman Catholics appeal in Sup- port of their pretensions, that the church of Rome is the only true church. Their writers generally mention foar : viz. unity, holiness, catholicity, and apostolicity; but Del- larmine lays down the following as more fully deter- . mining the point: catholicity, antiquity, duration, ampli- tude, episcopal succession, apostolical agreement, unity, sanctity of doctrine, efficacy of doctrine, holiness of life, miracles, prophecy, admissions of adversaries, unhappy end of enemies, temporal felicity. It may be fairly left with the reader to compare the history of the church of Rome in reference to these points, with the primitive apostolic church, as depicted in the New Testament, in order to his satisfactorily deciding on the validity of the claims in question. (See Nov ATIANs.)—Hend. Buck. NOTHING. Idols are often called nothings, non-en- tities. “Ye which rejoice in a thing of nought,” Amos 6: 13. And Esther, (Apoc. 14: 11.) “O Lord, give not thy sceptre unto them that be nothing;” deliver not over thy people to those gods that are nothing. Paul says, “We know that an idol is nothing in the world,” 1 Cor. 8: 4.—Calmet. NOURISH. (1.) To furnish with food, Gen. 47: 12. Acts 12:20. (2.) Kindly to bring up, Acts 7: 21. (3.) To care, or use all proper means to make to grow, Isa. 44: 14. And to be nourished in the word of faith and good doctrine, is to be affeetionately and carefully instructed in the true principles of the gospel, and well experienced in its power, for the edification, progress in holiness, and spiritual comfort of the soul, 1 Tim. 4: 6. Jesus Christ, and his fulness, as exhibited in the doctrines and promises of the gospel, and applied by the Holy Ghost, are the nourish- ment by which the saints are delightfully instructed, com- forted, and strengthened to every good word and work, Col. 2: 19.-Bronn. NOVATIANS ; a numerous body of Protestant Dissen ters from the church of Rome, in the third century, who, notwithstanding the representations of their adversaries, have some just claims to be regarded as the pure, uncor- rupted, and apostolic church of Christ. They called themselves Cathari, that is, the pure ; but they received their name of Novatians from their adversaries, after their distinguished leader, Novatian, who, in the year 251, was ordained the pastor of a church in the city of Rome, which maintained no fellowship with tire (so called) Catholic ºparty. ** Those who are in any tolerable degree conversant with theological controversy, will scarcely need be apprised how much caution is necessary to guard against being misled by the false representations which different parties give of each other's principles and conduct. Novatian is said to have refused to receive into the communion of the church any of those persons, who, in the time of persecu- tion, had been induced through fear of sufferings or death to apostatize from their profession, and offer sacrifices to the heathen deities; a principle which he founded upon a mistaken view of Heb. 6: 4–6. We may readily con- ceive how interesting and difficult a subject this must have been to all the churches of Christ in those distressing times, and the danger that must have arisen from laying down any fixed rule of conduct that should apply to aii cases that would come before them; or even verging to- wards an extreme on either side of this question. This is certain, as Dr. Muenscher observes, that “the Novatians declared their community to be the only true church,” and required such as came over to them from the Catholics and other sects to be baptized anew ; be. cause all others had become corrupt, by receivin: főfine N O W N O W, [ S78 ) and lapsed professors to ſellowship. Yet, the Novatians did not deny but a person falling into any sin, how griev- ous soever, might obtain pardon by repentance ; for they themselves recommended repentance in the strongest terms, - . - The following is the account of Novatian, given by the late Mr. Robinson, in his Ecclesiastical Researches, p. 126. No one who knows the lax principles of Mr. Ro- binson on Christian doctrine and communion, can, for a moment, suspect him of an undue predilection for the principles of Novatian. “He was,” says he, “an elder in the church of Rome, a man of extensive learning, holding the same doctrine as the church did, and publish- ed several treatises in defence of what he believed. His address was eloquent and insinuating, and his morals ir- reproachable. He saw with extreme pain the intolerable depravity of the church. Christians within the space of a very few years were caressed by one emperor and per- secuted by another. In seasons of prosperity, many per- sons rushed into the church for base purposes. In times of adversity, they denied the faith, and reverted again to idolatry. When the squall was over, away they came again to the church, with all their vices, to deprave others by their examples. The bishops, ſond of proselytes, en- couraged all this ; and transferred the attention of Chris- tians from the old confederacy for virtue to vain shows at Easter, and other Jewish ceremonies, adulterated too with paganism. On the death of bishop Fabian, Cornelius, a brother elder, and a violent partizan for taking in the mul- titude, was just in nomination. Novatian opposed him ; but, as Cornelius carried his election, and he saw no pros- pect of reformation, but, on the contrary, a tide of im- morality pouring into the church, he withdrëw, and a great many with him. Cornelius, irritated by Cyprian, who was just in the same condition, through the remon- strance of virtuous men at Carthage, and who was exas- perated beyond measure with one of his own elders, named Novatus, who had quitted Carthage, and gone to Rome to espouse the cause of Novatian, called a council and got a sentence of excommunication passed against Novatian. In the end, Novatian formed a church, and was elected bishop. Great numbers followed his example, and all over the empire Puritan churches were constituted and flourished through the succeeding two hundred years. Afterwards, when penal laws obliged them to lurk in cor- ners, and worship God in private, they were distinguished by a variety of names, and a succession of them continued till the Reformation.” (See WALDENSEs, and MENNoNITEs.) The same author, afterwards adverting to the vile ca- }umnies with which the Catholic writers have in all ages delighted to asperse the character of Novatian, thus pro- ceeds to vindicate him : “They say Novatian was the first anti-pope; and yet there was at that time no pope in the modern sense of the word. They tax Novatian with being the parent of an innumerable multitude of congregations of Puritans all over the empire; and yet he had no other inſluence over any than what his good ex- ample gave him. People everywhere saw the same cause of complaint, and groaned for relieſ; and when one man made a stand ſor virtue, the crisis had arrived; people saw the propricty of the cure, and applied the same means to their own relicſ. They blame this man and all the churches for the severity of their discipline; yet this se- vere discipline was the only coercion of the primitive churches, and it was the exercise of this that rendered ci- vil coercion unnecessary.” Novatian appears to have been possessed of superior talents;–Mosheim terms him “a man of uncommon learning and eloquence ;”——and he wrote several works, of which only two are now extant. One of them is upon the subject of the Trinity. l. is divided into thirty-one sections; the first eight relate to the FATHER, and treat of his nature, power, goodness, justice, &c., with the worship due to him. The following twenty sections re- late to CIRIST ; the Old Testament prophecies concerning him ; their actual accomplishment; his nature; how the Scriptures prove his divinity; confutes the Sabellians; shows that it was Christ who appeared to the patriarchs, Abraham, Jacob, Moses, &c. The twenty-ninth section treats of the Holy SPIRIT ; how promiscd ; given by w Christ ; his offices and operations on the souls of men and in the church. The last two sections recapitulate the arguments before adduced. The work appears to have been written in the year 257, six years after his separation from the Catholic church. The other tract is upon the sub- ject of “Jewish Meats,” addressed in the form of a letter to his church, and written either during his banishment or retreat in the time of persecution. It opens up the typi- cal law of Moses, and while he proves its abolition, is careful to guard his Christian brethren against supposing that they were therefore at liberty to eat of things sacri. ficed to idols. - , - The doctrinal sentiments of the Novatians appear to have been very scriptural, and the discipline of their churches strict, perhaps, to an extreme. - Dr. Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel History, (ch 47.) has been at considerable pains in comparing the various and contradictory representations that have been given of Novatian and his followers, and has exonerated them from a mass of obloquy, cast upon them by the Catholic party. Though Novatian and hisFº WCre condemned by that party, he still continued to be support- ed by a numerous body in various places, separated from the Catholic church. They had among them persons of considerable note, and of eminent talents. Among these were Agelius, Acesius, Sisimnius, and Marcian, all of Constantinople. Socrates mentions one Mark, bishop of the Novatians in Scythia, who died in the year 439. In fact, the pieces written against them by a great variety of authors of the Catholic church, such as Ambrose, Pa- cian, and others, the notice taken of them by Dionysius, Basil, and Gregory Nazianzen, and the accounts given of them by Socrates and Sozomen, in their ecclesiastical his- tories, are proofs of their being numerous, and that church- es of this denomination were to be ſound in most parts of the world in the fourth and fifth centuries. “The vast ex- tent of this sect,” says Dr. Lardner, “is manifest from the names of the authors who have mentioned them, or written against them, and from the several parts of the Roman empire in which they were found.” - The Novatians suffered severely by persecution, both from the Catholics on the one hand, and by the Arians on the other, as each of the rival parties rose to power. So- crates, the historian, who seems to have been intimately acquainted with the affairs of the Novatians, says that the toleration which this class of Christians at length obtained of Valens, the Arian emperor, in 370, they owed under providence to one Marcian, a presbyter of their church in Constantinople, a man of learning and piety, who tutored two daughters of the emperor. This historian particularly mentions the liberality and kindness which the Novatians exercised towards such of the orthodox party as were the subjects of persecution, while they themselves were tole- rated; a trait in their history which cven Milner is oblig- ed to admit “reflects an amiable lustre on the character of these Dissenters;” and for showing which benevolence, they actually incurred the displeasure of the reigning party. (See WALDENSEs.)—Jones' History of the Chris- tian Church ; Mosheim ; Milner ; Muencher's Dogmatic IIis- tory. - NOVICE. (See Neophy.T.E.) NOVITIATE ; a year of probation appointed by the monastic orders for the trial of religious, whether or no they have a vocation, and the necessary qualities for liv- ing up to the rule, the observation whereof they are to bind themselves to by vow. The novitiate lasts a year at least; in some houses more. It is esteemed the bed of the civil death of a novice, who expires to the world by profession.—Hend. Buck. NOWELL, (ALEXANDER, D. D.,) a learned divine of the sixteenth century, was born at Read, Lancashire, º in 1511, and educated at Cambridge. He early distinguished himself for learning, piety, and zeal for re- formation. At Westminster school he trained up youth in Protestant principles. In 1550 he was made prebendary of Westminster, by Edward VI.; but on the accession of queen Mary, he was marked as a victim, and with diffi- culty escaped to Frankfort, Germany, in 1577. On the accession of Elizabeth he was the first of the English ex- iles who returned home, and subscquently enjoyed ºany O A. K. O A. K. [879 J preferments. He was a zealous writer, and, ſrequent preacher; for thirty years together he preached in Lent the first and last sermons, before the queen, with whom he is said to have dealt faithfully. In the disputes with the Puritans he took moderate ground. . [He was chosen prin- cipal of Brazen-Nose college, Oxford, in 1595, but resigned his office in a few months. He died February 13, 1601–2, at the age of ninety, retaining the perfect use of his senses and faculties to the last. - Besides several pieces of controversy with the IRoman- ists, dean Nowell published, at the request of the secretary Cecil, a much esteemed catechism of the doctrine of the church of England, which received the sanction of the convocation; and in which, says bishop Cooper, “you may see all the parts of true religion received, the difficulties expounded, the truth declared, and the corruptions of the church of Tome rejected.”—Middleton, ii. p. 304. NUMBER ; (1.) A reckoning of persons or things, whe- ther they be few or many, Gen. 34:30. (2.) A society or company, Luke 22: 3. Acts 1: 17. So Matthias was num- bered, that is, by Suffrages he was added to the society of the apostles, Acts 4: 26. The number of the Antichristian beast is six hundred and sixty-six. The numeral letters con- tained in his Greek name, Laleinos, Latin, or in his He- brew one, Romiith, or Romish, or in Sethua, which signifies MystERY, when added together amount to just six hundred and sixty-six. God numbered Belshazzar's kingdom, and finished it; allowed it to continue for the years he had determined, and not one day more, Dan. 5: 26. He num- bers men to the slaughter when he sets them apart by his providence to destruction and death, as a shepherd does his sheep to be slain, Isa. 65: 12. We number our days when we seriously consider how frail, and short and un- certain our life is ; how great the necessity and business of our souls; and what hinderances of it are in our way, Ps. 90: 12.—Bronn. NUMBERS; a canonical book of the Old Testament, being the fourth of the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses; and receives its denomination from the numbering of the families of Israel by Moses and Aaron, who mustered the tribes, and marshalled the army, of the Hebrews in their passage through the wilderness. - - A great part of this book is historical, relating several emarkable events which happened in that journey, and also mentioning various of their journeyings in the wilder- ness. This book comprehends the history of about thirty- eight years, though the greater part of the things recorded fell out in the first and last of those years; it does not appear when those things were done which are recorded in the middle of the book. (See PENTATEUch.) — Watson. NUN ; in Roman Catholic countries, a woman, who devotes herself, in a cloister or nunnery, to a religious life. (See the article Monk.) There were women, in the ancient Christian church, who made public profession of virginity, before the monas. tic life was known in the world, as appears from the writ- ings of Cyprian and Tertullian. These, for distinction’s sake, are sometimes called ecclesiastical virgins, and were commonly enrolled in the canon, or matricula of the church. They differed from the monastic virgins chiefly in this, that they lived privately in their fathers' houses, whereas the others lived in communities; but their profes. sion of virginity was not so strict as to make it criminal for them to marry afterwards, if they thought fit. As to the consecration of virgins, it had some things peculiar in it: it was usually performed publicly in the church by the bishop. The virgin made a public profes- sion of her resolution, and then the bishop put upon her the accustomed habit of sacred virgins. One part of this habit was a veil, called the sacrum velamen ; another was a kind of mitre or coronet worn upon the head. At present, when a woman is to be made a nun, the habit, veil, and ring of the candidate are carried to the altar; and she her- self, accompanied by her nearest relations, is conducted to the bishop, who, after mass and an anthem, (the subject of which is, “that she ought to have her lamp lighted, because the bridegroom is coming to meet her,”) pronoun- ces the benediction; then she rises up, and the bishop consecrates the new habit, sprinkling it with holy water. When the candidate has put on her religious habit, she presents herself before the bishop, and sings on her knees. Ancilla Christi sum, &c., “The bride of Christ I am,” &c.; then she receives the veil, and afterwards the ring, by which she is married to Christ; and, lastly, the crown of virginity. When she is crowned, an anathema is de- nounced against all who shall attempt to make her break her vows. In some few instances, perhaps, it may have happéned that nunneries, monasteries, &c., may have been useful as well to morality and religion as to literature; in the gross, however, they have been highly prejudicial ; and however well they might be supposed to do when viewed in theory, in fact they are unnatural and impious. It was surely far from the intention of providence to seclude youth and beauty in a cloister, or to deny them the innocent enjoy- ment of their years and sex. (See MonASTERY.)—Hend. uck. NUNCIOS; persons sent by the pope on foreign mis- sions relative to ecclesiastical affairs. They were dis- patched to provincial synods and foreign courts when subjects of great importance were to be agitated; they presided at the synods; they convoked, and gave decisions in the most important ecclesiastical affairs. England freed herself from this intrusion in the twelfth century, by having the archbishop of Canterbury declared perpetual legate. At the time of the Reformation, four permanent nunciaturae were forced upon the Germans; and, in spite of the struggles and opposition of the clergy, pope Pius WI. established one at Munich as late as 1785.-Hend. Buck. - NURSE. The nurse in an eastern family is always an important personage. Modern travellers inform us, that in Syria she is considered as a sort of second parent, whe- ther she has been foster-mother or otherwise. She always accompanies the bride to her husband's house, and ever remains there an honored character. Thus it was in an- cient Greece. This will serve to explain Gen. 24: 59: “And they sent away Rebekah their sister, and her nurse.” In Hindostan the nurse is not looked upon as a stranger, but becomes one of the family, and passes the remainder of her life in the midst of the children he has suckled, by whom she is honored and cherished as a second mother. In many parts of Hindostan are mosques and mausoleums, built by the Mohammedan princes, near the sepulchres of their nurses. They are excited by a grateful affection to erect these structures in memory of those who with mater- mal anxiety watched over their helpless infancy; thus it has been from time immemorial. (See MoTIER.)—Watson, O. OAK. The religious veneration paid to this tree, by the original natives of Britain in the time of the druids, is well known to every reader of British history. We have reason to think that this veneration was brought from the East; and that the druids did no more than transfer the sentiments their progenitors had received in oriental coun- tries. It should appear that the patriarch Abraham re- sided under an oak, or a grove of oaks, which our transla- ‘ors render the plain of Mamre; and that he planted a grove of this tree, Gen. 13: 18. In fact, since in hot coun- tries nothing is more desirable than shade, nothing mora refreshing than the shade of a tree, we may easily suppos. the inhabitants would resort for such enjoyment to Where'er the oak's thick branches spread A deeper, darker shade. Oaks, and groves of oaks, were esteemed proper places for religious services; altars were set up under them : (Josh 24; 26.) and, probably, in the East as well as in the West, appointments to meet at conspicuous oaks were made, and O A T O B A [ 880 | many affairs were transacted or treated of under their shade, as we read in Homer, Theocritus, and other poets. It was common among the Hebrews to sit under oaks, Judg. 6: 11. 1 ſings 13: 14. Jacob buried idolatrous images under an oak; (Gen. 35. 4.) and Deborah, Rebe- kah's nurse, was buried under one of these trees, Gen. 35: 8. See 1 Chron. 10: 12. Abimelech was made king un- der an oak, Judg. 9:6. Idolatry was practised under oaks, Isa. 1:29. 57: 5. Hos. 4: 13. Idols were made of oaks, Isa. 44: 14. (See BAAL, DRUIDs, and GRoves.)—Watson. OAKES, (URIAN,) president of Harvard college, was born in England, in 1631, and brought to America in his childhood. A sweetness of disposition exhibited itself early and remained with him through life. He was gra- duated at Harvard college, in 1649. He soon went to England, and was settled in the ministry at Titchfield, in IHampshire. Such was his celebrity for learning and piety, that the church and society of Cambridge, on the decease of Mr. Mitchell, in 1668, sent a messenger to England to invite him to become their minister. He was also placed at the head of Harvard college, April 7, 1675, still however retaining the pastoral care of his flock. But February 2, 1680, the corporation appointed him president, and persuaded him to be inaugurated, and to devote himself exclusively to this object. He died July 25, 1681, aged forty-nine. Mr. Oakes was a man of extensive erudition and distin- guished usefulness. He excelled equally as a scholar, as a divine, and as a Christian. By his contemporaries he was considered as one of the most resplendent lights that ever shone in this part of the world. With all his great- ness, he was very humble, like the full ear of corn, which hangs near the ground. In the opinion of Dr. Mathew, America never had a greater master of the true, pure, Ci- ceronian Latin, of his skill in which language a specimen, from one of his commencement orations, is preserved in the Magnalia. He published an artillery election sermon, entitled, The Unconquerable, All-conquering, and more tha. Conquering Christian Soldier, 1672; election sermon, 1673; a Su, 'mon at Cambridge on the choice of their mili- tary officers; a fast sermon ; and an Elegy on the Death of Rev. Mr. Shepard, of Charlestown, 1677, pathetic and replete with imagery. Holmes' History of Cambridge ; Belknap ; Elliot.—Allen. OATH ; a solemn invocation of a superior power, ad- mitted to be acquainted with all the secrets of our hearts, with our inward thoughts as well as our outward actions, to witness the truth of what we assert, and to inflict his vengeance upon us if we assert what is not true, or pro- mise what we do not mean to perform. Almost all na- tions, whether savage or civilized, whether enjoying the light of revelation or led only by the light of reason, know- ing the importance of truth, and willing to obtain a barrier against falsehood, have had recourse to oaths, by which they have endeavored to make men fearful of uttering lies, under the dread of an avenging Deity. Among Christians, an oath is a solemn appeal for the truth of our assertions, the sincerity of our promises, and the fidelity of our en- gagements, to the one only God, the Judge of the whole earth, who is everywhere present, and sees, and hears, and knows, whatever is said, or done, or thought, in any part of the world. Such is the Being whom Christians, when they take an oath, invoke to bear testimony to the truth of their words, and the integrity of their hearts. Surely, then, iſ oaths be a matter of so much moment, it well be- hooves us not to treat them with levity, nor ever to take them without due consideration. Hence we ought, with the utmost vigilance, to abstain from mingling oaths in our ordinary discourse, and from associating the name of God with low or disgusting images, or using it on trivial occasions, as not only a profane levity in itself, but tending to destroy that reverence for the Supreme Majesty, which ought to prevail in society, and to dwell in our own hearts. “The forms of oaths,” says Dr. Paley, “like other reli- gious ceremonies, have in all ages been various; consist: ing, however, for the most part of some bodily action, and of a prescribed form of words.” . Among the Jews, the juror held up his right hand towards heaven, Ps. 144: 8. Rev. 10: 5. The same form is retained in Scotland still. Among the Jews, also, an oath of fidelity was taken by the servant's putting his hand under the thigh of his lord, Gen. 24; 2. Among the Greeks and Romans, the form varied with the subject and occasion of the oath: in pri. vate contracts, the parties took hold of each other's hands, while they swore to the performance; or they touched the altar of the god by whose divinity they swore: upon more solemn occasions, it was the custom to slay a victim; and the beast being struck down, with certain ceremonies and invocations, gave birth to the expression, ferire pactum ; and to our English phrase, translated from this, of “striking a bargain.” The form of oaths in Christian countries is also very different; but in no country in the world worse contrived, either to convey the meaning or impress the obligation of an oath, than in our own. The juror with us, after repeating the promise or affirmation which the oath is intended to confirm, adds, “So help me God; or, more frequently, the substance of the oath is repeated to the juror by the magistrate, who adds in the conclusion, “So help you God.” The energy of this sentence resides in the particle so : So, that is, hæc lege, upon condition of my speaking the truth, or performing this promise, and not otherwise, may God help me ! The juror, whilst he hears or repeats the words of the oath, holds his right hand upon a Bible, or other book containing the gospels, and at the conclusion kisses the book. This obscure and elliptical form, together with the levity and frequency of them, has brought about a general inad- vertency to the obligation of oaths, which, both in a reli- gious and political view, is much to be lamented; and it merits public consideration, whether the requiring of oaths upon so many frivolous occasions, especially in the cus- toms, and in the qualification of petty offices, has any other effect than to make such sanctions cheap in the minds of the people. A pound of tea cannot travel regu- larly from the ship to the consumer, without costing half a dozen oaths at least; and the same security for the due discharge of their office, namely, that of an oath, is re- quired from a petty constable and the chief justice of the United States. Oaths, however, are lawſul; and, whatever be the form, the signification is the same. Historians have justly re- marked, that when the reverence for an oath began to diminish among the Romans, and the loose Epicurean system, which discarded the belief of providence, was introduced, the Roman honor and prosperity from that period began to decline. The Quakers refuse to swear upon any occasion, founding their scruples concerning the lawfulness of oaths upon our Savior's prohibition, “Swear not at all,” Matt. 5: 34. But it seems our Lord there re- ferred to the vicious, wanton, and unauthorized swearing in common discourse, and not to judicial oaths; for he himself answered, when interrogated, upon oath, Matt. 26: 63, 64. Mark 14: 61. The apostle Paul also makes use of expressions which contain the nature of oaths, Rom. 1: 9. 1 Cor. 15: 31. 2 Cor. 1: 18. Gal. 1: 20. Heb. 6: 13–17. The administration of oaths supposes that God will pu- nish false swearing with more severity than a simple lie, or breach of promise; for which belief there are the follow- ing reasons: 1. Perjury is a sin of greater deliberation. 2. It violates a superior confidence. 3. God directed the Isra- elites to swear by his name; (Deut. 6: 13. 10; 20.) and was pleased to confirm his covenant with that people by an oath ; neither of which, it is probable, he would have done, had he not intended to represent oaths as having some meaning and effect beyond the obligation of a bare pro- mise. (See PERJURy, and NAME of THE LoſſD.—Watson. OBADIAH, the prophet, is thought to have been the same as the governor of Ahab's house; (1 Kings 18: 3, &c.) and some are of opinion, he was that Obadiah whom Josiah made overseer of the works of the temple, 2 Chron. 34:12. Indeed, the age in which this prophet lived is very uncertain. Some think that he was contemporary with Hosea, Amos, and Joel; whilst others are of opinion that he lived in the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and that he delivered his prophecy about B.C. 585, soon after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. - His book, which consists of a single chapter, is written with great beauty and elegance, and contains predictions of the utter destruction of the Edomites, and of the future restoration and prosperity of the Jews.--Watson, S. ã. º | º! Sºfi'i t * | LI. º. iſſ |jº ! ** º *§ & yi f: * % % % º, - * sº / Lº- - º ſº rºw- * - ſº TS º . . . .'; S - Jºne-º- ºr , i. --- -s *L* = -.” %. , ºf Y #2%iº ºš lsº º ; : . A NºssºRs * \! Aſ a NºS º º Nº ºs- §§§ º ſ % *- º *… • * > . ºw Fºr . . , N}. * - 5 SN 3. ; : * º * - º * * º § º §§§ % / ſ | ) º V *II; , t , 1 a *º ~1 w tº - A.º wº| :",ºº| .- :º~ º.º :| --iº ºLº ºº -. * , #) 2 * N.ºº l N ) s º ) NºN N ſ } : § } Z : O B L O C C [881 OBEAH; a species of witchcraft practised among the negroes, the apprehension of which, operating upon their superstitious fears, is frequently attended with disease and death.-Hend. Buck. OBED-EDOM ; son of Jeduthun, a Levite, in whose house the ark of the Lord abode, and brought a blessing with it, 1 Chron. 16:38. In 2 Sam. 6: 10. he is called the Gittite, probably because he was of Gath Rimmon, a city of the Levites beyond Jordan, Josh. 21:24, 25.—Calmet. OBEDIENCE ; the performance of the commands of a superior. In religion, it must be animated by love. Obedience to God may be considered, 1. As virtual, which consists in a belief of the gospel, of the holiness and equity of its precepts, of the truth of its promises, and a true repentance of all our sins.—2. Actual obedience, which is the practice and exercise of the several graces and duties of Christianity.—3. Perfect obedience, which is the exact conformity of our hearts and lives to the law of God, without the least imperſection. This last is peculiar to a glorified state, though it should be our aim in this. The obligation we are under to obedience arises, 1. From the relation we stand in to God as creatures, Ps. 95: 6.—2. From the law he hath revealed to us in his word, Ps. 119: 3. 2 Pet. 1: 5, 7–3. From the blessings of his providence we are constantly receiving, Acts 14: 17. Ps. 145.-4. From the love and goodness of God in the grand work of redemption, 1 Cor. 6: 20. As to the nature of this obedience, it must be, 1. Active, not only avoiding what is prohibited, but performing what is commanded, Col. 3: 8, 10.—2. Personal, for though Christ has obeyed the law for us as a covenant of works, yet he hath not abrogated it as a rule of life, Rom. 7:22. 3:31.—3. Sincere, Ps. 51: 6. 1 Tim. 1: 5-4. Affection- ale, springing from love and not from terror, 1 John 5: 19. 2: 5. 2 Cor. 5: 14.—5. Diligent, not slothfully, Gal. 1: 16. Ps. 18; 44. Rom. 12: 11.—6. Conspicuous and open, Phil. 2: 15. Matt. 5: 16.—7. Universal; not one duty, but all, must be performed, 2 Pet. 1: 5, 10.—8. Perpetual, at all times, places, and occasions, Rom. 2: 7. Gal. 6: 9. The advantages of obedience are these : 1. It adorns the gospel, Tit. 2: 10-2. It is evidential of grace, 2 Cor. 5: 17.—3. It rejoices the hearts of the ministers and peo- ple of God, 3 John 2. 2 Thess. 1: 19, 20.-4. It silences gainsayers, 2 Pet. 1: 11, 12.—5. Encourages the saints, while it reproves the lukewarm, Matt. 5: 16.-6. Affords peace to the subject of it, Ps. 25: 12, 13. Acts 24; 16.-7. It powerfully recommends religion, as that which is both delightful and practicable, Col. 1: 10.-8. It is the forerun- ner and evidence of eternal glory, Rom. 6: 22. Rev. 22: 14. See Holiness ; SANCTIFICATION ; Charnock's Works, vol. xi. p. 1212; Tillotson's Sermons, ser, 122, 123; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. Ser. 4 ; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, qu.92; Dnight's Theology; Walker's Sermons; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall.—Hend. Buck. OBEDIENCE OF CHRIST, is generally divided into active and passive. His active obedience implies what he did; his passive what he suffered. Some divines distin- guish these. They refer our pardon to his passive, and our title to glory to his active obedience: though Dr. Owen observes, that it cannot be clearly evinced that there is any such thing, in propriety of speech, as passive obedi- ence: obeying is doing, to which passion or suffering doth not belong. - Of the active obedience of Christ, the Scriptures assure us that he took upon him the form of a servant, and really became one, Isa. 49: 3. Phil. 2: 5. Heb. 8. He was subject to the law of God. “He was made under the law;” the judicial or civil law of the Jews, the ceremonial law, and the moral law, Matt. 17:24, 27. Luke 2: 22. Ps. 40:7, 8. He was obedient to the law of nature; he was in a state of subjection to his parents; and he fulfilled the commands of his heavenly Father as it respected the first and second table. His obedience, 1. Was voluntary, Ps. 40: 6-2. Com: plete, 1 Pet. 2: 22–3. Wrought out in the room and stead of his people, Rom. 10: 4, 5, 19–4. Well pleasing and acceptable in the sight of God.—5. Followed by a g'9- rious reward, Phil. 2:9. (See ATONEMENT.)—Hend. Buck. OBLATI; lay brothers in monasteries, who offered their services to the church, as bºnes &c. They wore a religious habit, and were admitted by the ceremony ºf placing the bell-rope round their necks, as indicative of the service they were expected to perform. Broughton's Dict.— Williams. - OBLATION ; an offering. (See SacRIPICE.) w OBLIGATION, is that by which we are bound to the per- formance of any action. 1. Rational obligation is that which arises from reason, abstractedly taken, to do or forbear certain actions.—2. Authoritative obligation is that which arises from the commands of a superior, or one who has a right or authority to prescribe rules to others.-3. Moral obligation is that by which we are bound to perform that which is right, and to avoid that which is wrong. It is a moral necessity of doing actions or forbearing them ; that is, such a necessity as whoever breaks through it, is, ipso facto, worthy of blame for so doing. (See MoRAL OBLI- GATION.) We find, however, that the generality of men are so far sunk in depravity, that a sense of moral obliga- tion is nearly or quite lost. Still, however, their losing the sense of it does not render the obligation less strong. “Obligation to virtue is eternal and immutable, but the sense of it is lost by sin.” See Warburton's Legation, vol. i. pp. 38, 46, &c.; Paley's Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 54; Witherspoon's Moral Philosophy; Robinson's Preface to the fourth volume of Saurin's Sermons ; Mason's Christian Mo- rals, vol. ii. ser. 23, p. 256; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 52; Grove's Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 66; Mackintosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy; Dwight's Theology; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall; New Living Temple.—Hend. Buck. OBSERVATION. (See M.; OCCAM, or OcKHAM, (WILLIAM,) a divine and philoso- pher, called the Invincible Doctor, was born at Ockham, in Surry, in the fourteenth century; was educated at Merton college, Oxford, under Duns Scotus; became a Franciscan friar, and archdeacon of Stow, but resigned his preferment; wrote boldly against the pope, for which he was excommunicated; and died at Munich in 1347. He is the founder of the scholastic sect of the Nominalists.- Davenport ; Mosheim. OCCOM, (SAMson,) an Indian preacher, was born at Mohegan, on Thames river, near Norwich, Connecticut, about the year 1723. When Occom was a boy, Mr. Jew- ett, the minister of New London, now Montville, was ac- customed to preach once a fortnight at Mohegan. During the religious excitement about 1739 and 1740, several mi- nisters visited these Indians, and the Indians repaired to the neighboring churches. Occom at this period became the subject of permanent religious impressions. From this time he was desirous of becoming the teacher of his tribe. He could then read by spelling, and in a year or two learned to read the Bible. At the age of nineteen he went to the Indian school of Mr. Wheelock, of Lebanon, and remained with him four years. He afterwards, in 1748, kept a school in New London; but soon went to Montauk, on Long Island, where he taught a school among the In- dians ten or eleven years, at the same time being the reli- gious teacher of the Indians in their own language, and preaching also to the Skenecock or Yenecock Indians, dis- tant thirty miles. During a revival among the Montauks many became Christians. He was ordained by the Suffolk presbytery, August 29, 1759, and was from this time a regular member of the presbytery. In 1766, Mr. Wheelock sent him to England with Mr. Whitaker, the minister of Norwich, to promote the inte- rests of Moor's Indian charity school. He was the first Indian preacher who visited England. The houses in which he preached were thronged. Between February 16, 1766, and July 22, 1767, he preached in various parts of the kingdom between three hundred and four hundred sermons. Large charitable donations were obtained, and the school was soon transplanted to Hanover, New Hamp- shire, and connected with Dartmouth college. After his return, Oecom sometimes resided at Mohegan, and was often employed in missionary labors among dis- tant Indians. In 1786 he removed to Brotherton, near Utica, New York, in the neighborhood of the Stockbridge Indians, who were of the Mohegan root, and who had for- merly been under the instruction of Mr. Sergeant and Mr. Edwards. A few of the Mohegans and other Indians of Connecticut, Long Island, and Rhode Island, removed o F F O IN [ 882 ) about the same time. The Oneidas gave them a tract of land. In the last years of his life he resided with the In- dians at New Stockbridge, near Brotherton, where he died, in July, 1792, aged sixty-nine. * * * Dr. Dwight says, “I heard Mr. Occom twice. His dis- courses, though not proofs of superior talents, were de- cent; and his utterance in some degree eloquent. His character at times labored under some imputations; yet there is good reason to believe, that most, if not all, of them were unfounded; and there is satisfactory evidence, that he was a man of piety.” An account of the Montauk Indians, written by Occom, is preserved in the Historical Collections. He published a sermon at the execution of Moses Paul, an Indian, at New Haven, September 2, 1772. Buel's Ordination Sermon ; Historical Collections, tv. p. 68; v. 13; ix. 89,90; x. 105; Dwight's Travels, ii. p. 112.—Allen. - OECOLAMPADIUS, (John,) an eminent German re- former, was born, in 1482, at Weinsberg, in Franconia. He was converted to the Protestant faith by reading the works of Luther; became professor of theology at Basil; embraced the opinions of Zuinglius respecting the sacra- ment; contributed much to the progress of ecclesiastical reform ; and died in 1531. - OEcolampadius was of a meek and quiet disposition; in the undertaking of any business he was very circumspect; nor was there any thing more pleasing to him, than to spend his time in reading and commenting. His publica- tions are numerous, consisting chiefly of Annotations on the Holy Scriptures.—Davenport; Hend. Buck. CECONOMISTS; a sect of infidel French philosophers, of whom Dr. Duquesnai was the founder. He so ingra- tiated himself with Louis XV. that he used to call him his thinker ; and gained the affections of the people, under pretence of promoting economy in the state. According to the abbé Barruel, however, the real object of the major- ity of the society was to subvert Christianity, by circulating the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other infidels. This they did by printing extracts from these popular au- thors, and circulating them through the kingdom by hawk- ers and pedlers, who had them for little or nothing, that they might undersell all other literature. Their secret meetings, for preparing and revising these tracts, were held at baron Holbach’s. In some of these tracts their object was disguised; in others they were so bold as to avow their object under such titles as “Christianity un- masked,” &c. They also attempted schools, for the avowed intention of preparing children for trade and me- chanic arts, in which the same writings were read and circulated. Among the members of their secret club were D'Alembert, Turgot, Condorcet, Diderot, La Harpe, and La Moignon, keeper of the seals, who, on his dismissal from that office, shot himself. (See ILLUMINAT.1, and PHILoso. PHISTs.) Sup. to 3d ed. of Ency. Brit., ii. p. 307.— Williams. CECONOMY. (See CovenANT, and DISPENSATION.) OFFENCE. The original word, (skandalizo,) in our version usually rendered offend, literally signifies to cause to stumble, and by an easy metaphor, to occasion a fall into sin, Matt. 5:29. It may therefore apply to ourselves as well as to others, Matt. 18: 6–14. Hence the noum, skan- dalom, signifies not only an offence, in our common use of that word; but also a stumbling-stone, a trap, a snare, or whatever impedes our path to heaven, Matt. 18; 17. Rom. 14: 13. 1 Cor. 10:32. Sometimes offence is taken unrea- sonably; men, as St. Peter says, stumble at the word, being disobedient. Hence we read of the offence of the cross, Gal. 5: 11. 6: 12. To positive truth or duty we must adhere, even at the hazard of giving offence; but a woe is on us if we give it without necessity of this holy nature. Rom. 14: 13–21. 1 Cor. 8: 9–13. Offence may be either active or passive. We may give offence by our conduct, or we may receive offence from the conduct of others. We should be very careful to avoid giving just cause of offence, that we may not prove impedi- ments to others in their reception of the truth, in their pro- gress in Sanctification, in their peace of mind, or in their general course toward heaven. We should abridge or deny ourselves in some things, rather than, by exercising our li- berty to the utmost, give uneasiness to Christians weaker in ::::::::, or weaker in the faith, than ourselves, 1 Cor. 10:32. On the other hand, we should not take offence without ample cause; but endeavor, by our exercise of charity, and perhaps by our increase of knowledge, to think favor- ably of what is dubious, as well as honorably of what is laudable. It was foretold of the Messiah, that he should be “a stone of stumbling, and a rock of oſſence.” Perhaps pre- dictions of this kind are among the most valuable which providence has preserved to us; as we see by them, that we ought not to be discouraged because the Jews, the na- tural people of the Messiah, rejected him, and still reject him ; since the very offence they take at his humiliation, death, &c., is in perfect conformity to, and fulfilment of, those prophecies which foretold, that however they might profess to wish for the great deliverer, yet when he came they would overlook him, and stumble at him.—-Brown; Calmet; Comprehensive Commentary. OFFERING, or OBLATION, denotes whatever is sacri- ficed or consumed in the worship of God. For an account of the various offerings under the law, the reader is reſer- red to the book of Leviticus. (See also SACRIFICE.)-- PIend. Buck. - OFFICES OF CHRIST, are generally considered as threefold. 1. A prophet to enlighten, warn, and instruct, John 6: 14. 3: 2.—2. A priest to sympathize, intercede, and make atonement for his people, Isa. 53. Heb. 7–3. A king to reign in, rule over, protect, deliver, and bless them, Zech. 11:9. Ps. 2: 6. (See articles INTERCESSION, MeDIATOR, &c.)—Hend. Buck. - OFFICERS, (CHURCH.) (See CHURCH; DEAcon ; EL- DER ; BISHOP.) - OG, king of Bashan, was a giant, of the race of the Re- phaim. We may judge of his stature by the length of his bed, which was long preserved in Rabbath, the capital of the Ammonites, Deut. 3: 11. (See BEd.) w Og and Sihom were the only kings that withstood Moses, Num. 21: 33. Their country was given to the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and half the tribe of Manasseh. (See BA- SHAN.)—Calmet. OGILVIE, (John,) a Scotch divine and poet, was born in 1733; was educated at the university of Aberdeen, from which he obtained a doctor’s degree; was for more than half a century minister of Midmar, in Aberdeenshire; and died in 1814, respected for his piety and talents. His po- etical powers were by no means inconsiderable. His chief works are, Sermons; Poems; Britannia, an epic poem; Philosophical and Critical Observations on Compositions; and Examination of the Evidence of Prophecy.—Daven- port. - - OIL. The Hebrews commonly anointed themselves with oil: they anointed also their kings, prophets, and high-priests with an unction of peculiar richness and sa- credness. (See OLIVE ; UNCTION ; and OINTMENT.) The oil of gladness, (Ps. 45: 7. Isa. 61: 3.) was the perfumed oil with which the Hebrews anointed themselves on days of rejoicing and ſestivity. Oil was also used for food and medicine. Moses says (Deut. 32: 13.) that God made his people to suck oil and honey out of the rocks; that is, that in the midst of dreary deserts, he abundantly provided them with all things not, only necessary, but agreeable. James directs that the sick should be anointed with oil in the name of the Lord, by the elders of the church, Jam. 5: 14.—Calmet. OINTMENT. As perfumes are seldom made up among us in the form of ointment, but mostly in that of essence, while ointments are rather medical, we do not always dis- cern the beauty of those comparisons in Scripture, in which ointments are mentioned. “Dead flies, though but small insects, cause the ointment of the apothecary—it should be, the fragrant unguent of the perfumer—to emit a fetid va- por; so does a small proportion of folly, or perverseness, overpower by its fetor the fragrance of wisdom and glory,” Eccl. 10: 1. (See FLies.) Ointments and oils were used in warm countries after bathing; and as oil was the first recipient of fragrance, probably from herbs, &c., steeped in it, many kinds of un- guents not made of oil, (olive oil,) retained that appella. tion. As the plants imparted somewhat of their color as well as of their fragrance, hence the expression green oil, &c.; in the Hebrew. (See ALABASTER.).--Calmet. O L D O L D I 883 OLD ; ancient. We say the Old Testament, by way of contradistinction from the New. of the Old Testament, of the old age of the letter; but Christ is the Mediator of the New Testament, or of the new covenant; not of the letter, but of the spirit, Heb. 9: 15–20. - . Old age is promised as a blessing by God to those who maintain obedience to his commands; and it is probable that providence did, and still does, watch over and prolong the lives of eminently pious men. It was formerly thought a great blessing to come to the grave in a good old age, or “as a shock of corn fully ripe;” and though “they are not to be heard, who feign that the old fathers did look only for transitory promises,” yet we think we may ven- ture to say they did on various occasions expect peculiar mercies from God, even in this life; and that their ex- pectations were not disappointed. Old age was entitled to petuliar honor, and no doubt, when men lived to the age of several hundred years, the wisdom they must needs have acquired, the influence they must needs have pos- sessed over the younger part of the community, must have been much greater than they are among ourselves. Very venerable must have been the personal appearance of a patriarch of three or four hundred years, or even of half that age, in the eyes of his family, and of his descendants, whether immediate or remote. There is nothing more decidedly recorded than the re- spect paid among the ancients to old age ; of which Gre- cian story affords highly pleasing proofs ; and that it was equal among the Orientals we learn from various allusions in the book of Job, the Proverbs, &c. . Old is spoken of what is decaying; (Isa, 50: 9. Heb. 8: 13.) of what has been destroyed; (2 Pet. 2: 5.) of for- mer thmes, Lam. 1: 7. - The old man, (Rom. 6: 6.) the old Adam, in a moral sense, is our derived corrupted nature, which we ought to crucify with Jesus Christ, that the body of sin may die in us. In Col. 3: 9. the apostle enjoins us “to put off the old man with his deeds, and to put on the new man, which is renewed in knowledge aſter the image of him that created him.” And in Eph. 4; 22. we are instructed “to put off the old man, which is corrupt according to the deceitful lusts.”—Calmet ; Brown ; Saturday Evening. OLDCASTLE, (SIR John,) afterwards called lord Cob- ham, was born in the reign of Edward III. Of his early life, few particulars are known. Marrying the niece and heiress of Henry lord Cobham, he obtained his peerage, and displayed the same virtue and patriotism which his illustrious father-in-law had 'evinced in opposition to the tyranny of Richard II. The famous statute against pro- visors having, during the feeble government of Richard, been greatly disregarded, lord Cobham attempted the revi- val of it; and by his spirited and conclusive arguments, so effectually influenced the parliament, as to secure his ob. ject. About two years after, lord Cobham distinguished himself by another important effort in the same cause. In conjunction with Sir Richard Story, Sir Thomas Latimer, and others, he drew up a number of articles, which, in the form of a remonstrance against the corruptions of the clergy, they presented to the house of commons. . In addi- tion to these instances of public spirit, he put himself to great expense in collecting, transcribing, and dispersing the works of Wickliffe. He also incurred considerable charges by maintaining itimerant preachers in the diocesses of Canterbury, London, Rochester, and Hereford. . These undisguised efforts at reformation drew upon him the resentment of the Romish clergy, to whom he was more obnoxious than any other individual in the king- dom. - Lord Cobham is reported by historians to have been a brave and experienced officer. Bayle says, “In all adven- turous acts of worldly manhood, he was ever fortunate, doughty, noble, and valiant.” By his military talents he ac- quired the esteem both of Henry IV. and Henry W. “He was,” says Guthrie, “one of the bravest men and best offi. gers in England; he had served with great reputation in France; and the opinion of his valor, joined to that of his . honesty and piety, had gained him prodigious popularity.” He was also the first noble author, as well as martyr, in England, in the cause of reformation. In the convocation Moses was the minister assembled during the first year of the reign of Henry V, the principal subject of debate was, the growth of heresy. Thomas Arundel, a prelate equally remarkable for zeal and bigotry, was at this time archbishop of Canterbury. Lord Cobham being considered as the head of the Wickliff. ites, it was presumed, that, if his destruction could be ef. fected, it would strike a salutary terror into his adherents; but as he was known to be in favor with the king, and also highly popular, it was deemed prudent to dissemble for a while. The archbishop, therefore, contented himself, for the present, by requesting his majesty to send commis- sioners to Oxford, to inquire into the growth of heresy, with which the king complied. The commissioners having made inquiry, reported to the archbishop, who informed the convocation, that the increase of heresy was especially owing to lord Cobham, who encouraged scholars from Ox ford, and other places, to propagate heretical opinions . throughout the country. The archbishop, accompanied by a large body of the clergy, waited upon Henry, and having laid before him the offence of lord Cobham, begged, in all humility and charity, that his majesty nould suffer them, for Christ's sake, to put him to death. To this meek and humane request, the king replied, that he thought such violence more destructive of truth than of error; that he himself would reason with lord Cobham ; and, if that should prove ineffectual, he would leave him to the cen- sure of the church. ; Henry, having sent for lord Cobham, endeavored to persuade him to retract his errors; but, to the reasoning and exhortation of the king, he returned the following an- swer:—“I ever was a dutiful subject to your majesty, and I hope ever shall be. Next to God, I profess obedience to my king. But as for the spiritual dominion of the pope, I never could see on what foundation it is claimed, nor can I pay him any obedience. As sure as God’s word is true, to me it is fully evident, that he is the great Antichrist foretold in holy writ.” This answer so exceedingly dis- pleased the king, that he gave the archbishop leave to pro- ceed against lord Cobham with the utmost extremity; or, as Bayle says, “according to the devilish decrees, which they call the laws of the holy church.” On the 11th of September, the day fixed for his appearance, the primate and his associates sat in consistory; when lord Cobham not appearing, the archbishop excommunicated him, and called in the civil power to assist him, agreeably to the late enacted law. Conceiving himself to be now in danger, Cobham drew up a confession of his faith, which he presented to the king; who coldly ordered it to be given to the archbishop. Being again cited to appear before the archbishop, and re- fusing compliance, he was committed to the Tower by the king's order. Having remained six months in the Tower, without the archbishop and his clergy coming to any con- clusion about him, lord Cobham saved them the trouble of farther deliberation, by escaping from the Tower, and fly- ing into Wales. In the year 1414, the king set a price of a thousand marks upon the head of Cobham, and promised a perpetual exemption from taxes to any town that should secure him. During four years, lord Cobham continued an exile in Wales; but at length his enemies engaged the lord Powis in their interest, who, by means of his tenants, secured and delivered up the noble fugitive to his mortal enemy, the archbishop of Canterbury. His fate was now precipitated with all the ardor of ec- clesiastical zeal. He received sentence of death, both as a heretic and a traitor. On the day appointed for his exe- cution, he was brought out of the Tower with his arms bound behind him, but with a cheerful countenance. Ar- rived at the place of execution, he devoutly ſell upon his knees, and implored of God the forgiveness of his enemies. He then stood up, and briefly addressing the multitude, exhorted them to continue steadfast in the observance of the laws of God, as contained in the Scriptures; and sub- mitted to his fate with the intrepidity of a hero, and the resignation of a martyr. He was hung up alive, by the middle, with iron chains, on the gallows which had been prepared; under which a fire being made, he was burned to death. º * Thus perished the illustrious Cobham; his life the or O L I O M N ſ s | nament, his death the disgrace of his times —Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Ivimey’s Hist, of the Eng. Baptists. OLIVE-TREE, (Heb. vit, Gr. Klaia, Matt. 21: 1. Jam. 3: 12.) Paul, in his epistle to the Romans, (11: 24.) dis- tinguishes two kinds of olive-trees; (1) the wild and natu- ral, agrielaios ; and (2) those under care and culture. The cultivated olive-tree is of a moderate height, its trunk knotty, its bark smooth, and ash-colored; its wood is solid and yellowish ; the leaves are oblong, almost like those of the willow, of a green color, dark on the upper side, and white on the under side. In the month of June it puts out white flowers that grow in bunches. Each flower is of one piece, widening upwards, and dividing into four parts; the fruit oblong and plump. It is first green, then pale, and when it is quite ripe, black. In the flesh of it is inclosed a hard stone, full of an oblong Seed. The wild olive is smaller in all its parts. Canaan much abounded with olives. It seems almost every proprietor, whether kings or subjects, had their olive-yards. The olive-branch was, from most ancient times, used as the symbol of reconciliation and peace. The sacred writers often use similes taken from the olive. —Watson ; Calmet. - OLIVES, (MoUNT OF,) is east of Jerusalem, and sepa- rated from the city by the brook Cedron, and the valley of Jehoshaphat. Josephus says, it is five stadia (or furlongs) from Jerusalem ; Luke says, a Sabbath day's journey; i.e. about eight furlongs, Acts 1: 12. The mount of Olives has three summits, ranging from north to South ; from the middle summit our Savior ascended into heaven; on the . south summit Solomon built temples to his idols; the north summit is distant two furlongs from the middlemost. This is the highest, and is commonly called Galilee, or Viri Galilaei, from the expression used by the angels, “ye men of Galilee.” In the time of king Uzziah, the mount of Olives was so shattered by an earthquake, that half the earth on the western side fell, and rolled four furlongs, or five hundred paces, toward the opposite mountain on the east; so that the earth blocked up the highways, and covered the king's gardens. Joseph. Antiq. lib. ix. cap. 11. and Zech. 14: 5. The olive is still found growing in patches at the foot of the mount to which it gives its name; and “as a sponta- meous produce, uninterruptedly resulting from the original growth of this part of the mountain, it is impossible,” says Dr. E. D. Clarke, “to view even these trees with indiffer- ence.” Titus cut down all the wood in the neighborhood of Jerusalem ; but there would seem to have been con- stantly springing up a succession of these hardy trees. “It is truly a curious and interesting fact,” adds the learned traveller, “that, during a period of little more than two thousand years, Hebrews, Assyrians, Romans, Moslems, and Christians, have been successively in pos. session of the rocky mountains of Palestine; yet, the olive still vindicates its paternal soil, and is found, at ". day, upon the same spot which was called by the Hebrew writers mount Olivet and the mount of Olives, eleven centuries before the Christian era,” 2 Sam. 15: 30. Zech. 14: 4. - The names of the various districts of this mount deserve attention, as, (1.) Geth-Semani, the place of oil-presses; (2.) Bethany, the house of dates; (3.) Bethphage, the house of green figs, and probably other names in different places. The talmudists say, that on the mount of Olivet were shops, kept by the children of Canaan, of which shops some were in Bethany; and that under two large cedars which stood there, were four shops, where things necessary for purification were constantly on sale, such as doves or pigeons for the women, &c. Probably, these shops were supplied by country persons, who hereby avoided paying rent for their sittings in the temple. There was also a collection of water at Bethany, on this mount; which was by Some used as a place of purification. Though this mount was named from its olive-trees, yet it abounded in other trees also. It was a station ſor sig- mals, which were communicated from hence by lights and flames, on various occasions. They were made of long staves of cedar, canes, pine wood, with coarse flax, which, while on fire, were shaken about till they were answered from other signals. {r Towards the south appears the lake Asphaltites, a noble expanse of water, seeming to be within a short ride from the city; but the real distance, is much greater. ... Lofty mountains inclose it with prodigious grandeur. To the north are seen the verdant and fertile pastures of the plain of Jericho, watered by the Jordan, whose course may be distinctly discerned. - • . “So commanding is the view of Jerusalem afforded in this situation, (says Dr. E. D. Clarke,) that the eye roams over all the streets, and around the walls, as if in the Sur- vey of a plan or model of the city. The most conspicuous object in the city is the mosque, erected upon the site and ſoundations of the temple of Solomon.” (See JERUSALEM.) Hence the observation of the evangelist, (Luke 19; 37.) that Jesus beheld the city, and wept over it, acquires addi- tional force. - . . What is said in Midras Tellim, by rabbi Janna, is ex- tremely remarkable : “The Divine Majesty stood three years and a half on mount Olivet, saying, “Seek ye the Lord, while he may be found; call on him, while he is near.” Is this the language of a Jew?— Calmet; Watson. OMEGA; the last letter of the Greek alphabet. (See ALPHA.) - OMEN is a word which, in its proper sense, signifies a sign or indication of some future event, especially of an alarming nature. Against the belief of omens it is, ob- served, that it is contrary to every principle of sound phi: losophy; and whoever has studied the writings of Paul must be convinced that it is inconsistent with the Spirit of genuine Christianity. . ' - We cannot pretend to discuss the subject here, but will present the reader with a quotation on the other side of the question. “Though it be true,” says Mr. Toplady, “ that all omens are not worthy of observation, and though they should never be so regarded as to shock our ſortitude, or diminish our confidence in God, still they are not to be constantly despised. Small incidents have sometimes been prelusive to great events; nor is there any supersti- tion in noticing these apparent prognostications, though there may be much superstition in being either too indis- criminately or too deeply swayed by them.” Toplady's Works, vol. iv. p. 192.-Hend. Buck. º OMER, or GomeR ; a measure of capacity among the Hebrews; six pints very nearly; the tenth part of an ephah.—Calmet. OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD is his almighty power, This is essential to his nature as an infinite, independent, and perfect being. Glorious and awful attribute The power of God is divided into absolute, and ordinate, or actual. 'Absolute, is that whereby God is able to do that which he will not do, but is possible to be done. Ordinale is that whereby he doeth that which he hath decreed to do. The power of God may be more especially seen, 1. In creation, Rom. 1: 20. Gen. 1, 2. In the preservation of his creatures, Heb. 1: 3. Col. 1: 16, 17. Job 26. 3. In the redemption of men by Christ, Luke 1:35, 37. Eph. 1: 19. 4. In the conversion of sinners, Ps. 1.10: 3. 2 Cor. 4: 7. Rom. 1: 16. 5. In the continuation and Suc- cess of the gospel in the world, Matt. 13:31, 32. 6. In the final perseverance of the saints, 1 Pet 1: 5. 7. In the resurrection of the dead, 1 Cor. 15. 8. In making the righteous happy forever, and punishing the wicked, Phil. 3: 21. Matt. 25: 34, &c. See Gill's Body of Div., vol. i. Oct. edit, p. 77; Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 423; Sau- rin's Sermons, vol. i. p. 157; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 152; Dnight's Theology, Watson's Institutes.—Hend. Buck. OMNIPRESENCE OF GOD, is his ubiquity, or his being present in every place. This may be argued from his infinity, (Ps. 139.) his power, which is everywhere, (Heb. 1: 3.) his providence, (Acts 17:27, 28.) which supplies all. As he is a Spirit, he is so omnipresent as not to be mixed with the crea- ture, or divided, part in one place, and part in another; nor is he multiplied or extended, but is essentially present everywhere. - Some striking passages on the ubiquity of the divine presence may be found in the writings of some of the Greek philosophers, arising out of this notion, that God was the soul of the world; but their very connexion with this speculation, notwithstanding the imposing phrase oc- O M N O M N [ 885 J casionally adopted, strikingly marks the difference be- tween their most exalted views, and those of the Hebrew prophets on this subject. These defective notions are confessed by Gibbon, a writer not disposed to undervalue their attainments: “The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature of man, rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on the divine nature, as a very curious and important speculation; and, in the profound inquiry, they displayed the strength and weak- ness of the human understanding. Of the four most con- siderable sects, the Stoics and the Platonicians endeavor- ed to reconcile the jarring interests of reason and piety. They have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and perſections of the First Cause ; but as it was impos- sible for them to conceive the creation of matter, the workman, in the Stoic philosophy, was not sufficiently dis- tinguished from the nwork ; whilst, on the contrary, the spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled more an idea than a substance.” Similar errors have been revived in the infidel philoso- phy of modern times, from Spinoza down to the later off- spring of the German and French schools. The same re- mark applies also to the Oriental philosophy, which pre- sents at this day a perfect view of the boasted wisdom of ancient Greece, which was “brought to nought” by “the ſoolishness” of apostolic preaching. But in the Scriptures there is nothing confused in the doctrine of the divine ubiquity. God is everywhere, but he is not every thing. All things have their being in him, but he is distinct from all things; he fills the universe, but is not mingled with it. He is the intelligence which guides, and the power which sustains ; but his personality is preserved, and he is independent of the works of his hands, however vast and noble. So far is his presence from being bounded by the universe itself, that, as we are taught in the passage above quoted from the Psalms, were it possible for us to wing our way into the immeasurable depths and breadths of space, God would there surround us, in as absolute a sense as that in which he is said to be about our bed and our path in that part of the world where his will has placed us. On this, as on all similar subjects, the Scriptures use terms which are taken in their common-sense acceptation among mankind; and though the vanity of the human mind disposes many to seek a philosophy in the doctrine thus announced deeper than that which its popular terms convey, we are bound to conclude, if we would pay but a common respect to an admitted revelation, that, where no manifest figure of speech occurs, the truth of the doctrine lies in the tenor of the terms by which it is expressed. Otherwise there would be no revelation, we do not say, of the modus, (for that is confessedly incomprehensible,) but of the fact. In the case before us, the terms presence and place are used according to common notions; and must be so taken, if the Scriptures are intelligible. Metaphysical refinements are not scriptural doctrines, when they give to the terms chosen by the Holy Spirit an acceptation out of their general and proper use, and make them the signs of a perfectly distinct class of ideas; if, indeed, all dis- tinctness of idea is not lost in the attempt. It isºherefore in the popular and just, because scriptural, manner, that we are to conceive of the omnipresence of God. If we reflect upon ourselves, we may observe that we fill but a small space, and that our knowledge or power reaches but a little way. We can act at one time in one place only, and the sphere of our influence is narrow at largest. Would we be witnesses to what is done at any distance from us, or exert there our active powers, we lmust remove Ourselves thither. For this reason we are necessarily ignorant of a thousand things which pass around us, incapable of attending and managing any great variety of affairs, or performing at the same time any number of actions, for our own good, or for the bene. fit of others. Although we feel this to be the present condition of our being, and the limited state of our intelli- gent and active powers, yet we can easily conceive there may exist beings more perfect, and whose presence may extend far and wide : any one of whom, present in what are to us various places, at the same time, may know at once what is done in all these, and act -in all of them ; and thus be able to regard and direct a variety of affairs at the same instant : and who further being quali fied, by the purity and activity of their nature, to pass from one place to another with great ease and swiſtness, may thus fill a large sphere of action, direct a great vari- ety of affairs, confer a great number of benefits, and ob- serve a multitude of actions at the same time, or in so swift a succession as to us would appear but one instant. Thus, we may readily believe, do the angels of God excel. We can further conceive this extent of presence, and of ability for knowledge and action, to admit of degrees of ascending perfection approaching to infinite. And when we have thus raised our thoughts to the idea of a being, who is not only present throughout a large empire, but throughout our world; and not only in every part of our world, but in every part of all the numberless guns and worlds which roll in the starry heavens; who is not only able to enliven and actuate the plants, animals, and m.en who live upon this globe, but countless varieties of crea- tures everywhere in an immense universe; yea, whose presence"is not confined to the universe, immeasurable as that is by any finite mind, but who is present everywhere in infinite space; and who is therefore able to create still new worlds, and fill them with proper inhabitants, attend, supply, and govern them äll: when we have thus gradu- ally raised and enlarged our conceptions, we have the best idea we can form of the universal presence of the great Jehovah, who filleth heaven and earth. All creatures live and move and have their being in him. And the in most recesses of the human heart can no more exclude his presence, or conceal a thought from his knowledge, than the deepest cayerns of the earth. We cannot, it is true, see him with our bodily eyes, be- cause he is a pure Spirit; yet this is not any proof that he is not present. A judicious discourse, a series of kind actions, convince us of the presence of a friend, a person of prudence and benevolence. We cannot see the present mind, the seat and principle of these qualities; yet the constant regular motion of the tongue, the hand, and the whole body, (which are the instruments of our souls, as the material universe and all the various bodies in it are the instruments of the Deity,) will not suffer us to doubt that there is an intelligent and benevolent principle with. in the body which produces all these skilful motions and kind actions. The Sun, the air, the earth, and the waters, are no more able to move themselves, and produce all that beautiful and useful variety of plants, and fruits, and trees, with which our earth is covered, than the body of a man, when the soul hath left it, is able to move itself, form an instrument, plough a field, or build a house. If the laying out judiciously and well cultivating a small estate, Sowing it with proper grain at the best time of the year, watering it in due season and quantities, and ga- thering in the fruits when ripe, and laying them up in the best manner,-if all these effects prove the estate to have a manager, and the manager possessed of skill, and strength, certainly the enlightening and warming the whole earth by the sun, and so directing its motion, and the motion of the earth, as to produce in a constant useful succession day and night, summer and winter, seed-time and harvest; the watering the earth continually by the clouds, and thus bringing forth immense quantities of herbage, grain, and fruits: certainly all these effects con. tinually produced, must prove that a Being of the great. est power, wisdom, and benevolence is continually present throughout our world, which he thus supports, moves, actuates, and makes fruitful. - Were God to speak to us every month from heaven, and with a voice loud as thunder declare that he observes, provides for, and governs us ; this would not be a proof, in the judgment of sound reason, by many degrees so valid : since much less wisdom and power are required to form such sounds in the air, than to produce these effects; and to give, not merely verbal declarations, but substan. tial evidences of his presence and care over us. In every part and place of the universe, with which we are ac. quainted, we perceive the exertion of a power, which we believe, mediately or immediately, to proceed from the Deity. For instance : in what part or point of space, that has ever been explored, do we not discover attraction 1 In what regions do we not find light? In what accessible O MI N O MI N [ 886 | portion of our globe do we not meet with gravity, magne- tism, electricity; together with the properties also and powers of organized substances, of vegetable or of ani- mated nature ? Nay, further, what kingdom is there of nature, what corner of space, in which there is any thing that can be examined by us, where we do not fall upon contrivance and design? The only reflection, perhaps, which arises in our minds from this view of the world around us, is, that the laws of nature everywhere pre- vail; that they are uniform and universal. But what do we mean by the laws of nature, or by any law Effects are produced by power, not by laws. A law is not self. imposed. A law cannot execute itself. A law refers us to an author and agent. The laws of nature are nothing more nor less than the regular methods of incessant divine operation. In the mineral, vegetable, animal, intellectual, and moral world, God is continually present, working, according to the peculiar constitution and conditions he has assigned to each. Among metaphysicians, it has been matter of dispute, whether God is present everywhere by an infinite exten- sion of his essence. This is the opinion of Newton, Dr. S. Clarke, and their followers; others have objected to this notion, that it might then be said, God is neither in heaven nor in earth, but only a part of Göd in each. The former opinion, however, appears most in harmony with the Scriptures; though the term extension, through the inadequacy of language, conveys too material an idea. The objection just stated is wholly grounded on notions taken from material objects, and is therefore of little weight, because it is not applicable to an immaterial sub- stance. That we cannot comprehend how God is fully, and completely, and undividedly present everywhere, need not surprise us, when we reflect that the manner in which our own minds are present with our bodies is as incomprehensible as the manner in which the Supreme Mind is present with every thing in the universe. Troin the consideration of this attribute we should learn to fear and reverence God, Psal. 89: 7. To derive conso- lation in the hour of distress, Isa. 42: 2. Ps. 46: 1. To be active and diligent in holy services, Psal. 119: 168. See Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 240; Abernethy's Sermons, ser. 7; IIorge's Works, vol. i. pp. 108, 110; Saurin's Ser- mons, voli, ser. 3; Gill’s Body of Div., b. i ; Spect., vol. viii. nos. 565, 571; Tillo/son's Sermons, ser. 154; Taylor's Holy Living ; Diright's Theology.—IIend. JSuck; Watson. OMNISCIENCE OF GOD is that perſection by which he knows all things; and is, 1. Infinite knowledge, Ps. ! 17: 5. 2. Eternal, generally called foreknowledge, Acts 15: 18. Isa. 46; 10. Eph. 1: 4. Acts 2: 23. 3. Uni- versal, extending to all persons, times, places, and things, Heb. 4:13. Ps. 50: 10, &c. 4. Perfect, relating to what is past, present, and to come. Iſe knows all, indepen- dently, distinctly, infallibly, and perpetually, Jer. 10; 6, 7. Rom. 11: 33. 5. This knowledge is peculiar to himself, (Mark 13: 32. Job 36: 4.) and not communicable to any creaſure. 6. It is incomprehensible to us how God knows all things, yet it is evident that he does; for to suppose otherwise is to suppos” him an imperfect being, and di- rectly contrary to the revelation he has given of himself, Ps. 139: 6, 1 John 3: 20. Job 28: 24, 21: 22. This attribute of God is constantly connceted in Scrip. ture with his omnipresence, and forms a part of almost every description of that attribute ; for, as God is a Spi- riſ, and therefore intelligent, if he is every where, if no- thing can exclude him, not even the most solid bodies, nor the minds of intelligent beings, then are all things naſted and opened to the eyes of him with whom we have to do. Where he acts, he is; and where he is, he per- ceives. He understands and considers things absolutelv, and as they are in their own natures, powers, properties, differences, together with all the circumstarzes belonging to them. “ JKnown unto him are all his works from the beginning of the world,” rather, (ap’aionos,) from all eter- nity known, before they were made, in their possible ard known, now they are made, in their actual, existence. In Psalm 94, the knowledge of God is argued from t' e communication of it to men : “Understand, ye ‘A’.tish anong the people; and, ye fools, when will ye be ºnse ? He that planted the ear, shall he not hear H., "Fat formed the eye, shall he not see ? He that thastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct 2 He that teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know?” This argument is as easy as it is conclusive, obliging a-- who acknowledge a First Cause, to admit his perfect intelligence, or to take refuge in atheism itself. For if God gives wisdom to the wise, and knowledge to men of understanding; if he communicates this perfection to his creatures, the infe- rence must be that he himself is possessed of it in a much more eminent degree than they ; that his knowledge is deep and intimate, reaching to the very essence of things, theirs but slight and superficial; his clear and distinct, theirs confused and dark; his certain and infallible, theirs doubtful and liable to mistake ; his easy and perma- nent, theirs obtained with much pains, and soon lost again by the defects of memory or age ; his universal and ex- tending to all objects, theirs short and narrow, reaching only to some few things, while that which is wanting can- not be numbered ; and therefore, as the heavens are high- er than the earth, so, as the prophet has told us, are his ways above our ways, and his thoughts above our thoughts. On the subject of the divine omniscience, many fine sentiments are to be found in the writings of pagans; for an intelligent First Cause being in any sense admitted, it was most natural and obvious to ascribe to him a perfect knowledge of all things. They acknowledged that no- thing is hid from God, who is intimate to our minds, and mingles himselſ with our very thoughts; nor were they all unaware of the practical tendency of such a doctrine, and of the motive it affords to a cautious and virtuous conduct. But among them it was not held, as by the sa- cred writers, in connexion with other right views of the divine nature, which are essential to give to this its full moral effect. Not only on this subject does the manner in which the Scriptures state the doctrine far transcend that of the wisest pagan theists; but the moral of the sentiment is infinitely more comprehensive and impressive. It is connected with man's state of trial; with a holy law, all the violations of which, in thought, word, and deed, are both infallibly known, and strictly marked ; with promises of grace, and of a mild and protecting go. vernment as to all who have sought and ſound the mercy of God in forgiving their sins and admitting them into his family. The wicked are thus reminded, that their hearts are searched, and their sins noted; that the eyes of the Lord are upon their ways; and that their most secret works will be brought to light in the day when God the Witness shall become God the Judge. But as to the righteous, the eyes of the Lord are said to be over them ; that they are kept by him who never slumbers or sleeps ; that he is never ſar from them ; that his eyes run to and fro throughout the whole earth, to show himself strong in their behalf; that foes, to them invisible, are seen by his eye, and controlled by his arm ; and that this great at- tribute, so appalling to wicked men, affords to them, not only the most influential reason for a perfectly holy tem- per and conduct, but the strongest motive to trust, and joy, and hope, amidst the changes and afflictions of the present life. - Socrates, as well as other philosophers, could express themselves well, so long as they expressed themselves generally, on this subject. The former could say, “Let your own frame instruct you. Does the mind inhabiting your body dispose and govern it with ease? Ought you not then to conclude, that the Universal Mind with equal ease actuates and governs universal nature; and that, when you can at once consider the interests of the Athe- nians at home, in Egypt, and in Sicily, it is not too much for the divine wisdom to take care of the universe ? These reſlections will soon convince you, that the greatness of the divine mind is such as at once to see all things, hear all things, be present everywhere, and direct all the affairs of the world.” These views are just, but they wanted that connexion with others relative both to the di- vine nature and government, which we see only in the Bible, to render them influential ; they neither gave cor- rect moral distinctions nor led to a virtuous practice; no, not in Socrates, who, on some subjects, and especially on the personality of the Deity and his independence on matter, raised himself far above the rest of his philosophic bre O N E O N I [887 J thren, but in moral ſeeling and practice was perhaps as censurable as they. (See PREscIENCE.) See Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 271 ; Abernethy’s Sermons, vol i. pp. 290, 306; Hone's Works, vol. i. pp. 102, 103; Gill's Div., vol. i. p. 85, Oct. ; Dwight's Theology.—Hend. Buck ; Walson. ON, or Aven ; a city of Egypt, situated in the land of Goshen, on the east of the Nile, and about five miles from the modern Cairo. It was called Heliopolis by the Greeks, and Bethshemeth by the Hebrews; (Jer. 43: 13.) both of which names, as well as its Egyptian one of On, imply the city or house of the sun. The inhabitants of this city are represented by Herodotus as the wisest of the Egyptians ; and here Moses resided, and received that education which made him “learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.” But, notwithstanding its being the seat of the Sciences, such were its egregious idolatries, that it was nicknamed Aven, or Beth-Aven, “the house of vanity,” or idolatry, by the Jews. It was predicted by Jeremiah, (43: 13.) and by Ezekiel, (30; 17.) that this place, with its temples and inhabitants, should be destroyed; which was probably ſulfilled by Nebuchadnezzar. (See Noph.) Most of the ruins of liis once famous city, described by Strabo the geographer, are buried in the accumulation of the soil; but that which marks its site, and is, perhaps, the most ancient work at this time existing in the world, in a perfect state, is a column of red granite, seventy feet high, and covered with hieroglyphics. Dr. E. D. Clarke has given a very good representation of this column; to whom, also, the curious reader is referred for a learned dissertation on the characters engraved upon it.—Watson. ON AN ; Son of Judah, and grandson of the patriarch Jacob. He was given in marriage to Tamar, after the death of his brother Ur, but was destroyed by the Lord, for the criminal mode in which he evaded compliance with the law of the Levirate. (See MARRIAGE, and LeviñATE.) The infamous crime of Onan is to this day stamped with his name. Public attention has recently been drawn to its extensive prevalence and dire effects by the publica- tion of a Treatise on the Diseases of Onanism, which appear- ed in New York, in 1832, from the press of Collins and lſannay. It is a translation from the French of Tissot ; and the American editor, in his preface, affirms, that this crime is more frequently a source of diseases in both sexes than is generally supposed, and from which students at our public Seminaries of learning are not always ex- empt. Those young persons, parents, and guardians, who would learn the real and dreadful evils which arise from the practice of self-pollution, and which stamp upon it the terrible seal of the divine displeasure, are referred for ample evidence to the above-named work.—Calmet. ONE ; (1.) one only, besides which there is no other of the kind; so God is one ; and Christ is the one Mediator and Master ; but in the phrase God is one, (Gal 3: 20.) it may denote one of the parties to be reconciled, 1 Tim. 2: 5. Eccl. 12: 11. (2.) The same either in substance; so the divine persons are one; (1 John 5:7. John 10: 30.) or in number; thus all the world had one language aſter the ficod; (Gen. 11:1.) or in kind; thus one plague was on the Philistines and their lands; (1 Sam, 6:4.) or in object; so Paul that planted the churches, and Apollos that watered them, were one in their general office and aim as ministers of Christ, 1 Cor. 3: 8. (3.) United together; so Christ and his people are one ; they are one by his representing them in the covenant of grace, and are united to him by his Spirit dwelling in them, and by their faith and love to him, their intimate fellowship with him, and their like- mess to him ; and they are one among themselves. They are all members of his one mystical body, have one Lord, one spirit, one faith, one baptism, one hope; love one ano- ther, possess the same privileges, have the same kind of views, aims, and works; (John 17:21, 23. Rom. 12; 5. Eph. 4: 3–6.) and they are of one heart, and mind, and mouth, when they ardently love one another as Christians, and have much the same views of divine truth, and much the same profession and manner of speech, Acts 4: 32. Rom. 15: 6. God, made but one woman, though, having the residue of the Spirit, he had power to create multi- tudes, that he might seek a godly seed, have children law- fully produced, and religiously educated, Mal. 2: 15. To have one lot, and one purse, is to be joined in the closest fellowship, Prov. 1: 14.—Bromen. - ONESIMUS was a Phrygian by nation, a slave to Philemon, and subsequently a disciple of the apostle Paul. Onesimus having run away from his master, and also having robbed him, (Philem. 5: 18.) went to Rome while St. Paul was there in prison the first time. As Onesimus knew him by repute, (his master Philemon being a Chris- tian,) perhaps from mere curiosity, he sought him out. St. Paul brought him to a sense of the greatness of his crime, instructed him, baptized him, and sent him back to his master Philemon with a letter, inserted among St. Paul’s epistles, which is universally acknowledged as ca- nonical. (See PHILEMON.) - - This letter had all the good success he could desire. Philemon not only received Onesimus as a faithful ser- vant, but rather as a brother and a friend. A little time after, he sent him back to Rome to St. Paul, that he might continue to be serviceable to him in his prison. And we see that after this, Onesimus was employed to carry such epistles as the apostle wrote at that time. He carried, for example, that which was written to the Colossians, while St. Paul was yet in his bonds. He is said to have died a martyr.—Watson ; Calmet. ONESIPHORUS ; one of the primitive Christians, of whom the most honorable mention is made by the apostle Paul, in 2 Tim. 1: 16, and ch. 5: 19. He appears to have been a citizen of Ephesus, and member of the church there ; for Paul tells Timothy, that “he knew in how many things he had ministered to him at Ephesus,” 2 Tim. 1: 18. Onesiphorus came to Rome in the year of Christ 65, when Paul was a second time imprisoned for the faith, at a moment, too, when almost all the rest of his friends had forsaken him and fled. Here he had a fine opportunity of evincing his attachment to the cause of Christ, by Succoring his faithful servant, which he did so nobly and generously, that the affectionate heart of Paul was quite overwhelmed by a sense of his kindness, and he poured it out in the most ardent wishes, “that the Lord would grant mercy to him and his household in the last day,” a day in which all the human race will stand in need of mercy, 2 Tim. 1: 18.-Jones. ONION ; (batsal, Num, 11: 5.) a well-known garden plant with a bulbous root. Onions and garlics were highly esteemed in Egypt; and not without reason, this country being admirably adapted to their culture. The allium cepa, called by the Arabs basal, Hasselquist thinks one of the species of onions for which the Israelites long- ed. He would infer this from the quantities still used in Egypt, and their goodness. “Whoever has tasted onions in Egypt,” says he, “must allow that none can be had better in any part of the universe. Here they are sweet; in other countries they are nauseous and strong. Here they are soft ; whereas in the northern and other parts they are hard, and their coats so compact that they are difficult of digestion. Hence they cannot in any place be eaten with less prejudice, and more satisfaction, than in Egypt.” The Egyptians are reproached with swearing by the leeks and onions of their gardens. Juvenal, as well as Lucian, ridicules some of these superstitious people who did not dare to eat leeks, garlic, or onions, for fear of in- juring their gods:– + Quis mescit, Volusi Bythymice, qualia demens AEgyptus portenta colit 2 Porrum et cepa nefas violare aut frangere morsu ; O sanctas gemtes quibus haze nascuntur in hortis Numina 1 Sat. xv. “How Egypt, mad with superstition grown, Makes gods of monsters, but too well is known. 'Tis mortal sin an onion to devour; - Each clove of garlic has a sacred power. Religious nation, sure and blest abodes, Where ev'ry garden is o'errun with gods !” Hence arises a question, how the Israelites durst ven- ture to violate the national worship, by eating those sacred plants. We may answer, in the first place, that whatever might be the case of the Egyptians in later ages, it is not probable that they were arrived at such a pitch of super- Stition in the time of Moses; for we find no indications O P H O R A [ 888 | of this in Herodotus, the most ancient of the Greek his- torians : secondly, the writers here quoted appear to be mistaken in imagining these plants to have been gene- rally the objects of religious worship. The priests, in- deed, abstained from the use of them, and several other vegetables; and this might give rise to the opinion of their being reverenced as divinities : but the use of them was not prohibited to the people, as is plain from the testi- monies of ancient authors, particularly of Diodorus Si- culus.—Watson. ONO a city of Benjamin, 1 Chron. 8: 12. In Neh. 6: 2, we have mention of “the valley of Ono,” which probably was not far from the city.—Calmet. ONYX; (sheham, Gen. 2: 12. Exod. 25: 7. 28:9, 20. 35; 27. 39: 6. 1 Chron. 29: 2. Job 28: 16. Ezek. 28: 13.) a precious stone, so called from the Greek onuſc, the nail, to the color of which it nearly approaches. It is first mentioned with the gold and báellium of the river Pison in Eden ; but the meaning of the Hebrew word is not easily determined. The Septuagint render it, in different places, the sardius, heryl, sapphire, emerald, &c. Such names are often ambiguous, even in Greek and Latin, and no wonder if they are more so in Hebrew. In 1 Chron. 29:2, onyx stones are among the things prepared by David for the temple. The author of “Scrip- ture Illustrated” observes, upon this passage, that “the word onyx is equivocal ; signifying, first, a precious stone or gem; and, secondly, a marble called in Greek onychites, which Pliny mentions as a stone of Caramania, Anti- quity gave both these stones this name, because of their resemblance to the nail of the fingers. The onyx of the high-priest's pectoral was, no doubt, the gem onyx ; the stone prepared by David was the marble onyx, or rather onychus ; for one would hardly think that gems of any kind were used externally in such a building, but varie- gated marble may readily be admtted.” Harris ; Carpen- ter; Abbott.-JVatson. - OPEN. God's eyes and ears being open denotes his exael Uiscrvation of men's conduct, his regard to his peo- R. case, and his readiness to answer their prayers, Neh. 1: 6. Jer. 32: 19. 1 Pet. 3: 12. His hands and trea- sures are opened when, by his power and goodness, he libe- rally confers favors on his creatures, Ps. 104: 28. Deut. 28: 12. God opens his armory when, in his providence, he raises armies, and ſurnishes them with weapons of war to execute his just wrath on sinners, Jer. 1:25. He opens his lips against men when, by his word and providence, he, in a plain and powerful manner, convinces them of their guilt, Job 11: 5. He opens the heart when he en- lightens the eye of the understanding to discern revealed truths, and thereby determines the will to receive Jesus and his salvation into the soul, Luke 24: 32–45. Acts 26: 18. 16: 14. He opens men's ears when he renders them attentive to his word and providence, Job 36:10– 15. He opens their lips when he gives them encourage- ment to pray, and reason to praise him ; and by his Spirit gives a holy freedom in these exercises, Ps. 51: 15. Under the gospel, men with open face behold the glory of the Lord ; they sce divine truths clearly, and stripped of ceremonial veils, even as the sight of any thing in a glass is much more distinct and clear than to see them only by their shadows, 2 Cor. 3: 18.—Brown. OPHEL; the name given to a part of mount Zion, Iising higher than the rest; at the eastern extremity, near to the temple, and a little to the south of it, 2 Chron. 27: 3. Neh. 3: 26. 11:21. It is also mentioned Mic. 4: 8, though our translators have rendered the words, “Thou, O tower of the ſlock,” literally “tower of Ophel.” It was naturally strong by its situation, and had a wall of its own, by which it was separated from the rest of Zion. Bishop Lonth's Notes on Isaiah 32: 14.—Jones. OPHIR ; a son of Joktan, whose descendants peopled the district between Mesha and Sephar, a mountain of the East, Gen. 10:26, 30. Mesha is taken to be mount Masius in Mesopotamia; and Sephar the country of the Sephar- waites, or Saspires, which divided Media from Colchis.- —Calmet. OPHIR ; a country much celebrated in Scripture, on account of the immense quantities of gold and precious stones which king Solomon imported from thence for º * of the temple, 1 Rings 9:28, 10: 11. 2 Chron. : 18. " In the same direction with Ophir lay Tarshish; the voyage to both places being accomplished under one, and always, as it would seem, in the same space of time, three years; by which it may be inferred that, notwith- standing the imperfect navigation of the times, they must be at a considerable distance from the ports of Judea. In what region of the earth we should search for the famous ports of Tarshish and Ophir, is an inquiry which has long exercised the industry of learned men. They were early supposed to be situated in some part of India, and the Jews were held to be one of the nations which traded with that country. But the opinion more generally adopted is, that Solomon’s fleets, after passing the straits of Babelmandel, held their course along the south-east coast of Africa, as far as the kingdom of Sofala, a country celebrated for its rich mines of gold and silver, (from which it has been denominated the Golden Sofala, by Oriental writers,) and abounding in all the other articles which composed the cargoes of the Jewish ships. This opinion, which the accurate researches of M. D'Anville rendered highly probable, seems now to be established with the utmost certainty by a late learned traveller, Mr. Bruce; who by his knowledge of the monsoons in the Arabian gulf, and his attention to the ancient mode of navigation, both in that sea and along the African coast, has not only accounted for the extraordinary length of time which the fleets of Solomon took in going and re- turning, but has shown, from circumstances mentioned concerning the voyage, that it was not made to any place in India. See Dr. Robertson's Ancient India, p. 9; and the article TARSHISH.—Calmet ; IWatson ; Jones. - OPHITES. (See SERPENTINIANs.) OPHRAH ; a city of Benjamin, Josh. 18:23, 1 Sam. 13; 17. In the prophet Micah, (1:10.) we have a temple mentioned as the house of Ophrah, where the paranomasia clearly points at dust, as the import of this name: “In the temple of Ophrah (dust) roll thyself in the dust.” But this phrase might be adopted by the prophet, by reason of the similarity of sound, though not of sense, between the two words,-Calmet. - OPINION, is that judgment which the mind forms of any proposition, for the truth or falsehood of which there is not sufficient evidence to produce absolute belief– Essay on the Formation of Opinions ; Hend. Buck. OPPRESSION, is the spoiling or taking away of men's property by constraint, terror, or force, without having any right thereto ; working on the ignorance, weakness, or fearfulness of the oppressed. Men are guilty of op- pression, when they offer violence to the bodies, property, or consciences of others; when they crush or overburden others, as the Egyptians did the Hebrews, Exod. 3: 9. There may be oppression which maligns the character, or studies to vex another, yet does not affect his life : as there is much persecution, for conscience' sake, which is not fatal, though distressing. God is the avenger of all oppression.—Calmet. - ORACLE, denotes something delivered by supernatu- ral wisdom. The term is also used in the Old Testament to signify the most holy place from whence the Lord revealed his will to ancient Israel, 1 Kings 6: 5, 19– 21, 23. - i. Divine Orades—when the word occurs in the plural number, as it mostly does, it denotes the revelations con- tained in the sacred writings, of which the nation of Israel were the depositaries. So Moses is said by Stephen to have received the “lively oracles” to give unto the Isra- elites. These oracles contained the law, both moral and ceremonial, with all the types and promises relating to the Messiah which are to be found in the writings of: Moses. They also contained all the intimations of the divine mind which he was pleased to communicate by means of the succeeding prophets, who prophesied before- hand of the coming and of the sufferings of the Messiah, with the glory that should follow. The Jews were a highly-privileged people in many and various respects; (Rom.9: 4, 5.) but the apostle Paul mentions it as their chief advantage that “unto them were committed the oracles of God,” Rom. 3: 2. “What nation,” says Moses, O R. A O R. A. [ 889 J “is there that hath statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law which I set before you this day ?” Deut. 4: 8. The psalmist David enumerates their excellent pro- perties under various epithets; such as the law of the Lord, his testimony, his statutes, his commandments, his judgments, &c. Their properties are extolled as perfect, sure, right, pure, clean, true, and righteous altogether; more to be desired than much fine gold; sweeter than honey and the honey-comb. Their salutary effects are also mentioned; such as their converting the soul, making wise the simple, rejoicing the heart, enlightening the eyes; and the keeping of them is connected with a great reward, Tsalm 19. The hundred and nineteenth Psalm abounds with praises of the lively oracles, the word of the living God; it abounds with the warmest expressions of love to 1t, of delight in it, and the most fervent petitions for divine illumination in the knowledge of it. Such was the esteem and veneration which the faithful entertained for the vely oracles under the former dispensation, when they ad only Moses and the prophets; how, then, ought they to be prized by Christians, who have also Christ and his apostles See Irving on the Oracles of God. II. Pagan Oracles.—Among the heathen, (where impos- ture supplied the place of revelation,) the term oracle is usually taken to signify an answer, generally couched in very dark and ambiguous terms, supposed to be given by demons of old, either by the mouths of their idols, or by those of their priests, to the people, who consulted them on things to come. Oracle is also used for the demon who gave the answer, and the place where it was given. Seneca defines oracles to be enunciations by the mouths of men of the will of the gods; and Cicero simply calls them, deorum oratio, the language of the gods. Among the pagans they were held in high estimation ; and they were consulted on a variety of occasions, pertain- ing to national enterprises and private life. When they made peace or war, enacted laws, reformed states, or changed the constitution, they had in all these cases recourse to the oracle by public authority. Also, in private life, if a man wished to marry, if he proposed to take a journey, or to engage in any business of importance, he repaired to the oracle for counsel. Man- kind have had always a propensity to explore futurity; and conceiving that future events were known to their gods, who possessed the gift of prophecy, they sought in- formation and advice from the oracles, which, in their opinion, were supernatural and divine communications. The institution of oracles seemed to gratify the prevalent curiosity of mankind, and proved a source of immense wealth, as well as authority and influence, to those who had the command of them. Accordingly, every nation, in which idolatry has subsisted, had its oracles, by means : which imposture practised on superstition and cre- lulity 1. The principal oracles of antiquity are, that of Abae, mentioned by Herodotus; that of Amphiaraus, at Oropus in Macedonia; that of the Branchidae at Didymeum ; that of the camps at Lacedæmon ; that of Dodona; that of Ju- piter Ammon ; that of Nabarca, in the country of the Anariaci, near the Caspian sea; that of Trophonius, mentioned by Herodotus; that of Chrysopolis; that of Claros, in Ionia; that of Amphilochus at Mallos ; that of Petarea; that of Pella in Macedonia; that of Phaselides an Cilicia; that of Sinope in Paphlagonia; that of Orpheus' head at Lesbos, mentioned by Philostratus. But of all oracles, the oracle of Apollo Pythius at Delphi was the most celebrated; this was consulted in the dernier resort by most of the princes of those ages. 2. Most of the pagan deities had their appropriate ora- cles. Apollo had the greatest number : such as those of Claros, of the Branchidae, of the suburbs of Daphne at Antioch, of Delos, of Argos, of Troas, AEolis, &c., of Baiae in Italy, and others in Cilicia, in Egypt, in the Alps, in Thrace, at Corinth, in Arcadia, in Laconia, and in many other places enumerated by Van Dale. Jupiter, besides that of Dodona and some others, the honor of which he shared with Apollo, had one in Boeotia under the name of Jupiter the Thunderer, and another in Elis, one at Thebes and at Meroe, one near Antioch, and several others. AEsculapius was consulted in Cilicia, at Apollonia, in the - 112 - isle of Cos, at Epidaurus, Pergamus, Rome, and else. where. Mercury had oracles at Patras, upon Haemon, and in other places; Mars, in Thrace, Egypt, and else- where ; Hercules, at Cadiz, Athens, in Egypt, at Tivoli, in Mesopotamia, where he issued his oracles by dreams, whence he was called Somnialis. Isis, Osiris, and Sera- pis delivered in like manner their oracles by dreams, as we learn from Pausanias, Tacitus, Arrian, and other wri- ters; that of Amphilochus was also delivered by dreams; the ox Apis had also his oracle in Egypt. The gods, called Cabiri, had their oracle in Boeotia. Diana, the sister of Apollo, had several oracles in Egypt, Cilicia, Ephesus, &c. Those of Fortune at Praeneste, and of the Lots at Antium, are well known. The fountains also de- livered oracles, for to each of them a divinity was ascribed: such was . the fountain of Castalia at Delphi, another of T the same name in the suburbs of Antioch, and the pro- phetic fountain near the temple of Ceres in Achaia. Juno had several oracles: one near Corinth, one at Nysa, and others at different places. Latona had one at Butis in Egypt; Leucothea had one in Colchis; Memnon in Egypt; Machaon at Gerania in Laconia; Minerva had one in Egypt, in Spain, upon mount AEtna, at Mycenae and Colchis, and in other places. Those of Neptune were at Delphos, at Calauria, near Neocesarea, and elsewhere. The nymphs had theirs in the cave of Corycia. Pan had Several, the most famous of which was that in Arcadia. That of the Palici was in Sicily. Pluto had one at Nysa. Saturn had oracles in several places, but the most famous were those of Cumae in Italy, and of Alexandria in Egypt. Those of Venus were dispersed in several places, at Gaza, upon mount Libanus, at Paphos, in Cyprus, &c. Serapis had one at Alexandria, consulted by Vespasian. Venus Aphacite had one at Aphaca, between Heliopolis and By- blus. Geryon, the three-headed monster, slain by Hercu. les, had an oracle in Italy near Padua, consulted by Tibe- rius; that of Hercules was at Tivoli, and was given by lots, like those at Praeneste and Antium. The demi-gods and heroes had likewise their oracles; such were those of Castor and Pollux at Lacedæmon, of Amphiaraus, of Mop- sus in Cilicia, of Ulysses, Amphilochus, Sarpedon in Troas, Hermione in Macedonia, Pasiphae in Laconia, Chalcas in Italy, Aristaeus in Boeotia, Autolycus at Sinope, Phryxus among the Colchi, Zamolxis among the Getae, Hephæstion the minion of Alexander, and Antinous, &c. (See Gods.) 3. The responses of oracles were delivered in a variety of ways: at Delphi, they interpreted and put into verse what the priestess pronounced in the time of her furor. Mr. Bayle observes that at first this oracle gave its an- swers in verse; and that it fell at length to prose, upon people's beginning to laugh at the poorness of its versifi- cation. The Epicureans made this the subject of their jests, and said, in raillery, it was surprising enough, that Apollo, the god of poetry, should be a much worse poet than Homer, whom he himself had inspired. By the rail- leries of these philosophers, and particularly by the Cynics and Peripatetics, the priests were at length obliged to de- sist from the practice of versifying the responses of the Pythia, which, according to Plutarch, was one of the principal causes of the declension of the oracle of Delphos. At the oracle of Ammon, the priests pronounced the re- sponse of their god; at Dodona, the response was issued from the hollow of an oak ; at the cave of Trophonius, the oracle was inferred from what the suppliant said before he recovered his senses; at Memphis, they drew a good or bad omen, according as the Ox Apis received or rejected what was presented to him, which was also the case with the fishes of the fountain of Limyra. The suppliants who consulted the oracles were not allowed to enter the Sanc- tuaries where they were given ; and, accordingly, care was taken that neither the Epicureans nor Christians should come near them. In several places, the oracles were given by letters sealed up, as in that of Mopsus, and at Mallus in Cilicia. Oracles were frequently given by lot, the mode of doing which was as follows: the lots were a kind of dice, on which were engraven certain characters or words, whose explanations they were to seek on tables made for the purpose. The way of using these dice for knowing futurity, was different, according to the places O R. A. O R. A. [ 890 J where they were used. In some temples, the person threw them himself; in others, they were dropped from a box; whence came the proverbial expression, “the lot is fallen.” This playing with dice was always preceded by sacrifices and other customary ceremonies. 'The ambi- guity of the oracles in their responses, and their double meaning, contributed to their support. 4. Ablancourt observes that the study or research of the meaning of oracles was but a fruitless thing ; and that they were never understood till after their accomplish- ment. Historians relate, that Croesus was tricked by the ambiguity and equivocation of the oracle. That delivered to Pyrrhus, which is comprised in this Latin verse, - “Credo equidem AEacidas Romanos vincero posse,” had the same advantage; for, according to the rules of syntax, either of the two accusatives may be governed by the verb, and the verse be explained, either by saying the Romans shall conquer the AEacidae, of whom Pyrrhus was descended, or those shall conquer the Romans. When Alexander fell sick at Babylon, some of his courtiers who happened to be in Egypt, or who went thither on purpose, passed the might in the temple of Serapis, to inquire if it would not be proper to bring Alexander to be cared by him. The god answered, it was better that Alexander should remain where he was. This in all events was a very prudent and safe answer. If the king recovered his health, what glory must Serapis have gained by saving him the fatigue of his journey ! If he died, it was but saying he died in a favorable juncture after so many con- quests; which, had he lived, he could neither have en- larged nor preserved. This is actually the construction they put upon the response; whereas had Alexander un- dertaken the journey, and died in the temple, or by the way, nothing could have been said in favor of Serapis. When Trajan had formed the design of his expedition against the Parthians, he was advised to consult the ora- cle of Heliopolis, to which he had no more to do ºut send a note under a seal. That prince, who had no great faith in oracles, sent thither a blank note; and they -eturned him another of the same kind. By this Trajan v:as con- vinced of the divinity of the oracle ! He sent back a se- cond note to the god, in which he inquired whether he should return to Rome after finishing the war he had in view. The god, as Macrobius tells the story, ozdered a vine, which was among the offerings of his temple, to be divided into pieces, and brought to Trajan. The event justified the oracle; for the emperor dying in that war, his bones were carried to Rome, which had been represented by that broken vine. As the priests of that oracie knew Trajan’s design, which was no secret, they happily devised that response, which, in all events, was capable of a fa- vorable interpretation, whether he routed and cut the Par- thians in pieces, or if his army met with the same fate. Sometimes the responses of the oracles were mere banter, as in the case of the man who wished to know by what means he might become rich, and who received for answer from the god, that he had only to make himself master of all that lay between Sicyon and Corinth. Another, want- ing a cure for the gout, was answered by the oracle, that he was to drink nothing but cold water. 5. There are two points in dispute on the subject of oracles ; namely, whether they were human, or diabolical machines; and whether or not they ceased upon she pub- lication or preaching of the gospel. of the church, it is said, supposed that the dev.] issued oracles; and looked on it as a pleasure he took to give dubious and equivocal answers, in order to have a handle to laugh at them. Vossius allows that it was he devil who spoke in oracles; but thinks that the obscurity of his answers Yas owing to his ignorance as to the precise cir- cumstances of events. Father Balthus, a Jesuit, wrote a treatise in defence of the fathers with regard to the origin of oracles; put with- out denying the imposture of the priests oſtén blended with the oracles. , Dr. Middleton, in his “Exam.nation,” &c., thinks himself warranted to pronounce from the au- thority of the best and wisest of the heathens themselves, and the evidence of plain facts, which are recorded of Most of the fathers those oracles, as well as from the nature of the thing itself, that they were all mere imposture, wholly invented and supported by human craft, without any supernatural aid or interposition whatsoever. He alleges, that Cicero, speaking of the Delphic oracle, the most revered of any in the heathen world, declares, that nothing was become more contemptible, not only in his days, but long before him ; that Demosthenes, who lived about three hundred years earlier, affirmed of the same oracle, in a public speech to the people of Athens, that it was gained to the interests of king Philip, an enemy to that city; that the Greek historians tell us how, on several other occasions, it had been corrupted by money, to serve the views of particular persons and parties, and the prophetess some- times had been deposed for bribery and lewdness; that there were some great sects of philosophers, who, on prin- ciple, disavowed the authority of all oracles; agreeably to all which Strabo tells us, that divination in general and oracles had been in high credit among the ancients, but in his days were treated with much contempt ; lastly, that Eusebius also, the great historian of the primitive church, declares, that there were six hundred writers among the heathens themselves who had publicly written against the reality of them. * . Plutarch alleges two reasons for the ceasing of oracles: the one was Apollo's chagrin ; who, it seems, took it in dudgeon to be interrogated about so many trifles. The other was, that in proportion as the genii, or demons, who had the management of the oracles, died, and beeame ex- tinct, the oracles must necessarily cease. He adds a third and more natural cause for the ceasing of oracles; name- ly, the forlorn state of Greece, ruined and desolated by wars; for, hence, the smallness of the gains let the priests sink into a poverty and contempt too bare to cover the fraud. That the oracles were silenced about or soon aſter the time of our Savior's advent, may be proved, says Dr. Leland, in the first volume of his learned work on “The Necessity and Advantage of Revelation,” &c., from ex- press testimonies, not only of Christian but of heathen au- thors. Lucan, who wrote his “Pharsalia” in the reign of Nero, scarcely thirty years after our Lord's crucifixion, laments it as one of the greatest misfortunes of that age, that the Delphian oracle, which he represents as one of the choicest gifts of the gods, was become silent. In like manner, Juvenal says, 4° Delphis oracula cessant, Et genus humanum damnat caligo futuri. Sat. vi. 554, “Since Delphi now, if we may credit ſame, Gives no responses, and a long dark night Conceals the future hour from mortal sight.” GIFford, Lucian says, that when he was at Delphi, the oracle gave no answer, nor was the priestess inspired. This likewise appears from Plutarch’s treatise, why the oracles cease to give answers, already cited ; whence it is also manifest, that the most learned heathens were very much at a loss how to give a tolerable account of it. Porphyry, in a pas- Sage cited from him by Eusebius, says, “the city of Rome was overrun with sickness, ZEsculapius and the rest of the gods having withdrawn their converse with men; be- cause since Jesus began to be worshipped, no man had received any public help or benefit from the gods.” 6. With respect to the origin of pagan oracles, they were probably imitations, first, of the answers given to the holy patriarchs from the divine presence or Shechinah, and secondly, of the responses to the Jewish high-priest from the mercy-seat : for all paganism is a parody of the true religion. - • See Vandale and Fontenelle’s Hist. de Orac. ; Potter's Greek Antiquities, vol. i. b. 2, ch. 7; Ednards' Hist. of Red., p. 408; Farmer on Mir., p. 281, 285; Middleton's Examination ; Enc. Brit. and Am., article ORACLE ; Tooke's Pantheon.— Watson ; Hend. Buck. - - ORAL ; delivered by the mouth; not written. (See TRADITION.)—Hend. Buck. ORANGEMEN ; the name given by the Irish Catholics to their Protestant countrymen, on account of their adhe- rence to the house of Orange-Hend. Buck, O R D O R. D [ 891 ) ORATORY ; a name given by Christians to certain places of religious worship. In ecclesiastical antiquity, the term oikoi euktérioi, houses of prayer, or oratories, is frequently given to churches in general, of which there are innumerable instances in an- cient Christian writers. But in some canons the name oratory seems confined to private chapels, or places of worship set up for the convenience of private families, yet still depending on the parochial churches, and differing from them in this, that they were only places of prayer, but not for celebrating, the communion; for if that were at any time allowed to private families, yet, at least upon the great and solemn festivals, they were to resort for communion to the parish churches. - Oratory is used among the Romanists for a closet, or little apartment near a bedchamber, furnished with a little altar, crucifix, &c. for private devotion.—Hend. Buck. - ORATORY, PRIESTs of THE. There were wo bodies of these ; one in Italy, the other in France, The Priests of the Oratory in Italy had for their ſounder St. Philip de Neri, a native of Florence, who, in the year 1548, founded at Rome the confraternity of the Holy Tri- nity. This society originally consisted of but fifteen poor persons, who assembled in the church of St. Savior, every first Sunday in the month, to practise the exercises of piety described by the holy founder. Afterwards their number increasing by the addition of several persons of distinction to the society, St. Philip proceeded to establish a hospital for the reception of poor pilgrims, who, coming to Rome to visit the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, were obliged, for want of a lodging, to lie in the streets and at the doors of churches. For this purpose, pope Paul IV. gave to the society the parochial church of St. Benedict, close by which was built an hospital so large, that in the jubi- lee year 1600, it received four hundred and forty-four thousand five hundred men, and twenty-five thousand five hundred women, who came in pilgrimage to Rome. The Priests of the Oratory in France were established on the model of those in Italy, and owe their rise to cardi- nal Berulle, a native of Champagne, who resolved upon this foundation in order to revive the splendor of the ec- clesiastical state, which was greatly sunk through the mi- series of the civil wars, the increase of heresies, and & general corruption of manners. To this end he assembled a community of ecclesiastics, in 1611, in the suburb of St. James. They obtained the king's letter patent for, their establishment; and, in 1613, pope Paul V. approved this congregation, under the title of the Oratory of Jesus. This congregation consisted oſ two sorts of persons; the one, as it were, incorporated; the other only associates: the former governed the houses of this institute; the latter were only employed in forming themselves to the life and manners of ecclesiastics. And this was the true spirit of this congregation, in which they taught neither human learning nor theology, but only the virtues of the ecclesi- astical life. It nevertheless contained the philosopher Malebranche, the orientalist Morin, and the celebrated critic, Richard Simon.—Hend. Buck. ORDER ; method; the regular process of performing a thing. Nothing can be more beautiful in religion and morals than order. The neglect of it exposes us to the inroads of vice, and often brings upon us the most per- plexing events. Whether we consider it in reference to ourselves, our families, or the church, it is of the greatest importance. As to the first, order should be attended to as it respects our principles, (Heb. 13: 9. James 1:8.) our tempers, (Prov. 17: 14. Eph. 4; 31.) our conversation, (Col. 4: 6.) our business, (Prov. 22:29.) our time, (Ps. 90: 12. Eccles. 3: 1.) our recreations, and our general conduct, Phil. 1: 27. 2 Pet. 1: 5, &c. - 2. As it regards our families, there should be order as to the economy or management of its concerns, (Matt. 12; 25.) as to devotion, and the time of it, (Jos. 24; 15) as to the instruction thereof, Eph. 6: 1. Gen. 18: 19, 2 Tim. 1: 5. - 3. In respect to the church, order should be observed as to the admission of members, (2 Cor. 6: 15.) as to the ad- ministration of its ordinances, (1 Cor. 14:33, 40.) as to the attendance on its worship, (Ps. 27. 4.) as to our beha. vior thr rein, Col. 1: 10. Matt. 5: 16. To excite us to the practice of this duty, we should con- sider that God is a God of order; (1 Cor. 14:33.) his works are all in the exactest order; (Eph. 1: 11. Ps. 104: 25. Eccl. 3: 11.) heaven is a place of order, Rev. O9. Jesus Christ was a most beautiful example of regularity. The advantages of order are numerous. “The observance of it,” says Dr. Blair, “serves to correct that negligence which makes us omit some duties, and that hurry and precipi- tancy which makes us perform others imperſectly. Our attenticºn is thereby directed to its proper objects. We follow the straight path which Providence has pointed out to us; ºn the course of which all the different business of life presents itself regularly to us on every side.” Ser., vol. ii. p. 23; Works of Hannah Iſlore.—Hand. Buck. ORD2RS, by way of eminency, or holy orders, de- note a character peculiar to ecclesiastics, whereby they are set apart for the ministry. This the Romanists make their sixth sacrament. In no reformed church are there more than three orders, viz., bishops, priests, and deacons. Jn the Romish church there are seven, exclusive of the episcopf te; all which the council of Trent enjoins to be receiver and believed on pain of anathema. They are distinguished into petty or secular orders, and major or sacred orders. Orders, the petty or minor, are four, viz., those of door-keepers, exorcist, reader, and acolyth. Sa- cred, or major, are deacon, priest, and bishop.–Hend. Duck. - ORDERS, (RELIGIOUs,) are congregations or Societies of monastºries, living under the same Superior, in the same manner and wearing the same habit. Religious orders may be reduced to five kinds, viz., monks, canons, knights, mendicants, and regular clerks. , White order denotes the order of regular canons of St. Augustine. Black order denotes the order of St. Benedict. Orders, religious mili- tary, are those instituted in defence of the faith, and pri- vileged to say mass, and who are prohibited marriage, &c. Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St. John of Jerusal m. Such also were the knights templars, the knights of Calatrave, of St. Lazarus, Teutonic knights, &c.—Iſend. Buck. ORD NANCE ; an institution established by lawful au- thority. Religious ordinances must be instituted by the great irstitutor of religion, or they are not binding: minor regulatiºns are not properly ordinances. Ordinances once established are not to be varied by human caprice, or mutability. Human ordinances, established by national laws, may be varie d by other laws, because the inconveniences aris- ing from them can only be determined by experience. Yet Christians are bound to submit to these institutions, when they do not infringe on those established by divine authority; not only from the consideration, that if every individral were to oppose national institutions, no society could subsist ; but by the tenor of Scripture itself. Never- theless, Jhristianity does not interfele with political rights, but leaves individuals, as well as nations, in full enjoy ment of whatever advantages the constitution of a coun- try secures to its subjects. The course of nature is the ordinance of God; its laws are but “the ordinances of heaven;” and every planet obeys that impulse which the divine Governor has im pressed on it, Jer. 31:36.—Calmet. - ORDFNANCES OF THE GOSPEL, are institutions of divine authority relating to the worship of God; such as baptism, Matt. 28; 19. 2. The Lord’s supper, 1 Cor. 11:24, &c. 3. Public ministry, or preaching and reading the word, Rom, 10: 15. Eph. 4: 13. Mark 16: 15. 4. Hearing the gospel, Mark 4: 24. Rom. 10: 17. 5. Public prayer, 1 Cor. 14: 15, 19. Matt. 6: 6. Ps. 5: 1, 7. , 6. Singing of psalms, Col. 3: 16. Eph. 5: 19. 7. Fasting, James {: 9. Matt. §: 15. Joel 2: 12. 8 Solemn thanks. giving, Ps. 50: 14. 1 Thess. 5: 18. See these different articles, also MRANs of GRACE.-Hend. Buck. ORD, NARY ; in the common and canon law, one who has ordinary or immediate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical matters. In England, the bishop of the diocese is com- monly "he ordinary. The ordinary of assizes and sessions was formerly a deputy of the bishop, appointed to give O R D O R. D [ 892 J maleſactors the neck-verse; i. e. the verse which was read by a party to entitle him to the benefit of clergy. The ordinary of Newgate is a clergyman who attends on condemned culprits.-Hend. Buck. ORDINATION; the act of conferring holy orders; of initiating Operson into the ministry, or of publicly recog- nising the relation which has been entered into, by mutual agreement, between a minister and a church. In the church of England, ordination has always been esteemed the principal prerogative of bishops, and they still retain the function as a mark of their spiritual sove- reignty in their diocese. Without ordination, no person can receive any benefice, parsonage, vicarage, &c. A person must be twenty-three years of age before he can be ordained deacon, or have any share in the ministry; and twenty-four before he can be ordained priest, and by that means be permitted to administer the holy communion. A bishop, on the ordination of clergymen, is to examine them in the presence of the ministers, who, in the ordina- tion of priests, but not of deacons, assist him at the impo- sition of hands; but this is only done as a mark of assent, not because it is thought necessary. In case any crime, as drunkenness, perjury, forgery, &c., is alleged against any one that is to be ordained either priest or deacon, the bishop ought to desist from ordaining him. The person to be ordained is to bring a testimonial of his life and doc- trine to the bishop, and to give account of his faith in Tatin ; and both priests and deacons are obliged to sub- scribe to the thirty-nine articles. In the Romish discipline there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordina- tion ; but every one was to have a church, whereof he was to be ordained clerk or priest. In the twelfth century they grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or be. nefice. The council of Trent, however, restored the an- cient discipline, and appointed that none should be or- dained but those who were provided with a benefice; which practice still obtains in England. The times of ordination are the four Sundays immediately following the Ember weeks; being the second Sunday in Lent, Tri- mity Sunday, and the Sundays following the first Wednes- day after September 14, and December 13. These are the stated times; but ordination may take place at amy other time, according to the discretion of the bishop, or circumstances of the case. - 2. Thereformed generally held the call of the people the only thing essential to the validity of the ministry; and teach that ordination is only a ceremony, which renders the call more august and authentic. Accordingly the Protestant churches of Scotland, France, Holland, Switzerland, Ger- many, Poland, Hungary, Denmark, &c. have no episcopal ordination. For Luther, Calvin, Bucer, Melancthon, &c., and all the first reformers and founders of these churches, who ordained ministers among them, were themselves presbyters, and no other. And though in some of these churches there are ministers called superintendents, or bishops, yet these are only primi inter pares, the first among equals; not pretending to any superiority of orders. Having themselves no other orders than what either pres- byters gave them, or what was given them as presbyters, they can convey no other to those they ordain. On this ground the Protestant Dissenters plead that their ordi- nation, though not episcopal, is the same with that of all the illustrious Protestant churches abroad; and object, that a priest ordained by a popish bishop should be re- ceived into the church of England as a valid minister, rightfully ordained ; whilst the orders of another, ordained by the most learned religious presbyter which any foreign country can boast, are pronounced not valid, and he is required to submit to be ordained afresh. In opposition to episcopal ordination, they urge that Timothy was or. dained by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery; (1 Tim. 4: 14.) that Paul and Barnabas were ordained by certain prophets and teachers in the church of Antioch, and not by any bishop presiding in that city; (Acts 13: 1– 3.) and that it is a well-known fact, that presbyters in the church of Alexandria ordained even their own bishops for more than two hundred years in the earliest ages of Chris- tianity. They farther argue, that bishops and presbyters are in Scripture the same, and not denominations of dis. tinct orders or offices in the church, referring to Philip. 1: 1. Tit. 1: 5, 7. Acts 20: 27, 28. 1 Pet. 5: 1, 2, To the same purpose they maintain that the superiority of bishops to presbyters is not pretended to be of divine, but of hu- man, institution; not grounded on Scripture, but only upon the custom or ordinances of this realm, by the first reformers and founders of the church of England; nor by many of its most learned and eminent doctors since. See Stillingfleet’s lzenicum, in which the learned author affirms and shows this to be the sentiment of Cranmer, and othel chief reformers both in Edward VI, and queen Elizabeth's reign, of archbishop Whitgift, bishop Bridges, Lee, Hook- er, Sutcliff, Hales, Chillingworth, &c. Moreover, the book entitled the “Institution of a Christian Man,” sub- scribed by the clergy in convocation, and confirmed by parliament, owns bishops and presbyters by Scripture to be the same. Besides, the Protestant Dissenters think it strange, that the validity of orders and ministrations should be derived, as some have contended, from a suc- cession of popish bishops; bishops of a church, which, by the definition of the nineteenth article of the church of England, can be no part of the true visible church of Christ, and bishops, likewise, who consider the Protestan clergy, although ordained by Protestant bishops, as mere common unconsecrated laymen. - 3. Among dissenters, ordinations vary. In the esta- blishment of Scotland, where there are no bishops, the power of ordination is lodged in the presbytery. Among the Wesleyan Methodists, the ordination of their minis- ters is in the annual conference, with a president at its head, and is by prayer without imposition of hands, Among the Calvinistic Methodists, ordination is perform- ed by the sanction and assistance of their own ministers. Among the Independents and Baptists, the power of ordi- nation lies in the suffrage of the people. The qualifica- tions of the candidate are first known, tried, and approved by the church. After which trial, the church proceeds to give him a call to the ministry; which he accepting, the public acknowledgment thereof is signified by ordi- nation, the mode of which is so well known as not to need recital here. - - 4. Though the dissenters practise ordination, we find they are not agreed respecting it. Some contend for the Power of ordination as belonging to the people; the exer. cise of which right by them constitutes a minister, and conſers validity on his public ministrations. Others Sup- pose it belongs to those who are already in office. We shall here give an outline of the arguments on both sides. According to the former opinion, it is argued that the Word ordain was originally equal to choose or appoint; so that if twenty Christians nominated a man to instruct them once, the man was appºinted or ordained a preacher for the time. The essence of ordination lies in the volun. tary choice and call of the people, and in the voluntary acceptance of that call by the person chosen and called : for this affair must be by mutual consent and agreement, which joins them together as pastor and people. And this is to be dome among themselves; and public ordina, tion, so called, is no other than a declaration of that Election and ordination are spoken of as the same ; the latter is expressed and explained by the former. It is said of Christ, that he ordained twelve; (Mark 3: 14.) that is, he chose them to the office of apostleship, as he him. self explains it, John 6: 70. Paul and Barnabas are said to ordain elders in every church, (Acts 14: 23.) or to choose them ; that is, they gave orders and directions to every church as to the choice of elders over them : for sometimes persons are said to do that which they give orders and di- rections for doing; as Moses and Solomon, with respect to building the tabernacle and temple, though done by others;. and Moses particularly is said to choose the judges, (Exod. 18: 25.) the choice being made under his direction , and guidance. The word that is used in Acts 14: 23, is translated chosen in Cor. 2: 8, 19, where the apostle speaks of a brother, (cheirotonetheis,) nho nas chosen of the churches to travel with us, and is so rendered when ascribed to God, Acts 10: 41. This choice and ordination, in primitive times, was made two ways; by casting lots and giving votes, signified by stretching out of hands. Matthias was chosen and ordained to be an apostle in the room of Judas by casting lots: that, being an extraordinary office, re. O R. I.) O R. I [ 893 J quired aſ immediate interposition of the Divine Being, a lot being nothing more nor less than an appeal to God ſor the decision of an affair. But ordinary officers, as elders and pastors of churches, were chosen and ordained by the yotes of the people, expressed by stretching out their hands; thus it is said pf the apostles: (Acts 14; 23.) When they had ordained them elders in every church, (cheiroto- nésantes,) by taking the suffrages and votes of the mem- bers of the churches, shown by the stretching out of their hands, as the word signifies; and which they directed them to, and upon it declared the elders duly elected and ordained, - Some, however, on this side of the question, do not go So far as to say, that the essence of ordination lies in the choice of the people, but in the solemn and public separa- tion to office by prayer: still, however, they think that ordination by either bishops, presbyters, or any superior character, cannot be necessary to make a minister or ordain a pastor in any particular church; for Jesus Christ, Say they, would never leave the subsistence of his churches, or the efficacy of his word and sacraments, to depend on the uninterrupted succession of any office or officer; for then it would be impossible for any church to know whether they ever have had any authentic minister; for we could never be assured that such ordinations had been rightly transmitted through seventeen hundred years. A whole nation might be corrupted, and every bishop and elder therein might have apostatized from the faith, as it was in England, in the days of popery. To say, there- fore, that the right of ordaining lies in men who are al- ready in office, would drive us to hold the above-mentioned untenable position of uninterrupted succession. On the other side it is observed, that, although Chris- tians have the liberty of choosing their own pastor, yet they have no power or right to confer the office itself. Scripture represents ordination to be the setting apart of a person to the holy ministry, by the authority of Jesus himself acting by the medium of men in office; and this Solemn investing act is necessary to his being lawfully accounted a minister of Christ. The original word (Acts 6: 3.) is katastesomen, which, according to Scapula, and the best writers on the sacred language, signifies to put one in rule, or to give him authority. Now, did this power lodge in the people, how happens it that in all the epistles, not a single word is to be found giving them any directions about constituting ministers? On the other hand, in the epistles to Timothy and Titus, who were persons in office, we find particular instruction given them to lay hands suddenly on no man, to examine his qualifications before they ordain him, and to take care that they counmit the office only to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also, Tit. 1: 5. 2 Tim. 4: 14. Acts 14: 23. Besides, it is said, the primitive Christians evidently viewed this matter in the same light. There is scarcely a single ec- clesiastical writer that does not expressly mention ordina- tion as the work of the elders, and as being regarded as a distinct thing from the choice of the people, and subse. quent to it. Most of the foregoing remarks apply chiefly to the sup- position that a person cannot be ordained in any other way than as a pastor over a church. But here, also, we find a difference of opinion. On the one side it is said, that there is no Scripture au- thority whatever for a person being ordained without being chosen or nominated to the office of a minister by a church. Elders and bishops were ordained in every church, not without any church. To ordain a man Origi- mally, says Dr. Campbell, was nothing else but in a solemn nanner to assign him a pastoral charge. To give him no charge, and not to ordain him, were perfectly identical. On the other side it is contended, that from these words, “Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature ; and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world,” it is evident that missionaries and itine- rants must be employed in the important work of the ministry; that as such cannot be .. over any part ticular church, there cannot be the least impropriety in ordaining them for the church universal. Allowing that they have all those talents, gifts, and grace, that constitute a minister in the sight of God, who will dare say they should not be designated by their brethren for t. alm, nistration of those ordinances Christ has appointed in the church 7 Without allowing this, how many thousands would be destitute of these ordinances ! Besides, these are the very men whom God in general honors as the first instruments in raising churches, over which stated pastors are afterwards fixed. The separation of Saul and Barna. bas, say they, was an ordination to missionary work, in- cluding the administration of sacraments to the converted heathen, as well as public instruction, Acts 13:1, 3. So Timothy was ordained ; (1 Tim. 4: 14. Acts 16: 3.) and there is equal reason, by analogy, to suppose that Titus and other companions of Paul were similarly ordained, without any of them having a particular church to take under his pastoral care. So that they appear to have been ordained to the work of the Christian ministry at large. On the supposition, however, that they are instrumental in forming a Christian church, they have no right to as- Sume the pastoral office without the consent of the mem- bers; and in order to their sustaining that office scriptu- rally, they must be publicly recognised and designated to it. Their original designation did not, and could not in- vest them with any such office. It merely recognised their appointment to the missionary work generally. When the pastor of a church resigns his charge, his pastoral relation and character to all intents and pur- poses ceases. He cannot with the smallest degree of reason or consistency go to any other church, and claim to exercise the pastoral functions among them, (they consenting thereto,) on the ground that he had been publicly ordained to the office over the church which he had left. The case is quite parallel with that of the mat- rimonial connexion. Because a man has been once mar- ried, he is not on this ground to imagine that he may lawfully cohabit with another woman, without previously having the marriage relationship between them recog. nised. The notion of an indelible official character derived from ordination to the pastoral functions, is a relic of that corruption of primitive truth and simplicity, which for ages overspread the Christian world, and from which we still are far ſrom being delivered by the Protestant Refor- mation, and the light which has been thrown on such sub- jects since that important epoch. See articles Episcopacy; IMPOSITION OF HANDs; INDEPENDENTs; and MINISTERIAL CALL, in this work; Jazmes On:en's Plea for Séripture Ordi- nation ; Doddridge's Tracts, vol. ii. pp. 253–257; Dr. Oven's True Nature of a Gospel Church, pp. 78,83; Bre- kell's Essay on Ordination ; Watts' Rational Foundation of a Christian Church, sec. 3.; Dr. Campbell's Lectures on Ecclesi. astical History, vol. i. p. 345; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. iii. p. 246, 8vo, ed.: Theological Magazine for 1802, pp. 33,90, 167; Enring's Remarks on Dick's Sermon, preached before the Edinburgh Missionary Society, in 1801; Chap. lin's Serm. 1816; Allen's Dudleian Lecture; Dwight's The- ology; Fuller's Works.- Watson ; Hend. Buck. ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY. The system which en- deavors to explain the nature and origin of all things by the principle of emanation from an eternal fountain of being. (See MAGI.) - Those who professed to believe the Oriental philosophy, were divided into three leading sects, which were subdi. vided into others. Some imagined two eternal principles, from whence all things proceeded: the one presiding ovet light, the other over matter; and, by their perpetual con. flict, explaining the mixture of good and evil that appears in the universe. ... Others maintained, that the being which presided over matter was not an eternal principle, but a subordinate intelligence; one of those which the Supreme God produced. . . They supposed, that this being was moved by a sudden impulse to reduce to order the rude mass of matter which lay excluded from the mansions of the Deity, and at last to create the human race. A third sect entertained the idea of a triumvirate of beings, in which the Supreme Deity was distinguished both from the material evil principle, and from the Creator of this sublunary world. From blending the doctrines of the Oriental philosophy With Christianity, the Gnostic sects, which were so numé. rous in the first centuries, derive their origin. Other de- nominations arose, which aimed to unite Judaism with O R. I O R T | 804 ) Christianity. Many of the pagan philosophers, who were converted to the Christian religion, exerted all their art and ingenuity to accommodate the doctrines of the gospel to their own schemes of philosophy. In each age of the church new systems were introduced, till, in process of time, we find the Christian world divided into that variety of heretical sentiment which is exhibited in these pages. Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., vol. ii. pp. 83–85; Enfield's Phi- los., Vol. ii. pp. 136–140.—Williams. - * *. ORIGEN, one of the fathers of the church, was born, in 185, at Alexandria, and studied philosophy under Am- monius, and theology under Clemens Alexandrinus. Being persecuted by his diocesan Demetrius, he went to Caesarea, and afterwards to Athens. During the persecu- tion of Decius, he was imprisoned and tortured. He died in 253. His great works are, the Hexapla ; Commenta- ries on the Scriptures; and a treatise against Celsus. (See next article.)—Davenport. * ORIGENISTS; the professed followers of Origen, a Christian father of the second century, a man of great talents, and a most indefatigable student; but having a strong attachment to the Platonic philosophy, and a matu- ral turn to mystical and allegorical interpretations, he thereby greatly corrupted the simplicity of the gospel. Three circumstances, however, render it very difficult to ascertain exactly what his real sentiments were. 1. Being a man of unquestionable talents and high character, his genuine works were interpolated, and others written under his name, in order to forge his sanction to sentiments, of which possibly he never heard. 2. There was another Origen in the following age, (Lardner's Credibility, part ii. vol. iii.) of much inferior fame, a disciple of Ammonias Saccas, (see AMMONIANs,) and possibly the true founder of this sect, which certainly did not arise till after the death of the first Origen. 3. Origen had many enemics, who probably attributed to him various things which he did not believe, in order either to injure his fame or bring his character under censure. The following are, however, the sentiments attributed to this sect, some of which were unquestionably held by him, though others were, no doubt, superadded, either by mistake or design. 1. A pre-existent state of human souls, prior to the Mosaic creation, and perhaps from eternity; which souls were clothed with ethereal bodies suited to their original dignity. (See PRE-ExistENTs.) 2. That souls were condemned to animate mortal bo- dies, in order to expiate faults they had committed in a pre-existent state; for no other supposition appeared to him sufficient to account for their residence in these gross material bodies. Sce John 9: 2, 3. 3. That the soul of Christ was created before the begin- ning of the world, and united to the Divine Word in a state of pristine glory. See Phil. 2: 5–7. This text, he thought, must be understood of Christ's human soul, be- cause it is unusual to propound the Deity as an example of humility in Scripture. 4. That at the resurrection mankind will be again clothed with ethereal bodies : for the elements of our ter- restrial composition are such as most ſatally entangle us in vice, passion, and misery. The purer the vehicle the soul is united with, the more perfect is her life and opera- tions. Besides, he who made all things assures us, he made them good at first ; and, therefore, his recovery of us to our lost happiness (which is the design of the gos- pel) must restore us to ſar better bodies. See 1 Cor. 15: 42. 2 Cor. 5: 1. 5. That after long periods of time, the damned them- sclves shall be released from their torments, and restored to a new state of probation : for the Deity has such re- serves in his gracious providence, as will vindicate his sovereign goodness and wisdom from all disparagement. Though sin has extinguished, or silenced the divine life, yet it has not destroyed the faculties of reason and under- standing, consideration and memory, which will serve the life which is most powerful. If, therefore, the vigorous attraction of the sensºnal nature be abated by a ceaseless pain, these powers may resume the seeds of a better life and nature. (See UxiversAL Reston ATIONISTs.) 6. That the earth, after its conflagration, shall become habitable again, and be the mansion of men and other animals, and that in eternal vicissitudes. See Heb. 1: 10 —12, where, speaking both of the heavens and earth, the inspired writer says, “as a vesture shalt thou change them, and they shall be changed,” &c. The fashion of the world passes anay like a turning scene, to exhibit a fresh and new representation of things; and if only the present dress and appearance of things gö off, the substance is supposed to remain entire. (See MILLENARIANs.) Origen is also charged with Arianism ; and it must be acknowledged, that his expressions were not always cor- rect : yet the orthodox will by no means give him up, but impute those expressions, either to the corruption of here- tics, or to his unhappy defect of judgment. “Had the justice of his judgment (says Mosheim) been equal to the immensity of his genius, the ſervor of his piety, his indefatigable patience, his extensive erudition, and his other eminent and superior talents, all encomium must have fallen short of his merits.” MIosheim’s Eccl. Hist., vol. i. pp. 245, 270–278; Turner's Hist., pp. 106–111 ; Robinson's Bib. Repos., 1834.—Williams. ORIGINAL SIN... (See FALL; SIN.) ORIGIN OF EVIL. (See Sin.) ORION ; a constellation in the heavens just beſore the sign Taurus. Chesil signifies, according to the ancient Hebrews, that star of the second magnitude which astro- nomers call the scorpion's heart. It appears at the begin- ning of the autumnal equinox, and forebodes cold or frost. Virgil calls it Nimbosus Orion. It also marks the west. Hence the LXX. on Job 9:9, and Theodotion on Amos 5: 8, translate it vesperum.—Calmet. ORMUZD ; the good principle of the Magi, whose symbol was light, and who was the author of all good. (See MAGI.)—Hend. Buck. * OROBIO, (Dr. Is AAc;) a learned Spanish physician, who being maliciously accused of Judaism by a Moorish servant, was seized by the papal inquisition, and after being imprisoned three years, was subjected to six diffe- rent modes of most exquisite torture. These may be found at large described by Fox, in his Book of Martyrs. Orobio lay seventy days before his wounds were heaical. He was afterwards banished, and in his exile wrote and published an account of his sufferings.—Hoz, p. 137. OROSIUS, (PAUL,) a Spanish ecclesiastic of the fifth century, was born at Tarragona, and was a disciple of St. Augustine. The place and time of his decease are un- known. His chief work is a History of Human Calami- ties, in seven books, which was written at the request of St. Augustine, and has had the honor of being translated by Alfred the Great.—Davenport. ORPAH ; a Moabitess, wife of Chilion, son of Elime- lech and Naomi. (See RUTH.)—Calmet. ORPHAN. The customary acceptation of the word orphans, is well known to be that of “children deprived of their parents;” but the force of the Greek word orpha- mous, (rendered comfortless in our translation, John 14: 18.) implies the case of those who have lost some dear pro- tecting ſriend ; some patron, though not strictly a father : and in this sense it is used, 1 Thess. 2: 17 : “We also, brethren, being taken away from our care over you,” aporphanisthentes. Corresponding to this import of the word, it might be used by our Lord in the passage of John's gospel.—Calmet. - ORTHODOXY; (from orthos, right, and doza, opinion ;) soundness of doctrine or opinion in matters of religion. The doctrines which are generally considered as orthodox among us, are such as were generally professed at thc time of the Reſormation, viz. the fall of man, regenera.tion, atonement, repentance, justification by free grace, &c. Some have thought that, in order to keep error out of the church, there should be some human form as a stan- dard of orthodoxy, wherein certain disputed doctrines shall be expressed in such determinate phrases as may be directly levelled against such errors as shall prevail from time to time, requiring those especially who are to be public teachers in the church to subscribe or virtually to declare their assent to such, formularies. But, as Dr. Doddridge observes, 1. Had this been requisite, it is pro- bable that the Scriptures would have given us some such formularies as these, or some directions as to the manner in which they should be drawn up, proposed, and received. O R T O S S [895 J 2. It is impossible that weak and passionate men, who have perhaps been heated in the very controversy thus decided, should express themselves with greater propriety than the apostles did. 3. It is plain, in fact, that this practice has been the cause of great contention in the Christian church, and such formularies have been the grand engine of dividing it, in proportion to the degree in which they have been multiplied and urged. 4. This is laying a great temptation in the way of such as desire to undertake the office of teachers in the church, and will be most likely to deter and afflict those who have the great- est tenderness of conscience, and therefore (being equal in other respects) best deserve encouragement. 5. It is not likely to answer the end proposed, viz. the preserving an uniformity of opinion; since persons of little integrity may satisfy their consciences, in subscribing what they do not at all believe as articles of peace, or in putting the most unnatural sense on the words. And whereas, in answer to all these inconveniences, it is pleaded, that such forms are necessary to keep the church from heresy, and it is better there should be some hypocrites under such ſorms of orthodoxy, than that a freedom of debate and opinion should be allowed to all teachers; the answer is plain, that when any one begins to preach doctrines which appear to those who attend upon him dangerous and subversive of Christianity, it will be time enough to proceed to such animadversion as the nature of his error in their apprehension will require, and his relation to them will admit. These remarks however are not appli- cable to the use of simple confessions or declarations of faith, the object of which is to ascertain and promote Chris- tian fellowship. The design of these is of course only to state the sense in which we interpret and understand the word of God. See Establish MENT ; and SUBSCRIPTION ; Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 174; Watts' Orhodoxy and Cha- rity United ; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall; Dun- can and Miller on the Utility of Creeds.—Hend. Buck. º ORTLIBENSES ; an heretical branch of the ancient Waldenses, who denied the Trinity and the resurrection, and were evidently grossly ignorant of the Scriptures. Broughton's Dict., from Gilles' History of the Waldenses.— |Villiams. ORTON, (JoB,) author of the “Exposition of the Old Testament,” was born at Shrewsbury, in 1717. To his parents, who were the patrons of piety and good men, he was indebted for early instruction in the Christian faith, and imbibed from them the principles of pure religion. In his native town, he acquired a considerable portion of classical learning. In his sixteenth year, he was put under the tuition of Dr. Charles Owen, of Warrington, who had usually with him a few young men designed for the work of the ministry. In 1734, he was sent to Dr. Doddridge's academy, at Northampton; and after going through the ordinary course of studies, he was, in 1739, appointed assistant to the doctor in his academical labors, and discharged the duties of his office with singular abili- ty, prudence and success. In 1741, he was taken from this situation to his native town, by the united voices of the Presbyterian and Independent congregations, which joined to receive him as their pastor. On Dr. Doddridge's decease, he was pressingly invited to succeed him in the academy and congregation; but this, as well as a call to succeed Dr. Hughes in London, (a place, which he never saw,) he declined, and continued his labors at Shrews- bury. Before old age arrived, the mervous complaints with which he was frequently troubled, made him con- ceive himself unable to continue longer in the pastoral office; and, in 1765, while he was but in his forty-eighth year, he resigned his charge. His infirmities gradually increased, and his sufferings becoming at last exceedingly acute, terminated in death, in July, 1783, in the sixty- sixth year of his age. Few men were more diligent than Mr. Orton, or more conscientious in performing the various duties of his office. He spoke the language of his heart, when he di- rected the ministers, who were to preach his funeral ser- mon, in the following words –“Let them assure: my hearers, that serving them in all their interests, especially their best, was the delightful business of my life, and that all my time and studies were directed this way.” To the end of his life, his heart was set on doing good ; and when he had ceased to preach, conversation, letters, plans of ser mons, were sent to his friends, and every private method in his power was resorted to. With the same view, he published books; viz. “Discourses on Eternity, on Zeal, on Christian Worship;” “Meditations for the Sacrament;” and several volumes of Sermons.—His “Life of Dr. Dodd- ridge,” which is one of the most useful books to a student and a minister, had been published before. The preacher who has not read it has much pleasure to enjoy, and much benefit to receive. His “Exposition of the Old Testa- ment,” in six vols. on the plan of Dr. Doddridge's Expo- sition of the New, was not published till after his death.- Jones' Chris. Biog. OSIANDRIANS ; a denomination among the Luther- ans, which was founded in the year 1550, by Andrew Osiander, a celebrated German divine, whose doctrine amounted to the following propositions:— 1. That Christ, considered in his human nature only, could not by his obedience to the divine law obtain justi- fication and pardon for sinners; neither can we be justi- fied before God by embracing and applying to ourselves, through faith, the righteousness and obedience of the man Christ. It is only through that eternal and essential righteousness which dwells in Christ, considered as God, and which resides in his divine nature, united to the human, that mankind can obtain complete justification. 2. That a man becomes a partaker of this divine right- eousness by faith, since it is in consequence of this uniting principle that Christ dwells in the heart of man with his divine righteousness. Now, wherever this divine right- eousness dwells, there God can behold no sin; therefore, when it is present with Christ in the hearts of the rege- nerate, they are, on its account, considered by the Deit as righteous, although they be sinners. Moreover, thi, divine and justifying righteousness of Christ excites the faithful to the pursuit of holiness, and to the practice of virtue.—Hend. Buck. • * OSSENIANS ; a denomination in the first century, which taught that faith may and ought to be dissembled. —Hend. Buck. QSPREY: (azaniah ;) a kind of eagle, whose flesh is forbidden, Lev. 11: 13. It is thought to be the black eagle, perhaps the Nisser Tookoor described by Bruce.— Calmet. OSSIFRAGE ; (peres,) Lev. 11: 13. Deut. 14: 12. In- terpreters are not agreed on this bird ; some read “vul- ture,” others “the black eagle,” others “the ſalcon.” The name peres, by which it is called in Hebrew, denotes “ to crush, to break;” and this name agrees with our ver- Sion, which implies “the bone-breaker,” which name is given to a kind of eagle, from the circumstance of its habit of breaking the bones of its prey, after it has eaten the flesh : Some say also, that he even swallows the bones thus broken. Onkelos uses a word which signifies “naked,” and leads us to the vulture: indeed, if we were to take the classes of birds in any thing like a natural order in the passages here referred to, the vulture should follow the eagle as an unclean bird. The Septuagint in- O ST O W E [896 ) terpreter also renders vulture : and so do Munster, Schin- dler, and the Zurick versions.—Watson. - OSTRICH; joneh, in Arabic neamah, in Greek stroutho- camelos, the camel-bird, and still in the East, says Niebuhr, it is called thar edsjammel, “the camel-bird,” Lev. 11: 16. Deut. 14: 15. Job 30: 29. Isa. 13: 21. 34: 13. 43: 20. Jer. 50: 39. Lam. 4:3. Mic. 1:8; rennim, Job 39: 13. The first mame in the places above quoted is, by our own translators, generally rendered “ owls.” But it shouldsbe recollected, says the author of “Scripture Illustrated,” that the owl is not a desert bird, but rather resides in places not far from habitations, and that it is not the companion of serpents; whereas, in several of these passages, the foneh is associated with deserts, dry, extensive, thirsty de- serts, and with serpents, which are their natural inhabi-- tants. Our ignorance of the natural history of the coun- tries which the ostrich inhabits has undoubtedly perverted the import of the above passages; but let any one peruse them afresh, and exchange the owl for the ostrich, and he will immediately discover a vigor of description, and an imagery much beyond what he had formerly perceived. The Hebrew phrase, bat haiainah, means “the daughter of vociferation,” and is understood to be the female os- trich, probably so called from the noise which this bird makes. It is affirmed by travellers of good credit, that ostriches make a fearful, screeching, lamentable noise. Ostriches are inhabitants of the deserts of Arabia, where they live chiefly upon vegetables; lead a social and inoffensive life, the male assorting with the female with connubial fidelity. Their eggs are very large, some of them measuring above five inches in diameter, and weighing twelve or fifteen pounds. These birds are very prolific, laying forty or fifty eggs at a clutch. They will devour leather, grass, hair, Stones, metals, or any thing that is given to them ; but those substances which the coats of the stomach cannot act upon pass whole. It is so unclean an animal as to eat its own ordure as soon as it voids it. This is a sufficient reason, were others want- ing, ...; Sach a fowl should be reputed unclean, and its use as an article of diet prohibited. “On the least noise,” says Dr. Shaw, “ or trivial occa- sion, she forsakes her eggs, or her young ones; to which perhaps she never returns; or if she does, it may be too late either to restore life to the one, or to preserve the lives of the others. Agreeably to this account the Arabs meet sometimes with whole nests of these eggs undisturb- ed: some of them are sweet and good, others are addle and corrupted ; others again have their young ones of different growth, according to the time, it may be presum- ed, they have been forsaken of the dam. The Arabs often meet with a few of the little ones no bigger than well- grown pullets, half starved, straggling and moaning about like so many distressed orphans for their mother. In this manner the ostrich may be said to be hardened against Ther young ones as though they were not hers; her labor, in hatching and attending them So far, being vain, without fear, or the least concern of what becomes of them after- wards. This want of affection is also recorded: (Lam. 4: 3.) ‘the daughter of my people is become cruel, like os- triches in the wilderness;’ that is, by apparently deserting their own, and receiving others in return.” Natural affection and Sagacious instinct are the grand instruments by which providence continues the race of other animals : but no limits can be set to the wisdom and power of God. He preserveth the breed of the ostrich without those means, and even in a penury of all the necessaries of łiſe. * Notwithstanding the stupidity of this animal, its Crea- tor hath amply provided for its safety, by endowing it with extraordinary swiftness, and a surprising apparatus for escaping from its enemy. They, when they raise themselves up for flight, “laugh at the horse and his rider.” They afford him an opportunity only of admiring at a distance the extraordinary agility and the stateliness likewise of their motions, the richness of their plumage, and the great propriety there was in ascribing to them an expanded quivering wing. Nothing certainly can be mºore entertaining than such a sight, the wings, by their rapid but unwearied vibrations, equally serving them for sails and oars; while their feet, no less assisting in con- veying them out of sight, seem to be insensible of fatigue. —Watson. . . OTHNIEL; son of Kenaz of Judah, Josh. 15: 17. Scripture says, Othniel was brother to Caleb, (Judg. 1: 13.) meaning, probably, near relations, as cousins; for it is not likely they were literally brothers, since Othniel mar- ried the daughter of Caleb. See Judges 3; also ACHSAH. —Calmet. OUCHES; beazis, or sockets for fastening the precious stones in the shoulder pieces of the high-priest's ephod. These ouches, with their stones, served for buttons to fasten the golden chains by which the breastplate was suspend- ed, Exod. 28: 11, 25.-Bronyn. *- OWEN. (See BAKING ; and BREAD.) OWEN, (John, D.D.,) a divine of such eminence as to eclipse all the regal honors of his ancient house, was born in 1616, at Stadham, Oxfordshire. His father, descended from the royal line of Wales, was a Puritan minister. An early proficiency in elementary studies admitted John Owen to the university when only twelve years of age. Here he pursued his academical labors with unquencha- ble ardor, allowing himself only four hours' sleep in a night; though he afterwards confessed, that his sole sti- mulus to mental exertion was the ambitious hope of rising to some distinguished station in church or state. How often has the eye of Omniscience seen this odious mildew sprinkled over the academic laurels of those who have shone with envied lustre in the world ! Mr. Owen would, doubtless, have carried his point, had not God in mercy convinced him of the sin of aiming at his own glory, called him off from his former pursuits, and induced him to consecrate his future life, with all his talents, to the honor of God and the improvement of his church. This rendered him averse to the superstitious rites which Laud was then introducing into the univer- sity; and thus alienated from him all his former friends, who fled from him as one infected with Puritanism ; a dis- ease, in their eyes, more dreadful than the plague ; so that he was at length obliged to leave the college. He was thus thrown into the hands of the parliamentary party, which so incensed his uncle, who had supported him at the university, that he forever abandoned him, and settled his estate upon another person. Mr. Owen, now cast upon the providence of God, went to live with a gentleman as his chaplain ; but he, though the friend of this Puritan, being a zealous loyalist, went into the king's army, and thus left his chaplain once more to seek a maintenance. He went to London, where he was a perfect stranger, and had to struggle through his temporal difficulties with the additional burden of a trou- bled spirit; for after he first discovered the evil of sin, this towering genius, who had been the admiration of the uni- versity, was so broken down that, for three months, he could hardly speak a word to any one; and, for five years, the anguish of his mind embittered his life. Under this burden, he went, one Lord's day, to hear the Rev. Mr. Calamy, at Aldermanbury church; but, after waiting some time, a country minister, of whom he could never afterwards receive the least information, ascended the pulpit, and preached from Matthew 8:26: “Why are ye fearful, O ye of little faith !” which happily removed all his doubts, and introduced him to the enjoyment of that sacred peace which, without interruption, blessed all his future days. His “Display of Arminianism” introduced him to notice and esteem. Induced by the merits of this per- formance, the committee for ejecting Scandalous ministers presented him to the living of Fordham, in Essex, where he labored for a year and a half to the great satisfaction and advantage of the parishioners. But the patron of the living removed him from it, which gave the inhabit- ants of Coggeshall, about five miles distant, an opportunity to invite him to become their minister; and as the earl of Warwick, the patron, gave him the living, he consented, and preached to a very judicious congregation of two thousand persons, with great success. Here his researches into the Scriptures induced him to abandon the Presbyte- rian system of church government, and to adopt the prin-. ciples of the Independents; so that he not only formed a Congregational church, upon the plan which appeared to O W E O W E ..[897 J him to be dictated by Christ, in the New Testament, put became the most able windicator of those sentiments which so much prevailed among Dissenters. His name, like a rich perfume, could not be concealed, so that he was now called to preach beſore the parliament; and on the 29th of April, 1646, delivered to them a dis- course on Acts 26: 2. It was a bold and energetic appeal to the wisdom and benevolence of the legislature, in be- half of those parts of the empire which were destitute of the light of evangelical instruction. Those who are only acquainted with the general strain of Dr. Owen's writings, would not suppose him capable of pouring forth that flood of lucid, glowing, popular eloquence, which is dis- played in this sermon. The day after the death of Charles I, he was called to the diſficult task of preaching before the parliament again ; when he chose for his text Jer, 15:19, 20. Wisdom and fidelity joined to compose this discourse. Mr. Owen shortly after attended Crom- well to Ireland, where he presided in the college, and preached in Dublin upwards of a year and a half. He returned to his charge at Coggeshall, but was soon called to preach again at Whitehall, and afterwards to go into Scotland. The house of commons at length presented him to the deanery of Christ church, Oxford, and soon aſter he was made doctor in divinity, and chosen vice- chancellor in the university, which honorable post he filled, with singular wisdom and prudence, during five years. - Thus, in the short space of ten years, we are called to witness the most complete revolution in his affairs; and aſter having seen him persecuted for his conscientious dissent from the church of his fathers, shunned by his former friends, disowned by his relations, disappointed of a good estate, driven from his college, cast upon the wide world, called to struggle with adversity, under the depres: sion of a wounded conscience, which consumed his mental and corporeal vigor, we now behold him in the enjoyment of a peace “which passeth all understanding,” exulting in the return of elasticity of mind, with health of body, filling the kingdom with the fame of his literary and reli- gious eminence, introduced to the esteem of the highest characters and authorities in his country, and exalted to the first post which the church of England then knew, by presiding over that university from which he had sepa. rated. History has seldom furnished a more effectual antidote against despondency in adverse circumstances, or a more animated exhortation to follow conscience and principle, wherever they may appear to lead. Dr. Conant being elected vice-chancellor, Dr. Owen took his leave of the university with an address, which pre- sents a singularly beautiful combination of the jealousy which a learned and laborious man feels for his honest fame, with the humility of a Christian, absorbed in the honor and interests of his God. The fortunes and pros- pects of the university, when first it fell into the hands of the parliament party, are finely depicted, while the im- provements which had been made during the five years of his chancellorship are hinted at with much delicacy. He now retired to his own private estate at Stadham, his birthplace; but the persecution, which followed the resto- ration, compelled him to take reſuge in London, where he published his “Animadversions on a Popish Book, entitled Fiat Lux;” which recommended him to the esteem of chancellor Hyde. This celebrated man informed the doctor, that “he had deserved the best of any English Protestant of late years, and that the church was bound to own and advance him,” at the same time offering him advance- ment if he would accept it ; expressing his surprise that a man of such talents and literature should adopt the novel opinion of Independency. Owen offered to prove that the Christian church knew no other system of ecclesiastical polity for several ages after Christ, against any bishop whom his lordship should appoint to argue the question with him. (See INDEPENDENTs.) This learned mam, however, not finding himself com- fortable in England, was about to accept the invitation from the Independents in New England, to preside over the college they were establishing, but he was stopped by particular orders from the king; and when he was invited to fill the chair of professor of divinity in the United Pro- vinces, love for his country indrced him to waive the honor. He set up a lecture in London, as soon as king Charles’ indulgence rendered it practicable; and while many eminent citizens resorted to his oral instruction, the books which he from time to time published gained him the admiration and esteem of the learned and the great, among whom are particularly mentioned the earls of Orrery and Anglesey, lords Willoughby, Wharton, and Berkeley, and Sir John Trevor. The duke of York and king Charles II. sent for him, and conversed with him concerning the Dissenters and liberty of conscience, which the king declared was right; and, as a testimony of his sense of the injustice done to the persecuted, gave the doc- tor a thousand guineas to be distributed among the suf- ſerers. When he applied to his tutor, Dr. Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, in behalf of good John Bunyan, who was en- during a long and cruel imprisonment, the bishop declined releasing the worthy Baptist, though he had given the Iri- dependent an assurance, “that he would deny him no- thing that he could legally do.” His learned labors pro- cured him the acquaintance and esteem of many eminent foreigners; some of whom took a voyage to England to converse with this distinguished Briton ; while others, having read, his Latin treatises, learned the English lan- guage, that they might be able to read the rest of his works; which, indeed, are sufficiently valuable to repay the labor of acquiring the most difficult language which has been spoken since the conſusion of tongues. When, exhausted by his excessive exertions of body and mind, he was unable to preach, he retired to IKensington, near London ; but even here he was incessantly writing, whenever he was able to sit up. He afterwards removed to a house of his own at Ealing; where, employing his thoughts on the glories which were now opening upon his view, he composed his “Meditations on the Glory of Christ.” Writing to a friend, at this time, he says, “I am going to him whom my soul has loved, or rather who has loved me with an everlasting love, which is the whole ground of all my consolation. I am leaving the ship of the church in a storm, but whilst the great Pilot is in it, the loss of a poor under-rower will be inconsiderable. Live and pray, and wait and hope patiently, and do not despond ; the promise stands invincible, that he will never leave us nor forsake us.” He died on Bartholo- mew day, 24th of August, 1683, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. He is described as tall in his person, with a grave, ma- jestic, and comely aspect, and the air and deportment of a gentleman. Iłe is said to have been very pleasant and cheerful in his social intercourse, having a great command of his passions, especially that of anger; but in his writ- ings, the irritation of those contentious days sometimes appears. Even Anthony Wood was compelled to ac- knowledge, that “he was a person well skilled in the tongues, rabbinical learning, and Jewish rites; that he had a great command of his English pen, and was one of the fairest and genteelest writers that appeared against the church of England.” His knowledge of ecclesiastical history and polemical theology was profound. The acu- men with which he detected the most specious, and the force with which he crushed the most formidable heresies, were, if possible, still surpassed by the accuracy with which he stated and explained the most profound discove- ries of revelation, and the sanctity with which he directed every truth to the purification of the heart, and the regus lation of the life. In his “Exposition of the Hundred and Thirtieth Psalm,” he has developed the wise and benevo- lent purpose of God, in the mental conflicts which the au- thor endured, and proved himself qualified thereby to guide the trembling steps of the returning sinner to the God of pardon ; while his treatises “On the Mortification of Sin in Believers,” “On Spiritual Mindedness,” and “On the Glory of Christ,” prove him equally fitted to guide the Christian in his more advanced stages, and to show him how “to finish his course with joy, so as to ob- tain an abundant entrance into the everlasting kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ.” But his grand work is his “Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews.” To this, the studies of his life were more or less directed ; and, though this epistle may safely be pronounced the most difficult of 113 P A Cº P A C [898 | all the didactic books of Scripture, no part of the sacred writings has received so perfect an elucidation in the Eng- lish, or perhaps in any other language. This extraordinary man was as mugh beyond his age in political as in theological science; for he not only defend- cd the doctrine of toleration, while it was most cruelly vi- olated by the Stuarts; but when the Presbyterians were in the plenitude of their power, he addressed to the par- liament a discourse in favor of this truly Christian and divine doctrine; in which he went on as large and gene- rous principles as Mr. Locke aſterwards did. . Following Roger Williams, he has triumphantly proved that the Mo- loch, which had shed the blood of so many myriads of saints, founds its boasted rights upon a cloud. But that which crowns the name of Owen with most resplendent and imperishable honors, is, that possessing a handsome estate, and laboring in the noblest employ- ments of a literary life, he did not feel himself exempt from the duty of preaching the gospel amidst the dangers and inconveniences of persecution ; but delivered, with a simple, engaging eloquence, those divine truths from which he derived the solace of his days, and which he adorned by an unblemished life. His works in folio are, “The Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews,” in four volumes; “The Perseverance of Saints;” “A Treatise on the Holy Spirit;” and a vo- lume of Sermons and Tracts. Twenty-one publications in quarto, devoted either to the vindication of the Chris- tian doctrines, or to the defence of independent churches. In octavo, there are thirty pieces, some of them of con- siderable extent, and several of very distinguished excel- lence. The whole have lately been reprinted in twenty- eight volumes octavo. . See Orme's Life of Owen ; Bogile and Bennett's History of the Dissenters ; and Jones' Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck. - OWEN, (HENRY,) a learned divine of the church of England, was born in 1716. He was educated at the grammar-school of Ruthin, in Denbighshire, whence he was removed to Jesus college, Oxford. His attention was primarily directed towards the medical profession; but, changing his purpose, he took orders, and, after various preferments, became rector of St. Olave, Hart street, and vicar of Edmonton, in Middlesex. He was a learned man, and died in the year 1795, at the age of seventy-nine. His works are, “Harmonia Trigonometrica;” “The In- tent and Propriety of the Scripture Miracles;” “Observa- tions on the Four Gospels ;” “Directions to Students in Divinity;” “Inquiry into the State of the Septuagint Ver- sion of the Old Testament;” “Critica Sacra ; or, a Short Introduction to Hebrew Criticism ; “Collatio Codicis Cot- tomiami Geneseos, cum editione Romana a viro clarissimo Johanne Ernesto Grabe,” deemed the most ancient manu- script in Europe; “Critical Disquisitions;” “The Modes of Quotation used by the Evangelical Writers.” Nichols’ Literary Anec.—Jones' Chris. Biog. OWEN, (John,) secretary of the British and Foreign Bible society, was born, about 1765, in London, and was educated at St. Paul's School and Cambridge. Having taken orders, he became a popular preacher, and obtained from bishop Porteus the living of Pagglesham, in Essex, and the curacy of Fulham. On the institution of the British and Foreign Bible society, he became one of the secretaries, and for eighteen years was the most active of its members. He died September 26, 1822. Among his works are, Travels in different Parts of Europe; The Christian Monitor; The Fashionable World displayed; and a Vindication of the Bible Society.—Davenport. . OWL. There are several varieties of this species, all too well known to need a particular description. They are nocturnal birds of prey, and have their eyes better adapted for discerning objects in the evening or twilight than in the glare of day. 1. Cus, (Lev. 11: 17. Deut. 14: 16. Psalm 102; 6.) is in our version rendered “the little owl.” Dr. Geddes thinks this bird the cormorant; and as it begins the list of water- ſowl, and is mentioned always in the same contexts with quat, conſessedly a water-bird, his opinion may be adopted. - sº 2. Inshuph, Lev. 11; 17. Deut. 14: 16. Isa. 34: 11. In the two first places our translators render this “the great owl,” which is strangely placed after the little owl, and among water-birds. “Our translators,” says the author of “Scripture Illustrated,” “seem to have thought the owl a convenient bird, as we have three owls in two ver ses.” Some critics think it means a species of night-bird, because the word may be derived from mesheph, which sig, nifies the twilight, the time when owls fly about. But this interpretation, says Parkhurst, seems very forced ; and since it is mentioned among water-fowls, and the T.KX. have, in the first and last of those texts, rendered it by ibis, we are disposed to adopt it here, and think the evi. dence strengthened by this, that in a Coptic version of Lev. 11: 17, it is called ip or hip, which, with a Greek termina tion, would very easily make ibis. 3. Quepun, which occurs only in Isa. 34: 15, is in our version rendered “the great owl.” 4. Silit, (Isa. 34: 14.) in our version “the screech-owl.” The root signifies night; and as undoubtedly a bird frequenting dark places and ruins is referred to, we must admit some kind of owl. - A place of lonely desolation, where he screeching tribe and pelicans abide, And the dun ravens croak mid ruins drear, And moaning owls from man the farthest hide. Watson. OX; (hequer;) the male of horned cattle of the beeve kind, at full age, when fit for the plough. Younger ones are called bullocks. Michaëlis, in his elaborate work on the laws of Moses, has proved that castration was never practised. The rural economy of the Israelites led them to value the ox as by far the most important of domestic animals, from the consideration of his great use in all the opera- tions of farming. In the patriarchal ages, the ox consti- tuted no inconsiderable portion of their wealth. Thus Abraham is said to be very rich in cattle, Gen. 24; 35. Men of every age and country have been much indebted to the labors of this animal. For many ages the hopes of oriental husbandmen depended entirely on their labors. This was so much the case in the time of Solomon, that he observes, in one of his proverbs, “Where no oxen are, the crib is clean,” or rather empty; “but much increase is by the strength of the ox,” Prov. 14: 4. The ass, in the course of ages, was compelled to bend his stubborn neck to the yoke, and share the labors of the ox; but still the preparation of the ground in the time of spring de- pended chiefly on the more powerful exertions of the latter., ... * - When this animal was employed in bringing home the produce of the harvest, he was regaled with a mixture of chaff, chopped straw, and various kinds of grain, moisten- ed with acidulated water. But among the Jews, the ox was best fed when employed in treading out the corn ; for the divine law, in many of whose precepts the benevolence of the Deity conspicuously shines, forbade to muzzle him, and, by consequence, to prevent him from eating what he would of the grain he was employed to separate from the husks. The ox was also compelled to the labor of drag- ging the cart or wagon. The number of oxen common- ly yoked to one cart appears to have been two, Num. 7: 3, 7, 8, 1 Sam. 6: 7. 2 Sam. 6: 3, 6. - The wild-ox, (lau, Deut. 14: 5.) is supposed to be the oryx of the Greeks, which is a species of large stag.— Watson ; Calmet ; Abbott ; Carpenter; Dr. Harris. P. PACIFICATION, (Edicts of ;) certain edicts of the so rereigns of France, tolerating, under certain circum- stances, the reformed religion. The first was granted by Charles IX, 1552, and repeated next year at Amboise, P A G ſ’ A. G. [ 899 ) and again five years after in the edict of Lonjumeau ; but six months aſter the latter, they were all revoked, and all Protestant ministers were banished. In 1570, he again made peace with them, and yet in two years after ordered the Parisian massacre, and took part in the slaughter. Such are the tender mercies of tyrants. In 1576, Henry III. made peace with the Protestants by such an edict, which so displeased the Guissian faction, that they formed a league in defence of popery, and oblig- ed him to revoke it. In 1598, Henry IV. published the famous edict of Nantes, which, being confirmed by Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., was finally destroyed, in 1685, by the latter, who was the glory of despotism and of France Broughton’s Dict.—Williams. PADAN-ARAM; the plains of Aram. MEsopot AMIA.)—Calmet. PAEDOBAPTISM; (from pais, a child, and baptizo, to immerse;) the baptism of children. (See BAFTISM.). PAEDOBAPTISTS; those who practise the baptism of children, irrespective of personal faith. (See BAP- TISM. *Anism. the religious worship and discipline of pagans, or the adoration of idols and false gods. (See PAGANs.) The theology of the pagans, according to them- selves, as Scaevola and Varro, was of three sorts. The first of these may well be called mythological, or ſa- bulous, as treating of the theology and genealogy of their deities, in which they say such things as are unworthy of deity; ascribing to them thefts, murders, adulteries, and all manner of crimes; and therefore this kind of theology is condemned by the wiser sort of heathens as nugatory and scandalous. The writers of this sort of theology were Sanchoniathu, the Phoenician; and of the Grecians, Or- pheus, Hesiod, Pherecyde, &c. The second sort, called physical, or natural, was studied and taught by the philosophers, who, rejecting the multi- plicity of gods, introduced by the poets, brought their the: ology to a more natural and rational form, and supposed that there was but one Supreme God, which they com- monly make to be the Sun ; at least, an emblem of him, but at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world; and therefore devised certain demons, which they consi- dered as mediators between the Supreme God and man ; and the doctrines of these demons, to which the apostle is thought to allude in 1 Tim. 4: 1, were what the philoso- phers had a concern with, and who treat of their nature, office, and regard to men; as did Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics. The third sort, called political, or civil, was instituted by legislators, statesmen, and politicians: the first among the Romans was Numa Pompilius: this chiefly respected their gods, temples, altars, Sacrifices, and rites of worship, (See ARAM, and º § §lſº \ **ś º *:::::ſº gºa *º- % = --- >-ºxº-ºº:::::::::= ºs …'". . . . . . . . . . …- : * ... --. g W *::::... =:: ſºlini: All hº and was properly their idolatry, the care of which belo.ºg ed to the priests; and this was enjoined the common peo ple, to keep them in obedience to the civil state. - Thus things continued in the Gentile world until the light of the gospel was sent among them : the times be- fore were times of ignorance, as the apostle calls them they were ignorant of the true God, and of the worship of him ; and of the Messiah, and salvation by him. Their state is truly described, (Eph. 2: 12.) that they were then “without Christ; aliens from the commonwealth of Isra- el; strangers from the covenants of promise; having no hope, and without God in the world;” and, consequently, their theology was insufficient for their salvation. The rites of paganism were as various and absurd as the objects of their worship. In general, they had some idea of the necessity of an atonement for their sins; and that “without shedding of blood there is no remission.” In many cases, and on all emergencies, they were appre- hensive that the sacrifice must be, at least, of equal digni- ty with the sinner; and hence, among many nations, both ancient and modern, from the worshippers of Moloch to the South Sea Islanders, the practice (sometimes carried to great enormity) of human sacrifices, which have stain- ed the altars of almost all the nations upon earth. The peculiarities of many nations and systems have º already noticed in these pages, and others are to fol- OW. | One thing is very remarkable, that as the heathen be. came more refined, they became more idolatrous. St. Paul says, “The world by wisdom knew not God;” (1 Cor. 1: 21.) and it is most certain that their science never led to the unity of God; much less to rational notions of our duty to God, or love to our fellow-creatures, as such considered. So Soon as they began to entertain reverential ideas of the Divine Majesty, they supposed him too great to notice us, or ſor us to notice him; and as to our fellow- creatures, they always confined their love to family, tribe, or country. They “neither feared God, nor regarded man.” (See HEATHEN.) The reader will find somé ad- mirable reflections on the growth of heathenism among modern Christians, in the third volume of the Rev. W. Jones’ Works. (See HEATHEN, Ipolatry, Polytheism, Gods.)—Hend. Buck ; TWilliams. . PAGANS ; the heathen ; so called by the early Chris- tians, because, when Constantine and his successors for- bade the worship of heathen deities in the cities, its ad- herents retired to the villages, (pagi, hence pagani, villagers or countrymen,) where they could practise their rites in security.—Hend. Buck. PAGODA, or PAGoD ; a name given by the East Indians to their temples, where they worship their gods. “The pagodas in Burmah,” says Mr. Boardman, “are the most º §:#: º: ºr Eºs º º ſº º * . Hºw #ºº ºś$ ſ: º Wºº: §§§ 4 º' - º *: # º . º |ÉWł Wiś Dagong Pagoda. . prominent and expensive of all the Sacred buildings. They are solid structures, built of brick, and plastered. Some of them are gilt throughout, whence they are called golden pagodas. “The largest pagoda in Tavoy is about fifty feet in di- ameter, and perhaps one hundred and fifty ſeet high. That which is most frequented is not so large. It stands on a base somewhat elevated above the adjacent surface, and is surrounded by a row of more than forty small pago- das, about six feet high, standing on the same elevated P A I P A L [ 900 j base. In various niches round the central are small ala- baster images. Both the central and the surrounding pa- godas are gilt from the summit to the base, and each one is surrounded with an umbrella of iron, which is also gilt. Attached to the umbrella of the central pagoda is a row of small bells or jingles, which, when there is even a slight breeze, keep a continual chiming. A low wall surrounds the small pagodas, outside of which are tem- ples, pagodas of various sizes, and other appendagess of pagoda worship, Sacred trees or thrones, sacred bells to be rung by worshippers, and various figures of fabulous things, creatures, and persons mentioned in the Burman sacred books. Around these is a high wall, within which no devout worshipper presumes to tread without putting off his shoes. It is considered holy ground. Outside this wall are perhaps twenty Zayats, and a kyoung. The whole occupies about an acre of ground. - “The total number of pagodas in Tavoy is immense. Large and small, they probably exceed a thousand. De- fore leaving America, I used to pray that pagodas might be converted into Christian churches. But I did not know that they were solid monuments of brick or stone, without any cavity or internal apartments. They can become Christian churches only by being demolished and built anew.” The Dagong pagoda at Rangoon is the most magnifi- cent in Burmah. A description of it is given by Mrs. Judson. See her Memoir, and the Christian Offering, PAIN. (See AFFLICTION.) PAINE, (THOMAS,) a political writer and deist, was born in Norfolk, England, in 1737; his father, a Quaker, % \ º & 2-& §Yºſ; (tº . A. § §§ Aºt \ § ſº y Rº - Il ºr "w" was a staymaker. He followed the same business; and then became an exciseman in Sussex, but was dismissed for misconduct. He came to Philadelphia in 1774, and in January, 1775, he was employed by Mr. Aitken to edit the Pennsylvania Magazine. After the war commenced, he, at the sugges- tion of Dr. Rush, wrote his celebrated pamphlet of Com- mon Sense, recommending independence. For this tract the legislature of Pennsylvania voted him five hundred pounds. He was also elected by congress in April, 1777, clerk to the committee on foreign affairs; he chose to call himself “secretary for foreign affairs.” At this period he wrote the Crisis. For divulging some official secrets he lost his office in January, 1779. In 1780, he was clerk of the assembly of Pennsylvania ; in 1785, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him five hundred acres of land, the confiscated es- tate of Davol, a royalist, at New Rochelle. There was on 1; a stone house, one hundred and twenty by twenty- eight feet. - In 1787, he went to Paris and London. In answer to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution he wrote his Rights of Man. In September, 1792, he was a member from Calais of the national convention of France. Wo- ting against the Sentence on the king, he offended the Ja- cobins, and in December, 1793, was thrown into prison for cleven months. His political writings have simplicity, force, and pungency; his theological are shallow, slan. derous, and obscene. - Iſe had written the first part against Christianity, and committed it to Joel Barlow; the Second part was published in 1795, aſter his release At this period he was habitually drunk. He returned to America in October, 1802, bringing with him as a com- panion the wiſe of De Bonneville, a French bookseller, having separated from his second w.ſe. York, June 8, 1809, aged seventy-two. This unhappy unbeliever died in contempt and mise- ry. His disgusting vices, his intermperance and pro- fligacy, made him an outcast from all respectable society. He is represented as irritable, vain, cowardly, filthy, envi- ous, malignant, dishonest, and drunken. In the distress of his last sickness he frequently called out, “Lord Jesus! help me.” Dr. Manley asked him whether, from his cal- ling so often upon the Savior, it was to be inferred that he believed the gospel. He replied at last, “I have no wish to believe on that subject.” Mr. Cheetham publish- ed an account of his life.—Allen ; Erskine ; Fuller’s TVorks. - PAINTING THE FACE, 2 Kings 9:30. (See Eyes.) PALESTINE, taken in a limited sense, denotes the country of the Philistines or Palestines; which was that part of the Land of Promise extending along the Mediter- ranean Sea, from Gaza south to Lydda north. Palestine, taken in a more general sense, signifies the whole country. of Canaan, as well beyond, as on this side, Jordan; though frequently it is restrained to the country on this side that river : so that in later times the words Judea and Palestine were synonymous. We find also the name of Syria Palestina given to the Land of Promise, and even sometimes this province is comprehended in Coelc- Syria, or the Lower Syria. Herodotus is the most ancient writer known who speaks of Syria Palestina. He places it between Phoenicia and Egypt. (See CANAAN.)—Calmet, PALEY, (WILLIAM, D. D.,) an eminent divine, the son of a clergyman, was born, in 1745, at Peterborough, and IIe died at New was educated, as a sizer, at Christ college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1766. For ten subsequent years he resided at the university; but in 1776, he obtain- ed the vicarages of Dalston, in Cumberland, and Appleby, in Westmoreland. Within the next nine years he became a prebendary, archdeacon, and chancellor of Carlisle. In 1785, he published his “Principles of Moral and Po. litical Philosophy,” in two volumes, octavo, with a highly liberal dedication to his episcopal patron. This work is said to stand unrivalled for its simplicity, and the perti- nemcy of its illustrations, as well as for the vigor and dis- crimination by which it is characterized ; and though ex- ceptions have justly been made to certain definitions and principles therein laid down, it could not ſail to establish his reputation as an author of the first class. In 1790, Mr. Paley published his “Horae Paulinae, or the Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul evinced by a Comparison of the Epistles which bear his name with the Acts of the Apostles, and with one another;” which he dedicated to Dr. Law, then bishop of Killala. It fur- nishes a line of argument of the highest importance on the subject of the Evidences of Christianity. He was a greatſriend to the abolition of the slave-trade; and, in 1789, when the first great discussion in the house of commons was expected, he drew up a short, but appro- priate and judicious treatise, entitled, “Comments against the Unjust Pretensions of Slave Dealers and Holders to- be indemnified by pecuniary Allowances at the Public 4 Expense, in case the Slave-Trade should be Abolished;” of his Age of Reason and sent it to the committee. The bishop of Durham, en- tertaining great respect for him, presented him with the valuable restory of bishop Wearmouth, worth twelve thou- Sand pounds a year. - In 1794, he published his “View of the Evidences of Christianity,” in three volumes, duodecimo, which contains P A 1, P A L [901 J an able, popular view of the historical argument for the truth of the Christian religion. It is drawn up with his usual perspicuity and dialectic skill, and is now generally regarded as the most complete summary on the subject that has ever appeared. In 1800, Dr. Paley was attacked by a violent nephralgic complaint. During the period of this excruciating disor- der, he finished his celebrated work, entitled “Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, collected from the Appearances of Nature;” a work highly celebrated for the justness of its reflections, and the benevolence, good sense, and piety which it breathes. He still entered into society with his wonted Zest, and his conversation was lively and animated, pious and devout. In December, 1804, his friends perceived his valuable life drawing to a rapid close. He died on the 25th of May, 1805. º Among his friends, no man was more highly, or more justly esteemed, than Dr. Paley; and his literary attain- ments were exceeded only by his many amiable traits of ſrankness and good humor. In private life, he appears to have exhibited very little of the gravity of the philoso- pher, being fond of company and amusement. As a writer, Dr. Paley was less solicitous to delight the ear than to inform the understanding ; yet ſew authors have written so pleas- ingly on similar subjects; and there is, both in his con- ceptions and language, a peculiarity of manner which marks the native vigor of his mind. Aſter his death, a volume of his sermons was published in octavo, and his entire works have been repeatedly published in various forms, in ſour, five, or six volumes. Liſe by Meadley; Jones' Chris. Biog.—Hend. Buck ; Davenport. PALM ; a measure of four fingers' breadth, or three inches and six hundred and forty-eight thousandths, Heb. Tophach, Exod. 25. 25. The Heb, Zareth, (Exod. 28. 16.) is often translated palm, though it signifies a half-cubit, and contains three ordinary palms; which ought to be observed, that two measures So unequal may not be confounded. We ſind in Isa. 40: 12, an expression that proves the Ze- rCth, or palm, to signify the extent of the hand from the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger : « Who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out heaven with a span 2° a zereth.-Calmet. * * PALMER, (ELiliu,) a preacher of deism, was gradua- ted at Dartmouth college in 1787. He was the head of the Columbian Illuminati, a deistical company at New York, established about 1801, consisting of ninety-five members. Its professed aim was to promote “moral science,” against religious and political imposture. The Temple of Reason was a weekly paper, of which the principal editor was . one Driscoll, an Irishman, who had been a Romish priest, and who removed with his paper to Philadelphia. Mr. Palmer delivered lectures, or preached against Christiani ty. But, according to Mr. Cheetham, he was “in the small circle of his church more priestly, more fulminating,” than Laud and Gardiner of England; “professing to adore reason, he was in a rage if any body reasoned with him.” He was blind from his youth. He died three years before Paine, at Philadelphia, in March, 1806, aged forty-two. He published an Oration, July 4, 1797; The Principles of Nature, 1802.-Allen. PALMER-WORM. Bochart is of opinion that the He- brew gezem is a kind of locust, furnished with very sharp teeth, with which it gnaws off grass, corn, leaves of trees, and even their bark. The Jews support this idea, by de- riving the word from guz, or gazaz, to cut, to shear, to mince ; and Pisidas compares a swarm of locusts to a Sword with ten thousand edges. But notwithstanding this, the LXX. read kampe, and the Vulgate eruca, or caterpillar, which rendering is supported by Fuller and Michaëlis Caterpillars also begin their ravages before locusts, which seems to coincide with the nature of the creature here in- tended: “That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten ; and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten ; and that which the canker-worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten,” Joel 1: 4.—Calmet. PALM-SUNDAY; the Sunday next before Easter; so called from palm branches being strewed on the road by the multitude, when our Savior made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem.—Hend. Buck. PALM-TREE. This tree is called tamar, from its straight, upright growth, for which it seems more remark. able than any other tree : it sometimes rises to the height of a hundred feet. - The palm is one of the most beautiful trees of the ve. getable kingdom. The stalks are generally full of rug- Fº 2: : *Eººt: +ºfsº-º-º-º: Palm-Tree. ged knots, which are the vestiges of the decayed leaves: for the trunk is not solid like other trees, but its centre is filled with pith, round which is a tough bark full of strong fibres when young, which, as the tree grows old, hardens * and becomes ligneous. To this bark the leaves are close. ly joined, which in the centre rise erect; but aſter they are advanced above the vagina that surrounds them, they ex- pand very wide on every side the stem; and as the older P A L P A N | 902 3 leaves decay, the slalk advances in height. The leaves, when the tree has grown to a size for bearing fruit, are six or eight feet long; are very broad when spread out, and are used for covering the tops of houses, and similar purposes. The fruit, which is called “ date,” grows below the leaves in clusters; and is of a sweet and agreeable taste. The diligent natives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrated, either in verse or prose, the three hundred and sixty uses to which the trunk, the branches, the leaves, and the fruit were skilfully applied. The extensive importance of the date-tree, says Dr. Clarke, is one of the most curious sub- jects to which a traveller can direct his attention. A con- siderable part of the inhabitants of Egypt, of Arabia, and Persia, subsist almost entirely on its fruits. They boast also of its medicinal virtues. Their camels feed upon the date stone. From the leaves they make couches, baskets, bags, mats, and brushes; from the branches, cages for their poultry, and fences for their gardens; from the fibres of the boughs, thread, ropes, and rigging ; from the sap is prepared a spirituous liquor; and the body of the tree furnishes fuel: it is even said, that from one variety of the palm-tree, the “phoenix farinifera,” meal has been ex- tracted, which is found among the fibres of the trunk, and has been used for fuel. The palm-tree arrives at its greatest vigor about thirty years after transplantation, and continues so seventy years afterwards, bearing yearly fiſteen or twenty clusters of dates, each of them weighing fifteen or twenty pounds. After this period, it begins gradually to decline, and usu- ally falls about the latter end of its second century. “To be exalted,” or “to flourish like the palm-tree,” are as just and proper expressions, suitable to the mature of this plant, as “to spread about like a cedar,” Psal. 92: 11. The root of the palm-tree produces a great number of suckers, which, spreading upward, form a kind of forest. It was under a little wood of this kind, as Calmet thinks, that the prophetess Deborah dwelt between Ramah and Bethel, Judg. 4: 5. And probably to this multiplication of the palm-tree, as he suggests, the prophet alludes, when he says, “The righteous shall flourish like a palm-tree,” (Psal. 92: 12. comp. Psal. 1: 3.) rather than to its tower- ing height, as Dr. Shaw supposes. Palm branches were also used as emblems of victory, both by believers and idolaters. The reason given by Plutarch and Aulus Gellius, why they were so among the latter, is the nature of the wood, which so powerfully re- sists incumbent pressure. . But, doubtless, believers, by bearing palm branches after a victory, or in triumph, meant to acknowledge the Supreme Author of their suc- cess and prosperity, and to carry on their thoughts to the great conqueror over sin and death. Comp, 1 Mac. 13: 51. 2 Mac. 10: 7. John 12: 13. Rev. 7: 9. This tree was ſormerly of great value and esteem among the Israelites, and so very much cultivated in Ju- dea, that, in after times, it became the emblem of that country, as may be seen in a medal of the emperor Wes- pasian upon the conquest of Judea. It represents a captive woman sitting under a palm-tree, with this inscrip: tion, “Judea capta;” and upon a Greek coin, likewise, of his son Titus, struck upon the like occasion, we see a shield suspended upon a palm-tree, with a victory writing upon it, Pliny also calls Judea palmis incluſta, “ *. for palms.” Jericho, in particular, was called “the city of palms,” (Deut. 34: 3, 2 Chron. 28: 15.) because, as Jose-hus, Strabo, and Pliny have remarked, it anciently abounded in palm-trees. As the Greek name for this tree signifies also the ſabu- lous bird, callcd the phoenix, some of the fathers have supposed that the Psalmist (92; 12.) alludes to the latter, and on his authority have made the phoenix an emblem of a resurrection. Tertullian calls iſ a ſull and striking emblem of this hope. But the tree; also, seems to have been considered as emblematical of the revivification of the human body, from its being found in some burial- places in the East. In the colder climate of England, the yen-tree is substituted in its place.—Calmet ; Watson. PALSY ; a disorder which deprives the limbs of sen- sation or motion, or both, and makes them useless to the patient. When one entire side of the body is affected, it is called hemiplegia. If one half of the body, the upper or lower, it is called paraplegia. If confined to a single limb or set of muscles, it is called simply paralysis. It is only in the slighter degrees of palsy in which me- dical aid can hope to afford much relief. In general there is little prospect of a cure. The parts deprived of motion and sense, gradually waste and become withered. When it is a consequence of apoplexy, it ends in death, though the patient may linger for years. Imbecility of mind usually attends it ; nor is this to be wondered at, since in all cases its immediate cause is a compression on the brain. (See MEDICINE.) Our Savior cured several paralytics by his word alone. See Matt. 4:24, 8; 6.. 9: 2. Mark 2: 3, 4. Luke 5: 18. The sick-man who was lying near the pool at the sheep- market for thirty-eight years was a paralytic, John 5: 5. —Calmet ; Thomas' Domestic Medicine. PAMPHILUS, a Christian martyr under Galerius, was a native of Phoenicia, of such extensive learning that he was called a second Origen. He was received into the body of the clergy at Caesarea, where he established a li- brary, and lived in the practice of every Christian virtue. He copied most of the works of Origen with his own hand; and, assisted by Eusebius, gave a correct copy of the Old Testament, which had suffered greatly from the ignorance or negligence of former transcribers. He like- wise gave lectures on literary and religious subjects in an academy established by him for that purpose, until A. D. 307, when he was apprehended and carried before Urban, the governor of Palestine. Urban, having in vain en- deavored to turn him to paganism, ordered him to be tor- tured severely, and to be imprisoned; which was accor- dingly done. He was afterwards beheaded.—Fox, p. 56. PAMPHYLIA ; a province of Asia Minor, having Cilicia east, Lycia west, Pisidia north, and the Mediterra- mean south. It is opposite to Cyprus, and the sea between the coast and the island is called the Sea of Pamphylia. The chief city of Pamphylia was Perga, where Paul and Barnabas preached, Acts 13: 13. 14:24.—Calmet. PARCRATIUS, or PANCRAss, a Christian martyr, born at Phrygia, was beheaded at Rome, in the persecution un- der Galerius.—Foz, p. 56. PANDECT.S.; properly a juridical term, signifying a complete collection or digest of laws. It was used, how- ever, by Papias, as a denomination of the Old and New Testaments.-Hend. Buck. PANTALEON, a Christian martyr under Galerius, was a native of Nicomedia. His ſather, from whom he received his education, was a pagan ; his mother, a Chris- tian. Having applied himself to the study of medicine, he became eminent in his profession, and was appointed physician to the emperor Galerius. He was one Cſ the most benevolent of men, and successful of practitioners. . His reputation roused the jealousy of the pagan physi- cians, who accused him to the emperor. Galerius ſinding him a Christian, ordered him to be tortured, and then be. headed, which was done, A. D. 305–Foz, p. 55. PANTHEISM; a sort of philosophical atheism, which considers the universe as an immense animal, “Whosc body nature is, and God the soul.” This, according to the learned Cudworth, was the sys- tem of Orpheus and other early Greeks; for he calls the material world “the body of Jupiter.”. As, however, this is said in verse, and all poets claim a license for idolatry; and more especially as considerable doubt rests upon the authenticity of the verses ascribed to him, others deny the charge. But, certain it is, that the mysteries of pagan- ism, and the secret doctrines of the philosophers, all lean- ed this way. From this notion, also, probably arose the doctrine of two first principles in the Oriental philosophy; P A P P A R - [903 ] and from thence the error of the Manichaeans and other early heretics; also the notions of the Indian Brahmins and Chinese literati. - . * The system has in modern times been taken up by Spi- nosa and Thomas Hobbes; and whether or not Pope him: self believed it, he has dressed it up in all the charms of poesy, both in his Essay on Man and Universal Prayer : nor is Thompson’s “varied God” easily to be understood on other principles. (See SPINosAISM). Cudworth's Intel- lectual System, book iv. ch. 17; Enfield's Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 126–7; Douglas on Errors regarding Religion.— Williams. PAPAS; (the ancient Greek pappas, papa, father ;) the name at present given to the priests of the Greek church : in Russia they are called popes. In the third and fourth centuries, the name was given to all the bishops; but in the ninth, it was appropriated exclusively to the four eas: tern patriarchs. . In the west, however, the bishop of 3ome determined to have the exclusive use of the title; but it required the iron hand of Gregory VII. to carry the plan into effect. He assembled some Italian, bishops at Rome, in 1073, and formed them into a council, which ex- communicated the emperor Henry, and declared that no one had any right to the title of pope but the Roman pon- tiff.-Hend. Buck. PAPER-REED; (numet ;) Exod. 2: 3. Job 8: 11. Isa. 8: 2, 35: 7. When the outer skin, or bark, is taken off, -- there are several films, or inner pellicles, one within ano- ther. These, when separated from the stalk, were laid on a table artfully matched and flatted together, and moist- ened with the water of the Nile, which, dissolving the glutinous juices of the plant, caused them to adhere closely together. They were afterwards pressed, and them dried in the sum, and thus were prepared sheets or leaves for writing upon in characters marked by a colored liquid passing through a hollow reed. The best papyrus was called hieratike, or paper of the priests. On this the sa- cred documents of Egypt were written. Ancient books were written on papyrus, and those of the New Testa- ment among the rest. In the fourth century, however, these sacred writings are found on skins. This was pre- ferred for durability; and many decayed copies of the New Testament, belonging to libraries, were early trans- ferred to parchment. Finally came paper, the mame of which was taken from the Egyptian reed; but the ma- terials of which it was fabricated were cotton and linen. (See BULRUSH, and Book.)—Watson, PAPHOS; a celebrated, city of Cyprus, lying on the western coast of the island, where Venus (who from hence took the name of Paphia) had her most ancient and most famous temple; and here the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, resided, whom St. Paul converted to Christianity, Acts 13:6–Watson. PAPIST; one who adheres to the communion of the pope and church of Rome. (See Pope, and Pope Ry.)— Hend. Burk. PARABLE ; (parabole, formed from parabalein, to cast side by side, to compare ;) an illustration, or allegorical instruction, founded on something real or apparent in na- ture or history, from which a moral is drawn, by com- paring it with some other thing in which the people are more immediately concerned. (See ALLEGORY.) Aristotle defines parable, a similitude drawn from form to form. Cicero calls it a collation ; others, a simile. F. de Colo- nia calls it a rational fable ; but it may be ſounded on real occurrences, as many parables of our Savior were. The Hebrews call it meshel, from a word which signifies either to predominate or to assimilate ; the Proverbs of So- lomon are by them also called meshalim, parables, or pro- verbs. In the New Testament, the word parable is used vari- ously : in Luke 4: 23, for a proverb, or adage ; in Matt. 15:15, for a thing darkly and figuratively expressed ; in Heb. 9:9, &c., for a type; in Luke 14: 7, &c., for a spe- cial instruction; in Matt. 24:32, for a similitude or com- parlson. - Parable, according to the eminently learned bishop Lowth, is that kind of allegory which consists of a con tinued narration of a fictitious or accommodated event, applied to the illustration of some important truth. The Greeks call these aimoi, allegories, or apologues ; the Latins, fabulae, or “fables;” and the writings of the Phrygian sage, or those composed in imitation of him, have acquir. ed the greatest celebrity. Nor has our Savior himself disdained to adopt the same method of instruction ; of whose parables it is doubtful whether they excel most in wisdom and utility, or in Sweetness, elegance, and per- spicuity. As the appellation of parable has been applied to his discourses of this kind, the term is now restricted from its former extensive signification to a more con- fined sense. But this species of composition occurs very frequently in the prophetic poetry, and particularly in that of Ezekiel. If to us they should sometimes appear obscure, we must remember, that, in those early times when the prophetical writings were indited, it was uni- versally the mode throughout all the eastern nations to convey sacred truths under mysterious figures and repre- sentations. In order to our forming a more certain judg ment upon this subject, Dr. Lowth has briefly explained some of the primary qualities of the poetic parables; so that, by considering the general nature of them, we may decide more accurately on the merits of particular ex amples. It is the first excellence of a parable to turn upon an image well known and applicable to the subject, the mean- ing of which is clear and definite ; for this circumstance will give it perspicuity, which is essential to every species of allegory. If the parables of the sacred prophets are examined by this rule, they will not be found deficient. They are in general founded upon such imagery as is frequently used, and similarly applied by way of meta- phor and comparison in the Hebrew poetry. Examples of this kind occur in the parable of the deceitful vine- yard, (Isa. 5: 1–7.) and of the useless vine; (Ezek. 15. 19:10–14.) for under this imagery the ungrateful people of God are more than once described, Ezek. 19: 1–9. 31, 16, 23. Moreover, the image must not only be apt and familiar, but it must be also elegant and beauti- ful in itself; since it is the purpose of a poetic parable, mot only to explain more perfectly some proposition, but frequently to give it some animation and splendor. As the imagery from natural objects is in this respect Supe- rior to all others, the parables of the sacred poets consist chiefly of this kind of imagery. It is also essential to the elegance of a parable, that the imagery should not only be apt and beautiful, but that ill its parts and ap- pendages should be perspicuous and pertinent. Of all these excellencies, there cannot be more perfect examples than the parables that have been just specified; to which we may add the well-known parable of Nathan, (2 Sam. 12: 1–4.) although written in prose, as well as that of Jotham, (Judges 9: 7–15.) which appears to be the most ancient extant, and approaches somewhat nearer to the poetical form. It is also the criterion of a parable, that it be consistent throug out, and that the literal be never conf unded with the figurative sense; and in this respect P A R *…* P A R [904 ) w it materially diſſers from that species of allegory called the continued metaphor, Isa. 5: 1–7. • *- The wisdom of our Lord is therefore manifest in adopt- ing this mode of instruction. If a degree of obscurity attaches to it, even this is not without its uses. that kind of difficulty which is demanded by human na- ture, for its trial, exercise, and improvement. It serves to discover who love the truth, and who are indifferent to it; who are willing to search for it as for hid treasure, and to lift up their voice in prayer for understanding, and who are not. It is admirably adapted also to excite at- icntion, to stimulate curiosity, to exercise the judgment, and through the medium of the imagination to lodge truth permanently in the heart. Messrs. Ballou and Whittemore have published on the Parables, endeavoring to explain them on Universalist principles. It is time that a better work appeared. The field is rich. Christian Soldier for 1833; Works of Han- nah More ; Proudfit on the Parables.—Watson. PARABOLIANA, in the ancient Christian church, were certain persons who employed themselves in visiting the sick, the number of which, in the church of Alexan- dria, amounted to five or six hundred. The Greeks ap- plied a kindred term (paraboloi) to those who hired them- selves out to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre; and this office was considered, especially in times of pub- lic pestilence, as a work of similar danger. Broughton's Dict. from Bingham's Antiq.-JWilliams. I’ARACLETE ; an advocate or comforter; generally applied to the third person in the Trinity, John 15: 26. (See Holy Ghost.)—IIend. Buck. - PARADISE, according to the original meaning of the term, whether it be of Hebrew, Chaldee, or Persian deri- vation, signifies “a place inclosed for pleasure and de- light. The LXX., or Greek translators of the Old Testa- ment, make use of the word paradise, when they speak of the garden of Eden, which Jehovah planted at the creatisti, 3.1d in which he placed our first parents. There are three places in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament where this word is found, namely, Neh 2:8. Cant. 4: 13. Tºccl. 2: 5. The term paradise is obviously used in the New Testament as another word for heaven; by our Lord, (Luke 23: 43.) by the apostle Paul, (2 Cor. 12:4.) and in the Apocalypse, 2: 7. (See EDEN, and ADAM.)—Watson. PARAEUS, (DAVID, D. D.,) a celebrated divine and re- former, was born Dec. 20, 1548, at Francolstein, in Silesia, and educated at IHermsberg and Heidelberg. He entered on his ministry in 1571, at a village called Schlettenbach, which he soon exchanged for Hemsbach, in the diocese of Worms. It was a stormy time, owing to the contests between the papists and Protestants, Lutherans and Calvinists, and in 1577, Paraeus lost his place in conse- quence of being a sacramentarian, or Calvinist. He went first to Frankentale, and three years after to Witzin- gen ; but in 1584, prince Casimir made him a proſessor at Heidelberg. In 1586, he commenced authorship by the publication of his Mcthod of the Ubiquitarian Controversy. (See UbiquitARIANs.) In 1589, he published the German Dible, with notes. He rose to the highest professorship in theology, and his fame drew students to the university from the remotest parts of Hungary and Poland. He died June, 1622. Paraeus was willing to yield many things for the sake of peace, yet he was a dejermined enemy to all innova- tion. II: used to say with Luther of turbulent reformers, “From a vain-glorious doctor, a litigious pastor, and use- less questions, may the good Lord deliver his church 1” His exegetical works, (among which is his Commentary on Romans, whose anti-monarchical principles gave such offence to king James I., and the university of Qxford,) were published by his son at Frankfort, 1647, in three vols. folio.—Middleton, vol. ii. 401. PARAN, DESERT of ; a “a great and terrible wilder- ness” which the children of Israel entered after leaving mount Sinai, º 10: 12. Deut 1: 19.) and in which thirty-eight of their forty years of wandering were spent. ſt extended from mount Sinai on the south, to the Southern border of the land of Canaan on the north ; having the desert of Shur, with its subdivisions, the deserts of Etham and Sin, on the west, and the castern branch of the Red It is just sea, the desert of Zin and mount Seir, on the east. Burckhardt represents this desert, which he entered ſrom that of Zin, or valley of El Araba, about the parallel of Su- ez, as a dreary expanse of calcareous soil, covered with black flints.— Watson. . … - PARAPHRASE ; an explanation of some text in clearer and more ample terms, wherein more regard is had to an author's meaning than his words. (See CoM. MENTARY.)—Hend. Buck. . PARDON ; the act of ſorgiving an offender, or remov- ing the guilt of sin, that the punishment due to it may not be inflicted. - - Of the nature of pardon, it may be observed, that the Scripture represents it by various phrases: a liſting up; or taking away sin, (Ps. 32: 1.) a covering of it, (Ps. 85: 2.) a non-imputation of it, (Ps. 32: 2.) a blotting it out, (Ps. 43:25.) a non-remembrance of it, Heb. 8: 12. Isa. 43: 25. 1. It is an act of free grace, Ps. 51: 1. Isa. 43: 25. 2. A point of justice, God having received satisſac- tion by the blood of Christ, 1 John 1:9. 3. A complete act, a forgiveness of all the sins of his people, 1 John 1: 7. Ps. 103: 2, 3. 4. An act that will never be repealed, Mic. 7: 19. * The author or cause of pardon is not any creature, angel, or man; but God. Ministers preach and declare that there is remission of sins in Christ; but to pretend to absolve men is the height of blasphemy, 1 Thess. 2: 4. Rev. 13:5, 6. (See ABsoLUTION ; INDULGENCEs.) There is nothing that man has, or can do, by which pardon can be procured: wealth cannot buy pardon, (Prov. 11: 4.) human works or righteousness cannot merit it, (Rom. 11: 6.) nor can water baptism wash away sim. It is the pre- rogative of God alcne to forgive, (Mark 2: 7.) the first cause of which is his own sovereign grace and mercy, Eph. 1: 7. The meritorious cause is the blood of Christ, Heb. 9: 14. 1 John 1: 7. It is to be sought by prayer. Pardon of sin and justification are considered by some as the same thing; and it must be confessed that there is a close connexion; in many parts they agree, and it is without doubt that every sinner who shall be found par- doned at the great day, will likewise be justified ; yet they have been distinguished thus:–1. An innocent per- son, when falsely accused and acquitted, is justified, but not pardoned ; and a criminal may be pardoned, though he cannot be justified or declared innocent. Pardon is of men that are sinners, and who remain such, though pardoned sinners; but justification is a pronouncing per- sons righteous, as if they had never sinned. , 2. Pardon frees from punishment, but does not entitle to everlasting life; but justification does, Rom. 5. If we were only pardoned, we should, indeed, escape the pains of hell, but could have no claim to the joys of heaven; for these are more than the most perfect works of man could merit; therefore they must be what the Scripture declares—“the giſt of God.” - After all, however, though these two may be distin- guished, yet they cannot be separated ; and, in reality, one is not prior to the other; for he that is pardoned by the death of Christ, is at the same time justified by his life, Rom. 5: 10. Acts 13: 38, 39. (See GRAce ; MERCY ; ATONEMENT ; Justification.) Charnock's Works, vol ii. p. 101; Gill's Body of Div., article PARpoN ; Qven on Tsalm 130; Hervey's TVorks, vol. ii. p. 352; , Dwight's Theology; Fuller's Works ; Griffin on Atonement, Appendix. —Hend. Buck. * º PARENTS; a name appropriated to immediate pro- genitors, as ſather and mother. . . . . - The duties of parents to children relate to their health, their maintenance, their education, and morals. Many rules have been delivered respecting the health of chil- dren, which cannot be inserted here; yet we shall just observe, that, if a parent wishes to see his progeny healthy, he must not indulge them in every thing their little appetites desire; not give them too much sleep, nor ever give them strong liquors. He must accustom them to industry and moderate exercise. Their food and clothing should be rather light. They should go to rest soon, and rise early ; and, above all, should, if possible, be inspired with a love of cleanliness. As to their maintenance, it is the parent's duty to pro- æ：æoºr， wºmºyº， iuøy owaz-------- -№zzºw ºwazº ****s ~~~~， ， • *** - - - - - - - --~ * • *º. ſegºn&w *Š№ **>sſºſ?，?,!,:， …，{}łſ. 1. kº º ºxsxaqxo sasze a ſoº :rgruz ...， » aºrtaeraez szaez wą， ſłae’s” AZA/B//ſyſ/C/1937Æ Æ937/M/ >ıp yo.&ørſhºqi 3ıışı sawatu 2il RJE! ¡LS?|T|Weſ| \， Q \ſ/31631 ſì ſº -ºpſadoſ go nxoS oup poſúe oxogaxmp ºg over-naſrųOuş søųouvxq sſq qaoq pure-lºtaciosozuſ