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. C16
1869
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'
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
It may be safely afirmed of Dr. CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR, that no work of a
gimilar extont, on Musical Science, was ever so popular among us. It is not possible
to name a treatise so copious in information, so rich in examples, and in which the
oxplanations are given in so masterly and so clear a manner."
WILLIAN HORSLEY, Mus. Bac., Oxon.
Attention Patron:
This volume is too fragile for any future repair.
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Callcott, John Wall, 1766-1821.
CALLCOTT'S
GRAMMAR OF MUSIC:
COMPRISING
2 full Explanation of all tye Notes and Marks,
AND
TREATISES ON THE SCIENCES
OF
MELODY, HARMONY, AND RHYTHM.
Nebo and Revised Edition.
written 1806
LONDON:
F. PITMAN, 20, PATERNOSTER ROW.

music
MT
:7
.C16
1869
G


LONDON:
BESAR..
MUSIC
gift
Anne Hamer
10-20-98
PREFACE.
The design of the following work is to compress, in a small
volume, the leading Principles of Practical Music. From the
great analogy which exists between Music and Language, the
author has presumed to adopt a classification first suggested by
the German theorists, and to entitle the whole a MUSICAL
GRAMMAR.
He has endeavoured, by examples selected from the best
authors, and intermixed with musical characters, to render the
instructions more satisfactory than if they were merely verbal ;
and he only regrets that, in many instances, they could not be
made more extensive, without injuring the due proportion of
the parts and the portable size of the book.
As it is, however, the student will, it is hoped, find all that is
necessary to his advancement in musical knowledge, and some-
thing to animate him in the pursuit. The First Part, devoted
to Notation, initiates him into what may be called the alphabet
of the science; and from this he is led by an easy progression
to the Second Part, which treats of the nature, the constituents,
and the various species of melody. By a careful study of this
he will be prepared to enter beneficially on the Third Part, in
which an exposition of the principles of Harmony conducts him
into the profoundest recesses of musical learning. The Fourth
Part treats of Rhythm, a very important but at the same time a

6
PREFACE.
much neglected branch of the subject of this treatise ; neglected
by singers, greatly to the detriment of expression, and even
occasionally by the most eminent composers, who have thus
marred the effect of some of their finest productions.
The object of this work, it will be perceived, is very compre-
hensive, embracing, as it does, the whole science of Music; but
as its course proceeds by regular steps from the very elements
to the most recondite mysteries of the science, it is presumed
that the student will find his career both smooth and delightful;
conscious as he will be of some improvement at the end of
every page which he masters.



CONTENTS
PART I.-NOTATION.
Of the Staft
Of Clefs in general
Of the G, or Treble Clef
Of the F, or Bass Clef
Of the Counter Tenor Clef
Of the Tenor Clef
Of the Soprano Clef
Of the Mezzo Soprano, the Baritone, and High Treble Clefs.
Of Notes in general
Of the Tune of Notes
Of the Time of Notes
Of the Accent of Notes
Of the Rests
Of the Sharps .
Of the Flats
Of the Natural
Of the Double Sharp
Of the Double Flat
Of Graces -
Of the Characters
Of the Marks of Expression
Of Abbreviations
Page
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
16
17
21
23
33
36
38
39
41
42
43
44
50
53
55

PART II.--MELODY.
Of Intervals in general
Of the Names of Intervals
Of the fourteen Diatonic Intervals
Inversion of Intervals -
Of Consonant and Dissonant Intervals
Of the three Kinds of Melody -
Of the Chromatic Scale, and its Intervals
Of the Enharmonic Scale and its Interval, the Quarter-tone
Of Keys or Scales
Of the Major scales with Sharps
Of the Major Scales with Flats
Of the Signature
Of the Minor Scale or Mode
Of the Relative Minor Scales
Of the Tonic Minor Scales
Of Transposition, &c.
Of the Tonio, Dominant, &c.
Of the Characteristic Notes
56
57
58
64
66
69
70
74
76

לל

•
78
79
79
81
81
82
84
86
8
CONTENTS.
Page.
87
88
89
91
94
Of Ancient Signatures in general
Of Ancient Sharp Signatures
Of Ancient Flat Signatures
PART III.-HARMONY.
Of the Consonant and Dissonant Triads
Inversions of the Triad
Of the Direct and Contrary Motions, with Rules for their Use in
Harmony
Of Harmonical Progression
Of the Dominant Seventh
Of the Inversions of the Dominant Seventh
Of the Resolution of the Dominant Seventh
Of Modulation
Discords of Transition.
Discords of Suspension
Discords of Syncopation
Discords of Addition
Of Radical Cadences
Of Medial Cadences
Of Dominant and of Mediant Sequences
Of Inverted Sequences
Of Simple Sequences
Of Compound Sequences
Of Irregular Sequences
Of Pedal Harmonies
Of the Extreme Sharp Sixth
Of Partial Modulation
Of the Rule of the Octave
Of Chromatic Modulation
Of Enharmonic Modulation
PART IV.-RHYTHM.
Of Simple Measures
Of Compound Measures
Of Mixed Measures
Of Emphasis
Of Simple Feet
Of Compound Feet
Of the Musical Cæsure
Of the Regular Phrase
Of the Irregular Phrase
Of Interwoven Phrases
Of the Regular Section
Of the Irregular Section -
Of the Interwoven Section
Of the Codetta
Of the Tonic Period
Of the Dominant Period
Of the Interwoven Period
Of the Coda
96
98
101
104
106
109
113
117
121
122
130
132
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
142
142
144
146

148
151
152
153
154
156
158
161
163
165
167
169
170
172
173
175
177
179

CALLCOTT'S
MUSICAL GRA MMAR.
PART I.
THE NOTATION OF MUSIC.
CHAPTER I.
OF THE STAFF.
ART. 1. FIVE lines drawn over each other form a staff,* or
support for the notes of music ; thus :-
-
On these lines, and in the spaces between them, the heads of
the notes are placed.
2. The lines and spaces of the staff are counted upwards,
from the lowest to the highest.

LINES.
SPACES.
* Sir John Hawkins (vol. i. p. 427) writes the word stave for staff. Dr.
Burney (vol. ii. p. 87); “ The regular staff of four lines was not generally
used in the church till the 13th century.”

10
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
*
Every line or space is called a degree;* thus the staff includes
nine degrees, viz., five lines and four spaces.
3. The notes of music consist generally of two parts, a head
and a sten.
The head is either open or close (that is, white or black), and
must always be placed on a line or in a space. The stem may
turn up or down, without making any difference in the music.
WHITE NOTES.
On lines.
In spaces.
BLACK NOTES,
On lines.
In spaces.
4. When more than nine notes are wanted, the spaces above
and below the staff are used, and two more degrees are gained;
thus :-
5. If more notes than these are required, then added linest
are drawn above or below the staff, and the notes are placed on
them; thus :

Line above.
Line below.
* Christopher Simpson, “Compendium of Practical Music,” 1678, third
edition, p. 2.
† The added lines were formerly called ledger or leger, short or light
lines. The latter term is adopted by Mr. Holden, in his Essay (1770),
Art. 56.
NOTATION.
11
Any number of lines may be added, above or below; thus
the degrees of the staff are increased at pleasure.
6. In music for keyed instruments, when a staff is wanted for
each hand, they are joined together by a brace; the upper staff
for the right hand part, and the lower staff for the left.

When more than two staves are joined together by the brace,
they contain music for different voices, or instruments, to be
performed at the same time. This union of staves is called the
score.*
CHAPTER
II.
OF THE CLEF.
Sect. I.-OF CLEFS IN GENERAL.
ART. 7. THE notes of music are named from the first seven
letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G. When the melody
or tune exceeds these seven, the same series of letters must be
repeated.
8. A cleft is a mark representing a letter, placed at the be-
ginning of the staff, to determine the names of the degrees, and
is always situated on a line. There are three clefs :-

* Dr. B. ii. 440: “The word srore probably originated from the bar,
which, in its first use, was drawn through all the parts, as it should be
still, of a piece of music in partition, or partitura."
† Sir J. H. writes cliff, i. 431; iii. 51, 89; iv. 162.-Dr. B. ii. 90: “ Clefs
were originally nothing more than the letters of the alphabet, placed oppo-
site to notes of the same name."
12
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The F clef.
The C clef.
The G clef.

These are commonly called the bass, the tenor, and the treble.
9. The sounds of music are distinguished by their difference
in respect of pitch, and divided into high and low ; the high
sounds are placed in a staff with the G clef, and called treble;
the low sounds are placed in a staff with the F clef, and called
bass.
10. The upper sounds of the bass and the lower ones of the
treble are also called tenor, and sometimes placed in a staff with
the C clef.
11. These three clefs are five degrees distant from each other;
the C or tenor clef being the note where the bass ends and the
treble begins. The G or treble clef is five degrees above, and
the F or bass is five degrees below, both inclusive.
a

a
с
f g
b
d ē f
g
12. All the degrees of the staff depend upon the clef, and
consequently take their names from that line on which the clef
is placed. It must always be remembered that these clefs are
representatives of the letters f, c, and g.*
SECT. II.-OF THE G OR TREBLE CLEF.
13. The G cleft must turn on the second line of the staff;
all the notes on that line are called g; the other degrees take
their names from that as the clef line.
• The utility of clefs, in respect of human voices, is explained by Dr. B.
ü. 457. See also Malcolm, p. 332; and Holden, Art. 54.
† The G clef is a compound character of the letters G and S, for the
syllable Sol. In old music, the two letters, G and S, are sometimes seen
distinctly marked. Turner's Essay (1724), p. 34; Dr. Pepusch, Treatise
on Harmony (1731); Rameau, Treatise (1752). Sir J. H. ii. 105, ascribes
the earliest use of our present character to Lampadius (1537), ii. 408;
xi. 54.


NOTATION.
13

مه |
.
...
on the clef line.
The nine degrees of the treble staff are,

=
e
8 Б а ғ ғ а с
b d f
Tā
14. The degrees above and below the staff are,

| | 60
с
a
ā
8
The other added degrees are reckoned from these, whether above
or below.
Sect. III.-OF THE FOR Bass CLEF.
15. The F clef* must be placed on the fourth line of the
staff, so that the two dots are in the third and fourth spaces;
all the notes on that line are called F; the other degrees take
their names from that as the clef line.
f...
... on the clef line,
The nine degrees of the bass staff are,

G B d
f
a
А с е 8
се
g
* The F clef is a compound character, formed originally of three notes,
one placed on the line, and two others in the adjoining spaces; thus:-
-


The C clef was distinguished from the F by having only the two notes in
the spaces; and these clefs were adopted in the Gregorian, while colored
lines were used for the more ancient Ambrosian chant. Franchinus
Gafurius, Practica, lib. i. cap, 3, fol. 4, b. edit. 1496 and 1502.

14
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
16. The degrees above and below the staff are,

-
Fb
E
с
17. The note on the added line * below the treble and on
that above the bass, are exactly the same sound; thus the lower
notes of the treble may be expressed in the bass,

e
с
d
ă ă
and the higher notes of the bass may be expressed in the treble,

a
с
a
с ъ а
b
b
18. The same notes may be thus written in both the F and
G clefs :

g
a
b
ol
à
f
Sect. IV.-OF THE COUNTER TENOR CLEF, OR C ON THE
THIRD LINE.
19. When the C clef is placed so that the two cross strokes
When the added lines between the treble and bass frequently occur,
it is usual, in old music, to find the C clefs in both upper and lower staves.
See Scarlatti's Lessons, ii. 12.
NOTATION.
15
enclose the middle line, it is called the counter tenor* or viola
clef.
C..
on the third line.
The nine degrees of the viola staff are,
a
80
& b ā
f a c
g
These correspond with the notes in the treble and bass clefs,
given in the example of Art. 18.
20. The counter tenor clef is used for the high voices of men
in vocal music, and for the viola or tenor violin in instrumental
pieces.
SECT. V.-OF THE TENOR CLEF, OR C ON THE FOURTHI
LINE.
21. When the c clef is placed so that the two cross strokes
enclose the fourth line, it is called the tenor clef.t
č.
6
... on the fourth line.
The nine degrees of the tenor staff are,
1
d fac
e
е
g
b d

"
* This is also called alto and contralto. It borrows the two lower lines
of the treble for its upper degrees, and the two upper lines of the bass for
its lower degrees. The middle line is the added one between the treble
and bass. This clef is used in Handel's 400 Songs, ii. No. 130: “O fairest
of ten thousand ;” iii. No. 192: "See the conquering hero comes;” v. No.
379: “Hide me from day's gairish eye.'
† The tenor clef borrows the lowest line of the treble for its upper
degree, and the three highest lines of the bass for its lower degrees. The
fourth line is the added one between the treble and bass. Examples of
this clef may be found in Handel's Songs, i. No. 49: “ How blest the
maid;" No 57: “But O, sad virgin ;" ü. No. 148: “What passion can-
not.”
16
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
These notes are five degrees above those in the bass clef, Art.
15.
22. The tenor clef is used for the middle voices of men, and
for the violoncello or bass violin in instrumental music, when the
passage ascends above the bass staff.
SECT. VI.-OF THE SOPRANO CLEF, OR C ON THE FIRST
LINE.
23. When the C clef is placed so that the two cross strokes
enclose the lowest line, it is called the soprano* or canto clef.
C..
fal
on the first line.
The nine degrees of the soprano staff are,

1:11
-
II
с
e
a
с
b
g
à fa
d
f
These notes are three degrees below those in the treble clef,
Art. 13.
24 The soprano clef is used for the voices of females and
children. In Italy and Germany no other clef is in general use
for the harpsichord, the G clef being reserved for the violin,
flute, &c.
SECT. VII.-OF THE MEZZO SOPRANO, THE BARITONE,
AND HIGH TREBLE CLEFS.
25. In old vocal music, the C clef is placed on the second
line, and called the mezzo soprano.

-
g
a cē
с
b b ā ē ā
a
* The soprano clef borrows the four lowest lines of the treble for its
upper degrees; and the first line is the added one between the treble and
bass. These three C clefs, the soprano, alto, tenor, with the bass F clef,
form the four regular clefs of choral counterpoint. See Dr. Boyce's
Cathedral Music, 3 vols. 1760; and new edition, 1788. This clef is also
used in Handel's Songs, iii. No. 176; "Hark, he strikes the golden lyre;"
and in his thirteen Italian Duets.
NOTATION.
17
26. In old church music, the F clef is placed on the third
line, and called the baritone.
а
с
b df a ce & b
g.
27. In old French music, the G clef is placed on the first
line, and called the high treble.*

=
-
-
g
b
d
fa
a
с
e
8
CHAPTER III.
OF THE NOTES.
SECT. I.-OF NOTES IN GENERAL.
Art. 28. The notes of music represent sounds, with their dif-
ference of pitch, and their duration in time.f These two quali-
ties are called the tune and time of notes.
29. When to any series of the seven letters the eighth is add-
ed, the whole number is termed an octave; † and the word is fre-
quently used to express the two extreme notes of the series, the
first and the eighth.
30. That series of the seven letters which begins and ends
with C, ascending or descending, is most satisfactory to the ear.
c d e f g a b c
cd

* These three clefs are inserted here chiefly to show how entirely the other
degrees depend on the clef line, and to impress on the mind that the clefs
themselves are the letters C, F, and G. Examples of these two first clefs
are found in Padre Martini, Saggio di Contrappunto, 1744. The last, G
clef, is used by Bethizy, (Exposition de la Musique, 1764,) in some of the
plates at the end of his work.
† Our present notation was considerably improved (if not invented) by
Guido of Arezzo, and Franco of Cologne. Sir J. H. i. 422 ; ii. 17, 140,
217, 237. Dr. B. ii. 35, 134, 152, 443.
The seven letters were formerly called septenaries, but as they are
incomplete and imperfect in their melody or tune without the eighth, they
are now termed octaves. Butler's Principles, 1636, p. 13.
18
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
*
31. On keyed instruments these notes are performed by strik-
ing the long keys, whose names are known by their situation
with respect to the short keys, which are generally black.
32. The black keys are placed in alternate divisions of two
and three, throughout the key-board; and, as the long key be-
tween the two short ones is always D,* the other six letters may
be readily found from that; E being the next long key towards
the right hand, C the next towards the left, &c.
33. The C † nearest the middle of the instrument is the tenor
clef note; the next G towards the right is the treble clef note;
and the nearest F towards the left is the bass clef note.
34. To distinguish the different notes of the same letter from
each other, the Germans have adopted a literal notation, called
their tablature, I which, from its ingenuity and utility, deserves
to be more universally known than it is at present.
35. The lowest series of seven notes, which includes both the
divisions of short keys in the key-board, (beginning with the
two,) is called by the Germans the great octave, being expressed
by capital letters ; || thus :
a
-
C D E F G A B
36. The next series of seven notes is called the small octave,
expressed with small letters ; thus:-
*. The keys which enclose the divisions of two short ones are C, D, E,
and the remaining four, F, G, A, B, have the other division of three short
ones between them.
† The number of keys varies on different instruments; but the C nearest
to the middle is always the tenor clef note.
| The German tablature was invented in the sixteenth century; a
specimen of it may be seen in the tract entitled Monochordum Andrea
Reinhardi, Lipsiæ, 1604, z. 23, in the Saville Collection, Oxford. Dr. B.
ii. 121.
§ On some old instruments, (particularly organs,) the lowest note on
the left hand is the great C; but, in general, harpsichords, &c., extend
downwards to FF. The six octave grand piano-fortes reach to CC below,
and as far as C, four times marked, in the treble, on the right. It has
been observed, p. 18, that these octaves are in reality only septenaries.
| In our old scales the letters below the bass A were made double, and
those above the treble staff termed in alt; but the septenaries were then
reckoned from A, not from C; and the limits of bass, tenor, and treble
not accurately defined.


NOTATION.
19
a
c d e f g
e
b
37. The next series commences with the C clef note, including
the G clef; and being expressed by a small stroke over each let-
ter, is called the once-marked octave.

在
​d
e
f
a
b
38. The last series in general use is called the twice-marked
octave.

=
=
с
e
a
b
d
f
8
39. The few notes below the great octave are marked with
double capitals, and called contra tones. Those above the treble
form another series, called the thrice-marked octave.*
40. Any musical example, in which all the notes are of equal
length, may be expressed by this tablature without the assistance
of the staff or of the clef. According to this notation, we may
observe,
The F clef note is the small f.
The C clef note is the once-marked c.
The G clef note is the once-marked g.
41. The descending series of these octaves is expressed in
notes, thus in the treble :

=
-
=
сь
& f
ē
a
e
dc
ba
| 60
f
d
* If these notes were arranged by septenaries from G, on the first line
of the bass, then the appellations of bass, tenor, and treble might be more
appropriate; the bass septenary would end with the F clef; the tenor C
20
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
and thus in the bass :-

с
а
е
ība g f. edc BA G F EDC
f
B F
42. In vocal music these notes are sung with the syllables in-
troduced about the year 1022, by Guido, a monk of Arezzo, in
Tuscany : UT, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA ;* called, by his followers,
the hexachord.
The French retain the original six, with the addition of si for
the seventh.†
UT, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, SI, UT.
d
g
b c
с
с
e f
a
43. The Italians, for the sake of a softer pronunciation, have
changed the ut into Do.
DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, SI, DO.
44. This general scale of notes was formerly called the gam-
ut, from which the Greek letter Gamma, placed on the lowest
line of the bass staff, or great G of the German tablature.
clef would be the middle note of its own series; and the treble would
begin with its own G clef. This is the gamut given by Butler, p. 13, 17.
The more ancient scales forined their septenaries from A, and the gamut
at G was added below. Glareanus, Dodecachordon, 1547, lib. i. cap. 2,
p. 3.
* A particular account of Guido may be found in Sir J. H. i. 422 ; Dr.
B. ii. 72; M. La Borde, (Essai, 1780,) iii. 345.
+ The addition of the syllable si was introduced by Le Maire. Sir J.
H. i. 435; Dr. B. ii. 98.
The change of ut to do is mentioned by Sir J. H. v. 197; Dr. B. ii. 93.
Ś This succession of syllables, invented by Guido, was also applicable to
the two other notes, F and G, (which form our clefs,) and their following
sounds. Hence arises the word gamut, or gamma ut, it being the ut, or
first sound of the G hexachord, denoted by the Greek letter F. Dr. B.
ii. 87; Butler, p. 17; Ornithoparcus, (Dowland's translation, 1609,) p.
10.
The celebrated Prussian chapel-master, C. H. Graun, employed the
following syllables-da, me, ni, po, tu, la, be, which are adopted by Hiller,
in his Anweisung zum Gesange, (2d edit. 1798)--not like those of Guido,
to ascertain the intervals of the scale, but merely to accustom the vocal
student to sing upon all the vowels, intermixed with the principal con-
sonants.

NOTATION.
21
Sect. II.-OF THE TUNE OF NOTES.
45. The tune of notes depends upon their relation to each
other, and upon the distances between them. The intervals be-
tween the degrees of the scale are unequal ;* and, as some are
nearly twice the distance of others, the words tone and semitone
are employed to express them.
46. Those notes which on the key-board are not separated by
a short key are said to be distant from each other one semitone; †
those which have a short key inserted between them are distant
two semitones or one tone. Thus the distances between B and C
and between E and F are semitones; and those between C and
D, D and E, F and G, G and A, and A and B, are tones; there-
fore every series of the eight regular sounds, or of the octave,
contains five tones and two semitones.
47. The greatest care must be taken not to misunderstand the
words note and tone. A note is the sound which is heard, or the
mark which represents it on the staff; but a tone is the distance
between two notes, which are called by the names of two adjoin-
ing letters, and separated by one single key of the instrument.
Thus the distance from A to B is a tone ; and therefore A is a
tone lower than B, and B a tone higher than A.
48. The same observation must be applied to the semitones,
which are sometimes called, though improperly, half notes. The
distance from B to C is a semitone; therefore B is a semitone
lower than C, and C is a semitone higher than B.
49. By comparing the sounds C, D, E, F, with the following
sounds, G, A, B, C, we find that the distances of both these
fourths $ consists exactly of two tones and a semitone; therefore
* Holden, art. 7; Malcolm, p. 229, (of Degrees,) chap. viii. $ 2.
† An exception to this rule is found in those organs which have what is
called short octaves, and in which the two lower keys are tuned to GG and
CC, although close together like B, C.
| Even the accurate and learned Butler uses these terms in a vague
manner, (p 22.) He first says, “From mi to fa, and from la to pha is but
half a tone; between any other two notes there is a whole tone.” Then
he adds, “But in singing, how to tune each note and half note to his fellow
cannot be declared by precept."
$ The ancient term for the fourth was tetrachord; and since the theory
of Rameau has been known, the old ideas on the subject have been, with
some variation, revived. Most of the modern writers (particularly Holden)
have thought it necessary to consider the octave as composed of two fourths
which are disjoined or separated by a tone. As a practical introduction
to musical science, this arrangement may be considered as correct; although
theory does not allow the perfect mathematical equality of the fourths, in
respect to the places of the tones which compose them.


22
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
any tune formed by one will be exactly similar to that of the
other.
f

f
出​。
Q
Qi
50. These two-fourths, taken in succession, form a scale, of
which the chief sound being C, is from thence called the key-
note.* The descending series of this scale corresponds with the
common tune of eight bells.
SCALE OF C.
Ascending.

Noi
Descending

51. The effect of these notes to the ear depends upon the po-
sition of the semitones. This may be easily perceived by play-
ing eight notes, from d, or e, or any other part of the scale, which
will not produce the same melody.

去
​e
毒
​* The term key is used by Dr. Pepusch in the sense of church tone or
ecclesiastical mode. In this species of music the chief melody or plain
chant was confined to the natural sounds of the scale. Treatise on Har-
mony, (1731,) p. 65; Sir J. H. i. 360. A particular account of the eight
tones of Italy and the twelve modes of Germany may be found in Mr.
Kollman's Essay on Musical Harmony, (1796,) chap. xviii. p. 124; also in
Sir J. H. ii. 410-440.
NOTATION.
23
52. But if the same letters, in any octave higher or lower, are
taken, the same tune will be heard.

态
​In this series, the two semitones of the octave are found between
the third and fourth, and between the seventh and eighth of the
ascending scale.*
53. This series of sounds, which is performed on the organ,
&c., with the long keys, is called the natural scale, to distinguish
it from that which employs the short keys intermixed with the
others, called the chromatic or artificial.f
54. In the vocal scale of the solfeggio, the place of the semi-
tone is ascertained by the syllables mi, fa, and si, do; between
all the others is the distance of a tone. I
55. As the whole doctrine of melody, or the tune of notes,
must depend on a right conception of the two semitones, and
their places in the scale, great attention should be paid to this
part of the subject by every musical student.
SECT. III.-OF THE TIME OF Notes.
56. The duration of a note, with respect to time, is known by
its particular form; and the distinction between notes, in this
respect, is shown by making them white or black, and by the
stem and the hook. (See Art. 3.)
* The reason why the semitones fall in these places and in no other,
may be found in the theoretical writers. Dr. Holder, (1731,) p. 112;
Malcolm, p. 229; Mr. Holden, p. 16, art. 43; Maxwell, Essay on Tune,
(1781,) p. 5.
+ Malcolm calls this the semitonic scale, p. 291 ; and the short keys,
artificial notes, p. 292. Its more usual name, chromatic, will be explained
hereafter. Antoniotto (1760) terms the minor mode artificial, p. 35.
| The word tone will be used throughout this Grammar in this sense,
and no other; although it is applied also to the quality of sound in a voice
or instrument. Thus it is said, “ A fine tone is produced from the violon-
cello," &c.

24
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The three principal notes are, the minim, the crotchet, and the
quaver.
57. The minim is a white note with a stem, made
thus,
and is as long as two crotchets or four quavers.
58. The crotchet is a black note with a stem, made
thus,
and is as long as two quavers.
59. The quaver is a black note with a stem and a
hook, made thus,
and may be divided into two semiquavers or four
demisemiquavers.
60. The proportions of these three principal notes to each
other are therefore as under:
One
Two
Four quavers.
minim. crotchets.
61. When the quaver is divided into smaller portions the two
following notes are employed
The semiquaver, which is made like the quaver, but
with two huoks,
being half the length of the quaver,
and the demisemiquaver, † which has three hooks,
being one quarter the length of the quaver.
Their proportions to the crotchet are,

F
One
Two
crotchet. quavers.
Four
semiquavers.
Eight demisemiquavers.
Butler, pp. 27, 28, has given a long account of the origin of these
notes, from Gafurius, Glareanus, and Listenius. See also Sir J. H. ii. 146;
Dr. B. ii. 167; Malcolm, p. 388; Holden, art. 63.
+ The demisemiquaver also is divided in modern music, and the notes
are marked with four hooks; these may be called half-demisemiquavers ;
and those which have five hooks, quarter-demisemiquavers. Playford,
Introduction, (14th edit. 1700,) p. 8, calls the first of these a demiquaver;
which term is also used by some other writers. See Holden, art. 64.

NOTATION.
25
62. In slow music, especially that in the church style, two
longer notes are used the semibreve and the breve.
The semibreve* is a round white note without a
stem,
and is as long as two minims or four crotchets.
The breve is a square white note,
and is as long as two semibreves, four minims, or
##
eight crotchets.
The proportions of the three white notes are,
One breve. Two semibreves.
Four minims.
63. The proportions of our modern notes, both white and
black, are therefore,
2
One Two
semibreve. minims.
Four
crotchets.
Eight quavers.
64. Those notes which are made with hooks may be groupedt
together by two, three, or four, &c.
QUAVERS.
Detached.
Grouped.
SEMIQUAVERS.
Detached.
Grouped.

* The breve and semibreve are in daily use for our choir service. See
Boyce's Cathedral Music.
† The term groppo, or group, is commonly limited to those passages of
four notes, in which the first and third are on the same degree, and the
second, with the fourth, are a degree higher and lower. Koch's Lexicon,
art. Groppa, die Walze. Playford (p. 20) calls these hooks, when joined
together, ties; a term which, he also remarks, (p. 19,) is used for what we
now denominate a slur. As the word tie is also applicable to the lizature
or bind, the term group has been preferred by the author.

26
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
DEMISEMIQUAVERS.
Detached.
Grouped.
This method is not only convenient in writing, but assists the
eye in ascertaining the proportion of the notes, and is of parti-
cular use in vocal music, to distinguish the notes which are to
be sung to each syllable.
65. Every musical piece is divided into equal portions of time
called measures. These are ascertained by straight lines, called
bars, drawn down the staff. All the notes, therefore, contained
between two bars, constitute one measure.
66. Every measure must contain a certain number of notes,
according to the time marked at the beginning of the movement.
Thus, in common time, each measure includes a semibreve, or
its value in minims, crotchets, or quavers, intermixed as the
melody requires. The exact length of the measure is known by
regularly dividing the time into equal portions, whether the notes
themselves are long or short; as every measure must be pre-
cisely equal, in time, during the continuance of the movement.
67. There are two chief species of time : f common, or equal,
and triple, or unequal time. In the first we count two, four, or
eight, in every measure; in the last, we count three or six.
68. I. COMMON or equal time contains one semibreve, two
minims, four crotchets, eight quavers, or their value, in every
measure. This time is known by a semicirclef placed at the
beginning of the staff, after the clef, thus :-
P. 73.
* In common language, the word bar is used improperly for measure.
Dr. Burney (article Bar, Dr. Rees's Cyclopædia) accurately limits the
signification of the term as above. Dr. B. ii. 191. The parts of the
measure are called times, by Mr. Kollman, Essay on Harmony, (1796)
+ The Germans adopt a third species of time, containing four equal
parts in a measure, which will be noticed hereafter, in treating of rhythm.
| The old doctrines of time, mode, and prolation may be found in Morley,
Ravenscroft, and Butler. See an account of them, and of the original
signification of this mark, in Dr. B. ii. 183, 454 ; Sir J. H. ii. 155.


NOTATION.
27
(Handel: See the conquering.)

在
​1
69. The barred semicircle is used to denote a quicker move-
ment, and is called alla breve, because it was formerly written
with one breve in a measure, thus:--
(Orlando Gibbins, Dr, Boyce, v. ii. 59; 0, clap your hands.)

f
This is now more commonly written with one semibreve in a
measure, by dividing those of the alla breve into halves.
(Handel, Saul, Dr. Arnold's edition of Handel's works, No. 112, p. 36:
Our fainting courage.)

66
Bete TE
70. All other measures are marked by figures, placed one
over the other at the commencement of the staff.
The figure 2 above the figure 4 indicates two crotchets, or
one minim, in each measure, and is called half time, being the
division of the semibreve.
(German Hymn, Pleyel.)

一生 ​2
TE
4
1
18
: | 16 |
71. The most usual measures expressed by figures placed at
the beginning of the staff, are the following :*-
3! 3 3
3 ||
66 || 9 || 12
2
ll
Of these figures, the upper one shows how many parts are con-
tained in the measure, and the lower one represents a word
showing how many of these notes constitute a semibreve. 2
* Grassineau's Dictionary, (1740,) p. 292, article Triple, contains a long
dissertation, translated from Brossard, on the ancient method of marking
these measures.


28
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
signifies minims; 4, crotchets; 8, quavers ; &c., as in the follow-
ing table :
3 three
S3 3 three
J 3 three
2 minims.
14 crotchets.
8 quavers.
56 six
56 6 six
S 9 nine
14 crotchets. 8 quavers.
16 semiquaver's.
§ 12 twelve
8 quavers.
72. When it is necessary to lengthen a note by half its value,
a dot* is placed after it. Thus, a dotted minim is as long as a
minim and a crotchet, or as three crotchets.
a
王
​A dotted crotchet is as long as a crotchet and a quaver, or as
three quavers.t
73. II. TRIPLE or unequal time.
Of this time there are three different species in use, namely:-
1. Three minims,
2. Three crotchets, in a measure. I
3. Three quavers,
(1.) One dotted semibreve, or three minims, in every measure;
thus :-
(Handel's Italian Songs, No. 64: Verdi Prati-Alcina.)
}
-
f
3
-2
查
​法
​* The dot is also used for other purposes, viz., to mark those notes
which are to be played distinctly; as also to show the place of repetition,
&c., as will be explained hereafter.
+ All the notes of music may also have a double dot after them, which
makes them longer by three-fourths. Thus a minim twice dotted is equal
to three crotchets and a half, or to seven quavers, &c.
# These three species are very similar, particularly if the two last are
performed slowly; the accents of all three being alike.

NOTATION.
29
(2.) One dotted minim, or three crotchets, in every measure.
(H. S. i. No. 66: Fell rage-Saul.)

3
(3.) One dotted crotchet, or three quavers, in every measure.
,
.
(H. S. ii. 128: No, let the guilty tremble-Saul.)
-

3
G
74. When two measures of three crotchets, or of three qua-
vers, are united in one by the omission of a bar, the time is called
a
compound common; common, because every measure is equally
divided; and compound, because each half is a single measure of
triple.
III. COMPOUND COMMON time has three species in general

use :

1. Six crotchets,
2. Six quavers,
in every measure.
3. Twelve quavers,
(1.) Six crotchets, or two measures, of three crotchets each,
joined in one.
(H. S. ii. No. 124: Every joy-Solomon.)
Ꮾ
去
​.
(2.) Six quavers, or two measures, of three quavers each,
joined in one.
(H. S. iv. 287: Sound an alarm-Judas Maccabæus.)
f
G
TE
75. When two measures of six quavers are further united
into one, they form a double compound of twelve quavers in each
measure, and are equal to four measures of three quavers. The
omission of the bars makes some difference in the appearance of
30
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
the music, and influences the counting, according to the degree
of quickness in which the piece is performed. But, in other
respects, the division of the measure has no power of altering
the real nature of the time or tune; nor can the auditor per-
ceive whether the triple time performed be expressed by the
figures 1, 8, or
(3.) Twelve quavers, or one measure of twice six quavers, or
four times three quavers.
6
89
i
(H. S. i. No. 54: The peasant tastes—Joseph.*)

f
12
8
.
The same melody, in six quavers :-

f
6
8
The same melody, in three quavers :-

It may perhaps be useful to those who do not perfectly under-
stand the value of the notes, to separate this double compound
into single compound and into simple triple; and also to turn three
quaver time into six and twelve quavers, by striking out the
intermediate bars which separate the measures.
76. IV. COMPOUND TRIPLE time.
Compound triple time is formed by dividing the measures of
simple triple into nine parts, and by dotting the measure-noteſ of
the original time. Of this there are three species :-
1. Three minims divided into nine crotchets.
2. Three crotchets divided into nine quavers.
3. Three quavers divided into nine semiquavers.

-
* See also the Pastoral Symphony, in the Messiah, and the last move-
ment in Corelli's 8th Concerto.
† By measure-note is meant that which measures the time in the lower
of the two figures. Art. 71.

NOTATION.
31
(1.) Nine crotchets, or three minim time, divided into triplets.
(Handel's Italian Duets, No. 5, p. 31: Va Speme-Randall's edit.)
9
&
TE
The commencement of this movement, and its other measures,
are simple triple ; thus :-
-
在
​3
2
J
HE
By thus changing the notation, the advantage is gained of
presenting the simple measures clear to the eye, without the en-
cumbrance of a dot to each minim.*
(2.) Nine quavers, or three crotchet time divided into triplets.
(H. S. iv. No. 319: Consider, fond shepherd-Acis and Galatea.)
#9
와
​意
​8
1
The commencement of this song, and the other parts, are in
simple triple ;* thus :-
fre
3
4
ele
(3.) Nine semiquavers, or three quaver time divided into trip-
lets.
(H. S. ii. No. 156: Hush, ye pretty warbling choir-Acis and Galatea.)
9
0-16
ce
는
​The vocal part of this song is in simple triple; thus:-
&
* Malcolm, p. 401.
32
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
77. From these two species of compound time (common and
triple) arise various kinds of mixed measures, which are in some
parts equally, and in others unequally divided.*
(H. S. iv. No. 315: I'll to the well-trod stage-L'Allegro.)

60
See
非
​The tripletst of common time, which are here found in the
place of each crotchet of the measure, have sometimes the
figure 3 placed over or under them; but are generally known
by being grouped together, and then form one of the single parts
of the whole measure. The same use of the triplet occurs in
triple time, when the measure-note is divided occasionally into
three parts instead of two; thus:--
(H. S. v. No. 328: Far brighter than the morning.)
-
查
​In slow common time, when the quaver is the measure-note,
and is divided into three semiquavers instead of two, then the
time is really twenty-four semiquavers.I
(H. S. iii. No. 240: Cease, O Judah—Deborah.)
ger
5
A similar passage of semiquavers is found in the triple of
quavers.
(H. S. i. No. 14: The enemy said—Israel in Egypt.)
G
3
8
ell
When the measure itself is compound of six quavers, then the
* Gio. Bat. Doni. remarks, that our Morley placed, in different parts,
two notes against three, and three against four, in the same measure, or
battuta. (Annotationi sopra il Compendio. Roma, 1640, p. 57.) See
Dr. Burney (art. Battuta, Dr. Rees's Cyclopædia).
+ Kollman, Essay on Harm. p. 75, (chap. xi. $ 11).
I Holden, p. 20, art. 27.
NOTATION.
33
.
4
triple subdivision is 18. Of this, an example may be seen in
H. S. iii. No. 181: The raptured soul—Theodora.
The same number of triplets* (viz., six) is also found in the
simple triple of three crotchets, and in the compound triple of six
quavers. An example of 18, as derived from , may be found
in Dr. Haydn's 2nd Sonata, Op. 17, p. 10; and another of 18
derived from , in the same author's 3rd Sonata, Op. 13, p. 16.
78. There is also a species of time called quintuple, which con-
tains five crotchets in a bar; but it is very seldom used.
Tartini considered this quintuple proportion as unfit for
melody, and impossible to be executed. Time has shown that
neither of these judgments was well founded.f
)
as
87
SECT. IV.-OF THE ACCENT OF Notes.
79. The bars of music are not only useful for dividing the
movement into equal measures, but also for showing the notes
upon which the accent is to be laid.
The measures of common time are divided into four parts;
of these, the first and third are accented, the second and fourth
unaccented. In the course of this work the accented will be
termed strong parts, and the unaccented, weak parts of the
measure. I
(H. S. ii. No. 119: Praise the Lord-Esther.)

20
W.
s.
W.
S.
W.
Strong. Weak. S.
s
80. The measures of triple time consist of three parts ; the
first strong, the two others weak; although the last part is
rather strong, in comparison of the middle part.

* The Germans, in imitation of these (which they term trioles), place
sometimes five, seven, &c., small notes in the time of four, six, &c., of the
same denomination, and term them quintoles, septimoles, &c. Koch's
Lexicon (1802), art. Triole, &c.
† Tartini, Trattato (1754), p. 114. Dr. B. i. 82. Mr. Reeves's Gipsy
Glee, “O, who has seen,” contains a last movement in five crotchet time
“Come, stain your cheek”-which produces a very good effect.
See Rousseau, Dictionnaire (1761), art. Temps ; Sultzer's Theorie.
The author has translated the temps fort et foible of the French writers
rather than the tempó buono e cattivo of the Italians, or the Gute und
Schlechte Tacizeit of the Germans. See Koch's Lexicon (1802), art. Tact.
$ Dr. Burney (article Accent, Dr. Rees's Cyclopædia)

34
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(H. S. iii. No. 233 : Up the dreadful steep—Jephtha.)
3
春
​S.
W.
W.
s.
S.
W.
s. . S.
W. S.
S. S.
81. In slow common time the accents are more frequent; but
they are found in the same proportion on the first, third, fifth,
and seventh quavers, which are the strong parts; while the
second, fourth, sixth, and eighth are the weak parts.
In three crotchet time, when divided into quavers, the first,
third, and fifth quavers are strong; the second, fourth, and
sixth, weak.
In six quaver time, the first and fourth quavers are strong; the
others weak.*
82. From the nature of accent arises the necessity of begin-
ning some movements with only part of a measure; thus :-
(1.) With a single weak part.
(H. S. iii. No. 163: The smiling dawn—Jephtha.)
fe
W.
S.
a
(2.) With a half measure.
(H. S. iii. No. 162: Welcome as the cheerful day—Jephtha.)
在
​The following melody, barred in two different ways, produces
two opposite effects, the accent falling upon different notes.
Scotch Air-Corn Rigs. Original Melody.
W.
S.
60
fe
The same, barred differently.
8.
W.
* An example of the same melody in these two different measures may
be found in Dr. Arnold's Lessons, Op. XII. Lesson 2, p. 4.
NOTATION.
35
83. When the composer intends that the weak parts of the
measure should be made of more importance than the strong
parts, such deviation from the regular accent, in this work, will
be termed emphasis.
In passages like the following, the quavers are often grouped
together according to the emphasis, and not (as in general) ac-
cording to the accent.
(Haydn's Symphony, No. iii.-performed at Salomon's concert.)

61
Accent.
Emphasis. Accent.
In the first two measures of this example, the quavers are
grouped according to the accent; in the third, according to the
emphasis,* contrary to the accent; and in the fourth, the accent
again resumes its importance.
The Italian words rinforzando, sforzato, † or their contractions,
rinf., rf., sforz., sf., are often used to mark the emphasis, and
sometimes are placed over or under accented notes.
As every species of measure may be subdivided by accents,
according to the degree of quickness in which it is performed, so
also the weak parts of every measure may be occasionally made
emphatic at the pleasure of the composer.
84. To this species of effect may be referred all syncopated or
drivingt notes, which begin on the weak and end on the strong
part of the measure.
(Vanhall's Overture in C-periodical, No. 42.)

fe
In this example, the emphasis is on the syncopated minims,
which begin on the second and end on the third part of the
measure.

* The Germans divide accent into two principal species--grammi..ical
and rhetorical; the first is here termed accent, the last, emphasis.
† The difference between rinf. and sforz. is explained by Mr. Shield
(Introduction to Harmony, 1800), p. 88.
| Morley, edit. 1597, p. 90; edit. 1771, p. 100. Butler, p. 64. Simpson,
p. 19._Pepusch, p. 57. Rameau, p. 112. Holden, p. 34, art. 98. Koll-
man, Essay on Harmony, p. 96 (cap. xiii, $ 21). Dr. B. i. 103.

36
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(H. S. i. No. 6:- How vain is man—Judas Maccabæus.)
66
In this example, the emphasis is on the syncopated crotchets,
which begin on the second and sixth (or the weak), and end on
the third and seventh (or the strong) parts of the measure.
CHAPTER
IV.
OF THE RESTS.
ART. 85. When, in the course of a movement, silence is
required for one or more parts of a measure, that silence is
denoted by a rest, or rests, which are counted exactly in the
same time as their corresponding notes would be, if performed.
The rests of the white notes are made in the middle of the
staff; thus:-
Rest of the breve. Semibreve.
Minim.
(1.) The breve rest extends from line to line.
(2.) The semibreve rest is made below the line.
(3.) The minim rest is made above the line. *
The semibreve rest is also used in triple and compound time,
to express the silence of one whole measure; and the breve rest
is used for the silence of two measures.
In this last instance, the figure 2 is generally placed over the
rest, thus :
2
3
Ꮾ
4
18
86. The rests of the black notes are made thus:-
2
-
F
* The rest of four semibreves, or two breves, passes through two spaces.
This is only used in the single parts of instrumental pieces. Rousseau,
article Baton.

NOTATION.
(1.) The crotchet rest turns to the right.
(2.) The quaver rest turns to the left.
(3.) The semiquaver rest turns to the left, and has two marks.
(4.) The demisemiquaver rest has three marks, and turns to the
left also.
As the rests are inserted in the measures to fill up the time
when no sounds are to be heard, the performer should, of
course, pay particular attention to the termination of the notes
which precede them.
In playing keyed instruments the rests are often much ne-
glected; and, unless the player carefully raises the finger from the
key (but not too far) at the exact commencement of the rest, the
intended effect is destroyed.
An instance of the great attention necessary to be paid to
these signs is shown in the following example, where the variety
of these three measures wholly depends on the rests, the music
being exactly the same in every other respect of tune, time, and
accent. *


60
ਜ
非
​* The author is induced to insert here, in addition to these remarks on
the observance of rests, the excellent ideas of C. P. Em. Bach (Versuch.
edit. 1787, p. 85, Vom Vortrage), upon the true method of playing keyed
instruments.
An abridgment of his system is thus attempted in a few lines.
“ To form a clear, pleasing, and expressive performer, three things are
requisite :
í 1. To play correctly, by covering every note with the finger before it
is struck (when possible), so that, in the most difficult passages, the
motion of the hands may be scarcely perceived. (p. 13).
“2. To make the instrument sing, by taking one finger off the key at the
instant the other strikes the following note; and by never playing the
notes short or detached except when expressly marked. (p. 88).
“3. To play with expression, by forcing the finger down upon the key
(already covered and lightly touched) according to the accent or em-
phasis.” (p. 93).
On this subject, see also Clementi's Introductions, p. 15. Dussek's
Instructions, p. 8. Hullmandel's Principles, p. 19.



38
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER V.
OF THE SHARPS, FLATS, &c.
ART. 87. In explaining the tune of notes (art. 45), the two
different intervals of tone and semitone have been noticed.
Every tone in the natural scale is divided into two semitones by
an intermediate sound. This sound is produced, upon keyed
instruments, by striking the short key inserted between two long
ones, which are consequently tones to each other.
Sect. I.-OF THE SHARPS.
88. When the short key is to be played, instead of the natural
note below it, (on the left,) then the same letter is used, with the
additional term sharp.
89. Thus, to make another fourth similar to the upper one of
C, (Art. 50,) with two tones and a semitone, and placed imme-
diately above it, at the distance of a tone, the F natural must be
omitted, and the F sharp taken in its stead.
a
The character placed before F is called a sharp.f
90. These two fourths united form a new scale, of which G is
the key-note, exactly similar to C, but five degrees higher. Its
descending series proves, by the melody, that the tones and
semitones are between the same degrees of the scale.
a
* The character now used for the sharp was originally designed to
represent, by its four cross lines, the four commas of the chromatic semi-
tone. Such is the signification of the mark given by Bontempi, (1695,) p.
205, from the Recanetum of Vanneo, (Roma, 1533;) but Marcheto de
Padua, who first employed it, (1274,) does not mention this circumstance.
See Gerbert, Scriptores Ecclesiastici, (1784,) iii. 73, 89. Dr. B. ii. 163,
351. Sir J. H. i. 78.
† The Germans consider this character as an alteration of the letter B,
and call it a cross (kreuz) or latticed B, (Gegittertes Be, B cancellatum,)
Adlung, (Hiller's edit. 1783,) p. 251. Sir J. H. iv. 163. They also add
the syllable is to the names of those letters of the scale which are sharped.
Thus, fis, cis, gis, dis, ais, eis, and his, signify F, C, G, D, A, E, and B
sharp
NOTATION.
39
91. As the scale of G is made complete by this alteration of
the F alone, F is reckoned the first sharp.*
For a similar reason, (that of forming a new fourth above the
upper one of the G scale,) C is termed the second sharp. Thus
the series of sharps ascends by fifths ; which, in respect of the
letters, is the same as descending by fourths.
F, C, G, D, A.
1, 2, 3, 4,
4, 5.
These sharps are performed, on keyed instruments, with the
five short keys above ; that is, on the right hand of the long
ones ; the division of twof consists of C sharp and D sharp ; the
remaining three are F sharp, G sharp, and A sharp.
92. But since there are no short keys between E and F, nor
between B and C, which are only semitones to each other, (Art.
46, 48,) F natural is employed to express E sharp, and C natural
to express B sharp.
When these notes, E and B, become sharped, their own long
keys are never used; and, by their introduction, the series of
sharps is extended to all the seven notes.
F, C, G, D, A, E, B.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
SECT. II.-OF THE FLATS.
93. When the short key is to be played instead of the natural
note above it, (on the right,) then the same letter is used, with
the additional term flat.
Thus, to make another fourth, similar to the lower one of C,
(Art. 50,) with a semitone and two tones placed also below it,
(extending to the left) at the distance of a tone, the B natural
must be omitted, and the B flat taken in its stead.
* The French use the term diese, derived from the Greek word diesis
and annex it to the syllables of Guido. Thus, fa-diese signifies F sharp;
ut-diese C sharp, &c.
+ See Art. 32.
I The mark now used for the flat was originally the letter B, introduced
to avoid the tritone or sharp fourth, between F and B natural. By the
ancient writers Guido, &c.) it was termed B-molle ; that is, the soft
, or
(according to some) the moveuble B. See Gerbert, (De Cantu, 1774, ii. 72.)
Walther's Lexicon (1732) contains a long article and an extract from
Simon de Quercu (1509) on the subject. Before the literal notation of
the middle ages, and its present apellation, B flat was employed as the
trite or third sound (descending) of the synemmenon or conjunct tetra-
chord of the Greek scale.


40
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The character placed before B is called a flat.
石
​LE
94. These two fourths united form a new scale, of which F is
the key-note; exactly similar to C, but five degrees lower. Its
descending series proves, by the melody, that the tones and
semitones are between the same degrees of the scale.
在
​be
JE
95. As the scale of F is made complete by this alteration of
B alone, B is reckoned the first flat.* For a similar reason,
(that of forming a new fourth below the lower one of the F
scale,) E is termed the second flat. Thus the series of flats as-
cends by fourths, which, in respect to the letters, is the same as
descending by fifths.
B, E, A, D, G.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
These flats are performed, on keyed instruments, with the five
short keys below; that is, on the left of the long ones; the
division of two consists of E flat and D flat; and the other
three are B flat, A flat, and G flat. For the reason given (Art.
92) concerning the sharps, B natural is employed to express C
flat, and E natural is employed to express F flat. Thus the
whole series of seven flats is completed.
B, E, A, D, G, C, F.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
* This character was formerly of such importance that it is enumerated
by Gafurius among the clefs, (see the note, p. 17,) and was accounted the
clef of the F hexachord, as the other two clefs, now called tenor and bass
were of the G and C hexachords. These letters were selected from the
seven to show the places of the three semitones, in the three different
scales of Guido termed naturale, durum, and molle ; and, being the highest
sounds of the two which formed each semitone, were always sung with the
syllable fa.
+ The Germans add the syllable es to the names of the letters which are
flat, except B, which retains its original signification, and their series, B,
es, as, des, ges, ces, and fes correspond to the scale given above. See also
Dr. B. ii. 73, 392, upon the subject of B flat.
The French use the term bemol, from the Latin, and annex it to the
vocal syllable; thus si bemol is B flat; mi bemol, E flat, &c.

NOTATION.
41
This series is exacly the reverse of that given of the sharps,
(Art. 92.)
It must be recollected, that every one of the short keys has
two different letters for its name, according to the natural note
for which it is employed.
Thus the middle key of the three short ones is equally used
as the third sharp in the place of G natural below it, and as the
third flat in the place of A riatural abcve it.
96. When any number of sharps or flats are placed after the
clef, at the beginning of the staff, they affect all the notes of the
same letter in every octave throughout the movement, and are
termed the signature.
Those which occur in the course of the movement, in addition
to the others, are termed accidental,* to distinguish them from
those of the signature, which are essential to the scale of the
original key-note.
The accidental flats and sharps only affect the notes which they
immediately precede, and those of the same letter which follow
them in the same measure; but, if one measure ends and the
next begins with the same note, the accidental character which
alters the first note is understood to affect the second.
SECT. III.- OF THE NATURAL.
97. When any note, which has been elevated by a sharp, or
depressed by a flat, is to be restored to its original place, the
character called a natural † is employed, which lowers the sharped
note, or raises the flatted note; thus:-

be
TE
Naumberger (of Reading, Berkshire) in his translation of Turk's
Klavier Schule, (1804,) p. 4, translates the German term Versetzungzeichen
marks of transposition. Kollman, Essay on Harmony, p. 8, calls them
accidentals. See also Malcolm, p. 365. Holden, p. 21, art. 57.
† Gafurius, (Practica, fol. 2) asserts that the character of the natural, or
B quadrum, (that is, quadratum,) is formed of two Greek 'gammas joined
invertedly, (conversim conjuncta ;) but it is generally described as a Gothic
or square B, made in that form to distinguish it from the round B, which
expressed the flat.
The ancient printers, not having a proper type cast to represent this
character, used the small h; a specimen of which may be seen in the Dia-
logo of Vincentio Galilei, (1581,) p. 4. Adlung, (edit. 1783,) p. 196,
attributes the German method of using the letter H instead of B natural,
to the same cause. See Kollman, Essay on Composition, (1799,) p. 52.
Sir J. H. v. 254.


D

42
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The natural, although a very ancient character, was not used
by Morley, Simpson, or Playford. They always employed the
flat to take away the sharp, and the sharp to take away the flat,
in the same manner as we now use the natural.*
Hence are found, in old music, the sharp before B and the flat
before F; not, as now, to represent B sharp and F flat, but
merely to take away a preceding flat or sharp.
The natural, although evidently an accidental character, and a
more general expression for the two others, (the sharp and the
flat,) is sometimes placed essentially at the beginning of a strain,
when a former part of the same movement has had a sharp or
flat in its signature. (See Steibelt's Sonatas, Op. 37, Turkish
(
Rondo, p. 10.) According to its power, therefore, of raising or
lowering any note of the scale, the natural must be always
considered as representing a sharp or a flat.t
SECT. IV.-OF THE DOUBLE SHARP.
98. After all the notes of music have been made sharp, the
same series of letters begins again, and F, being the first, takes
the name of F double sharp. I
It is performed, on keyed instruments, by striking the long
key, G natural, which is not, however, to be reckoned then as a
tone from F natural, being placed on the same degree as F,
(Art. 47,) and also consisting of two chromatic (or minor) semi-
tones.
* The German scale of the natural notes is A, H, C, D, E, F, G; not
A, B, C, &c. The B is always reserved to express B fiat.
The French call the naturals bequarre, (Rousseau.)
+ In Handel's Song of Pious Orgies, Judas Maccabæus, (No. 1,) the
natural is frequently employed; and, in one particular measure, sharps
the treble and flats the bass. More concerning these characters may be
found in Butler, p. 21; Simpson, p. 5; and Holden, p. 16, art. 43. Turner
(p. 51) calls the natural a mark of restoration.
| The double sharp is sometimes marked with a single cross, thus, +
or X, which, according to Vanneo, (see the note, p. 41,) originally repre-
sented the two commas of the quarter tone, or enharmonic diesis, and
which properly represents the distance between the F double sharp and
the G natural.
Keeble, (Harmonics, 1784, p. 106,) censures Kircher and Zarlino for
the improper use of this character. See Kircher, Musargia, (1650,) i. 145,
659. Zarlino, (1589,) i. 363. Salinas, (1577,) p. 121. Padre Martini,
Storia, (1757,) i. 97, 108. Lemme Rossi, (1666,) p. 45. Sir J. H. i. 110.

NOTATION.
SECT. V.-OF THE DOUBLE FLAT.
99. In the same manner, after all the seven notes of music
have been made flat, the same series of letters begins again
with B; and that, being the first, takes the name of B double
flat. *
It is performed by striking the long key, A natural, two chro-
matic semitones lower. It is worthy of notice, that, as the first
sharp is the lowest and the first flat the highest of the three
short keys, which are near each other, so the first double sharp
and the first double fat (the only two in general use) are played
with the two long keys which are enclosed by F sharp and B
flat.

f
baba
bi
100. As these two characters, viz., the double sharp and the
double flat, seldom occur, the mode of restoring the single sharp
or flat, after the use of the double character, varies with different
authors. Some use a single sharp or flat; some employ a nat-
ural, or else unite the single sharp or flat with the natural,
thus : #, AD; and others again leave the passage to the ear and
judgment of the performer, who ought, they suppose, if able to
play in seven sharps, to know how to restore the altered note to
its
proper situation without any particular mark.
* The Germans have sometimes employed a large B as the character of
the double flat. The difficulties arising from this mark are stated by Turk
(Klavier Schule, 1789,) p. 50. Dussek, in his Introduction, p. 36, unites
the two B's with a kind of hook, similar to the grouping of quavers. (Art.
64, p. 26.) The German names for the double
sharps are fisfis, ciscis, &c.;
and for the double flats, bebe, eses, asas, desdes, &c. Adlung, p. 254.
† Even in respect of the double sharp, instances are found in Handel,
where it is not distinguished by any particular mark, but where only a
common single sharp is placed against F, already sharp in the signature.
See H. S. i. No. 9: Fly from the threatening.
# Some of the writers in Germany are (as Turk, p. 52, observes,) preci-
.
pitate in their judgments, and therefore frequently erroneous. G. F.
Wolfe, (1783,) p. 22. Lohlein, (1765,) p. 11. Tubei, (1767,) p. 9. Mer-
bach, (1782,) p. 13.



CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER V I.
OF GRACES, CHARACTERS, MARKS OF EXPRESSION,
AND ABBREVIATIONS.
SECT. 1.-OF GRACES.
Art. 101. As the German authors C. P. Emanuel Bach and
G. D. Turk have treated at large on the subject of musical
graces (Manieren),* a short sketch of their doctrines will here
be given.
102. The principal graces of melody are the appoggiatura,
the shake, the turn, and the beat; with the mordent, beat, slide,
and spring, peculiar to the Germans. The chief ornaments of
harmony are the arpeggio, tremando, &c.
103. I. The appoggiatura † (Vorschlag) is a small note placed
before a large one of longer duration, from which it generally
borrows half the value, and always occurs on the strong part of
the measure.
THE APPOGGIATURA,
As written.
a
fe
As performed.
者
​fo
E
104. Sometimes, however, the appoggiatura is only one quar-
ter of the note it precedes, as in the following example:
Written.
fo
PE
* Bach, p. 45. Turk, p. 207.
+ The old English graces, published by Simpson, (division Viol, 1667,)
as defined by Dr. Colman, are divided into two classes—the smooth and
the shaked graces. In the first class are the beat, backfall, double back-
fall, elevation, springer, and cadent; in the second are the shaked backfall,
close shake, shaked beat, shaked elevation, shaked cadent, and double
relish. See also Playford, p. 100.
# Dr. Burney, art. Appoggiatura. Dr Rees's Cyclopædia.
NOTATION.
45
Performed.

fe
BE
105. When a small note follows a larger one, and depends
upon that for its time, the name of after-note (Nachschlag*) will
be used in this work, to distinguish it from the appoggiatura.
This grace always occurs on the weak part of the measure.
Written.

f
TE
Performed.

&
106. The Germans divide these notes, which do not constitute
the essential but the ornamental parts of the melody, into two
classes. I. Passing notes, (Durchgehende noten;) and, II. Chang-
ing notes, (Wechselnde noten ;) but the appoggiatura, when it is
a suspension of the large note before it, as in the example just
adduced, (Art. 103,) does not belong to either class. These
will be explained in the third part of this work, upon harmony.
107. The shakef (Triller) consists of a quick alternate repeti-
tion of the note above with that over which the mark is placed;
and commonly ends with a turn from the note below. It is
usually defined thus :

Performed.
Written.
h
fe
In this example the upper note is accented; there are, however,
instances in which the composer seems to have designed that
the lower note, or that over which the shake is placed, should be
accented; thus:
* The German word Nachschlag is also used to express the turn of the
shake.
† Bach, p. 51. Turk, p. 252. Sir J. H. iv. 469. Dr. B. iii. 528, 616.
Clementi, p. 11. Dussek, p. 6. Hullmandel, p. 27.

46
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(Handel's second Organ Concertos, Dr. Arnold's edit. No. 124, p. 9.)
hr
hr
b.
-B
The principal or written note of the shake (over which the
character is placed) is called by the Germans the Haupt-ton;
and the secondary or superior note the Hulfston.
108. The following method of practising the vocal shake has
been communicated to the author of the present work by his
friend, Mr. Greatorex, to whom it was given, at Rome, in the
year 1786, by Santarelli, chapel-master to the pope.
hr
2
# .
And so descending throughout the scale.
Performed in practice thus:
109. A series of continued shakes, on notes rising or falling
by degrees, is called by the Germans Triller Kette, and by the
Italians, Gatena di Trilla, both signifying a chain of shakes.
110. The passing shake* (Præll Triller) is expressed in Ger-
many by a particular character; and its definition varies with
different masters, and in different passages. The explanation
of Dr. Arnold (Op. xii. p. 38) is therefore given here, with the
mark he adopted for it.
Written.
Performed.
11
The mordente of the Italian school is used in similar passages,
and performed thus:
hr
* Turk, p. 272.

NOTATION.
47

Some remarks on the various methods of performing these
graces are given by Clementi, (Introduction,) p. 11.
111. III. The turn* (Doppelschlag) employs the note above
and that below, in the following manner:
Written.
Performed.
Thus,
or thus:
Thus,
or thus
6
112. The inverted turn begins from the note below.
(Dr. Arnold, Op. xii. p. 38.)
Written.
Performed.

ES
The turn on the dotted note is in frequent use.
Written.
Performed.

b
113. IV. The beatf is the reverse of the shake, (but without
the turn,) and made generally at the distance of the semitone
below; therefore all the natural notes, excepting C and F, re-
quire the note below them to be accidentally sharped for the
beat.
Written
Performed.

W:
W
पिन
W'
W
Tol TTT
Les
be
W
sotzen
非
​The beat upon B natural, however, is seldom made with A
sharp, on account of the great harshness arising from the
vicinity of the semitone B C.
* Bach, p. 61.
+ Battement. Turk, p. 281,

48
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
In some cases of regular ascent it is recommended not to
make the beat with the semitone unless particularly marked.
(See Clementi, p. 11.)
114. In the half beat, (Zusammenschlag,) the inferior note is
struck only once, and at the same time with the principal note,
but is immediately quitted. This is frequently used upon the
organ, and particularly in the bass.* It may be written by a
small note, like a short appoggiatura, and is very similar to the
acciaccaturat of the Italians.
卷
​2
4
115. In the third part of this work, upon harmony, will be
shown how the diatonic suspensions and transitions arise from
the appoggiatura and the after note; while the chromatic licenses
are derived from the acciaccatura or half beat. These graces
are therefore of very great theoretical importance.
116. V. The German mordenti (Beisser) is a species of beat,
commencing with the note itself, and is either long or short,
thus :
Long.
Short.
石
​This differs considerably from the mordente before described,
(Art. 110,) being made with the next degree below. That of
the Italian school always employs the next degree above.
117. VI. The German beats (Anschlag) consists of two small
notes, which form a skip, and descends one degree upon the
principal note.
Written.
Performed.
&a
30.]
* Kollman, Essay on Composition, p. 98, terms it a bass grace, and
shows how it is employed to strengthen the parts, and to supply the
want of pedals.
† Dr. Burney, articles Acciaccatura, Dr. Rees's Cyclopædia. Gasparini,
Armonico Prattico, 1729, edit. 3d, p. 63.
Bach, 73. Turk, 275.
§ Bach, 77. Turk, 241.
NOTATION.
49
In the translation of Turk, (p. 26,) Naumberger calls this
grace a double appoggiatura.
118. VII. The German slide* (Schleiffer) consists of two
small notes, which move by degrees; thus :
Written.

2
4
注
​Performed.
th
2
$
119. VIII. The German springt (Schneller) consists of two
small notes, like the Italian mordente, but very distinct; thus :
Written.
Performed.

1
3
120. All these graces are liable to the occasional alteration of
any of their notes by sharps, flats, or naturals; and in that case
the composer is expected to mark them as they are to be per-
formed.
121. To these graces of melody may be added those of har-
mony: the tremolo, (Bebung,) or reiteration of one note of the
chord; the tremando, or general shake of the whole chord; and
the arpeggio, (Brechung,) or imitation of the harp by striking the
notes of the chord in quick and repeated succession.
122. Clementi (Introduction, p. 9) has given an explanation
of two different characters used for a chord (or combination of
several sounds struck together) upon keyed instruments.
(1.) When a waving line is placed vertically before the chord,
the notes are played successively, from the lowest ascending to
the highest, and retained down the full time of the chord.
(2.) When an oblique line passes through the chord, it is
played as before, with the addition of a noteſ where the oblique
line is placed; but this added note is not to be kept down.
* Bach, 80. Turk, 245.
† Bach, 83. Turk, 251.
This added note is the acciaccatura before described, Art. 114, and
answers to the Zusammenschlag of the Germans. Turk, 279.

50
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Written.
Played.

去
​SECT. II.-OF THE CHARACTERS.
123. Those characters used in music which do not form a
part of any particular class, like the clefs, notes, rests, sharps,
flats, naturals, or graces, are the tie, or ligature, the pause, the
repeat, the direct, the single bar, and the double bar. But, as the
tie is similar in form to the slur, it will be classed among the
marks of expression in the next section.
.
124. The pause* is placed over a note to signify that the
a
regular time of the movement is to be delayed, and a long con-
tinuance of the sound made on that part of the measure.
(H. S. ii. No. 82: Blessed the day-Solomon.)

差
​6.
8
125. If the pause is placed over a rest, then a stop of consid-
erable length is made; and the part must be silent.
(H. S. i. No. 31: Let festive joy-Belshazzar.)

3
8
126. The same character is employed for another purpose in
those
songs of Handel, Hasse, Vinci, &c., which have a second
part, and are marked da capo.f
(H. S. ii. No. 157: As when the dove-Acis and Galatea.)
అదే
는
​8
* Butler, p. 38, calls the rests pauses and the pause a close. The Italian
term is coronata, Zaccharia Tevo, 1705, p. 25; and the German, Fermate,
Petri, Anleitung, 1784, p. 145. Holden, p. 37, calls the pause a hold.
The pause, when found on the last note but one of a melody, is a sign
for the vocal or instrumental performer to introduce such extemporaneous
passages, previous to the final shake, as are generally termed a cadenza.
† Da capo are two Italian words, which signify from the beginning, and
are frequently joined with al segno, which mean that the performer is to
return, and to commence the repeat at the sign.
NOTATION.
The
pause, in this example, only shows the note upon which
the piece is finally to terminate; but it is not always followed by
the double bar.
127. The repeat* (8) is a sign employed to show the place to
which the performer must return to repeat the passage. It is
usually found in rondos and da capo airs; and it marks that place
in the first strain where the repetition is to commence. This
mark is called, in Italian, segno or the sign.
(H. S. i. No. 153: War he sung-Alexander's Feast.)

be
8
128. The direct† (w) is a sign employed at the end of the
staff
, to show upon what degree the first note of the following
staff is placed.
(Rameau, Treatise, p. 168.)

W
态
​129. The single barf has been already mentioned, (Art. 65,
p. 26,) as dividing the movement into equal portions or measures.
It is considered in Germany as a mark of the grammatical
accent; since the first time of every measure is always a strong
part, and is distinguished by a particular pressure.
When the inner sides of two bars are dotted, all the measures
between them are to be repeated. See an instance of this kind
of repetition.

* Mark of repetition. Morley, p. 74. Simpson, p. 19. Malcolm, p.
411.
† The direct is called by Morley, p. 22, index, or director. Butler, p.
37. Holden, p. 38, Art. 113.
# Butler, p. 38, terms the ancient thick single bar the imperfect close.
Simpson, p. 19. Malcolm, p. 411.
$ The author is induced to adopt the expression of the ancient authors,
and to call the parts of the measure times. Art. 65, p. 26. See also
Malcolm, p. 399. The particular utility of the term will appear in the
fourth part of this work, upon rhythm.

52
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(H. S. i. No. 68: Sin not, oh king—Saul.)
3
G.
=
The word bis (twice) is sometimes placed over passages of
this kind, whether the bars are or are not dotted.
130. The double bar* is placed always at the end of a move-
ment, and is sometimes used at other parts, to show the rhetorical
termination of a strain.
If the double bar is dotted on one or both sides, all the mea-
bures on the same side with the dots, are to be repeated from the
beginning, or from the antecedent double bar.
131. When the rhetorical termination of a strain does not
coincide with the grammatical accent, the double bar is then
totally distinct from the single bar, and the measures are only
reckoned between the single bars, although the double bar may
intervene.
(H. S. v. No. 374: Above measure-Semele.)
4
This double bar does not affect the measure in which it is
placed, but the time is kept exactly as if it were not inserted.
132. As it appears, from the preceding observations, that the
double bar is very different and distinct from the single bar, the
grammatical use of the latter must not be confounded with the
rhetorical employment of the former.
133. If every piece of music ended with a complete measure,
and if the necessity of commencing with single times (Art. 82,)
did not sometimes exist, the double bar might be omitted; but
as it is important to mark the termination of those strains which
have their last measures incomplete, this character is adopted,
and the double bar bears the same relation to the strain as the
single bar does to the measure.
134. Every measure contains a certain number of notes, (Art.
* Ornithoparcus, p. 52, calls this a rest general ; considers it as analogous
to the other rests described Art. 85, p. 36, and places it in the same class
of characters.

NOTATION.
53
66,) which are terminated by the single bar; and every strain *
includes a certain number of measures, which are terminated by
the double bar.
SECT. III.-OF THE MARKS OF EXPRESSION.
135. The chief marks of expression are the slur and the dash
or point; to which may be added the tie or ligature.
136. The tief is an arch drawn over or under two notes on
the same degree, uniting them into one. Upon keyed instruments,
the first only is struck; but the finger is kept down during the
time of both.
(H. S. iii. No. 180: Our fruits-Joseph.)

&
Ha
을
​137. The tie is also used to express those syncopated notes,
which, in ancient music, were divided by the bar.
(Correlli, Concerto i. Opera 6.)

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#6
138. The slur † is a similar arch drawn over or under two or
more notes upon different degrees, and signifies that all the notes
are to be played as smoothly and as much united as possible. In
vocal music it is placed over or under all the notes which are to
be sung to the same syllable.
(H. S. iii. No. 191: Our limpid streams—Joshua.)

ย
139. When the slur is placed only over or under two notes,

* The rhetorical division of the strain into phrases, sections, and periods,
with the utility of the cosure, will be explained in the fourth part of this
work, upon rhythm ; and, as the comma, semicolon, and full stop of elo-
cution have all their respective analogies in musical punctuation, by the
phrase, section, and period, so also the colon is found to resemble that
final part of a movement which is termed the coda.
+ See note, p. 25 of this work. Holden, p. 38, art. 114.
In the Translation of Turk, p. 26, the term slur is applied to the grace,
Art. 118, called Schleiffer or slide.
54.
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
the second is generally made shorter than its proper length.
Formerly this effect was produced by exact notation.
(H. S. i. No. 1: Pious orgies-Judas.)

A
C-
140. The dash* is a small stroke placed over those notes
which are to be performed in a very short and distinct manner.
(H. S. iii. No. 182: Descend, kind pity—Theodora.)

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141. The point is a mark employed by many authors instead
of the dash; but its principal use is to distinguish those notes
from which an intermediate effect, different from the slur or the
dash, is required, and yet uniting both.
(H. S. i. No. 61: Comfort ye-Messiah.)

€
When these passages are performed on keyed instruments, the
finger is not kept close, as in the slur, nor raised, as in the dash,
but dropped gently on the note, and taken off before the time is
wholly completed.
142. There are other marks of expression which have been
lately adopted, to express the effect of certain Italian terms.
(1.) Crescendo, or increasing the sound from soft to loud, is
marked by an angle, the lines extending to the right:
Diminuendo, or diminishing the sound from loud to soft,
by the contrary sign:
The union of both indicates that the first part of the passage
is to be soft, the middle loud, and the last soft again, as the
figure shows.
(3.) Rinforzando is denoted by smaller marks of the same
kind, < >which are to increase or diminish the note as marked.

(2.)
* Holden, p. 39, Art. 114,
NOTATION.
55
SECT. IV.-OF ABBREVIATIONS.
143. When the same note, or similar passages, are to be re-
peated, much time is saved to the composer and copyist by the
use of abbreviations.
A single stroke, over or under a semibreve, or through the
stem of a minim or crotchet, divides them into quavers ; a double
a
stroke into semiquavers; and a triple stroke into demisemi-
quavers; thus:-
-
H. S. i. No. 18: Let the bright seraphim-Samson.)

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6
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144. These passages, in Italian music, had formerly the word
crome, (quavers,) or semicrome, (semiquavers,) annexed to them.
At present we often use the term segue, to signify that we must
perform the following notes in the manner in which the first are
marked.
145. Another kind of abbreviation is very frequently used in
modern music, viz., grouping the stems of minims like those of
quavers, (Art. 64.)
(Pleyel's Duos, violino and violoncello, Op. 12, p. 2, violino.)
Written.
Performed

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耳
​Several other species of abbreviation are given in Koch's
Lexicon, art. Abkurzung; and also in Clementi, p. 8, Shield,
p. 124, &c.

PART II.
MELODY.
CHAPTER I.
OF INTERVALS.
SECT. I.-OF INTERVALS IN GENERAL.
ART. 146. A particular succession of single sounds forms a
melody,* or tune; as in the following example:

(God save the king.)
3
4
147. Melody has, in respect of tune, two distinct motions :
that of degrees, and that of skips.t
A melody proceeds by degrees when it moves to the next line
or space above or below, as in the following example:
* This simple and popular definition of melody only presents an outline
of the true idea annexed to the term. In a more extensive sense, melody
implies not only the progression of one single part, but also that general
result of the various parts in harmony which produce the effect of melody
by the proper distribution of their sounds. Prinz seems to have been the
first who distinguished between the monodic style, in which the melody is
confined to one single part, and the polyodic style, in which the theme
and its dependent subjects are distributed among the different parts of the
composition. These two epithets Prinz appears to have taken from
Kircher; and this profound and original view of melody has been very
ably developed by Nichelman, of Berlin, who clearly proves that those
pieces which are produced by the monodic design of the composer are far
inferior to the połyodic arrangement of the same ideas. In this last class
we may place the Motets of Palestrina, the Choruses of Handel, and the
Symphonies of Haydn. See Prinz, (Satirical Composer, part iji. chap. xi.
chap. xviii. 1696. Kircher, (Musurgia.) Nichelman, (Melodie,) 1755.
† These last expressions, in Italian, are di grado and di salto.
MELODY.
57
(Let ambition fire thy mind.)

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a
148. A melody proceeds by skips when it omits one or more
degrees, as in the following example:
(When warlike ensigns.)

去
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非
​149. In general, degrees and skips are intermixed, as in the
melody of the Easter Hymn.
(Jesus Christ is risen to-day.*)

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150. The degreest and skips of melody are both called by
the general term interval ; which is the distance between two
sounds, or their difference in respect of pitch. Every interval,
therefore, implies two sounds: one acute, the other grave, in
common language, high and low; and as, in measuring, it is
usual to consider the termination of distance more than the
space contained, so, in music, the notes which limit the interval
are both called by the name of the interval itself. Thus, from
the F clef to the C clef is contained the interval of a fifth, both
terms inclusive; and C is said to be a fifth above F, and F a
fifth below C.
Sect. II.—OF THE NAMES OF INTERVALS. I
151. The names of intervals are derived from the number of
degrees which are contained between the two sounds; both ex-
* Printed by Walsh, in 1708, in a Collection of Divine Songs and
Hymns entitled Lyra Davidica. The air found at page 11, but written in
quavers.
† The word degree has been applied to the five lines and four spaces of
the staff; but it is necessary to extend its signification farther, and to
comprehend in it the term interval; since, in the chromatic semitone, B
flat and B natural are on the same degree, and yet produce different
sounds, forming thereby a distance or interval.
1 The inaccuracies, which sometimes occur in very respectable authors,
concerning intervals, arise from adopting the terms of common language
E

58
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
tremes being reckoned inclusively. Thus the interval of a
second consists of two degrees; and as these may be distant
from each other either by one tone or by one semitone, there are
consequently two kinds of seconds, viz., a major second or tone,
and a minor second or semitone.
152. The natural scale of music, which, proceeding by degrees,
includes both tones and semitones, is called diatonic; a word
compounded of dia and tonic, from the Greek dia, through, and
tonos, a tone; because the greater number of intervals in the
scale, viz., five out of seven, are tones.
153. The diatonic scale includes all the different intervals*
formed by the natural notes, and also all those which are pro-
duced in transposing the natural scale, higher or lower, by the
employment of sharps and flats. Those intervals which exceed
the limits of the octave, as the ninth, tenth, eleventh, &c., being
only replicates of the second, third, fourth, &c., are omitted
here but will be particularly noticed in treating of harmony.
Those intervals which are less than the diatonic semitone, as
from F to F sharp, &c., will be distributed, with all other
intervals derived from them, into proper classes, in the third
chapter of this part, upon the genera.

SECT. III.—OF THE FOURTEEN DIATONIC INTERVALS.
154. As the intervals take their names from the number of
included degrees, so also their species are ascertained by the
epithets major and minor, given them, according to the number
without sufficient precaution. See Kollman's Thorough Bass, (1801)
,
Shield. For example, the distance from one place to another may be two
miles, as the interval from the note C to the note D is formed of two semi-
tones; and as, when we arrive at either place, we say this is (the end of)
two miles, so at D we say this is (from C) a tone; and at C, this is (from.
D) a tone; yet the two sounds only form the interval of two semitones.
* It may not be improper to remark, that a considerable difficulty
arises from the distribution of intervals upon keyed instruments, and that
the student does not readily perceive how an interval is to be found be-
tween two keys, as B and C, or E and F, which are close together. The
method of stopping the violin, or the frets on the guitar and lute, shows
the nature of intervals much more clearly. For instance, the third string
of the violin is tuned to the once marked D, (Art. 37:) but when shortened
by one-ninth of the space between the nut and the bridge, will sound E,
a tone higher; one sixteenth of the remaining length being further taken,
the sound F, a semitone higher, is heard. A just idea of intervals is
hereby obtained; and, as the latter is nearly half the magnitude of the
former, the interval from D to E is called a tone, and from E to F a semi-
tone, being real spaces taken upon the length of the string.
MELODY.
59
of tones or semitones contained inclusively between their ex-
tremes. If the intervals were all equal in the scale, eight degrees
would form only seven intervals; but, as there are two different
distances of semitone and tone, for which the notation by the
staff alone does not provide, there are consequently fourteen
diatonic intervals. These are distinguished by the term major
or minor, greater or lesser, and, in some few cases, sharp or
flat.
155. I. The unison, or the same identical sound, although it
cannot properly be reckoned an interval, is always considered
as such when employed in harmony; it is therefore inserted
here among the intervals of melody. The present opportunity
may be taken of improving the student in the practice of the
seven clefs, and showing their practical utility.
Example of the unison, or the same sound, being the once-marked C, (Art.
37,) in all the clefs.

II
e
AH
8
С
С
С
С
С
С
С
Example of the descending scale of the once-marked octave, in the G and
C clefs.

委
​AF
TE
CB
с в A G G
F E
D C
Descending scale of the small octave, (Art. 36,) in the C and F clefs.
#
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Q
TE

a
с в A G F E D C
156. II. The minor second is formed by two sounds, at the
distance of a diatonic semitone, as B C and E F. C is a minor
second higher than B, and B a minor second lower than C.
The same is true with respect to E and F. This interval is
E
sometimes called the flat second; and the term is useful in
harmony. It is found also in the other scales, between F sharp
and G, B flat and A, &c., as in the following example:

80
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.

里
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موا
All these are diatonic semitones, and form minor or flat
seconds. *
157. III. The major second or tone, although composed of
two semitones, does not consist of two equal parts. This is
evident from the notation itself; for, if the tone from F to G be
divided by the sound F sharp, then the intervals between F
sharp and G, or the diatonic semitone, will not be the same as
that from F to F sharp, or the chromatic semitone. The former
changes one degree, the latter remains on the same degree; and
hence the former is, according to the theory of Zarlino, Rameau,
and Pepusch, something larger than the latter. The tones and
other intervals of the natural scale are, in this work, separated
into semitones, &c., by the character called a direct.

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The other tones introduced by transposition are,
ba
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19
&c.
&c.
158. IV. The minor third is composed of three degrees, and
contains a tone and a diatonic semitone between the two ex-
tremes; thus:
委
​9W
o
w
It is also divisible into three semitones—two diatonic and one
chromatic; thus :
* From this statement, the nature of melody, when sharps and flats are
employed, may be readily perceived; for after a sharp the part rises, and
after a flat the part falls. Thus also E and B have the effect of sharps,
and the melody in general ascends to F and C; on the contrary, F and
C have the effect of flats, and the melody in general descends to E and B.
The importance of these remarks cannot be justly appreciated till the
transposition of the natural scale into two sharps and into two flats, and
also the use of the semitone in harmony, are understood.

MELODY.
61
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W
159. V. The major third* is composed of three degrees, and
contains two tones between the extremes; thus :

W
It is also divided into four semitones—two diatonic and two
chromatic : thus :

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160. VI. The perfect fourtht is composed of four degrees, and
contains two tones and a semitone between the extremes ; thus:

a
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It is als o divisible into five semitones—three diatonic and two
chromatic; thus:

茶
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非
​161. VII. The sharp fourth is composed of four degrees, and
contains three tones between the extremes, called by the
ancients, on that account, tritone.

套
​It is also divisible into six semitones-three diatonic and three
chromatic; thus:
* The major and minor thirds were formerly called sharp and flat
thirds. These equivocal terms were justly rejected by Dr. Boyce, (in his
Cathedral Music,) and changed to greater and lesser.
The reason why the terms perfect and sharp are used in the fourths
while major and minor are applied to the seconds and thirds, will appear
in the next chapter, upon concords and discords.
62
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.

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162. These seven intervals (the unison included) may be con-
sidered, in a practical point of view, as primary ; since, if they
are rightly understood, all the remaining seven are easily known,
being only compounded of these. Thus the fifth is formed by
uniting two of the thirds; the sixth, by the fourth and third; the
seventh, by the fifth and third; and the octave by the fourth and
fifth. Compared with the unison, second, third, and fourth, as
primary, the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth are secondary.
This arrangement, however useful in the analysis of melody, is
imperfect with respect to harmony and the theoretical classifica-
tion of the diatonic intervals. The true series comprehends the
unison, octave, fifth, fourth, thirds, sixths, seconds, and sevenths,
in the mathematical division of a musical string.
163. VIII. The flat fifth is composed of five degrees, and
contains two tones and two semitones, (not three tones ;) it may
be divided into two minor thirds.

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It is also (like the sharp fourth or tritone) divisible into six
semitones; and, when joined with that interval, completes the
octave.
164. IX. The perfect fifth is composed of five degrees, and
contains three tones and one semitone; it may be divided into a
major and a minor third.
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It is also divisible into seven semitones; and, when joined
with the fourth, completes the octave.
165. X. The minor sixth is composed of six degrees, and
contains three tones and two semitones; it may be divided into
a minor third and a fourth.
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MELODY.
63
It is also divided into eight semitones; and, when joined with
the major third, completes the octave.
166. XI. The major sixth is composed of six degrees, and
contains four tones and one semitone; it may be divided into a
major third and a fourth.

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It is also divisible into nine semitones; and, when joined with
the minor third, completes the octave.
167. XII. The minor seventh* is composed of seven degrees,
and contains four tones and two semitones; it may be divided
into a fifth and a minor third.

HE
It is also divisible into ten semitones; and, when joined with
the major second, or tone, completes the octave.
168. XIII. The major seventh is composed of seven degrees,
and contains five tones and one semitone; and may be divided
into a fifth and a major third.

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It is also divisible into eleven semitones; and, when joined with
the minor second, or semitone, completes the octave.
169. XIV. The octave is composed of eight degrees, and con-
tains five tones and two semitones; it may be divided into a fifth
and a fourth.
a

a
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It is also divisible into twelve semitones, and may be considered
as the replicate of the unison.
As the octave consists of thirteen sounds, and, therefore has
only twelve intervals, it must be recollected that the fourteen dia-
tonic intervals just described, are obtained by reckoning the
unison as one of them, and by distinguishing between the sharp
fourth and flat fifth; both which are, upon keyed instruments,
* This interval is also composed of two perfect fourths.
64
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
performed with the same keys. The seven notes of the scale
form seven different species of octave, according to the places of
the two natural semitones; and from these species, divided each
into two parts, by the fifth or by the fourth, arise the eight tones
of Italy and the twelve modes of Germany.*
SECT. IV.-INVERSION OF INTERVALS.
170. When the lower note of any interval is placed an octave
higher, or the higher note an octave lower, the change thereby
produced is called inversion.
Thus a second
becomes a seventh:
a third
becomes a sixth :
a fourth
becomes a fifth :
a
-
171. The different intervals, (seven,) reckoned from each of
the seven natural notes, form the following series :
Five major and two minor seconds.
Three major and four minor thirds.
Six perfect and one sharp fourth.
To these may be added their inversions :-
Two major and five minor sevenths.
Four major and three minor sixths.
Six perfect and one flat fifth.
172. All the majort intervals become minor, by inversion,
and all the minor intervals become major; the sharp fourth be-
comes the flat fifth, and the unison inverted becomes the octave.
173. The major seventh of the key, from its resemblance to
the tritone, (its higher note being one of the two sounds which
form the sharp fourth,) is sometimes called the sharp seventh.
174. Rameau terms the intervals of the third, fifth, and seventh,
fundamental; and derives the others, viz., the second, fourth, and
* See the note of Art. 49 of this work.
The epithets sharp and flat were always used, instead of major and
minor, by the old writers, Simpson, Playford, and also Pepusch. See
Art. 159.


MELODY.
65
sicth, by inversion, reckoning them downward, from the octave
of the former, according to the following scheme:-
-
A
Seventh.
Fifth.
Third.
B C D E F G
F G a
Sixth.
| Fourth.
Second.
175. All these intervals are found in the diatonic or natural
scale; and, when this scale is transposed to any other pitch,
higher or lower, by the use of sharps or flats, these intervals
remain the same, as will be more fully seen hereafter. The re-
maining intervals, which are commonly intermixed with these
in the general tables given by authors, and which belong only
to the chromatic and enharmonic scales, are omitted here, but
will be inserted in the third chapter of this part, on the genera.
176. Of all the diatonic intervals, the two thirds,* major and
minor, are by far the most important, and ought to be very
perfectly understood; since upon them depends the nature of
the scale or mode; and the thirds give their own epithets to the
whole series of the seven notes, the scale itself being called
major when the third is greater, and minor when the third is
lesser.
177. There is another distinction, in respect of melodies
formed of diatonic intervals, which, although in some measure
obsolete, is yet useful for the student to understand. Those
melodies which have their principal notes contained between the
key-note and its octave, are termed authentic, direct, or principal,
as in the following example:
(Waft her, angels.)


--
普
​* See Rameau and Simpson. It may be observed that the alteration of
the thirds by sharping the upper note of the minor, or flatting that of the
major, does not change their diatonic nature.
66
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
178. Those melodies, on the contrary, which have their prin-
cipal notes contained between the fifth of the key and its octave,
(or twelfth,) are termed plagal, oblique, or collateral, as in the
following example:-
(Streams of pleasure.)
-

C
By these two divisions of the octave, authentic and plagal, are
formed the arrangements of the eight Italian tones and twelve
German modes before mentioned.
CHAPTER II.
I
OF CONSONANT AND DISSONANT INTERVALS.
Art. 179. Although the terms consonant and dissonant are
chiefly used in harmony, yet they are applicable, in a great
measure, to the classing of intervals in melody.
180. The diatonic intervals are therefore divided into conso-
nant and dissonant. Those which are most agreeable to the ear,
as the octave, fifth, fourth, both the thirds, and both the sixths,
are called consonant; those which, when compared with the
others, are less agreeable to the ear, as both the seconds, both
the sevenths, with the sharp fourths, are called dissonant.
The term dissonant, is thought by some authors,* inapplicable
to the degrees of melody, which seem more natural to the human
voice than the skips. This, however, is a prejudice, which a
further consideration of harmony will remove.
181. The foregoing arrangement shows the propriety of dis-
tinguishing the species of seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths,
by the epithets major and minor, according to the number of
semitones included between the extremes ; while the appellation
of perfect is reserved for the fourth and fifth, with the terms
sharp and flat, when altered a semitone higher or lower.
182. The thirds and sixths, whether major or minor, are always
consonant; the seconds and sevenths always dissonant; but the
• Principes Elementaires de Musique, du Conservatoire.

MELODY.
€7
fourth and fifth are consonant only when perfect; when sharp or
flat, they are dissonant. The alteration of these two last inter-
vals, therefore, places them in different classes; and although
the terms major and minor have sometimes been applied to the
fourth and fifth, in the present work those terms will not be
used.
183. The consonant intervals are subdivided into perfect and
imperfect. The unison, (or prime,) the octave, fifth, and fourth,
)
are called perfect because they are immutable, never changing
from major to minor, (or the contrary,) but becoming dissonant
whenever altered by a sharp, flat, or natural.
184. The thirds and sixths are called imperfect because they
are liable to change from major to minor, (or the contrary,) still
remaining consonant.
185. The seconds, sevenths, sharp fourth, flat fifth, with all
the chromatic and enharmonic intervals, are dissonant.
186. According to this classification, every passage of melody
which moves by degrees, consists of dissonant intervals; but, as
every other note is, in general, a transient sound, placed between
two consonant notes, these seconds have not that harshness
which is found in the passages which move by skips, as the sharp
fourth, flat fifth, minor and major sevenths, &c.
187. All dissonant seconds in melody are either passing or
changing notes, (Art. 106 ;) and these are either regular, when
found on the weak parts of the measure, or irregular, when used
on the strong parts. If, therefore, these ornamental notes are
taken away, a series of consonant intervals will remain.

(Thou didst blow.)
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=
W
b
5-6
The foregoing melody may be reduced to consonant intervals,
by taking away the alternate semiquavers where regular, and
omitting two when irregular; it will then appear thus :
泰
​68
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
188. The concordant series of thirds and sixths, from the
varied succession of major and minor intervals, is extremely
pleasing to the ear; and most passages of degrees (like that of
the preceding example) are reducible into thirds, intermixed with
fourths, by taking away the passing and changing notes.
189. A great part of every duet is composed of thirds or
sixths; and these intervals, with the occasional introduction of
fourths and fifths, allow a double melody to continue throughout
a movement.
190. A successive series of perfect fifths is not to be found in
melody, and hence is forbidden in harmony. In melody they
would exceed the limits of our regular scale, as well as the com-
pass of the voice; and in harmony they would produce new and
unconnected scales, of which the species, major or minor, would
be undetermined, through the omission of the thirds and sixths.
191. A more correct idea of passing notes may be obtained by
considering the scale as divided into three parts; the two first
concordant, and the last discordant; thus :-
I.
II.
III.

香
​In the first part, or the tonic division, the passing notes are
the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh of the scale; thus:-

Ed
In the second part, or the subdominant division, the passing
notes are the second, third, fifth, and seventh; thus:
JE
In the third part, or the dominant division, the third and sixth
are the only passing notes; thus :
泰
​9

MELODY.
69
CHAPTER III
OF THE GENERA.
SECT. I-OF THE THREE KINDS OF MELODY.
Art. 192. That scale of music which proceeds chiefly by tones
called diatonic, has been explained, (Art. 152,) and constitutes
the principal part of every piece of music.
193. When all the artificial sounds are inserted between the
natural sounds, a scale is formed of semitones alone, and called
chromatic.
194. When a scale yet smaller in its intervals is formed,
which contains in some places quarter tones, it is called enhar-
monic,
195. These three scales, the diatonic, the chromatic, and the
enharmonic, form the three genera or kinds of melody now in
use; and, although the terms are borrowed from the Greek au-
thors, yet the modern ideas annexed to them are considerably
different from their ancient signification.
196. The origin of the term diatonic genus has been explained.
The chromatic takes its name from the Greek word chroma,
color, because the interspersed semitones give an ornamental
effect to the diatonic or simple melody; and the enharmonic was
so called from its supposed excellence, being en-harmonic, that
is, extremely musical.
197. The two last genera (chromatic and enharmonic) are
never used alone, but always intermixed with the diatonic.
Hence it has been asserted, that all the genera, except the dia-
tonic, are irretrievably lost. That they are lost to us, in the
precise sense of the ancient descriptions, is undoubtedly true;
but we still retain the term chromatic, in a signification extremely
analogous to its primitive meaning, and it seems proper also to
retain the terms diatonic and enharmonic.
198. The French theorists* mention two other compound
genera—the diatonic-enharmonic and the chromatic-enharmonic ;
the first containing a succession of two diatonic semitones, and
the last a succession of two chromatic semitones. These terms
and classifications are more curious than useful, since, according
to Dr. Pepusch, the diatonic-enharmonic is the same as the
* M. D'Alembert, Elemens de Musique, 1762, part i. chap. xx. xxi. p.
112. M. Bethizy, Exposition, &c., 1764.

70
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
toniæum chromatic of the ancients; and the two subsequent
minor semitones are found in the soft chromatic of the Grecian
system.
SECT. II.-OF THE CHROMATIC SCALE AND ITS INTERVALS.
199. The chromatic scale generally ascends by sharps and
descends by flats, as in the following example:

-||
李​毒
​be
-b
200. From this scale several intervals, not yet described,
arise, which are all discordant, and are chiefly used in melody,
although they appear sometimes, by license, in harmonical com-
binations.
201. The chromatic scale consists of thirteen sounds, which
contain twelve intervals between them. Seven of these have
been already described, among the diatonic intervals ;f the re-
maining five form another species of intervals, called extreme or
chromatic. Of these the chromatic semitone, the extreme sharp
second, flat third, and flat fourth, are simple or primitive; the
extreme sharp fifth, sharp sixth, flat seventh, and flat eighth,
are compound or derivative.
Chromatic semitone.
Extreme sharp fifth.

Extreme sharp second
Extreme sharp sixth.
o
Extreme flat third.
Extreme flat seventh.
be
ho
* See Dr. Pepusch's Letter to De Moivre, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, 1746, No. 481.
† Padre Martini (Saggio di Contrappunto, 1774) has enumerated
another interval, the extreme sharp third, with its inversion; this will be
aoticed hereafter.

MELODY.
71
Extreme flat fourth.
Extreme flat eighth.
ba
202. I. The chromatic semitone is the distance or interval
between any note and that same note elevated by a sharp or
depressed by a flat.
Example of the chromatic semitone ascending.
(Sweet bird that shunn'st.)
ఈ
4
Example of the chromatic semitone descending.
(Turn not, O Queen.)

for
ed
203. This semitone was termed by the Pythagoreans apotome,
and the diatonic semitone was termed limma. They contended
that the apotome, or distance from B flat to B natural, was
larger than the limma, or distance from A to B flat. It is now,
however, demonstrated by the experiments of Mersenne, &c.,
that the theory of Zarlino and Salinas is true; namely, that the
interval from A to B flat is the major semitone, and that from
B flat to B natural is the minor semitone, contrary to the
nomenclature of Boethius and the Pythagoreans.
204. In the chromatic scale the semitones are alternately
chromatic and diatonic; and, as there are only five of the
former, while there are seven of the latter, two diatonic semitones
will be found in succession, at the place where the natural
semitone occurs.
Ascending.
Descending

205. From this important interval (the chromatic semitone)
arise all the other chromatic intervals; the are all diatonic
* Sir. J. H. i 73. The term apotome was also used by Salomon de
Caus, (Institution Harmonique, 1614,) and thence inserted by D'Alembert
and Rousseau in the French Encyclopædia. He terms the present enhar.
monic diesis apotome major, and the present minor comma apotou:e minor.
m2
CALLCOTT'S MOSICAL GRAMMAR.
distances, increased or diminished by this interval; and hence
they all take the additional chromatic epithet of extreme.
206. II. The extreme sharp second consists of a tone and &
chromatic semitone, being composed of two degrees. Upon
keyed instruments this is the same as the minor third; which,
however, consists of a tone and a diatonic semitone, and there-
fore contains three degrees.
(To vanity and earthly pride.)

并
​&
Ꮾ
8.
207. III. The extreme flat third consists of two diatonic semi-
tones, being composed of three degrees : and is the minor third,
diminished by the chromatic semitone. Upon keyed instruments,
this is the same as the tone which contains only two degrees.
This interval being very harsh for vocal music, the interme-
diate sound is generally inserted, as in the following example:
(Prophetic raptures.)
be
#f

f
In this passage the A, between B flat and G sharp, is only a
transient or passing note.
208. IV. The extreme flat fourth consists of a tone and two
diatonic semitones, being composed of four degrees ; and is the
perfect fourth diminished by the chromatic semitone. Upon
keyed instruments this is the same as the major third, which
contains only three degrees.
(O mirror of our fickle state.)

3
동
​The E natural here is taken instead of E flat.
209. These three last intervals, viz.,
The extreme sharp second,
The extreme flat third, and
The extreme flat fourth,
when inverted, become the following:

MELODY.
78
The extreme flat seventh,
The extreme sharp sixth, and
The extreme sharp fifth.
210. V. The extreme sharp fifth is the perfect fifth increased
by the chromatic semitone, and consists of four tones,* forming
five degrees. On keyed instruments it is the same as the minor
sixth, which consists of six degrees. This interval is seldom
found in melody; but its inversion, the extreme flat fourth, is
generally taken in its place.
It is also divisible into two major thirds.

ve
211. VI. The extreme sharp sixth is the major sixth increased
by the chromatic semitone, and consists of five tones, † forming
six degrees. On keyed instruments it is the minor seventh,
which consists of seven degrees.
It is also divisible into a major third and sharp fourth. I
30
ta

G
w
W
212. VII. The extreme flat seventh is the minor seventh dimi-
nished by the chromatic semitone, and consists of four tones and
two diatonic semitones, forming seven degrees. On keyed instru-
ments it is the major sixth, which only consists of six degrees.
It is also divisible into three minor thirds.
bo

w
森
​Examples of this interval in melody are not uncommon.
(They loathed to drink.)
b.
* Called also tetratonon.
+ Called also pentatonon.
#Shield.
F
74
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(And with his stripes.)

to
石
​be
ht
213. VIII. The extreme flat eighth is the octave diminished by
the chromatic semitone; it is never used in melody, but is
sometimes found in transient passages of harmony.

在
​ba
Sect. III.—OF THE ENHARMONIC SCALE AND ITS INTERVAL,
THE QUARTER TONE.
214. When a series is formed by uniting the ascending with
the descending scale of the chromatic genus, a new kind of music
arises, by the use of the interval formed between the sharped
note and the flat of the next succeeding note above. This scale
is called enharmonic, and contains intervals smaller than the
semitone; which, although not exactly half the semitone, are,
however, from their near approach to that quantity, called the
diesis, * (that is, the division,) or quarter tone.
215. To form this interval, it is necessary that, of any two
notes which are distant by the tone, the highest should be de-
pressed, and the lowest elevated, by the chromatic semitone.
Thus, from G to A is a tone. Now, if G sharp be taken instead
of G, and A flat instead of A, the difference between these
extremes of the two chromatic semitones, G sharp and A flat,
will form the enharmonic diesis or quarter tone.
216. To understand this, it must be observed that the interval
of a tone, in the theory of harmonics, is not always the same.
That tone which is between the fourth and fifth of the scale,f is
supposed to be divided into nine small parts, termed commas;
while that which is between the fifth and sixth of the major
scale is divided only into eight commas. The diatonic semitone
consists of five commas, and the chromatic semitone of three
or four, according to the magnitude of the tone.
* This was also called apotome major by Salomon de Caus. See before,
Art. 203, of this work. Sir J. H. i. 110 ; iii. 142, 155. Dr. B. i. 29; iii.
530.
† The diazeuctic tone of the ancient system.


MELODY.
75
217. The two chromatic semitones, therefore, being taken
from the minor tone, (of eight commas,) leave a residue of two
a
commas for the diesis or quarter tone; hence on the Temple or-
gan, and on some other instruments, the tones from G to A, and
from D to E, (which are naturally minor, or of eight commas,)
are divided into three parts, by two distinct keys, one for G
sharp, another for A flat; also one for D sharp, and another for
E flat. But, upon keyed instruments in general, the temper-
ament, or method of tuning, is such, that the single short key
between the two longer keys serves for both purposes, that
between G and A being tuned higher than G sharp and lower
than A flat.
218. The enharmonic scale divides each tone into two chro-
matic semitones and the quarter tone; thus:-

表
​219. In some examples of the enharmonic scale,* the inter-
vals, F flat and E sharp, as also C flat and B sharp, are inserted,
but they do not belong to that scale. This distance, as Dr.
Pepusch observes, is smaller than the quarter tone.

This arises from the division of the diatonic semitone into two
quarter tones, and a smaller interval, termed the hyperochent
which is found, by theoretical calculation, to be nearly a comma
and a half.
220. Such are the three modern genera, the diatonic, chromatic,
and enharmonic; they are (as before observed, Art. 195) derived
from the ancient Grecian scales, but are used in a manner
extremely different.
Dr. Pepusch,f in defining the six genera of Aristoxenus,

* Shield.
+ This term was first adopted by M. Henfling in the Berlin Miscellanies,
1708. For a more particular account of the small intervals in music, see
the articles Eschaton. Hyperoche, and Interval, which first appeared in the
Supplement to Chamber's Cyclopædia, 1753, probably written by George
Lewis Scott, Esq., the editor, and which were inserted afterwards in the
edition published by Dr. Rees, in four folio volumes, 1788, 1789.
Sir J. H. i. 109. Dr. B. iv. 638. In the Dictionary of Chambers,

76
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
namely, two diatonics, three chromatics, and one enharmonic,
observes that the syntone or intense diatonic is in general use;
that enharmonic passages are sometimes found; and that two of
the chromatics might be brought into practice; for instance, the
sesquialter chromatic, thus :
-

毒
​To
다​.
할
​El
And the tonicum chromatic, thus:-

E
But he adds, that the soft diatonic and the soft chromatic are
not to be found in any modern production.
CHAPTER I V.
OF KEYS OR SCALES, AND OF THEIR TWO MODES,
MAJOR AND MINOR.
SECT. I.—OF KEYS OR SCALES.
Art. 221. A diatonic scale, of which the notes bear certain
relations to one principal note from which they are all, in some
respects, derived, and upon which they all depend, is termed a
key; and the principal note is called the key-note, or tonic.
222. Every scale in which the two diatonic semitones are
found between the third and fourth degrees, and between the
seventh and eighth degrees, ascending from the tonic, is termed
the major mode of that key; because the interval between the
tonic and its third (or mediant) consists of two tones ; that is, of
the greater third. The only series of this
mode among the nat-
ural notes is that which commences with C; and hence this key
must be taken as an example of all the major scales.

(just quoted,) at the article Genera, an able analysis of Dr. Pepusch's ideas
is given, probably written by the same author, as it also first appeared in
the Supplement

MELODY.
77
2 3. Every scale in which the two diatonic semitones are
found between the second and third degrees, and between the
fifth and sixth degrees, as ascending from the tonic, is termed the
minor mode of that key; because the interval between the tonic
and its third (or mediant) consists only of one tone and one
semitone; that is, of the lesser third. The only series of this
mode among the natural notes is that which commences with A;
and hence this key may be taken as an example of all the minor
scales.*

SECT. II.-OF THE MAJOR SCALES WITH SHARPS.
224. In the first part of this work, (Art. 89,) it has been
shown how the introduction of sharps changes the pitch of the
tone without altering the relative intervals of the scale. All
the other major keys with sharps are constructed in the same
manner, viz., by sharping the fourth of the former key, to make
a new sharp seventh, or leading note, to the following scale;
thus :
-
G, one sharp.
D, two sharps.

A, three sharps.
E, four sharps.
&
* The necessary variation of the ascending scale, in the minor mode,
from the descending scale, will be explained hereafter. Malcolm, p. 265.
Pepusch, p. 20. Holden, (part i. chap. ix. p. i.) Art. 257, p. 90. Sir J.
H., i. 163, has entered minutely into the subject of our two modern scales,
with their transpositions; and their extensions to three fats and four
sharps are noticed also by him, iii. 144.
78
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
B, five sharps.
F sharp, six sharps.

PE
225. In this last scale, the sixth sharp, E, is, on keyed instru-
ments, performed by means of F natural ; but it cannot be called
by that name, nor situated on the same degree; for, in that case,
only six letters would be used instead of seven ; and between D
sharp and F natural, the chromatic interval of the extreme flat
third would be found, which does not belong to the diatonic
series.
SECT. III.-OF THE MAJOR SCALES WITH FLATS.
226. It has been also shown (Art. 93) that the introduction
of a new flat takes place on the seventh of the original key,
which then becomes the subdominant or fourth of the next scale;
hence are formed all the following scales with flats :-
F, one flat.
B flat, two flats
-

>
be
E flat, three flats.
A flat, four flats.

be
be
G
态
​D flat, five flats.
G flat, six flats,

227. In this last scale the sixth flat, C, is, on keyed instru-
ments, performed by means of B natural; but it cannot be called
by that name, since, between B natural and the next degree in
the scale, (which is D flat,) the chromatic interval of the extreme
flat third would be found, which does not belong to the diatonic
series.
MELODY.
79
Sect. IV. OF THE SIGNATURE.
228. When the whole number of sharps and flats are placed
at the clef instead of being occasionally inserted before each
note as they occur, such collection of sharps or of flats is termed
the signature, (Art. 96).
SIGNATURE OF SCALES WITH SHARPS.

6
&c.
SIGNATURE OF SCALES WITH FLATS,

-b
& TO
春
​b
在
​to
25
&c.
229. Two examples of the signature extended to the first
double sharp and to the first double flat may be seen, Art. 98, 99.
230. The scale of F sharp with six sharps being the same on
keyed instruments as that of G flat with six flats, all the sig-
natures beyond six may be expressed by a smaller number, by
changing the name of the tonic.
Thus, C sharp with seven sharps is the same as D flat with
five flats; and C flat with seven flats is the same as B with five
sharps, &c.
SECT. V.-OF THE MINOR SCALE OR MODE.
231. The minor scale not only differs from the major, as
before observed, (Art. 223,) in the place of its semitones, but
also in the variation of its scale, of which the ascending series
differs from the descending one.
232. The minor mode requires, that whenever the seventh of
the scale (which is naturally a tone below it) ascends to the
eighth, it should become sharp, as the proper leading note or
sharp seventh to the tonic. Now, the insertion of this essential
note in the signature would appear irregular, as in the following
examples : *

*
整
​646
for
f
be
* this irregularity were adopted in the first three examples, the
80
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
It is, therefore, always omitted in the signature, and placed
accidentally before the seventh which it is to elevate, whenever
the melody requires its use.
233. That this leading note or sharp seventh is essential to
the key, although not to its signature, may be proved by per-
forming the subsequent melody, omitting the sharp F.
(Our fears are now.)

€
三重
​In which instance the harshness produced by F natural, if taken
instead of F sharp, is extremely perceptible.
234. As the signature, therefore, does not decide the key or
scale of the movement, a careful observation must be made,
whether any accidental sharps or naturals occur in the first
phrase or section. If any such are found, the tonic is on the
next degree above them ; but if none are used, then the signature
itself determines the major tonic, which is always the note above
the last sharp, or the fourth note below the last flat.
235. The accidental sharp, used in the minor mode, raises
the minor seventh of the scale a chromatic semitone; hence the
minor scale may be said to belong to the chromatic genus; and
its true essential scale is thus formed:
;

236. In this series is found the harsh chromatic interval of
the extreme sharp second, (between F natural and G sharp ;)
to avoid which, the sixth is made sharp, to accommodate the
seventh; thus the accidental scale of the minor is formed with
two notes altered from the signature.

237. But, in the descending scale, the essential leading note
is depressed, to accommodate the sixth ; thus the natural scale
of the signature remains unaltered.
essential leading note would appear as if it were inserted, by mistake, one
degree too high.

MELODY.
81
SECT. VI.--OF THE RELATIVE MINOR SCALES.
238. The minor scale, whose tonic is found on the sixth note,
ascending, of the major scale which has the same signature, is
termed the relative minor, because its signature is similar to that
of the other.
MAJOR.
G, one sharp.
D, two sharps.

.
在
​E, one sharp.
RELATIVE MINOR.
B, two sharps.

These tonics, it may be observed, are one degree below the
last sharp of the signature.
239. In the signature with flats, the relative minor (or sixth
of the key) is always on the third degree above the last flat;
thus :

MAJOR.
F, one flat.
B, two flats.
&
RELATIVE MINOR.
D, one flat.
G, two flats.
SECT. VII.-OF THE TONIC MINOR SCALES.
240. Every major scale, when its third and sixth are depressed
by the chromatic semitone, becomes a minor scalo on the sanie
key-note, and will be called, in this work, the tonic minor.

82
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
241. But, as the signature requires that the essential sharp
seventh should not be inserted at the clef, the tonic minor must
have in its signature another fiat, making in all three flats more,
or three sharps less, than the major scale of the same key-note;
thus :
F major.
F minor.
-
ba
C major.
C minor.
有
​be
be
G major.
G minor.
JE
In the last example, the F sharp, E natural, and B natural,
are all to be considered as sharps, when contrasted with the F
natural, E flat, and B flat of the minor scale.
D major.
D minor.
春
​2
-b
In this example, the C natural, F natural, and B flat, of the
minor scale, are all to be considered as flats, when contrasted
with the C sharp, F sharp, and B natural of the major scale.
A major.
A minor.
毒
​de
In this example, the G natural, F natural, and C natural, of
the minor scale, are all to be considered as flats, when contrasted
with G sharp, F sharp, and C sharp of the major scale.
Sect. VIII.—OF TRANSPOSITION, &c.
242. That change which arises from the performance of the
same melody in a higher or lower pitch, is called transposition.
-

MELODY.
88
243. Every melody in a major scale may be transposed into
any other major scale, by altering the signature according to the
pitch of the new tonic. The same alterations may take place in
every minor melody. When, however, any tune is performed
in the relative, or in the tonic minor, which tune was originally
major, such change is not called transposition, but variation.
244. When, in the course of a melody, the tonic is changed
and the original scale altered by the introduction of a new sharp
or flat, such change is called modulation. This will be further
explained in treating of harmony.
245. Every scale has two others immediately connected with
it; one on the fifth above, which adds a new sharp to the signa-
ture; the other on the fifth below, (or fourth above,) which adds
a new flat to the signature. These two scales will, in this work,
be called attendant keys-an epithet given them by Dr. Boyce,
in his manuscripts.
246. As every major key has a relative minor, and as this
relative minor has its two attendant keys, hence arises, from
every signature, six scales, * nearly connected with each other ;
three with major thirds, and three with minor thirds.
247. Of these, two are principal, viz., the major and minor
of the signature itself; and four are subordinate, viz., the at-
tendant keys, both of the major and of the minor; these require
another sharp or flat to complete their scales, when a modulation
occurs.
248. Thus, in the major scale of C, its attendant scales are G,
(its fifth,) with one sharp, and F, (its fourth,) with one flat; to
which are annexed the relative minor, A, and its two attendant
scales, viz., E minor, with one sharp, and D minor, with one
flat.
249. The same arrangement takes place in every key; and it
is necessary to obsež ve, that when the minor key is first taken,
the major key of the same signature is called the relative major,
and is found on the minor third above the original minor key-
note.


* Mr. Keeble (Harmonics, 1784) describes these scales, and terms them
uuxiliary. Padre Martini has given a table of them.
84
CALLCOTT S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Ꮯ CHAPTER V.
OF THE QUALITIES OF THE NOTES WHICH COMPOSE
THE SCALE.
Sect. I.-OF THE TONIC, DOMI NANT, &c.
Art. 250. Every one of the seven notes which form the scale
of any key, major or minor, has an effect peculiar to it self; from
this effect they derive particular names, which are these :
251. I. The tonic, or key-note, before described, (Art. 221,)
is that chief sound upon which all regular melodies depend, and
with which they all terminate.* All its octaves, above or below,
are called by the same name.
252. II. The dominant, or fifth above the key-note, is that
sound which, from its immediate connection with the tonic, is
said to govern it; that is, to require the tonic to be heard after
it, at the final perfect cadence in the bass.
253. III. The subdominant, or fifth below the key-note, is
also a species of governing note, as it requires the tonic to be
heard after it in the plagal cadence. It is the fourth in the
regular ascending scale of seven notes, and is a tone below the
dominant; but the term arises from its relation to the tonic, as
the fifth below.
254. These three principal sounds, the tonic, dominant, and
subdominant, are the radical parts of every scale; of the minor
as well as of the major. All melodies whatever are derived
from these sounds, and are wholly dependent upon them.
255. IV. The leading note, or sharp se venth of the scale, is
called, in Germany, the subsemitone of the mode. This is
always the major third above the dominant, and therefore, in
the minor scales, requires an accidental sharp or natural when-
ever it occurs.
256. V. The mediant, or middle note between the tonic and
dominant, ascending, varies according to the mode; being the
greater third in the major scale, and the lesser third in the
minor scale.
257. VI. The submediant,f or middle note between the tonic
* This only relates to the chief melody, or to its bass; the internal parts
of harmony, as will be hereafter shown, conclude upon the mediant or
dominant.
+ The submediant, in the major mode, is the relative minor key-note:
and the mediant, in the minor mode, is the relative major key-note.


MELODY.
85
and subdominant descending, varies also according to the mode,
being the greater sixth in the major scale, and the lesser sixth
in the minor scale.
258. VII. The supertonic,* or second above the key-note,
has seldom been distinguished, in England, by this or any other
appellation. In theory it is considered as a variable sound,
being a comma higher in the major scale than when the mode
changes to the relative minor.f
259. The effect of the principal notes above mentioned may
be impressed on the mind by the following short phrases :
I. TONIC AND DOMINANT.
(We praise thee, O God.)

都
​#C
II. TONIC AND SUBDOMINANT.
(Break his bands of sleep asunder.S)
春
​III. TONIC AND LEADING NOTE.
(The people that walked.II)
6
NE
#
IV. TONIC AND MEDIANT.
(Softly sweet in Lydian measures. T)
f
#e
* This is a translation of the French term Sutonique ; and it may be
observed, that in the descending rule of the octave, the sixth of the key
might be called superdominant, (Sudominante,) from its analogy to this
note. Bethizy, p. 15.
+ This alteration is explained by Mr. Maxwell, in the Essay on Tune,
and by Rousseau, in his Dictionary, Art. Diacommatique.
I Dettingen Te Deum, 1743, No. 17.
Alexander's Feast, 1736, No. 66.
Messiah, No. 9. H. S. iv. No. 301.
Alexander's Feast, No. 66. H. S. ii. No, 154.

86
CALLCOTT'S MOSICAL GRAMMAR.
V. TONIC AND SUBMEDIANT.
(In the battle, fame pursuing.*)

f
13
8.
260. The signature of two sharps has been chosen for these
examples, that the effect of the same tonic (and of its relative
minor, in the third example, from the Messiah) may be per-
ceived in performing them all.t
Sect. II.-OF THE CHARACTERISTIC NOTES OF THE SCALE.
261. The leading note and the subdominant are the two
characteristic sounds, by one of which every scale, whether
major or minor, is known, and its tonic immediately ascertained.
262. Thus, in sharp signatures, the leading note is a species of
index, which points invariably to the next degree above as its
major tonic; this is always the last sharp in the major mode.
263. In flat signatures, the subdominant is also a species of
index, which points to the fourth degree below as its major
tonic; this is always the last flat in the major mode.
264. In the minor modes, whose signatures have less than
four sharps or four flats, the subdominant, being always one of
the natural notes, is not apparently a characteristic of the key;
and therefore, in those modes, the leading note is the only certain
index from which the key-note is to be found.
265. The great importance of these two notes appears evident,
when, in occasional modulation, the new key is required to be
found by their assistance. In all flat signatures, (F major, B
Alat major, E flat major, &c.) the leading note is a natural; and this
is the sharp seventh of the key, as in the following example:-
(See the tall palm.I)

fre
Here the natural B is the leading note of the new key, C.
* Deborah, 1733, No. 144. H. S. i. No. 70.
† The further utility of these denominations will appear hereafter. In
harmony especially, the terms tonic, dominant, subdominant, and leading
note will frequently occur; the two former as the principal and governing
notes, the two latter as the characteristic notes of the key. (See Art.
191.)
Solomon, 1749, No. 90. H. S. iv. No. 294.


MELODY.
87
266. In the sharp signatures, on the contrary, the subdominant
is distinguished by a natural, and requires, in modulation, the
alteration of the sharp in the signature.
(When warlike ensigns.*)

f
e
准
​NE
Here the natural F is the subdominant of the new key, C.
267. Hence it appears, that whenever the characteristic note
of the new key is marked by a natural, that natural always has
the effect of a sharp or of a flat; of a sharp, when it is a lead-
ing note; of a flat, when it is a subdominant.f
a
CHAPTER VI.
OF ANCIENT SIGNATURES.

SECT. I.-OF ANCIENT SIGNATURES IN GENERAL.
Art. 268. In the music of Corelli, Geminiani, Handel, &c.,
the general rules of finding the tonic, either in the major mode,
by the characteristic notes of the signature, or in the minor
mode, by the leading note accidentally inserted, are not always
gufficient.
269. When, instead of the complete series of sharps or flats
of the signature, the last sharp or flat is suppressed, and inserted
accidentally when requisite, (like the leading note of the minor
mode,) such deviation from the usual method of notation will, in
this work, be termed the ancient signature.
270. Thus, in the seventh and twelfth Sonatas (or Violin
Solos) of Corelli, Opera quinta, the signaturest appear to be
either C major, or A, its relative minor; but the accidental
notes, C sharp and B flat, show that the real key is D minor,
and that the B flat, which is used in the modern signature, is
omitted at the clef.
271. Examples of the ancient signature of D minor may also
* Art. 148.
† See the remarks in Art. 97, in note.
Although the term signature is defined, Art. 228, to be the number of
sharps or flats at the clef, yet the word will be also applied to the two
natural keys of C major and A minor.

88
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
be found in the third and fifth Concertos of Geminjini, Opera
seconda, and in the fourth Concerto of Opera terza. For in-
stance, the first movement of his third Concerto begins thus :-

"
Here the key is known to be D, by the accidental C sharp,
and to be also D minor, by the natural F, which remains unal-
tered, as in the signature.
272. The same ancient method of notation is sometimes found
in the key of G major, where the sharp of the leading note F is
inserted accidentally when requisite; as in the following exam-
ple fron the first Chorus of Handel's Oratorio of Saul, How
excellent thy name, O Lord! One of the intermediate movements
commences thus :
(The youth inspired by thee, O Lord.)

BE
Here the key is known to be G, by the sharp before the F,
which is used in the second treble as a third below the A; and
the B natural of the clef shows it to be G major.
Sect. II.-OF ANCIENT SHARP SIGNATURES.
273. The ancient signature of one sharp is applicable to the
keys of D major and B minor ; but the sharp signatures of this
ancient method are never found in the minor mode ; for, as the
second (or supertonic) of the key would then require an acci-
dental sharp, the irregularity before mentioned (Art. 232) would
perpetually recur.
274. In the Solos of Corelli, (Opera quinta,) however,
several instances occur of the ancient sharp signature in the
major mode; viz., the sixth and ninth Sonatas, in two sharps, are
in the key of A major; and the G sharp is accidentally inserted.
275. The eleventh Sonata of the same work bears the signa-
ture of three sharps, and is in the key of E major,* the D sharp
being inserted accidentally.
* Handel's Duet, in the Oratorio of Athalia, (Joys in gentle train
appearing), is also in this key, and has this signature.

MELODI.
89
276. The ancient signature of four sharps is found in Handel's
beautiful air, Rendi il sereno al ciglio, from the opera Sosarmes. *
This is in B major, with the sharp to its leading note, A,
occasionally inserted.
Sect. III.- OF ANCIENT FLAT SIGNATURES.
277. The objection to the sharp signatures (Art. 273) does
not apply to the flat, since the second of their minor modes is not
affected by the flat. For this reason, and from the variable
nature of the sixth, or submediant, in the minor scale, (Art. 236)
the ancient flat signatures are very frequently found.
278. I. The signature of one flat belongs to B flat major and
G minor. The following example, in the opening of Corelli's
fifth Concerto, (Opera sesta,) is in B flat major.t

ba
TE
279. The eighth Concerto of Corelli opens with this signature
in G minor, as in the following example :

.م-
W
LE
280. II. The signature of two flats belongs to E flat major.
(Cease thy anguisk.)
G
3
8
281. The signature of its relative minor mode, C, is very
common.
* Introduced by Dr. Arnold, 1786, in the Oratorio of Redemption, to
the Words, Lord, remember David.
* This will be mentioned hereafter, as a very striking instance of the
use and effect of harmony in deciding the key and mode, independent
of the signature.
# This also depends upon harmony for the decision of its key and mode.
The melody, as it here stands, might be equally in B flat major, or G
minor; but the sharp, which accompanies the C in the second measure,
decides the key.
$ Athalia, 1733, No. 3. H. S. ï. No. 98.
G

90
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(The flocks shall leave the mountains.*)

f
a
282. III. The signature of three flats is unusual in the major
mode of A flat, but extremely frequent in the minor of F.
Handel, indeed, has seldom (if ever) used the modern signature
in this mode.
(Ye sons of Israel.t)

&
7264
283. In this example the E natural is the leading note, and
points to the key-note F; of which A flat is the lesser third, and
decides the mode.
* Acis and Galatea, 1720, No. 30. H. S. iv. No. 320.
+ Samson, 1742, No. 53. H. S. i. No. 19.


PART III.
HARMONY.
CHAPTER I.
OF THE TRIAD.
SECT. I.-OF THE CONSONANT AND DISSONANT TRIADS.
Art. 284. Two or more melodies, heard at the same time, form
harmony;* and the different combinations of notes in harmony
are termed chords.
285. The union of any sound with its third (major or minor)
and its perfect fifth, forms the harmonic triad,f or common
chord.
This is termed the major or minor triad, according to the na-
ture of its third.
Major triad.
Minor triad.

oba
E
1
35
1 3 5
286. When the octave of the lowest note is added, four sounds
are heard in the harmony.
* Dr B. i. 136. Harmony was formerly (according to Tinctor-see Dr.
B. ii. 458) synonymous with melody, and the term counterpoint was applied
to what we call harmony. This term is derived from the ancient points,
or notes, which were placed counter or opposite to each other on the staff.
The examples in this third part will be given in counterpoint; that is,
heads of notes, without their stems, will be used.
+ Triad, in music, signifies three different sounds combined together, at
the distance of a third and a fifth from the lowest.
92
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Major common chord.
Minor.

1 3 5 8
3 5 8
287. There are also, besides these two consonant triads, two
dissonant triads;* one diatonic, the other chromatic.
I. The diatonic dissonant triad, or diminished triad of the
Germans, (B, D, F,) consists of two minor thirds.

1 3 3 5
II. The chromatic dissonant triad, or superfluous triad of the
chromatic scale, (C, E, G sharp,) consists of two major thirds.

3 5
The consonant triads are formed of the two dissimilar thirds,
major and minor, united; the dissonant triads are formed of
two similar thirds, both minor or both major.
288. In the natural diatonic scale (Art. 50) there are six
consonant triads :f three major and three minor.
Major triad.
Minor.
态
​All the major triads become minor by flatting their thirds ;
and all the minor triads become major by sharping their thirds ;
thus :
-
Marpurg, (Handbuch, 1755) adopted this classification, which Kirn-
berger rejected. Kollman follows the system of this last ingenious writer,
and considers the diminished triad as a consonant harmony. The author
of this work prefers the arrangement of Marpurg, which seems most
agreeable to the theoretical doctrine of harmonics.
+ From these triads are derived the six scales before mentioned, Art.
247. The primary and secondary scales of Mr. Keeble are reckoned in
the major mode, first, fourth, and fifth, C, F, G, second, third, and sixth,
D, E, A, ascending, and ar: inverted in the minor mode.

HARMONY.
93
32 33
289. The diatonic dissonant triad has (by license) its third
sometimes flatted and sometimes sharped; and thus are formed
two altered triads,* which are very seldom used.

1 3 5
1 3
5
These altered triads consist of a major and an extreme flat
third, and are consequently both chromatic.
290. The prime, or lowest note of the triad, was called by
Ramean its fundamental bass. In this work the term radical
bass, or simply the root, will be adopted.
291. The roots of the two consonant triads are easily under-
stood, as every radical bass must have a perfect fifth; but the roots
of the two dissonant triads, (Art. 287,) and of the two altered
triads, (Art. 289,) cannot be explained till the nature of discords
is known.
292. When the three sounds of the triad are taken as an
accompaniment, and the root remains in the bass, the chord
assumes three different positions.
1st position. 2nd position. 3rd position.

* See Heck, (Thorough-bass). The German authors term these triads
anomalous. See also Kollman, (Essay on Harmony, 1796).
+ The root being placed one or two octaves below the chord of the ac-
companiment, makes no difference in its derivation; the radical bass
depending always on the three combined sounds of the triad, whether in
chose or dispersed harmony. For an account of Rameau and his system,
see Dr. B. iv. 609. Sir J. H. v. 384. See also a very satisfactory account
of the discoveries of Galileo Galilei, by Dr. Burney, art. Bass, fundamentah
in Dr. Rees's Cyclopædia, lately published,

94
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The first position is that of the third, fifth, and eighth.
The second, of the fifth, eighth, and third.
The third, of the eighth, third, and fifth.
It must be observed, that the second position, in reality, Cuii.
sists of the fifth, eighth, and tenth, and the third position, of the
eighth, tenth, and twelfth, of the root; but, as the tenth any
twelfth are octaves of the third and fifth, and as they are repre-
sented by the same letters, they are also called by the names of '
third and fifth, whatever may be their distances above the rooi.
SECT. II.-INVERSIONS OF THE TRIAD.
293. When the lowest note, instead of being the root, is the
third or the fifth of the triad, such change is termed inver-
sion. *
294. The inversions of the triad differ from its positions; as
the former relate to the whole harmony, including the bass, and
the latter to the accompaniment alone, independent of the bass.
Hence, every triad has three positions, but only two inversions ;
for, when the root is in the bass, the chord is called direct, what-
ever may be the positions of the accompaniment.
295. I. The chord of the sixth is the first inversion of the
triad, when the bass note becomes the third of the harmony,
instead of the root. This chord, in the figures of thorough-bass,
is expressed by a figure 6; to which also belongs the third of the
lowest note, (or fifth of the root ;) and in the practice of counter-
point, the octave of the lowest note is either omitted, or, if four
parts are requisite, the sixth or the third may be doubled.

TE
6
6
6
6
* Dr. Pepusch calls the two inversions supposed basses, and terms the
chord of the sixth the uncommon chord; not because it is unusual or im-
proper, but in contradistinction to the common chord, or that of which the
lowest note is a fundamental bass.

HARMONY.
95
296. The same arrangement takes place in the minor triad, *
and its first inversion; in the first inversion of the diatonic triad
B, D, F, however, the sixth is never doubled, but the octave
preferred, when four parts are requisite.

LE
6
6
6
TE
Root.
297. A stroke through the figure 6, thus, 6, elerates the sixth
note from the bass a chromatic semitone; and, when used on a
minor sixth, makes it the first inversion of the dissonant triad;
thus :

6
When the same mark occurs on a major sixth, it makes it the
first inversion of the altered triad, (Art. 289,) thus:-
6
These two chords, which are of great importance, will be
* An ingenious theorist, Pizzatti, (Scienza de' Suoni, 1782,) reckons the
minor triad dissonant, because it does not produce the third sound of Tar-
tini, &c. On the contrary, Kirnberger (1774) asserts that the diminished
triad is consonant, because it is used in harmonical progression, like the
other two triads.
96
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
hereafter distinguished by the names of the sharp sixth and of the
extreme sharp sixth; the first always accompanied by a minor,
and the second by a major third.
298. II. The chord of the fourth and sixth* is the second in-
version of the triad, when the bass note is the fifth of the har-
mony, instead of the root. It is expressed, in thorough-bass, by
a 4 under a 6, and in four parts the three positionst of the triad
are used as its accompaniment, (Art. 292,) without any regard
(as in the chord of the sixth) to the omission of one note or the
doubling of another, (Art. 295.)

6
SECT. III.-OF THE DIRECT AND CONTRARY MOTIONS,
AND THE RULES FOR THEIR USE IN HARMONY.
299. Before the harmonical succession of triads can be rightly
understood, it is necessary to explain the different motions of the
parts which constitute harmony. Two of these are essential,
viz., the direct motion and the contrary motion.
300. In the direct motion the parts move the same way, as-
cending or descending.

态
​음
​301. In the contrary motion one part rises while the other
falls.
* Kirnberger considers this harmony, when suspended, as dissonant,
(see Mr. Kollman's Essay on Harmony ;) but Marpurg has, in the Appen-
dix to his Essay on Temperament, (1776,) shown that the classification of
his opponent is not well founded, and that the theory is not strictly
true.
† Mr. Shield has given the positions, without distinguishing them by thia
name; the inversions are described by him under the titles of first and
second derivatives.

HARMONI.
97
在
​302. By the knowledge of these two motions, the power of
avoiding many harmonical irregularities may be obtained, and
the following rules * of harmony correctly observed :
I. All consecutive octaves and fifths must be avoided in the
direct motion.
Octaves and fifths by the
direct motion.
The same avoided by the
contrary motion.

6
II. All unnecessary skips are to be avoided, and all the chords
are to be taken as closely and as much connected as possible.
III. All false relations (such as the extreme sharp, second,
&c.,) are disallowed, unless for the expression of some particular
effect.
IV. All irregular motions of the parts in harmony are to be
avoided. Every major or sharp interval ought to ascend, and
every minor or flat interval ought to descend; that is to say, the
part in which those intervals are found in combination, is to rise
after the sharp, and to fall after the flat. This rule, however,
is always subordinate to that of avoiding octaves or fifths, and is
not regarded when the melody is to produce an effect opposite
to the rule. The internal parts of harmony, however, are to be
regulated by these observations.

* The ten rules of Pietro Aron (1523, Dr. B. iii. 155) were afterwards
extended to twelve. See Cerone, (El Melopeo, 1613,) and Lorente, (EI
Porque, 1673.)
+ Nicholas Burtius, (Musices Opusculum, 1487,) the Guidonian adversary
of Bartholomew Ramis, was a Pythagorean follower of Boetius, and ad-
mitted no consonances but octaves, fifths, and fourths." He calls the
thirds and sixths allowable dissonances, (dissonantiæ compassibiles), and
has given (fol. e, 5) five precepts of counterpoint, which will ever be
classical, particularly that of avoiding fifths and octaves in succession.
98
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
SECT. IV.-OF HARMONICAL PROGRESSION.
303. The term progression * will be used, in this work, in con-
tradistinction to the term modulation, † to signify that succession
of triads or perfect chords, which, by being confined to the
scale of the original key, only admits the tonic and its two
attendant harmonies, occasionally interspersed with the relative
tonic and the two harmonies attending on that scale; whether
the original mode be major or minor.
Although a change into the relative scale implies a partial
modulation, yet in all cases, where the new scale remains unde-
cided, I by the omission of the leading note, and the original tonic
still continues a predominant sound, the term progression will be
retained.
304. As the scale consists of seven different notes, it is evident
that two triads, which only contain five notes, (one note being
common to both,) cannot decide the key. Hence the following
examples, although perfectly similar in notes, appear, hy means
of the accent, to be in two different keys, and are therefore
equivocal.
In the key of G.
In the key of C.

305. If however, three different chords are taken, the key
may be decided' ; this is performed by the progression $ of tonic,
subdominant, and dominant.
• !
非
​Tonfuhrung, Koch's Anleitung, iii. 139.
+ Tonausweichung, Koch's Anleitung, ii. 169.
1 Particularly in sequences, as will be explained hereafter.
$ The following excellent observation of Dr. Pepusch cannot be too
often or too strongly impressed upon the mind of the student, viz., all me-
lodies have the perfect concords of the key they are in for their fundamental
basses,

HARMONY.
99
306. Thus, in the tonic harmony are found the third and the
fifth of the root of the scale. *
In the subdominant are found the fourth and sixth.
And in the dominant, the second and seventh.
307. The major mode, with its relative minor, and the four
attendant harmonies, may be thus arranged
Tonic. Domt. Sabdt. Rel. min. Its domt. Its subat.
#
308. The minor mode, with its relative major, and the four
attendant harmonies may be thus arranged :-
Tonic. Domt. Subdt.
Rel. maj.
Its subdt. Its domt,
309. The relative attendant harmonies are very seldom used,
particularly the relative subdominant, or second of the major
mode, (as D in C major); but, in modern music, this harmony
more frequently occurs, and will be further explained hereafter.t
310. The motions of the radical basses, or roots of these
chords, are reducible to six, divided into three classes.
I. The dominant motion, $ or ascent of the fourth or fifth.
II. The mediant motion, or ascent of the third or sixth.
III. The gradual motion, or ascent of the second or seventh.
These may, of course, be inverted, and become the same de-
scending; as the directs towards the remoter distances show, in
the example.
I. DOMINANT.
II. MEDIANT.
III. GRADUAL
Ascent of the fourth. Of the third.
Of the second.

W
W
* This arrangement is like that before given, (Art. 191) where the
chords are shown detached in minims.
+ Dr. Pepusch, although he expressly allows the harmonies of A. and
of E, in C major, makes no mention of D.
The dominant motion is the foundation of the perfect and imperfect
cadences, as the gradual motion is of the false and mixed cadences;
these will be explained in the fourth chapter of this part.

100
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
I. DOMINANT.
Descent of the fourth.
II. MEDIANT.
Of the third.
NI. GRADUAL.
Of the second.
bu
b
311. Of these motions, the dominant and the mediant are
regular, having a sound common to both chords ; but the
gradual is irregular, as the chords have no connection with each
other.
312. When the melody moves regularly, by degrees, ascending
or descending, the following progressions * in the bass are often
employed.
I. DOMINANT MOTION BY FOURTHS.
Descending Melody.
Rising fourths and falling fifths.
Ascending melody.
Rising fifths and falling fourths.
II. MEDIANT MOTION BY THIRDS.
Descending melody.
Ascending melody.
Rising thirds and falling fourths. Rising fourths and falling thirds.
III. GRADUAL MOTION BY SECONDS.
Descending melody.
Descending melody.
Rising seconds and falling thirds. Rising seconds and falling fourths.
• See Koch's Lexicon, art. Dreyklang, i. 491.

HARMONY.
101
CHAPTER II.
OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH, ITS INVERSIONS, RESO-
LUTION, AND OF MODULATION.
SECT. I.-OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH.

313. When a minor seventh is joined to the major triad, a
chord of four different sounds is formed, and, as this only occurs
when the fifth of the key is the bass note, the harmony is called
the dominant seventh. *
TE
3
5
The note which forms the discord in this harmony is the sub-
dominant or fourth of the scale; and being a minor interval,
requires the part in which it is heard to descend one degree.
314. In the major mode this descent is a semitone, as in the
following example:

In the minor mode the E becomes flat, and the descent is
consequently that of a tone.
315. The major third of the dominant, which is also the sharp
seventh or leading note of the scale, must ascend. Thus, in the
major scale, the two characteristic notes are united, and form,
* The dominant before mentioned (Art. 252) derives its name from the
ancient Church Tones, in which it was the fifth in the authentic and the
octave in the plagal scales, but always a fifth above the final or modern
conic. Mersenne, in his learned work entitled “ Traite de l'Harmonie
Universelle,” first published in 8vo. under the assumed name of “Le Sieur
de Sermes,” (Paris, 1627,) has given the following explication of the
term:
“Il faut remarquer que le Pseaume est dit se chanter en fa, en la, &c.,
non qu'il n'ait que cette seule note; mais parce qu'elle est plus souvent
repetee que les autres; de la vient qu'on l'appelle Dominante, car elle
s'entend plus souvent que les autres, et gouverne le ton.”

102
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
between themselves, the interval of the flat fifth, of which the
root is the dominant; thus:-
&
316. In all regular progression, the dominant seventh requires
the triad of the tonic to succeed it; and hence its bass note is
called, by Rameau, the governing note, or dominant of the key.
317. The dominant seventh is used, like all other discords,
either by transition, adiition, or suspension ; * and must in all cases
be resolved, that is, taken away, by the descent of the part in
which it is found. As a passing or added note, it is employed
without preparation ; thus :
I. By transition.
II. By addition.
春
​318. But, as a suspended note, it must be prepared, that is,
heard in the preceding harmony ; thus:-
In this instance the F prepares the seventh in the first har-
mony, is heard as a discord in the second, and resolves, by de-
scending to E, in the third.
319. There are several other sevenths, used in harmony, upon
the different triads of the scale, (whether consonant or dissonant,)
in both modes. These sevenths,† although not exactly chords
* Every discord of suspension must be prepared, struck, and resolved;
hence arise the three terms preparation, percussion, and resolution, described
by Padre Martini, Saggio di Contrappunto.
+ M. Framery (Encyclopedie Methodique, art. Dominante) controverts
the nomenclature of Rameau, Bethizy, &c., in which the sevenths are
called simple dominants, and the principal one tonic dominant, and showe
that the term ought to be confined to the fifth of the key ; this arrange-
ment is followed in the present work.

HARMONY.
103
of the dominant, are nevertheless used in its place, to avoid
modulation, as will be hereafter explained in the fifth chapter of
this part, on sequences. They also preserve a uniform motion in
the progression of their roots, (Art. 312,) and, at the same time,
produce a melody, descending by degrees, in the original key.
These are,-
320. I. The minor sevenths with minor thirds, on the triads of
A, D, and E, which belong to A minor.*

TE
321. II. The major sevenths with major thirds, on the triads of
C and F, which belong to C major. These are often found in
passages of transition, as the directs show in the following ex-
amoles :-


-
TE
322. III. The minor seventh with the flat fifth, upon B.
In C major.
In A minor.

A4
世
​
This belongs either to C major or to A minor, according to its
resolution, as shown by the directs. If, however, the dominant
on E should require G natural instead of G sharp, (as shown by
the last directs,) the chord becomes part of a sequence, and the
minor mode of A changes.
323. IV. The extreme flat seventh, f upon G sharp in A minor,
formed of three minor thirds.

W
6
* The first in version of this chord, taken on the subdominant of the
major key, is, in the system of Rameau, a fundamental chord with the
Suded sixth. It will be shown, hereafter, that the root depends upon the
krý or scale, and that the seventh, D, F, A, C, has D for its root in A
Kinor, and F for its root in C major.
t or equivocal chord. Shield.

104
CALLCOTT'S MOSICAL GRAMMAR.
324. The seventh, consisting of four sounds, admits of four
different positions ;* thus:-
First.
Second.
Third.
Fourth.
FIE
The first position is that of third, fifth, seventh, and eighth.
The second, of fifth, seventh, eighth, and third.
The third, of seventh, eighth, third and fifth.
The fourth, of eighth, third, fifth, and seventh.
These positions, like those of the triad, (Art. 292,) contain the
tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth of the root, when the third, fifth, and
seventh are taken above the octave.
Sect. II.-OF THE INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT
SEVENTH.
325. This harmony, which consists of four different sounds,
has consequently three inversions, besides its direct form of third,
fifth, and seventh, just described.
326. I. The chord of the fifth and sixth is the first inversion
of the dominant seventh, when the lowest note becomes the third
of the root. In thorough-bass it is expressed by a figure 54
under a 6, (to which the third is understood,) and, in practice,
the octave of the bass note is omitted.
a
* In general the octave to the root is omitted, otherwise a chord of five
sounds would be employed-a combination seldom necessary. Pasquali
(Thorough-bass) has uniformly given the chord of the seventh full with
four notes in the accompaniment; but this appears irregular, as three notes
are generally sufficient. At a final cadence, indeed, the dominant may be
taken thus:-D, F, G, B; but then the following tonic ought to consist of
C, E, G, C.
# It is often usual to omit the 6, and to express this chord by a 5 singly
with the stroke through it, thus, b, like the sharp.6, (Art. 297 ;) and, as
this always implies the flat fifth, (Art. 163,) the sixth and the third are
consequently understood. This inversion is employed in the Hailstone
Chorus, (Israel in Egypt,) and finishes the sequence of sixths, to the words,
"Ran along upon the ground."

HARMONY.
105
7
8
327. II. The chord of the third and fourth is the second in-
version of this harmony, when the lowest note becomes the fifth
of the root. It ought, according to its derivation, to be ex-
pressed by a figure 3 under a 4, (to which the sixth is under-
stood ;) but, as the fourth* (or proper root of the harmony) is
not pleasing to the ear, it is usually omitted. Thus the chord
appears as a simple sixth, and also as the first inversion of the
diatonic dissonant triad, D, F, B.

6
6
6
328. III. The chord of the second and fourtht is the third
inversion of this harmony, when the lowest note becomes the
discord, and the triad commences on the next degree above. It
is expressed by a figure 2 under a 4, (to which the sixth is under-
stood ;) sometimes by a 2 alone.


* Mattheson (Orch. i. 1713) rejects the fourth from among the concords
and asserts its dissonant nature. Handel, Corelli, &c., have uniformly
omitted it in this harmony. The theory of the one and the practice of
the others seem to be, in this instance, justified, by the want of melody in
the intermediate part, when the fourth is inserted. In modern music,
however, this inver-ion is used complete with considerable snccess, when
the tonic bass both precedes and follows it. See an admirable instance
in the Opera of Montezuma, by Sacchini, at the Chorus, “Nell' orror."
+ As the third inversion of the dominant produces a very great effect,
the compositions of the best masters afford frequent examples of its
utility. In the last Chorus of the Messiah (Amen,) before the final
pause, this inversion of the dominant harmony of A, upon the bass note
G, is a remarkable instance of the sublimity of Handel.
H

106
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
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4
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2
Sect. III.-OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE DOMINANT
SEVENTH.
329. The descent of the part in which the dominant seventh
is found is called its resolution; and, as before observed, (Art.
314,) that descent is either a tone or a semitone, according to
the mode.
330. This resolution of the seventh occasions two apparent
irregularities,* viz. :-
I. The four sounds of the dominant, followed by the three of
the triad; in which the last harmony is weakened by two parts
becoming unison.t
I.
II.
III.
IV.
孕​法
​II. The omission of the fifth in the tonic triad, when the
antecedent dominant is taken without the octave to the bass;
thus :-
• See the remarks on Pasquali, in the note.
† The unison parts are placed in the middle staff, with stems turning
both ways.

HARMONY.
107
7
331. When, however, instead of the octave, the fifth or third
of the dominant itself is omitted, the subsequent triad can be
taken complete; thus :-

In all these examples, the minor seventh (or subdominant of
the scale) descends; and the major third of the dominant (or
leading note of the scale) ascends.* (See Art. 315.)
332. Two instances also occur, when this general rule of re-
solving the seventh by the descent of the melody is apparently
neglected :-
I. When, by license, the bass itself takes the resolution ;t
Thus,
-
Instead of

6
II. When, after the third inversion, (Art. 328,) the bass, in-
stead of descending a semitone, descends a fourth, to the tonic,
and another part takes the resolution ;
* Rousseau, Art. Sauder- Koch and Sulzer, Art. Auflosung, have written
long and useful articles on this subject. See also Shield.
+ Kollman, Essay on Harmony. Holden.

108
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Thus,
Instead of

LE
6
333. A more unusual license is taken in the following exam-
ple, from what are called Haydn's Sonatas, Op. 40,* where the
bass descends to the root by the contrary motion, and the seventh
is resolved by the intermediate part, as shown by the direct.

334. The same bass, in respect of the letters, but in the direct
motion, (which may be found in some attempts at composition)
,
is decidedly false and ungrammatical, (as at A ;) although the
very same melody, on the tonic bass continued, (as at B,) is
frequertly and very properly employed.
(A.)
(B.)

335. Not only the positions of the dominant sevenths may be
changed, but the inversions also may succeed each other, pre-
vious to its resolution. Great care, however, must be taken, in
* The first two of these three Sonatas were composed by Pleyel, and
only the last, in G, by Haydn.

HARMONY.
109
the arrangement of the parts, to prevent transgressing the rules
given in Art. 302.
336. I. The first inversion, or chord of the fifth and sixth,
resolves by the bass ascending a semitone, as in the following
example, (as at A.)
II. The second, or chord of the third and fourth, resolves by
the bass descending a tone, (as at B.) And
III. The third, or chord of the second and fourth, resolves by
the bass descending a sen.itone, (as at C.)
(A.)
(B.)
(C.)

라
​CLO
337. The other sevenths, (Art. 319,) when used in sequences,
have similar inversions; and the same method of resolution is
generally applicable to them all.
Sect. IV.-OF MODULATION.
338. As all changes of keys are known decidedly by the use
of the dominant seventh, the different modulations from both
scales will be now explained.
Modulation from the Major Scale.
339. I. To the scale of its subdominant. The principal and
most simple change of key, is that which, by adding a minor
seventh to the tonic, makes it a new dominant; and hence the
subdominant becomes a new tonic; thus:-
67

340. This modulation being continued, forms a circle of de.
scending fifths, (or ascending fourths,) of which the following
series is part :-

110
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
17
ថ្មីៗ
07
e
bo
51
bo
341. II. To the scale of its dominant. The second change is
that which, by retaining the octave of the tonic itself as a seventh,
and by making the bass ascend a tone in gradation, descends
from the supertonic to the original dominant; thus :-
#
342. This modulation being continued, forms a circle of de-
scending fifths, (or ascending fourths,) of which the following
series is part :
7
-b
25
7
7#
#a
곱
​343. These two modulations are in continual use; the last,
or dominant change, in the former part of a movement; and the
first, or subdominant change, towards the conclusion, to restore
the original tonic. The subdominant modulation only requires
two roots, but that of the dominant requires three.
344. III. To the scale of the submediant or relative minor.
The third change is that in which the bass rises from the tonic
to the mediant; and, making that a new dominant by the addi-
tion of the seventh, descends to the relative minor tonic.

345. A similar modulation being continued, forms a circle of

HARMONY.
111
keys, in which the major and relative minor succeed each other
alternately, and of which the following series is part:-

07
7#
bo
07
ELE
This modulation requires four roots, previous to the alteration
of its signature; but the sudden addition of the seventh (espe-
cially after the minor tonic) is rather harsh and unexpected.
346. IV. To the scale of the mediant, or relative minor of the
dominant. The fourth change is that which, through a previous
modulation into the dominant, makes the original mediant a
tonic; thus:-
7#
#
TE
347. V. To the scale of the supertonic, or relative minor of
the subdominant. The fifth change is that which, by making
the submediant a dominant, forms a new scale on the super-
tonic; thus :
#a
HE
348. This change, although apparently simple, is in reality
very remote, as before observed, (Art. 309,) and will be here-
after more particularly considered.
Modulation from the Minor Scale.
349. I. To the scale of its subdominant. The principal
change, like that in the major mode, (Art. 339,) is made by
adding a seventh to the tonic, and sharping its third, to form a
new dominant; thus :-


350. II. To the scale of its dominant. The second change
requires an additional harmony (borrowed from the sequence of

112
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
sevenths*) to alter its signature, previous to the use of the new
dominant; thus :-
#ta
351. III. To the scale of its mediant, or relative major. The
third change is made by the reversed gradation, † or the descent
of a tone; thus :-
7
352. IV. To the scale of its submediant. The fourth change
adds a seventh to the mediant, as in the minor modulation be-
fore given, in Art. 345.
יל
TE
353. V. To the scale of its seventh. The fifth change, which
is very unusual, is made from the original subdominant with a
major third ; thus :-
Hu
HE
354. Although no modulation is complete without the use of
the dominant harmony, which contains always one, and, in the
major mode, both, of the characteristic notes of the new scale,
(see Articles 261 and 315,) yet the order in which this harmony
is given in the foregoing examples, is not, in all cases, necessary
to be observed.
355. Modulations are continually formed from one scale to
another, by means of tonic harmonies alone ; but, in those in-
stances, it is proper to introduce the new dominant as soon as
possible, to decide the key; otherwise the equivocal effect before
adduced (Art. 304) would frequently occur.
356. The limits of the present work will not allow a more
extensive consideration of this important branch of harmony.
* This will be more fully explained hereafter.
† Shield. Diatonic Succession of Chords. Holden. Rameau.

HARMONY.
113
The changes here given are the foundation of all regular modu-
lation; and, in the chapter of licenses, a more ample explanation
of irregular modulation will be found.
CHAPTER III.
OF DISCORDS.
Art. 357. Discords are used in harmony either by transition,
suspension, syncopation,* or addition.
*
Sect. 1.-DISCORDS OF TRANSITION.
358. Any note which passes by one degree between the other
notes of the triad, forms a discord of transition ; and, if found
on the weak part of the measure, is termed a passing note.
(Handel, 4th Sonata.)
STE
-
The following radical bass shows which are the discords of
regular transition, and which are concords, in the preceding
example.

359. The notes of irregular transition are found on the
strong parts of the measure, and are called by the Germans
chan ing notes, (Art. 106.)
In the following example, a particular instance of irregular
transition occurs.
* The discords of suspension and syncopation must be regularly pre-
pared, struck, and resolved, (Art. 318 ;) but those of transition and addi-
tion require, as their names imply, no preparation.
114
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(Overture to the Messiah.)

矿
​€
TE
TTD
The last note hut one (viz., the F sharp) is here taken as a
discord by irregular transition, which the radical bass placed
below demonstrates.
360. The notes of regular and irregular transition are inter-
mixed in the following passage.
(Thus saith the Lord.*)
w
22:
ELE
W
ERE
361. In modern music, all the discords of transition may be
reduced to appoggiaturas or after-notes, (Art. 105.) Thus, the
quavers in the following phrase may be turned into crotchets
preceded by appoggiaturas.
(Rondo : Playel's Sonata 1, to the Queen.)

fe
362. The reduction of this phrase shows the real notes of the
harmony, and explains the nature of irregular transition,t in
which appoggiaturas are always employed.
* Messiah, Dr. A. No. 6.
+ Morley observes concerning passing notes, that “it is impossible to
ascend or descend in continual deduction without a discord;" but he seems

HARMONY.
115

ee
ca
363. When the notes of transition are prolonged, they appear
as integral parts of the harmony, and are sometimes marked*
with the figures of a thorough-bass; as in the following
example :-
(Corelli, Concerto 8th, Dr. Pepusch's edition.)
-

-2
#
These two intermediate notes between the tonic and the do-
minant descending, are discords of regular and irregular transi-
tion. They are explained by an after-note and an appoggiatura,
as in the following example :-
2

to condemn those which are now termed discords of irregular transitions:
See some excellent remarks on these discords in Dr. Burney, ii. 462.
* A stroke also drawn over the notes, instead of the figures, is used as a
mark to show the continuance of the first harmony. Emanuel Bach
(Versuch, 2d part,) has proposed several methods of distinguishing the
notes of irregular transition from those of the harmony. He prefers the
oblique stroke; a specimen of which may be seen in Heck. Mr. Kollman
(Essay on Harmony) has explained the two kinds of transition in the clase
of accidental chords.
116
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
364. The same bass passage (a semitone lower in D major)
is employed by Handel ; in which the notes are not transient,
but each bears its own proper harmony, according to the
reversed gradation from the dominant.*
(Hallelujah—Messiah.)

6
6
&
MA
365. In passages of double transition, particularly when re-
gular, the slow time of the note does not affect the harmony of
the root, as in the second measure of the following example:
(He was bruised-Messiah.)

2
-b-b
bas
65
b
Q
2
----
a
wa
3
0
98
b

366. In this passage, the harmony of D flat is succeeded by
that of F, and the transient fourth and sixth are unnoticed in
the radical bass.
>
* The hypodiatonic cadence of Mercadier de Belesta, (1776,) a progres-
sion which will ever remain classical, notwithstanding the objection of M.
La Borde, and bis remarks upon M. Levans, iji. 646, 654. See also
Lampe's Thorough-bass, (1737.)
HARMONY.
117
SECT. II.-DISCORDS OF SUSPENSION.
I. Of the Fourth.t
367. The fourth, accompanied with the fifth and eighth, is an
appoggiatura, continued in the place of the third, on the strong
part of the measure. It is generally prepared, and is resolved
by descending one degree.
(Corelli, Concerto 10.)

43
43
): 3
368. It has two inversions, viz., the second and fifth, which,
suspends the sixth, (Art. 295,) and the fourth and seventh, which
suspends the fourth and sixth, (Art. 298,) the two inversions of
the triad.
1st Inversion.
2nd Inversion.

E:
wer
6
28
6
II. Of the Ninth.
369. The ninth, accompanied with the third and fifth, is an
* While Rumeau, in France, (1722,) was coufusing his sistem with a
false theory of these discords. Fux, at Vienna, (17.25.) explained them in
a few words, as simple retardations of the following Dute: "Notas ligatas
haud alind esse, qu..m notæ sequentis retardatiouem."
+ This chord, under the title of eleventh heretoclite, (that is, nised only
in part, or in an imperfect state,) makes a conspicuous figure in the theory
of Rameau,


118
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
appoggiatura, continued in the place of the eighth. It is, like
the fourth, generally prepared, and always resolved.*
,
(Corelli, Concerto 10.)
AD
98
6
98
6
7
370. The double suspensions of the fourth and ninth, and of
the seventh and ninih, frequently occur. An early example is
found in Carrissimi.
a
ឧ
98
46
98
371. The chord of the ninth has two inversions; one figured
with a seventh, followed by its resolution the sixth, on the third
of the root; the other figured as fifth and sixth, on the fifth of
the root.
372. The following tonic pedal, or organ point, is a very im-
portant study for the chords of suspension. I
* The intermixture of the discords of suspension will those of transition
is beautifully exemplified in the opening of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater. (See
Mr. Shield )
+ See his “Plorate filiæ Israel." printed in Kircher, i. 604. This pas-age
is also used by Corelli, and by Handel, in Samson, ". Hear Jacob's G. d,”
&c. Dr. B. iv 146. Sir J. H. iv. 92. La B. iv 40. (See also Rameau.)
The Abhé Roze (see La Borde, tom. iii. p. 476) shows clearly that these
passages form a species of supposition, in which the holding note is not
considered in the radical bass, Art. 9.

HARMONY.
119
(O the pleasure of the plains.*)
d.
con
5443
zi
33
98
43
ī
Radical bass.
III. Of the Appoggiaturas of Suspension.
373. Although every note of suspension may be reduced to
an appoggiatura,t yet, in modern music, some notes are more
particularly used as such than others, and differ from those just
described by greater freedom in their resolution.
374. Any part of the dominant seventh may be retained on
the tonic bass, and afterward proceed according to its proper
motion, (Art. 331.)
375. The ninth also may resolve by ascending into the tenth,
and the sharp seventh (or leading note) must resolve by ascend-
ing into the eight.
376. In this ascending resolution of the dominant seventh, the
figure of the suspended ninth often becomes a se ond I thus :-

* Acis and Galatea. Dr. A. No. 28. See a similar passage in the
celebrated air of Vinci—“Vo solcando un mar crudele.” The remarks
of Tart ni are also important.
† The opinion of Emanuel Bach is very decisive on this subject; he
even agrees with Fux, &c., that all ligatures and dissonances may be
reduced to appoggiaturas.
" Man kann alle Bindungen und Dissonantien auf diese Vorschlage
66
zuruckfuhren.”-I er uch, p. 45.
This is, however, extending the term somewhat too far, as the essential
sevenths of Kirnberger, which are used in the sequence of descending
fifths, ( Art 383), cannot be considered as appoggiaturas, (Versehlage,)
although they are bound by the ligature, (Bindung)
I In modern music, the whole harmony of the dominant is often re-
tained in the place of the tonic, and the radical bass note of the t nic
itselt suspended till the latter part of the measure. This will be further
explained in treating of the cæsure.

120
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
21
7
78
79
23
7
2
377. In diatonic sequences, as will be shown hereafter, every
note of the scale may bear single or double suspensions.
All these notes are nothing more than the retardation or re-
tention of a sound, longer than the duration of its own root,
upon a new radical base. *
IV. Of Anticipation,f &c.
378. When a note is diminished by half its value, and the
following degree employed to fill up its time upon the former
base, such change is termed anticipation. These anticipated
notes are considered wholly as relating to melody, and are not
notired by the figures of thorough-buss.
379. In the following example, taken from the Lexicon of
Koch,# (Art. Vorausnahme), the first measure (A) contains the
simple notes; the second (B) shows the anticipation in quavers ;
and the third (C) repeats the same anticipation in syncopated
notes.
(A)
(B)
(C)
부
​380. The Postpositions of Dr. Pepusch are in reality nothing
* That pernliar effect which is produced from an internal melody by
the employment of suspension, has been well described by Rousseau, Art.
Unity of Melody. In this valuable arricle, while he wishes to exalt his
favorite branch of music, melody, at the expense of harinony, he actually
proves the superiority of the latter, anal praises those beautiful effects which
without harmony, could not exist.
+ The term anticipation is used in a diff rent sense by Heck.
Anticipations are considered b Koch as after notes, which may be tied
on to the chief note of the following melody.
Treatise ou Harmony, 1731. “ Poxtposition, or retardation of har.
mony, is the puiting a discord upon the accented part of the bar, followed
by a concord on the next unaccented part, but not prepared and resolved
according to the rules for discorus." Examples 130, 131, 132.

HARMONY.
121
more than irregular suspensions, being the reverse of the anti-
cipations, and used in the following manner :-

a
ELE
OC
381. Many other chords of suspension may be formed, by
combining all the preceding in different ways. Hence arise the
second and third,* the sixth and ninth, &c.; which may be found
in Kirnberger, Kollman, Shield, &c.
SECT. III.-DISCORDS OF SYNCOPATION.
382. The discords of syncopation,ť only differ from those of
suspensionf by constituting part of the radical harmony, and by
not being merely appoggiaturas.
383. The diatonic sequence of sevenths is one of the principal
passages in which these discords are used.

TE
LP
7
7
7
7
los
EL
384. The German authors, previous to the writings of Kirn-
berger, (1774,) seem to have classed the discords of suspension
with those of syncopation;$ but his arrangement of chords, into
• This chord, which arises from a suspension of the bass, is described
by Emanuel Bach, Heck, and Shield.
+ The term syncope, or syncopation, signifies the division or cutting
through a note by a bar, or accent expressed or understood.
# The term suspension is used in its most extensive sense in a former
article, (Art. 317,) for the purpose of showing the difference between pre-
pared and unprepared discords.
§ Heck places them together; and Heck was well versed in the musical
literature of Germany.

122
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
essential and accidental, establishes that difference between them
which is adopted in this work.
Sect. IV.-DISCORDS OF ADDITION.
385. When any discord which has not been heard in the
preceding harmony is united to the perfect triad, it is termed in
this work a discord of addition. *
386. The discords of addition are the seventh, the ninth, both
on the dominant ; and the sixth on the subdominant: these are
particularly useful in distinguishing those two harmonies from
that of the tonic.
I. Of the added Seventh.
387. The whole second chapter of this part relates to the
dominant seventh, particularly Art. 317, where the difference
between the added and the transient seventh is shown. The
third section treats of its resolution; which term is equally
applied to the descent of the seventh, whether used by transition,
suspension, syncopation, or addition.
II. Of the added Sixth.
388. As the dominant harmony is distinguished from that of
the tonic by its added seventh, so the subdominant is distinguished
from the tonic, and from the dominant, by its added sixth.f
389. Whenever the melody of a single part, (as at A,) or the
harmony of the whole, (as at B,) requires it, the subdominant
may have its own sixth (or supertonic of the scale) added to its
triad.
The discords of addition, although implied in the writings of Morley,
Simpson, Pepusch, &c., were not fully established until Mr. Holden's Essay
appeared, in 1770. The term addition is now adopted in France by M.
Langle, (1801,) but in a less extensive sense.
+ Theorists are divided in their opinions concerning the root of this
chord; but a great majority of authors are in favour of its derivation from
the second or supertonic of the key. (See Shield, &c.)
Rameau seems to have been the fist who classed it as a theoretical
ch rd; but Morley gives a specimen of its practical use, and even allows
it in counterpoint where concords are chiefly employed. Holden follows
D'Alembert and Serre, and inclines to the doctrine of double fundamen-
tals. Marpurg and Kirnberger unite in rejecting this chord as an addition,
and both censure Rameau.

HARMONY.
123
(A
)
(
A)

cas
&
can
&
coer
s
Sixth added for the melody.
(B)

DUO
can
Sixth added for the harmony.
390. The fifth and sixth on the subdominant may be prepared
by the tonic, by the submediant, or by the dominant,* as radical
basses ; thus:

can
ra
nos
By the Tonic,
By the Submediant.
By the Dominant.
391. This discord may resolve two ways, viz., into the tonic,
(on its second inversion,) or into the dominant harmony.t

* The preparation of the added sixth by the dominant is found in the
final cadence of Steffani's motet, Qui diligit.
† Rameau has resolved it also into the tonic bass, as an irregular
cadence. See also Playford, (1700.)

124
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
can
a
6
Added Sixth.
Tonic,
Added Sixth.
Dominant.
392. The inversions of this harmony are seldom used; one
instance, however, occurs in Handel's Overture to Esther.
5
3
6
393. When this harmony appears in the form of a seventh
on the supertonic, it frequently constitutes part of the diatonic
sequence of sevenths, and, as such, may be accounted radical,
like the diminished triad of Kirnberger.
INO
100
15
20
TODO
7
7
6
7
7
7
.
394. Rameau* estimates the root of the harmony by its reso-
lution, calling it D when followed by G, and F when followed
by C. Heckt considers it as a compound of both the harmonies
* Rousseau, Art. Double Emploi.
+ Heck says, “ The ascending fourth of the scale bears its own natural
harmony with an additional sixth, in order to prepare the succeeding titthong
and is thus compuunded of two common chords, that of D and F."

HARMONY,
125
of D and of F. Dr. Boyce, (in his MSS.,) and with him the
author of this work, thinks that the root is decided by the scale
of the key in which it is found ; thus :-
-

8
P P
7
7
7
D in A minor.
Fin C major.
395. Koch, in his Lexicon, (Art. Verbindungs Accord,) has
placed his accidental * harmonies in a different point of view,
He considers them as connecting chords, and seems to agree with
Kirnberger,† who asserts that, by a species of transition, the
harmony of the triad is thus united to another of its inver-
sions.

字
​B
TOOL
T100
TTO
T700_
6
an
6
In these examples, the middle harmony is said to pass, or to
be wholly transient.
396. Which of these opinions is nearest the truth, the author
does not at present presume to decide; but the consideration of
the minor mode with the imperfect fifth on its supertonic B,
authorises him to assert that the system which makes that note
a radical bass cannot be true.

* Koch terms the three harmonies of the key essential, and the three
relatives accidental. (See before, Art. 305.)
+ See Kirnberger (die wahren Grundsatze.)
Heck thinks that the seventh used by transition (as in this passage) does
not resolve at all.
Keeble also has accounted for this seventh in a similar manner, under
the name of extension,

126
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
A minor.
2
i
7
#
At
III. Of the added Ninth.*
397. When to the chord of the dominant seventh the ninth is
also joined, a chord of five sounds is formed. It rises from the
root by regular thirds,t in the following manner :-
1
In C major.
In A minor.
398. This harmony being generally used in four parts, the
radical bass is commonly omitted; for the leading note is always
sufficiently powerful to guide the ear to its proper root. In this
form, the two chords have been already described, Art. 322
and 323.
399. The added ninth of the dominant is really the sub-
mediant of the scale, or sixth from the tonic; it is consequently
major in the major mode, and minor in the minor mode. Thus,
* M. Langle (Nouvelle Methode pour chiffrer les Accords, Paris, 1801)
has completely overthrown the doctrine of Rameau concerning supposition,
and the absurdity of imagining sounds under a fundamental bass.
† The construction of all chords by uniting thirds was a favorite notion
of Rameau's: it has had some success; but the simplicity of Kirnberger's
system of suspension has evinced its fallacy, particularly in the chords of
the fourth and ninth Marpurg extended it beyond the chord of the
eleventh to that of the thirteenth; but it will not be easy to find examples
to justify any addition after the ninth.
* Mr. Kollman (Essay on Harmony) terms this ninth a suspension of
the original fundamental note. Such is also the system of Kirnberger ;
but the nomenclature is defective, since the above harmony is used gene-
rally without preparation, and in some instances actually rises from the
dominant by thirds. See Handel's Chorus in Israel in Egypt—"The people
shall hear,” at the words," till thy people pass over.” See also the opening
of Haydn's celebrated Overture in D, composed for Bach and Abel's con-
certs ; where, upon a dominant pedal bass, the fourth is suspended, and
the ainth added.

HARMONY.
127
although there is but one added seventh, there are two added
ninths.
400. The omission of the root forms a chord of the seventh,
(Art. 322,) on the leading note, which may be known from the
other sevenths (either of the sequence or of suspension) by its
resolution into the tonic. It may sometimes be prepared, but is
generally used without preparation.

3
7
2
Prepared.
Unprepared
401. None of the inversions of this seventh are employed in
the major scale, but all are used in that of the minor.
402. This chord has been considered as a combination of the
dominant and subdominant harmonies, since it contains the B
and D of the former, and the A and F of the latter, while the
resolution of D and F falls on the same note.*
욥
​-8
3
-8
을
​
春
​多
​Dominant.
Subdominant. Union of both.
403. It is observable, that the above combination of sounds
includes every note of the scale, excepting the three notes of the
triad on the tonic, and that it also decides the mode of the scale,
since the sixth or submediant is part of the chord of the sub-
dominant, which is major or minor, according to the key
(Art. 399.)
404. The same chord in the minor mode consists of three
minor thirds ; † and its extreme notes are the sharp seventh and

* This explanation of the chord corresponds with the system of M.
Bemetzrieder, whose calls (appels) are precisely the four sounds of this
harmony. Lecons de Clavecin, Paris, 1771. Translation by Bernard,
1778. The union of these two harmonies, G and F, is a system far more
plausible than the combination of D and F in the added sixth. (Art. 394.)
+ Rameau terms this harmony a borrowed chord, because the dominant
“ lends her fundamental to the sixth note of minor keys." This expla-
nation is very obscure, although it is finally reducible to the theory of
Kirnberger. (See Art. 399.)

128
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
minor sixth of the scale. It is of such importance in modern
music, that it is termed the diminished seventh, (Art. 323,) or
equivocal chord. In the resolution of its parts, it conforms to
that of the major chord in the last exampie. (Art. 402.)
8
BE
405. This harmony has a great advantage over the former,
(Art. 402,) since it decides the key; for the harmony of B with
à seventh may be in A minor or in C major.
zeg
FOTO
000
PP
BE
7
7
7
非
​Added sixth.
Radical bass D.
Added ninth.
Radical bass G.
Q
Added ninth.
Radical bass E.
But the seventh of G sharp can only be found in the key of A
minor. *
406. The radical bass of this chord may be found in extreme
modulations by two methods.
I. By the major third below the last sharp.
II. By the semitone below the last flat.
When naturals occur, the observations concerning them (Art.
97) must be strictly regarded.
407. This chord is not only considered as a direct harmony,
but all its three inversions are occasionally employed.
23
8
ofon
Supposed
radical.
First
inversion.
Second
inversion,
Third
inversion.
See the note in the preceding page.

BE
129
HARMONY.
408. In those keys where the clef does not agree with the
modulation, the second inversion* requires a flat or natural
under the sharp fourth.

bete
T.00
mo
11101
6
409. These two chords of the added ninth have been termed
chords of major and of minor substitution ;since they are con-
sidered as derived from the dominant seventh, by substituting
the ninth in the place of the eighth.
They are also styled chords of borrowed harmony; since the
seventh and ninth are supposed to be derived or borrowed from
the subdominant. I
410. All these chords are liable to have any of their sounds
suspended on the following tonic harmony; and hence arise
many figured basses, too numerous to be inserted within the
limits of the present work.
* The effect of this harmony is truly sublime in Handel's Deborah. See
the first chorus, “Immortal Lord," at the words," whose anger, when it
awful glows."
+ The Abbé Roussier (Traite des Accords 1764) seems to employ the
terms substitution and borrowed harmony (emprunt) as synonymes. Neither
term is found as an article in the Dictionary of Rousseau. (See Holden.)
The principle of supposition, from which Rameau has deduced these
chords, by placing sounds below the fundamental, is now (except in pedal
harmonies) deservedly forgotten.
Mrs. Gunn (Introduction to Music, 1803) has given this explanation
of borrowed harmony), which differs from the original idea of Rameau,
although it is not inapplicable to the combination. (See Art. 402.)



130
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER IV.
I
OF CADENCES.
Art. 411. A cadence* in harmony consists of two distinct
chords, (the last of which is generally accented,) and is used to
terminate the sections and periods of musical rhythm.
Sect. I.-OF RADICAL CADENCES.
412. When the basses of both chords are the roots of their
respective triads, the cadence is termed radical; and of these
radical cadences there are four in general use, the perfect,
imperfect, false, and mixed; † to these may be added the plagal
or church cadence, which is only a variation of the imperfect;
and the authentic, which is only the ancient term for the perfect.
413. I. The perfect cadence consists of the dominant har-
mony, followed by that of the tonic; thus,-
TE
-8
&
#
In C major.
In A minor.
The first or leading harmony is always major.
414. II. The imperfect cadence consists of the tonic, followed
by the dominant without its added seventh, and is the former
cadence reversed.
* The term cadence was formerly applied to the final melody of a musical
close. See Morley and Butler. The Germans adopted the Latin word
clausula in the same sense. See Walther's Lexicon, 1732.
+ See the origin of the cadences before explained, Art. 310.
See Rameau, of the perfect cadence.
Š This is termed by Rameau the irregular cadence, and he wishes
extremely to have the sixth added to the leading chord. This fancied
improvement has been, with great propriety, rejected by subsequent
theorists. Se Kirnberger, Die Kunst; and Kollman, Essay on Harmony.

HARMONY.
131

DO
000
LE
vo
In C major.
In A minor.
The second or final harmony is always major.
415. III. The false cadence* consists of the dominant, fol-
lowed by the submediant (in diatonic gradation) taken in the
place of the tonic. In the major mode, this cadence forms the
interval of a tone; in the minor mode, only a semitone; and it
is used instead of the perfect cadence, from which it is derived.

Z
E 욥
​#
In C major.
In A minor.
416. IV. The mired cadence † is the direct gradation of the
subdominant to the dominant, and is used instead of the imper-
fect cadence, from wbich it is derived.

8
8
000
#
In C major.
In A minor.
* The false or flying cadence is placed by Rameau among the licenses
+ Tartini. Rameaa has also mentioned another cadence, which he
terms interrupted (interrompue), from the dominant to the mediante
(Code de la Musique, 1760). Of this progression at a rhythmic close,
there are few, if any, practical examples.

132
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
417. The plagal cadence* only differs from the imperfect as to
its place in the scale, being the progression of the subdominant
to the tonic. This is used as a final cadence in church music,
particularly in the Hallelujah Chorus, Messiah, and in the
Coronation Anthem, Zadock the Priest.
18
In C major.
In A minor.
The final chord of this is always major.f
418. The authentic cadence is the same as the perfect, (Art.
413,) and is only so termed in contradistinction to the plagal.
(See Art. 177.)
SECT. II.-OF MEDIAL CADENCES.
419. When the leading harmony of any cadence is not rad-
ical, but inverted, the cadence is, in this work, termed medial,
and is used to express an incomplete close.
420. I. Cadence of the leading note. This is the first inversion
of the dominant, and is used instead of the perfect cadence. I
es
as o
6
woon
* This is the cadanza-aritmetica of Tartini. For the etymology of the terms
plagal and authentic, see Dr. Burney, ii. 13. See also the Rev. Mr. Jones of
Nayland's Treatise, (1784 ;) and the cadence he alludes to in Dr. B. ii. 484.
f Hence arises the necessity of varying the third of the last harmony in
the minor mode, and of changing it to the major third. Dr. B. iii. 114.
See also the observations of Mr. Shield. Formerly it was usual to ter-
ininate every piece of music with the major third, whatever might be the
cadence (See Padre Martini, Saggio 1.)
I See examples of all these cadences in Handel's Judas Maccabæus,
“We worship God.”

HARMONY.
133
421. II. Cadence of the sharp sirth. This is the second
inversion of the dominant, and is sometimes used as a final
cadence on the tonic, as in Non Nobis, Domine, but more generally
on the sixth of the descending scale, when it commonly bears a
suspended seventh.

000
DVO
6
6
6
6
2
ole
422. III. Cadence of the major or minor sirth. This is the
first inversion of the mixed cadence, and is chiefly used in the
minor mode. It is also liable to the antecedent suspension of
the seventh.

ON O
#
6
#
6
76
TE
423. These cadences may also become protracted, by using
other harmonies on the dominant. Thus is formed what Dr.
Pepusch calls the grand cadence. *

100
5655
3443
• Godfrey Keller (1731) calls the 5th and 4th cadence common: the 6th
and 4th cadence bears its own name; and that given in the example above
is called the great cadence. (See Dr. Pepusch.)

134
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
424. To these may be added those deceptive cadences, which,
by varying the final chord, avoid the final close.
6
6
ZE
CHAPTER V.
OF SEQUENCES.
Art. 425. Any similar succession of chords in the same scale,
ascending or descending diatonically, is, in this work, termed a
sequence.
426. All sequences are particularly distinguished by the irre-
gularity of making the leading note a temporary root, to avoid
modulation out of the original scale.
I. Of Dominant Sequences.
427. The principal descending sequence is that of sevenths ;f
an example of which has been already given, (Art. 383,) derived
from the progression of rising fourths and falling fifths in the
dominant motion. (Art. 312.)
Of Mediant Sequences.
428. The principal ascending sequence is that known by a
figure 5 followed by a 6, on a gradual progression of the diatonic
scale. It is derived from the mediant progression. (Art. 312.)
* The great distinction between a sequence and a modulation consists
in the scale or key remaining unaltered in the sequence, and being changed
in the modulation (See Art. 303.)
+ Dr. Burney calls it a chain of sevenths. The term sequence was pro-
bably first employed by Pasquali. It is found in Rameau, in the more
extensive sense of progression.

HARMONY.
135
In this and the following examples the directs show the
radical bass.

里
​56
56
56
56
Wa
W

2
56
56
W
W
This sequence, like that of sevenths, admits of the leading
note, as a temporary root;* and it seems to have been for the
sake of elucidating these passages, that Kirnberger and Kollman
have admitted the diminished triad among the consonant har-
monies.
III. Of Inverted Sequences.
429. The principal inverted sequences are those derived from
the sequence of sevenths; † and of these, the most usual is that
of a 7, followed by a 6 on the gradual descending progression of
the scale.

* Nothing but the rhythmical arrangement of the passage, which divides
every semibreve into two roots, permits this departure from the first prin-
ciples of harmony, viz., that every radical bass must bear a perfect fifth,
(Art. 291,) and that all melodies belong to the three chords of the key.
(Art. 305.) These two rules are liable to no exceptions, except what arise
from the nature of the sequences and the licenses. Dr. Boyce, in his air of
“Softly rise," has used this sequence with great effect. Shield.
+ This may be considered as a simple sequence of sixths, with suspen-
sions of the sevenths; and, in like manner, the ascending sequence of
fifth and sixth may be explained by anticipation. (See Art. 378.) In
Mr. Kollman's Essay, the sequences are thus explained.

136
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
d
d
d
76
-58
#
76
3
0
W
W
w
म
a
76
76
76
#
W
the
430. It is not unusual in the first inversion of the sequence
of sevenths (that of the fifth and sixth) to leave every other har-
mony as a simple triad, in the following manner :-
El
$
§
TE
W
IV. Of Simple Sequences.
431. A descending scale may also be accompanied by a simple
sequence of sixths alone. The theory of this progression is in-
volved in some difficulty;* but the uniform practice of authors,
both ancient and modern, has established its use.
* Rameau observes of this sequence, that Zarlino expressly forbids it,
(Institu. Harmoniche, edit. 1573;) but its high antiquity, and its great
effect in modern music, renders it classical, notwithstanding the defect of
the false harmony on D, derived from the imperfect triad of B. (Art. 287.)

HARMONY,
137
6
6
6
6
6
tê
432. The same series may take place ascending; and the
effect is nearly that of the medial sequence of 5 and 6, as the
preceding series of the descending scale resembles the inverted
sequence of 7 and 6.

0 0
Toni
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
1
V. Of Compound Sequences.
433. Compound sequences are those which, by employing the
chords of suspension, change their harmonies on the alternate
bass. Of these there are various kinds; one of the principal is
that of descending thirds with alternate ninths; thus :-
Eet

00
No.
pp
poto_
6
9
3
9
3
3
3
9
3
434. These sequences also may be doubly compounded, and
then bear double suspensions.
K

138
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Ahora
NUO
FOON
2000
DUN
1
435 To these may be added the partial sequences of two
similar harmonies, frequertly found in Handel, &c.; thus :-
NO
TOUR
TO00
os
4
6
er
VI. Of Irregular Sequences.
436. It is not unusual to find an ascending scale accompanied
with the figures 7 and 6, with 9 and 8, or with their compounds
, and , which form irregular sequences.* These chords belong
regularly to a descending series.
d
ET
76
76
98
98
a
In these sequences the unaccented harmony must be divided
in half, after the resolution of the discord, to prepare the follow-
* Lampe gives an example of these sequences, in which, by the con-
trary motion, the necessity of div.ding the last harmony is avoided.

HARMONY
139
ing one, as in the antecedent example; the seventh is then pre-
pared by the eighth, and the ninth by the tenth.*
CHAPTER V I.
OF LICENSES.
Sect. I.-OF PEDAL HARMONIES.
Art. 437. When the dominant harmony is taken unprepared
upon the tonic bass as a holding note, whether preceded by the
tonic or by the subdominant harmony, the passage is termed a
tonic pedal or organ point.

非
​TOM
werd
OLGO
82
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TE
In the chord of the dominant note itself is generally omitted,
for reasons before given, (Art. 327 ;) and the chord appears
(independent of the holding bass) like that of the sharp sixth on
the supertonic.
438. When also any chords or sequences are taken upon the
dominant bass as a holding note, a similar passage is formed,
and the bass then also becomes a dominant pedal note or organ
point.
439. Not only the simple dominant, but its compound deriva-
tive, the added ninth, (Art. 397,) may be taken on a tonic pedal.
Hence arises the chord of the sirth and seventh, or the thirteenth
of Marpurg.† This is used in the minor mode on the tonic,
and sometimes, by extreme license, on the dominant.

* That the present classification cannot comprehend all the sequences
which have been or can be invented, is sufficiently obvious. (See Shield.)
+ Marpurg's ar:angement of chords into the consonant triads, dissonant
triads, and sevenths, in the first class, and into the ninth, eleventh, and

140
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
bog
Р
cs
F1
OCCO
αι.Η
+
440. Not only these but any other chords, whether of suspen-
sion, sequence, &c., may be taken on the tonic, or the dominant,
as a pedal bass; and some instances occur in which these sounds
may be retained in a superior part, as in the following example
from Mozart, Op. 11.
在于​:
TE
Sect. II.- OF THE EXTREME SHARP SIXTH.
441. When, upon the first inversion of the mixed cadence,
(Art. 422,) the sixth of the submediant (or fourth of the scale)
is accidentally sharped, the chord of the ex/reme sharp sixth * is
formed. This harmony, when accompanied simply by the third,
has been termed the Italian sixth.
TON
BE
Root B.
thirteenth. in the second class, is clearly explained by Turk. (General
Bass. 1791).
• See Art. 297. Rousseau asserts that this harmony is never inverted.
Framery (Art. Accord) has shown, from a Passione of Paisiello, that its
inversion may be used ; and we have an example in Weldon's Anthem,
“ Hear my crying.” Dr. Boyce, Cath. Music.

HARMONY.
141
By this alteration of the fourth the species of cadence is
changed from the first inversion of the mixed to the second in-
version of the perfect, (Art. 421 :) and it is considered as a
license because the root bears a flat fifth, while at the same time
the third continues major.
The radical bass, therefore, of the extreme sharp sixth, is the
supertonic of the key; and its fifth is allowed to be defective,
that the original minor mode may not be totally destroyed.
442. When to the simple combination of the Italian sixth the
root itself is annexed, a chord of the third, fourth, and sixth is
formed; and, as this harmony is only found in the theory of
Rameau, it may
be properly termed the French sixth.

8
拜
​00
Root B.
443. A harmony still more remote, but extremely powerful,
is formed upon this chord, by inserting the added ninth on the
root, as a supposed dominant to the real one.
This occurs with great effect in the writings of Graun, &c.,
and therefore may be called the German sixth.

65
41
Root B.
* See the example in Shield. The music of France, Italy, and Ger-
many, cannot be illustrated in a smaller compass than by the use of these
three chords. The feebleness of the French sixth compared with the
elegance of the Italian, and the strength of the German, leaves no doubt
of their superior excellence. The admirable genius of Graun knew when
to employ Italian sweetness, and when to change it for German force.

142
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
It requires, however, a continuation of its third and fifth on
the dominant bass, (as a new fourth and sixth,) to prevent the
consecutive fifths.
Sect. III.-OF PARTIAL MODULATION.
.
444. Whenever the dominant and tonic of a new key are
employed without the subdominant harmony, such change con-
stitutes a partial modulation.
445. One change of this kind arises when the seventh of the
major mode is flatted, and the modulation returns again through
the leading note to the tonic; thus :-
23
1
g
ola
s) 1
6
1600
446. Another change towards the dominant is also frequently
used; thus:-
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doll
E
151
HE
6
7
3
Many other changes occur, to the relative minor, (or subme-
diant), to the mediant, to the supertonic, &c., some of which are
peculiar to the music of the last forty years.
Sect. IV.-OF THE RULE OF THE OCTAVE.
447. It may appear singular to class this celebrated progres-
sion among musical licenses ;* but, as the descending scale
• Rousseau ascribes the invention of this rule to De Laire, 1710. Sur
his art. Règle de l'Octave.

HARMONY.
143
equally includes a partial modulation, and rejects the original
subdominant harmony, so essential to the constituent parts of
the key, (Art. 305), the propriety of the classification appears
obvious tu the author of this work.
448. When a diatonic scale in the bass is accompanied with
harmony according to this rule, the roots and their inversions *
are thus intermixed:
Ascending Scale.

100
OD N
COD
000
2
}
6
ca
2
Radical Bass.
7
7
t.
449. The descending scale makes a partial modulation into
the dominant, like that given in Art. 446.
Descending Scale.
ea
8

3
000
DOD
goo
6
WA
CAP
مه
In the minor mode, when the accidental scale is employed, the sixth
must be sharped.
† The directs placed over F, on the supertonic, show the fundamental
basses of the French theorists. The hyperdiatonic cadence of Mercadier
de Belesta coincides witb the under notes.

144
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
450. In the minor mode the inversion of the mixed cadenco
takes place, which, in modern music, is generally varied by the
Italian sixth.
The directs mark the roots of the chords. .
&
a
e
6
6
6
S
We
The remainder of the scale coincides with that of the major
mode.
451. Although this scale is given in the above form by most
of the theoretical writers, yet, in practical music, such is the
prevalence of partial modulations, varied sequences, &c., that
the rule is not often found complete.*
SECT. V.-OF CAROMATIC MODULATION.
452. When the chromatic semitones are introduced between
the notes of the diatonic scale, chromatic modulation is formed,
in which the key is continually, although partially, changing.
453. As the diatonic sequence of sevenths is used to avoid
modulation, so a chromatic sequence of sevenths consists of
dominants alone, and the scale changes at every chord; thus :-
70.00
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07
F#
#
_ *TTO
17
* See a striking instance in the Scales of Emanuel Bach, given by Mr.
Shield. Geminiani also (Art. of Accomp. Op. 12) very strongly objects
to these rules, because, “they are uncertain and precarious.” The
example before adduced (Art. 363) shows that the descending scale may
be extremely varied, and that it may employ an inversion of the sub-
dominant harmony with great effect.

HARMONY.
145
This sequence forms a descending chromatic scale.
454. In a similar manner may be formed an ascending chro-
matic sequence, derived from that of five and six ; thus:-
18 3
8

0 00
bb
#
This also makes a partial change at every other harmony.
455. In modern music a species of chromatic transition is
employed, in which the semitones occur, not as parts of the
radical harmony, but as appoggiaturas, after-notes, or acciac-
caturas. *
456. The two following examples, from the celebrcted opera
of Mozart, the Zauberflote, are instances of chromatic appog-
giaturas.
(“Wie stark ist nicht.")

("Schnelle Fusse.")

GO
457. The acciaccatura, or half-beat, is also used with great
effect, in a terzette from the same piece.f

(“Seyd uns zum zweytenmal.”)
f
44
9
Geminiani (Treatise on Good Taste, 1749) asserts that the Acciaccature
had been then in use above a hundred years.
† The half-beat may also, in some few instances, be found on the semi-
tone above, taken as a flat.' See Clementi, Op. 2, Sonata Ima, first move-
ment.

146
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
Sect. VI.-OF ENHARMONIC MODULATION.
-
458. The last and most difficult branch of harmony is that
which arises from the sudden change of key made by the enhar-
monic diesis, (Art. 214.)
459. When any one of the sounds of the equivocal chord (Art.
323) is called by a new name and placed on a new degree, * the
root, scale, and signature all change at once.
f
W
w
W
F
W
-
Root E, key A minor.
Root G, key C minor.
460. As this harmonyf consists of four sounds, each of which
may be altered by the diesis, the two following modulations arise
from the same chord.
春
​参
​Root B flat, key E flat minor. Root C sharp, key F sharp minor.
461. As the chromatic octave, upon keyed instruments, con-
sists of twelve different sounds, (exclusive of the diatonic eighth
or replicate of the first, there are but three different chords, in
respect of the keys themselves, on the key-board. These, in
their simplest forms, are the added ninths of D, A, and E,
dominants of their respective minors.
* Although the temperament of keyed instruments authorizes the ex-
pressions here used, yet it must be understood that, in other ingtruments,
the difference between G sharp and A flat can be made, and is in theory
always to be considered as a real interval.
+ 'l'he harinony of the extreme flat seventh has attracted the notice of all
the theorists who have written on the subject of chords in modern times;
and its complete discussion would fill an ample treatise. The well-known
Air, by Handel; in Sampson, “ Return, O God of hosts;" the "Alma del
gran Pompeo," in Giulio Cæsare, (see Dr. Burney, Commemoration of
Handel ;) Vouchsafe, O Lord," in the Dettingen Te Deum, &c., are all
passages which might justify a particular analysis, and which the author
hopos, on a future occasion, to lay before the public. (See, also, Shield.)

HARMONY.
147
Each of these chords, by the use of the diesis, may change
into three other harmonies; and thus an immediate step to any
one of the twelve minor modes may be gained.*
462. 'I hese chords may also, under certain limitations, succeed
each other chromatically, descending or ascending.
(Descending.)

End
2006
It
Root B.
Root E.
Root A.
Part of the ascending series is the same inverted, as before
given, (Art. 461.)
463. The last and most unusual species of enharmonic modu-
lationt is that which changes the dominant seventh into the
German sixth. I A remarkable instance occurs in Handel's
Solomon, at the Chorus, Draw the tear from hopeless love;
thus :

63
o毛
​000L
Ig
67
67
b
65
42
5
25
67
b
Radical Bass.
bo
并
​414
9
to express the words, Full of death and wild despair.
Mr. Corfe of Salisbury, in his Thorough-bass Simplified, a work lately
pablished, has given a table of these chords, as used in the twelve miziz
keys, &c.
1 Rousseau, art. Enharmonique, does not mention this modulation : al-
thongh it is extremely worthy of notice, being formed upon : shord so
apparently perfect as the dominant seventh.
1 Art. 443.

PART IV.
RHYTHM.
CHAPTER I.
OF ACCENT.
Sect. I-OF SIMPLE MEASURES.
Art. 464. The disposition of melody or harmony, in respect
of time or measure, is termed rhythm.
465. Those branches of rhythm which are necessary to be
considered in the present work, are,
1. Accent.
.
2. The Musical Foot.
3. The Musical Cæsure.
4. The Phrase.
5. The Section.
6. The Period.
466. Accent has been already described (Art. 80) as part of
notation ; but it must be now examined more accurately, since
upon this peculiar arrangement of sound all rhythm depends.
467. The necessity of dividing the notes of music into equal
portions of time called measures, (Art. 65,) may be shown by
considering the subsequent series of notes.
pl
468. The above cannot be performed, as melody, withom
making certain points of division, on which a pressure must be
laid. It may, for instance, be accented two ways, in equal time;
thus :
-

RHYTHM.
149
TROCHAIC RHYTHM.

3
4
Le 1
Or thus:-
IAMBIC RHYTHM.

G
e
非
​4
I. DACTYLIC RHYTHM.

le
II. ANAPÆSTIC RHYTHM.

东
​III. AMPHIBRACHIC RHYTHM.

co
469. These passages are also distinguished by the different
harmonies they bear in each variation of rhythm.
I. DACTYLIC.
GE
II. ANAPÆSTIC.

ee
III. AMPHIBRACHIC.
ce

150
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
470. The simple measures of equal time consist of two parts,
and are subdivided into four times; the parts are minime in
common time, and crotchets in two crotchet time; and the times
are crotchets in common time, and quavers in two crotchet
time.*
€
el
E
ਹੈ।
그
​2
4.
471. The simple measures of unequal time also consist of two
parts, one double the length of the other; but the times are only
three; hence arises a varied expression, according to the value
of the notes in quantity.
3
4
&
G
3
4
472. In the further division of simple measure, the accents
are known by the groups, which are regulated by the times of
the measure, as before noticed, (Art. 80 ;) thus,-
fe
473. In triple measure, the same arrangement of groups is in
general use; thus,-
H. S. vol. ii. No. 92: “Daughter of Gods”--Hercules.
A thou-sand plea - sures reign
474. These inferior accents, which belong to the times of the
* Koch terms a part Tacttheil, and a time Tactglieder.

RHYTHM.
151
measure, do not, by any means, destroy that great and predomi-
nant accent that belongs to the first note which follows the bar,
and which is accompanied by the thesis,* or depression of the
hand in beating time. The arsis,† or elevation of the hand
always follows on the weak part of the measure. (See Art.
81.)
Sect. II.—OF COMPOUND MEASURES.
475. The accents of compound measures are exactly similar
to those of simple measures, which are only their halves, and
which differ chiefly in their notation and their appearance to the
eye.

NON
fe
者
​C
BE
476. The Germans and also the Frenchț consider the measure
of four crotchets as a species different, not only from that of
three, but even from that of two crotchets, (Art. 67 ;) a dis-
tinction which arises from the nature of accent, and which is
thought of importance by those authors. It is considered by
sone of them as a simple measure; but it really seems merely
to differ from that of two crotchets, by the omission of the
alternate bar.
477. In compound time, the difference between six crotchet
and three minim measure, or between six quaver and three
crotchet measure, (both of which contain an equal portion of
time between the bars,) is only known by the accent. The
groups, indeed, regulate the accent to the eye, and show the
compound time of six quaver measure by their equal division.
478. Thus, in the example before mentioned (Art. 81) the
simple measures contain th: quavers grouped by sixes, which
have one strong accent on the first, and two weak ones on the
third and fifth notes ; thus:-

-
* The Niederschlag of the Germans,
+ The Aufschlag of the Germans.
# Principes de Musique du Conservatoire.
$ Kollman, Essay on Harmony.


152
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
3
4
8. W.S.W. S. W.
8. W. 8. W. S. W.
8. W. S. W. S.
W.
479. In compound time, the accents are as under :-
-
f
fi
|
S. W. W. 8. W. W.
S. W. W. S. W.W.
S. W. W. S. W. W.
480. The compound triples of nine crotchets, or nine quavers,
take their accents from the simple measures, as before, (Art.
76.)
SECT. III.-OF MIXED MEASURES.
481. The mixed measures before described (Art. 18) take
their accents from their measure notes; and the groups decide
the alteration made in the time marked at the clef.
482. Thus, in the Air, “Whither my love,” (La Rachellina
of Paisiello,) although the melody is written in two crotchets,
the accompaniment is in six quavers ;* thus:-
2
4
483. If, however, any variation in the subordinate parts of
these mixed measures should be requisite, they must be changed
to their relative compounds; thus, i will become s, i will be-
3
come g; and common time will become 12.
484. The following passages from Koch will show the neces-
sity of using the compound, instead of the mixed measure, in
two crotchet time.
* There is some doubt whether this melody should be played as written,
or as if it were compound; that is, one dotted crotchet, one crotchet, and
one quaver, in the first measure.

RHYTHM.
158
A
fi
485. The same variation takes place when the compound is
taken, instead of the mixed, in three crotchet time.

*
TE
#
9.
486. In a similar manner, Handel nses the compound twelde
quavers for the accompaniment of “Mirth, admit me of thy crew,
in G, (l'allegro,) while the vocal part and the bass are written
in simple common time.
Sect. IV.-OF EMPHASIS.
.
487. The particular sense in which the term emphasis is em-
ployed in the present work, has been explained (Art. 23) with
appropriate examples.
488. The emphasis is distinguished from the accent (as before
observed) by its occurring on the weak parts of the measure; by
the different grouping of the quavers, semiquavers, &c.; and by
the emphatic marks of Rf., &c (Art. 142) placed over the notes.
489. In performing on the piano-forte, a great difference seems
to exist between them; since accent always requires pressure
immediately after the note is struck, and emphasis requires force
at the very time of striking the note. Thus accent may be used
in the most piano passages; but emphasis always supposes a
certain degree of forte.
490. To the same species of effect which is derived from
emphasis, may be referred the Tempo d' Imbroglio (delia Conto-
sione) of modern music, in which the music, although written in
one kind of measure, is really performed in another.


154
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
491. Among the simplest instances of this nature, is that
change of time used by Corelli, Handel, &c., which forms one
single measure of three minims, from two measures of three
crotchets each, as in the following example from the Passione
of Graun :
f
TE
4
492. A more singular example may be found in the final
chorus of the Pilgrim, by Hasse; in which the time, though
apparently three crotchets, produces the effect of two crotchets
in a measure. *
3
493. In the last movement of Haydn's Instrumental Passione,
Op. 45, generally known by the name of “The seven last words,”
several passages occur, in which, as in the preceding example,
the time changes from three to two crotchets. In the final section,
the time changes to four crotchets, &c. As that movement is
termed il terremoto, or the earthquake, this confusion is particularly
appropriate.
CHAPTER II.
OF THE MUSICAL FOOT.
SECT. I.-OF SIMPLE FEET.
Art. 494. A small portion of melody, with one principal
accent, including the value of a measure, is termed in this work
a musical foot.
* A very beautiful passage of this nature may be found in the terzette,
“ Conrade the Good.” See Shield, at the words, “ Melting strains ease his
pains.” This elegant and scientific composition is the production of Sarti,
and was originally set to a part of a Miserere in the Russian language.


RHYTHM.
155
The knowledge of this rhythmic subdivision of melody is of
great importance in practical music; as the singer must not take
breath, nor the performer on keyed instruments separate the
notes, in the middle of a foot.
495. It has been usual with some authors to apply the names
of the ancient poetical fiet to corresponding musical passages ;
but the difference between ancient and modern quantity and
accent leaves a doubt concerning the propriety of using the
terms of Grecian rhythm.
496. An English trochee, as actor, hateful, &c., may be repre-
sented in musical notation several ways, as in the following
example:

3
4
3
春
​18
497. An English iambus, as rėjēct, obsērve, may be represented
by the opposite rhythm.

&
3
-4
BE
498. The other two dissyllabic feet of the ancients, viz., the
spondee, both syllables long, as pāle moon, and the pyrrhic, both
short, as lèvèl, may, in respect of the measure (which is guided
by the accent) be always considered as trochaic in the English
language, with some small occasional change in the value of the
notes. *
499. The difference between the two dissyllabic feet is well
exemplified by the word desert, which, when set to music as a
trochee, (dēsèrt,f) signifies a lonely place. Thus, in the Messiah,
“Comfort ye my people.”
* See examples of this variation in the cadences of the Glee, “Sigh na
more, ladies,” by R. J. S. Stevens, and the Madrigal, “Since first I saw your
face," by Ford.
+ The liberty of marking the accentual difference of poetical feet by the
signs of quantity, is taken by Koch, art. Metrum, &c.

156
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
态
​非
​Make straight in the de- sert.
500. The same word, set to music as an iambus, (dèsērt,) sig-
nifies merit. Thus, in Judas Maccabæus:-
e
.
TE
-
With
ho - nor
let de - sert be crown'd.
The effect of these feet, in respect of deciding the key by
means of the accent, has been before exemplified, Art. 304.
Another instance of harmony and rhythm being united to de-
termine the key, in contradistinction to the signature, may be
seen, Art. 278.
501. The English feet of three syllables may be divided into
three classes, answering to the dactyl, the anapæst, and the aia-
phibrach of the ancients.
1. The dactyl may be represented by the words laborer, possible;
and in notes, thus:-
fe
2
4
II. The anapæst may be represented by the words contravene,
acquiesce; and in notes, thus :
态
​3
14
H4
III. The amphibrach may be represented by the words de-
lightful, domestic; and in notes, thus:-
Sect. II.-OF COMPOUND FEET.
. .—
502. As a musical foot is equal in value to a measure,* al-
* Kollman, Essay on Harmony, mentions the similarity of the bar
(measure) in music to the foot in poetry, but does not show their accentual
difference.

RHYTHM.
157
though it differs in accent, on account of the place of the bar;
so in the compound measures the feet are double, and may be
resolved into two by dividing the measure. (See Art. 75.)
503. The following trochaic example from Haydn, Op. 40,
Sonata 3, might be resolved into single feet of two crotchets in
a measure.
整
​ta
504. The same may occur in the iambic measure, as in the
following example from Haydn's first Symphony, (Salomon's
Concerts.)
fe
505. An example of the compound foot in six quaver time
divided by the bar, is found in Haydn, Symphony 3rd, (Salo-
mon's Concerts.)
fi
8
Foot.
Foot.
506. The difference between compound and simple feet may
be further exemplified by the following extracts from the Mes-
siah, in addition to the remarks given in the preceding page.
“O thou that tellest.")
ta
f
f
។
Strength,
à
fraid.
lift it
up,
be not
(“I know that my Redeemer.")
Re - deem
The second measure of both examples is divided in the same
manner; but the accent, and consequently the feet, are entirely
different.
that my
er.
I know

158
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER III.
OF THE MUSICAL CÆSURE.
Art. 507. The term cæsure is used in this work in the signifi-
cation annexed to it by Koch, as the rhythmic termination of
any passage which consists of more than one musical foot. In
other words, the cæsure is the last accent of a phrase, section,
or period, and is distinguished in all the simple measures by the
place of the bar.
508. The utility of this distinction will appear, by considering
the two methods in which the music might be composed to the
lines,
“Conquest is not to bestow,
In the spear or in the bow."
Dr. Arne's Judith.
†
†
fe
JE
If these measures were not divided as they are, the cæsure,
which now is properly placed on a strong part(*), would fall on
the week part (f), contrary to the nature of accent.
509. The cæsure,* in ancient music, most frequently occurs
in the middle of the compound measure, and thus appears to a
modern view irregular and incorrect.
519. The exceptions to the musical cæsure falling upon
the last syllable of the line in poetry, are few, but very im
pertan:
511. From the nature of harmony, it sometimes occurs that
ihe ihrae last syllables may belong to a melody derived from the
same chord; in that case the cæsure is thrown back, as in the
following example:-
* Ile teru. Cusura was used by Prinz (Sat. Comp. P. I.) in two sendes
the first of which corresponds with that here given." See Dr. Burney, art,
Casura. Roos' Cyclopedia, vol. v. P. II.

RHYTHM.
159
“ So shall the lute and harp awake,
And sprightly voice sweet descant run."
Handel's Judas Maccabceus.
态
​BE
Here the cæsure falls on the third crotchet, to the syllables
descant run, instead of being placed on the last syllable, run.
512. It appears that the cæsure, or rhythmic termination, is
not always the last note of the passage. The melody is often
prolonged after the cæsure, by varying the tonic harmony thus:
TE
513. The whole chord of the dominant is also often retained
(see Art. 376) upon the cæsure ; as in the following example
from Mozart's Duet in C, Op. 14.
514. The Air by Handel in the Occasional Oratorio, of which
the subject is here given, will be found an excellent study for
the correct position of the cæsure.
本
​ht
7
Pro
phe
tic
vi - sions strike mine
eye.
515. In the following instance Handel has not been so careful,
since the cæsure comes in the wrong place, and the bars are
consequently erroneous. It should begin like the example, Art.
508, with the half measure.
(H. S. I. No. 47: Alexander Balus.)
县
​Strangere · verso
of
ho
• LAN fate.

160
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
516. In the old arrangement of compound common time, it
was usnal to change the place of the cæsure; sometimes forming
the cadence at the beginning of a measure, and afterwards re-
peating the same cæsure in the middle of a measure. The Airg
of Pergolesi, Jomelli, &c., are remarkable for this rhythmic va-
riation. See a particular instance in the admirable Song by
Hasse, Pallido il sole.*
First Part.
Second Part.
be
NE
517. In the national dance tune called Polonoise, or Polacca,
a considerable exception to the rule of the cæsure occurs, as it
falls there on the weak part of a measure; thus :
3
4
.
非
​518. An instance also of equivocal cæsure might occur in the
common melody of Sally in our Alley,t which is properly barred
thus :
3
4
E
519. This might be barred differently, for the sake of throw-
ing the cæsure on the last syllable of the second line, contrary to
the accent of all the other feet.
3
4
• Delizie dell'Opere, tom. ii. Dr. B. iv. 378, 548. Sir J. H. v. 325, 419.
+ This Air was composed by Harry Carey, and begins Of all the girls
that are so smart. See Sir J. Á. v. 194. Dr. B. iv. 300, 652. The style
of melody which distinguishes this tune has been often imitated with con-
siderable success.

RHYTHM.
CHAPTER IV
OF THE PHRASE.
SECT. I. -OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.
Art. 520. A phrase (Einschnitt) is a short melody, which
contains no perfect nor satisfactory musical idea.
521. The phrase is generally formed of two musical feei ir
simple time, and therefore contains the value of two measures ;
thus :
(Beethoven, Op. 2.)
fo
-
522. In compound time of the older writers, a phrase some-
tirnes consists of a single measure; thus: -
(" O, had I Jubal's lyre.")
A
A
1
Phrase.
Phrase.
523. Koch has used the mark of a triangle (A) to express the
phrase, and places it over the final note.*
In musical punctu-
ation, this sign seems analogous to that of the comma (, ) in
language.
524. Riepel, of Ratisbon, 1754,f has analyzed the rhythmical
arrangement of musical thoughts with great success.
525. He divides musical phrases into two species—perfect,
when concluded by the tonic harmony; and imperfect, when
concluded by the dominant.
A
고
​Imperfect Phrase.
Perfect Phrase
* Anleitung, (1787,) vol. ii.
† De Rhythmopoeia, Tactordnung.

162
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
526. In he works of Kirnberger, the term cæsure seems equi-
valent to the term phrase; and the rejection of the word, Ein-
schnitt, is, as Koch observes, a defect in the theory of that able
contrapuntist.*
527. The phrase is subject to all the varieties of accent that
distinguish the feet of which it is formed; and the two measures
of the regular phrase should always be complete.
(“Rasserena.”-Sacchini.t)
A
6
7:2
4
528. When the same phrase is repeated per tonos, that is, a
note higher or lower, a slight variation may occur.
(Non vi turbate.--Gluck.)
A
f
3.
-b
.
GE
529. The too frequent repetition of the same passage in va-
rious keys, particularly on the chromatic modulation (Art. 454)
ascending, as found in Corelli, Dr. Green, &c., is termed by the
Italians, Rosalia. See Koch, art. Transposition.
530. Koch makes three remarks upon the harmonical con-
struction of the phrase, which apply to what has been already
observed from Riepel.
First, That the phrase frequently terminates with the sub-
dominant harmony.
A
高中
​Secondly, That, as the phrase is an incomplete passage, the
cæsure may be made on a discord, particularly the dominant
seventh.
3
д
至
​2
4
Р
• Koch's Lexicon, art. Absatz.
+ Corri's Select Collection, vol. i.

RHYTHM
193
Thirdly, That the cæsare may also take place on the inversion
of a chord.
A
2
-4
正
​531. Rousseau (art. Phrase) has defined the term in a more
extensive sense, very similar to that applied to the word sertion
in the following chapter. He distinguishes between phrases in
melody and phrases in harmony. These last seem to correspond
with the dominant and the mediant sequences. See Art. 427.
532. Heck, in his Musical Library, describes the phrase,
section, and period, under the terms section, period, and para-
graph, and considers the term section as synonymous with
rhythmus.*
533. Holden also uses the term phrase in a general sense,
and
appears to include all rhythmic varieties in its definition.
534. The Rev. Mr. Jones, of Nayland, calls the phrases,
clauses; and considers two similar phrases following and de-
pending on each other, as antecedent and consequent; upon which
succession he makes some very just and useful remarks, referring
to Corelli's 8th Concerto at the close of the adagio, Handel's
Air in the Overture to Berenice, &c.
SECT. II.-OF THE IRREGULAR PHRASE.
535. Whenever, by repeating one of the feet, or by any other
variation of the melody, three measures are employed instead of
two, the phrase is termed extended, or irregular.
(Kreusser, Op. xi., Waltz the 2nd.)
A
842
SE
536. A beautiful example of two extended phrases, the latter
of which contains a measure of double time, (Art. 491,) is found
in Handel.
The compound rhythm of Kollman, Essay on Harmony, and the terra
rhythmus in Shield, seem to correspond with phrase or section.
164
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(" He was brought as a lamb.”*)
A
4
4
-4
537. The contracted section resembles the extended phrase in
the number of its measures, both consisting of three feet; but
the phrase is always an imperfect melody, whereas the section
always terminates with a cadence.
538. A phrase is often extended by continuing the harmony
of its first measure, as in the following example :-
(Clementi, Op. 2, Sonata 4.)

--
A
&
a
HE
539. A phrase also becomes irregular, when a measure foreign
to its subject is introduced by way of prelude ; thus:-
(Mozart, Op. 3, Duetto.)
-
#C
540. In some passages, the variation of the cæsure note by
an appoggiatura, or by other means, will give to a contracted
section the effect of an extended phrase.
541. The following example from Haydn's Creation is of that
nature, and is therefore equivocal; as its melody indicates an
extended phrase, and its harmony a contracted section.
(“ Now vanish.")
A
22
542. The next passage is, however, more complete, and really
terminates the section.
A
1
Redemption.

RHYTHM.
165
Hence appears the propriety of terming the first an extended
phrase.
543. In choral music of the ancient school, the contracted
phrase seems to be, in many cases, equivalent with the compound
foot. See an instance before adduced, in “The flocks shall leave,”
Art. 281.
544. Thus, also, in the sublime chorus, “For unto us a child
is born,” the first phrase is little more than a compound foot.
A

*€
-
For
un . to
us
a Child is
born.
545. In fugues, by augmentation, feet become phrases, phrases
become sections, &c. In fugues, by diminution, on the contrary,
phrases become feet, &c., as in the following example:
-
(“Let all the angels of God.")
Subject in Phrases.

Δ
A
1
546. The answer by diminution changes crotchets into quavers,
quavers into semiquavers, &c.
Answer in Feet.

世
​SECT. III.- OF INTERWOVEN PHRASES.
547. In figurative counterpoint, anciently termed descant, where
imitations, fugues, and canons are employed, the phrases, as they
occur, are interwoven in the different parts.
Thus the extended phrase to the words “shall be revealed” is
interwoven in the various parts.

166
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(" And the Glory of the Lord.”—Messiah.)
..fr
非
​548. The union of phrases towards the end of a fugnie, &c.,
is sometimes even closer than a foot, being at a distance of a
crotchet only. Many examples of this style may be found in the
madrigals of Wilbye, Weelks, &c. In Italy this is called Lo
Stretto Della Fuga,* the knot of the fugue.
549. The accent of the words, however, will not always
permit them to agree with so close a union of the music, as the
alteration in the following example will show:-
-
(“Ye sons of Israel.”+)
22
a
550. A similar passage is introduced with great effect at the
end of “ The flocks shall leave," where the violins reëcho the
same notes in the octave above) as are sung in the preceding
time to the words “ Die, presumptuous Acis.”
--
0:2
E
551. In those pieces of music termed canons, in which the
* P. Martini, Saggio, tom. ii.
† Joshua. Redemption.

RHYTHM.
167
same melody is continually heard in the different parts, the
phrases are, of course, united throughout the whole compo-
sition.
Of this kind of music, the finest specimen now extant is the
celebrated Non Nobis Donine, * by Bird; which will ever remain
a lasting ornament to the taste and science of the country in
which it was produced.
The phrases of this canon are as follow:-

A
Δ
在​在
​Ed
2
Non
no
bis,
Do
mi - ne,
non
no
bis,
A

Sed no · mi
ni
tu
· 0
da
glo - riam.

A
+
o
ZIE
Sed no · mi - ni
tu
da
glo - riam.
CHAPTER V.
OF THE SECTION.
Sect. 1.-OF THE REGULAR SECTION.
Art. 552. A section (Absatz) is a portion of melody formed
by two regular phrases, the last of which is terminated by a
cadence.
553. The section takes the name of tonic, or of dominant,
according to its final harmony; as in the two following examples
from Haydn's Creation :-

-
* See before, Art. 421, and La Borde, tom. ii. Dr. B. in a note.

168
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
(“The heavens are telling.")
Dominant Section
Tonic Section.
6.
554. In music of the older school, the section often consists
of two measures only, as in the example, “ O, had I Jubals lyre.”
Art. 522.
555. Koch has also adopted the mark of a square (0) to ex-
press the section, and places it, like the triangle of the phrase,
over the final note. This sign seems analogous to that of the
semicolon (;) in language.
556. In the Arioso or Legato style of music, it is usual to
find sections which are not subdivided into phrases, as in the
following example:-
(J. B. Cramer, Ex. 41.)
-
*
557. Koch makes also three remarks upon the section* (art.
Absatz) as relating to its punctuation, to its rhythm, and to its
harmony.
First. Its conclusion, or the form and harmonical disposition
of the cadence, termed by Koch its interpunctual nature. Upon
this depends the classification into tonic, dominant, or even sub-
dominant sections, the variation of cæsure note, &c.
Secondly. Its extent in the number of measures and in the
similarity of feet, (see Koch, art. Metrum,) termed its rhythmical
nature. By this the regular section, or rhythm,t (Vierer,) of
Prinz, in 1696, used the Latin term sectio, as signifying a part of
melody terminated with a formal cadence. “Sectio ist ein Theil der Me-
lodey, so sich endet mit einer Clausula Formali.” Sat. Comp. P. I.
chap. viii.
See before, Art. 532.

RHYTHM.
163
four measures is distinguished from the irregular section, whether
extended or contracted, &c.
Thirdly. The extent and variation of its component harmonies;
or the degree of its perfection as to being dependent or inde-
pendent of the adjoining sections, termed its logical nature.*
SECT. II.-OF THE IRREGULAR SECTION.
558. Irregular sections are of two classes-contracted of less
than four feet, and extended of more than four feet.
I. The contracted section differs from the extended phrase by
its terminating with a cadence, as before observed, (Art. 534,)
and generally consists of three feet.
II. The extended section may consist of five, six, seven, or
more feet; and the sections are distinguished from each other
by the similarity of time or modulation in their respective feet.
III. The extended section of five feet † is formed by various
methods. The following example from Koch augments the two
first notes of the regular section.

f
2
4
그
​e
E
559. The section of six feet consists either of two extended
phrases of three feet each ; thus:-
-
(Mozart, Duet, Op. 3.)

2.
re
* Turk (Klavierschule) has entered fully into the doctrine of rhythm,
and has invented a mark (similar to that of our passing shake; see Art.
110) which he places over the final note of a foot, phrase, section, or period,
to detach them from each other.
+ See two examples of this kind in Shield.
M

170
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
-
Or of three regular phrases of two feet each ; thus:-
(Avison, Book iv. Concerto iv. p. 31.)
고
​560. The limits of the present work will not admit any
fur.
ther examples of more extensive sections.
SECT. III.-OF THE INTERWOVEN SECTION.
561. When the regular section is so united to the following
one, that upon the cæsure note of the first the second commences,
the section is not only contracted, but interwoven.
562. Thus the following section, which is regular in a former
part of the page, is interwoven in this example.
(Mozart, Op. 3, Duetto, p. 7.)
PTE
563. When the subject of a fugue constitutes a section, the
answers are interwoven at the cæsure of the melody. Thus, in
the Overture to Esther,-
-
21
the second section commences in the middle of the fifth measure
on the cæsure note.
564. In the ancient style of music, great effects are produced
by interweaving phrases, sections, &c., and also by intermixing
subjects of different rhythms.
l'hus, in the final chorus of Steffani's motet, the original plain
song, * “ Qui diligit,” is introduced with unexpected effect in the
bass, while the other parts are singing the descant, “ Frangere
telum.”+
• The Canto Fermo of the Italians, or Choral of the Germans.
+ The “ Qui diligit” of the Abbate Steffani is at present unpublished;
but would be a useful study for fugue, &c., if printed with annotations.

RHYTHM.
171
©
e
--
In the choruses of Handel, these effects continually occur.
A remarkable instance may be seen in that of “Wretched lovers”
(in Acis and Galatea,) at the words “Behold the inonster Poly-
pheme.”
565. In compound time, the interwoven sections commence at
the half measure, and consist of only a measure and a half. The
following example is taken from the duet in the same motet of
Steffani, Qui diligit.
Р

ed
566. From this union of the parts arises the custom before
mentioned (Art. 515) of placing the cæsure in the middle instead
of the beginning of the measure.
567. It is also usual to protract the harmonies of an inter-
woven section, so that it shall appear regular in the number of
measures. Such is the following section, in the last chorus of
Graun's Passione.*
4
$

ab
568. In this instance the prolongation of the tonic harmony
in the first measure, makes the section appear regular, although
it is really interwoven.
569. In vocal music the harmony of a section is also pro-
tracted for the sake of expressing the words, as in the Glee of
the “Red Cross Knight,” by the author of this work ; the first
section of which, if regular, would have been expressed thus:

• Der Tod Jesu, or the Death of our Saviour. See Hiller's edition,
(1785.)
172
CALLCOIT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.

:
4
Blow, ward - er, blow
thy
sound
ing
horn.
But to give greater effect to the words, “ Blow, warder, blow,”
the first two notes are augmented to minims; and the section, as
written in common time, appears contracted, although it is really
extended ; * thus:-

50
HE
Blow, ward - er, blow
.
thy
sound - ing
horn.
SECT. IV.-OF THE CODETTA.
570. A short phrase, or any other passage, which does not
constitute part of a regular section, but serves to connect one
section or period to another, is termed in this work a Codetta.
The term is used by Sabbatini, the successor to Vallotti, at
Padua, in his Trattato sopra le Fughe, in a more limited sense.
571. In the duet of Mozart referred to, (Art. 559,) the fol-
lowing phrase unites the minor period to the original theme.
41
572. The extempore divisions made at a close by singers or
solo performers, and termed cadenze or cadences ad libitum, are all
a species of codetta.
573. In the repetition of a strain, the passages marked first
time and second time generally contain each a short codetta ;
one to lead back to the commencement, the other to lead forward
to its continuation.
(Woelfi, Op. 25, p. 16.)
First Time.
Second Time.
* This section is consequently similar to that exemplified before, Art
588, being really five measures of two crotchet time.

RAYTHM.
173
574. In this example the short Attacco* of each time is not,
as in general, a separate codetta, but very ingeniously makes
part of the original subject.
575. In the Da Capo airs of Handel, &c., (Art. 126,) a co-
detta is generally inserted, to lead back to the theme. Thus, in
“O the pleasure of the plains."
be
5
576. The most successful composer in this style is Graun, who
in his celebrated Te Deum,f has used the codetta at the end of
several movements, to unite them to the next.
Thus, after the final cadence of the air, “ Tu ad liberandum,"
the following codetta is inserted in different modulation.

参
​里
​With what great effect this passage leads into the following
theme, the adjoined example will demonstrate.
CHAPTER V I.
OF THE PERIOD.
SECT. I.-OF THE TONIC PERIOD.
Art. 577. A period consists of one or more sections, occasion-
ally interspersed with independent feet, phrases, or codettas.
* Padre Martini, Saggio, tom. ii. Dr. Burney (art. Attacco, Dr. Rees's
Cyclopædia) defines it, “A kind of short subject or point, not restricted to
all the laws of regular fugue,” &c.
+ Several of the best movements from this excellent compositon are
now printed in the Selection of Sacred Music Publishing at Birchall's, by
the Rev. Mr. La Trobe.


174
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
9
Thus, the air of “God save the King,” (Art. 156) consists of
two periods; the first period contains one extended section,
(Art. 559,) and the last two regular sections.
578. When one or more periods are terminated by a double
bar (Art. 130) they are termed strains.
579. The period always ends with a radical cadence, like the
section, some few instances excepted, Art. 424,) and answers
to the full stop ( . ) in language.
580. Those periods which terminate with the perfect cadence
are, from their last harmony, termed tonic periods.
581. The following example of a tonic period is taken from
the third Sonata of Pleyel, dedicated to the Queen.
First and third Sections.
B
在
​f
A
ed E
Cadence of the second Section.
Cadence of the fourth Section.
This whole period consists of four regular sections, and is
distributed into eight regular phrases.
The third section is a repetition of the first by the violin,
while the piano-forte takes the accompaniment. The fourth
section is similar to the second in respect of its leading phrase,
but differs in the final phrase by terminating with the perfect
cadence.
582. In the example above given all the transient notes are
omitted, and none but the chief sounds of the harmony retained.
(See Art. 187.)
583. As the Sonatas of Kozeluch are particularly distin-
guished by the regularity and clearness of their rhythm, another
instance of a tonic period may be taken from his Opera 21,
Sonata 2, in A major.
f

RHYTHM.
175
584. The second section consists of one regular phrase re-
peated; thus :-
f
585. The third section (with the omission of the passing
notes) concludes the period; thus :-

楚
​a
586. Many more examples might be given from the works
of the Bachs, Vanhall, Haydn, Mozart, &c., since the variety of
periods, in respect of their component parts, is as great in music
as in any other language.
Sect. II.-OF THE DOMINANT PERIOD.
587. When a period concludes with an imperfect cadence
(Art. 414) it is termed a dominant period.
An example of this period may be found in Koz luch, Op. 23,
Sonata 1.

挂​一
​fe
588. The second section, being interwoven with the third, is
contracted, and consists of three measures only. (See Art. 562.)

差
​589. The third section is formed of two extended phrases
with one measure repeated, and concludes on the dominant ;
thus:--

ド
​&
f
176
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
-
590. It is to be understood that the terms tonic and dominant
relate only to the nature of the cadence, not to the modulation
of the period.
591. It not unfrequently happens that a period, after modu-
lating from the original tonic to its own dominant, may ter-
minate with an imperfect, or even with a mixed cadence, in the
new key.
592. The final chord, in this case, will be the supertonic of
the original scale, made a new dominant.*
593. As the knowledge of feet and phrases is very important,
prevent the bad delivery (Vortrag) of vocal or instrumental
meces, so also the distinction of sections and periods gives the
Performer an opportunity of lengthening or contracting his per-
formance at pleasure.
594. The following hints may be useful, till a more extensive
analysis of rhythm can be given :-
I. Every section and period may be repeated, provided the
codetta (if any) leads back to the original note.
II. Every repetition of a section or period may be omitted,
due care being taken to play the last codetta (if any) instead of
the first.
III. Those sections and periods which contain solos for the
violin, flute, &c., when not practised with the accompaniment,
should be omitted ; f and the two sets of Sonatas by Kozeluch,
Op. 21 and 23, will admit of these omissions with great pro-
priety.
IV. In all omissions of periods great attention must be paid,
to make the harmonical conclusion of one period agree with the
harmonical commencement of the next, and to join the passages
by their attendant keys.
V. The difficult modulations at the opening of the second
strain of a Sonata may be sometimes omitted, for the sake of
gaining time; but every person who wishes to excel in science
or execution will practise those passages much oftener than any
other in the movement.

* An instance of this termination of a period may be seen in the popular
Sonatas of Clementi, Op. 22. The first period of the first Sonata concludes
on the original supertonic E, with the major third as a dominant to the
new key A major, as a modulation from D major.
+ Particularly where the violin melody is not inserted in small notes,
or in a separate line. When they are inserted, the passages may be
sometimes introduced on keyed instruments with good effect.

RHYTHM.
177
SECT. III.--OF THE INTERWOVEN PERIOD.
595. As the periods of modern music are distinguished by
the accuracy of their phraseology, (being for the most part
regular,) so those of the old school are generally interwoven,
and the cæsure note of one period becomes the first note of the
next.
The fugues of Sebastian Bach are highly celebrated through-
out Europe, for union of periods and closeness of harmony.
596. The first fugue of his twenty-four pieces, * entitled Das
wohltemperirte Klavier, is formed on the following subject :-
-

The first period terminates in G major, on the middle of the
tenth measure.
The second in A minor, on the beginning of the fourteenth
measure.
The third in D minor, on the middle of the nineteenth
measure.
The fourth in G major, on the middle of the twenty-first.
The fifth in C major, on the beginning of the twenty-fourth ;
whence the sixth and last four measures conclude on the tonic
pedal.
597. The third fugue by Handel (Op. 3) of two subjects in B
flat major, contains a greater number of interwoven periods.

The first dominant period of two contracted sections end on
the cæsure note of the seventh measure.
The second on the fifteenth measure.
The third on the middle of the thirty-first.
* First set of fugues in all the twenty-four keys, major and minor.
The tonic pedal of this fugue is really a coda. See a copy printed
by Mr Diettenhofer, in the third set of his fugues, by Messrs. Goulding
and Co.
178
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
The fourth on the middle of the thirty-fifth.
The fifth (a tonic period in D minor) on the cæsure note of
the forty-fourth, &c.
598. Another instance of a fugue on two subjects, much
longer than this of Handel, is that by Domenico Scarlatti, vol. ii.,
on the following theme :-

春
​599. All the fugues in Handel's Choruses, in his Overtures,
in his Lessons, in his Violin Sonatas or Trios, in the Sympho-
nies to the Chandos Anthems, &c., are masterpieces of learning
and effect.
600. Among all the various methods of interweaving the
periods of the fugue, none has more effect than that of making
the tonic harmony of the final cadence a new dominant.
This may be performed diatonically,* by flatting the third of
the leading chord, (Art. 424,) or chromatically, by the modulation
given in Art. 553.
Diatonically.

其
​ab
678
-7
43
Instead of thus :-

AN
* This is the clausula ficta of the older school, in opposition to the
clausula formalis, or perfect cadence. See Fux, (Gradus ad Parnassum.)
RHYTHM.
179
The same effected chromatically.

SECT. IV.-OF THE CODA.
601. The concluding passage of many movements, when it
occurs after a protracted perfect cadence (Art. 423) is termed
the coda,* or final period.
602. The length of the coda may be various; in some pieces
it contains several sections, in others merely a single phrase.
603. The following short coda from Haydn, Op. 40, will serve
as an example :

In this passage the first two measures of the coda might be
omitted without injuring the harmony.
604. When the coda consists wholly of the tonic harmony,
the open or right pedal of the grand piano-forte, which raises
the dampers, may be employed with good effect.
605. İnstances occur in Kozeluch, Op. 40, Sonata 1, in F
major, and in Op. 41, Sonata 1, in B flat major, where he uses
the term aperto (open) for this purpose.
606. In foreign printing, the abbreviation C. S. con Sordini,
with dampers (or mutes,) S. S. senza Sordini, without dampers,
are used for the same purpose. (See Woelfi's Sonatas, Op. 27,
Paris edition.)
607. In ancient music, the coda generally occurs on the tonic
pedal; and in minor movements it is used as leading to the
plagal cadence, (Art. 417.)
* In modern music the coda is generally preceded by a long shake je
one of the notes of the dominant harmony.
04019 9
6639
180
CALLCOTT'S MUSICAL GRAMMAR.
608. There is a style of coda peculiar to Italian bravura
airs.* (See the conclusion of the chorus in Haydn's Creation,
The heavens are telling.)
609. In rondeaus, &c., the coda is placed as a separate strain,
with the term itself annexed. (See Shield.)
610. But, to show what great effects are derived from this
addition, after the last perfect cadence of the movements has
been heard, the Hallelujah Chorus of Handel's Messiah may be
adduced. The last section before the coda closes the period
with the perfect or authentic cadence, (Art. 418;) thus:-

-
hr
等
​F
And He shall reign for
e - ver and ever.
-

This is followed by a coda on the chords of subdominant and
tonic, concluding with the plagal cadence.
Such were the simple but sublime notes which occurred to
the genius of this truly great composer; and the chorus in which
they occur will ever remain a striking memorial of the immortal
talents of Handel.
* The harmonies of this coda are five-the tonic, submediant, subdo-
minant, dominant, and tonic. The subdominant generally bears its added
sixth.
7
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