B 438728
DUPL
BRO

ARTES
LIBRARY
1837
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
IT PLURIBUS UNUSE
TCEBOR
SI-QUERIS PENINSULAM AMŒNAM ·
CIRCUMSPICE
A
*
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE:
A SELECTION OF
ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES DELIVERED ON
VARIOUS OCCASIONS.
E
t
1
BY SIR RICHARD TEMPLE, BART., 1826-1902
G.C.S.I., C.I.E., D.CL., LL.D.,
LATE GOVERNOR OF BOMBAY, LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF BENGAL,
AND FINANCE MINISTER OF INDIA;
AUTHOR OF "INDIA IN 1880," "MEN AND EVENTS OF MY TIME," ETC.
WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1883.
The Right of Translation is Reserved.
*
I
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
INDIA IN 1880. Third Edition. 8vo. 168.
MEN AND EVENTS OF MY TIME IN INDIA.
Second Edition.
8vo.
168.
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.
1
TO HER ROYAL HIGHNESS
ALEXANDRA,
PRINCESS OF WALES,
This Book,
REFERRING TO REGIONS VISITED
BY HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES,
IS,
WITH HER GRACIOUS PERMISSION,
DEDICATED.
W
N
333542
I
#
*
1
PREFACE.
THIS book is intended to be a continuation of my two former
books, India in 1880,' and 'Men and Events of my time in
India.' The volume comprises a collection of addresses and
speeches delivered before Societies or Associations in Great
Britain, and articles contributed to English magazines, by me
since my return to England in 1880. They all relate to one
great subject, namely, the East, and in that sense are all con-
nected together. Almost all of them are the results of my
personal experience. Though they are entirely pervaded by
the one idea of that duty which we British people owe to our-
selves and to others in the East, yet there is no sameness about
them. On the contrary, there will, I trust, be found in them
a ceaseless variety. In this loom, so to speak, are extended
numerous threads of divers hues, but they are crossed by a woof
of one colour, and that represents British responsibility. Thus.
the texture has an uniformity in general appearance with an
endless diversity in detail. While British India naturally
occupies a considerable portion of the volume, other regions
of the East come into view. Out of the twenty-one chapters
in the book, eleven refer to Indian affairs, and the remainder
to different subjects in the East.
These latter chapters relate to the progress of survey and
exploration throughout Asia by European and American
travellers who, in adventure, in peril, in suffering, have
widened the limits of human knowledge, and of whom some
1
vi
PREFACE.
5
have been steadfast unto death in the cause of science;—to the
physical features of that Central Asian plateau which is replete
with marvels of scenery, of climate, of social cataclysms, of
natural products;-to the lessons of Chinese history, showing
the unchanging polity, the deep-rooted institutions, the con-
tradictory qualities, the unfathomable mind, the despairing
courage, of a people whose part in Asiatic politics is not yet
played out; to the lovely lake-district on the frontier of
East Tibet, near the dividing line between the British and
Chinese dominions, and between the two most populous empires
on earth;—to the railway alignment through the Indus desert
into the mountain flanks of the region still called Khorasan, up
to the border of southern Afghanistan ;-to the inner disposi-
tion, the stern faith, the proud aspirations, the declining forces,
the waning hopes, of the Muhammadan world in which
England has a pre-eminent interest politically;-to the situation
and prospects of Egypt and the principles of administration in
a land whose destinies are to be guided by British policy;-
to the outward objects and inward associations of the Holy
Land as they actually present themselves before the student on
the spot and the pilgrim of to-day;-to the diffusion of social
science from its centre of enlightenment in the United Kingdom
to the remotest parts of the British empire abroad.
Of the Indian topics dealt with in this volume, some, such as
the question of local self-government for the natives, have arisen
since I left that country. The three chapters regarding the
Mahrattas constitute a monograph on a remarkable nationality
with which I have enjoyed peculiar opportunities of being
acquainted, and which, having fulfilled a great destiny in the
past, might rise into embarrassing prominence under future
contingencies. Further, there is a disquisition regarding the
political economy of British India, the condition of its people,
the expansion of its trade, banking and industry, the soundness
of its finances. The objections sometimes urged against mis-
sionary enterprise are answered by a statement of the facts
PREFACE.
vii
concerning the success of private effort in the most sacred of
causes. The under-currents in the minds of natives, and the
tendencies of their religious thought, are examined. The duty
of British people towards their Eastern fellow-subjects is urged
at the bar of national conscience. The happy promotion of
Temperance among Europeans in the East is set forth. The
professional instruction in engineering, and technical education
generally, are advocated by reference to example. The pre-
servation of forests, for the sake of climatic benefit as well as
material wealth, is inculcated.
In the various parts of the book there will be found much
diversity of style and composition, because some are reports
of speeches, while others are written essays. Though the
speeches have been carefully revised, no attempt has been made
to modify the form they naturally have as oral deliverances.
Three chapters, being addresses on geographical characteristics,
are abundantly illustrated. Besides the illustrations, there is
prefixed to each of these chapters a special map, copied from
that which was prepared by the Royal Geographical Society for
the addresses. Further, to the chapter on Chinese history
a map is appended for particular reference concerning the events
described. At the beginning of the book, too, there will be
found a map displaying the progress of geography, and the
physical configuration, of Asia generally. This has been com-
piled from two large diagrams that were prepared for the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, in order to illus-
trate the addresses included in the volume.
If my topics shall seem many-sided and multifarious for a
single author, it is to be remembered that these works represent
the outcome of a thirty years' preparation, and embody the
result of an almost life-long labour.
I am under a pleasant obligation to the several Societies and
Associations in Great Britain, and to the several English maga-
zines, that have permitted me to re-publish the addresses and
speeches I have delivered before them at their invitation, or the
viii
PREFACE.
articles I have contributed to them. Thus my thankful acknow-
ledgements are rendered to the Royal Geographical Society, the
Royal Historical Society, the Royal Colonial Institute, the
Society of Arts, the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, the National Association for the Promotion of Social
Science, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the
Presbyterian Board of Missions in America, the Baptist Mis-
sionary Society in London, the East India Association, the
Institute of Bankers in London, the Scottish Arboricultural
Society, the Temperance Association in Liverpool, the 'Ency-
clopædia Britannica,' the Contemporary Review,' the Fort-
nightly Review,' and the 'Evening News,' in London.
I am specially indebted to Sir Thomas Wade for advice of
the utmost value to me in my estimate of Chinese tendencies;
and to Mr. Trelawny Saunders for much geographical verifica-
tion respecting Mid Asia.
The composition of these papers, and the reproduction of
these speeches, while recalling many bright associations of the
sunny land, and many memories of national. triumphs won
by Britain in Asia, must yet awaken a sorrowful regret for
those whose place knows them no more, and for those who,
though still in active existence, will probably not be seen by me
again. However keen may be our interest in the events now
passing before us, and in the wondrous prospect of the time
coming, we can hardly escape from pensive reflection after a
retrospect of the momentous circumstances which this genera-
tion has witnessed in the East. While the thoughts of that
noble past crowd around us, we call to mind the lines in the
dedication of 'Faust,' some of which I translate literally.
"Ye draw near again, ye wavering forms, that once before
showed yourselves to my troubled sight; shall I really essay
this time to hold ye fast? Ye bring with ye the images
of happy days, and many beloved shades rise up; like an
old Saga lay half-expired, first love and friendship come
forth together: the grief is renewed, the wailing repeats the
PREFACE.
ix
labyrinthine erring course of life, and calls up the Good,
who, by Fortune disappointed of their shining hours, have
vanished from before me. That which I grasp I see as in
the distance, and that which has disappeared, to me becomes
reality."
THE NASH, KEMPSEY, near. WORCESTER,
October 1883.
R. T.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY IN ASIA DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS.
[Paper read before the Jubilee Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, at York, September 1881.]
Physical features of the Asiatic continent General state of our know-
ledge — Scientific surveys in British India — Military surveys in
Afghanistan - French investigation in Cochin China
Chinese geo-
graphy — Japanese surveys-Russian surveys in Caucasus, Siberia
and Turkestan - Maps of Persia-Travels in Asiatic Turkey and
Arabia · Palestine exploration - Progress of Asiatic geography
Vast work remaining to be done - Zeal and fortitude of explorers
and travellers
-
PAGE
1
CHAPTER II.
THE CENTRAL PLATEAU OF ASIA.
[Paper read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Southampton, September 1882, as Presidential Address in the Section of
Geography.]
Grand mountain system Series of heights and depressions — Sources
of great rivers-The lake regions-The home of warriors and
conquering races-Mighty achievements of the Mongols―Their
cavalry resources Variety and value of natural products — Pastoral
wealth - Strange phenomena of Nature Enormous field awaiting
research― Imperial jurisdiction
23
xii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
POLITICAL LESSONS OF CHINESE HISTORY.
[Paper real before the Royal Historical Society, in London, April 1883.]
Political and strategic geography of China - Mongol invasion turning-
point in Chinese history-Early Chinese civilization before that
event — Gallant and patriotic resistance on the part of the Chinese
against their Mongol invaders - Mongol conquest of China com-
pleted A.D. 1270— Character of Mongol rule there - Restoration of
native Chinese dynasty-Its decay after lasting two centuries
Local insurrection of a strange character arising -Prepares the way
for accession of the Manchus Origin of the Manchu Tartars -
They overrun China after a noble resistance by the people - Their
dominion established over China Character of their rule up to the
→
nineteenth century-Eminent sovereigns of their race
Beginning
PAGE
of their degeneracy.
43
CHAPTER IV.
LAKE REGION ON THE FRONTIER OF EASTERN TIBET.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London,
February 1882.]
Extraordinary picturesqueness of the Eastern Himalayas-Road from
Bengal to the border of East Tibet Line dividing the empires of
England and China — Mountain passes in that quarter-Series of
lakes situated there - Beauty of their aspect-Fine scenery around
them - Altitude too high for vegetation - Temperature and climate
-Forests in lesser altitudes-Snowy mountains within Tibet
Views of remarkable splendour or interest — Geological features
CHAPTER V.
RAILWAY FROM THE INDUS TOWARDS CANDAHAR.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society in London,
June 1880.]
Distance from the Indus to Candahar — Natural divisions of the country
-The position of Sakkar on the Indus - Construction of the
railway through the desert Gorges and rifts in the hills of
Southern Afghanistan - Desolate plain near Quetta - Fine situation
of Quetta - Valley of Pishin-Its political importance-Khojak
range dividing it from Afghanistan - Dust-storm over Afghan
plains — General view of Candahar—Its historic sieges — Garden
cultivation around it
68
93
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT IN BRITISH INDIA.
[Reprinted from the Contemporary Review' for March 1883:]
Political importance of teaching Indian natives to manage their own
affairs- Former measures relating to local government and taxation
in India Additional measures since 1881- The elective principle
in rural tracts constitutes a new departure - Declaration of principle
by the Government of India-District boards to consist of elected
members- Local funds to be administered by them--Elections
already held in cities and towns-Facilities for holding elections in
villages - Electoral qualifications ready made-Electors will for
the most part be peasant proprietors — Adverse influences likely to
arise at first-Still the Government determined that beginning
shall be made-Favourable testimony of some among the Pro-
vincial Governments in India
•
xiii
PAGE
116
CHAPTER VII.
RELIGIOUS MISSIONS IN THE EAST.
[PART I. Speech delivered before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts, at Lincoln, November 1881. — PART II. Speech
delivered before the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States, at New York, November 1882.-PART III.
Speech delivered before the Baptist Missionary Society, in London,
April 1883.]
Futility of objections raised against missions-Satisfactory statistics
of mission work—Good character of native Christians — High re-
pute of the missionaries—Large results already attained—the
battle with ancient systems - Converts from all classes
national education - The elevation of Indian women
Effects of
131
CHAPTER VIII.
EFFECT OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AMONG INDIAN NATIVES.
6
[Reprinted from the Fortnightly Review' for January 1883.]
Intellectual and spiritual crisis impending in India-Opportunity thus
offered to Christendom - Men looking retrospectively towards a
golden age - The old-fashioned style of natives - 'I'he new style of
educated men - Their national aspirations- Germ of representative
institutions — Muhammadan expectations of an earthly Messiah –
Brahmoism a new religion-Prospect of Christianity in India—Theo-
logical mysticism arising — Jealousy between rival creeds-Ideal of
native existence-Tendency of religious sentiment
166
DOE
xiv
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
THE DUTY OF BRITISH PEOPLE TOWARDS INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the East India Association, in London,
March 1882.]
Past services of the East India Association in England- Its inde-
pendent and impartial attitude The material objects to which its
attention is directed—The moral and social improvements which
it advocates — The application of British capital to railways and
canals in India — Sanitation, forestry, agriculture and emigration —
Educational efforts by the State - Superior instruction and primary
education — Honorary offices and the elective principle for the
natives - Kindness to natives visiting England.
PAGE
184
CHAPTER X.
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
[PART I. Speech delivered before the Royal Colonial Institute, in London,
December 1880.-PART II. Speech delivered before the Institute of
Bankers, in London, March 1882.]
State of Indian finance-Public debt-Works of material improve-
ment-Their remunerative character Condition of the people-
Absence of Poor-laws-Physique of the peasantry - Dangers
always threatening India-Impossibility of European colonization
in India - Nevertheless large field for employment of Europeans
Practical instruction needed for them-Landed estates held by them
in the interior-Industries under their direction - Tea, coffee, sugar,
wheat, rice, cinchona, tobacco, malt liquor, jute, flax, hemp, coir,
silk, indigo, vegetable and mineral oils, skins and horns - Working
of coal and iron-Doubtful prospects of gold mines
mines-Forest
produce Competition to be expected from natives in trade and
industry- Purchasing power of the rupee-Rise of prices and of
wages simultaneously — Capacity of the empire to absorb new
capital — Railways, canals, and staple industries — The directions
in which new capital will probably be required — Annual drawing
of capital from England to India
200
CONTENTS.
XV
CHAPTER XI.
INDIAN FORESTRY.
[PART I. Speech delivered before the Society of Arts, in London, January
1881.— PART II. Speech delivered before the Scottish Arboricultural
Society, at Edinburgh, October 1881.]
Services rendered by the Society of Arts in England — Sylvan glories of
India — The cedars, cypresses, rhododendrons, and other trees of the
mountains - The palms, bamboos, and other trees of the plains -
Use of forests for economic purposes
Their climatic value - Past
destruction of Indian forests - Their conservation at the present
time
-Large operations of the Indian Forest Department — Good
work done by European foresters in India. Services rendered by
the Scottish Arboricultural Society - Methods of scientific forestry
Reservation of rights pertaining to the Natives - Services rendered
to India by British arboriculturists and foresters
PAGE
242
CHAPTER XII.
MONETARY PRACTICE AMONGST THE NATIVES OF INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the Institute of Bankers, in London, May 1881.]
Ancient gold-mines of India-Hindu currency originally in gold-Silver
currency of the Muhammadans - Extraordinary number of native
mints-Variety of native coins-Double standard in India up to
1835-Single standard in silver subsequently-Hoarding in specie
by the natives-Capital consisting of precious stones — Primitive
barter still going on-Payment in kind Circulation of cowrie
shells-Probable amount of silver circulating in India-Probable
amount of gold-Importance of native bankers as forming a class—
Native Bills of Exchange-Saving-banks-Want of life insurance
290
CHAPTER XIII.
COOPER'S HILL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.
Beauty of landscape around Cooper's Hill - Establishment there of
College for Civil Engineering-Enlargement of the original design—
Adapted both for England and India-National advantage of tech-
nical education in civil engineering-Peculiar advantages offered by
a college of this description-Character of professional instruction
afforded therein
304
xvi
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIV.
PAN ISLAMISM OR POLITICAL MUHAMMADANISM.
[Reprinted from the 'Evening News,' London, July 1882.]
Predominance of England in the Muhammadan world-Number of her
Muhammadan subjects as compared with those of Muhammadan
Powers-Character and disposition of Muhammadans generally—
Muhammadans in British India-In Afghanistan-In Central Asia
-In China-In Persia-In Arabia-In Turkey-In Egypt-Atti-
tude of England towards the Muhammadans, first, as a Christian
Power-Secondly, as a civilizing Power
PAGE
312
CHAPTER XV.
THE MAHRATTA NATIONALITY.
"
[Reprinted from the Encyclopædia Britannica,' New Edition, 1883.]
Native region of the Mahrattas-Originally mountaineers of the hill
ranges along the western coast of India-Their physical charac-
teristics Their sturdy and patriotic temper-Their agricultural
industry-Their landed tenures-Their condition under British rule
-Greatness of their past history-Predatory foundation of their
power-Unimproving character of their rule-Establishment of
the Mahratta confederation-The Peshwas, or Brahman princes—
Leading Mahratta States-Their military contests with the British
power-Their incorporation into the British empire
337
CHAPTER XVI.
BIRTHPLACE AND CRADLE OF MAHRATTA POWER.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London,
February 1882.]
Imperial achievements of the Mahratta nation — Sivaji the founder of
their power-His birth, education, and early habits-Amasses
plunder in mountain fastnesses-Openly defies the Muhammadan
Power after assassinating its Envoy - Revenges his father's wrongs
- Performs exploit against Muhammadan Viceroy — His escape
from Delhi-Retakes
Retakes the Lion's Den fortress — His reign and death
-Situation of his tomb-National spirit aroused by him- Poli-
tical control subsequently established and maintained by the British 353
CONTENTS.
xvii
CHAPTER XVII.
PERSONAL TRAITS OF MAHRATTA BRAHMAN PRINCES.
PAGE
[Paper read before the Royal Historical Society in London, June 1883.]
Death of Sivaji, the founder of Mahratta power - His son Sambhaji
comes to a tragic end-Adventures of the next king Raja Ram—
Degeneracy of his successor Shao-Origin of the Peshwas as here-
ditary Prime Ministers-The Mahratta confederation-Character of
the Peshwas as Brahman sovereigns-Vishwanath the first Peshwa—
His successor Baji Rao I. the Brave-Third Peshwa, Balaji the
Great-Next Peshwa, Madhu Rao the Good-Succeeded by Naraen
Rao, who was murdered while young-Raghunath, the uncle, dis-
putes the succession-British interference in Mahratta politics ·
Madhu Rao Naraen next Peshwa Baji Rao II. the Bad-Last of
the Peshwas Greatness of the Peshwa dynasty Conduct of
Brahman sovereigns in the diplomatic, the military, the civil, and
the ceremonial branches of their administration
384.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT AMONG THE BRITISH IN INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the Temperance Association at Liverpool,
February 1881.]
The liquor laws of India-Question of temperance among Europeans
generally in the East-Among sailors in Indian ports-Among
European soldiers in India-Sailors' homes and soldiers' recreations
-Temperance movement in the capital cities of India-Order of
Good Templars in the East-Statistics of temperance in India-
Temperance essential for sportsmen and travellers-Special danger
of intemperance in the tropics-Experience derivable from military
history and scientific exploration
405
CHAPTER XIX.
PRINCIPLES OF BRITISH POLICY IN EGYPT.
<
[Reprinted from the Contemporary Review' for October 1882.]
Relations of England towards the Muhammadan world-Sovereignty of
the Khedive and suzerainty of the Sultan in Egypt-Accord between
England and the European Powers-Dismantling of Egyptian forts
-Reduction of the Egyptian army-Reorganization of the Egyptian
b
xviii
CONTENTS.
troops-Reformed police-The Bedouins to be kept in check-Re-
tention of the British garrison-Civil government of Egypt-Main-
tenance of the British Control-Representative government among
the Egyptians-Judicial administration-The Public Debt of Egypt
-Suez Canal to be used by England in war and peace--Hydraulic
works of improvement in the valley and delta of the Nile
CHAPTER XX.
ASPECT OF PALESTINE IN 1883.
C
[Reprinted from the Evening News,' London, July 1883.]
Peculiar benefit from travelling in Palestine-Best season for journey-
ing-Atmospheric effects in stormy weather-Character of the
scenery Scriptural associations of the Holy Land-Relating to the
Old Testament-Relating to the New Testament-Number and
variety of sacred places-Holy sentiments gathering round them-
Historical associations-Cave-cells and rock-hewn tɔmbs-Anti-
quarian remains beyond the Jordan-Phoenician remains-Greek
and Roman ruins-Herodian buildings-Monuments of the Crusaders'
æra—Divisions of the present population-The modern Canaanites—
The Jews in the land of their race-Political considerations-The
Turkish administration-The Christian missionary establishments-
Influence of the great European Powers
CHAPTER XXI.
SOCIAL SCIENCE IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ABROAD.
ᏢᎪᏩᎬ .
415
[Presidential Address delivered before the National Association for the
Promotion of Social Science, at Huddersfield, October 1883.]
Extent of the British Empire abroad Social science as pursued in the
United Kingdom is applicable to the Colonies and to the Eastern
dominion Standard of physical comfort Improvement of
dwellings — Quality of food supply - Purification of water
Sanitation, drainage and sewage Vital statistics Hospital
management — Production and distribution of wealth — The tenure
of land Emigration from India to the Colonies — Forestry and
forests - Mental and moral training- National and popular educa-
tion Art culture-Ethical instruction-Social organization-
Law Reform-Prison discipline Reformatories and industrial
schools-Friendly societies and savings-banks-Support of the
destitute — The Temperance cause The Agents General for the
Colonies - Local self-government in the East-Conclusion¸.
435
470
LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
MAP OF ASIA
MAP OF CHINA
to face
1
43
""
MAP OF SIKKIM
68
PALACE OF THE RAJAH OF SIKKIM AT TUMLONG
75
CHOLA LAKE AND PASS. MOUNT KANCHANJANGA IN THE DISTANCE
CHOKHAM LAKE ABOVE CHOLA PASS. MOUNT CHANGU KANG IN THE
77
DISTANCE
79
BHEWSA LAKE. MOUNT KANCHANJANGA IN THE DISTANCE
80
TARN No. I. ON ASCENT TO YAKLA PASS. DARJILING HILLS IN THE
DISTANCE
83
TARN NO. II. ON ASCENT TO YAKLA PASS
84
TARN NO. III. AT FOOT OF YAKLA PASS .
84
YAKLA PASS AND LAKE.
MOUNT CHUMALARI IN THE DISTANCE
85
NIMYETSO LAKE
87
BIDANTSO LAKE AFTER A SNOWSTORM. MOUNT GIPMOCHI IN THE
DISTANCE
88
JYELAP PASS AND LAKE. MOUNTS CHUMALARI AND CHANGU KANG IN
THE DISTANCE
90
•
MAP OF COUNTRY BETWEEN INDUS AND CANDAHAR
to face
93
SAKKAR, ON The Indus
95
APPROACH TO SIBI: THE KACHI DESERT AND RAILWAY
99
THE NARI GORGE
99
THE HARNAI VALLEY: KALIPAT MOUNTAIN IN THE DISTANCE
THE CHAPAR Rift
100
102
•
XX
LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
BOLAN PASS
PANORAMIC VIEW OF QUETTA
PISHIN VALLEY: KHOJA AMRAN RANGE IN THE DISTANCE
•
VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE KHOJAK PASS
PAGE
to face 103
103
*106
109
•
112
APPROACH TO CANDAHAR
MAP OF MAHRATTA COUNTRY
JUNNAR THE BIRTHPLACE OF SIVAJI
TORNA: WHERE SIVAJI STORED HIS PLUNDER
RAJGARH: THE HILL OF THE KINGDOM
PARTABGARH
VISHALGARH
DISTANT VIEW OF SING-GARH
BOWRAGARH
RAIGARH
ARTHUR'S SEAT AT MAHABALESHWAR
THE BHORE GHAT INCLINE
•
to face 353
357
359
360
364
367
371
374
377
..
380
381

40
Malta
RA
10
20
Ufa
RWAY
NORW
Lapland
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Kolguer I
Timan
Elater burg
Petchora
30
Matotchkin Str
Kara
Obi R
S
R
C
ZEMLIA
40
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
170
180
FRANZ JOSEF
LAND
T
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CMauritius
Lonely L
Port Dic
Kara Sea
Jugor Str.
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Kara
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bdorsk
O BOLS K
Pur
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uruhan
Tax
Yeni
Pyasina
C.Taimyr
C.Chelyuskin
(Severo)
C
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Liakhov
or New Siberia
Taimyr Peninsula
L.Tamyr
Khatanga R
K
n
Anabara R
Olenek R
C.Medvedsk
Mouths
of the
C.Sviatoi
Lena
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S
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Lower Tungnska
SEA
FINLAND
SWEDEN
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Stettin Danzig
BERLIN
Riga
White
Mezen
Archangel
Onega
Onega
R.Mezen
Dwina
Ladoga
ST PETERSBURG
Peipus
RDuna
asberg
Nie
arsaw
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R. Priper
Rogda U
men
Valdai Hills
R.Volga
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Moscow
Smolensk
R Kief
onely
R. Oka
Teherding
Kanyakov M
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Per
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R.Dnieper
R.Donetz
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R.Volos
Ekaterinoslav
M
Rhine
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R.Oder
Dresden
GER
R.Dan
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Prague
Munich
Breslau
POLAND
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Oleng Pesth
ROMANIA
R. Pruth
Shians
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0 East Gr.
FRAN
SR.Rhone
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Pyrenees
West Gr.
SP
Greet
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Milan
Florence
Marseilles
CORSICA
NEhroR.
Barcelona
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MINDANAO I.
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The Political divisions are bounded
by dark red lines.
The Oceanic & Inland Drainage areas
are bounded by blue lines.
The portions of country which have been
(professionally and scientifically
surveyed, are tinted dark pink..
non-professionally or roughly surveyed,
are tinted light pink..
explored only, very light pink..
The portions as yet unexplored, are left
Martai 1. white
Sulu Archip
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ISLAND
120
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130
40
30
20
10
North Latitude
140
Stanford's Geog. Estab
London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY IN ASIA DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS.
[Paper read before the Jubilee Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, at York, September 1881.]
Physical features of the Asiatic continent General state of our knowledge
Scientific surveys in British India - Military surveys in Afghanistan —
French investigation in Cochin China-Chinese geography-Japanese
surveys — Russian surveys in Caucasus, Siberia and Turkestan- Maps
of Persia — Travels in Asiatic Turkey and Arabia - Palestine explora-
tion Progress of Asiatic geography Vast work remaining to be
done - Zeal and fortitude of explorers and travellers.
THE area of Asia contains seventeen millions of English square
miles. Out of this, about two-thirds consist of mountains and
table-lands, whereof a large part is desert; and one-third of
lowlands, wherein a small part is desert: the rest of the low-
lands being arable, of which again a considerable portion is
cultivated. Thus out of the whole area not more than one-
sixth is under cultivation; among the populated tracts, however,
some are the most densely peopled in the world. As regards
climate, Japan and a part of China proper can be called tem-
perate. The southern peninsulas of Asia have great heat, with
but little relief from cold. The main Asiatic continent has
extreme cold of varying duration in the year, followed by
equally severe heat. Although some nomad tribes show kind-
ness and hospitality to Europeans, and even to European ladies,
B
1
2
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
still for travellers the fierceness of Man is but too often added
to the wildness of Nature. The geographers in Asia therefore
need not only intellectual ability and persistent diligence, but
also the sternest moral qualities and the stiffest physical strength.
In recounting their deeds we may adopt the Virgilian words
"Arma virumque cano;" that is, we celebrate the work and the
men who did it. We remember, too, the maxim, "Nil mortabilus
arduum,” which to us means that nothing is too hard for geo-
graphers to attempt.
On the map which illustrates this paper, and which has been
prepared with the assistance of Mr. Trelawny Saunders, Geo-
grapher to the India Office, you will see clearly marked in the
midst of the continent a great Central Plateau, more than two
millions of English square miles in area, rising to great altitudes,
which dominates the river systems and the drainage of the
greater part of Asia, and which is bounded by the Himalayas
towards the Indian Ocean, by the Yun-ling and the Inshan
mountains towards the Pacific Ocean, by the Altai and Yoblonoi
ranges towards the Arctic Ocean, and by the Pamir mountains
towards the inland seas, the Aral and the Caspian. The Pamir
mountains constitute a group connecting the great ranges of
Himalaya and Altai.
Branching off from this Central Plateau is another extensive
plateau, with an average altitude of 5000 feet above the sea,
which includes Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Armenia, and
Asia Minor, and from a small part of which the drainage is
towards the Atlantic Ocean, through the Black Sea, and the
Mediterranean. It is through Asia Minor and the Caucasus
that the Asiatic mountains are connected with the ranges of
southern Europe.
It is remarkable that from within this Central Plateau, walled
round as it is by mountain ranges, there rise most of the greatest
Asiatic rivers, which burst through the mountains in order to
make a passage towards the sea. Such, for instance, are the
Indus, with its affluent the Satlej, the Brahmaputra, the Ganges,
CHAP. I. DRAINAGE OF THE ASIATIC CONTINENT.
3
the Irawady, the Salwen, the Cambodia or Mekong, all flowing
into the Indian Ocean; the Yang-tsze Kiang, the Hoang-Ho, the
Amûr, flowing into the Pacific Ocean; the Lena, the Yenisei,
and the Ob, flowing into the Arctic Ocean; the Jaxartes and the
Oxus, flowing into the inland sea of Aral. Many other rivers,
which though lesser are still very great, take their sources from
the outer slopes of the mountains which surround the Central
Plateau.
Next after the oceanic drainage, the inland Asiatic drainage,
which finds no vent towards the ocean, may claim attention as
being the largest in the world, and as occupying nearly four
millions of English square miles, or nearly one-fourth of the
Asiatic continent. This extraordinary drainage area may be
divided into the following categories:-1st, the Caspian; 2nd,
the Aral; 3rd, the Balkash (Siberian); 4th, Lake Lob (Yarkand);
5th, Kuku-Nor; 6th, the lesser lakes of Tibet; 7th, the lesser
lakes of Altai; 8th, the Helmand, draining nearly all Afghanistan
into the Seistan swamps; 9th, the Kavir or saline deserts in
eastern Persia; 10th, the lake of Urumiya in north-western
Persia; 11th, Lake Van in Kurdistan; 12th, the Dead Sea.
The Central Plateau is made up of several plateaux having
different altitudes. The highest is that of Tibet, on the average
15,000, above the sea, the loftiest in the world; next, that of
Pamir, 13,000 feet; then that of Kuku-Nor, 10,000 feet. Next
we see a sudden dip or depression, namely, that of Yarkand, or
Western Gobi, only 3000 feet above the sea; then there follow
two steps upward, namely, that of Eastern Gobi, 4000 feet; and
lastly that of Altai, 5000 feet.
The Central Plateau has been the home of most of the nomad
and pastoral tribes which have successfully overrun the rest of
Asia. It now belongs (with the exception of one tract) to the
Chinese empire.
I next invite your attention to the political divisions of Asia,
indicated on the map, as they are now recognized to exist,
namely:-I. India and Ceylon; II. Afghanistan and Belu-
B 2
4
CHAP. 1.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
chistan; III. Siam and Cochin China; IV. The Chinese Em-
pire; V. Japan; VI. Asiatic Russia; VII. Persia; VIII. Asiatic
Turkey and Arabia.
Upon the map there are separately marked those portions
which have been professionally and scientifically surveyed, those
portions which have been surveyed non-professionally or roughly,
and those portions which have been explored only, without
surveys; while the remaining portions, being unexplored, are
left white.
For the southern coast of Asia, 15,000 miles in length, the
geography is based on professional surveys. For the shores of
the Red Sea, Southern Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Beluchistan.
British India, Ceylon, and Siam, there are the scientifically
framed charts of the British Admiralty or the Indian Marine.
For the shores of Cambodia and Cochin China, there are the
French surveys; for the Chinese coast, the British surveys with
a few intervals only; for the shores of Japan, several surveys;
and for the East Siberian coast up to Behring Strait, the Russian
surveys at a few points only. The Arctic shore of Siberia,
though explored, and at some few points partly surveyed, is
for the most part unsurveyed.
I shall now advert very briefly to the work accomplished in
each country during the time under review, the last fifty years,
that is, since 1830.
I. INDIA AND CEYLON.-As this area, having a million and a
half of square miles, and a population the largest in the world,
next after that of China, forms part of the British Empire, we
may expect to find that here the progress of geography has been
during the last fifty years, or since 1830, far greater than in any
other country of Asia. Seven great operations have been carried
on, namely, the Great Trigonometrical Survey, the Topographical
Survey, the Land Revenue Survey, the Field or Cadastral Survey,
the special surveys for railways, canals, and roads, the Marine
Survey of the coast, and the Geological Survey. From the base
of the Himalayan range down to the southernmost cape near
CHAP. I.
SURVEYS IN BRITISH INDIA.
5
Ceylon the British territories are delineated and depicted, not
only mountain by mountain and river by river, but also village
by village, even field by field, and are as minutely known as the
most highly civilised districts on the globe, or the best-managed
estates in Europe. The classic streams of the Indus, the Ganges,
the Jamna, and the Brahmaputra, immediately on issuing from
their rock-bound beds in the main Asiatic range, aptly termed
in all ages "the Abode of Snow," are brought within the grasp
of the geographer along their whole course, their banks being
described, their velocity and fall per mile calculated, the volume
of their waters measured. Similar processes have been adopted
with the densely peopled basins of the rivers which rise in the
purely Indian ranges. The altitude has been precisely deter-
mined of many of the loftiest peaks yet discovered on the earth,
and of every range that is pierced by a railway or crossed by a
road. The country has been covered by a network of triangles,
a large arc of the meridian has been measured, the curvature,
contour, and configuration of the land have been ascertained by
geodetic work. Every spur, ravine, and torrent-bed has been
examined in the hills, which are studded with tea or coffee plan-
tations, or with gold mines, or with coal beds. In the field-maps
of the cultivated plains and valleys, every land-mark in the
fields, even every cottage or tenement, is noted down. In two
provinces only, Bengal and Behar, is the field-survey wanting.
The Himalayan ranges are indeed under British domination,
but have not been fully surveyed. Herbert was the pioneer;
afterwards Brian Hodgson followed with excellent geographical
analysis. The central portion of this region belongs to the Nepal
State, which has for the most part successfully resisted the
advance of exploration within its limits. In the eastern portion,
Sikkim was mapped by Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker, and some
knowledge was gained of Bhutan through the mission of Pem-
berton and Griffith, and later through the mission of Eden and
the subsequent war. In the western portion, Kashmir has been
topographically surveyed by Montgomerie; Ladakh has been
6
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
explored by Shaw, Gilghit by Biddulph, the Pangong basin and
the Mustagh by Godwin-Austen; Dr. Thomas Thomson was the
first to reach the Karakoram pass; much original work has been
performed in various directions by native Indian surveyors of
high qualifications; something has been ascertained regarding
Kafiristan by Tanner; Basevi and Stolicska fell victims to their
scientific labours near the Yarkand border. Surveyors have
carried their instruments to altitudes of 21,500 feet above the
sea; and year by year fresh passes are crossed by individual
travellers.
Among the chiefs of the geographical department in India the
names of Everest, Waugh, Walker, and Thuillier are conspicuous.
Markham's 'memoir on the Indian Surveys furnishes a condensed
history of the labours of those distinguished surveyors; and the
catalogue of maps preserved at the India Office in London shows
the results of their work.
The surveys of Ceylon are also in a nearly complete state, and
the excellent map by Fraser, the Surveyor General, and his
successors supplies full information.
II. AFGHANISTAN AND BELUCHISTAN.-Although these coun-
tries have been for more than one generation connected with the
British Government, their geography is utterly incomplete. The
territory indeed offers the utmost difficulty to surveying, being
for the most part mountainous, with extreme cold in many
quarters, the remainder being desert. It is not this difficulty,
however, which prevents surveying. The real obstacle is the
fierce and intractable character of the inhabitants, who would
treat any attempt at surveying as a casus belli. The Government,
then, has always to consider the alternative of fighting; because
geographical efforts, unless backed by armed force, would end
only in failure and bloodshed.
Some general account of the region was obtained by Mount-
stuart Elphinstone's embassy to Cabul in 1808, together with a
map by Macartney. Many details have been subsequently
supplied under circumstances of a stirring and adventurous
CHAP. I.
BRITISH SURVEYS IN AFGHANISTAN.
7
character, by men whose memory will not be forgotten so long as
the record of British zeal, constancy, and resolution shall endure.
Alexander Burnes, Arthur Conolly, Eldred Pottinger, Henry
Rawlinson, James Abbott, John Wood, have obtained particulars
of Afghanistan and its dependencies from the sultry marshes of
Seistan to the sources of the Oxus. These being officers of the
Indian Government, had before their eyes the goal of a career in
the public service. Others, however, travelled in a private
capacity, holding their lives in their hands at all hours of the day
and the night during weary months, and often subject to insult
from cruel and barbarous people. Such were Moorcroft, Trebeck,
Masson, Vigne, and the Frenchman Ferrier.
Little of surveying was effected during the first occupation of
Afghanistan by the British from 1838 to 1841. The mission of
Harry Lumsden to Candahar in 1857, and the arbitration regard-
ing the Seistan boundary in 1872, added something to our topo-
graphical knowledge. Much of recent information respecting the
southern and western districts was embodied in the work by Dr.
Bellew in 1874.
During the recent Afghan war from 1878 to 1880, a pro-
fessional surveying staff was attached to the military establish-
ments, and thus routes were surveyed and altitudes taken, on the
lines for the march of troops. The results of this work have
been embodied in the reports by Captain Holdich. On the
whole, considerable data exist for the maps which have been
issued by Thuillier and Walker in India, and by Wilson in
England. Still it is to be remembered that no comprehensive
surveys have been possible, that in a few parts only of the
country has the work been completely scientific, and that many
parts (especially the Hazâra country and the Zhob valley)
remain unexplored.
The geography of Beluchistan is even less advanced; of the
north-eastern portion some knowledge has been obtained from
the political and diplomatic proceedings of the last few years, and
by the surveys for the railway from the Indus towards Candahar.
8
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
The interior of this vast area is known only from the daring
journey of Henry Pottinger, the travels of Masson, and the
explorations connected with the Seistan mission.
III. SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA.-The country of Siam is
known to English readers chiefly through the descriptive works
published by Crawfurd of his mission in 1821, and by Bowring
of his mission in 1855; these descriptions were not, however,
derived from personal explorations in the interior. In 1854 the
French Bishop Pallegoix published a map of his journeyings.
Again, in 1864 another Frenchman, Mouhot, undertook under
English auspices a scientific expedition up the course of the
Meinam, the principal river of Siam, penetrating to a point near
its source, and died from his fatigues.
In the deltaic region of Cambodia the French authorities are
duly surveying their settlements around Saigon; and a French
geographical literature for this district together with the adjacent
territories is fast accumulating. In 1866 a geographical and
scientific expedition was undertaken by the French Government
along the Mekong, the great river of Cambodia, right up to the
regions near its source within the Chinese border. Of this
important exploration some account was given by Carné in 1872,
and a great report was published in 1873 by Garnier, splendidly
executed and embellished with an album of pictorial illustrations.
Garnier was, while still comparatively young, murdered by
Chinese rebels. Further, these operations were connected with
the Chinese coast by the explorations of Harmand in 1877.
For the rest of Cochin China, now called by its local name
Anam, French authors have published several descriptive works.
Here also explorations have been made by the French along the
course of the Red River of Tonkin on the north near the frontier
of China proper.
IV. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. In this area, which has four
millions of square miles, and the largest population of any
country in the world, are included four main divisions, namely, 1st,
China proper; 2nd, Manchuria,; 3rd, Mongolia, Kulja, and Yark-
CHAP. I.
CHINESE GEOGRAPHY.
9
and; 4th, Tibet. The Chinese have bestowed upon topography
that marvellous aptitude for details which they evince in other
subjects. For their enormous territories they have, through
centuries of research, compiled monster gazetteers comprising
several hundreds of maps and of volumes. But the examination
was not conducted with anything like a scientific survey, the
maps were not precise, nor was the general geography exactly
determined. In the seventeenth century, however, one Chinese
emperor employed the Jesuit missionaries to make the best sur-
veys possible with the then existing appliances; and the results
were collated by D'Anville in his famous 'Atlas de la Chine,'
published at the Hague in 1737. In the eighteenth century
another emperor caused further surveys to be made by the Roman
missionaries, who fixed many points by astronomical observations
about the year 1755; and these points were a century later
presented to the English public by the appendix to Michell's
book upon the Russians in Central Asia. The Jesuit surveys
were also published in Europe by Du Halde. Those who know
the persevering zeal of the Roman Catholic priests in Asia, will
readily imagine how steadily these missionaries must have pro-
secuted their surveying operations. After them there was a lull
in the advance of Chinese geography for three generations.
Within the last generation, however, the Chinese empire has been
the scene of many wonderful explorations. Again Roman
Catholic missionaries, two Frenchmen, Gabet and Huc, led the
way by toilsome marches of more than 7000 miles right through
China proper and Mongolia, between the years 1845 and 1850.
Gabet died from infirmities caused by his sufferings during this
journey, but Huc survived to relate their proceedings in one of the
most entertaining books of travel ever written. But in gauging
the value of his information it must be remembered that he was
not a surveyor nor a trained geographer. The Russian military
officer Prejevalsky, the most scientifically trained, persevering,
and capable traveller that has yet entered Mongolia, went over a
part of the same ground in 1870, in the course of his successive
10
СНАР. І.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
explorations. He finds fault with some of Huc's observations
and descriptions; but Colonel Henry Yule, one of the best of
living English authorities on such subjects, has stated that Huc's
word-pictures, brightened perhaps by a lively fancy, appear to
have been drawn from nature, though errors had crept into them
from imperfect recollection. Still such books as that by Huc,
however interesting, are not to be compared in solid merit with
the exact and well-weighed work of Prejevalsky. In Mongolia
also the journey of Ney Elias in 1872 proved to be very important;
and the routes taken by the Russians, Potanin and Rafailoff,
have been recently published by Petermann. The work has been
carried on by the visit of Delmar Morgan to Kulja.
Further, the topography of Yarkand and Kashgar was eluci-
dated by the mission of Sir Douglas Forsyth in 1873. Of this
a full report has been written by Trotter, whose explorations
were remarkable and extended to the Pamir lake. Yarkand
was visited by Shaw twice, and once by Hayward, who lost his
life. Further, Johnson penetrated to Khoten.
In the elevated plateau of Tibet no explorations have been
made since the political missions of Bogle and Turner in the
eighteenth century, which were despatched by Warren Hastings,
the Governor-General of India, and the journey of Manning to
Lhassa. Recently, however, in 1870, the French missionary
Desgodins published the result of his Tibetan journeys extending
over several thousands of miles. Here again the native Indian
surveyors, trained by Montgomerie, have taken accurately many
altitudes, determined the lacustrine characters of the plateau,
and followed the course of the San-po, till it disappears amidst
the Himalayas.
For China proper, another French missionary, David, in 1874
gave to the public the results of his ten years of travel ex-
tending over some 6000 miles. The Chinese nowadays offer
the most liberal facilities to Christian missions for evangelistic
tours, and many missionaries, English and French, are availing
themselves of these opportunities. The best example of travel
CHAP. I.
JAPANESE GEOGRAPHY.
. 11
in China is the work of the German Richthofen, who, after
covering the country with a network, as it were, of his journey-
ings, published in 1877 the most scientific, systematic, and
elaborate of the books yet written on that country. In this
work, among other things, much geological information is em-
bodied. As might be expected, the English have made use of
the advantages they possess in China for geographical explora-
tion. A generation has passed since Fortune paid to the tea-
districts those visits which have proved so fruitful in economic
results. Blakiston has minutely determined the course of the
lower Yang-tsze Kiang. Within the last few years, Cooper,
Margery, Ney Elias, Gill, and Baber have courageously and
laboriously passed from China across perilous regions straight
through to India or to Burma. Of these, Cooper was killed by
a half demented native soldier of his own escort, at Bahmo in
Upper Burma. Margery and Gill were murdered, the former
with the collusion of the officials on the Chinese frontier, the
latter by the Bedouins of the Egyptian desert. But Ney Elias
and Baber are still in the van of geographers.
Adjoining China, there is the comparatively small peninsula
of the Corea, of which little is known except from the explora-
tions of Dallet, the French missionary. The Corea is about to
be visited by a surveying vessel, on board of which is our
accomplished young Associate, Lieutenant Pirie, R.N.
V. JAPAN. We next glance at the chain or group of
picturesque, fertile, and populous islands-sometimes divided
one from the other only by narrow streaks of water-which con-
stitute the dominion of Japan. Under their ancient and, as it
would be called by some, their uncivilised system, the Japanese
collected a mass of topographical information. All that was
most valuable in this was collated by Siebold, a distinguished
officer who was despatched by the Dutch Government of Java
in 1823 on a commercial mission to Japan, where he resided till
1830. During his eight years of residence or travel in this country,
he supplemented the Japanese geography by observations of
12
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
his own, many of which bore a scientific character. He then
embodied the results in a large work of several quarto volumes.
This work was completed in 1832, and is beautifully illustrated
with pictorial representations which bring before the reader's
eye a scenery which remains ever the same in its beauty, and
national costumes or characteristics which are fast passing away
under a new civilisation. From these data was the map pre-
pared by Commodore Perry, of the United States Navy, for his
work describing the commercial mission on which he proceeded
twenty years later, in 1852. He again added much information,
on scientific authority, for the extensive coasts of this island
dominion. In 1863 Sir Rutherford Alcock, after an official
residence of several years, published his work entitled 'The
Capital of the Tycoon,' which embodied, among other things, the
geographical results of inland travel and the ascent of lofty
mountains. Subsequently the world has been astonished by the
wave of quasi-European civilisation which is sweeping over many
of the old institutions in this country. Among the consequences
of this is the introduction of projects for postal roads, electric
telegraph lines, railways, and other purposes of an administra-
tion framed after European models. For the railway lines,
surveys have been or are being made. A line across the
principal island has been determined by trigonometry. Some
geological surveys have also been carried out. From these,
combined with the former data, a map was made by Mr. Brunton,
in the Japanese service, and more recently a still better map
has been prepared by Knipping, a German, also in the Japanese
service, and engraved by Stanford of London. A handbook has
been prepared by Mr. Satow, on the staff of the British embassy,
and by Lieutenant Hawes of the Royal Marines. Lastly, an
English lady, Miss Bird, having traversed important tracts in
solitude and hardship, with amazing constancy and endurance,
has set forth her observations in a graphic and life-like
narrative.
VI. ASIATIC RUSSIA. In this area, which contains six millions
CHAP. I.
RUSSIAN SURVEYS IN SIBERIA.
13
of square miles, are included, first, Siberia and Russian Manchuria;
secondly, Caucasia, including the Caucasus mountains, together
with the region lying between them and Armenia; thirdly,
Western Turkistan, now extending to the northern boundary of
Persia.
For Siberia, the meritorious travels of Pallas at the end of
the eighteenth century, of Wrangel, of Middenorff, of Erman, of
Alexander Humboldt during the first half of the present century,
are still of value. But systematic modern exploration, com-
bining geology and zoology with geography, began in 1854 with
the operations of Schwarz, Schmidt, and others in the upper
basins of the Lena and Amur rivers. This work was followed up
by the expedition under Prince Kropotkin (a good geologist) to
the same region in 1873, and by Poyarkow's explorations of the
Amûr. A further examination was made of the river Lena by
Lopatkin, of the Amur by Maack the naturalist, and by Schrenck
(whose work has fine zoological illustrations), and of the Lower
Amûr by Bolshev in 1874. The basin of the river Ob was
visited by Polyakoff, and of the Yenisei by Krivoshapkin. The
mountain region of the Altai and the north of Siberia have
been described by the works of Radde (rich in pictorial illustra-
tion), and by the book of travels undertaken by the German
Finsch in connection with the North Polar expedition of
Germany; also by the works of many other travellers. In
short, the Russians have within the last thirty years accumu-
lated quite a geographical literature and published a series of
excellent maps regarding Siberia and Kamchatka, the particulars
of which would exceed the space at our disposal. Thereby the
principal points have been scientifically fixed, the altitudes of
many of the mountains have been ascertained, and the basins
of the principal rivers have been examined. But it is hardly
to be expected that regular surveying can as yet have been
extended throughout a region so vast, inclement, and inhospitable.
The survey of the country must be regarded as still un-
finished, and the information as approximate only for many
1
·
14
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
places. Still the geographical results already obtained are
honourable to the Russian Government, and prove the skill and
resolution of the explorers.
The voyage of the distinguished Swede Nordenskiöld along
the northern coast of Siberia resulting in the discovery of the
North-east passage, and the rectification of the coast-line by his
colleague Pallander, are fresh in the memory of all; but it
ought not to be forgotten that here the way was led by Wiggins
of Sunderland.
The borders of Western Siberia have been trigonometrically
and geologically surveyed, and with those operations the great
name of Sir Roderick Murchison is honourably associated.
For English readers, several parts of Siberia have been
recently described by the Rev. Henry Lansdell, after a journey
of 8000 miles from the Urals to the Pacific. The Altai moun-
tains, even within Mongolian limits, and the Siberian plains,
also have been graphically illustrated by Atkinson, a portion of
whose toils was shared by his courageous wife, and whose life
was prematurely ended by the hardships he endured during his
travels. Among the precursors of travelling on the Amur was
Collins the American. Then Kennan published the story of his
tent life in Siberia, and Bush an account of reindeer dogs and
snowshoes; both these travellers were American. The English-
man, Seebohm, descended the Yenisei to the Arctic circle, in
the prosecution of ornithological studies.
Next, for Caucasia, trigonometrical surveys have been made
by the Russian Government between the years 1830 and 1860,
and a large map has been prepared by the topographical staff.
Here we meet again with pictorial illustrations by Radde,
adorning his geographical work on this region. The Caucasus
itself has been visited by English travellers, Moore, Grove, and
especially by Freshfield, who ascended apparently for the first
time the summit of Elbruz, and has presented to English readers
a charming narrative of his proceedings.
Lastly, for Western Turkistan, the Russian Government has
CHAP. I.
EXPLORATION IN TURKESTAN.
15
caused some important surveys to be made and several scientific
expeditions to be undertaken within the last fifteen years. This
geographical literature has become so varied and extensive that
the names of the distinguished Russian officers connected with
it are too numerous to be mentioned in our limited space. One
of these Russian surveys arrived at a point only 30 miles distant
from the farthest English survey from India. It appears from
Trotter's account that the English and Russian surveys were
never joined; and thus a trigonometrical line right through Asia
from north to south remains to be accomplished. For the
eastern shores of the Aral and Caspian seas, for the basin of the
great river Oxus, for the course of the lesser though important
river Attrek, the surveys, if not scientifically complete, are very
considerable; many points of consequence have been astro-
nomically determined, and quite 2000 altitudes have been taken
with the barometer. Admiral Boutakoff was the first to navigate
ships on the sea of Aral. About four-fifths of the elevated
steppes of Pamir and of the neighbouring Alai mountains have
been roughly surveyed. The old course of the Oxus towards
the Caspian has been ascertained, and the oscillations of that
river between the Aral and the Caspian in former centuries
have been verified.
The exploration of the Thian-Shan mountains was begun in
1856, and has been since continued at intervals by eminent
Russian officers. Notwithstanding their efforts, however, the
barometrical observations are understood to be of doubtful
accuracy, and the estimates of altitudes are approximate only.
Other nations have shared with Russia in the honours of
travel in this region; the works of the Hungarian Vambery,
the Frenchman Ujfalvy-Bourdon and his talented wife, the
American Schuyler, the Englishman Burnaby, shine brightly
in the memory of geographers. It was here that the Ger-
man Schlagintweit lost his life in the midst of his work,
a martyr of science. Here also the war correspondents of
the newspaper press, Macgahan and O'Donovan, added to
16
СПАР. І.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
2
our topographical knowledge while following their arduous
profession.
It is not to be forgotten that some of the earliest explorers in
Western Turkistan were English. The travels of Burnes and
Conolly in this quarter formed part of their journeys already
mentioned in reference to Afghanistan. Afterwards Conolly in
company with Stoddard proceeded to Bokhara, where they both
were barbarously killed by the Khan. James Abbott marched
through the Merv desert to Khiva and thence to the shore of
the Caspian, and has recorded his adventures in one of the most
remarkable narratives of modern travel.
VII. PERSIA.-For Persia, a new map in six sheets has
recently been prepared under the orders of the Secretary of
State for India, by Major (now Sir Oliver) St. John (R.E.), whose
reports embody much information regarding the geological forma-
tions, the altitudes of some of the mountains, and the physical
geography. This map is based in part upon surveys taken for the
purpose; there are also the data furnished by the surveyed lines
of the Indo-European telegraph, of the political mission through
Southern Persia to the south-western corner of Afghanistan,
and of the border between Persia and Turkey. Much of the
country, however, remains unsurveyed; the altitudes of many
points among the mountains towards the Caspian Sea, the
Persian Gulf, and the Euphrates basin have been but approxi-
mately estimated; and the levels of the depressions called salt
deserts are only known roughly. Though some districts remain
unexplored, there have been many explorers within the last
fifty years, mostly servants of the British Government. Besides
the men of the last generation, Morier, Malcolm, Porter, Fraser,
and others whose writings are monuments of talent and in-
dustry, and above all, Kinneir, the great topographer, many
English travellers have arisen in recent times to illustrate a
country so primeval in its associations and yet so fraught with
modern interest. Such men are Layard, Goldsmid, Valentine
Baker, Eastwick, Mounsey, Macgregor, Bellew, C. E. Stewart.
;
CHAP. I.
GEOGRAPHY IN ASIA MINOR.
17
Much light has been thrown on the whole subject by the
writings of Sir Henry Rawlinson. The representatives of other
nations also have shared in this interesting work; such are
the Frenchman Ferrier, the Russian Khanikoff, the German
Schindler. The geology of the country has been in part eluci-
dated by the writings of Loftus and Blanford.
VIII. ASIATIC TURKEY AND ARABIA.-It will be remembered
that the Asiatic dominions of Turkey comprise, 1st, Asia Minor
and Armenia; 2nd, Mesopotamia and the adjacent territory;
3rd, Arabia, for the most part; 4th, Syria and Palestine.
For Asia Minor and Armenia the standard map is that
by the German geographer Kiepert, based largely on surveys
made and information collected in 1838 by Moltke, who was
then a major on the general staff, and who has since become
celebrated.
The several archæological explorers starting generally from
the Mediterranean coast, have, while exhuming remains or
excavating ruins, rendered incidentally great service to geo-
graphy. The work by Fellowes in 1838, supplemented greatly
the knowledge of that time. Later on, the finely illustrated
book by the Russian Tchihatcheff threw light on the circum-
stances of the country. Members of the British Consular
Service have, by journeys undertaken for the better preparation
of their official reports, promoted the advance of geography;
conspicuous among these are Colonel (now Sir Charles) Wilson
and Mr. Chermside. Considerable investigations into the topo-
graphy and geology of the country were made by Richardson and
MacCoan. Recent years have been fruitful in travel, consequent
doubtless on the awakening of general interest in this region.
The Rev. Mr. Davis has published excellent records of two jour-
neys, one relating chiefly to Anatolia, the other chiefly to Cilicia.
Burnaby's ride through the middle plateau, along the Upper
Euphrates, and round Lake Van, is fresh in the public recollec-
tion. Freshfield's explorations in the neighbourhood of Ararat
added much to the public knowledge of that noteworthy region.
C
18
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Subsequently, Bryce's ascent of this mountain, when, deserted
by his native guides, he advanced alone amidst the clouds and
darkness to the summit, setting marks on the ice and snow for
recognition of the way on his return descent-forms a striking
episode in the history of travel.
For Arabian geography during many years the standard
authorities were the careful results made by Niebuhr and
Burckhardt. They were followed first by Wellsted, and subse-
quently by Burton with the vivacious narrative of his pilgrimage
to Mecca. The northern tracts have more recently been de-
scribed by the Italian Arconati Visconti, with many large
illustrations, and by the German Hüber; also the southern
tracts by the Frenchman Halévy, the German Müller, and the
Italian Manzoni. The tracts belonging to the Arab tribes
under the control of the British settlement of Aden are being
fast explored and mapped. The independent Wahhabi kingdom
around Riad, lying far inland in the heart of the arid peninsula,
has been understood for the first time since the wonderful
journeys of the Englishman Palgrave and the German Wallin.
Collaterally, much information on the subject has been gathered
by means of Sir Lewis Pelly's journey inwards from the Persian
Gulf, by marches conducted under frequent peril of death from
thirst. Lastly, one of the most talented among lady travellers,
Lady Anne Blunt, has performed much original work in Nejd or
Central Arabia, correcting parts of the previously received topo-
graphy, and determining altitudes with barometrical readings.
For the rivers of Mesopotamia many geographical data have
been furnished by the surveys of the Indian Navy. The greatest
geographer in this region was Colonel F. R. Chesney, who in
1835 conveyed a steamer in pieces from the Mediterranean
shore across the desert, and set it up on the Euphrates. He
thence extended his inquiries over all Western Asia and pre-
pared a record which constitutes a monument of amazing
industry. The Assyrian excavations, first by Layard and Botta,
and afterwards by George Smith, Rassam, and others, have
CHAP. I.
EXPLORATION IN PALESTINE.
19
incidentally afforded help to geography. Here also Lady Anne
Blunt's journeys have added much to our knowledge.
For the map of Syria and Palestine, data of the best sort are
being gradually furnished from the inquiries begun by the
Palestine Association in 1832, and from the surveys prosecuted
by the Palestine Exploration Fund since 1865, on which Wilson,
Warren, Palmer, Conder, and other able officers have been
engaged. These surveys, which are still in progress, are directed
scientifically, and have for their objects among other things the
topography, geology, and physical geography of the Holy Land.
Already a detailed map on a large scale of Western Palestine
has been issued, and an expedition is now in the field for the
survey on a similar scale of the region beyond the Jordan.
Among the separate and independent explorers, the names of
the Frenchman Guerin, and of the Englishmen Porter, Tristram,
Robinson, Burton, Beke, are conspicuous. Lastly, a melancholy
interest is now aroused when we mention the charming book
by Arthur Penrhyn Stanley.
Finally, it will be observed that the Eastern Archipelago,
including Java, Borneo, and Sumatra, has not been embraced
in this review, as that is by the latest geographers included in
Australasia.
In conclusion, from this rapid review, which is summary only
and not exhaustive, it will be seen how much has been accom-
plished absolutely during the last fifty years, say since 1830,
and yet how little relatively. Geographers from most of the
European nations have laboured for a common end. A geo-
graphical literature has been gathered together, comprising
many names besides those which have been mentioned in this
paper. Yearly additions are made to our knowledge by the
reports of the British Consular Service. The efforts of govern-
ments, of societies, and of individuals have been combined.
The results have been on the whole commensurate with the cost
in money and resources, and with the wear and tear in human
life and strength. The great share borne by England and
C 2
20
СНАР. І.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Russia is only proportionate to the magnitude of their stake
in Asia; other European nations have also earned a title to
geographical fame. Respecting the literature in several lan-
guages on this subject, Englishmen may well remark the atten-
tion which foreign travellers pay to pictorial illustration. Hardly
any recent English books of travel are so richly illustrated as
the works in French by Garnier, in German by Richthofen, in
Russian by Radde, in Dutch by Siebold.
Still it must be admitted that the greater part of Asia has
not yet been touched by scientific operations on a complete scale.
In the whole of Asia, only India, Ceylon, Cyprus, Western
Palestine, Caucasia, the Caspian basin, part of Western Siberia,
and part of Japan, also many points in the Asiatic coast-line,
have been subjected to trigonometrical observation. The alti-
tudes of mountains have been determined only in the Himalayas,
the Caucasus, and the Urals by trigonometry. But in many
ranges the heights have been approximately ascertained by the
barometer. Professional surveys in details have been completed
only in India, Ceylon, Western Palestine, Caucasia, parts of
Western and Eastern Siberia, the Thian-Shan region, the greater
part of Western Turkistan, Cambodia, parts of Cochin China,
parts of Afghanistan, also on certain lines of Persia, Mesopo-
tamia, and Asia Minor. Even in the professionally surveyed
territories many defects and imperfections are acknowledged to
remain.
Non-professional surveys have been carried out in Japan, in
China proper, in parts of Arabia, on the frontiers of Tibet,
China, and Burma, and on certain lines in Afghanistan and
Beluchistan. Explorations without any actual survey have
been made in Mongolia, Siam, the interior of Arabia, most parts
of Persia, the Turkoman country, the Ust-urt plateau between
the Aral and the Caspian, Manchuria, and in some parts of
Afghanistan and Beluchistan.
Though, as already stated, the southern coasts of Asia have
been surveyed in sufficient detail for geographical purposes, yet
СНАР. І.
GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS REMAINING.
21
according to the demands of a growing traffic and of maritime
resort, these surveys need frequently to be amplified in detail.
The old surveys by the Indian Navy were good in their day,
reflecting honour on Moresby, Ross, and others; still the
Government have ordered a new survey to be made for nautical
purposes. A fresh survey, like that done by Sir George Nares for
the Gulf of Suez, may have to be ordered one day for the whole
of the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. The British Admiralty
are making yearly additions to the surveys of the Chinese coasts,
of which the work done by St. John (R.N.) is an example.
Whether the Russians will see fit to attempt a scientific survey
throughout the Arctic coast of Siberia remains to be seen.
This branch of the subject will be best understood on a re-
ference to the paper on oceanic explorations and research, by
the highest authority, namely, Sir Frederick Evans, Hydro-
grapher to the Admiralty.
Of geological surveys, the largest example is that in India,
which, though well advanced, is far from complete. Very much
remains to be done in this respect for the Himalayas. Geo-
logical surveys have been made in the Caucasus, the Urals, the
Thian-shan and Altai ranges, Kamchatka, many parts of China
and Japan, Cambodia, Ceylon, some parts of Arabia and Persia,
much of Asia Minor and Palestine.
But there remain unexplored, parts of the Himalayas, of
Afghanistan and Beluchistan, of Arabia, and nearly the whole
Kuen-Lun region north of Tibet in the very heart of Asia.
Further, the following are among the principal geographical
problems still awaiting solution:-The connection of the Tibetan
San-po with the Indian Brahmaputra ; the existence of mountains
connecting the Kuen-lun range eastwards with the Chinese
ranges; the sources and upper courses of the Irawady, Salwen,
Mekong, and Hoang Ho; the disposition of the mountains
between the Ladakh passes and the Hindu-Kush or Indian
Caucasus north of Cabul, near to the culminating region of
the entire continent.
|
I
1
22
CHAP. I.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
When recounting the deeds of explorers and geographers in
Asia, we ought to cherish the memory of the Italian Marco
Polo, the medieval traveller whose amazing journeys in Asia
have never been equalled even by the great travellers who have
succeeded him in modern times. The record of Marco Polo's
travels has been recently familiarized to English readers by the
learned labour of Henry Yule.
A retrospect of brave and successful achievement should
encourage travellers to do and to dare more and more. Of the
men thus engaged, many indeed have injured their health, and
some have lost their lives. But all have been sustained under
trials by their sense of natural beauty, their aspirations for
the progress of civilisation, and their zeal in the pursuit of
knowledge. It is the masterful force of these high and noble
sentiments which impels them, "tot volvere casus, tot adire
labores."
* Subsequently to the reading of this paper additional information has
been presented by the Royal Geographical Society regarding Russian surveys
between the Turkoman country and Herat; which surveys shew that the route
across the continuation of the Hindu-Kush range is much more easily
passable for armies than has been generally supposed.
( 23 )
CHAPTER II.
THE CENTRAL PLATEAU OF ASIA.
[Paper read before the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, at Southampton, September 1882, as Presidential Address
in the Section of Geography.]
races
-
Grand mountain system Series of heights and depressions-Sources of
great rivers The lake regions The home of warriors and conquering
Mighty achievements of the Mongols — Their cavalry resources
Variety and value of natural products Pastoral wealth - Strange
phenomena of Nature-Enormous field awaiting research-Imperial
jurisdiction.
THE subject chosen for this address is the Plateau of mid-
Asia. This area, which is one of the most wonderful on the
surface of the earth, contains nearly 3,000,000 of English square
miles, and is equal to three-fourths of Europe. Its limits, its
exterior configuration, its central and commanding situation in
the Asiatic continent, will be clearly perceived from the sub-
joined map of Asia.* As compared with some of the more
favoured regions, it is singularly destitute of natural advantages.
Though it has several deep depressions of surface, yet its
general elevation is very considerable, and some of its large
districts are the most elevated in the globe. It is walled in
from the outer world, and excluded from the benign influences
of the sea, by mountain chains. Its climate, then, is very
severe on the whole, more distinguished for cold than for heat,
but often displaying extremes of temperature high as well
as low. It offers, from the character of its contour, extra-
* See map prefixed to Chapter I.
24
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
ordinary obstacles to communication by land or water. Though
seldom inaccessible to courageous explorers, it is generally
hard of access, and in several respects very inhospitable. In
the progress of civilisation it is, with reference to its historic
past, excessively backward. Its capacities for the production of
wealth have been but little developed. Its population is scanty,
scattered, and uncultured. Its agriculture comprises only a
few areas widely segregated from each other, and many of its
largest districts are amazingly desolate.
Nevertheless this plateau has eminent claims on the atten-
tion of geographers, for several reasons which may be summarised
thus
1. A mountain system which dominates the greater part of
Asia, and includes stupendous ranges with the loftiest peaks yet
discovered in the world.
2. A series of heights and depressions almost like the steps
of a staircase within the mountainous circumvallation of the
plateau.
3. The sources and the permanent supply of rivers which,
passing from the plateau, flow through densely populated
regions, and help to sustain the numerically greatest families
of the human race.
4. A lacustrine system, comprising lakes, of which some are
saline while others have fresh water, and of which many are
situated at great altitudes.
5. The home of conquering races, whence warrior hordes
poured during several centuries over nearly all Asia and a large
part of Europe.
6. Natural products of value, variety, or interest, and pastoral
resources susceptible of indefinite development.
7. An enormous field for scientific research, with many regions
which, though not wholly undiscovered, yet need much further
discovery.
8. An imperial jurisdiction offering many problems for the
consideration of social inquirers.
CHAP. II. ALTITUDE OF THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS.
25
I shall now offer a brief explanation regarding each of the
eight points stated above.
In the first place it will be seen from the map that the
plateau, in shape somewhat of an irregular rhomboid, is com-
pletely enclosed by six grand ranges of mountains, namely the
Himalayas looking south towards India, the Pamir looking west
towards Central Asia, the Altai looking north towards Siberia,
the Yablonoi looking north-east towards Eastern Siberia, the
Yun-ling and the Inshan (inclusive of the Khingan), looking
towards China. These several ranges preserve generally a
considerable altitude varying from 6,000 to 25,000 feet above
sea-level, and reaching in the Himalayas to more than 29,000
feet. The tallest of these summits have been accurately
measured by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. Their
altitude is about double that of the highest mountains in
Europe, and surpasses any altitude yet observed in any quarter
of the globe. But as a great part of these several ranges is as
yet unsurveyed by trigonometry, it is possible that still greater
heights may be discovered, and that "excelsior" may be the
proud answer rendered by the everlasting hills to human
investigation.
Regarding these and the other chains yet to be mentioned, it
must be borne in mind that there are many cross ranges and
transverse lines of mountains. Even the chains often consist
of detached groups separated by deep valleys. It is by
observing the position of the groups relatively to one another
that the tendency of the chain can be discerned.
Such being the outer barriers of our plateau, there are within
it two great ranges mainly parallel and running from west to
east, namely the Kuen-lun and the Thian Shan.
While the Himalayas form the southern flank of the great
Tibetan upland, the Kuen-lun constitutes the northern. The
modicum of knowledge possessed by us regarding the Kuen-lun,
a most important factor in the geography of our plateau, is
largely due to the praiseworthy travels of the Russian Pre-
26
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
jevalsky. This range may be said in a certain sense to overlook
the Tarim basin ending in Lake Lob, though the mountains are
actually distant more than a hundred miles from that lake. It
forms the southern boundary of the Tarim basin, which contains
some of the few beautiful tracts in our plateau. If there be
such a thing as a backbone to these regions, or anything like a
dorsal ridge, it consists of the Kuen-lun.
The Thian Shan starts from the Pamir, and runs westward
for full 1500 miles, till it joins with some of its spurs the
uplands of Mongolia proper, or touches with others the
dreary desert of Gobi. As the Kuen-lun forms the southern
boundary of the Tarim basin, so the Thian Shan constitutes the
northern.
Connected with the north-western part of the Himalayas is
another range which some regard as an offshoot, but which
others treat separately under the name of Karakuram. Together
with the Himalayas it joins the Pamir.
Thus three of the greatest mountain ranges in Asia converge
upon the Pamir, or, according to some, are there interlaced;
namely the Himalayas, the Kuen-lun, and the Thian Shan; to
which perhaps two others might be added, namely the Karaku-
ram just mentioned and the Altai. But it may be more
accurately said that the outer border of our plateau north of the
Pamir is formed by the terminal spurs of the Thian Shan. It
is to be remembered also that the Indian Caucasus-which does
not concern our plateau directly enough to fall within this
address-probably joins the Pamir. In general terms, the
convergence of mountain ranges on the Pamir renders it geo-
graphically the most important position in Asia. The unin-
structed Asiatics have evinced a hazy admiration of its grandeur
by calling it "the roof of the world." The comparatively
instructed Europeans have revered it as the source of the classic
Oxus and as fraught with political considerations. Unless
further discoveries shall alter existing information, we may
expect that completely informed geographers will consider that
CHAP. II. REMARKABLE HOLLOWS AND DEPRESSIONS.
27
this Pamir is the mother of mountains, that other ranges are to
it as the branches are to the root, and that here if anywhere is
the true boss of the Asiatic shield.
In the second place, the vast surface of our plateau, though
almost uninterruptedly environed by its rocky walls, presents
an extraordinary series of elevations and depressions. In the
heart of the plateau there is the depression known to geo-
graphers as the Western Gobi, sometimes called the Tarim
basin. Within this there is the Lob Lake or Lob Nor, truly an
inland sea into which the waters of several rivers ultimately
flow, finding no vent towards the ocean. The total length of
the Tarim river with its affluents debouching into Lob Nor,
cannot be less than 800 miles. This curious and interesting
lake is not more than 2,000 feet above sea-level, and forms
almost the lowest dip in our plateau. It is like the bottom of
a vast platter, or the centre in the hollow of a mighty hand.
Around this depression there are on all sides uplands of various
heights, like gradations in the Asiatic terrace, terminating in
the intermediate ranges, or in the outer circumvallation of
mountains already described. On the east of it there is the
tract called Eastern Gobi, partly desert, and Mongolia, averaging
4,000 feet above sea-level; on the north the Altai uplands,
exceeding 5,000 feet. On the west the Pamir rises abruptly,
exceeding 13,000 feet; on the south is Tibet, with equal abrupt-
ness, having an average altitude of 15,000 feet above sea-level,
thus being the loftiest expanse in the world; and on the
south-east lies the tract around the Kuku Nor Lake, 10,000
feet.
Further, there is a detached depression known as the Zun-
garian strait, extending to the northern confine of our plateau
between the Thian Shan and the Altai ranges. This strait,
hardly exceeding 2,000 feet above sea-level, is as low as, perhaps
even lower than, any part of our plateau, and is very near
breaking its continuity, which may be considered as being just
saved by the comparatively humble altitude above mentioned.
28
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
The depression is geographically important as forming the only
broad pass between our plateau and the world without. It
runs from Mongolia, the most important tract within our
plateau, to Siberia outside. Great value was, in early times,
attached by the Chinese to it, as being the only natural high-
way on a large scale between Northern and Central Asia.
The existence of this and the other depressions above described
has led to interesting speculations among geologists as to there
having been, in primeval times within our plateau, at least one
inland sea as large as the Mediterranean of Europe.
Be that as it may, there is no doubt that a process of desicca-
tion has been going on within our plateau during historic ages,
whereby the climate is considerably affected, and many signs or
evidences show that this process is still in operation.
On most of its sides our plateau is extraordinarily inaccessible,
the passes being steep in the extreme, and culminating in
ridges 18,000 to 20,000 feet above sea-level. Towards Siberia
the Altai passes are easier, and on the north-east between
Mongolia and China there are several passes that have witnessed
the historic outpourings of the Mongol hordes, and that are
ominously remembered by the Chinese as the openings through
which their invaders rushed like the great river in flood, or the
landslip from the mountain side, or the avalanche sweeping
along the boulders and débris to the destruction of the valleys
beneath.
The great desert of Eastern Gobi occupies the eastern portion
of our plateau. With its accumulating forces of sand and
powdered earth it has a tendency to encroach, and is regarded
by man with a vague awe. Its present extent is enormous,
being not less than half a million of square miles. Nor does it
exist alone within our plateau, for between the Tarim basin and
the Kuen-lun spurs there is a lesser desert called Takla-makan
with 100,000 square miles of area. It may probably be found
that these two deserts join or are otherwise connected.
In the third place we have noted that while the prevailing
CHAP. II.
SOURCES OF GREAT RIVERS.
29
characteristics of our plateau are wildness, ruggedness, or desola-
tion; yet within it are the sources of several great rivers which
sustain the most teeming peoples on the face of the earth. The
monarch as it were of all these noble waters is the Yang-tse-
Kiang. Though its head streams have been but imperfectly
explored, yet its true source is known to be in the Kuen-lun
mountains already mentioned. After quitting our plateau and
passing out of its prison-house in the mountains through natural
gates of the utmost magnificence, it permeates the most thickly-
peopled provinces of China-provinces inhabited by about
120,000,000 of souls.* It sustains the life of this enormous
population by supplying the necessary moisture and by afford-
ing the means of irrigation and of water traffic. No river has
ever in ancient or modern times played so important a part in
the increase of the human race as the Yang-tse-Kiang. Its
supply of water is immense and unfailing, and this most
essential characteristic is caused by its connection with the
snow-clad and ice-bound regions of our plateau, within which
it has a course of 700 miles before entering China proper.
Amidst the same Kuen-lun range, the Hoang-ho rises, from
unexplored springs, which the Chinese figure to themselves as
"the starry sea." After bursting through several watersheds,
making wondrous bends from its main direction near the base
of our plateau, and changing its course more than once to the
confusion of comparative geography, it traverses Northern
China and confers agricultural prosperity on some 70,000,000
of souls. It also has a course of some 400 miles within our
plateau, in consequence of which its water supply is perennially
snow-fed. Again, the Irawady and the Mekong, the former
watering Burma and the latter watering Cambodia, rise in the
offshoots of the Kuen-lun. That region, then, in respect of
the parentage of important rivers stands in the first rank. This
* The doubts have recently increased regarding the trustworthiness of the
statistics of Chinese population; and the real number, though certainly vast,
may be somewhat less than that which is here stated.
30
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
beneficent circumstance arises from the direction of subsidiary
ranges which admit to this part of our plateau some of the
moisture-laden breezes from the Pacific Ocean.
Similarly the two Indian rivers, the Brahmaputra, and the
Indus with its affluent the Satlej, have their origin at
great distance within our plateau, and their water-supply is
indefinitely augmented in consequence. Notwithstanding the
vast volume of their waters, these rivers play an economic part
which, though great, is less than that of the main Chinese
rivers. The Brahmaputra above its junction with the Megna
cannot be said to sustain more than 15,000,000 of people; and
the Indus, together with the Satlej, may support 12,000,000.
The Ganges and Jamna, issuing from masses of snow on the
southern scarp of our plateau, sustain before their junction at
Allahabad a population of 30,000,000—quite irrespective of the
deltaic population of the lower Ganges for whom moisture is
supplied from other sources. Of these Indian rivers the waters,
perpetually snow-fed, are largely drawn away for canals of
irrigation on a grand scale. Taken all in all, despite defects, the
Ganges Canal is the most imposing example of hydraulic
engineering that has yet been seen. From the glaciers of the
Pamir and the western terminus of the Thian Shan there
spring the head-streams of the Oxus, the Jaxartes, and other
rivers, ending in the inland sea of Aral. To these, in Persian
phrase, the epithet of "gold-scatterer" or "wealth dispenser
is felicitously applied by the natives.
""
Of the rivers rising in the northern section of our plateau,
the Amur has possibilities of which the future may see the
development. But the great rivers of Siberia, such as the Ob,
the Yenisei, and the Lena, though flowing through rich soils
and affording marvellous facilities for several systems of inland
navigation to be connected with each other, yet have their long
estuaries in the permanently frost-bound lands of the Tundra,
and their mouths in the arctic waters frozen during most
months of the year. Therefore they can never, in economic
CHAP. II.
LACUSTRINE SYSTEM.
31
importance, vie with the rivers above mentioned, which flow
into the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
In the fourth place, the lacustrine system, though not com-
parable to that of North America or of Central Africa, and not
approaching in beauty or interest that of Southern Europe, is
yet very considerable. It is not, however, the only one in
Asia, and from it must be excluded the three great Siberian
lakes of Issykkul, of Baikal, and of Balkash, which, though
connected with our plateau, are beyond its actual limits. Ex-
clusive of these, however, the lakes, great and small, within
our plateau, are extraordinarily numerous. Not less than a
hundred of them may be counted on the maps of this region.
Of these lakes, however, some are insignificant, being little
more than saline swamps. Others, again, as the Pangong,
though romantically beautiful-reposing at an altitude equal
to that of the highest European mountains, and reflecting the
perennial snow of surrounding peaks-do not illustrate specially
any geographical problem, nor produce any economic result.
But some may be selected as having a scientific interest irre-
spective of beauty or of strangeness.
The Lake Victoria, discovered by Wood in 1838, rests in the
heart of the Pamir, already mentioned, at an elevation of
14,000 feet above sea-level. It is frozen over during the greater
part of the year, and lies with a glistening and polished surface
in the midst of a snow-whitened waste. In that state it power-
fully affects the imagination of the spectator who reaches it as
the final goal, after a protracted and toilsome ascent from the
barren or deserted plains of Ariana. It is the source of the
Oxus, and is near the point of contact between the British and
the Russian political systems in Asia.
In the sharpest contrast to the highly-placed Pamir lake is
the lowly Lake Lob, already mentioned. Shallow water, sedgy
morass, dreary sands, parched forests, the monotony of desolation,
are reported to be its characteristics. It apparently consists of
the dregs of an inland sea that has become mostly dried up, and
.
32
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Despite the
Near it is a
is, as it were, kept alive only by the Tarim river, which has its
sources in the everlasting snows of the Pamir.
proximity of saline tracts, the lake has fresh water.
great desert, of which the soil, though now arid and friable, owing
to the gradual desiccation, was once more or less productive, and ·
where a population has probably become extinct or has disap-
peared by migration.
The Pamir then is a water-parting for two inland seas, one
the Aral, beyond our plateau, the other Lake Lob within it-
both saved from speedy desiccation only by the influx of rivers
from the snow-line.
Again in contrast is the Kuku Nor, a sheet of water 10,000
feet above sea-level, in the eastern section of the Kuen-lun
mountains, near the source of the Hoang-ho. Its waters, pro-
found and saline, have a dark azure hue, which is compared by
the natives to that of the exquisite silks in China. It is in the
Tangut region, mentioned by Marco Polo in his Itinerary. In
respect to the lakes in this region, and especially the morasses
of Tsaidam, there are geological speculations as to another
Asiatic Mediterranean (besides that already mentioned), long
since dried up, whereof there are a few widely scattered rem-
nants, among which the Kuku Nor is one.
Lastly, a word of passing notice may be devoted to two among
the Tibetan lakes, that of Tengri, near Lhassa, on the shore of
which stands a venerated Buddhist convent, and the Bul-tso,
from which have been obtained quantities of the best
borax.
In the fifth place, the north-eastern part of our plateau was
during remote ages, beyond the ken of history, the home of
hardy and aggressive Tartars. These Tartar races, dwelling
among the uplands in the lee of the mountains, used for many
centuries to emerge and harry the fertile Chinese plains lying
between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. It was to ward
off these incursions that the Great Wall was constructed,
winding like a vast serpent of stone along the ridges of
CHAP. II.
BIRTHPLACE OF MONGOL DOMINION.
33
mountains for 2000 miles from the Pacific coast to the Siberian
confines. The cost and labour expended on this amazing work
attest the dread with which these Tartar highlanders had
inspired the Chinese lowlanders. Some centuries after the build-
ing of the Great Wall, the most warlike among the Tartar tribes,
in the council of their national assembly, acclaimed Temujin as
their king, in the year 1206 a.d. He took a title which is
translated by Europeans as Chinghiz Khan, or Genghiz Khan, a
title which for two centuries or more was the best known name in
the whole world. At the head of his Tartar adherents, he first sub-
dued the other kindred tribes of our plateau. Then he organised
and disciplined the whole Tartar manhood into an army of horse-
men. This is the most wonderful instance of military mobiliza-
tion known to history ancient or modern. Its results too were
equally appalling. In medieval times the marches of the Arabs
and the Saracens, in modern times the expeditions of Napoleon,
have dazzled Asia or Europe. These were hardly, however,
equal to the distant conquests of Alexander the Great in ancient
times. But even the wars of Alexander were perhaps surpassed
by the ravages of Chinghiz Khan and the Tartars of our plateau.
The countries of China, India, Afghanistan, Bactria, Persia, the
Aral-Caspian basin, Siberia, Asia Minor, Russia, were overrun
within a hundred years by Chinghiz Khan, his lieutenants,
and his immediate descendants. Thus, by the hordes of our
plateau, there was established a dominion stretching from Cape
Comorin, near the equator, to the Arctic Ocean, and from the
Pacific shores to the banks of the Vistula in Poland. The latest
historian of the Mongols considers that nothing but the unex-
pected death of the Tartar sovereign, and the political combina-
tions arising in consequence within this very plateau of ours,
prevented the Tartar invasion from spreading even to Western
Europe. Though it is often held that these terrific events have
been overruled by Providence for the progress of mankind, still
at the time they caused what Gibbon truly calls a shipwreck of
nations. Notwithstanding this, the Tartars won, in a certain
D
34
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
sense, an unparalleled success, which is attributable to the
geographical circumstances of our plateau.
The influence of the precipices, the forests, the prairies, the
wild sports, in forming the national character is so obvious that
it need not be specified. We readily understand how the sturdy
mountaineer, the daring hunter, the practised archer, becomes
the able soldier. In Mongolia, however, the local specialty was
this, that the practically boundless extent of the pasturage and
the nutritious richness of its quality, induced the people to
maintain countless horses, cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and
camels,-neglecting the tillage of the soil, never building
houses, but living in tents made of warm felt, accumulating a
certain sort of rude wealth, still roving and roaming about at
some seasons incessantly from one encampment or one grazing-
ground to another, dragging with them their families and their
effects by means of the pack animals and the roomy waggons
drawn by many oxen yoked abreast. Thus was a truly nomadic
existence practised on the largest scale ever known. Mongol
armies, better drilled, armed, accoutred, and equipped than any
forces then known in the civilised world, would march from
our plateau into the inhabited plains around, and would observe
houses and towns for the first time. It is even alleged that
some of them had never seen cultivated crops before.
In this state of existence the temptations to depredation of
all sorts were excessive, and the danger from the climate, the
savagery of nature, and the wild beasts, was always imminent.
Consequently the Mongols were obliged to hold themselves
together by the cohesion of families, clans, and tribes. Thus by the
force of circumstances a social organisation was established which
proved the foundation of a military discipline, suitable to the
genius of the people, almost self-acting, and unfailing even in the
remotest expeditions. The horses, too, upon which the Mongol
warriors mainly depended, naturally fell into the training; being
always turned out to graze in herds, they habitually kept
together, and the field manœuvre fixed habits which had been
1
CHAP. II. NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE MONGOLS.
35
already acquired. It used to be remarked that a line of Mongol
cavalry was like a rope or a chain perfectly flexible but never
parted.
The Mongolian food included little of cereals or vegetables,
but consisted mainly of cheese and meat. For stimulating
drink there was the fermented mare's milk. The name "koumis
or "prepared milk," apparently much esteemed medically now-
a-days, is a Mongolian word. Manifestly, men thus nurtured
could live in the saddle day and night, carrying with them their
sustenance in the smallest compass, and scarcely halting to eat
or drink. Thus the hardihood evinced on protracted marches,
which would otherwise be incredible, can be accounted for.
It is probable that this diet, while sustaining vivacity, produced
also a violence of disposition. Certainly, ruthlessness, cruelty,
indifference to suffering, characterised the Mongols and marred
the effect of their grand qualities. Massacres, holocausts,
conflagrations, marked their warlike operations. Even famines
and epidemics have hardly done more for depopulation than the
Mongol conquests. A Mongolian chief would say that the
keenest enjoyment in life was to stamp upon a beaten enemy,
to seize his family, and despoil his encampment.
It is not the purpose of this address to describe the policy of
the Mongols or the institutions which they founded in conquered
countries. A few salient points only have been indicated in
reference to the geography of our plateau. It is here, near what
is now known as the upper region of the Amûr, that the Onon,
the Orkhon, and the Kerulen, classic streams in Mongol story,
take their source. Here is the site of Kara Koron, the emperor's
headquarter encampment. Here the Kurultai assemblies were
held to decide the fate of nationalities. Here were the camps,
the Urts and Urdus, rude names at first unpronounceable in the
civilised world, but soon to become terribly familiar. Here
were the hordes mustered under their banners, each standard
having its distinctive colour, the supreme ensign being, however,
the yak's tail raised aloft. Hither, also, the corpse of Chinghiz
+
1
t
D 2
36
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
:
Khan was borne in a cumbrous catafalque, dragged through the
deep loam by oxen yoked twenty abreast, while his henchman
chanted a dirge which was a pathetic effusion from the heart of
a valiant nation, and was full of poetic images drawn from the
Mongolian surroundings.
In the sixth place, though our plateau has possessed, and still
possesses, some patches of fine cultivation, such as those in the
Upper Tarim basin, near Yarkand and Kashgar, and some near
Lhassa in Tibet, still it has comparatively but little of agricul-
ture, of trade, or of industry. Nevertheless it has many natural
resources of value and interest, while its pastoral resources have
proved astonishing. Its breed of horses, though by no means
the finest, has yet been quite the largest ever known. These
horses have never displayed the beauty of the Arabian or the
size of the Turkoman breed. They are middle-sized, and do
not attain the speed of thoroughbreds. But in nimbleness
amidst rugged ground, in endurance over lengthened distances,
and in preserving their condition with scanty nourishment, they
are unrivalled. Their numbers too may well exercise the
imagination of modern breeders. For many years the Tartar
emperors maintained in the field at least 500,000 cavalry, for
which the horses were drawn chiefly from our plateau. This
enormous cavalry force was engaged in fighting over an area of
many thousand miles in length and breadth, during which
operations much desperate resistance was encountered. It was
occupied in steep ascents and descents, in traversing deserts, in
crossing frozen lakes, in swimming rapid rivers. How vastly
numerous then must have been the casualties among the horses,
and how immense the breeding studs. The pasturage too was
so potent in nutritive qualities that ordinarily there was risk of
animals suffering from repletion, and emaciated creatures rapidly
gained flesh and strength.
In other respects too the fauna are noteworthy-the sheep
and goats, with wool or down of the softest texture-the buffalo
herds and the yaks inured to the sharpest cold-the gazelles
CHAP. II.
EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS.
37
careering in thousands-the untameable camel of the desert
having a speed and agility unknown in other species-the wild
asses and the white wolves-the waterfowl at times like clouds
darkening the air.
The flora too, though less abundant, has its specialities-the
pointed grasses sharp enough to pierce leather, the gigantic
rhubarb, the magnificent holly, the branching juniper.
The mineral resources of the Kuen-lun are certainly enor-
mous; nobody yet knows how great they may prove. Indeed
our plateau is remarkable for the antimony, the sulphur, the
saltpetre, the borax, the gold-washings, the turquoise, and the
classic jadestone.
In the seventh place, the field offered by our plateau for
scientific research will be apparent from even a cursory con-
sideration of the stage to which our knowledge has reached.
From the map,* which shows with separate marking those
portions of Asia that have been professionally surveyed, those
that have been roughly surveyed, those that have been explored
only, and in white those that are unexplored-it will be seen that
almost the whole of our plateau is unsurveyed, and that while
much of it has been explored more or less, some portions yet await
exploration. For some time, however, it has been the sphere
chosen by many among the most skilful, enduring, and intrepid
travellers of Europe. The journeys of the Russian Prejevalsky in
the Tarim basin and Mongolia, of Potanin and Rafailoff in the
same region, of Malussovski near Kobdo, of the French mission-
aries Gabet and Huc in Mongolia, of the Bishop Desgodins in
Tibet, of the German Schlagintweit in Turkestan, of the English-
men Forsyth, Trotter, Johnson, Shaw, Hayward in the Tarim
basin, of Wood in the Pamir, of Ney Elias in Mongolia, of Delmar
Morgan in Kulja, of Bogle and Manning in Tibet, while teaching
us very much, have yet left our minds dazed with a sense of what
remains to be learnt. Even the trigonometrical determination
of the Himalayan summits by the English Surveyors General
* See map prefixed to Chapter I.
38
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
namely, Everest, Waugh, and Walker, the researches of Basevi,
Stolicska, Godwin-Austen, Thomson, Biddulph, in the same
quarter, and the Siberian surveys by the Russians among the
Altai and Thian Shan mountains, have brought us only to the
verge of half-discovered or undiscovered countries. The greatest
unexplored region in all Asia, namely, the Kuen-lun range, lies
in the very heart of our plateau. It is remarkable too that if
the principal geographical problems awaiting solution in Asia
be specified, such as the true and ultimate sources of the Hoang-
ho, the Irawady, the Salwen, the Mekong, the relation of the
San-po with the Brahmaputra, the connecting links between
the Kuen-lun and the Chinese mountain chains, they will be
found to concern our plateau.
At a few points only has our plateau been penetrated by
geological surveys, namely, in some parts of the Altai and at
the western end of the Thian Shan; and these surveys are
Russian. But the formations, the strata, the upheavals, the
denudations, the fluvial action, awaiting scientific examination,
are indescribably great. A notion of some of the questions
inviting inquiry from the geologist and palæontologist may be
gathered from what has been already said under previous head-
ings in respect to the general desiccation and the subsidence or
evaporation of the primeval waters.
To the naturalist few regions present more surprising oppor-
tunities for the observation of the coming, the resting, the
departing of migratory birds.
To meteorologists many of the natural phenomena must
prove highly interesting-the causation of the wondrous dry-
ness, the effects produced on animal comfort by the rarefaction
of the air, the mummified bodies dried up without undergoing
putrefaction, the clouds of salt particles driven along by furious
gusts and filling the atmosphere, the fires in the parched vege-
tation of the desert, the spontaneous ignition of coal-beds, the
caves emitting sulphurous gases, the rocky girdle of syenite
bounding the Gobi desert, the gradual contraction of the glaciers,
CHAP. II. ESTABLISHMENT OF CHINESE JURISDICTION.
39
the ordinarily rainless zones sometimes invaded by rain-storms
with a downpour like that of the tropics.
In the eighth place, our plateau is now under one imperial
jurisdiction, and offers many problems for social inquirers. It
belongs entirely to the Chinese empire with the exception or
one small tract where the Russian authorities have crossed the
mountain border. The geographical features for the most part
favour national defence and territorial consolidation. The old
Chinese Wall is still suitable to the political geography of
to-day. In the Zungarian strait, however, in the Ili valley near
Kulja, perhaps, also, in the line of the Black Irtish, near Zaisan,
the Chinese empire, in its contact with Russia, has weak points
strategically, or chinks in its armour. Though the plateau
was originally under the Chinese suzerainty, it became, under
the Mongolian emperor Chinghiz Khan and his successors,
the mistress of China, as indeed of all Asia and of Eastern
Europe. As the Mongol power, however, shrunk and withered,
the Chinese reasserted themselves. At length, under a dynasty
from Manchuria outside the mountain border, the Chinese be-
came lords over our plateau. The Zungarian tribe of Eleuths
rose, and after severe military operations were suppressed. The
Muhammadan inhabitants of the Tarim basin rebelled against
the Chinese government, and for a while maintained an inde-
pendent principality for Islam. It was during this time that
the British sovereign sent an envoy to Yarkand to conclude a
commercial treaty, in 1873. Subsequently the Chinese broke
down this rising independence, and the whole region of the
Tarim receives its orders from the emperor at Peking.
The decline and fall of the Mongol empire, the disruption of
that wide-spread dominion, like the breaking up of the ice on
its own frozen rivers, are historical themes beyond the scope
of this address. But the changes which have gradually come
over the national character of Mongolians are cognate to the
studies of geographers. As already seen, the annals of the
Mongols reveal one of the many examples of the theory of
40
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
causation, explaining how geographical surroundings mould or
affect the human character. There remain the mountains, the
sea of undulating uplands, which are still among the few im-
portant regions not essentially modified by human action.
The pine forests, though hardly intact, have not been exten-
sively cleared. There is the dread desert, where to the ears
of superstitious Mongols the roll of the mustering drums and
the shouts of victorious battle are audible, and which has
engulfed in sandy waves additional tracts once productive.
The pastoral resources, the nomadic diet and exercises, the tribal
organisation, are in kind the same as of yore, though perhaps
modified in extent or degree. The short-lived heat may per-
haps be gaining strength as the ages advance; but the winters
must be nearly as long and hard as ever. Thus the same
physical and climatic conditions, which once caused the Mon-
golian nation to become one of the mightiest engines ever
directed by man, are still surrounding the politically de-
generate Mongols of to-day, who are best represented by the
tribe of Khalkas. Once audaciously ambitious, the Mongols are
now sluggish and narrow-minded; once passionately fond of
an independence as free as their mountain air, they are now
submissive to the domination of races formerly despised by them
as inferior; once proud of a tribal organisation and a voluntary
discipline that wrought world-renowned wonders, they are
now split up into factions like a faggot of sticks that has been
unbound. A man who, though the feeblest of pedestrians, grips
with his bowed legs the saddle of the most restive horse as
with a vice, is all that remains of the historic Mongol. It is
for the social inquirer to determine what have been the circum-
stances counteracting the climatic and local causes which made
this nation potential in moulding medieval history.
Here too may be observed the tendencies of Paganism, Bud-
dhism, and Muhammadism respectively. Of all religions our
plateau offers the best means of studying Buddhism, which still
is supposed to count more adherents than any other faith. Though
CHAP. II.
SEAT OF BUDDHISM.
41
the mid-Ganges Valley was the birthplace of this wide-spread
religion, and was for ages regarded by pious Buddhists as their
holy land—yet during recent centuries the active centre of the
faith has been in Tibet. Of the four incarnations of Buddha
now held to exist, three are within our plateau, namely, two in
Tibet near Lhassa and at Teshu Lumbo, and one in Mongolia
at Urga, near the spot where mounds attest the burial of heaps
of slain after one of Chinghiz Khan's earliest battles. In Tibet
may be seen to the best advantage those religious ceremonies,
the sight of which has always attracted the observation of
Roman Catholic missionaries.
In conclusion, this brief summary of our geographical know-
ledge regarding the plateau of mid-Asia is provisional only.
For it avowedly deals with regions mostly unsurveyed and
seldom even explored completely. Further exploration or dis-
covery therefore may reverse some of our specific conclusions,
or may modify the current of our topographical ideas. It is
probable indeed that there will be such changes, inasmuch as
almost every investigation within this vast area has revealed
something unimagined before, or has caused disbelief of some-
thing previously believed. This address, then, is limited to a
résumé of things imperfectly known, with a view of bringing
into strong relief two matters which are unquestionable, namely,
the importance of our plateau and the grand field it offers for
research. If the public consideration of these matters shall
induce enquirers to direct their enterprise towards this grand
region, we may hope that by degrees the errors in our facts
may be removed, the misdirection of our conclusions remedied,
the vagueness of our notions made definite. At present the
physical obstacles in the path of such enquiries are so grave
as to be almost deterring. But they do not finally deter those
who after forethought decide to brave peril, distress, sickness,
suffering, in order to enlarge the bounds of knowledge. Each
enquirer, however, has the consolation of reflecting that he
makes the rough ways smoother for those who shall come after
42
CHAP. II.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
him. Every journey that is accomplished must facilitate suc-
cessive discovery in the same line of country. Probably as fast
as one line is made good geographically, fresh lines may present
themselves, and new vistas will be opened to the astonished
gaze of geographers. At length, with all the constancy and
courage which arduous travel never fails to inspire, the enquirers
of the future will doubtless explore this plateau till it becomes
as well known as the Alpine regions of Europe.
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105 Longitude East from Greenwich nо
London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
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CHINA
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yellow. China without the wall is coloured
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120
20
Scale of English Miles.
Stanford's GeogEstab
50 25 0
50
100
150
200
( 43 )
1
CHAPTER III.
POLITICAL LESSONS OF CHINESE HISTORY.
[Paper read before the Royal Historical Society, in London,
April 1883.]
Political and strategic geography of China-Mongol invasion turning-point
in Chinese history-Early Chinese civilization before that event-Gallant
and patriotic resistance on the part of the Chinese against their Mongol
invaders-Mongol conquest of China completed A.D. 1270-Character of
Mongol rule there- Restoration of native Chinese dynasty-Its decay after
lasting two centuries—Local insurrection of a strange character arising —
Prepares the way for accession of the Manchus-Origin of the Manchu
Tartars―They overrun China after a noble resistance by the people
Their dominion established over China Character of their rule up to the
nineteenth century - Eminent sovereigns of their race — Beginning of
their degeneracy.
IN undertaking to address you regarding the political lessons
derivable from the history of China, I must ask you to allow me
to bring my survey down to the end of the eighteenth century
only, and to stop at the commencement of our present nine-
teenth century. The reason is this, that Chinese history, from
about the year 1800, involves several problems which have been
and still are agitated among politicians, and some controversies
of a moral, social, or economic character, which are far from
being exhausted. Such topics would, doubtless, be regarded by
you as unsuitable in the present address. Still, an impartial
retrospect of the past cannot fail to assist us in understanding
the present, and gauging the immediate future of a vast people
in whose affairs British interests are largely concerned.
44
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Moreover, to essay such a task is all the more desirable, in
that Chinese history, though striking and interesting when its
leading features are grasped, is but little known popularly, and
even to the sight of cultured people is perhaps involved in mist
and confusion. Yet with many there is springing up an uneasy
consciousness that as China is growing fast in importance, its
antecedent conditions merit examination.
Before presenting to you those parts of Chinese history which
are really the turning-points in the career of the nation, I must
call to your remembrance certain salient points in the political
and strategic geography of China. These points will immediately
be apprehended from a glance at the map prefixed to this address.
In the first place, beginning at the north, pray observe the head-
waters of the river Amûr and its affluents. There was the
birthplace of the Mongolian power, probably the most destructive
and terrific force that has ever appeared in human history, and
which overcame China together with many other countries. In
the next place, let your attention be turned to a comparatively
small river which flows into a gulf to the north-east of Peking.
Its valley was the original home of the Manchus, who, from the
humblest beginnings as a petty Tartar tribe, conquered China
after a contest lasting only a single generation. In the third
place your notice must be claimed for the range of hills imme-
diately north of Peking, stretching from the sea-coast westwards
till they join the mountains which overhang the desert of Mon-
golia. These mountains formed the line of demarcation between
the Chinese proper, who were people of the plains or valleys, and
the Tartars, including the famous Mongols, the Manchus, and
other cognate tribes, who were people dwelling in the mountains
or the elevated plateaux. The tribes dwelling beyond this range
were to the Chinese what the barbarians beyond the Alps were
to the Romans-at first subdued by civilised force, but ulti-
mately rising against the civilisation to which they had bowed,
and victoriously overthrowing it. It was along the winding ridge
of this range that the great Chinese Wall was built. In the next
CHAP. III.
STRATEGIC GEOGRAPHY OF CHINA.
45
place I must beg you to note the course of the Hoang Ho. This
river, rising in the eastern spurs of the Kuen Lun mountains,
runs northwards, then, after turning eastwards, wends straight
south—its course resembling a bent finger-and finally pursues
an easterly course to its mouth. It is in the middle valley of
the Hoang Ho, near the two great bends above described, that
some of the crucial struggles for possession of the Chinese
empire have occurred. This province has been to China what
the Panjab was to India; and in the province adjoining it on
the east, the Chinese nationality was originally formed. Near
the point where the river on completing its last bend passes
between the hills towards the plains-is situated the fortified
pass of Tung Kwan, for the possession of which several historic
contests have been waged. To the Chinese this position resem-
bled in importance the Khyber Pass, with Peshawar or Attok,
on the British Indian frontier.
Further, I invite you to mark the course of the Yang-tsze-
Kiang, which rising in the same spurs of the Kuen Lun moun-
tains as the Hoang Ho, follows a south-easterly and then an
easterly course to the sea. This river, together with its affluents,
sustaining a population of 100 millions, has contributed more
to the multiplication of the human race than any other river
under the sun. But, apart from this, the Yang-tsze-Kiang
valley must be remembered by us at this moment, because it
has been the central domicile of the Chinese proper, the home
of their best civilization, and the scene where their supreme
efforts have at times been organized for national defence.
There is yet a river in the south which joins the sea at
Canton. For the surrounding district a future of indefinite
greatness is perhaps reserved. Within its limits, as we shall
presently see, Chinese nationality on two separate occasions
made a last stand for independence.
Further, I suggest that you let your glance sweep round the
outer limits of the Chinese empire, and then down the moun-
tain range (the Inshan and Khingan) which divides the empire
46
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
into two unequal parts. You will perceive that there are
included two distinct areas in the empire; one the Central
Plateau of Asia, the other the comparatively lowland country
between that plateau and the sea, or China proper. The
plateau is regarded by geographers as the most remarkable on the
surface of the globe. I have elsewhere (that is before the British
Association for the Advancement of Science) * described its phy-
sical geography, and need here only advert to its political effect
on China. It constitutes two-thirds of the total Chinese area,
that is, upwards of 24 millions of square miles out of 4 millions
of square miles and upwards. But it has only one-thirtieth of
the total population, or 15 millions of souls, out of a possible
total of 350 millions. Nevertheless, this plateau, which at one
epoch grievously affected the fate of all Asia, and a part of
Europe, has constantly affected the fortunes of China. It
includes Tibet, the centre of Buddhism, the established religion
of China. On some occasions the Chinese subdued the
barbarous and brave inhabitants of the plateau. On other
occasions some sections of these inhabitants, notwithstanding
the low state of their general civilization, have acquired the art
of war far better than their more civilized contemporaries, have
burst into China proper with forces that with martial superiority
more than compensated for their inferior numbers, and have
held down the populous provinces of China with an iron hand.
Nevertheless, whenever the barbarians of the plateau have been
settled as conquerors in China proper, one of two things has
happened to them. Either they have lost their hardihood
among soft surroundings, and, becoming degenerate, have been
relegated by Chinese patriotism to their native mountains, or
else they have adopted the Chinese civilization. In the latter
case they have illustrated the truth of the classic line,-
“Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit."
Thus history has repeated itself here on a gigantic scale.
* See the preceding Chapter II.
CHAP. III.
THE MONGOL CONQUEST.
47
The population, then, of China proper is different from that
of the Plateau, and, ethnologically, the two peoples are distinct
branches of the same family. Thus with the mental culture of
the Chinese there has generally been a mingling of northern
vigour and genius in the dynastic, the military, the political
achievements.
I have troubled you with this preface of political geography
because it is necessary to fasten on these points in order that
the events, which I shall have to marshal, may rise up in due
procession before the historic imagination.
Now let any one look back over the events of Chinese history
for nearly three thousand years, and say what is the train of
political circumstances that has modified most the national
destiny? The answer would probably be, the Mongol conquest
shortly after the year 1200 A.D. Before that fatal year, the
Chinese nationality had developed those characteristic peculiari-
ties which, uniformly distinguishing the entire nation, have
proved to be almost immutable. Since that time, it has passed
through tremendous vicissitudes, and partially righted itself,
retaining or restoring many of its pristine features. But it can
hardly have been quite what it was before.
"... Nec amissos colores
Lana refert medicata fuco."
Hence it is primarily interesting to consider what was
the stage of Chinese development before the cataclysm of
A.D. 1200 tore up the medieval world. For our present
purpose this development is regarded from a political point
of view only.
In the first place it is very remarkable that the Chinese
originally lived under a feudal system. The country consisted
of several states (seven in number), over each of which there
was a local lord, under whom there were lesser chiefs holding
lands by laws of sub-infeudation. The states were federated
under one lord as emperor, who had some territory in his
48
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
*
own direct administration. Several dynasties of emperors really
represented the headship of a feudal confederation. Under
this feudalism there arose many of the ancient heroes, states-
men and sages of China, while many of its characteristic marks
were stamped upon the civilization, the institution, and the
habits of the Chinese. The system was destroyed 200 years
before the Christian era by a sovereign who has been very
properly styled the Chinese Cæsar,* and who established a real
empire to last for centuries. At times this empire became
disunited, to be again united; but the principle of absolute and
centralized power remained in force.
This suppression of feudalism is regarded by some authorities
to have been the only revolution that has ever occurred in
China, inasmuch as it warred against a principle. The political
movements, to which we shall presently advert, were rebellions
only as warring against individual rulers.
The confines of the Chinese empire were always fluctuating,
now receding, and now advancing. At times they reached to the
western end of the central plateau, and tribute was probably
received even from tribes dwelling near the Caspian. A system
of frontier defence was organized by the construction of the great
Wall already mentioned, with fortifications at intervals upon a
line at least 1200 miles in length; together with a strange
line of palisades towards Manchuria and the Corea, 800 miles
long. The combined length of fortified frontiers amounted to
2000 miles. Similar lines have been constructed elsewhere, by
the Romans in Central Europe, by the Russians in Siberia, by
the British near the Indus, but none of them have approached
the mileage and the completeness of the Chinese defence.
The towns in the interior were encompassed with fortifications,
the places thus fortified being numbered by many hundreds.
In no country has the system of internal defence been ever
carried out more thoroughly. Besides a sea-going fleet,
organised mainly for service in Corean or Japanese waters;
* See Boulger's 'History of China,' vol. i.
CHAP. III.
EARLY CHINESE INSTITUTIONS.
49
a special marine was maintained for service in the great
rivers; the river war-vessels numbering many hundreds. A
code of army regulations was drawn up, relating to pay,
promotion, drill, discipline, and all the minutiae of military
service. The vast territories were divided for administrative
purposes into provinces, districts, and townships. Feudalism
was superseded by the appointment of provincial governors
and district magistrates. From time to time censors were
deputed by the central authority for peripatetic supervision.
For the central authority itself something like a constitution
was established, in which the leading features were a council
of state, and several departmental boards. The civil legislation
was most voluminous; the penal code was comprehensive in
scope, and lucid in arrangement; the moral precepts were
definite, and the religious ritual minute. There were codes for
all branches of human conduct and relationship. The official
deference paid to literature has hardly been equalled in any other
age or country; the lettered classes in their capacity as literati
formed a power which could make revolutions, and which
emperors on their accession were obliged to conciliate. The
patronage of letters, and the preparation of chronicles ranked
high among public duties. A kind of rude printing with
wooden types was invented at an early time; public libraries
on an immense scale were maintained; a tribunal of history, and
an official gazette were instituted. Extraordinary attention was
paid to popular education; the central colleges were among the
most influential institutions of the land. Competitive examina-
tions were essential preliminaries for admission to that public
service which conferred the highest social status attainable. The
official class, indeed, constituted the real aristocracy. Survey-
ing and map-making received close attention; the cartography
included topographical and cadastral particulars. Gazetteers
and encyclopædias were compiled. An elaborate lexicography
was instituted, and a statistical bureau was set on foot. In-
terminable voluminousness was the awful feature of Chinese
E
50
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
literature. On each topic the volumes were counted by
hundreds, and the chapters by thousands.
In China (as in India) there was always a question whether
the land belonged to the Emperor or to the people. In theory
it belonged to the Emperor, while in practice the people had a
perpetual lease, which was tantamount to property. But this
property being liable to taxation, might be rendered valuable or
valueless, according as the administration might be moderate
or extortionate. In China, practically, there was moderation.
As a rule there was peasant proprietorship; small landed pro-
perties were also common; but large estates, though existing
here and there, were comparatively rare. The rules for
mortgages and temporary transfers were complete, and there
was a registration of landed occupancy. A communal system
existed somewhat resembling the village communities of India.*
In towns there appear to have been municipalities managing
conservancy and police.
It is observable that, with all the legislation, there were no
institutions like juries to protect the subject, and trials were
left to the discretion-or but too often to the will and pleasure-
of the judge.
The construction of public works was recognised as a duty
of the state. Canals of navigation, of a length never equalled
elsewhere, were begun; irrigation works were undertaken,
which-though not comparable to those which the British
Government has constructed in India-have yet challenged
the admiration of observers in subsequent ages. Roads were
engineered in the midst of mountains, and passes were hewn
through rocky crests. Even valleys were spanned by bridges
with lofty piers. Embankments were raised to restrain the
flowing rivers, one of which rivers was declared by the last
testament of an Emperor to be "China's sorrow."
All this represents an aggregate of administrative achievements
fully justifying the ancient repute of China, and, at first sight,
* Maine on "Village Communities and Early Law and Custom."
CHAP. III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL UPHEAVALS.
51
seeming to anticipate some parts of our modern civilization.
But a closer examination will reveal defects fatal to national
progress and political stability.
No standard of public conduct is higher than that which was
recognised by the Chinese emperors, who ascended the throne
not by the right of primogeniture or even of birth, but by a
commission from heaven. This standard was followed by many
of them in some degree, while by a few of them it was observed
to a degree which has rendered their names household words
among succeeding generations. But the sovereign was expected
to hold in his own hands the threads of countless affairs and to
be the administrator in chief. Never was the doctrine of every-
thing for the people and nothing by them, carried more rigidly
to its conclusion. Their right to paternal care from the
government was asserted as having been bestowed on them by
a charge from on high. They looked to the state for support
and guidance in matters relating to material prosperity, as well
as to moral advancement. Economic doctrines were sometimes
preached which taught even the agriculturists to depend on
the government for sustenance. The first consequence was an
excessive centralisation of authority. The effect was intensified
by the want of local institutions strongly rooted, and the
paucity of territorial chiefs or landed gentry. The weight of
the administration hung too much on a single rope. If that
rope snapped, then political ruin ensued. Thus, China, from
time to time, displayed the phenomena of movements arising
suddenly and mysteriously which the state seemed unable to
withstand. A robber chief would spring up, insurrectionary
forces would gather round him, and he might even scale the
seat of empire. In China, as in India, brigandage, beginning
with success, ends with political significance.
An occasion for convulsion would be offered by the bad
surroundings of an emperor. For although polygamy is not a
Chinese institution, yet something tantamount to it must
have prevailed in the imperial families. Nowhere have the
♫
Į
;
E 2
52
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
palace guardians exercised a more baneful influence upon the
national history than in China. It is not to be hence inferred,
however, that the imperial ladies were always kept in seclusion,
for in China many widowed empresses, or empress mothers,
have ambitiously seized opportunities of displaying patriotic
resolution and governing capacity.
But, irrespective of such grave interruptions, there seems
to have always been a difficulty in securing good administration.
While an elaboration of theory and system was carried to an
extreme, the practice and execution were seldom successful.
While the doctrines of the ethical code were sublime, plain
honesty appears seldom to have been observed even to an average
extent in the affairs of the nation. Corruption is alleged to have
been ever the rule. The ancient Chinese never dared to pride
themselves on the favourite quality of the ancient Persians,
namely, truth-telling. Notwithstanding the selection by com-
petition, good administrators were not always forthcoming
even for the collection of the revenue. The evil failed to be
checked by the permanent supervision of departmental boards
and the occasional inspection of imperial censors. The master
instinct was that of formalism, and there was not enough of
vitalising spirit to make the dry bones of regulation live with
efficiency. The rust thus engendered began to spread with the
army as well, despite all the nominal organisation; and before
the irruption of the barbarians, a cry had arisen that the precisely
drilled troops would not in action either stand or charge.
The educational method generated a power of intense mental
application, in which the Chinese have been rarely equalled,
also a faculty of refined perception and subtle discrimination.
A round of distressful tasks, intellectually, was prescribed, to
which the sufferers addressed themselves with marvellous
patience. Still the reasoning aptitude was not developed pari
passu with the memory. While an excessive strain was put on
the memory, the logical aptitude became shrunken and the
scientific spirit was quenched.
CHAP. III. CHARACTER OF THE ANCIENT CHINESE.
53
Though ordinarily averse from suffering, and often failing in
battle, the people had a certain sort of courage. None would
endure mortal pain with more fortitude than they; none would
face death more stoically. Their history too is adorned by
many passages of self-denying heroism. Still it may be doubted
whether by temperament they ever had "a stomach for the
fight." Their original impulse would always have been to seek
peace and avoid conflict. Their religion may be described as
Buddhism and Lamaisın combined with the ethics of Lao, of
Confucius, of Mencius, and of the commentators. In so far as
that affected their disposition, the tendency was towards quiet
at any price. The precepts relating to charitable forbearance
were noble indeed, but proceeded to what might be called an
unpractical extreme.
Veneration was set before them as being among the foremost
attributes of humanity. Obedience to authority-first that of
parents, then that of existing rulers, and finally that of the
emperor as vice-regent of Heaven-was accepted as the first of
duties. Being in the main sincere and single-minded, they
were loyal to existing dynasties for periods of some duration.
They were also long-suffering under oppression and extortion
up to a certain limit. But when that limit was over-passed,
they would deem that the time had come to be angry and sin
Then discarding their habitual tolerance, they would
turn and rend their oppressors. The knowledge that this
might happen doubtless operated as a permanent check on
oppression.
not.
Furthermore, with the philosophic and speculative tendencies
pervading large classes, there was something fanciful, something
restless in the popular imagination. Movements were from time
to time arising and predisposing the people to change, of all
which circumstances advantage would be taken by daring and
desperate men. Indeed periodicity of revolt is alleged by a recent
authority to be an abiding characteristic of Chinese history.
On the whole it will be seen that the Chinese nationality
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+
54
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
abounded in inconsistencies which cannot be reconciled in a
brief analysis. Side by side with gentle virtues there was
nourished a national self-sufficiency and a desire to stigmatize
with barbarism all those not falling within the pale of a peculiar
civilization. The obligatory duties at the ancestral tombs pre-
vented permanent emigration. Though Chinese traders went
far afield they returned to the mother land. In the depths of
the national mind there lay a faith not only in the moral
government of the world, but also in a theocratic supervision of
human affairs. Combined with this was a belief in the dignity
of the individual man. Though the investing of chosen persons
with august authority was a divine institution, still the choice
was to follow personal merit. Every man, however humble,
was to have his chance of rising to a bright career by conduct
and learning. This idea is the parent of the educational system
unapproached by any other Eastern race, and has conduced to
the individuality distinguishing Chinese annals.
It is a hopeless task to state the population of this empire;
the estimate ranges from 300 to 430 millions of souls. The
area of China proper, 14 million of square miles (exclusive of
the Central Plateau), is the same as that of India. The Indian
population, being 260 millions, might be taken as a basis for
estimating that of China, to which might be added 15 millions
for the Central Plateau, making the total 275 millions. The
distribution of population dense and sparse in the two countries
is not dissimilar. If, however, the proportion of densely peopled
tracts be larger in China, the total might be raised to 300
millions. But how far it should be raised above 300 millions,
may be a question for statisticians to consider.
This chequered view regarding the outcome of Chinese
civilization before the era of the Mongol deluge, A.D. 1200,
shews that in the massive and unwieldy empire there were
enfeebling and disintegrating causes at work. Still there re-
mained, as we shall presently see, enough of vitality and energy
in the mass to cause the conquering Mongols more trouble than
CHAP. III.
INVASION BY CHINGHIZ KHAN.
55
they ever experienced in all their widespread and diverse
conquests.
At this epoch, the Chinese empire, or rather the Chinese
kingdom as it should be called, had shrunk from its im-
perial proportions, and was restricted to China proper. The
tribes making up the Mongolian nationality had gained.
such an independence throughout the Central Plateau as
threatened all neighbouring countries. One of these tribes
named the Kin, or "Golden," had established a dynasty in
northern China with Peking as its capital. Another tribe, the
Hia, had a strong principality in the upper valley of the
Hoang Ho. To the native Chinese dynasty of Sung there
remained central and southern China, about two-thirds of the
whole country, with its seat of power and resource in the valley
of the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and its capital at Nanking.
As might be expected, the Mongol leader, Chinghiz Khan (or
Genghiz), caused the divided Chinese kingdom to be attacked
in detail. It would require the burning language of Edmund
Burke to describe how the Mongol war-cloud burst upon the Kin
defences in the Great Wall and, passing round the Chinese flank
on the north-east, swept over the devoted country. The
fortified places were overthrown like nine-pins by hundreds, and
the conquerors boasted of the numberless habitations that had
been razed level with the earth. The Kin, however, rallied his
resources; his capital Peking, and his western stronghold (Tung
Kwan already mentioned) remained to him; and the Mongols
received their first check in northern China. The Hia kingdom,
commanding the upper valley of the Hoang Ho, also held out.
The conjuncture was so serious that Chinghiz Khan, after
having overcome many nations, came down in person from
Mongolia to command the operations. He defeated the Hia
army in a battle fought amidst the frosts of winter, and so
conquered the north-western corner of China. This was the
last of his many battles; for he shortly afterwards died,
adjuring his successors to continue the conquest of northern
56
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
China. The Kin, however, contested his territory bit by bit;
the Mongols met with a resistance stiffer than any they had as
yet experienced in the various countries which they had sub-
dued; and the stand thus made was marked by several heroic
episodes. The Mongols, accustomed to overrun countries in
Asia and in Europe as with an avalanche, were occupied for
twenty years in reducing northern China; and the Kin suc-
cumbed, sinking under superior force, but leaving behind him
a memory destined, as we shall see presently, to animate his
descendants to deeds grander than his own. In all this
patriotism the impulse and the direction were due to the Kin,
and many of the troops were of that nationality; still, many of
the troops and officers were Chinese, and the part then played
must be reckoned among the glories of China.
Indeed, northern China might have kept the Mongols at bay
for an indefinite time, had it not been. for the conduct of the
southern Chinese under the Sung dynasty. In an ill-fated
hour, national jealousy of the Kin induced the Sung to make
an alliance with the Mongols on the condition of his having a
share in the Kin spoil. Thus, although the Mongols were then
equal, unaided, to any enterprise, it is the fact that in subduing
northern China they had the aid of southern China. The Sung
doubtless hoped by making common cause with the destroyers
to put off the day of his own destruction. But the usual
quarrel ensued over the spoil, and the Mongols formally issued
the fiat of "delenda est" against the Sung dynasty. Then
came a memorable passage, in which native Chinese may claim
the undivided honour, and which is the most illustrious chapter
in the record of Chinese patriotism.
The Mongols, flushed with a victory extending from the
Amûr in the east to the Volga and the Danube in the west,
now bent their best resources to the reduction of that Chinese
kingdom which they perceived to be far richer and more
populous than any region they had ever invaded. As might be
expected, everything went against the Sung. First, his front
CHAP. III.
RESISTANCE BY THE CHINESE.
57
which stretched along the lower valley of the Hoang Ho, was
driven in right and left. Next his left flank, resting on the
eastern slopes of the Central Plateau, was turned. Then his
rear in Yün Nan was successfully occupied by that sweeping
movement and that masterly strategy in which the Mongol
commanders emulated the traditions of Alexander and Cæsar.
Two lines or points alone remained to the Sung, namely, his
right resting on the sea, and his centre resting on the Yang-tsze-
Kiang, the river regarded by the Chinese as of all their rivers
the most national. Some of the ocean-going fleet, and much of
the inland river fleet were still in his possession. Along the
sea coast, however, the Mongols were soon beforehand with him.
For the conquest of northern China had placed at their disposal
the marine in the Gulf of Peking and the estuary of the Hoang
Ho. Thus they, for the first time in their political life, stepped
straight into the position of a maritime power. The manner in
which these Mongols-newly emerging from barbarism, dwelling
amidst mountains far inland, never having beheld any sea except
the Caspian or the Euxine, not possessing at home any navi-
gable river, not trained to any pursuit whatever, except that
horsemanship in which their proficiency was consummate-at
once brought naval means into play, just as if they had been
born to the business, is one among many proofs of the capacity
which at that period belonged to them. So the Sung with his
native Chinese, beaten at all sides on land, and sorely hindered
at sea, made a crowning effort. He took to the inland waters
of his national river. He placed his fighting men on board the
river war vessels, which swept the course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang
for several hundred miles. On or near both banks he had cities,
which had been strongly fortified, and were fondly venerated by
the Chinese as being the most splendid places under heaven.
Subject to the control of these river squadrons and these
strongholds, he had strips of the richest lands from which to
draw supplies. He was enthusiastically sustained by civil
administrators and military commanders, by soldiers and sailors,
58
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
by citizens and peasants. Thus he took up a position from
which the Mongols by land forces alone would never have
expelled him. Their invincible cavalry, after overrunning
most of Asia and a part of Europe, must have stopt at last
baffled in sight of the Yang-tsze-Kiang waters. But, alas!
the Mongols now had at their disposal the boats and sailors of
northern China. Thus they forced the mouth of the Yang-tsze-
Kiang, and challenged the Sung on his native element. Then
there ensued and lasted for several years an amphibious warfare
hardly paralleled in military annals. Furious river-fights were
fought; often the banks of the Yang-tsze-Kiang were lit up with
the glare of burning war-boats, while its waters rolled red with the
blood of Mongol and of Sung. The Sung was, however, gradually
overpowered; squadron after squadron, fort after fort, city after
city, were lost to him; and the Mongols were at length masters
of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. The Sung at last pushed his way out
to sea; and the emperor plunged into the waves to escape
gracing the Mongol triumph. But his cause survived; his
followers still held tracts far south in the Canton valley.
When driven from these they sought a final refuge in neigh-
bouring islands. The last of their commanders organized an
insular force, probably enlisting the privates that swarmed in the
archipelago, and prepared to descend upon the Canton coast and
to strike yet one more blow for the Sung. But he and his were
overtaken by a hurricane within sight of their native shores,
for which they were fighting so well, and the last of the Sung
patriots foundered at sea.
Now it is not to be understood that this record of Chinese
glory is spotless. Indeed there are spots left by flagrant
instances of neglect, of incapacity, and of unworthy surrender.
But it is also noteworthy that this long-sustained struggle of
patriotism was not at all the work of individual emperors
specially gifted with genius. On the contrary, the emperor in
these crucial times happened to be sometimes an imbecile, and
sometimes a boy. The war of independence was really main-
CHAP. III.
MONGOL DOMINION IN CHINA.
59
tained by whole classes of faithful ministers and brave generals.
Had the Sung at that moment possessed a supreme head of
adequate ability, the Mongols might, after all, have been foiled
at the Yang-tsze-Kiang line of Chinese defence. The fact, how-
ever, that such a defence was made without the advantage of
one guiding hand, is a proof of the patriotic vitality which the
Chinese nation still possessed up to this fatal year A.D. 1270.
The Mongols were now masters of China, having been occu-
pied for more than half a century of ceaseless fighting in that
conquest that is to say, full twenty years in conquering
northern China under the Kin, and upwards of thirty years in
subduing southern China under the Sung. When estimating
the calibre of Chinese nationality in the middle ages, let the
historical student compare the above-named time with the time
taken by the Mongols in reducing many of the classic regions
of the world, Ariana, Bactria, Persia, Asia Minor, old Russia,
and South-Eastern Europe. Then let judgment be formed as to
whether the Chinese resistance was not the stoutest that the
Mongols ever encountered.
The commander of the Mongols in the operations against the
Sung was Kublai, one of the three or four men of genius whom
the Mongolian nationality produced. He established a Chinese
kingdom in China proper, as distinguished from the Central
Plateau. Other branches of what had now become the imperial
family of the Mongols reigned in that Plateau, to which the
eyes of European civilization were turned with awe, and to
which the Christian Powers were fain to despatch ambas-
sadors.
In China proper, the Mongol dominion was consolidated
under Kublai by scrupulous attention to nearly all the ideas, the
peculiarities, the prejudices, the institutions of ancient China,
which have been already described. Great as a warrior, he was
equally great as a civil ruler. He improved and enlarged the
grand canal, which, uniting the deltas of the Hoang Ho and
the Yang-tsze-Kiang, in the rear of the Shan Tung promontory,
60
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
"
supplied inland navigation, saving a difficult detour by sea. He
never tried, or at least he failed, to establish any new institu-
tions which should give stability to the ancient Chinese polity.
Whether the Muhammadan religion was introduced into China
under his rule may be doubtful; at all events during his time
the faith of Islam pushed itself like a wedge into the midst of
the Buddhist population, constituting a sect of some millions
of adherents. This sect has on occasions asserted itself, but
there is doubt as to whether it would have to be reckoned
with seriously by those who aspire to govern China.
The successors to Kublai's throne, nursed in the soft Chinese
atmosphere, lost the ancestral vigour which had been braced
in the rigorous clime of the Central Plateau, and soon their
degenerate reigns were disturbed by those Chinese movements
which, as already explained, have periodically destroyed even the
best founded dynasties in China. Thus the Mongol rule, after
lasting just one century in China, and being beset by popular
risings under really national guidance, and by banditti acting
merely under impulse of spoliation-collapsed ignominiously.
Had there then been a presiding genius like Chinghiz Khan in the
national council of Mongolia near the head-waters of the Amûr,
the day might still have been retrieved for the Mongols in
China. But no succour came from the Central Plateau. For
by this time the Mongol authority was cankered to the core in
Mongolia itself. That monstrous upas tree, which had over-
shadowed half the world, still stretched out branches in which
the sap ascended, but its roots, which really sprang from the
Central Plateau, were decayed and withering.
A man of the
The revolution which now restored the native sovereignty
of China, was characteristic of the Chinese.
humblest class, who began life as a menial in a Buddhist
monastery, and afterwards enlisted as a private soldier, carried
in his knapsack not only the baton of a marshal, but also the
sceptre of sovereignty. He founded, on the Mongol ruins, the
next, which also proved the last, Chinese dynasty under the
CHAP. III.
ORIGIN OF MANCHU POWER.
61
title of Ming. Ascending the throne he, like every preceding
founder of a dynasty in China, was careful to confirm all the
ancient institutions, civil, educational, literary, of the Chinese.
The merits of the Chinese Ming ruler have been elaborately
described by one of his successors, who, being a Manchu, and
belonging to a different nationality, was free from any partiality
towards the Chinese. The virtues of the Ming, then, have been
set forth with extraordinary distinctness by a most competent
authority, who had unrivalled advantages in access to records,
and who doubtless sought example therefrom for his own
guidance. This instance, signal though it be, is yet but one
among the abundant instances of Chinese individuality. But
after two centuries and a half of rule, his dynasty succumbed to
the Manchu Tartars, who then founded that dynasty which still
sits on the Chinese throne.
The Manchus did not consist, like the Mongols, of mighty
hordes; they were a small but valiant tribe inhabiting a
romantic valley around Mukden, near the head of the Gulf
already mentioned. They claimed descent from the Kins,
whose splendid resistance to the Mongol invaders has been
already described. They obtained possession of the Chinese
kingdom within one generation after their first occupation.
This vast success won by a petty tribe in a short time over a
kingdom full of power and resource, has been counted by some
authorities as one of the marvels of history, It was, however,
rendered possible by the misconduct of the Chinese Govern-
ment itself. Under the Mings, the events which opened for
the Manchus an entrance into China, form, perhaps, the most
disgraceful episode in Chinese history, and illustrate the
weakest points in the Chinese polity.
The Chinese Ming emperor was effete, and in consequence of
mismanagement, the usual movements and upheavals were
occurring. There were, indeed, still many elements of military
and civil strength in the provinces; but the paralysis at the
headquarters affected the body politic. Such trains of events
62
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
had often come about at previous epochs, and yet the kingdom
survived. But at this epoch there occurred an insurrection
unparalleled, even in this land of movements. In that region
of the upper Hoang Ho, which has been already several times
mentioned as fatal to China, there arose a robber rebel, who
gathered bands of bandits, military deserters, and armed men of
all sorts. These bands, under their predatory leader, gained
strength, like the snowballs, as they rolled along. First, de-
tachments of royal troops misbehaved, some allowed themselves
to be overpowered, others fraternized with the insurgents.
Lesser forts opened their gates to those golden keys which
insurgents gorged with plunder are able to apply. Then the
fortress of Tung Kwan was taken by a coup-de-main. Half-
hearted armies, under bad commanders, despatched from Peking,
yielded to the swelling tide of insurrection. Flushed with easy
victory over nominally disciplined troops, the predatory leader
with his undisciplined multitudes made a dash for Peking. The
garrison were too panic-stricken to resist; the Emperor, after
displaying a selfishness and cowardice utterly alien to the
Chinese character in extreme danger, committed the usual
suicide; and the predatory leader assumed kingly power in the
refined, cultured and illustrious capital of China. The city
had indeed before been insulted as well as sacked by the
Mongols; but after all the Mongols were vast organizers and
mighty men of war. But here it was for a while ruled over by
a brutish robber, who had no attributes save his audacious
spirit and his mailed hand. Had he remained, and had the
Chinese from the provinces been left to deal with him, they
would, as usual, have rallied, and displacing him, might have
re-established a native sovereign. But another strange event
supervened. A competent Chinese commander with some really
good troops was stationed near the frontier, to watch the
Manchus. He, considering the situation of Peking to be in-
tolerable, resolved to rid the capital of the robber who had
usurped the kingly status. To this end he adopted the desperate
CHAP. III.
MANCHU DOMINION ESTABLISHED.
63
expedient of inviting the Manchus to join him in liberating
Peking. Thus Peking was liberated, and the usurper was hunted
to death in his native mountains near the Hoang Ho; but the
Manchus were in joint occupation of northern China. The
sequel can be imagined; the object for which their intervention
had been invited having been effected, they were asked to retire:
and of course they refused. As they had been thus admitted
to possession, their ejectment was impossible; and they set up
in northern China a new kingdom. Their coming to power was
merely a question of time: nevertheless, had it not been for the
strange concatenation of circumstances, as just described, their
invasion would have been long delayed, or else their kingdom
would have been restricted to northern China, just as that of
the Kins had been. As it was, southern China did resist the
Manchus on their advance from northern China; but the
scandalous events at Peking must have taken the heart out of
Chinese patriotism. Still a respectable contest was carried on
over many years, though it was but a pale reflex of the splendid
resistance by the Sungs as already described.
It is noteworthy that as the inhabitants of the country round
Canton afforded the last standpoint of the Sung, so now they
again struggled on behalf of the Ming with the energy of despair.
Again, as the Sung resistance was organized by Chinese
officers and administrators without personal guidance from
their sovereign; so now the final efforts of the Mings were
directed by Chinese ministers despite the errors committed by
the Ming princes. Hereby is afforded proof of the national
virtue which still resided in the nation.
Thus by the year 1650, the Manchus were masters of all
China which then, for the second time, fell under a foreign
yoke. The Manchus, however, were as rulers, far superior to
the former foreign rulers, namely, the Mongols. In reference
to that superiority there is an extraordinary circumstance to
be noticed. The Manchu chiefs had for many years been
studiously qualifying themselves for the administrative task
64
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
which now devolved upon them. They seem to have previously
fixed their resolve to conquer China, and then by good govern-
ment to retain the conquest. For the work of such government
they prepared themselves beforehand, by studying the Chinese
language, literature, and institutions. In many parts of China
their rule was at once successfully introduced; in other parts
there were grave troubles. In south-eastern China there was
a predatory insurrection marked with much brutality, and
affording an instance similar to the extraordinary case already
described. The pirate leaders on the sea coast and the adjacent
islands not only succoured and sheltered the last remnant of
Chinese patriots, but struck a hard blow inland to recover for
China the kingdom which the Manchus had recently won.
The growth of piratical power in the Chinese waters at this
epoch is worthy of a longer notice than can at this moment be
accorded. The organized pirates were then (A.D. 1650 to 1700)
the largest maritime power in the eastern seas. Their centre
was the island of Formosa; they also held several towns with
adjoining districts on the mainland of southern China, and some
places near the mouth of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. With a fleet
of war vessels they now entered the estuary, and sailing up the
great river attacked places of the first importance. This mari-
time invasion was repelled by the Manchus immediately, but
several years elapsed before the pirates were dislodged from
their settlements, and a still longer time before their last
stronghold in Formosa fell into Manchu hands.
In China proper the Manchu rule was consolidated by the
conciliation of the Chinese. The care with which the Manchus
at the outset distributed the civil and military patronage
between their own people and the Chinese is remarkable. The
extent, indeed, to which the Chinese were admitted to a share
in the management of their country was one among the chief
causes of the success which greeted the new regime. The
Manchu rule was distinguished by two long reigns, each lasting
more than half a century.. Of the two sovereigns, one was
CHAP. III.
BEGINNING OF EUROPEAN INFLUENCE.
65
among the best rulers, and the other among the grandest
monarchs of the age. The reign of the second lasted close up
to the beginning of the nineteenth century, which is the limit
of time assigned to this historical analysis. Within China
proper the administration developed to the utmost all the best
characteristics of the Chinese as already described. But it
moved in the old grooves, and on lines nearly the same as those
which have been already sketched as those existing before
A.D. 1200, and before the accession of foreign rulers. Hardly
any new principle, political or administrative, was evolved from
the busy brains of the Manchus. Once more we see the same
centralization, the same constitution, departments, and bureau-
cracy, the same literary and educational organization, the same
official hierarchy, the same provincial subdivisions, as of yore.
There is still that sedulous attention to imposing forms, the hollow-
ness of which is attested by the want of result altogether, or by
the disappointing character of the result attained. For instance,
despite the existence of an enormous statistical machinery, it is
impossible to ascertain any large economic fact relating to the
empire even during the last century; a financial statement of
income and expenditure, provincial and imperial, can hardly
be made out; the numbers of the population are returned so
badly by census after census that the total cannot be stated
within 50,000,000, or, as we might almost say, within a hundred
millions.
The influence of several European nations began during this
period to be felt on the outskirts of the dominion. The
Roman Catholic clergy obtained a locus standi in the midst of
the empire. Had it not been for their dissensions they might
have converted masses of Chinese from Buddhism and Lao-ism
to Christianity. As it was, they shed some lustre on the public
service of China, they supplied many corrections to Chinese
science and geography, and many noble additions to Chinese
historical literature, emulating even the wondrous industry of
the natives. Christian converts were made in numbers not
F
66
CHAP. III.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
enough to constitute a political power, but enough to arouse a
spirit of jealous exclusiveness among the Chinese. This spirit,
though existing in the earlier ages, was not very active, and its
manifestation at this time, the eighteenth century, is a proof
that the Chinese were beginning to lose self-confidence in
respect to the inroad of foreign thought and intellect. Although
the religion of China is essentially tolerant as compared with
other Oriental religions, yet the annals of this time began to
be marked with instances of fanaticism, even of persecution
sometimes ending in Christian martyrdom.
On the whole, the internal order, the growing prosperity, the
general contentment, the increase of population, the attachment
of the people to their country, proved that the Manchu adminis-
tration during the eighteenth century was, if not enlightened, at
least humane, parental and effective.
But besides consolidating internal order, it essayed an ex-
ternal achievement of which the importance at the time was
great, and of which the final consequences cannot even yet
be foreseen. For it restored to the Chinese empire the
dominion over the central plateau of Asia already described
on the map.
We may remember that the suzerainty over
this wonderful region had been claimed and fitfully exercised
by the ancient emperors of China. But before the Mongol era
(A.D. 1200) this suzerainty had ceased, and since that era,
the Central Plateau had been politically separate from the
Chinese kingdom. The re-assertion of this suzerainty, then,
in the seventeenth century, and the re-vindication of it during
the eighteenth, taken together with its successful retention
during the nineteenth, invest the circumstance with cardinal
importance in the politics of Asia. The military operations by
which this success was won, the marches in the desert, the
endurance of extremes of heat and cold, the commissariat
supplies in foodless and shelterless regions, the transport
arrangements in rugged and precipitous lines of communication,
deserve the professional study of soldiers and politicians, as
CHAP. III.
MANCHU DEGENERACY.
67
showing what China has done in recent times, and what possibly
she may yet do. We may also admire the area on which the
comprehensive capacity and genius were displayed. For it
extended from the Pamir steppe and the source of the Oxus on
the west to the Chinese uplands on the east, from the Altai
range and the Siberian confines on the north to the heart of the
Himalayas on the south. Indian hill states, now under the
political control of England, then sent annual presents to China
in acknowledgment of fealty. I have heard the Nepalese
warrior Jang Behadur feelingly recount the blows inflicted on
Nepal by Chinese armies that had crossed the snowy ranges.
Lastly, one characteristic trait may be mentioned in reference
to the mountain dominions. The Manchu sovereigns in the
eighteenth century believed that in order to maintain their
ruling capacity in the softer climate of China, they must recruit
their nervous force by sojourning for a while amidst the
mountains every year. It was for this purpose that the royal
hunts were a part of Manchu-Chinese statecraft. It is note-
worthy that early in the nineteenth century, the successor
of the Manchu monarch-statesmen resolved to abandon the
royal and national institution of annual exercises amidst the
mountains. He thereon issued a proclamation to that effect,
and those who read between the lines of that document can
perceive the first traces of Manchu degeneracy.
F 2
68
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER IV.
LAKE REGION ON THE FRONTIER OF EASTERN TIBET.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London,
February, 1882.]
Extraordinary picturesqueness of the Eastern Himalayas — Road from
Bengal to the border of East Tibet — Line dividing the empires of England
and China — Mountain passes in that quarter-Series of lakes situated
there - Beauty of their aspect-Fine scenery around them - Altitude
too high for vegetation - Temperature and climate Forests in lesser
altitudes Snowy mountains within Tibet- Views of remarkable splen-
dour or interest - Geological features.
g
-
I AM about to speak before you upon the subject of “The Lake
region on the frontier of Eastern Tibet." My speech will
comprise mainly an exposition of the map and of the pictorial
illustrations which have been made for this purpose. The map
has been prepared specially by our draughtsman, Mr. Turner.
The illustrations have been prepared on a large scale by my
brother, Lieutenant George Temple, R.N., from water-colour
sketches made by myself.
In the first place, I must ask you to observe that the district
of Sikkim overlooks from the north the rich province of
Bengal, and is situated in the eastern part of the Himalayas;
and that a railway runs up from the direction of Calcutta
to the foot of the Himalayas. From the base of the moun-
tain, there is a well-engineered road (now superseded by a
tramway) up to the hill station of Darjiling, which is the
capital of British Sikkim. You will perceive that British
Sikkim is marked within the line, which in our maps always
indicates British dominion. It originally belonged to the

30
281
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Mt Junno 125,301
M. Kanchanjanga
28,156
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24.013
MO
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22.007
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Nuuye Tso
Ridin
YAK LA
Binchingaon
Yakla L.
Jyelap L
VELAP PASS
n
Ce h
M Cipanochi
34-518
Asom
SLUMBO
Yangpung
Catsuperri
Rongbi
Yaksun
Powerinry
Dubdi
Ratong R
Malli
Changacheeling
PASS Tingcheel
Melido
Kuthait
Sunning
Tohonpong
Thesiding
Remionchi Singdom
Kheyring
Dalling
Sungma
Yangang
Lington
Nampak
Tingunlamy Tema
Subu kam
Rungra R
Hees
Richinpoong
MTendong
M-Heethlo
Namchu
Katong Ghat
Butle
Sillavake
Namben
Bumman
Marineetang
Coke
Tuku
Hangit R
Cheadam
Tameok
Tista R
Sanku
Kalingpung
Sangrim
Mando
R
Linbide
Sangal
Sunombong
Lingu
MLonglo
AIR
27
Jummano
Permokszing
Chantang
Bingi
Birch Hill seeb
Darjiling
TAI
Rimgraons
Ranch Chatur
S
M Senchal
48000
Parhag
Puchin Chautakpur
Nagri Bramargora
Balasun
Permal B
LM
Silong
Samthar
Golah
Tista
Sangchonghi
Lish R
Birnadh
88°
Pankabari
30'
SINCHAL PASS
M&Choya Kang
Dor
Cha
Dartha
Chaghipong
SELF
Karok
Rang
Tungchong
Nappi Damsong
PANCO FA
Chunga
Tedna
Phenock
Chone Chu
Bica
Tcha
Mango
Laha
Barang
Ne Cha
Gotow
adang tsa
Shave
Nangkam
Tsangbe
Ammo
Chu
Beating
MoBetso
Tsigong
Tuying gains
Wachtany's
Sipeha
Anbinkh
Numb Daling
Pumongtong
Rongehusb
ALE LA
Wang
Chu
Wuery
Hartamphuong
Taktang
DOLE
Bedeka
Har Chu
KIACH LA
Shinkoka
MAP OF
SIKKIM
AND PARTS OF
THE ADJACENT TERRITORIES
English Miles
10
Altitudes in English Feet.
L
Bhar
Chel
urty R
Maharbar
Lukean
P
Ghish
Ballabari
R
Lakhipara
hagubari
Balanpur
Debr
Baraigul
Dahina R
0
Ambari
899
London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
30'
27
T. RUDDIMAN JOHNSTON. MURRAYFIELD, EDINBURGH.
30
428
301
CHAP. IV. IMPOSING SITUATION OF DARJILING.
69
Rajah of the native State of Sikkim, and was annexed to the
British dominions by reason of his misconduct in imprison-
ing for several days Dr. Campbell, the British Superintendent
of Darjiling, and Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker, the Director of
Kew Gardens. In punishment for that offence, this district
was taken from him and added to British India. Since its
annexation to British India, the district has flourished im-
mensely, and has become one of the principal seats of the
tea industry of India. It is now dotted and studded with
flourishing tea plantations.
From the station of Darjiling you have a view, 45 miles
distant, of the celebrated mountain of Kanchanjanga. Now,
Kanchanjanga is the principal of a group of mountains upwards
of 28,000 feet high (above sea level), and is the second highest
mountain in the world. But the celebrated view of Kanchan-
janga is not the only claim which Darjiling has upon the atten-
tion of the world. This place is the summer residence of the
Government of Bengal, and the hill of Darjiling constitutes
a remarkable watershed. In the first place, it is a physical
watershed, inasmuch as it constitutes the water-parting of the
rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra: the water that flows from the
south side of the crest, ultimately finding its way into the
Ganges, and that on the north side running into the Tista,
which is an affluent of the Brahmaputra. But it is also, if I
may so call it, a moral and religious watershed, for every man
on the south side of the crest is a votary of the Hindu religion,
and every man on the north side is a Buddhist. On the south
side of the crest, the bell of the Hindu temple calls the faithful
to prayer. On the other side begin the Buddhist monasteries
and chapels, where the deep-sounding gong summons the
votaries to worship. Inasmuch as the Hindu religion numbers
nearly 200 millions of people, and the Buddhistic a similarly
vast number, the fact that this particular crest should be the
boundary line between these two wide-spread religions, con-
stitutes a remarkable circumstance. Moreover, Darjiling has
70
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
now become the entrepôt and the market of the Eastern
Himalayas. At that point are gathered the piece goods the
woollens, and other manufactures of England to be exported to
Tibet: thither come in exchange the wools, the horns, the
various products, the live-stock, the unrivalled sheep and goats
of Tibet. So much, then, for British Sikkim.
I must now ask you to leave the British dominions and to
cross the red line on the map. We then arrive in Native Sikkim,
on the western frontier of which there runs the important line
of hills separating that State from Nepal. This range has an
average altitude of between 11,000 and 12,000 feet. You may
ride along that ridge for 40 or 50 miles almost without a break.
On your right hand, travelling northwards, you overlook the
State of Sikkim, which is a labyrinth of hills; and on your
left you have in view the valley of Nepal. On your right
front you see the Kanchanjanga, already described, and on your
left front the famous group of snowy mountains, of which the
highest is Mount Everest. Now, Mount Everest is about
29,000 feet high-a few feet higher than Kanchanjanga, which
is upwards of 28,000 feet high; so from that ridge of hills is
obtained the finest view of snow mountains in the world. The
vegetation is also very peculiar and beautiful, for besides the fir
forests of the mountain slopes, there exist along that ridge
the most beautiful rhododendron trees that have ever yet been
discovered. The clusters of blossoms may be described in
general terms as being as large as a man's hand, and the
leaves from 12 to 13 inches long. The colouring of the flower
is quite superb, sometimes crimson and sometimes alabaster
white. But the most remarkable circumstance is that these
splendidly flowering shrubs grow in a climate peculiarly rigorous.
The rains and the winds beat on them, the rich tints are soon
bleached, and in a few days after, the flower falls. It certainly
adds to the extraordinary interest of this floral display to find
it thus set forth amid some of the roughest and severest
aspects of nature.
CHAP. IV. TRADE ROUTE BETWEEN BENGAL AND TIBET. 71
Along the centre of Sikkim lies the valley of the Tista, a river
which rises in the central backbone ridge of the Himalayas.
I am not about to lead you towards the source of the Tista,
but I may refer those who are curious upon that subject to
the very interesting description of the locality given, firstly, in
Sir Joseph Hooker's book entitled 'Himalayan Journals,' and
secondly in Mr. Blanford's description of a journey in that
region. Both those gentlemen agree in describing the views at
the source of the Tista as among the finest they ever beheld,
and they are extremely good judges on such a subject, having
seen some of the best views in the Himalayas. But the Tista
may be regarded as the main artery of Native Sikkim, and all
the streams which run through this series of valleys may be
considered as veins leading to this main arterial line of drainage.
Now, the interesting point, from a commercial and political
point of view, is this: that through Sikkim the British Govern-
ment is gradually constructing a trade road from northern
Bengal to eastern Tibet, more particularly with a view of
opening communication with Lhassa, the well-known capital of
eastern Tibet. This road is to pass through British Sikkim first,
then through Native Sikkim, then on to the Jyelap Pass, which
is one of the passes leading over the Chola range of hills, and
then into the valley of Chumbi, to which I will allude more par-
ticularly presently. This road is to start mainly from Darjiling
as the British terminus, and we hope in future generations that
it will end at Lhassa as the Tibetan terminus. It is to super-
sede the old road to eastern Tibet which used to run through
the State of Bhutan, a portion of which you will see indicated
on the right-hand side of the map. This old roule through
Bhutan is the one that was followed by the early travellers who
went upon political missions under the orders of that far-seeing
statesman Warren Hastings, then Governor-General of India—
such travellers as Turner, Manning, and Bogle. The interesting
and instructive journals of Bogle and Manning have been
recently published and edited by our talented Secretary, Mr.
72
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Clements Markham, who has prefixed to the work one of those
interesting geographical, historical, and political discussions for
which he has a special aptitude.
Before we proceed further, I must ask you to look more par-
ticularly in the map at the Chola range of mountains, and the
Chumbi Valley. You will see that the Chola range lies in the
north-east corner of Sikkim, separating that native State of
Sikkim from the valley of Chumbi. Now the situation of
Chumbi, you will observe, is very peculiar, because it is a
portion of Tibet interposed, as it were, like a wedge between
Sikkim and Bhutan. It is a piece of Tibet, and therefore
politically a piece of China, protruded in the midst of the
Himalayas which pertain to the British empire. To this new
road political as well as commercial importance is attached. It
leads from Darjiling deep down into the valley of the Tista,
where the rich vegetation, the tree ferns, the flowering creepers,
the bauhinia and blossoming trees like the magnolia, make you
fancy yourself in Bengal and Assam, or even in Ceylon. From
the midst of this exuberant vegetation, the proposed road rapidly
mounts into altitudes where trees and foliage are seen no
more.
After leaving this vegetation, you ascend into the rich pas-
turages and slopes on the spurs of the Chola range. There it is
that the people, dwelling in Chumbi, Tibet and the valleys of
Sikkim, bring their flocks and herds for what is called the
winter grazing. Beyond the Himalayas the climate is too severe
for the flocks in mid-winter, and therefore they are brought to
lower altitudes of 10,000 or 12,000 feet (above sea level), where
the snow does not lie for more than a few weeks together, and
where there is rich herbage. After that you ascend to the Jyelap
Pass, at an altitude of about 15,000 feet, and thus you leave
Sikkim and enter upon Tibet, which is a part of the Chinese
empire. Our engineers have marked the road out, and rendered
it available for ordinary traffic as far as the Jyelap Pass, and
beyond that it is for our friends in Tibet to continue the line
CHAP. IV.
BUDDHISM IN THE HIMALAYAS.
73
towards Lhassa. As may be imagined, there is a certain amount
of reluctance on the part of the Tibetan authorities to construct
these roads, because they sometimes believe, justly perhaps, that
either commerce follows the flag, or that the flag follows com-
merce; therefore they think that politics have something to do
with trade. Nevertheless, they highly appreciate Darjiling as a
commercial depôt. They want money, and they know that they
can bring their varied products to the markets there for sale and
obtain good British Indian money wherewith to purchase British
or Chinese articles. Therefore we hope that they will co-operate
with us at last in opening a trade route from India to China.
Next, it must be borne in mind that the crest of the Chola
range, and the passes which cross that crest, especially the
Jyelap Pass, are sterile in the extreme. The region lies above
and beyond the zone of vegetation, and nothing is seen but
bare rocks, water, snow and sky.
Thus far I have occupied you chiefly with what may be called
the commercial and political portion of my speech; I have not
detained you much with descriptions of the picturesque scenery;
but before I leave Sikkim proper, I should like to remind you
of the extraordinary beauty which belongs to that isolated
native state. Sikkim is not remarkable for the industry or the
skill of its people; its population involves many ethnological
questions which do not appertain to the sphere of the Geo-
graphical Society; but its religious condition is in many re-
spects remarkably interesting to all Anglo-Indians, because it
is one of the few places where an opportunity is afforded of
seeing the living Buddhism, debased in comparison with the
original Buddhism as promulgated by Buddha himself many
centuries ago.
The monasteries and Buddhist chapels in
Sikkim are wonderfully interesting structures, and of very
peculiar architecture, a mixture of Chinese and Indian; in
certain respects it should be called a sort of Hindu-Chinese
architecture. But beyond the architecture, there is the extra-
ordinary beauty of the sites on which these buildings are placed.
74
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
They are almost always on the crest of rocky and wooded hills,
and they have as their background the glorious peaks of Kan-
chanjanga and the snowy range behind them.
From the altitude of most parts of this region an immense
sweep of country is beheld. The deep valleys of the Tista and its
affluents, not more than 2000 feet (above the sea level), lie below
you, and from their depths you look up straight in one uninter-
rupted view to the summits of Kanchanjanga; so that, deduct-
ing 2000 feet from 28,000, you have in one sweep of the eye
26,000 feet of mountain slope, and that not in one place only,
but in many places all over Sikkim. These and other circum-
stances, combined with the richness of the vegetation and the
botanical interest connected therewith, also the many kinds of
beautiful birds—this mixture of scientific and picturesque inte-
rest-have rendered Sikkim the desire of everybody to behold.
The only drawback to travelling there is the severity of the
weather. You have really to undergo great hardships. The
mist and rain are provoking beyond my power of description.
You have to march in the wet, to unpack your tent in the wet,
to lie down to sleep in the wet, to pack up again in the wet.
For hours, sometimes for days, together you live in the wet;
but after enduring all this you are ultimately rewarded, for
the rain ceases, the blast subsides, and the mist clears away,
and then you behold spectacles such as are imprinted on the
tablets of your brain for the rest of your life.
I will now beg of you to follow me on the map along the
routes leading to the lakes of Sikkim. The road I have already
described was a straight route planned for commerce-the route,
as it may be called, of the trader, of the statesman, and the
politician, and I am now going to conduct you by what
I may call the route of the artist. This route commences with
an upper crossing of the Tista on the road leading northward
from Darjiling. Here the passage of the river is difficult : I
very nearly had my riding ponies drowned at this spot.
However, I and my staff succeeded in crossing and then
CHAP. IV.
THE RAJA'S PALACE IN SIKKIM.
75
ascended the hills on the way to Tumlong. Thence we farther
ascended towards the Chomnaga Valley and the Chola Pass.
It was in the Chomnaga Valley that Dr. Campbell and Sir
Joseph Hooker were seized, pinioned, and placed in durance
vile. I have already explained to you that the finest rhodo-
dendrons grow in the western part of Sikkim towards Nepal;
but second to those are the splendid blossoms of the Chomnaga
Valley. It was there that Hooker collected the seeds of a
great number of splendid species and varieties which are now

!
FIG. 1.-PALACE OF THE RAJAH OF SIKKIM AT TUMLONG.
adorning the public gardens of England; and it is therefore to
that scientific journey, taken thirty-five years ago, that we in
England owe some part of the pleasure and instruction we now
derive in viewing the gardens in this country. Chomnaga lies
at the foot of the Chola Pass, from which latter point begins
the series of lakes to which our pictorial illustrations relate,
and which I will now proceed to describe.
Our first illustration represents the palace of Tumlong. This
76
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
comparatively humble though picturesque dwelling belongs to
the Rajah of Sikkim, and may be regarded as his Winter Palace.
During the summer, particularly when the rains descend, he
lives, by permission of the Grand Lama of Tibet, in the valley of
Chumbi, because Chumbi, being upon the other side of the Chola
range, has a climate not affected by the rainy season; but during
the winter he lives at this little palace of Tumlong. Humble as
the place may be, it is yet the capital of Sikkim. It is situated
on a hill, about 5000 feet high, having in the background the
north-western end of the Chola range. The mountain indi-
cated in the picture is that known under the name of Gnarean
on the maps.
The next picture (2) represents the Chola Pass and Lake.
This is one of the old passes by which people used to proceed
from Sikkim towards Tibet; but it is much less used now than
formerly, since the opening of the commercial route, already
described, by the Jyelap Pass. Immediately behind the lake
you will observe a rough, rugged, serrated range of hills rising
up with its fantastical peaks, something like the jagged edge of
a gigantic saw. Now, those are the hills which overlook the
valley of Chomnaga-the upper valley where Dr. Hooker and
his companions were seized by the Sikkim people. In the
distance is Mount Kanchanjanga, viewed in its south-eastern
aspect, or that which faces towards Chumbi and Tibet-the
very opposite view from that which is ordinarily seen of Kan-
chanjanga by British visitors at Darjiling, which is really the
western view facing towards India. This eastern view is that
which is seldom seen by Anglo-Indians, and is, I venture to
believe, the finer view of the two. There you see the magni-
ficent expanse of snows, the noble granite formations, and
all the glaciers of that frozen world. The height of the Chola
Pass and of the Lake may be placed at 15,000 feet above
the sea, or very nearly the height of Mont Blanc, the height
having been carefully ascertained, first by Sir Joseph Hooker,
and afterwards by Mr. Blanford. The geological formation of
►

CHAP. IV.
CHOLA LAKE AND PASS.
77
FIG. 2.-CHOLA LAKE AND PASS. MOUNT KANCHANJANGA IN THE DISTANCE.
78
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the Chola range, for the most part, consists of gneiss. This,
again, has been carefully ascertained by Mr. Blanford. Of
course Kanchanjanga, in the distance, is for the most part
composed of granite; certainly all the upper part is so com-
posed. The upper part of the Chola range is absolutely sterile;
not a tree, not a shrub, grows in the locality—nothing but a few
kinds of Alpine grasses and scanty herbage, which are dried up
in most seasons of the year.
Our next picture (3) represents the Chokham Lake. Whilst
the Chola Lake lies exactly on the boundary between Sikkim
and Chumbi, and therefore between the Indian and the Chinese
empires, the Chokham Lake is situated a little above it and just
within the Chinese or Tibetan border.
I say
"Chinese or
Tibetan," for Tibet is virtually Chinese. The precise relations
between the Grand Lama of Tibet and the Emperor of China
I need hardly at this moment undertake to explain, but that
part of Tibet is thoroughly dominated by China. Tibet has a
local government of its own, no doubt, but its affairs are con-
trolled by a Chinese resident supported by Chinese troops, and
the Chinese are particularly careful to put boundary marks
along the border. They do this in the most jealous and parti-
cular manner possible. Wherever I went, my footsteps were
dogged by Chinese and Tibetan officials. Even if I stopped to
take a sketch, these gentlemen were always considering whether
my foot was upon one side of the border or the other. On one
side of the wooden boundary-pillars was an inscription written
in the Hindi character of British India, and on the other side
an inscription in Chinese. When I went up to sketch the
Chokham Lake, the Chinese local officers with their Tibetan
attendants were very careful to warn me that I had transgressed
the limits of my jurisdiction. However, we secured the sketch,
and there it is, or at least the copy of it. This is decidedly the
finest of all the lakes. I have been reminded by the high
authority of our President that I ought not to call these sheets
of water "lakes," and that they are more strictly "tarns,"
I
Edy
CHAP. IV.
BEAUTY OF THE CHOKHAM LAKE.
79
because they have no outlets. In some respects they present
geological problems; however, you will allow me to use "tarn"
or "lake" as interchangeable. If the Chokham Lake is a tarn,
it attains to the proportions of a lake, and is the loftiest and
largest of the series. I do not know its dimensions, but it
comprises an area of several square miles. The colour of the
water is superb. The altitude is fully a thousand feet higher
than that of the Chola Lake, and therefore must be nearly

104
FIG. 3.-CHOKHAM LAKE ABOVE CHOLA PASS. MOUNT CHANGU KANG IN
THE DISTANCE.
16,000 feet above the level of the sea. We ourselves soon
began to find that we were approaching a great altitude,
because as we climbed the rocks we became short of breath,
and our heads began to ache. However, when we surmounted
the rocks we were more than rewarded by the splendour of the
spectacle. Emerald, azure, turquoise-all these phrases com-
bined will fail to give you an impression of the indescribable
beauty of the water. In the background of our view will be
80
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
seen a tract of low forest which creeps along the base of the
hills overhanging the Chumbi Valley, and beyond the valley
rise a series of purple, pinkish mountains. I need not say that,
to a spectator on the hills themselves, their colour would be of the
dullest and most opaque yellow ochre; but the effect of distance
in this clear atmosphere is to throw a sort of etherealised pink-
purple over the mountains, which has a lovely effect. Beyond
the range of hills rises the snowy mountain of Changu Kang,
a sort of pyramid. This Changu Kang is not found on the
maps, but is very well known in that locality, and it separates
Bhutan from Tibet.

FIG. 4.-BHEWSA LAKE. MOUNT KANCHANJANGA IN THE DISTANCE.
On the southern spur of the Chola range lies the subject of
our next picture (4), the Bhewsa Lake, which is much lower than
those which I have been describing. It may be considered as
having an altitude of 12,000 feet, being perhaps 4000 feet below
the Chokham Lake. In the foreground near that lake, especially
on the left-hand side of the picture, you will see indications of
་
CHAP. IV. ASPECT OF MOUNT KANCHANJANGA.
81
vegetation. These represent vast expanses of scrub rhodo-
dendron, a sort of rhododendron that grows very low and very
thick, and spreads its branches in a tangled mass over the
ground. It is a dreadfully difficult scrub for a pedestrian to
push through; but it is very valuable to the traveller, because it
supplies him with fuel for his fire, which he needs in the cold,
and cannot otherwise get, and in the event of extreme want
of water it will supply him even with moisture, because its leaves
have upon them the hoar frost which can be wiped off, and be
made to afford relief to thirsty men, as I and my staff some-
times found out. This scrub is the only vegetation met with
in this zone, lying above the limits of trees. The Bhewsa Lake
has a purplish-violet colour. I am unable to explain the reason
of this variety of colour in the lakes, but the Chola Lake was
principally blue, the Chokham Lake a mixture of emerald,
azure, and turquoise, and Bhewsa Lake somewhat violet and
purple. Behind the Bhewsa Lake, in the middle background,
rise the gneiss rocks overhanging the Chomnaga Valley. In
our illustration of the Chola Lake these rocks are seen in
shadow: here, in this illustration, they are in the full blaze
of the setting sun, and beyond them Mount Kanchanjanga
overhanging the lake is seen with the same evening effect.
Instead of the glittering white in the blaze of the morn-
ing sun, it is now tinged with the pink and rosy hues of
sunset.
The bad weather, which we generally had, was interspersed
with lucid intervals of glorious blue skies, and of course I
selected those lucid intervals for making my sketches. Gene-
rally speaking, what really happens is this: early in the
morning, at sunrise, the weather is quite superb; the sky is
unclouded azure, and the mountains are unbroken white. This
lasts for some three hours, that is to say, till about 10 o'clock
in the day, and that is what we used to call the bloom of the
morning. Then, and then only, can you take your sketches.
The air is extremely cold-biting cold-and after sketching for
G
82
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
a short time your fingers get perfectly numbed, and the only
thing to do is to keep a supply of hot water close at hand, into
which you can put your fingers, and so get a certain amount of
warmth in them, which enables you to preserve their cunning
for sketching. After 10 o'clock up come the clouds. You
cannot tell how they form themselves. A little bit of vapour, no
bigger than a man's hand, expands; fresh men's hands arise and
clouds accumulate, till at last the whole atmosphere is clouded
over. This lasts till about middle day. Then the clouds seem
to turn into snow, and a certain amount of snow falls in the
afternoon, which makes you very miserable in the evening, and
you sit down to dinner with snow all around you, and your
little tent also encrusted with snow. But towards midnight
the clouds pass away, and stars come out, and it is a magni-
ficent night. Then you have the sunrise as already described.
Probably the sun when it rises will melt the thin snow
during the bloom of the day. With that kind of weather you
very seldom get a sunset view; but on that particular evening
when I was at the Bhewsa Lake, the clouds somehow were
lifted to display the setting sun, literally bathing Kanchan-
janga in roseate light; and that happy moment, of course,
I seized to make my sketch.
The Bhewsa Lake being comparatively low, we had to ascend
from there once more towards the crest of the range, towards
the point you will find named on the map as the Yakla Pass.
On that ascent we found three very little lakes, for which I will
adopt our President's designation of tarns. The first of these
is overhung by some very weird, strange-looking rocks, piled one
over the other, as it were by Titanic and Cyclopean hands; and
in the back the view is not towards Tibet, but towards Darjiling.
Leaving this tarn, No. I. (Fig. 5), we get to tarn No. II. (Fig.6).
In this latter you will observe a very pointed hill tipped with
This is the peak, well-known locally as Dopenti, which
geographers will find marked on Stanford's map as Dobendi,
another name for the same hill. Dopenti peak is the highest
snow.
CHAP. IV. TARNS FORMED BY GLACIAL ACTION.
83
point of the Chola range, and is the same eminence as that
called Chola Peak by Sir Joseph Hooker. It really overhangs
the Chola Lake; but the lake is so close under the base that
the summit is not visible from the banks of the lake. We
have now advanced 10 miles to the eastward along the ridge,
and thus we obtain a view of the Dopenti Peak which over-
hangs the Chola Lake and Pass.
We now come to tarn No. III. (Fig. 7), which is exactly at

-
FIG. 5.—TARN No. I. ON ASCENT TO YAKLA PASS. DARJILING HILLS
IN THE DISTANCE.
the foot of the Yakla Pass. The Yakla Pass is just visible in
the illustration, marked by a long saddle in the middle back-
ground. The existence of so many of these lakes or tarns-
by whichever name they should be called-all at the crest of a
lofty range of mountains, presents many geological problems
which I will not now discuss; but I may mention in general
terms that Mr. Blanford, the best geological authority who
has yet visited the country in which they are situated, ascribes
1
G 2
84
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
A

FIG. 6. TARN No. II. ON ASCENT TO YAKLA PASS.
them to glacial action. He thinks that in a former geological
period immense glaciers have scooped out these hollows in the
crest of the mountains. Passing from the tarns, and ascending

FIG. 7.-TARN No. III. AT FOOT OF YAKLA PASS.
CHAP. IV.
MOUNT CHUMALARI IN TIBET.
85
to the saddle, which I have pointed out as indicated on the
illustration—a most toilsome ascent-a view is obtained of
the Yakla Pass and Lake, and in the distance of Mount
Chumalari, all of which you will see depicted in our illustra-
tion (8).
This, on the whole, was the most beautiful of all these
lovely views. The lakes and the mountains on either side of it,
with other mountains in the middle distance, and the graceful

FIG. 8.-YAKLA PASS AND LAKE. MOUNT CHUMALARI IN THE DISTANCE.
obelisk of Chumalari, with the mountain shaped like a double-
poled tent on the left of the obelisk-the whole of the features
together make up a truly fine group, most difficult to sketch,
indeed, because of the extreme, biting cold and the wind
in that exposed position. The colour of the lake is an intense
blue. In the foreground, on the left-hand side, you will
observe indications of a road. The mark of the road is
slightly exaggerated in our drawing, in order to make it clear
to you from a distance; but it is, of course, an extremely
86
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
rough mountain pass. It is one of the passes by which
the flocks and herds of Tibet descend to British India, as I
myself saw. I never beheld such beautiful sheep and goats
in my life as those which were coming along that pass at
the time of my visit. A Landseer, if he had been present,
would have made of these splendid herds a worthy fore-
ground to this dazzling scene. On the other side of the
lake are again seen the hills of Chumbi. These hills
comprise what is marked on the maps as the district of
Phari. In the maps there is a district marked Phari which
is a subdivision of the Chumbi Valley, and the hills of
Phari are exactly indicated by the middle distance in this
picture.
Once more I ask your attention to the peculiar beauty of the
top of Chumalari. I have sketched it several times from several
points, and on comparing the outlines I always found that they
corresponded, so that I am very confident I have got the shape
correctly. You will see that on the west side of the mountain
there is a beautiful cone, gradually tapering into an obelisk, and
on the eastern, or right, side of the mountain there rises a great
square mass of snow, which we used to liken to the double-
poled tent of the Indian marches.
We are now on the crest of the range, and the altitude of the
Yakla Pass is nearly the same as that of the Chola Pass, namely,
15,000 feet. Our route then descends from the pass for several
thousand feet, to reach the Nimyetso Lake. Tso is a common
termination in Tibetan names, meaning water, and is sometimes
pronounced tcho; in fact, Europeans cannot tell whether natives
are saying tso or tcho. It merely means a lake. Nimyetso is
Nimye Lake. And I ought to take this opportunity of men-
tioning that the termination la means a pass, so that Chola, or
Cho-la, merely means lake-pass, and Yakla, or Yak-la, is nothing
more than the pass of the Yak, the famous Tibetan cow, so well
known to geographers and naturalists. These cows are remark-
able for the size and beauty of their tails, which constitute
CHAP. IV. FOREST AROUND NIMYETSO LAKE.
87
an important article of commerce. You have often heard of the
long-haired fan being waved by attendants over the heads of
emperors and sovereigns on state occasions. These long fans
are nothing more than the tails of yaks, and the consequence is
they bring thousands and thousands of pounds sterling annually
into the pockets of the Tibetans.
After this slight digression, I must ask you to revert
to the Nimyetso Lake, as depicted in the illustration (9).

་་ ་
FIG. 9.-NIMYETSO LAKE.
That lake is lower than any of the others which we have been
considering. Consequently it is surrounded by forests; fir-
woods on one side, and on the other a rich sylvan mass, com-
posed chiefly of chestnut-trees. The lake itself will be admitted
to be a true lake, for it has an outlet; situated near to the fore-
ground of our picture. Behind the forests rises the Chola range
of hills, from which we have been descending, tipped with snow.
On that ridge, on the left-hand side of the picture, is the Yakla
88
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Pass and Lake, which I have just described; and farther on the
left, outside the picture, would be the Chola Pass; and out of
the picture on the right of that ridge is the Jyelap Lake, to
which I am about to introduce you. This Nimyetso Lake is
10,000 feet only above sea-level.
I have now to ask you to ascend with me to the top of the
forest-clad hills in the middle distance of our picture, and then
to turn off towards the right; you will then be in the immediate
neighbourhood of the next scene, which is the Bidantso, what we

=
FIG. 10.-BIDANTSO LAKE AFTER A SNOWSTORM. MOUNT GIPMOCHII
IN THE DISTANCE.
used to call the Blackwater Lake, on account of its unaccountable
blackness. This is depicted in the illustration (10). The lake
was sketched in a snowstorm, and in the background is Mount
Gipmochi. In Sir Joseph Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals' the
name Gipmochi is always applied to the mountain which ter-
minates the Chola range. This range you will have observed is
the mountain region to which the chief part of my speech this
evening has related. At its north-western end rises the Gnarean
CHAP. IV. ATMOSPHERIC EFFECT AFTER A SNOWSTORM. 89
Peak behind the Tumlong Palace, and Mount Gipmochi is at
its south-eastern end.
Our illustration of the Blackwater Lake, with Gipmochi in the
distance, represents the view in a snowstorm. There had been
during the afternoon just that sort of snowstorm which I have
previously described; but towards evening some puffs of wind
came, the mist and cloud lifted, and the snow ceased. Then we
beheld a glorious spectacle, slightly represented in the picture
before you. The bright and radiant atmosphere of the world
below us seemed at that moment to be shining through the
mists of these upper regions-mists which resembled a thin veil
of transparent gauze. Anything more lovely than this sort of
subdued light-dimly illuminating the lake and its snowy
adjuncts, with the sombre Gipmochi in the background, and
the retreating clouds with the snowstorm still seeming to
rest upon the extreme left of the picture-it is hard to con-
ceive. The altitude of Blackwater Lake above the sea-level
may be estimated at 12,000 feet, that is to say 2000 feet above
the lake which we have last seen, and somewhat higher than
the Bhewsa Lake. It also has in the foreground on the
left-hand side some of the scrub rhododendrons which I have
already described. The leaves of the bushes are represented
in our view as encrusted with snow. It was near this Black-
water Lake that we were encamped, and we had to pitch the
tents on the only tolerable ground we could find, which was a
half-frozen and indurated swamp, so that you may imagine the
amount of sneezing and wheezing which troubled me and my
followers upon that occasion. After a very snowy afternoon,
which was just relieved by this gleam of light at sunset, we
spent a rough night on this swamp; but towards midnight the
sky cleared, the stars came out, and we were enabled during
early dawn to commence the ascent to the Jyelap Pass.
Thus I have conducted you by the artistic route to a junc-
tion with the commercial and political route already described.
We ascended to the Jyelap Pass early in the morning, and
90
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
once more came upon one of the glorious sunrises of this region.
The landscape, as shown in the illustration (11), included not
only Chumalari in the background, but also Changu Kang peak,
with the Jyelap Lake in the foreground. In the background
of our view of the Chokham Lake, Changu Kang only
was represented, and in the background of the Yakla Lake,
Chumalari only; but here both are seen, forming upon the whole

***
FIG. 11.-JYELAP PASS AND LAKE.
MOUNTS CHUMALARI AND CHANGU KANG
IN THE DISTANCE.
This
the finest background to be found in this region.
Jyelap Lake is a very little one; but behind it, in the middle
distance, are once more visible the pink rosy-coloured hills,
with Chumbi, combining the district of Chumbi proper and the
district of Phari which I have already mentioned. Between
this lake and the lower hills there intervenes the valley of
Chumbi, one of the deep valleys, which I believe is not more
CHAP. IV. BOUNDARY OF BRITISH AND CHINESE EMPIRES. 91
than 3000 feet above the sea. So that in order to arrive at
those rosy-coloured hills from the lake, it would be necessary to
dip down many thousand feet and re-ascend many thousand
feet. Thus it would probably take two days' march to reach
those hills. I have already explained to you that the trade route
comes from British territory and Darjiling to this Jyelap Pass
under British auspices and management; and at the Jyelap Pass
we have reached the extreme boundary of Sikkim, and there-
fore the boundary of the British Empire. Beyond this com-
mences Tibet, and we hope in future ages that the road from
India to China will run over those rosy-coloured hills past the
western foot of Chumalari. At the left, or western, base of
Chumalari in our picture may be seen the point near which this
road from India to China is to cross the central line or backbone
of the Himalayas. The country beyond has been beheld by
very few European eyes, but the road passes on northwards
towards Lhassa, and then joins on to the route which was
followed by Bogle and Manning, and which has been so well
described in the book by Mr. Clements Markham.
Now, gentlemen, I have reached the conclusion of my
geographical speech, and also the end of my small picture
gallery; and I hope that pictures, maps and exposition to-
gether have given you a clear conception of a part of the line
which is intermediate between two of the great empires in Asia.
I trust that if you have at all followed me through all the travels
and hardships of the march, you have also been rewarded in
imagination by the splendid spectacles which you have seen;
and I trust that when you go forth from this theatre into the
streets outside, you will carry away with you bright visions in
your inner minds; that you will have, as it were, Chumalari
and Kanchanjanga "upon the brain." But I also hope that
you will think with patriotic pride of the achievements of your
countrymen in that quarter of the globe-achievements scientific,
commercial, and political; that you will have a kindly sym-
pathy towards the labours of the many excellent men who
92
CHAP. IV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
have travelled in that region-historic men, as Turner, Bogle
and Manning, also Dr. Campbell; and such living travellers
as Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr. Blanford, and Mr. Edgar; and
that you will take home with you some idea of the peaceable
progress of British influence and British power in that quarter
of Asia.

Gun Kila
Kala Bist
River Hel
65
66
67
Shah Safa
Khel Akhund
Tarnak
Girishk
Abazav
Malgir
Sangbar
Ghulam
Punju
Baba Khana Madeen
Maiman Valley
Kak-i
Argand Ab
Chapan
Dasht
Khushk Nakhud
Mandi Timous
Kila Sayud
Baba Wali
Kohak.
Sungzurie.
Ashugah
Argand
Murah
CANDAHAR
Kokoran
Hauz Madat Khan Zakird
K.Mir Akhor
Sher Andil Kila
Tulkan
Kila Sobha
Kila Arimi
Shorandam
Mundi Hissar
Khushab Dehi-Nay
Dah
Arghesan
R
Bahar
Deh-i-Ha
Makin
31
A
F
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30
29
28
القيم
Hamun
Lora
R
Utak
Kewaz N
68
U
Sir-i-Surkhab
p
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0
e
d
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Take Pul Malikyar
Hills
CHLO
KOTAL
KURKURA OTAL Met
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Bianca WARIAL KOTAL
Kussa
Abdul Hamid
Manxakai
Bedak
Khushobai
G
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Hauz
Gatab
Kunchai
Mula Mustafa
Mula Amir Margha
PSHA PASS
Kadanai R
BOGRA PASS
A
Chaman
KHOJAK PASS
Lagoli
Tank
ROCHANI PASS
Khwaja Amran P
Gwaja
GWAJA
PASS
Ispinkula
Range
TABIN
Amran
Badalzai
Kalazai
Hisabat
Takia
WAK
Rora
Sarlatti
Tang Range
Spinzak Hills
Shasta Hills
Pitao Range
$13
Alam
SHUTAR
PASS
Abdallah
Aramby
Koh Sheltu
Kilu Babar
Potua
Lewa Tanghai Mts
Baianza
Kadangi
B
CHINAR MANDAN
Padwa Alira
Sarad
Baina
.Lore
U
n
Tokarak
Nigand Pk
Khanizai Haji Khan
Bars
Boshdil
Khan
HNoa Bazar
Herkatzai
Surkh Ab
SURA
PASS
Plaroi
CHAGI
Balorai
kranizdi
Kshot
USHMUCHZAI
Lakar
Lora
Gwal
Manzakai
Gulistan
Karez
"Nabrak
Margaz
Shadiza
Segai Haidar
Daruzai
Burg
Mina
Kare
Aujeram Range
AZABAND
PASS
Sayad
Kasimila M
halkot Fores
Takatu
Thustlak
Kang
Nagshola
mar Range Masalingh Range
T
Dasht-i-Poerd
Abduling
Chiltan Range
Bea
SARAKULA
PASS
Kand Pk
Kahan
Zhob Valley
MEHTARZAL
KOTAL
Isaf Kach
M
Mazhwo
Amadun
MPil
M'Chapar
M
Zarghum
QUETTA
HANNA
PASS
Kowas
CHAPAR
Dargai
Mang
Surkar
Khalich
M Surghwand
USHTIRRAH
PASS
RIFT
PALKA PASS
Coushtkai
MOMANDCHI
Chimgan
Bargai
en Kach Syaigai
69
MAP OF
THE COUNTRY BETWEEN
SIND AND CANDAHAR
SHOWING THE COURSE OF THE PROPOSED RAILWAY
constructed from the recent surveys
executed by officers attached to the forces
serving in
SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN.
Natural Scale 1:1,520,640 -1 Inch-24 Miles
ENGLISH MILES
20
30
0
10
10
x
Sungalun Valley
Chinali
Shot Valley
Cawanza
M Spinskhar Garmi
Bainnai
AKBAR OR UNDA
PASS
Regoras
Koch
T
p
ingand
Parai Valley A
Shakare
Sinzawai
Smatany
Shinlis
Wariagai
Baghawa
Lahor
Shaboral
Raha
R.Kach
Lun
Sharan
Kuru
40
50
NOTE The portion of Afghanistan E. of the
Bhoja Amran Range was assigned to British,
Administration by the Treaty of Gundamuk.
HANUMBAR
Luni
M
Kalipat
Khost
M
Nishpah
Sharigh
Waz M
Nassak
Ghaosgarh
Harna
M
Torgar
Sinarai
Dhup
M Sialu
Biland
Sher Khan
Tal
Chotiali
Mian Kach
Watli
Kandi
B
Sir Bolar
Darwaza
Abi gum
Pir Ismail
Sangan
Gwendeh Dasht
Murdar Range
Syud But
Bulandwala
D-hak
Anam
Zabardast
BED PASS
Traki
(Khan Mohd
Sarn
PK
Iltax
SHORU DE
Mahomed
Kare Chichexai Khel
Gurgin
Panipai
KALAN
KOZOLARAK P
Kurdgap BABAK
KHURD
ASS
Strindb
Dost
Kanak
NISHPA
PASS
Dasht-i
Bedaulat
Singbur Hills
R.Kaisar
Gulinghan
KESHINGI
Singbur Hills
Ashkhan Hills
Tirapi Plain
Kila Rahman Khan
Sheree Tank
Jabbar Tank
Nushki
Bo
B
E
L
Railways constructed and in operation
Proposed Railways.
65
Bale Riv.
----
n
2
S
x
J
R
T
0
U
H
Gidar
B
simer Valley
Tesh Ab
Kodak
66
Kharbut
Nal R
K
GURGANA
Kerant
Mahomed
Chatok Range
Sarbund Hills
Տես / Ab
Kobi
Laleji Plain
Bibinani
Jam
Kirta
Rodbar R
RODBAR
Maskaf Ri
Laki R
Bahdra
Baba Kach
Manda
NARI CORCE
Behgi R
Sawa R.
Sind R.
Tumb el Hills
Mamand R.
Nari
Leokamb
3
Sibi- Kuruk
Chakar R
Desgatt
Wasi
Talli
Maskaf
Dadar
Jalad
Hill
Murji
Ngoshera
MINGHI
PASS
Dadkhuda
Mustang
Amanula
Guru
Golam Mahomed
huda Borg i. Chelan
Chagar Valley
MANCOCHAR
Firdad
Girani
A
KEELAT
Siah Koh
C
Katringa Val
Herbui
Miran
Ispangli
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Sir
Rodbar
Sarun Mts
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E
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Melabi M
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Gadi
Ghori R
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Bagh
Chachar
Shuran
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S
T
Thegal R
Surmasing
Koh-1
Daraz
Pu
Nal
Ghar
M
Sohrab
Roshenab
Hala Mountains
Un
Bapola eyri Valley
Angira
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Panderan
P
Nograma
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Takari
Mt
LADAU
PASS
Mukal R
Kotry Gandava
Taphu
Kohu
NAOLANG
PASS
GATI
PASS
A
W
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Patki
PASS
KAND-I-DUZDAN
Larwar
GANDAVA
Khandi
Jang i-Khushi
Pir
Lakka
Jah
Pashe Khana
PASS
Naora
Udanah
Kunda
Panjok
Abad
Jal
Dur
Tunea
G
Nal
Baghwana
Khazdar
M
Narr
67
Kirthar Mounts
A
D
E
S
E
R
Chattar
Rojhan
Gugu
Sharpur
Jari Der
Lunda R
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PILAN KHUSHTAL
Daho
GAP
Shangoloi
R. Laki
y
Narasai R.
Bahan
Brahamai
OTH PALAN
BHAR
RASS
N
TRIKH KURAM
PASS
R. Katsa
HANDRAI PASS
Bala Dhaka
Malikzai
arma
Kolu Valley
Tattera
Hill
Nal
Makhmur
Nal R
Kahan
Teyaga R
Sangsila
A
JACOBABAD
Tallar
MAR PASSandbra
Maxar
Kach
&
Tsamaulang
HAN
PASS
HANDURRA
DEFILE
Hari Kot
Lugari Barkhan
(Nahar ki kot
Vatakri R
Nassu Plain
Garimari
R.
Pathr
Zarahi
Han
Chappar
Phauli R
Haji hot
Daman
Dhaula Hills
Kaho
Siah Koh
Gundadub
Bohry
Phylawar Plain
Chat
Kalchas
Siah Tank Plam
MAMANI
PASS
Dera
Mat Plain
Suri Khushlak
Machri
N
Soi
Suri R
Gurangri
Leni
Desert
Canal
Kumbri
Kandkot
Mirpur
Ghauspur
Candy
Shadihar
New Sir Canal
Shahdadpur
S
Khyrah Garhi
Sijawal krar
Begari
SHIKARPUR
68
From Karachi
Maddeygi
RIVER
INDUS
INDUS
VALLEY RAILWAY
Suldan
ROHRI
69
D
31
30
29
Kusmore
28
London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
T. RUDDIMAN JOHNSTON, MURRAYFIELD, EDINBURGH.
(93)
ست کرنا
CHAPTER V.
RAILWAY FROM THE INDUS TOWARDS CANDAHAR.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London,
June 1880.]
Distance from the Indus to Candahar Natural divisions of the country-
The position of Sakkar on the Indus-Construction of the railway
through the desert-Gorges and rifts in the hills of Southern Afghanistan
- Desolate plain near Quetta-Fine situation of Quetta - Valley of
Pishin Its political importance Khojak range dividing it from
Afghanistan — Dust-storm over Afghan plains General view of Can-
dahar — Its historic sieges — Garden cultivation around it.
I AM to give you orally what I hope will be found to be a
popular explanation of the map and of the pictorial repre-
sentations which accompany my exposition. The
The map has
been prepared specially by the draughtsman of the Society,
Mr. Turner, for this occasion; and in several respects it
contains geographical particulars which, although they have
been exhibited in India, have never been exhibited before
any audience in England.* The pictorial illustrations have
been prepared by my brother, Lieutenant George Temple, R.N.
These illustrations have been prepared from my own original
sketches and under my own supervision, and I can guarantee
their correctness. The region on which I am about to dilate
* The map prefixed to this chapter is a reduction, with additions from
recent surveys, of the map alluded to here, and the engravings (by Lieut.
George Temple) are also reductions of the pictorial illustrations exhibited
during the speech.
94
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
briefly is fraught with much political interest; but politics
constitute a theme upon which I am precluded from entering
at the present moment. Still, although all of you are geo-
graphers first, you doubtless also sympathize with all the
human interest which attaches to these scenes.
These are
scenes where British soldiers and British people have bled,
suffered, and endured. This is a region which many men con-
template with pride, considering the honours they have won;
but which many Englishmen meditate upon with anxiety.
It is a region also to which many widows and bereaved rela-
tions will look back with a life-long regret.
I shall first ask you to look at the map which has been pre-
pared for this occasion. This map relates to the country between
the Indus and the Argandab; that is to say, between the town
of Sakkar on the Indus and the town of Candahar on the
Argandab, a distance of over 400 miles. It is divided for the
purposes of this exposition into four divisions, to which I must
ask your particular attention.
First, there is the country below the hills; secondly, the
country within the hills; thirdly, the valley of Pishin and the
Khoja Amran range, which is the boundary between the British
territory and Southern Afghanistan; fourthly, the country
between the Khoja Amran range and Candahar. Now to each
of these divisions I shall have to ask your attention separately.
First, then, as regards the country below the hills, let us
begin with the position of Sakkar on the Indus. Near Sakkar
there runs up a low range of hills from the south-east towards
that town. That range is a remarkable geographical feature, for
it determines the course of the Lower Indus. It settles the ques-
tion whether the Indus shall run through Sind converting it
into a lesser Egypt, or whether the Indus shall run towards the
east, to the deserts that skirt the western parts of India. Now,
the Indus passes by the town of Kusmore, a little above Sakkar.
From Kusmore down to Sakkar there is a long line of embank-
ments which constitute a monument of British enterprise and
CHAP. V.
INUNDATIONS OF THE INDUS.
95
science, and which form one of the largest series of embank-
ments in the world, Holland not excepted. In the neighbour-
hood of these embankments, that is, under the lee of the pro-
tective line, are canals, villages, towns, railway lines, military
roads, marts of trade, all nestling in comparative security.
But sometimes the Indus breaks through those embankments.
Recently it swept over the country and placed an entire district
under water. Traffic for the time was suspended, the roads were
submerged, and the whole tract was the scene of temporary
devastation. These are dangers from which no human skill
or foresight can guard us. We hope to make these embank-

1
八
​T
FIG. 12.-SAKKAR, ON THE INDUS.
ments more safe from time to time; but the Indus constitutes
a source of permanent danger. Now, through this piece of
country that is marked separately on the map, there runs the
line of the new railway from a point near Sakkar towards
Candahar, and thus I bring you the first fifty miles of your
journey of four hundred miles and upwards.
Before going further, I shall advert to the first of the
illustrations (12), which affords a view of Sakkar from Rohri
on the left bank of the Indus. Between Rohri and Sakkar,
there is a rocky island whereon a fortress was built by
preceding dynasties, which is called the fortress of Bakkar.
96
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
:
=
Our view is looking from Rohri towards Sakkar. In the
background you will see the town of Sakkar, on the other
side of the Indus, on low hills. Now, between my point of
view and Sakkar there is to be carried the bridge of the
Indus, by one mighty span from Rohri to Bakkar island, on the
suspension principle. Between Bakkar and Sakkar there will
be two or three spans. The difficulty is this, that between my
point of view and Bakkar the river is so deep and so rapid that
no pier could be constructed, and there is nothing for it but to
cross this branch of the river with one span of 350 feet on the
suspension principle. On the banks of the river at Sakkar you
will see in the illustration a number of boats in the Indus.
That will be considered the commercial basis of the line between
the Indus and Candahar. It is also a military base. From
there General Stewart's forces, and the materials of war and
all those thousands of camels which you have heard of, were
despatched. You will see also, on the river, steamers joining
one bank with the other, until the bridge shall be built. Farther
you will observe two sets of pillars. Those are the pillars of
the electric telegraph, which is carried right across the Indus.
I thus convey you in imagination over the first 50 miles,
across the green strip of country. It is entirely cultivated, or
else covered with vegetation. After passing this green, you
will bid farewell to vegetation for many a long mile.
I now enter upon the second division, namely, the country
below the hills, and conduct you into the desert. You will find
that tract marked separately in the map. You will perceive
that on the left hand of the desert there are strips of cultivation,
which is carried on by irrigation from those streams which run
from the hills. You will there remark a particular feature in
those streams, in that they have sources and courses but have
no mouths, because as the irrigation goes on, they are merged in
numerous water-channels. Indeed this is the remarkable feature
of Central Asia: there are many rivers without mouths. Now
the point is, that all these green strips were liable to such
СНАР. У.
RAILWAY IN THE DESERT.
97
floods that we could not well make a temporary railway towards
Candahar through such tracts. We were obliged to carry the
railway through the very midst of the desert, for there alone
could we get ground suitable for the construction of the work.
But this ground had a particular disadvantage in that it was
waterless. It is light friable soil, the best galloping ground for
horsemen that I have ever seen. You can imagine the difficulty
we had in getting natives to face this desert. They declared
they would die of thirst; but we constructed tanks in the desert,
and established a service of water trains by the railway as it
progressed, in order to carry the water supply to the people at
the works. The people numbered 3500, besides 1500 animals,
and water had to be conveyed day after day, sometimes 50 or 60
miles, in order to supply this large number of mouths. Never-
theless the railway was carried on through this desert, at the
average rate of two miles a day; sometimes we attained the
rate of 21 miles a day, and one day we made three miles. The
construction consisted of earthway two feet deep; besides that
there was the laying down of the sleepers and the fastening
of the rails. These materials were gathered from great distances
in all quarters of India. It has been considered one of the
most rapid pieces of work that has been done by any nation-
at least out of America; but although I had the general super-
vision and direction of the works, I make no claim for credit
personally. I would rather give the credit to Colonel Lindsay,
the engineer-in-chief, and all the staff that worked under me.
So I bring you through the desert approaching to Sibi.
I then ask your attention to the picture illustrating the
neighbourhood of Sibi (13). You will there see the low hills of
Beluchistan beyond Sibi and the hill of Kalipat in the extreme
distance; you will perceive, also, a long line of dark trees,
the groves of Sibi, the only green trees to be found for many
miles around, and on this side of the green trees you will see
something that is meant to represent the encampment where
the Bombay troops were encamped, which succeeded General
H
98
CHAP. V
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Stewart's forces in Candahar. In the foreground of the picture
you will observe the line of the railway, the telegraph posts,
and the expanse of desert.
We have now passed through the desert 90 miles in addition
to the 50 miles first mentioned, and thus I have brought you
140 miles on the journey which I am asking you to make with
me to Candahar. Thus far, we have passed through regions that
are familiarly known to many distinguished members of this
Society, to such members as Sir Barrow Ellis and Sir William
Merewether, who are no doubt present here this evening.
We were, during the first part of my speech, within the
British territory: after that, we entered the territory of Khelat.
We are now to enter upon part of the territory that was
assigned to us by the recent treaty of Gandamak, called the
southern assigned districts of Afghanistan. We are also about
to plunge straight into the hills, from which you will not emerge
for many miles to come, until I have to direct your atten-
tion to the great desert of South-western Afghanistan. So,
now, you must make up your minds to quit the plains of India,
and to be surrounded by hills for a considerable part of your
journey.
As far as Sibi the railway is marked continuously black,
which indicates a complete and open line-open at least, if not
completed. After that you will find the railway line marked
by a dotted line of black on the map, which indicates a railway
that is projected; and this railway, you will perceive, follows
the line of the Nari river, which passes through a gorge called
the Nari Gorge. After that it passes through one or two lines
of low hills, and enters upon the Harnai valley at the foot of
a mountain called Kalipat. Next it passes through a long
cultivated valley until it crosses the Chapar mountain; then it
enters a rift or chasm in a great limestone geological formation.
It makes use of the river to pass through this otherwise im-
passable limestone mountain. After that it enters on the
upper valley, and so it gets to Gwâl, which lies upon the edge
FIG. 13.-APPROACH TO SIBI: THE KACHI DESERT AND RAILWAY.
ཨ་
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FIG. 14.-THE NARI GORGE.
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100
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
{
of the elevated plateau of Pishin and upon the flank of that
range of mountains which separate Pishin from the lower
mountains, and constitute the natural defence of the plateau.
I have thus brought you for the moment as far as Gwâl and
Pishin, and I must ask your attention to three illustrations
of this part of the route. You will first note the picture
of the Nari Gorge (14). You will see the low hills we have
to pass in the middle distance, light friable rocks in all
sorts of fantastic shapes, which are geologically insignificant
as compared to the geological formations to which I shall
presently call your attention. In the meantime you will


M
FIG. 15. THE HARNAI VALLEY: KALIPAT MOUNTAIN IN THE DISTANCE.
understand that these lower hills can be easily blasted with
dynamite. They were so being blasted some months ago, when
I saw them, and thus the railway can be rapidly constructed.
The next view of the Harnai valley is of interest (15). In the
background you have the mountain of Kalipat. Our railway line
has now attained the height of 3000 feet above the level of the
sea, ascending gradually from Sibi which is reckoned at 700 feet.
In the Harnai valley, then, we have attained the height of
3000 feet, and this Kalipat mountain is 11,000 or 12,000 feet.
Thus our picture of Kalipat shows some 7000 or 8000 feet of sheer
CHAP. V.
CHASMS IN THE MOUNTAINS.
101
precipitous ascent overhanging this very valley. The mountain is
a magnificent limestone formation. Then in the middle distance
you will observe a line of towers. They are the defences of the
villagers in the valleys against the marauders of the tribes from
the hills. These towers are refuges into which the wretched
husbandman and his cattle may escape for the moment, while a
storm of devastation and plunder sweeps over his fields. You
will observe that the towers face the hills whence the marauders
come, and behind the towers are the fertile fields. In the
extreme left of the picture you will perceive near the heights
of Kalipat a slope of limestone formations, and in the left of
the picture you will find rifts or chasms, and to these chasms
I shall have immediately to conduct you.
For a better understanding of them, I must ask you to look at
the next picture (16), which represents what we call the Chapar
Rift. We propose to take full advantage of that rift to pass the
railway through it. There you see precipitous rocks over-
hanging the rushing stream, and on the left you will see ledges
of rocks over which we desire to conduct the railway. We shall
have to construct a viaduct with piers of 100 feet high, in order
to approach those ledges. But this is not a difficult work; the
foundations are excellent, and we hope to construct the line of
the railway within this rift or chasm. The point at which my
view is taken is narrow, like the neck of a bottle, but after
that the railway passes into the valley opening out like a bottle,
and follows the course of the stream, and in that way we make
use of the stream for the railway. Thus, almost imperceptibly,
we ascend up to Gwâl, which is 5500 feet above the sea (about
2000 feet higher than the Chapar Rift, which may be reckoned
at 3500 feet). This incline, with the help of the river, will be
effected with comparative ease, considering the railway inclines
in other parts of India or of the world.
I have thus conducted you another 100 miles of your journey
towards Candahar, and I must now ask you to revert to Sibi.
From Sibi you will see there runs on the map a direct line of
military road to Dadar, and from there you enter upon the
102
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
famous Bolan Pass-a pass by which the British invading
armies have always passed from India to Afghanistan.
I will now ask you to follow me up the Bolan Pass to a place

FIG. 16. THE CHAPAR RIFT.
GJ.T.
where you will see hills marked on the map somewhat darker
than the rest.
Then you should look at the picture of this place (17). In the

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FIG. 17.-BOLAN PASS.

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FIG. 18.-PANORAMIC VIEW OF QUETTA.
[To face page 103.
CHAP. V.
THE BOLAN PASS.
103
background you see the high mountains which flank the plateau
of Quetta. In the centre you see the line through which the
military and commercial traffic has to pass, and in the fore-
ground you see the Bolan river running with branchlets and
rivulets under the rocky formations. These rocky formations
are geologically insignificant, but the colour of the water is
admired by every educated person who sees it. It is the most
beautiful mixture of azure and emerald.
The stream goes
careering over the shingle and sand, and that used to con-
stitute one of the greatest difficulties of the pass. It was in the
crossing and recrossing of this stream that everybody got so wet
in the cold weather, and that constant failure of health and
strength was occasioned. Through the steadiness and industry of
the Bombay troops under the direction of General (now Sir
Robert) Phayre, who is a brother of Sir Arthur Phayre, a dis-
tinguished member of this Society, we managed in a very
short time to make a good military road, instead of the steep
shingly inclines over which the guns and the military stores
used to be laboriously dragged. The pass is now permeated by
a road over which officers drive their dog-carts, and over which,
when I left India, we were arranging to draw vehicles by horses
at five miles an hour. In that way we arrive at the mountains
which are exhibited on the background of the Bolan Pass, and
so we reach the desolate plain of Beluchistan.
You will see this plain (called Dasht-i-bedaulat or desolate
plain) indicated on the map. Now this is a plain of which
travellers should beware during the winter season, for the most
withering blasts sweep over it, sometimes in dust-storms, at
other times in snow-storms which chill people to death. I do
not know that European lives have been sacrificed, but many
natives have fatally succumbed to this benumbing, piercing
wind. And so we arrive at the comparatively happy valley of
Quetta.
Now the valley of Quetta lies in the bosom of grand
mountains. These mountains are about 6000 feet above the
104
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
!
altitude of Quetta, and Quetta itself is about 5500 feet above
sea-level. Dadar, at the bottom of the pass, is less than 1000
feet above sea-level; but the desolate plain I have just been
describing to you is 6000 feet. Thus the mountains near Quetta
are from 11,000 to 12,000 feet in height. They are magnificent
limestone formations.
All this you will find illustrated by the panoramic view of
Quetta (18). On the right hand of the picture you will see
the mountain of Mûrdâr. The name signifies "the dead man's
mountain," and the natives say that the reason why they call
it so is this, that any man who tried to ascend it would be dead
before he reached the top. In the distance to the right you
will perceive the mountain of Zarghûn, which is remarkable
for its forests of juniper, but in this clear atmosphere, in the
evening light, so strong is the effulgence of the setting sun
that the mountain looks at sunset like one mass of rose-
colour. Then midway in the picture you see Takatu moun-
tain, which separates the valley of Quetta from the valley of
Pishin. The spurs of Takatu stretch to the left, and through
a long gap in the Takatu spurs you see in the distance a
line of blue-grey mountains, which form the Khoja Amran
range. Between the spurs of Quetta and these blue moun-
tains there lies the valley of Pishin. Farther to the left you
will see the mountain of Chihaltan, or "forty persons," so called
from a Muhammadan legend about forty saints, with which
I need not detain you. In the middle distance you will see
the town and mud fort of Quetta. In front of that you will
perceive the houses and gardens that constitute the civil and
military station of Quetta itself, built for the immediate accom-
modation of our troops; and farther to the right you will
observe the new British bazaar or town. In the foreground
you have the road leading from the Bolan Pass towards Quetta,
and joining the road near Quetta you will notice a road that
comes from the Khelat country. No view I could present, and
no colours that I could depict, could give you any idea of the
CHAP. V.
THE PISHIN VALLEY.
105
real splendour of this scene. These mountains, 12,000 feet
high, with their magnificent rocks, at sunrise, are lighted up
with fire, and at sunset they blush with rose-coloured splendour.
Down in the valleys, near the little groves, are now carried on
our British amusements. There are cricket-matches and lawn-
tennis and Badminton, and other games, and on these scenes
there look down the proud mountains. I suppose there are few
more picturesquely situated play-grounds in the world than
those play-grounds of Quetta.
We have thus accomplished another 120 miles of our journey,
and I must ask you to look again at the point whither I con-
ducted you on the map near Gwâl. We have now fairly entered
the Pishin valley. From the town of Quetta there runs an indica-
tion of a military road, which road goes towards the well-known
Gazaband Pass, where Generals Stewart and Biddulph passed
with their troops towards Pishin. Now that the military road
runs into the Pishin valley, and the railway line from Gwâl
runs also into that valley, both the military road and the
railway will cross the Lora river, which is indicated to you
by the map as running through the valley of Pishin. Looking
across the valley of Pishin, you see the Khoja Amran range,
which is the real boundary of Afghanistan. This range takes
its name from the tomb of a saint, Khoja Amran, whose tomb
is at the top of the highest peak. But the range is better
known to Europeans from the two great military passes that
exist within it: one the Khojak Pass and the other the Gwaja
Pass, which latter, owing to the project of the railway, is in
future likely to become more celebrated.
I must ask you now to look at the next pictorial illustration
in our series (19). In the background you will see the Khoja
Amran mountains, stretching like an old grey wall. At the
foot of the hills you will see an indication of a well-known town,
Kala Abdullah, and above that there is the Khojak Pass. In
the centre of the range you will notice a peak which is called
the Khwaja Amran Peak, and towards the left the town of
106
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Gulistan Karez, which is a pretty place, with water-courses,
canals, and fruit-gardens, and above that you will see where the
Gwaja Pass is. In the middle distance you will find the
partially cultivated plain of Pishin, and the Lora river. This
view is taken from where the railway viaduct is to be
constructed over the river.
Before I leave Pishin, I may detain you for one or two
moments by explaining to you why we wish to take the railway
by the Nari river, instead of the old route of the Bolan Pass.
Now, a railway by the Bolan route would be vastly better than
no railway at all, and would be a great national advantage were

GET.
FIG. 19.-PISHIN VALLEY: KHOJA AMRAN RANGE IN THE DISTANCE.
there no better route obtainable. But the Bolan route is open
to certain objections, as there are very sharp curves and then very
stiff gradients, and we have the liability to floods during the
storms of summer; then there is a foreign jurisdiction, namely
that of the Khan of Khelat. But the main point was this,
whatever might be the expenditure devoted to it, we could not
make that railway safe at all seasons, and also there was a
rigorous winter, as well as a great want of food supplies all
along the line. On the other hand, by the route of the railway
I have described to you, by the Nari river, we had much better
curves and much easier gradients; we had complete freedom
CHAP. V.
HISTORIC PASS OF KHOJAK.
107
from the floods in summer-that is to say, we are able to take
the railway beyond the reach of the floods; we had a much
less rigorous climate in winter, and we had supplies along
the line, and it will pass entirely through the assigned districts
under British administration. Above all, we found with the
help of the river a capital engineering line. The difficulty with
lines of this kind is that you have to surmount the vast moun-
tain wall which forms the flank of the elevated plateau of
Beluchistan, and constitutes the boundary between Beluchistan
and India. From some volcanic forces in geological periods,
there have been great chasms and rents formed in this wall.
Rivers rise in the plateau, which pass through these rents and
chasms into the lower valleys. Our engineers took advantage
of these rents and chasms, and of these geological circumstances,
and that is actually how we have obtained this line.
Thus you ascend minute by minute, and you are hardly
conscious that you are ascending at all. In confirmation of
this fact I may mention that during November 1879, I, in
company with others, marched over a parallel route at a rate of
45 miles a day (or 90 miles in two days), and during that time
we were scarcely aware, from any evidence of our senses, that
we were ascending at all. Nevertheless on those two days we
ascended 5000 feet.
Thus I have conducted you through the lower range of hills on
to the valley of Pishin, and to the Khoja Amran range beyond.
I have also asked you to remember that the railway is not to
ascend the Khoja Amran range by the Khojak Pass, which is
the present military road, but is to ascend by the Gwaja Pass
farther south. I must, however, ask you to mount with me
to the Khojak Pass, 8000 feet above sea-level, and that is the
highest point to which I shall have to conduct you this evening.
Having arrived in this way at the summit of the Khojak Pass,
I must explain to you that the geological features of the range
are comparatively insignificant, with the exception of the Gwaja
Pass, where good granite formations render the scenery very
108
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
fine; in the Khojak Pass, where we now are, the scenery is
poor.
་
I must now request your notice to the picture which repre-
sents the view (20) from the Khojak summit looking towards
Southern Afghanistan. In the distance you will perceive the low
hills of Candahar. In the extreme distance beyond that you will
also see the hills of Northern or Upper Afghanistan. On the
left in the distance you will perceive the desert of Southern
Afghanistan, which desert, you will find, is indicated upon
the map. In my pictorial illustration you will see it marked
by a large dust-storm which is coming up in vast columns.
I myself saw that dust-storm rise. It came from 60 miles off,
and I saw it rush on with remarkable rapidity. We knew it was
coming quick, so we tethered our horses under shelter in the lee
of the summit, and we ourselves stood on the summit itself, in
order to face the storm. It was as much as we could do to stand.
Although we were 3000 feet above that desert the dust blew
furiously in our faces, and we could scarcely keep ourselves
upright against it. The frequent occurrence of these dust-storms
constitutes a noteworthy feature in that desert. In the middle
distance you will perceive the military road running towards
Candahar, on which line actions have been recently fought, and
down at the foot of the range lies the military post of Chaman,
and near that is the spot which represents the spring where
the only water and the only green thing in the locality can
be obtained. In the foreground you will see the place called
the "Gun slip." This name "Gun slip" means the operation
whereby Stewart's guns were slipped down the precipitous
hill-side. The guns had to be passed down by ropes, and the
horses were led down. You may have seen this operation
depicted in the Illustrated London News' of the time. Sub-
sequently our officers have made a good zigzag road down the
hill-side, which road you will see represented on the left of the
picture.
Such, then, is this remarkable view.
Picturesque it may

رایدند
د
mé
piric
ارب
یه
FIG. 20.-VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE KHOJAK PASS.
110
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
not be, but it is wonderful as being the point from which
many heroes and statesmen of the first Afghan war must
have looked on Afghanistan, which was to them the promised
land-such statesmen as Keene, Macnaghten, and your excellent
Vice-President here, Sir Henry Rawlinson, who is now present,
and is sitting on my left. Imagine the hope they must have
felt when they looked on Afghanistan from this place. And
this is the point of view from which the heroes of the last
Afghan war must have first gazed at Afghanistan; not only Sir
Donald Stewart but Sir Michael Biddulph, who has lectured to
you from this very table.
Thus we have accomplished another 60 miles of our jour-
ney, and there only remain the last 90 miles of the run. You
will observe from the map that the railway is to proceed from
the Gwaja Pass at the lower extremity of the Khoja Amran
range, and to enter on the southern plains of Afghanistan. It
will first take a sweep towards the right, or east, in order to
avoid the desert. Then it has to run on the right bank of the
Dori river, crossing several tributary streams on its way. It
passes by the Mel Pass, where the Afghan Governor of Candahar
offered some resistance to the advance of Stewart's forces. After
that it passes by the village of Khushab, and so runs on to
Candahar. Now, you may ask me why we propose to take the
railway on the right bank of the Dori river, when we might have
taken it along the left bank, and thus have avoided five tributary
streams. To that I have a specific answer, which is—if you
went on the left bank of the Dori river you would be much too
near the desert. The drifting sands of the desert are very
dangerous, and offer difficulties to the engineers; and the desert
is one of the dominating features in this part of the country.
It is this desert which mainly contributes to the political
importance of the district of Candahar. Everybody who comes
and goes either from India towards Central Asia, or from
Central Asia towards India, must pass along the elbow of that
desert, and rounding its corner must go by Candahar. That is
CHAP. V.
DESCRIPTION OF CANDAHAR.
111
one of the reasons why Candahar has always been deemed so
important by all the great commanders and politicians in Asia,
from the earliest ages to the present.
Now I come to the last illustration of my pictorial series (21).
This illustration shows the first view the traveller obtains as he
approaches Candahar. You will see in the extreme distance
the hills on the other side of the Argandab river, which are spurs
of the Siah Koh range. In the middle distance you have a
remarkable series of low hills rising a few hundred feet above.
the plain of Candahar, which is 3500 feet above the sea-level.
Those hills constitute a very interesting series of trap for-
mation. The low hills through which we have just passed near
the Mel Pass are gneiss, while some of them are granitic. In front
of the hills near Candahar you will see in the right of the picture
the modern town of Candahar. To the left, again, you have the
ancient city and citadel and fortress of Candahar. They are
wonderful ruins; they are not built of stone or brick, but of a
hard and indurated earth peculiar to the immediate locality, and
I have been told by officers of Artillery that they never saw
bastions which would be more difficult to batter down. Imme-
diately above this citadel, on the low range of hills, you will see
in the distance some towers. In one of the many sieges to
which this old city has been subjected (the new city is not
above 150 years old), the enemy, by a striking military coup,
climbed the hills during the night, took one of these towers by
surprise, and so commanded the citadel and town, which had in
consequence to surrender. In the midst of the modern city you
will see the slightest indication of the tomb of Ahmed Shah, the
founder of the Durani dynasty of Afghanistan, that dynasty which
performed so important a part in the first Afghan war, and has
been superseded by the Barakzai dynasty. In the immediate
foreground there runs the military line to Candahar; but that
is not the railway line, which will run somewhat towards the
right. There is also some indication of the green plain of
Candahar, excellently irrigated from running streams, skilfully
ป

།
تركم
FIG. 21. APPROACH TO CANDAHAR.
را
الحامد
CHAP. V. ROUTE FROM THE INDUS TO CANDAHAR. 113
cultivated, waving with harvests, and often yielding several
crops within the year.
Perhaps this view is imperfectly represented; but it is one of
the most interesting and beautiful views I ever saw in my life.
It is that view from which people either take their first or their
last look of Candahar, and it is a scene that must have been
gazed upon with wonderment by many of the most dis-
tinguished, or of the most notorious characters in history-by
Alexander the Great, by Tamerlane, by the Emperor Baber, by
the Great Mogul, by Shah Abbas, by Nadir Shah, and others.
All these extraordinary personages must have regarded the
scene with as much wonderment as we do; for despite the
revolutions of centuries this landscape remains the same.
Now, I have brought you to a distance of more than
400 miles from Sakkar, where I began my speech, and I hope
you have not found this journey exceedingly fatiguing or
irksome.
I shall conclude by giving you a résumé of the distances over
which you and I have, in imagination, travelled together. The
country below the hills comprised 140 miles; the country within
the hills 120 miles; the country in the Pishin valley and the
Khoja Amran range 60 miles, and from the Khoja Amran range
to Candahar 90 miles, altogether 410 miles. That may be
called the military route; but the railway route which I have
explained to you is somewhat longer. The railway route we
take in this way: Indus to Sibi, 140 miles; Sibi to Gulistan
Karez, 170 miles; Gulistan Karez to Gwaja-that is, the
southern end of the Khoja Amran range-40 miles; from
Khoja Amran range to Candahar, 90 miles. The whole distance
by railway line is 440 miles, say 450 miles with a slight margin
for detours, and that represents the maximum journey which
you have made with me to-night.
I may express the hope, with some diffidence, that the
statement I have offered is sufficiently scientific and geogra-
phical to satisfy the severe requirements of such a distinguished
Ι
114
CHAP. V.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
gentleman as Sir Henry Rawlinson, whose knowledge of these
countries is unrivalled, vastly surpassing mine, although mine
may be fresher, perhaps. I venture to anticipate that it may
also satisfy the requirements of some of the Sind authorities
present. I trust it has also been brief and graphic enough for
the ladies and gentlemen who are members of the Geographical
Society. I further believe that this oral statement, together
with the pictorial illustrations, will have the advantage over
a written paper, as it will enable you to carry away with you
some pictures impressed upon the tablets of your brain and
memory, better perhaps than any word-painting can pourtray.
I hope that if you do carry away those pictures in your minds
to-night, you will also think kindly and sympathetically of the
men who have been engaged in these places-of the statesmen,
politicians, and commanders who have formed so many great
projects for the advancement of British interests in this quarter;
of the British soldiers, your own fellow-countrymen, your
own flesh and blood, who have sustained your country's cause
with a bravery which has never been surpassed, even in the
annals of England; of the Native sepoys and soldiers, who
have equalled in discipline and endurance their European
brethren; of the Native Chiefs who have kept the road and
protected our line of march, and who have also escorted many
of us, and saved us from ambush and from overt attack, which
otherwise would have proved fatal to us; of the men of science,
civil and military, who have planned those important public
works I have described to you to-night; and lastly, of the
patient, enduring, and industrious Native camp followers, who
had no particular reward to expect beyond their bare wage,
who had no honours, no glory to anticipate, but nevertheless
did their duty as men like the rest of us, and who have but too
often left their bones to whiten in the localities that have been
depicted to you to-night. Remember, ladies and gentlemen,
that to whatever class or whatever profession these men be-
longed, whether the colour of their uniform was black, or red,
CHAP. V. CONDITION OF THE RAILWAY PROJECT.
115
or blue, whether they were white-skinned or dark-skinned, they
were all one in their sentiment of loyalty to the British cause :
they were comrades and brethren in arms, in policy, and in
administration, for the promotion of those vast interests which
are comprised in the British Empire in the East.*
* Since this speech was delivered (June 1880) the political aspect of
affairs in these regions has somewhat changed. Candahar was, according to
the then intention of the British Government, to be governed by a local
Afghan chief under British guardianship; a British garrison was to be
maintained there for some time, at least, and a railway was to be constructed
thither, to be opened for traffic about the year 1883. It was subsequently
decided to withdraw the British garrison from Candahar, and to make over
the city with its surrounding districts to the Amîr of Caubul. This step in-
volved among other things the relinquishment of at least that section of the
proposed railway which lies between the Khoja Amran Range and Candahar.
Then, while the line was kept open for traffic from the Indus to Sibi, it was
decided to hold in abeyance the projected line from Sibi to the valley of
Pishin, and in consequence the railway works on that section were suspended.
But, as Pishin is still under British administration, and as Quetta is still
held by a British force, the plan of extending railway communication to those
places is under consideration. The alternative line by the Bolan Pass, as
discussed in the speech, has been again mooted, and some of the questions
regarding it have been re-opened. But I understand that the railway
engineers and the local authorities are in favour of the line described in this
speech. I myself see no reason to alter the opinion herein expressed, which
was the result of the best enquiries that could be made on the spot. At all
events, it seems probable that by one line or the other a railway will be made
to Quetta and Pishin. Therefore, almost all that is said in this speech is still
applicable to current affairs within British borders up to the limit of Southern
Afghanistan.-R. T.
I 2
116
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER VI.
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT IN BRITISH INDIA.
¿
[Reprinted from the Contemporary Review' for March 1883.]
Political importance of teaching Indian natives to manage their own affairs
Former measures relating to local government and taxation in India
Additional measures since 1881-The elective principle in rural tracts
constitutes a new departure Declaration of principle by the Govern-
ment of India-District boards to consist of elected members - Local
funds to be administered by them-Elections already held in cities and
towns Facilities for holding elections in villages — Electoral qualifica-
tion ready made - Electors will for the most part be peasant proprietors —
Adverse influences likely to arise at first-Still the Government deter-
mined that beginning shall be made Favourable testimony of some
among the Provincial Governments in India.
LOCAL self-government for the natives of India is a matter of
interest to all thoughtful observers.* Much has been, and is
* Since this article was written the subject has been severely discussed,
both in Parliament and in the public prints. The discussion has perhaps
been stimulated by dissatisfaction felt in many quarters respecting the project
for altering a particular part of the Criminal Law and conferring upon
Native magistrates a jurisdiction over European British subjects in lesser
criminal trials. That project is, however, wholly distinct from the subject of
this article, and there is no real connexion whatever between the two. This
subject is for India in some degree equivalent to the new schemes of county
government for England. The scheme for India has been deprecated by
many authorities as going too far, as being insufficiently fenced with pre-
cautions, and as insufficiently providing for European control. It is, doubt-
less, very advantageous that these and all other objections should be raised
beforehand, so that the Government may be able to obviate any of them that
appear well founded. Precautions, as suggested by highly competent critics,
are indeed necessary. But probably the desired precautions have been, or
CHAP. VI.
TENDENCY OF BRITISH RULE.
117
being, done by the British Government for its Indian subjects.
But it is felt that more than heretofore ought to be done by
them for themselves, and that the Government ought to teach
them how to do this. The idea that everything should be for
the people and nothing by them, or, in other words, that every-
thing should be effected by the Government and nothing
through the agency of the people themselves, is not likely to be
approved by the British public. It is well, indeed, to bestow
upon them material prosperity, security of rights and property,
equitable and moderate taxation, the means both of preserving
Oriental scholarship and of acquiring Western knowledge; some
insight also into the wonders of modern science. Thus they will
look up to the foreign Government as an embodiment of moral
as well as political power, and, notwithstanding all that doubting
critics may say, they will feel a loyal gratitude in the contem-
plation of what they have to be grateful for. But it is better
still to afford to them that practical education which comes
from the actual study of self-government, and that robustness of
will be, duly adopted. It is to be remembered that the entrusting of local
affairs to elected bodies, though a new departure in rural localities, is yet only
an enlargement of a principle which is already carried into effect in the most
important centres of the country. The principle, then, is not novel but pre-
existing. It is justly contended by the critics that the local bodies with
elected members must not be left uncontrolled. The Government of India
would probably explain in reply that control is provided. If on detailed
examination, or after actual experience, the control is found insufficient, it
can easily be strengthened. The view that control there must be, is
apparently accepted by the Government of India. The proposal that the
European district-officers should not sit on the local boards together with the
elected Native members, has given rise to an apprehension that European
control is to be eliminated, and European authority set aside. If, indeed,
such were to be the result, it would be very objectionable. But the Govern-
ment of India would probably rejoin that this was never contemplated.
Certainly, in important issues, European control of the most stringent kind is
reserved. The only question would be whether the European district-officer
should take part in the deliberations of the local boards. But if he has an
effective power of control from without, it is the less necessary that he should
interfere in the internal counsels.-R. T.
118
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
character which arises from exercise in the discipline of managing
their own affairs. Under an administration like that of the
British, which, though conducted with a comprehensive legis-
lation and a strict executive, is in many essentials paternal or
patriarchal, there is always a fear lest the people should regard
themselves as forming an entity separate from the Government.
If such should become the state of the public mind, the Govern-
ment is likely to be en l'air as regards sympathy and moral
support in the event of a political or military crisis. It is
desirable indeed to found institutions intrinsically excellent;
but it is yet more desirable to make the people regard themselves
as forming a part of such institutions. Then they will begin to
feel their corporate existence as being one with the State.
England must, no doubt, for an indefinitely long time, rely
mainly on her own right arm. Still the popular support, if
rendered ex animo, would be of priceless value. One of the best
and surest means of winning such support is to promote that
local self-government which I now propose briefly to consider.
For many years past, indeed almost from the beginning of
British rule, there has been in India the germ of what in
England is known as "local government and taxation." This
germ has been fostered till in some of the principal cities and of
the rural towns, and nearly throughout the districts in the
interior (which districts correspond very much to English
counties), the affairs commonly called local in India, as in other
countries, are largely under the management and control of local
bodies consisting partly of Europeans (chiefly official) and partly
of Natives. These affairs may, for India, be summarized as roads
and communications, primary and midle-class education, sani-
tation and medical work, municipal police. Under this agency
much external improvement has been effected, leaving a happy
impress on nearly every part of a widely-extended country.
The system, such as it is, was further strengthened, in 1872, by
a measure introduced and executed by Lord Mayo's Government,
officially termed the system of Provincial Services, whereby
PREVIOUS LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.
119
CHAP. VI.
an increased financial control was conceded by the Supreme
Government of India to the several Local Governments in
the empire, of various grades, eight in number, respecting the
heads of service mentioned above, and some others besides. By
legislation also a complete constitution, after the British model,
was conferred upon the municipal corporations of the two
great cities, Calcutta and Bombay.
Nevertheless, in the interior of the country the position of
these local bodies has been uncertain, and their action fitful.
The native members were nominated by official authority,
and were supposed or intended to be representatives of local
interests. Still, not being elected, they have never been repre-
sentatives in the English sense of the term. Their proceedings
have been under an official control, to which there has not been
any limitation either by rule or practice. Despite numerous
instances of praiseworthy public spirit, there has often been an
atmosphere of apathy pervading their conduct. On the whole,
their proceedings have been such as might be expected on the
part of those who are not stimulated by a sense of real power
and responsibility.
Since the middle of 1881, the Government of India, under
Lord Ripon, appear to have been earnestly considering the best
way of consolidating the position of these local bodies, broadening
their basis, augmenting their powers, and investing them with
responsibilities corresponding thereto. In September, 1881, the
Government issued a Resolution extending further the system of
Provincial Services-that is, enlarging the financial powers of
the several local Governments in provincial affairs. Then in
May of last year (1882), another Resolution was issued regarding
the local bodies already described, and for the avowed purpose
of promoting the principle of local self-government for the
natives.
The language with which the last-named resolution opens is so
positive and specific as to deserve quoting, and it runs thus:-
"At the outset the Governor-General in Council must explain
120
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
་་
that in advocating the extension of local self-government and in
the adoption of this principle in the management of many
branches of local affairs, he does not suppose that the work will
be, in the first instance, better done than if it remained in the
sole hands of the Government district officers. It is not pri-
marily with a view to improvement in administration that this
measure is put forward and supported. It is chiefly desirable
as an instrument of popular and political education. His
Excellency in Council has no doubt that, in course of time,
as local knowledge and interest are brought to bear more freely
upon local administration, improved efficiency will in fact
follow. But at starting there will doubtless be many failures,
calculated to discourage exaggerated hopes and even in some
cases to cast apparent discredit upon the practice of self-govern-
ment itself. If, however, the officers of Government only set
themselves, as the Governor-General in Council believes they
will, to foster sedulously the small beginnings of independent
political life; if they accept loyally, and as their own, the policy
of the Government; and if they come to realize that the system
opens to them a fairer field for the exercise of administrative
tact and directive energy than the more autocratic system which
it supersedes, then it may be hoped that the period of failures
will be short, and that real and substantial progress will very
soon become manifest.
<<
It is not uncommonly asserted that the people of this country
are themselves entirely indifferent to the principle of self-govern-
ment, that they take but little interest in public matters, and
that they prefer to have such affairs managed for them by
Government officers. The Governor-General in Council does
not attach much value to this theory. It represents, no doubt,
the point of view which commends itself to many active and
well-intentioned district officers; and the people of India are,
there can be equally no doubt, remarkably tolerant of existing
facts. But as education advances there is rapidly growing up
all over the country an intelligent class of public-spirited men
1
CHAP. VI.
NEW DISTRICT BOARDS.
121
whom it is not only bad policy but sheer waste of power to fail
to utilise."
This frank and unreserved declaration of principle is followed
by directions in detail, of which the prominent points only can
be stated here. While the municipal administration in the
cities and towns is to be maintained and extended as far as
possible, a network of local boards is to be formed in the
districts (like the English counties, as already mentioned) into
which the country is divided. The area placed under each
board is to be small, as an administrative unit; consequently
there will be many boards in a district. Each board will have
the supervision of a group of villages, following as much as
possible the traditional divisions into which the country has
from olden times been divided. But ordinarily there will be at
the headquarters of the district a central board, having control
over the lesser boards. The members of the boards are to be
chosen by election, wherever it may, in the opinion of the local
governments, be practicable to adopt that system of choice.
The qualification of the electors, and other matters pertaining
to the elections, are to be determined by the local governments.
It is anticipated that, as a consequence, the electoral system
throughout the country will present a very diversified appear-
ance. This may prove to be rather convenient than otherwise,
as tending to develop the idiosyncrasies of a vast and diverse
population. But if there be any inconvenience therefrom, that
must be endured, as above all things it is desirable to proceed
cautiously, in deference to the sentiments prevailing in widely-
scattered localities. The boards are to have as much of inde-
pendent power as possible, consistently with the control of
official authority in two respects-first, the sanction of certain
specified acts, such as the raising of loans and the imposition of
taxes; and secondly, the power of suspending temporarily a
board from its functions in case of any gross and continued
neglect of an important duty. Respecting the several branches
of local administration already mentioned, the boards are to be
122
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
entrusted not only with the expenditure of established funds,
and of other moneys which may be allotted to them, but also
with the management of certain among the Governmental
revenues, such as the License Tax.
Thus local funds amounting to several millions sterling
annually, roads of many thousands of miles in total length,
rustic school-houses numbered by tens of thousands, medical
institutions to be counted by hundreds, will be administered
by boards elected by electors from the villages of British India,
-the total number of the villages being about 400,000. This
is of itself a considerable thing, though it is but a fraction of the
total Indian administration.
Now, of these instructions the greater part is only an
expansion of the existing system. The expansion is, however,
remarkable in respect to the number of the boards in each
district (Anglicè county). Whereas there has heretofore been
only one such board in a district, commonly called
"the
Local Committee," there will in future be several boards. This
of itself will ensure a more equitable distribution than hereto-
fore of improvement throughout the whole district, and espe-
cially in remote or comparatively neglected tracts. But the
real novelty lies in the instruction that, so far as may be prac-
ticable, the members of the boards shall be elected. This is a
principle heretofore almost unknown practically in the interior
of India—that is in the agricultural regions of a country where
(in contrast to the proportions existing in England) four-fifths
of the population are rural, and only one-fifth urban. Accord-
ing to some calculations, indeed, the urban population may be
estimated as less than one-fifth, and nearer to one-tenth. Thus
the introduction of the elective principle into the villages, or
little townships, of British India may be said to constitute
virtually a new departure.
The elective principle is not indeed a novelty among the
urban people of India-that is, in the towns, as contradistin-
guished from the country. In the two capital cities of Calcutta
CHAP. VI.
MUNICIPAL SYSTEM.
123
and Bombay it has been in force during several years for muni-
cipal administration. Accordingly the municipalities of those
two cities, having an aggregate population of 14 millions and an
income of 500,000l. annually, are administered by corporations
consisting chiefly of members elected by the ratepayers. The
citizens of Bombay-which has always been a cosmopolitan
seaport readily receptive of fresh ideas-took kindly to the
elective system at once, and have behaved uniformly as good
electors ought to behave, choosing native candidates for the
most part, but giving also their suffrages to some candidates of
European nationalities. In Calcutta, the citizens treated it at
first with an almost disdainful apathy. But among them there
was from the beginning a class of educated natives who appre-
ciated its advantages, and by this time it may be said to have
fairly taken root. It has been cautiously and tentatively
extended to some other towns, but its introduction into some of
them was postponed for political reasons. The measure will now,
under the orders of May, 1882, be made to embrace virtually
all the towns, large and small (about 1500 in number, for all
British India), and ere long it will probably be the fact that
the municipal revenues of the country, about 1½ millions ster-
ling in the aggregate, for an urban population of nearly twenty
millions, are administered under corporations elected by the
ratepayers. In these cases there never has been, nor will
be, any difficulty in forming constituencies; the payment of
municipal rates is the qualification, and that qualification is
possessed by all respectable citizens who thus are the electors;
and the wards into which towns and cities are divided become
the electoral divisions, each having a municipal representation.
Then comes the question, has the interior of the country,
with its large rural population, the necessary facilities for the
introduction of this system for the purpose of administering
the local affairs already described? Yes, it does possess these
facilities in a fair degree. The constituencies, the electoral
qualifications, the electors, are all, so to speak, ready made.
124
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
In most provinces of India-that is, in Madras, Bombay, the
North-Western Provinces, the Panjab, the Central Provinces,
British Burma, and Assam, peasant proprietorship largely, and
in some parts almost exclusively, prevails, every peasant pro-
prietor cultivating lands with his own hands, and paying
land-tax to the Government. Here at once, then, is the elec-
toral qualification, and the peasant proprietors will be the
electors. The question will then arise as to whether the qualifi-
cation should be extended to any of those who cultivate land,
but do not own it, nor pay revenue to Government. They are
cultivators or tenants, and pay rent to proprietors large or
small, even to peasant proprietors. If they are tenants at will
only, the qualification will probably be not extended to them.
But many of them have tenancy or occupancy rights, and
cannot be evicted without cause shown to the satisfaction of a
court of justice. These, then, may be regarded as equitably
entitled to the electoral qualification. Again, throughout these
provinces the village system exists, whereby the proprietors
residing in a village, corresponding nearly to an English parish,
are grouped together for police arrangements and other adminis-
trative purposes.
In northern India the bond of union is
drawn very close between the proprietors in each village, who
thus form a community commonly called a brotherhood. This
peculiar constitution will favour the exercise of the electoral
franchise. In Oudh large proprietors or landlords prevail;
and thus, if proprietors alone were to have the franchise, the
number of electors would be comparatively small. But there
again a considerable class exists of privileged tenants or occu-
pancy cultivators, many of whom might be selected for the
franchise. In the provinces under the Government of Bengal
large proprietors are found; but alongside of great estates in
many parts of the country there are thousands of small pro-
perties. In the aggregate for the whole country, then, the
number of electors qualified by the ownership of land will be
very considerable. But if the application of the electoral prin-
CHAP. VI.
THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE.
125
ciple is to be equitably distributed in most parts of the country,
the representation must include some at least of the tenants-
namely, those who have occupancy privileges, especially as they
are assessed to various local cesses.
Of all the great classes in India, the agricultural class is the
one that can best be trusted with the germ of political privilege,
such as electoral representation, for any political purpose, how-
ever limited. It is this class that feels most immediately the
benefits of British rule, which are seen to be peculiar in an
Asiatic country, and in the main its passive loyalty has been
proved during times of trial. On the other hand, it is politically
deficient in active qualities; and if it is to receive moral educa-
tion under a civilized and enlightened Government such as
ours, it needs the stimulus which will be afforded by an electoral
system in local affairs.
That rural electors will, at the outset, prove stolid in appre-
ciating the franchise in local affairs, and will be apathetic in
exercising it, is but too probable. But if the European officers
shall become convinced that the lesson ought to be learnt, they
will ere long succeed in teaching it to the people. Public
opinion, too, will by degrees warm to the work. The electors
themselves will begin to be interested in the matter when they
perceive that the elected representatives have real power and
responsibility in local administration. Moreover, although the
rural folk have not been habituated to formal elections, in
which votes are taken, yet they have from ancient times been
accustomed to see affairs of social importance managed by com-
mittees nominated by acclamation, and termed "Panchayets."
At the best, however, the elective system for local purposes
may probably prove to be a plant of slow growth among the
rural population of India. It may even meet with some
indirect discouragement. It will be disliked by all those,
whether European or Native, who dread reform merely because
of its involving a change, forgetting that while some changes,
as being for the worse, are to be deprecated, others, as being for
126
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the better, are to be encouraged. Some official Europeans,
compelled by hard experience to see the darker sides of Oriental
character, may be dubious as to the safety of introducing this
kind of political privilege. Some non-official Europeans, whose
natural instincts would be favourable to the principle, may
apprehend that the natives are not yet fitted for such a status,
even in respect to local affairs. Many natives of the most
respectable station may object to the measure partly because it
levels up the classes below them. If such men, on account
of their general knowledge and personal character, be con-
sulted by the authorities as to its expediency, they may give
a dissuasive answer.
Thus adverse influences may arise to affect in some degree
the judgment of the several Local Governments. Consequently,
while some of these Governments will be anxious to advance in
this direction, others will be disposed to pause and hesitate;
though all will be equally animated by a desire to fulfil the
behest of the Government of India, so far as they can under
the circumstances by which they are surrounded.
The Government of India, though determined that a real
beginning shall be made, and that progress shall advance with
sure steps, is yet evidently anxious that these steps should
be cautious. During 1882 fears were expressed in one import-
ant quarter of India lest the proposed reform should prove too
subversive of existing arrangements, lest the change should be
somewhat too fundamental, the basis of representation too
large, the powers confided to the representatives too extensive.
Thereon the Government of India lost no time in explaining
that its already declared intentions were not really liable to
these objections. It stated in a Resolution of last October
(1882), that, although the progress of the new system was to
be real and substantial, yet a due degree of caution must be
observed in connection therewith; that detailed rules of
universal application need not be laid down for all the pro-
vinces of the empire, a considerable latitude being left to the
CHAP. VI.
RESERVATIONS AND SAFEGUARDS.
127
district authorities; that the several Local Governments might
select particular districts for the introduction of the elective
principle, on the understanding that the system should prevail
generally at last, and in the meantime should be established as
widely as possible; that the qualification of the electors and
the modes of election would similarly be left to the determina-
tion of the several Local Governments, in the expectation that
the qualification would in the first instance be ordinarily fixed
fairly high; that the District Officer should not be a member
of the Local Boards, but should control and supervise their
proceedings from without; that the Government would retain
all necessary powers for dealing with any Board that failed in
its duty, powers ranging from simple remonstrance to absolute,
though temporary, supersession of the defaulting body. Thus
the political experiment is to be initiated, with a persistent
resolve indeed, but in a moderate spirit. The several reserva-
tions and safeguards were actually comprised in the Resolution
of May, 1882, and have been reiterated in the Resolution of
October in the same year. Still, in reference to the judicious
distrust with which innovations are regarded in India, and
which usually leads to their being carefully considered, it is
perhaps fortunate that the objections proceeding from one of
the Local Governments should have caused the reiteration
of safeguards proving to the world that the Government of
India is quite moderate in its intentions.
On the other hand, one of the local Governments, that of the
Panjab, has notably accepted the new departure. As being
among the youngest of the several local Governments, it might
be expected to be the most facile and apt in the management of
new improvements. A portion of the language used by it on
this occasion is worth quoting. In its Resolution of September
last (1882), the following passage occurs :—
"The object of the whole proceeding is to educate the people
to manage their own affairs. At the outset it is admitted that
amongst the native community the various capacities requisite
128
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
in public life are for the most part immature; it is precisely
for this reason that a period of public and political training is
necessary. The value of the policy consists in its tendency
to create and develop the capacity for self-help. Placed in new
positions of responsibility, the representatives of the people on
the local boards will become year by year more intelligent,
self-reliant, and independent. But these advantages can be
secured only if the local bodies are trusted. Their power and
responsibilities must alike be real in proportion; as if there is
any pretence or illusion about either the one or the other, there
is an obvious possibility that the whole undertaking may
degenerate into an officious dislocation of existing arrange-
ments. No such miscarriage of a generous and enlightened
policy must be suffered to occur in the Panjab. This risk
escaped, the Government anticipating, by wise reforms, those
legitimate aspirations which always gain substance and strength
with the process of instruction, and providing a career for the
people, to open and expand with their growing intelligence and
education, will avoid many of the dangers inherent in foreign
rule.
The scheme, in so far as it can be successfully worked,
will tend to educate the country in public life, to relieve the
Government of the odium of petty interferences and small
unpopular acts; to diminish any sense of antagonism between
the people and the Government; to promote better knowledge
of the real aims of the governing body; to popularize taxation ;
to open useful, if not exalted, careers to the native gentry; and
to interest leading men in the process of undertakings and the
stability of institutions in which they will now have a personal
and prominent share.”
Such are the high hopes entertained by some at least of the
advocates and supporters of the scheme initiated by Lord Ripon
and his advisers. In some parts of empire the realization will
be early, and in others it will be late.
In the Central Provinces, which have an administration
younger even than that of the Panjab, the policy has been put
CHAP. VI. PROSPECTS OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT.
129
in force by the recent passing of a law which embodies all the
principal points in the Resolution of the Government of India
of May, 1882, already mentioned.
In general terms, a measure of this nature, if urged by the
Government of India, merits the confidence of the British
public. For that Government-consisting not only of the Vice-
roy and Governor-General (as its head), but also of councillors,
some men of the best Indian experience, and others drawn from
the English professions-possesses both progressive and con-
servative elements, and usually pursues a line which, though
reforming and enlightened, is yet tentative and precautionary.
When the new system shall have taken root in India, and
begun to flourish, abuses will doubtless arise similar to those
which have arisen in more civilized countries. When seats in
the Local Boards shall become objects of strong desire, or of
personal ambition, it is to be feared that India will not prove
to be free from the petty malpractices with which elections in
the United Kingdom have been too often disfigured. For India,
however, this objection will not be apparent for some, perhaps
many, years to come. By that time perhaps European people
will have learnt how to check this evil among themselves. In
that case the people of India will doubtless prove teachable in
the same direction. The progress of the natives under English
education, in all that relates to secular morality, has been
happily remarkable. A similar progress will surely become
perceptible in their political conduct. Again, if elections are
intrinsically good, it is possible to have too much of them as
of other good things, as is abundantly illustrated by the
example of the United States of America. If, then, ardent
reformers, emboldened by success attending the measure now
under discussion, were to hastily extend the principle to this,
that, and the other branch or department, then a crop of abuses
might spring up on the Indian soil, which possesses a signal
fertility in this respect. Nevertheless, it must be remembered
that the elective principle is essential to that political training
K
130
CHAP. VI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
which every stable Government (like that of British India)
must desire to see possessed by its subjects. Mere discussion,
without practical action, will be futile. Hitherto such action
has been deprecated by some because the people are unpre-
pared. But the people are not likely to become prepared
unless some steps are taken for preparation. Public spirit
cannot be created without entrusting the people with a part of
their own public business, a part limited at first, but increasing
as their fitness shall grow. Unless this be attempted, more
and more, there is fear lest the effect of British rule should
check such public spirit. A retrospect of the results attained by
British rule in India will show what apparent marvels have
been accomplished; another marvel now presents itself for
accomplishment. Political risk is sometimes apprehended
when the British Government undertakes to perform duties
which it seems to owe to the people of India. In cases where
the duty is clear, some risk must be borne; and on the whole
the Government is so strong that it can afford to be trustful in
its attitude towards the natives, and may believe that what is
just and generous will seldom fail to be safe politically.
( 131 )
CHAPTER VII.
RELIGIOUS MISSIONS IN THE EAST.
Futility of objections raised against missions-Satisfactory statistics of
mission work—Good character of native Christians - High repute of the
missionaries — Large results already attained-The battle with ancient
systems — Converts from all classes - Effects of national education
The elevation of Indian women.
-
PART I.
"How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and
bring glad tidings of good things."
[Speech delivered before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts, at Lincoln, November 1881.]
I AM much obliged by the kind terms in which your Chairman,
the Lord Bishop of Lincoln,* has introduced me to this meeting.
Although I am speaking on behalf of the Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel, yet I would apply my remarks to the
Protestant Missions to India in their entirety. The Society
deservedly holds a high place in India as in many other regions
in all the four quarters of the world. There are, happily, sister
societies belonging to the Church of England. There are also
societies belonging to the several Protestant denominations,
which zealously preach the Gospel to the heathen.
I have been informed that there are certain objections,
originating, apparently, from ladies and gentlemen recently
arrived from India, which have a damping effect and a chilling
influence upon the hearts and efforts of those in England who
are labouring to obtain substantial support for the missions, and
* Bishop Christopher Wordsworth.
K 2
132
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
are advocating the sacred cause. I am not altogether surprised
at hearing these objections here in Lincoln, because in May last
I heard very similar objections mentioned in another part of
England.
I have therefore reduced the objections, which I understand
to be floating about this part of England (Lincolnshire), to
writing, and they are as follow:-First, in general terms
missions are failures; secondly the missionaries make no
converts; thirdly, the converts that are made come from the
humblest class, intellectually and socially; fourthly, among the
converts many become Christians for the sake of making a
livelihood thereby; fifthly, native Christians are not morally
better than the heathen, but, on the contrary, worse; sixthly,
the missionaries live easy lives and do not exert themselves as
much as they might; seventhly, many of the missionaries are
deficient in the culture necessary for the performance of their
duties; eighthly, missionary reports transmitted to England
present over-coloured and misleading views of success in work;
ninthly, labour in England for support of missions abroad is not
practical, but is little more than romance, whereby good people
amuse themselves; tenthly, the delay in attaining missionary
success has been so long protracted that people can hardly
exert themselves on this account, with so many pressing calls
at home.
These objections I have collected and tied together, as it were
like a faggot, and if you will bear with me for a few moments I
will untie the faggot and dispose of it stick by stick.
The first objection, then, is that missions are failures. I will
ask you to consider in what does failure or success consist.
What would you consider to be a successful result? What is
the actual result? Why, that at this moment there are 390,000
native Christians in India, of whom 100,000 are communicants.
Besides these there are 200,000 boys and girls at school, who,
though not all of them Christians, are entrusted by heathen
parents to the missionaries, and are receiving Christian instruc-
CHAP. VII. WITNESSES FOR CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.
133
tion. Out of these no less than 40,000 are girls. So that, with
converts and scholars, there are 590,000 persons, or, in round
numbers, 600,000 altogether. Upon these, what with mission
funds and educational grants from the State, there are being
spent 400,000l. a year. That gives an average of less than 15s.
per head, and I venture to say no Government or State Depart-
ment could do so grand a work at a cheaper cost.
Statistics, you will remember, are furnished by missionaries,
and the objectors may not altogether accept missionary figures.
My figures, however, are taken not only from the missionary re-
ports, but are verified from the official reports of the Government
of India, and are particularly confirmed by the returns of the
census which is periodically taken in India. Besides that, the
statistics of the scholars are attested by the fact that all the
mission schools are receiving grants in aid which necessitate
the schools being inspected, the scholars numbered, and their
attendances tested by Government inspectors. But besides the
general report of the Government we have the testimony of
witnesses of the very highest consequence and quality, statesmen
whose utterances upon all other subjects are generally listened
to by their countrymen, received by their Sovereign, and
accepted by Parliament; statesmen whose proceedings in all
other departments are received with confidence.
Such men are my witnesses, whose honoured words I am
prepared to produce this evening, if only time permitted. But
the great results of mission work are matters of general
notoriety; the half-million of people constitute a fact which
cannot possibly be overlooked, and regarding which there is no
room nor ground for being mistaken. You may ask any
European magistrate, or any tax-gatherer, every traveller, every
European merchant, or any one who is engaged in industrial
enterprise in that quarter. Really the fact of the greatness
of the result of missions is as well attested as the fact that
Lincoln Cathedral stands upon the neighbouring hill.
The second objection is that missionaries make no converts.
134
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Well, now I suppose that objection comes from the circum-
stance that the missionaries are largely engaged in educational
work, which work concerns natives who are not necessarily
Christian. How stand the facts about converts? Let me remind
you that those figures of 390,000 have been gradually rising.
In 1850 there were 92,000, in 1860 138,000, in 1870 230,000,
and now there are 390,000, so you see that in those thirty years
there has been a vast increase. How has that result been
brought about unless the missionaries have made converts ?
The facts that I have mentioned cannot be gainsaid, for they
are derived from official reports. There is no doubt some natural
increase of the native Christian population, as happily that
population has existed for two or more generations; still it
cannot have been so prolific as to have produced all this
increase, which must be in a great part due to accessions from
without by conversion.
The third objection is that the converts that are made come
from the humblest class, intellectually and socially. I must
say that this is not a very Christian objection, because we have
divine authority for specially attending to this class, and one of
the distinguishing marks of our religion is that it has to be
preached to the poor, the degraded, and the miserable. But let
us take the objection as it stands. You must bear in mind
that in India the high-class people are to the lower class as one
to ten. In other words, out of every ten in the population
nine would be of the lower class and but one of the high; there-
fore if Christians were equally divided over the population we
should expect to find nine men of the lower classes to one man
of the high.
Now, inasmuch as when natives become Christians they no
longer keep any record of their caste, I cannot tell you how
many native Christians were originally high or low caste, but
I can affirm, as a notorious fact, that a considerable proportion
of the most influential among the native Christians have been
high-caste men. You may look on the roll of all the native
CHAP. VII. DISTINGUISHED NATIVE CONVERTS.
135
Christians who have done good work and you will find that the
greater portion of them were originally high-caste men. If I
were to give you a list of men, natives, who have done honour to
the Christian profession, the list would be so long that I should
keep you all the evening while reading it. I may remind you
of the fortunate fact that in India out of 200 million British
subjects (exclusive of native states) 18 millions are of abori-
ginal races, and 9 millions of no caste at all. Thus 27 (18+9)
millions are beyond the pale of the principal Oriental religions,
and their minds present a tabula rasa on which Christianity may
work. Accordingly in India there are no less than 27 millions of
people whose destiny the Christian missionaries may carve out
for this life and the life to come. But it is not a fact that the
high-caste people have been behindhand. On the contrary, of
all the native Christians, the men who have borne the utmost
persecution and have sustained all the moral anguish and
torture that could be inflicted, are the high-caste men; and the
natives who have helped to uphold Christianity in India have
been for the most part men of that class.
Besides this, you have doubtless heard that the most
intellectual class of natives in India are those who belong to
the Brahmo sect, and many of them are almost persuaded to be
Christians. Some of their ministers actually preach sermons
from texts taken from the Bible, and they have declared that
the British Government may be the secular ruler of England,
but the supreme ruler is no less than Christ the Lord. These
are extraordinary expressions to be used by men who do not
actually profess the Christian religion, but at all events they
show that men of high education, high caste, and high social
position in India, have at least a regard for Christian principle.
The fourth objection is that among the converts many
become Christians for the sake of making a livelihood thereby.
You will kindly bear in mind that all the principal missionaries
in India are Europeans-necessarily so, and that being the case
most of the good salaries, the loaves and fishes that might be in
136
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the missionary service, necessarily go to our own countrymen
and not to the native Christians at all.
Still there are 4500 natives in the service of the missions;
and the converts, taken altogether, number about 400,000. So
out of 400,000 Christians, the number employed is only
4500, or just one in ninety. But say the 400,000 includes the
families, divide it by half and take the males only, 200,000,
and divide by 4500. You will find that it gives them about one
in 45, or that out of every 45 males who are native Christians
in India one receives service under the missionaries and 44 do
not. Where, then, is the strong temptation for the natives to
embrace Christianity for the sake of earning a livelihood? The
Government itself scrupulously abstains from offering service
to Christians because they are Christians, and there is nothing
to be gained in that way by adopting Christianity. Therefore
you will see the worthlessness of this objection also.
The fifth objection is that native Christians are not morally
better than heathens, but, on the contrary, worse. I am afraid
that idea comes from reports that are spread about sometimes
by ladies and gentlemen returning from India regarding the
conduct of natives who have been domestic servants. Conceive
the idea of judging a great community, numbering hundreds of
thousands, by the isolated conduct of some domestic servant!
Why, English servants are largely in service on the Continent,
and suppose a Russian, because he was disappointed with one or
two of his English servants, were to say that the English were a
worthless nation. Yet that is the way in which you are asked
to judge of native Indian Christianity. But as a matter of fact
there are very few native Christians employed in the service of
Europeans. For if an English master has a native Christian
servant, while all the other servants are heathen, you can
readily believe that the latter would make the place too hot for
him. But I will suggest to you a better way of considering
this question. The conduct of native Christians should be
observed in their homes, in their villages extending over whole
CHAP. VII. CHARACTER OF NATIVE CHRISTIANS.
137
tracts of country. Thus viewed in the mass, they are found to
be good and respectable people. The civil authorities may be
appealed to for confirmation of this. Scandals there have been
upon the name of Christianity, but these have seldom or never
come from the native Christians. They never apostatise, and
never relapse into heathen practices. They maintain the faith
from generation to generation, and are regular in having their
children baptized. They attend church and holy communion,
and now have begun to support the native ministry and general
organisation of the native Church. Although they are poor
people as a rule, nevertheless their subscriptions amounted, for
the organisation of their Church, to 10,000l. a year some time
ago, and now to no less than 20,000l. annually. I am sure the
objection does not come from those who have any real know-
ledge of what goes on in native society, especially of the
proceedings which are too common in the precincts of native
temples or places of public worship. Although the theory of
the religion of the natives may be in some respects pure,
nevertheless there is much in their semi-religious practices
which could scarcely be mentioned in public. Take all these
things, and ask yourselves whether you have so little con-
fidence in the efficacy of Christian morality, as taught from
English mouths and English books, as to suppose that it could
fail to benefit those minds which have been originally nurtured
under such heathen influences as those which I have just
mentioned...
The next objection is that the missionaries lead easy lives,
and do not exert themselves as much as they might. Now, pray
consider what is the work of the missionaries. We have but
500 European missionaries in India, but we have no fewer than
493 mission stations; a mission station meaning, generally,
a cluster of native Christian parishes, so you will see that there
is little more than one man to each mission station. Then you
should look at the number of scholars in the schools-200,000
boys and girls. That will give one missionary to every forty
138
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
scholars, even supposing that they were all employed in
education, but you know that they are not. You know that
in all the various parishes into which the native Christian popu-
lation is divided, the missionaries have all the ordinary parochial
work—also the work of evangelisation and preaching in the
highways. This is in public, and there is no possibility of
mistake as to the fact of the work going on. Then there is
the preparation of young men for the University examina-
tions (at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay), regarding the reality
of which there is no doubt.
Besides this, consider the work the missionaries have done
in writing and translating the Scriptures into twenty vernacular
languages. You may remember also that in times of public
danger, in seasons of famine and distress, the missionaries have
always been to the front with their services. Indeed, fault has
actually been found with them for interfering too zealously on
behalf of their flocks in secular affairs. It shows that they have
not led easy lives when they are actually charged by their
opponents with undue activity.
Amongst missionaries of the past there have been some who
were illustrious British men in the highest sense. The present
missionaries may or may not be thought to possess equal
genius- as genius is a quality not to be reckoned upon with
certainty. But is it likely, do you think, that the missionary
of the future will be inferior to missionaries of the past, con-
sidering that the missionary body of the present is better
educated technically and more completely organised? There is
the College of St. Augustine's at Canterbury, and the Church
Missionary Society has a training institution at Islington. You
should therefore consider whether there is likely to be any
failure in the supply of missionaries for the future. Our
Society, the S.P.G., has now such names as Kay, Skelton,
Winter, and Crowfoot, who was once at Delhi; and you may
be glad to think of the name of Logsdail, son of one of your
most meritorious citizens, who has just gone out to India, where
CHAP. VII.
PREPARATION OF MISSIONARIES.
139
I am sure that he will bring fresh credit to the name of
Lincoln. Last, and greatest of all, I may mention Caldwell,
the Bishop, who is now in failing health, and the most
cheering message that you could send to him is the assurance
that you appreciate his efforts, and that you regard as baseless
everything that is said against missionary enterprise. Alfred
Cane may also be mentioned, who rendered good service during
the war in Afghanistan.
The next objection is that many of the missionaries are
deficient in the culture necessary for the performance of their
duties. I presume that this objection means that there are
two classes of missionaries; one for practical and parochial
work, and the other for controversial work among the highly
educated natives. Now those are two distinct branches of
duty. The first branch does not require a peculiar degree of
culture. It is necessary that there should be practical zeal
and energy, with a capacity for managing a vast amount of
trivial business, business which becomes difficult because of
its quantity. Now for that sort of work you may readily
understand that we require missionaries of one stamp. But for
arguing, and reasoning, and philosophising, highly cultured
missionaries are required-missionaries of another stamp, such
as some of those whose names have been already mentioned,
and the younger men who are furnished by Cambridge to our
Society's old Mission at Delhi, or by the Oxford mission to Cal-
cutta. Thus you will readily see it is not the fact that any of
the missionaries are unsuited to the duties which they have to
perform. Those who are required for parish work receive proper
training, and those who require higher culture obtain it at
institutions like those just mentioned, and in connection
with Oxford and Cambridge.
The eighth objection is that missionary reports transmitted
to England present over-coloured and misleading views of suc-
cess in work. It may be that those reports abound too much
in anecdotes, which however illustrative do not afford proof,
140
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
any more than two or three swallows make a summer. But the
real, perhaps the only, fault of the missionary reports is that they
generally fail to give an adequate idea of the magnitude of the
work, and do not take quite so comprehensive a survey of the
facts and figures as they might. You will see then that the
reports are thus in some respects actually under-coloured.
The ninth objection is that labour in England for the support
of missions abroad is not practical, but is little more than a
romance, whereby good people amuse themselves.
For one
instant let me remind you of the result deducible from the facts
which I will venture to marshal out for your consideration.
The romance, if it be a romance, consists greatly, I might say
sublimely, of the following array of figures. We have 400,000l.
of annual expenditure, 432 mission stations, 500 European
missionaries, and 3 missionary bishops, 4500 native assistants,
300 native ordained clergy, 85 training schools, and 4 normal
institutions, from which are turned out 3000 students annually.
We raise 20,000l. a year from poor native Christians. We have
24 mission presses, from which there issue three-quarters of
a million of religious books annually, which are sold to the
native public for a sum of 38001. a year. We have 400,000
native Christians, and 200,000 boys and girls at school, of whom
1700 have at different times entered the universities established
by law in India, and of whom again 700 have passed on to the
taking of degrees. There are 40,000 girls at school and 1300
classes for the Zenana Missions in the apartments of the native
ladies, and those classes are attended by 3000 lady students. I
feel in giving those figures as if I were reading the record of
some great State Department, and not of private enterprise such
as this really is. I will say that it is truly honourable to British
people and to the zeal of the Protestant Church. You must
remember that it is a work which, if not done by our societies,
cannot be done at all. It is a work from which Government are
bound to abstain. I have always felt in India that the Govern-
ment which I served might be able to make war with energy or
་
•
CHAP. VII.
ACTUAL SUCCESS OF MISSIONS.
141
conclude "peace with honour," or they might cover the country
with a network of railways and canals, foster a world-wide
commerce, spread industry and enterprise over the land, pre-
serve order, dispense justice, diffuse secular education, and
give ethical instruction; but with all those things there is one
thing which the Government cannot give, and that is the light
of Christian religion and morality. That sacred lamp it is for
us to light and to carry aloft in distant regions. Believe me it
is no romance, but is a stern and magnificent reality, one of
which the English nation may be proud. If Englishmen do
not appreciate this, other nations will. The Roman Catholics
will admit that its magnitude equals the medieval successes
of Xavier and others. The Germans will point to the many
men of their nation who have served with the British missions.
The Americans will claim a share in the credit, as they also
have sent Protestant missions to India.
Then comes the tenth and last objection, which is that the
delay in attaining missionary success has been so long pro-
tracted that people can hardly exert themselves on that account
with so many pressing calls at home. I have shown you that
success has already been vouchsafed. The Right Reverend
Chairman has eloquently alluded to the great missionary
Henry Martyn, a century ago. I wonder whether our fore-
fathers foresaw the greatness of the success which a hundred
years would produce. You will remember, too, that the result
has been attained by an increase of 50 per cent. in each decade
during the last thirty years, or one generation of man. If
a similar result goes on, and we prosper equally during the
generation upon which we are now entering, then the present
number of converts will have increased by the end of that gene-
ration from 400,000 to 1,350,000, and the scholars to 625,000,
total, 1,945,000, or, in round numbers, two millions. During
the coming generation the result is likely to be even greater,
because the work is now backed up, not only by European
energy and the zeal of the Protestant Church, but also by the
142
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
influence which education on the part of the State is producing
throughout the land and amongst all classes of the people.
Thus India is like a mighty bastion which is being battered by
heavy artillery. We have given blow after blow, and thud
after thud, and the effect is not at first very remarkable; but at
last with a crash the mighty structure will come toppling down,
and it is our hope that some day the heathen religions of India
will in like manner succumb.
To conclude, I told you at the outset that I would take the
bundle or faggot of objections stick by stick, and it is for you
to judge whether I have succeeded in breaking each of those
sticks in detail.
Those objections, you will have seen, crumble to the touch
of fact, and wither in the sunlight of criticism. Now you see
how futile such objections are, amounting to nothing more than
excuses for indifference and arguments for the old object of how
not to do it. The reverend gentlemen around me who are
leaders of public opinion in respect to missions, may believe me,
that we are not fighting an uphill battle. If it were an uphill
battle, we would still no doubt fight it, because we believe in
the ultimate fulfilment of our Divine Master's promise. Still
our hearts are but human, and therefore we must be depressed
if we really were to think that we were labouring without hope.
of any present success. But we are not chasing a shadow, we
are not rolling a Sisyphean stone, we are not ascending an inac-
cessible hill; or, if we are going up hill, it is that sort of
ascent which soon leads to a summit, from which we shall
survey the promised land. And when we reach the top what
prospect shall we see? We shall see churches in India
raising up their spires towards heaven, Christian villages ex-
tending over whole tracts of country, churches crowded with
dusky congregations and dusky communicants at the altar
tables. We shall hear the native girls singing hymns in the
vernacular, and see boys trooping to school or studying for
the universities under missionary auspices. Those things, and
<
CHAP. VII.
THE AMERICAN MISSIONS.
143
many others, I have seen, and would to God I could fix them
on the minds of my audience as they are fixed upon my own.
But at all events I feel that by answering these objections I
have brought out the whole missionary case, according to my
view of it, and I have stated all the best arguments that have
occurred to me on behalf of missions. Therefore, I trust that I
have performed my task in a manner which will be acceptable
to you as labourers in the vineyard of Christ, and which may
do some little good towards the help of that great Missionary
Society on whose behalf I have the honour and pleasure to
appear before this meeting.
PART II.
[Speech delivered before the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presby-
terian Church in the United States, at New York, November 1882.]
I TAKE pleasure in meeting your Missionary Board on this
occasion, and in giving my testimony to the value of Christian
missions in India.
And in what I have to say I would speak of Protestant
missions in their totality. While we trust that the Church of
England will be found to have taken her full share in the
missionary operations, yet we fully appreciate the great work
done by the Presbyterian Church, and especially by the Free
Church of Scotland, which I regard as having done as much, in
proportion to its numbers and resources, for the cause of missions
in India as any community in Christendom. We regard with
gratitude and respect the assistance obtained through the piety
and generosity of the several Protestant churches of America.
Certainly the American missions of all denominations in India
are working thoroughly well. That I can testify, having seen
them. At the same time I would give full credit to the Roman
144
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Catholic missionaries in India, who certainly are earnest la-
bourers, and have devoted themselves to the heathen. Indeed,
they show their best side when labouring as missionaries in
India. I would not desire to disparage them, and yet even they
cannot keep pace with Protestant missions so far as the result
can be gauged by statistics. I apply my remarks then to Pro-
testant missions in their integrity, their totality, in which the
Presbyterian Church, on both sides of the Atlantic, has borne
a prominent share.
In the first place I would allude to the disparaging reports
often made by travellers with regard to the missionary work in
India, which reports are but too current in England, and have, I
am sorry to hear, found their way to America. Some gentlemen,
and ladies too, returning from India after travelling or residing
in the country, deride the results of missions. Now, statements
like these are made either by persons who never took the trouble
to obtain information, perhaps never enjoyed the opportunity of
obtaining it, or by those who have no interest in religion, and
no care for religious work. You well understand how difficult
it would be for a person passing through your great city (New
York) to form a just estimate of its various institutions of
charity and public beneficence. How imperfect is the know-
ledge of one just residing only for a time in city or country!
How much more does this hold good of the observations by
European travellers or temporary residents in a country so vast
as India. The work of missions does not strike the casual
observer. You have to inquire and investigate, not only at the
great centres, but in the interior of the country. You must not
suppose that because a lady or gentleman has happened to reside
or travel in India, he or she must necessarily know all about the
missionary work going on in that land.
Those who undervalue missions will belong to one or other of
two categories, either persons who do not care for religion, or
persons who, while caring for religion, are not experienced in
the interior in India. On the other hand, those who have
1
CHAP. VII.
PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.
145
examined the work are those who give a favourable testimony.
The favourable witnesses are not mere casual or superficial
observers, but men of the highest character, statesmen, civilians,
politicians, and soldiers, men on whose judgment their govern-
ment and the civilised world depend with confidence on other
subjects, and whose opinion may be safely trusted on this great
subject of missions.
The evidence depends, moreover, not on mere personal state-
ments and impressions, but on statistics and facts, liable to be
checked by witnesses with local knowledge, and subject to veri-
fication in many collateral respects by official men who are not
likely to deceive themselves.
In the next place objectors are fond of saying, What after all
is the actual success of missions? Have they done anything
in India? The answer to this must come from well-verified
figures and facts. No argument is so potent on this subject
as that drawn from the official documents. I have not my
papers and figures with me, while travelling in America, but I
could give you an array of facts of which all Christendom would
be proud.* They sound like the statistics of some great govern-
mental undertaking, but they really constitute the result of
private enterprise undertaken in the most sacred of causes. The
fear is not that we shall be discouraged by the small result
already attained, but that the result is becoming so great, and
increasing with such rapid growth as might be well styled, in
view of the rapid development of your great country, an
American growth, that it may ere long so grow on your hands
that you cannot cope with it. It is now advancing fifty per
cent. every ten years during the generation (thirty years) ending
with the year 1880. If it goes on at that rate, during the pre-
sent generation there will be by the year 1910 about 2,000,000
of native Christians on your hands, and any organisation you
can make with European agency will be inadequate to deal with
them. Your only hope will be in organising a native church.
* See figures given in pp. 132, 140, and 141.
L
146
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
.
And this work is already receiving due consideration. Natives
of acknowledged ability and piety are entering the Christian
ministry, and the Government have already had to sanction, in
conjunction with the English missionary societies, three addi-
tional bishops to examine and ordain the native ministers and
deacons. There are now in India three hundred native ministers
with five hundred European missionaries, and we hope that ere
long the natives will outnumber the foreign missionaries.
But for a long time to come the prime movers in these
operations must continue to be European. And we hope that a
great Christian, and if we may use the term, ecclesiastical army
will be raised, the rank and file consisting of natives, while the
captains and generals are highly qualified Europeans.
Again, you are, I am informed, sometimes asked by objectors,
Is there any chance for Christianity to make headway against
these antiquated systems of false religion?
With regard to Buddhism, that religion is not extensively
prevalent in India, but it is met with in the mountainous
regions of the eastern Himalayas. In its inception it was lofty
and pure.
But however excellent and attractive the poetic
accounts of Buddhism, as given in the well-known poem, 'The
Light of Asia,' the actual Buddhism of India (Himalayan) and
Tibet is as degraded and degrading as can well be imagined.
It is liberal toward other faiths, but when you have said that,
you have exhausted the catalogue of its merits.
It is very
picturesque to the fancy in its ceremonial rites, but is far
otherwise in doctrine and discipline.
Then, as to Muhammadanism, it is a much more formidable
adversary. Yet converts have been made from among the
Muhammadans, and these converts are among the best yet made
in India. Muhammadanism presents us a nut which is hard to
crack, having had the advantage of Christianity in coming after
it, and having borrowed many of its teachings. The Muhamma-
dans say willingly that they revere "the Book" as they style the
Bible. They have the idea of God, of one God. No uninspired
i
CHAP. VII. BUDDHISM MUHAMMADANISM AND HINDUISM. 147
book has so fully formulated the attributes of Deity as the
Muhammadan writings in the Arabic language, and that is
perhaps the most elaborately constructed language ever known.
Many noble and impressive dicta, also, may be culled from their
sacred books.
Yet as a religion Muhammadanism establishes a narrow
exclusive character. It withers human character as with a
blight, warps all the feelings and sentiments, crystalises every-
thing which it touches, and rivets all customs and opinions in
a groove. Though it inculcates the duty of almsgiving, it is in
several respects uncharitable. It is utterly intolerant. Any-
thing more sanguinary than the fanaticism, cherished by some
of its members, cannot be imagined. Benevolence towards
those who differ from us, love to our neighbour, and charity in
the Christian sense of that most noble term, are wholly alien to
the Muhammadan religion. I know the Muhammadans well,
from long and familiar acquaintance, and desire to do justice to
their many virtues. But their peculiar character convinces me
of the necessity for giving them the freedom of Christianity.
Then as to Hinduism. The Hindus number one hundred
and fifty millions of souls, about two-thirds of the population of
India.
Do not suppose because you hear and read of the pristine
purity of the early Vedic faith that this is the Hinduism of the
nineteenth century. The Hindus who strive in our day to
purify their faith are thinking themselves out of Hinduism.
Though the educated classes are soaring toward the light, yet
the masses of the people to-day are as devoted to a corrupt
religion as in the darkest ages of the East. I cannot give you
an exact idea of the vicious orgies which occur constantly in
the Hindu temples. There is a considerable amount of im-
morality, which is practically the outcome of the religion;
though, on the other hand, there are many domestic virtues
practised by the people, showing how much of goodness
would be produced, if the religion were purer. The practical
L 2
148
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
instruction given by Hinduism to the young is defective. The
ideas of truth and honour are not always inculcated. The parent
in training a child does not say, Never tell an untruth, but
rather says, in effect, Do the best you can in the circum-
stances, thus teaching expediency, not morality. When con-
templating the Hindus you recall the absurdity of their
superstitions, and the immorality of many among their practices,
you will see the need of carrying on missionary work in India.
I have heard in England and even in this country (America),
that many think there is not much need for Christianity in
India, and even if there were need, that there is no chance for its
success. There is the need as seen by the character of the three
great religions of the land, and that there is a chance of success
is abundantly proved by statistics of the work already done.
Again I have been asked what is really the character of your
missionaries in India. I have heard at times, on the other side of
the Atlantic as well as here, the remark that the missionaries of
our day are far from being of the apostolic type, that they go to
distant regions only to earn a living and draw salaries without
zeal for doing good, and with little hope of accomplishing any-
thing. Now all these insinuations are incorrect. They are the
careless and thoughtless remarks of men who do not know
the qualifications and idiosyncrasies of the missionaries now
becoming an extensive body of men. I have, during my life in
India, been the local governor of 105,000,000 of people in
different provinces. Many hundreds of Europeans have served
under me, and I ought to know something of the value and
the character of men. I have also been acquainted with the
missionary stations throughont the length and breadth of the
country. I believe that a more talented, zealous, and able body of
men than the missionaries does not exist in India. In a country
abounding in talent and learning they fully hold their own.
But it is said, The present missionaries are not equal to
those of former years. Now, is it likely that the present and
future missionaries will be less able than the past, when they
CHAP. VII. SEVERAL CLASSES OF MISSIONARIES.
149
profit by all the experience of that past, and besides have
professional and technical instruction to give them especial
preparation for their work, thus possessing advantages which
their earliest predecessors never enjoyed? In England we have
excellent missionary training schools at Islington, and at St.
Augustine, under the very shadow of Canterbury Cathedral, and
at other places. Of course genius is not to be evoked by
examinations, and whether some of the historic originators of
the missionary work will, as individuals, be equalled by their
successors, we cannot say. But, with the means of preparation
now in use, I can promise confidently that the average mis-
sionary in the future will be equal to if not better than the past.
I have seen the missionaries in every province, from Cape
Comorin to the Himalayas, and I know their high character. I
do not say that there are no failures; but the percentage of
failures is as small as in any other department of the public
service.
Pray remember that you want two kinds of missionaries. In
the first place, you need practical "parish priests," to do the
work of visiting and directing several thousands of simple-minded
people, namely, native Christian peasants-missionaries always
prompt, thoughtful, patient, able to despatch details rapidly, and
all this in a work not requiring the highest intellectual exercise.
A man highly qualified intellectually might not succeed in this
labour. Next, you need men of another kind thoroughly versed
not only in the religion, but also in the literature, philosophy,
and poetry of India, to enter into the subtle fallacies and
twistings of Oriental reasoning, and also versed in religious
dialectics and trained in Christian theology.
Just as in an army there must be men of all arms, cavalry,
infantry, and artillery, so here in this Christian warfare, we need
men of varied gifts and culture. In the country which you
kindly call "the mother land" there are the Oxford Mission to
Calcutta and the Cambridge Mission to Delhi, which are orga-
nised to train missionaries of this higher kind. These efforts
150
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
!
are specially connected with the two ancient Universities of
England.
Inquiry is naturally made regarding the character of native
converts. It is often carelessly said that they are no better
after than before their conversion. These taunts may have
come from some lady or gentleman who at some time has been
deceived by a native Christian in the capacity of a domestic
servant or a camp follower. But the native converts in India
must not, as a whole, be judged by the casual misconduct of
individuals. Those who attempt to apply such a test should
remember that the efficacy of Christianity even among our-
selves would be discredited by the application of so unreasonable
a standard. The native Christians are no longer obscure and
unknown, scattered here and there like “Rari nantes in gurgite
vasto," but they are numbered by tens of thousands, and occupy
whole tracts and districts of country. You should see them in
their rural homes, but such a visitation takes time and trouble,
and is seldom undertaken by those who disparage missions.
You would then find these Christian communities remarkably
well conducted. I do not claim for them any unusual display
of Christian graces, but they behave as well on the average as
Christians in any land. If you appeal to the magistrates in
India, they will give the native Christians everywhere a good
character. These Christians are obedient to their religious
guides; attend faithfully the ordinances of religion, the services
of the Church, the Holy Communion and Confirmation; and send
their children to school during the week, and to the Sunday-
school on the Sabbath. It would be well, if all of us white
Christians contributed as much relatively as the native Christians
do for the support of the Gospel, and of their religious insti-
tutions. In their villages you see the rustic chapels and the little
schools which they have reared by their own contributions.
Again, they have never scandalised their Christianity nor
put their religion to open shame. We must admit that India,
like other countries, has had scandals reflecting unfavourably on
CHAP. VII.
CONDUCT OF THE CONVERTS.
151
Christianity. But unhappily these scandals which have been
brought on the faith have been chiefly from white men calling
themselves Christians. We trust that the native Christians
will judge of our religion by the admirable conduct of the good
white Christians who abound in India as in other lands. We
do not hear of apostates among the native Christians. When
the Sepoy revolt with the consequent war spread over the land,
and many were tempted to apostatise, were threatened, and
exposed to danger, yet they stood firm to their faith, and there
was no noteworthy instance of apostasy whatever.
You sometimes hear that the Christians in India have become
so for pecuniary gain. They have been called "rice Christians,"
as if they became Christians in order to be fed with rice. They
are rice Christians no doubt, but in a different sense from what
the term was intended to convey. Truly, they are rice Christians,
because they work industriously and produce the finest rice crops
for themselves! They are largely of the peasant class, peasant
proprietors who cultivate the land they own and hand it down
to their children. They are by nature attached to everything
ancestral; and those whose families have been Christian for
more than one generation, begin to feel an hereditary attachment
to Christianity. Everything hereditary is by them stedfastly
cherished. I have often heard the native Christians speak
affectionately of the missionaries who first instructed their
fathers in the Christian faith.
Again, it is said that the Christian converts are only the
humble classes. "Show us one of the higher class!" I accept
that challenge. Let us go through the list of the native ministry
and we shall find that most of the able preachers, who have
done the best in vindicating Christianity, have been of the
high caste.
Yet we should remember that the mass of the people belong
to the humbler castes, and that the majority of the Christians
must be of the lower caste if Christianity be diffused as it ought
to be among all castes equably. The humblest people are, after
152
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
all, the most needy and most appeal to our Christian sympathies.
We believe that their souls are as valuable as ours, and we
should gladly labour for their salvation.
Then there is a body of men in India who belong to nó caste
at all. They are regarded by all others as out of caste. They
are the aborigines and the Pariahs. They number, according
to the census, twenty-three millions of souls, and it may be
encouraging to recollect that while in a large part of India you
encounter caste, priestcraft, and bigoted hostility, yet among
these you have a clean surface on which to write; hearts
unsullied by guile and superstition, on which you may inscribe
the doctrines of eternal truth. Here, then, you have a field in
which may be won an encouraging success.
Believing in the inviolability of the Divine command to
preach the Gospel to every creature," you would doubtless
persevere even in the absence of present success, trusting in the
ultimate fulfilment of the Scriptural promises. Yet we cannot
but feel our energies stimulated if we see success attending our
labours. Now you have in India a sure success before you,
which will be certainly augmented in proportion to the labours
put forth, and to the resources brought into play.
It will occur to you to ask what effect is the system of
public instruction to have on the temper and disposition of the
Indian people? You will be told it is producing disloyalty,
discontent, and irreligion, taking away from the people the
religion of their forefathers, and giving them nothing in return.
As to loyalty or disloyalty, England will do her duty with-
out fear. I believe education will produce loyalty. But, be the
political consequence what it may, we must be just and fear not,
and give India the education in those arts and sciences which
have made England herself what she is. Even if a certain sort
of disloyalty were to be the consequence, we must persevere, for
we could not consent to keep the people ignorant in order to
keep them loyal.
As regards religion, the Government has to be very careful
CHAP. VII.
FEMALE EDUCATION.
153
not to mix religion with the State education. But we give the
same educational grants of State aid to the schools of all com-
munities alike, and the missionaries come in for their share, the
pecuniary assistance being given on the well-known system of
payment by results." Thus indirectly the missionaries obtain
a modicum of public aid which they win in open competition.
Irreligion might be the consequence of the secular teaching
under the State, but the contrary is the case.
The highly-
educated Hindoos almost invariably break away from their
heathen religion. I do not say this is true of Muhammadans,
but the Hindus on receiving western education do, with scarcely
any exception, cease to believe in the ancestral faith. They
do not, however, become atheists or materialists. They rather
become theists, believing in the immortality of the soul and
in human accountability to a supreme judge for deeds done in
this life. If you look at the sermons of the Hindu religious
reformers, styling themselves the Brahmo Somaj, and the ad-
dresses of welcome lately given by them to the missionaries of
the Oxford Mission to Calcutta, you can judge whether they are
not on the high road to Christianity. Then if you can send out
missionaries intellectually able to cope with these men, a rich
harvest may be reaped.
I must now say a few words regarding female education; the
importance of this is acknowledged by the British Government
in India. We encourage the opening of female schools in every
direction. Formerly females were kept in degradation and
seclusion, yet there have been manifold instances of female
heroism and genius in Indian history. Even to this day,
widows would be quite ready to burn themselves on the funeral
pyres of their husbands, were they not prevented by the strong
hand of the British Government. They certainly are not
lacking in what we call grit of character. Hence we may infer
that a great future is in store for the women of India, when
properly educated. Both the high and the humble are anxious
to go to school. But the daughters of the rich and noble do not
•
154
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
attend school, as they cannot break the bar of public opinion
which prevents girls of more than eleven or twelve years from ap-
pearing in public. Hence you must teach them in their homes,
in the Zenanas or female apartments. For this reason, European
ladies of special training are becoming teachers in the house-
holds of the wealthy and the great. I suggest to you that
American gentlemen cannot do better than advise some of the
young ladies now being educated in the ladies' colleges and the
normal institutions of the United States, to go out as teachers
to the daughters of the great Indian houses, and so carry
western enlightenment into recesses heretofore secluded from
the light. Female education is already advancing in India. I
know hundreds of educated natives whose grandmothers could
not read at all, whose mothers could read but slightly, and
whose wives can read and write imperfectly. But their daugh-
ters are being brought up with an education conducted upon the
western models.
In conclusion, then, gentlemen, the result thus far in India
is relatively inconsiderable, though absolutely it may be large.
But the smallness of its proportion arises from the vastness of
the country and the immense population, a consideration likely
to be fully appreciated by Americans.
Still there is every
ground for encouragement. A shining goal invites your Christian
efforts. Such efforts are not indeed put forth with a view to
political effect. Still, as a matter of fact, the political effect of
the Christian missions in India is excellent. The spectacle of
private enterprise undertaken in this disinterested manner, does
not render the natives jealous, but rather edifies them. The
natives are but too apt to imagine that British policy is
governed by political ambition or national aggrandisement.
Let them see in our missions something higher and nobler,
a benevolence disinterested and pure, a sunny spot with no
shadows or earth-born cloud to rest upon it.
The result of missions thus far is nationally and politically
good. We Englishmen feel our responsibility. We thankfully
CHAP. VII. PRESBYTERIAN AND BAPTIST MISSIONS.
155
acknowledge the aid sent from the religious world in the United
States with a truly disinterested liberality, and we cordially
welcome the co-operation of our American kinsmen in this
noble work.
PART III.
[Speech delivered before the Baptist Missionary Society, in London,
April 1883.]
I HAVE felt it my peculiar duty to be present on this occasion
because, as Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, I have been specially
acquainted with the Baptist missions in that province. The
names of Carey, and Ward, and Marshman, which you read
about, are to me living memories, and not only to me, but to
thousands of my fellow-countrymen in the East, and what is more,
to many millions of natives. These are memories of men who
were the pioneers of civilisation and of humane refinement, the
earliest propagators of Christian literature amongst the heathen.
The results, indeed, of their work are to be counted among the
peaceful glories of England and a portion of that national heri-
tage which is splendid in the highest sense of the term. Again,
the Serampore College, which you see mentioned in the earlier
publications of the Society, and in the later reports of this
session, is to me a familiar sight-a place where I have distri-
buted prizes, and where I have addressed meetings, not so great
as this meeting, but still meetings inspired with equal enthu-
siasm. I have further thought it my duty to appear at the
meeting, because of all the Protestant denominations in the East
there is not one that, according to its means, its numbers, and
its opportunities, does more than the Baptist denomination. Of
all the Protestant denominations the Free Church of Scotland
is equalled by few and surpassed by none; but there is one by
•
156
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
which it is equalled, and that is the Baptist denomination. In
reference to your numbers and your wealth in this country, you,
the Baptists, must indeed be possessed with a real zeal for
religion-for consider not only your stations in Asia and in the
East, but also in every part of the world. Look at the map of
the world, and you will see your stations dotted from hemisphere
to hemisphere, from one quarter of the globe to another, with
little bright spots which are indeed the focuses of religious light.
This meeting, too, which is so influentially and so numerously
attended, is an earnest of the zeal which animates the com-
munity. I have seen many missionary meetings in all the
chief cities of the north and west of England held on behalf
of the Church of England and of other Protestant denomina-
tions, but nowhere have I seen a meeting which showed greater
signs of real earnestness than the meeting which I have now the
honour to address.
Now, India presents the greatest of all fields for missionary
exertion, greater even than China, for the reduction recently
made in Chinese population statistics shows that India may be
nearly equal to China as regards numbers of population. Then,
in respect to our moral responsibilities before God and man,
India is a country which of all others we are bound to enlighten
with eternal truth. It is a happy thing that in India all the
various Protestant denominations are acting together in brotherly
sympathy. All their little difficulties about church organisation
and the like are sunk before the heathen in the presence of the
sovereign truths of the Gospel, and, happily, we may say that
our spears are spiritual lances all pointed in one direction.
I have just returned from a pilgrimage in Palestine; and,
toiling laboriously, from sunrise to sunset, among the rocky
paths of that mountainous region, I have seen the very land-
scape upon which the Divine eyes of the Saviour gazed, the very
roads which His sacred feet trod, and the very rocks which
re-echoed His words of more than mortal eloquence. And I
ask you, my brother Christians, whether, of all the commands
CHAP. VII. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS.
157
which He issued to us, there is any command more explicit than
this, that we should preach the Gospel to all the world? If
you believe in the Bible, if you are resolved to obey its en-
nobling dictates, then I ask you whether you are not bound,
collectively and individually, to do your utmost to spread over
the world, into its very utmost regions and among its most
degraded tribes and classes, that light which emanated from
Palestine? Look round and see whether there are any of the
nations of the earth upon whom that responsibility more
obviously and manifestly rests than upon the people of the
United Kingdom. For we are proud of our empire, of our fleets,
mercantile and naval, which cover the seas. We not only ad-
minister, in India, a vast empire directly, but over the Chinese
empire we exercise almost commercial supremacy. We take
Asiatic Turkey under our protection; we have now spread our
benign sway over Egypt. We dispute with other Powers the
valley of the Congo and the island of Madagascar. We have
establishments on the Niger. We take the South African
tribes-the Zulus, Basutos, Kaffirs, the Bechuanas of the Trans-
vaal frontier—under our protection. We establish a new East
India Company, so to speak, in the Island of Borneo, and now
we discuss the prospect of taking over New Guinea. We are
extended over various islands in the Pacific Ocean. We foster
emigration from British India to the West Indian Islands and
to Guiana. We are carrying communications right across North
America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, which I have recently
visited. We do these various things. You will have your
own opinions, politically, as to whether all this is right or
wrong, but it is done; and I ask you, do you believe that the
Providence which permits us to do this, allows it merely
for our national, our temporal, our secular aggrandisement?
Can you believe it is permitted for any purpose but one-
namely, the ultimate spread of the enlightenment of truth?
And, as Christians, we believe that all ultimate truth must
consist in religious truth. I press this argument not for the
158
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
purpose of exciting imperial ideas in your mind, but merely for
the purpose of enforcing upon your consciences the religious
obligations under which you lie.
Remember, too, that while we do these things, no doubt partly
for our material benefit, or for the benefit, as we should say, of
our labouring classes in this country-while we seek new fields
for investment of capital, new markets for our manufactures,
new communications for our commerce-we also, I am thankful
to say, as a nation, remember that these imperial advantages
carry with them imperial obligations. For certainly, wherever
our influence extends, whether it be secured peacefully or in a
warlike manner, there is no doubt as to the ultimate result for
the good government and the worldly prosperity of the tribes
or nations that come under our charge. What is more, while
the Government does its part in these matters, the Christian
public never fails in doing its part-namely, in the spread of
the truth which the Government, owing to its political obli-
gations, is unable to diffuse. Therefore, looking abroad over
our foreign interests throughout the world, you also look upon
growing and increasing fields for our missionary exertions.
Remember that every island, every valley, every continent
which we occupy politically we are bound to enlighten morally
and spiritually. It should be a matter of thankfulness to us
that, whereas you so often see in human history the grandest
qualities of humanity devoted to profitless wars and to various
political combinations, of which there is either no result or a
disappointing result, or in which among the actual results
the harm preponderates over the good-yet in the British
Empire you gladly perceive, from ordinary observation, that the
results of our domination are material progress and civilisa-
tion, followed by moral and spiritual enlightenment. Therefore,
it is a matter of thankfulness to us to find that the British quali-
ties, the valour and genius, the statecraft and policy, are, under
Providence, overruled for the good of the human race. And of
that good, I venture to think, as a man of the world, as a poli-
CHAP. VII. POSITION OF THE NATIVE RELIGIONS.
159
tician, that one of the most potent instruments consists of those
missionary exertions which we are here assembled to advocate
and to encourage.
Without troubling you at this moment with statistics of
the wonderful progress of missionary operations in the world,
I would refer you, first, to the decennial report that was
published ten years ago in India, and now to the still more
interesting report recently published of the proceedings to the
end of 1882. You will see from such reports a mighty progress,
to be measured by hundreds of thousands of persons gathered
into the fold of Christ. Progress such as that is found in
India. I know that these reports are true, that entire efficiency
is secured in India from one end to the other for the missionary
cause; and further I infer, with the utmost confidence, that
similar results are also secured for you in China, in the West
Indies, in Africa, in Australasia, and in whatever region may
be reached by your missionaries.
Very often among Protestant denominations, doubts are cast
upon the utility of missions, and many people, who ought to
know better, come back from the East and bring disparaging
reports. I am thankful to hear that these doubts do not exist
among the Baptists, and that, at all events, our Baptist country-
men who come back from the East bring true reports. And these
reports being true, I know myself that they must necessarily
and inevitably be favourable. But may I remind you now of
one or two points of a practical character which will confirm your
faith and strengthen your resolve to do your duty? The religions
in India-the old-established religions-are each of them
waning and declining towards their ultimate fall. Buddhism is
effete. Hinduism is gradually breaking up, like the clouds
before the advancing sun. Muhammadanism, no doubt, will hold
out much longer for this reason—that it has a much more
rational foundation than either Buddhism or Hinduism. Now-
a-days, the practice of Buddhism is a miserable superstition. The
humane and comparatively sound doctrine of the original belief
160
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
F
of Buddha has become utterly overlaid by the most wretched,
the most degrading superstition. Hinduism is still the religion
of the million, no doubt, but only of the uneducated million.
It is no longer the religion of the educated Hindu. It is no
longer the religion of those who have either theoretical en-
lightenment or practical knowledge. It is being gradually
dissipated, like the mist, before the science of the nineteenth
century-that science which is being freely distributed amongst
the people through the agency of the Government. Caste, no
doubt, still holds its rule over the masses of India. But with
some it no longer exists as a religious institution; with them
it is purely a political institution. It binds them with iron
fetters still, no doubt, but these fetters are secular rather than
religious. But what is most important to you friends of
missions, is this-that there is a large population of aborigines,
a people who are outside caste, who do not belong to any old-
established religions, who are not under the influence of bigoted
and hereditary superstition. These aborigines by their mind
and conscience offer a surface like clean paper, upon which
the missionaries may make a mark. Although they are
humble people, no doubt, still they are brave, resolute, faithful,
and truth-telling people. If they are attached, as they rapidly
may be, to Christianity, they will form a nucleus round which
British power and influence may gather. Remember, too, that
Hinduism, although it is dying, yet has force, and endeavours
to proselytise amongst these people; and such tribes, if not
converted to Christianity, may be perverted to Hinduism.
The character of your missionaries is everything, permit me
to assure you, everything that you could reasonably desire.
Perhaps people will say, Where is the genius of Carey and of
Marshman now? Well, individual genius is an exceptional
thing in all departments of public and of private life, as well
as in missionary life; but in all probability the average of
Protestant missionaries in India is improving year by year.
I do not mean to say that there is greater zeal now than there
I
CHAP. VIL
CONDUCT OF THE MISSIONARIES.
161
was in the last generation. The piety of the present may not
exceed the piety of the past. One important thing, however,
is gained nowadays, namely, the technical, the professional
training for the missionary work. Every denomination has
now training colleges for the missionaries, and not only that,
but there are missionaries of two kinds-those that have the
superior training to argue dialectically with the principal
classes of Hindus, and those that have the practical and
administrative training to look after the large and growing
congregations in various parts of the empire. The relations of
the missionaries with the natives of India are satisfactory. The
missionaries are looked upon not only as angels of light, but as
ministers of benevolence. When natives are in trouble or
difficulty they send to the neighbouring missionary, and in
times of pestilence and famine it is the missionaries that have
always marched in the very van of beneficence and of relief.
The character of the native Christians is also satisfactory,
and worthy of the care that has been bestowed upon them.
For I say, and there are hundreds of magistrates and of merchants
and other independent witnesses who will bear me out in
my assertion, that the native Christians are thoroughly well
behaved, and are all the better in every walk of life for the
Christian education and training that they have received. You
will ask, In what does this goodness consist? It consists in
this: that they, without exception, educate their children, and
that the children so educated receive enlightened education
in the sharpest contrast to the morally unhealthy and the de-
grading education in which the heathen children are brought
up. Remember that it is a difficult thing in any country, even
in our European countries, to induce every man, down to the
poorest, to send his children to school. The native Christians
in India, now to be numbered by hundreds of thousands-and,
ere long, to be numbered by millions-send their children to
school without any exception whatsoever. In the attendance
upon their churches the native Christian congregations are not
M
162
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
surpassed in regularity of attendance by any congregations in
Europe. You will also find statistically that the proportion of
communicants is very considerable. You will further find that
these native Christians are not, as some people will have told
you, mere hangers-on upon the skirts of the missions, or only
persons who live from hand to mouth. They are industrious
peasant proprietors, owning their own little bits of land which
they cultivate in their villages. They hold their Christian
faith in hereditary tenure, as it were, from generation to
generation. They have been often tried in times of mutiny and
rebellion, but have never apostatised. Take them all in all,
these humble and unpretending people set an example worthy
of consideration by their Christian brethren in Europe. They
support their ministry, each and all. Though they are poor,
yet they are industrious. They are people who never drink,
who never run into any excess, who have their small savings.
They have not the advantage of the organisation of friendly
societies like we have in England, yet, nevertheless, every man
saves a little; and of that little he gives to the support of his
minister, to the building of his chapel, and to the organisation
of his church in the broadest sense of the word. Remember,
please, all this when measuring your opportunity and your
responsibility.
Likewise the system of State education, as carried on by
the Government, aids wondrously in India in enlightening
the people; the missionaries themselves following the example,
or, perhaps, the Government are following their example, to
educate largely. The fact that so many tens of thousands
of natives who do not profess Christianity, nevertheless, with-
out the slightest hesitation, intrust their children to the
Christian missionaries, while all the time there are Govern-
ment schools open to them, speaks volumes for the confidence
our missionaries have inspired amongst the masses of the
people. This education not only spreads amongst the masses
of the population, but it is working wonders among the upper
CHAP. VII.
HINDU THEISTIC REFORMERS.
163
and middle classes. It is leading men to look towards a
religion of the monotheistic or theistic kind. It is inducing
them to abjure the faith of their fathers, if I may call it faith-
or rather, the superstition of their fathers. It is leading men
to open their consciences, their intellects, their faculties to the
revelation of Divine truth. There is a sect called the Hindu
Theistic Reformers. I shall not trouble you with the verna-
cular names which this sect has in different parts of the
country, but, as its operations now are extending among all
the educated class, they constitute a most important moral and
religious movement. It is for you, my Christian brethren,
to exert yourselves to attract that movement in the direction
of Christianity. There is difficulty in attracting it, because
these people have considerable intellect. They are not easily
reasoned with. They cannot possibly be talked over. They
must be convinced by the power of Christian argument, and, we
should say, by the still greater power of Divine grace.
While there is this vast spread of enlightenment amongst the
men, the young men, and the boys, on the other hand the
women and the girls of all ages, who once remained in darkness
and in seclusion, are now gradually but rapidly emerging and
striding into the light. For female education by the State has
made not only a beginning, but a considerable progress. There
are now thousands of girls' schools scattered over the country,
attended by tens of thousands of female children, and within
the next generation, no doubt, the great moral movement, the
great instalment of progress to be expected, is the spread of
female education, and that is a matter which ought to command
the sympathies of every lady present. Remember it is a
difficult thing to get schoolmistresses in India, because of the
social prejudices, and because of the early age at which the
girls are married. But there are, we grieve to think, large
numbers of widows who, according to the Hindu system, must
lead a thoroughly miserable life without hope or occupation in
the world, and for them the honoured profession of school-
M 2
164
CHAP. VII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
mistress opens an excellent career. But, ladies, especially
ladies present, I particularly commend to your increasing
attention the cause of the Zenana Mission. The schools of
which I have been speaking have been for the humbler kinds.
of girls; but the operations for which I venture to bespeak
your best exertions, are those of the Zenana Missions, which
are carried on, not in the villages, nor in the busy streets
of the towns, but in the houses, in the apartments, of the
middle classes and of the wealthy. It is most important
that the enlightenment should spread among the upper classes
of the women, in order that it may be the leaven to affect
the whole mass of female education throughout British India.
But these benevolent operations in the inner apartments of the
women necessarily demand a peculiarly delicate organisation
-a sort of organisation which cannot be roughly attempted
by us plain, practical administrators, as it requires all the
gentle and patient thought which the educated women of
England are peculiarly qualified to exercise. You cannot do
better for the cause of Christianity than to continue these
exertions on behalf of your Eastern sisters, in the full confidence
that such educational enlightenment must be necessarily
followed by the propagation of Christianity.
I shall conclude by reminding you that, as patriotic people,
you may be confident that the missions in India are doing
a work which strengthens the imperial foundations of British
power, and raises our national repute in the eyes of the many
millions of people committed to our charge. You may be
also confident that the results are fully commensurate with
the expenditure. As an old Finance Minister of India, I ought
to know, if anybody does, when the money's worth is got by
any operation; and myself having also administered, from first
to last, provinces which comprise nearly half British India-I
say that, of all the departments I have ever administered,
I never saw one more efficient than the missionary department,
and of all the hundreds of officers I had under my command,
CHAP. VII.
SUPPORT OF THE MISSION CAUSE.
165
European officers and gentlemen, I have never seen a better
body of men than the Protestant missionaries. Of all the
departments I have administered, I have never known one
in which a more complete result was obtained than in the
department-the grand department-which is represented by
the Protestant missions. You may say that you ought to have
not only statistics and reports to convince you, but that you
ought to have corroboration of all the fine things that are told
you. Now, for most of the statistics that are published by
the missionaries you have absolute official verification. The
census of the native Christians of India is as trustworthy as
the census of the Europeans of British India itself. The
main facts upon which you rely when you give your subscrip-
tions to the missionary cause are as certain as any financial,
or commercial, or political, or administrative fact whatever.
As regards the evidence, you have that of some among the
greatest administrators, the bravest soldiers, and the most
skilful politicians that have ever adorned the annals of the
East. I wish that some of them could be present upon this
platform to bear witness of what they have seen and known.
They are men accustomed to make responsible statements
which shall command the trust of their countrymen, and even
the reliance of the Government itself. They are not men
likely to be misled by prejudice or by enthusiasm; on the
contrary, they are cool, calculating men. Would that they
were here to bear evidence to-night. But, having administered
the finances of India for several years, having governed in
succession some of her largest provinces, having also by fate
been cast among the troubles and difficulties of almost every
part of British India, from north to south, from east to west
-I have thought it my duty, without claiming any credit
whatever for myself, to stand before you, to give my personal
testimony, and to add to that testimony whatever weight I
could by presiding over your deliberations this evening.
166
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER VIII.
EFFECT OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AMONG INDIAN NATIVES.
6
[Reprinted from the Fortnightly Review' for January 1883.]
Intellectual and spiritual crisis impending in India-Opportunity thus offered
to Christendom-Men looking retrospectively towards a golden age―The
old-fashioned style of natives—The new style of educated men Their
national aspirations Germ of representative institutions Muham-
·´¯madan expectation of an earthly Messiah - Brahmoism a new religion
Prospect of Christianity in India - Theological mysticism arising -
Jealousy between rival creeds-Ideal of native existence-Tendency
of religious sentiment.
As the material conditions-some favourable, others unfavour-
able-affecting India become better understood in England, so
the mental and moral phases through which the population,
composed of many diverse nationalities, is passing, seem to be
attracting increased public attention. There has just appeared
an interesting volume by Sir Alfred Lyall (now Lieutenant-
Governor of the North-western Provinces of India), entitled
'Asiatic Studies.'* It consists of a series of essays, the chief of
which are entitled: The Origin of Divine Myths in India,'
'The Influence upon Religion of a Rise in Morality,' 'Witch-
craft and non-Christian Religions,' 'Missionary and non-Mis-
sionary Religions,' 'Islam in India,'' Our Religious Policy in
India,'' The Religious Situation in India.' By these essays the
reader is introduced into a part at least of the penetralia of the
* ‘Asiatic Studies, Religious and Social.' By Sir Alfred C. Lyall, K.C.B.,
C.I.E. London: John Murray, 1882.
CHAP. VIII. OPENING OF THE INDIAN MIND.
167
Indian mind, and into some among the recesses of the native
heart. Thus an insight is gained into the spiritual nature of
Orientals; its birth and growth in primitive ages; its expan-
sion during the course of national history; its survival even
under the crushing depression of conquest and the iron heel of
revolution; its stagnation under the early influences of British
rule; and its new development as Western knowledge is diffused
by education. Those circumstances which tell in favour of,
and those which militate against, the effective power of the
Hindu religion are analysed. The reader is reminded that,
although Hinduism is involuntarily loosening its grasp on some
of the best classes, it is winning a fresh dominion—social and
religious—over the aboriginal races to be numbered by millions.
The temper of our Indian Mussulmans is examined with judg-
ment and discrimination. It is shown that, notwithstanding
fanaticism and bigotry, there is much sensible moderation and
sound fidelity in this important section of the people. The
position of the British Government, as a Christian power ruling
over divers religious communities, is circumspectly considered,
and a befitting attitude, during the intellectual and spiritual
changes of the immediate future, is indicated.
The situation is well set forth in the following quotation from
the last of these able essays:-
(6
We (the English) have now established reasonable personal
security and free communications; we are giving to the Indians
leisure and education, the scientific method and the critical
spirit.
"It is not easy to conceive any more interesting subject for
historical speculation than the probable effect upon India, and
consequently upon the civilisation of all India, of the English
dominion; for though it would be most presumptuous to
attempt any kind of prediction as to the nature or bent of India's
religious future, yet we may look forward to a wide and rapid
transformation in two or three generations if England's rule
168
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
only be as durable as it has every appearance of being. It
seems possible that the old gods of Hinduism will die in their
new elements of intellectual light and air as quickly as a netful
of fish lifted up out of the water.
Their primitive forms
will fade and disappear suddenly, as witchcraft vanished from
Europe. In the movement itself there is nothing new, but in
India it promises to go on with a speed and intensity unpre-
cedented; and herein lies the peculiar interest, perhaps the
danger, of the Indian situation."
Surely it is a matter of duty as well as of interest for
British people to enter into this speculation calmly and perse-
veringly, so that, by taking thought beforehand, the British
Government may be prepared to guide the people of India
aright through the intellectual and spiritual crisis which is
already impending. After all, in England, an instructed and
enlightened public opinion must ever be a powerful force in
moulding the action of the State respecting India. In the
formation of such an opinion this volume of Sir Alfred Lyall's
will be a valuable help. He is known to be a thoughtful
student and a deep observer as well as a man of action. His
works in verse as well as in prose have been instinct with
knowledge of native sentiment and imagination. He is well
qualified to inform his countrymen regarding the thoughts which
are surging in the breasts of Orientals, although no trace of the
inward movement may be betrayed by their impassive aspect.
His present volume invites the study of those who would govern
India aright, and who would attend not only to her economic
conditions but also to her mental phenomena.
One more passage from this volume may be cited as having
interest for those concerned in the welfare of Christian
missions:
"Some may think that Christianity will, a second time in the
world's history, step into the vacancy created by a great terri-
torial empire, and occupy the tracts laid open by the upheaval
of a whole continent to a new intellectual level. But the state
CHAP. VIII. UNDER-CURRENTS OF THOUGHT.
169
of thought in Western Europe hardly encourages conjecture
that India will receive from that quarter any such decisive
impulse as that which overturned the decaying paganism of
Greece and Rome."
Here is impartial testimony to the greatness of the oppor-
tunity which presents itself to Christendom, if only the state
of thought among Christians themselves shall be favourable to
the diffusion of Christianity among the heathen whose natural
spiritualism is being moved by Western civilisation; if only
there be in the Western Christians enough of faith, fervour,
zeal, and earnestness. But if those qualities shall in any degree
fail, then full use will not be made. of this momentous oppor-
tunity. In view of these facts a brief inquiry into what may
be compendiously described as the under-current of native
thought in India can scarcely fail to be useful, and to that I now
propose to address myself.
At first sight many observers might be of opinion that among
the mass of the native population no such under-currents, as
have just been spoken of, exist, that the minds of the vast
majority of natives are quite superficial, being absorbed by the
commonest affairs of life, and that such people scarcely think at
all.
There may no doubt be some primâ facie ground for such
an opinion. The common folk do not at all exercise their minds
in public affairs; nevertheless regarding the matters of their
humble society, their caste, their festivals, their priests, they
think for themselves as much as the corresponding classes do
in civilised countries. But further, they are apt to follow the
thoughts of various classes among their countrymen who
think very much, and who constantly ponder over problems
moral, social, and political. In fact, notwithstanding any
appearances to the contrary, there are under-currents of thought
perpetually moving in the native mind. The case may be
likened to the well-known condition of the water in the Lower
Ganges and its affluents. The surface, though always in swift
and noiseless motion, is smooth to the eye, but underneath there
170
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
are unseen currents of extraordinary potency. We may hope,
however, that the analogy ends here; for these under-currents
in the Ganges waters are notoriously dangerous; whereas,
perhaps, on examination it may be found that, with good
management on the British side, the under-currents in the native
mind may be kept free from political peril.
It is difficult to summarise concisely what two hundred and
fifty millions of people are presumably saying to themselves
every day. But probably the sum of their thoughts amounts to
this, that they are, by the will of an inscrutable fate, living
under foreign rule; that they are ineffably better, nicer,
pleasanter people than their rulers; that they have a purity of
descent, a grandeur of tradition, an antiquity of system with
which an European nation has nothing to compare; that despite
their union, socially and morally, they cannot hold together
politically; that consequently they have fallen under the
control, first of Turks or Mongols who had force alone, and now
of the British who have both force and sagacity; that great care
must be taken lest the unavoidable contact with white people
in business and in affairs should lead to social intercourse where
the gulf of separation ought to be preserved; that British rule
cannot last for ever, and meanwhile its advantages must be
accepted with scanty thanks or recognition; that doubtless on
some great day there will be successors to the heroes of old who
may bring back the "golden age" (in eastern phrase); that this
prospect, however, being wrapt in the haze of sunshine, is too
dim to be within the practical domain of hope.
This turn of thought is quite compatible with a material
contentment and a satisfaction respecting the external results of
British rule. The vast majority think favourably of the British
Government and wish it well; they find fault with it in several
ways, but do not condemn it generally—on the contrary, they
fully admit that it is good on the whole; they regard it, too, as
an emanation from a mighty power across the sea, at the head
of which power is a sovereign; in their minds the attributes
CHAP. VIII. POPULAR VIEW OF BRITISH RULE.
171
of royalty are supremely august, and these attributes they
accord to the British Queen. It is all this which people mean
when they affirm that in the main the natives are loyal. But,
notwithstanding all this, the natives never forget that British
rule has the necessarily inherent defect of being foreign. For it,
then, they seldom feel patriotic sentiments in the English sense
of that term.
In the earlier days of British rule, say two generations ago,
the contrast between order and disorder, between the reign of
law and the reign of plunder, between peaceful industry and
revolutionary tumult, was strongly felt. Such phrases as "the
blessings of British rule" meant something palpable and tan-
gible. Every one had a standard, present in his own mind,
whereby to measure the merits of that rule by comparing it
with what had gone before. The sense of relief after suffering
and anxiety was so great as to overpower any reflection as to
whether the new rule was foreign or indigenous, or whether it
had angularities incompatible with native genius and feeling.
It had one overwhelming merit, in that it answered for order.
This merit, like Aaron's rod, swallowed up all other considera-
tions. But, in the same manner as other good things, it wears
away with time. Other generations grow up that have never
personally tasted the misrule which their fathers used to com-
pare with the British administration. Paternal or ancestral
traditions are very lasting with them, and doubtless they have
a shrewd idea of what used to happen in the evil days. But
this idea cannot have a tithe of the vividness with which the
memory of these things was seared and branded upon the minds
of their forefathers. They had indeed a flavour and a soupçon
of this during the war of the mutinies twenty-five years ago.
Thus their eyes were opened as to what might happen if British
rule were to be withdrawn. Still their apprehensions are com-
paratively sluggish. In this way the British Government, not
through its own default, but actually by reason of its long-
sustained merits, is actually losing one of the pristine elements
172
CHAP, VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
of its popularity. Thus, too, a new difficulty has set in from
the time that the empire was thoroughly well established. The
natives criticise and criticise; no government can be fully proof
against criticism, much less a foreign one. Together with cap-
tious fault-finding no adequate allowance is made for the
cardinal virtues of the system.
Many remarkable individuals, in number limited, still exist,
who are really interesting as examples of feeling or of thought,
which will pass away with their death. They have proved
fitting subjects for descriptive poetry: and it is historically
important to have a literary photograph of them while they are
still in the land of the living. Their minds, however, dwell on
the past, not on the immediate future, hardly even on the pre-
sent. Thus they do not constitute a class which has to be
reckoned with seriously.
The foregoing description is applicable to what may be termed
the old style of natives.
But there has sprung up among the natives a new style which
is produced by the Western education under British rule. These
men hold, though with less of intensity and tenacity, most of
the views summarised above. They are beginning to entertain
in addition some peculiar views of their own. They hope to
improve themselves by means of Western science and know-
ledge. This improvement of theirs, however, is to take the
form of self-development, not of self-change. They are not
thereby to be Europeanised but are to remain Asiatics. They
will conscientiously search for abstract truth, sternly rejecting
the rubbish with which, in recent ages, Hinduism has been
cumbered, but fondly gazing retrospectively upon the records
of primitive times. That there must be much of crudity in
their speculations is shown by the fact that men claiming to
walk by the light of Western civilisation should persist in
looking back towards hoar antiquity, as if therefrom the art of
true progress could be learnt. But their candour, their intel-
lectual honesty, their moral worth, are indisputable. In regard
*
CHAP. VIII. EFFECT OF WESTERN ENLIGHTENMENT.
173
to the tightness with which the social yoke is fixed on the
necks of the people, the rigour with which the tyranny of
caste is enforced, the moral torture which can be inflicted on
those whose nature is extraordinarily sensitive to the displeasure
of relatives, the pains of ostracism-these men must have
braved much that to them was terrible, and suffered much that
to them was acutely distressful. But, having made up their
minds to break off from the superstitions of their fathers, they
never look back. They reject palpable error without any hesi-
tation, they repudiate the religious efficacy of caste, even though
they retain its social distinctions, they believe in the innate
superiority of their race over the European races, they wonder
at the obscuration of their star, but hope that its brightness will
yet be restored. It is paradoxical on their part to imagine that
Western enlightenment can be made the means of vindicating
the dictum ex oriente lux, but such is the substratum of their
thoughts. Though willing to learn what they can from Europe,
they yet look upon such learning as a means of recovering the
intellectual heritage of their ancestors. Though quite alive
to the wonders of physical science, they probably think that
such science is subordinate to some higher and occult purposes
of abstract truth.
Several sects under various local designations hold views of
this nature, differing in particulars, but generally alike. This
philosophy (if such it can be termed) is spreading fast, and
seems likely to embrace the majority of the educated classes
throughout India.
These under-currents of native thought unquestionably
portend that the British Government, in order to preserve
a moderate and essential degree of popularity with the natives,
must rest its case on something more than the establishment of
external order, and the increase of material prosperity. As edu-
cation spreads, the natives will not only criticise, but also carp
and cavil. In so far as the criticism is just, it must be met
by reforms. Therefore fresh departures administratively must
174
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
from time to time be taken. While primary education is not
valued as much as we desire, while disappointment is felt
respecting the attitude of the masses in this matter-superior
education is eagerly desired by the middle classes. Why is
the Government urged to apply its resources to this superior
education, why are sacrifices made by parents to secure it,
why are donations and subscriptions given in aid of it by
the wealthy? Because the natives hope thereby to win for
themselves a larger share than heretofore in the administration
of their own country, and to acquire some of the advantages
hitherto enjoyed almost exclusively by Europeans. In justice
it must be admitted that this hope is a reasonable one.
There is also portended a desire for what may be termed
political privileges culminating in something like representative
institutions. There is already a vague hankering for such
privileges; although in respect to political "representation,"
the natives have not yet conceived any definite notions, yet
their thoughts are tending in that direction, even though they
may be unaware of that tendency.
Thus, though the natives are very far from aspiring to
autonomy, they always have thought much of their nationality,
and are thinking more and more of that as education spreads.
These thoughts of theirs are growing into a moral force which
the British Government must recognise. The significance of
these thoughts is proved in most (though by no means in all)
of the lesser outbreaks or disturbances which occur from time
to time in India, and which it would be tedious to particularise.
The strongest example, however, is to be drawn from the War
of the Mutinies during three terrible years, 1857 to 1859. One
among the lessons learnt by Anglo-Indian statesmen from those
grave events was this, that when once a spirit of fanaticism and
of national ambition shall arise, once a resolution to have done
with foreign masters shall be formed, considerations of material
advantage, of regularly received emoluments, of security to
agriculture, trade and industry, are flung to the winds.
CHAP. VIII. RELIGIOUS BELIEF OF THE NATIVES.
175
Although men are much wiser after these events, yet if before
those events they had questioned themselves regarding the
probability of such occurrences, the answer would have been
that surely natives had become too deeply interested in the
continuance of peace, too sensible of the benefits thereby
acquired, too timid of risking their prosperity, to think of
insurrection. This was true indeed of the mass of voiceless
easy-going people, but not at all true of many classes whose
influence would for the moment determine the course of events.
With such classes the benefit from British rule was counted as
dross in comparison with the pleasure of reasserting Indian
nationality. The bearing of the Brahmans in Benares, of the
territorial classes in Oude and Behar, of the Mahrattas in
Western India, of the Muhammadans almost everywhere, of the
Sikhs after (though not during) the crisis-attests what was to
us a melancholy truth.
The next question to be asked and answered is-Have the
natives in their inner minds any religious convictions which
make them believe in a future when an earthly messiah shall
have made them the lords of the land they live in? In order
to answer this question, the population must be divided into
three categories, namely the Muhammadans, the Hindus, and
those who acknowledge neither Islam nor Hinduism. The
Muhammadans in India comprise about one-fifth of the whole
population, and have a full share of whatever resolution,
capacity, or vivacity may pertain to the people at large. They
certainly have religious convictions of the most definite
character. They believe in God, in a future state, in a judg-
ment for blessing or for condemnation, in Muhammad as the
prophet of God, in the Korân as a divine revelation, in the
Caliphs as successors of the Prophet, and in many saints. They
believe, too, in the coming of an earthly Messiah, in the person
of the Imâm Mehdî, who is to be the seventh and last of the
Imâms, six having already appeared in historic times. The
Imâm Mehdî is to inaugurate an era when Islam now militant
卑
​176
СПАР. VIII
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
is to be finally triumphant, not only in India, but in other
regions besides. This belief is an active principle, and allusion
is made to it periodically whenever any trouble is in the air.
It is bruited abroad explicitly on the average once, perhaps
twice, in every decade; and in a less explicit manner it is
mentioned frequently. According to that religious conviction,
the Indian Muhammadans would be their own masters, and
would be lords of the land they live in.
But this view cannot be gratifying or satisfactory to the
Hindus, who comprise full three-fifths of the population. For
it assumes that they are to accept the Muhammadan faith, or
else be utterly subject to Muhammadan rule until they shall
be converted to Islam. But they do not trouble themselves
regarding this idea, which is regarded by them as impossible of
realisation, or as a harmless lucubration.
It is hard to say whether the Hindus in the mass have that
which could properly be called religious conviction. Many
pious and philosophic individuals, some learned classes, even
some ascetics, doubtless have convictions worthy of the name.
But for the mass of Hindus the religion, or in fact the super-
stition, is so grossly absurd, the multifarious deities are so
grotesquely imaged, participation in divine attributes is so
largely allowed to a great caste of Brahmins, who are very
human indeed, that the sentiments of the worshippers can
scarcely be dignified with the name of religious convictions.
The conception of divinity, too, is so sensuous as to debase and
corrupt any sentiments that may gather round it. Still the
ordinary Hindu of to-day has a vague impression that after
death he will be absorbed body and soul into a supreme being
who is beyond all the gods and goddesses. But his notion of
a blessed reward for virtue, or of a future punishment for sin,
is so shadowy as to be almost evanescent. Many observers
have thought that it is this want of active belief in a judg-
ment to come which causes the natives to face inevitable death
with such stoic calmness. The Hindus have indeed a moral
CHAP. VIII.
NEW SCHOOL OF THINKERS.
177
code binding on their conscience and conduct; they seldom or
never ask themselves whether this code is an emanation from
the supreme being; if pressed they would doubtless acknow-
ledge that, originally, it must have so emanated.
The Hindus have no definite expectation of an earthly
messiah visiting India to rehabilitate the Hindu religion and to
re-establish Hindu domination. Still a vague idea of this
description does sometimes float across their minds. Some of
their chief gods are deified princes; and there are mythical
heroes of more than mortal prowess (Pandus), the mention of
whom has an exhilarating effect on a Hindu audience. Allusion
to such persons is sometimes made in proclamations, or other
notices privately circulated, for raising political excitement.
In short, the Hindus have a transcendental notion of the afflatus
which rested on their progenitors in a remote antiquity. They
trust that hereafter this ancestral spirit will descend upon some
heroes, who shall restore all that has been lost to the Hindu
race during many ages. But they do not pretend to discern any
way in which the fulfilment of such a hope can happen.
Allusion has been made to the new school which is the product
of Western civilisation. The natives of this school have many
religious convictions of a negative kind, but less of a positive
nature. The Indian name assumed by the most prominent among
them is "Brahmo;" some of them have adopted, apparently
from Transatlantic quarters, the designation of Theosophist-and
by the best English authority they are termed the Hindu religious
reformers. The originator was Ram-Mohan-Roy, and the best
expounder now living is Keshab Chander Sen, both of Calcutta.
But ramifications of this sect, and kindred sects moving in a
parallel direction, have spread throughout the three Presi-
dencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. The intellectual
tendencies of these sects have been just described, and inquirers
will ask whether the religion of these people is at all likely to be
the religion of the future in India.
On its negative side this religion renounces superstition,
N
178
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
paganism, monstrosities, and absurdities of all sorts. It abjures
atheism and materialism. It repudiates Muhammadanism,
Buddhism, and Hinduism. It regards Christianity not as a
religion to be adopted, but as one of several ways leading
towards pure and abstract truth. It looks towards the Vedas
and other ancient writings, handed down from the Aryan
Hindus, as constituting another of these ways. It holds the
minds of its adherents as open mirrors ready to catch the rays
of truth whencesoever coming. It fails to find that this truth
has anywhere been finally and definitely revealed. Then, on its
positive side, it is theism, including faith in a Supreme Being,
in the abstract principles of right and wrong, in the immortality
of the soul, in the accountability of mankind during a future
state for good or evil done during this life. The dictates of
the conscience, the power of the moral sense are fully acknow-
ledged. But there hangs about all the tenets much of haziness,
dreaminess and mysticism generally. This faith is likely
to become the religion of the immediate future among the
educated classes of Hindus, but will hardly supplant Hinduism
among the masses for a long time to come.
Christianity has not as yet spread sufficiently to become an
actual power in the country. It hardly possesses half a million
of native adherents, but that number may, at an ordinary rate
of progress, from conversion and natural increment, be augmented
within a generation to something between one and two millions.
Whether there will be any extraordinary accession from the
ranks of the Hindu theists it is impossible to hazard a pre-
diction.
Then there arises the question, if this theological mysticism
exists, has it any political meaning? Does it, or does it not,
foreshadow danger to British rule? It will have been seen
from the foregoing observations that this theological mysticism
does exist. For the present, and for the immediate future, it
does not foreshadow danger to British rule. On the contrary
its political tendency is favourable to the existing centre of
CHAP. VIII. ASPIRATIONS OF EDUCATED NATIVES.
179
power and adverse to any disturbance. It is not hostile to the
Christian religion; on the contrary it admires Christianity in
the main, as supplying a pattern for human conduct. It
assumes the continuance of Western enlightenment and the
progress of education after the Western model, and this as-
sumption is essential. Without the maintenance of British
rule for a long time to come, these advantages are manifestly
unobtainable; it is never pretended that they can be had
without British aid. The educated natives hope that, possessing
these advantages, they will peacefully win the desired improve-
ment in their status. They have no thought of winning this by
violent or revolutionary means. They know too, that this
could never be won by relapsing into the old native system.
They have learnt to look at public affairs through Western
spectacles, and to think in Western phrase. Thus they are
disposed to cling to the Western ideal. Their political con-
clusion then is to preserve the existing status.
For the distant future, however, this new religion clearly has
a political meaning, which is this, that the Indian nation, eman-
cipated from British leading-strings, should govern itself. But
avowedly this meaning refers to a time so far ahead as to be
beyond the region of practical politics. It therefore does not
foreshadow anything which could be termed danger to British
rule. But existing alongside of, or in combination with, other
movements, it will have a political force to be borne in mind by
Anglo-Indian statesmen.
There are, indeed, some educated natives who may be not
unreasonably suspected of disloyalty, or at least of hostility to
British institutions and dislike to the British nation-though it
is hoped that such cases are somewhat exceptional and abnormal.
It will be found, however, that this hostility on the part of
individuals does not arise from their Western education. It
arises from the old prejudices and the old sentiments of na-
tionality, which that education has not subdued. Many, perhaps
most, educated natives cease to be politically Hindus. Others,
N 2
180
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
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​despite their Western education, remain as Hindus of the old
school, and of these some are apt to become disloyal. It is the
sight of such occasional disloyalty that causes some observers to
apprehend political mischief as a consequence of education.
This view, however, is superficial, for the mischief exists not by
reason of the education but in spite of it. Without the educa-
tion it would have existed in a worse degree.
It may next be asked, how far does jealousy between the
different creeds in India paralyse their activity for any united
purpose in hostility to their British rulers? Now the Hindus
do indirectly proselytize among Indians who are outside caste,
or who, being aborigines, are supposed to be without any formal
religion. But they have not ordinarily any thought of making
proselytes among other races that have settled religious systems.
According to their principle, a Hindu is born in rather than
admitted to Hinduism, nascitur non fit. They would not dream,
if they had supreme power, of making converts among Indian
Muhammadans. On the other hand, the Muhammadans, if they
were in the ascendant, would undoubtedly seek to make converts
among the Hindus by persuasion if possible, or failing that, by
force. Their absolutism in this respect would be tempered only
by the probability of resistance. The jealousy then, if it were
ever evoked, would be on the part of the Muhammadans and not
of the Hindus. But while both are under the British Govern-
ment, as a common master, the sense of religious difference is
suppressed. When political excitement arises, the enemies of
the British Government always appeal to Hindus and Muham-
madans together. Many instances have occurred of seditious
or treasonable notices being expressly addressed to both alike.
Doubtless the foreign government gains something from the fact
of there being these two religions, and from the diversity of
interest, sentiment, and sympathy, which thus arises. Still
jealousy between the different creeds might somewhat affect, but
would not paralyse, their activity for an united purpose in
hostility to their British rulers. The British Government might
CHAP. VIII. EXPRESSION OF ESOTERIC SENTIMENT.
181
simultaneously have enemies both among Hindus and Muham-
madans. These hostile elements would combine, without any
hindrance what ever on account of difference in religion. If
they were to be victorious then they might begin to quarrel,
owing to religious difference among other reasons; but until
victory were secured they would sink such difference. If then
political conjunctures were to arise, in any way compromising or
threatening the safety of British dominion, no reliance whatever
could be placed in the religious differences between Hindus and
Muhammadans as weakening hostile combinations among the
natives.
Finally, let us see whether there is any esoteric or spiritual
propaganda which may at any moment find expression in an
exoteric and material form, dangerous to the empire of India, as
now existing, or to the ascendancy of any Western nation.
The answers to the preceding questions have implied that
there is an ideal of native existence towards which some people
are yearning. But the ideal is too dim for the yearning to be
very strong. Then it will, from these answers, have been seen
that there is an esoteric and spiritual propaganda limited in
extent at present, but growing steadily if not rapidly. This
propaganda does find exoteric expression in a marked manner.
It has induced the legislature to enact laws for the performance
of marriages between those who do not belong to Hinduism,
Buddhism, or Muhammadanism. In as much as it possesses an
organization, appoints office bearers, reckons its open and avowed
adherents by tens of thousands, causes chapels to be built in
which congregations worship, it must be held to have assumed
a material form. But as yet this form is not dangerous to
British rule and Western ascendancy, nor are the tendencies of
the movement objectionable politically. This answer then is
virtually a summary of a portion of what has already been set
forth.
If the British suppressed, or even discouraged the movement,
the results might be different; but on the contrary, the freest
قد
182
CHAP. VIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
play and the fullest scope are accorded to it. If the Govern-
ment refused to concede anything, then discontent might accrue.
Concessions, however, are made, not indeed sufficient to produce
plenary contentment, but still enough to make people hope for
more than what they already have. It is this hopefulness which
produces loyalty.
On the other hand, this spirit induces men to find fault with
the Government for not moving faster in the directions of bene-
ficence; it urges them to demand that positions of responsibility
and importance shall be more and more entrusted to natives,
that on the one hand taxation shall be revised and the State
income thereby diminished, and that simultaneously improve-
ments shall be introduced augmenting the expenditure,-often
forgetting the impossibility of all these things being done at
once. It is this apparent disregard of practicability, admini-
strative or financial, that imparts to many British observers an
unfavourable impression regarding the native character. This
effect is heightened when they see that native writers and
speakers support their recommendations by means of statements
which unjustly vilify everything British in India. The natives
fail to see how greatly they damage their cause by this style of
argument. Still, if the argument be examined by Englishmen
who can "read between the lines," it will be found that there is
an obverse and a reverse; on the one side the merits of British
rule are depicted, on the other side the demerits. The de-
scription both of merits and demerits is worked up with
Oriental hyperbole. As a counterfoil to undue laudation there
is undeserved disparagement. The contrast thus produced is
like a picture wherein the lights are too white, the shades too
black, and the colours crudely vivid. The real object of the
vilification, however, is to make the most of existing defects in
order to incite the Government to reform and improvement.
This method is frequently adopted by natives who are mani-
festly bound to the British connection in almost every possible
way, and who cannot mean really to be disloyal. On the other
CHAP. VIII. POLITICAL KESULT OF EDUCATION.
183
hand, such fault-finding may verge, and has sometimes verged,
upon treason; in that case it should of course be dealt with
according to law. But so long as it remains within the largest
latitude allowable for criticism, as it generally does, it releases
mental steam and prevents disloyalty arising.
In fine, the tendency of sentiment, moral and religious,
among the educated natives, appears to be beneficial politically.
It might indeed become dangerous if the Government were un-
reforming and unprogressive. But it is an element of safety,
as the Government is both reforming and progressive, walking
in the light of the age. It stimulates improvement, produces
hopefulness, counteracts bigotry, weakens fanaticism. It de-
pends on Western enlightenment, which postulates the con-
tinuance of the existing administration. Thus, on the whole,
the political effect of religious thought in India is favourable to
British rule.
184
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
5
CHAPTER IX.
THE DUTY OF BRITISH PEOPLE TOWARDS INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the East India Association, in London,
March 1882.]
Past services of the East India Association in England - Its independent and
impartial attitude The material objects to which its attention is
directed — The moral and social improvements which it advocates — The
application of British capital to railways and canals in India — Sanitation,
forestry, agriculture and emigration — Educational efforts by the State-
Superior instruction and primary education-Honorary offices and the
elective principle for the natives-Kindness to natives visiting England.
It now devolves upon me to deliver to you an inaugural
speech upon my assuming the honourable office of President
of the East India Association. One reason which caused me to
accept the office was that the Association has now existed for
more than fifteen years, during which period it has carried some
weight in influencing public opinion in this country. It has
won the support and confidence of the natives of India; its
representations have been listened to by some of the highest
authorities; and it has had many great men connected with it.
I had the less hesitation in accepting the Presidency when
I understood that my immediate predecessor was Sir Laurence
Peel-a name honoured and respected by the whole of the
Anglo-Indian community. I also saw that connected with the
Association there was a nobleman who has done so much for
the cause of humanity all over the world—I mean the vener-
CHAP. IX. INDEPENDENT SUGGESTION OF REFORMS.
185
able Earl of Shaftesbury—so distinguished a statesman as the
Marquis of Salisbury, and three men so well known for every-
thing that relates to the welfare of the people of India, as
Şir Bartle Frere, Sir Charles Trevelyan, and Sir Henry Rawlin-
son, the last of whom I may call an Asiatic statesman.
It now
devolves upon me to explain to you what, according to my
humble comprehension, are the duties, the purposes, and the
functions of this Association.
In the first place, we should remember that our Association
consists, firstly, of Anglo-Indians who have retired from active
life in India, either official or unofficial; and, secondly, of
natives of India who are resident in England; besides those
many excellent members, European and Native, who reside in
India. Then our duties seem to me to divide themselves into
two main parts-viz., first, to enlighten and inform English
opinion, as much as possible, upon all matters relating to
India; secondly, to make, from time to time, to the India Office
or the authorities in this country (England) such representations
as may seem desirable upon the current course of affairs.
Therefore we must induce men of original and independent
minds, men of suggestive thought, as well as large experience,
to come here, and deliver addresses and lectures to us from
time to time. But if we are to have men of such independent
minds, they will be sure to hold strong and divergent opinions,
and they will be apt to have ideas directed to, or focussed,
as it were, on one particular point, and, consequently, in the
lectures and addresses there will be various matters which will
not command absolute assent. Therefore, I think, in the first
place, we must be vigilant not to adopt entirely the theories,
crotchets, and hobbies—if I may so express myself-which will
be from time to time presented to us. We desire to have the
advantage of the hobbies; only we must not, we cannot, under-
take to ride them ourselves. We desire also to hear the
crotchets, as they may prove instructive and interesting; only
we, as an Association, do not undertake to retail them as pure
186
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
metal, with our own hall-mark-as I may call it-attached to
them.
Another thing to be guarded against is this. We have many
accomplished and learned native gentlemen in this Association.
With all deference to our native fellow-subjects in this country,
I must say that they occasionally make speeches in public
which are really, as efforts of oratory or rhetoric, honourable to
them, but which nevertheless teem with exaggeration. The
native gentleman, speaking in England, is apt to state his case
with a good deal of Eastern imagination and Oriental imagery,
which may elicit a passing cheer, but which ends in distorting
the subject, so that, after all, we have, not a picture, but
a caricature. Now, I would warn my Indian fellow-subjects
that the English people are, above all things, plain-judging,
accurate, and discriminating; and although any exaggeration
may, for the moment, evoke applause, nevertheless, in the end,
it will prevent the speaker carrying the weight to which his
statements would otherwise entitle him. A further source of
danger is the running into the extreme of what is nowadays
called pessimism. There is the other extreme—optimism—of
course; but, on the whole, optimism is a safer thing than
pessimism, because pessimism is apt to make the people of
Britain despair regarding the future of India, and begin to ask
themselves, "If the country is in such a wretched state, if
agriculture is being carried on at a loss, and the people are too
thick upon the land, and are gradually starving, what is the use
of taking any interest in such a declining Empire ?" We who
know India, are well aware that there is a better and brighter
side of the national picture. So, if we countenanced such
pessimist representations, our Association would soon lose its
hold upon public opinion, and we should be roughly contra-
dicted by a reference to the plainest facts of the day. Never-
theless we need not be thought to discourage any pessimist
members who may honour us by delivering addresses here,
because no doubt they do good in warning the Government and
CHAP. IX.
NEW HINDU SECTS.
187
the public of the dangers which environ the paths of even the
wariest administrators.
One more word regarding the dangers to which we are subject.
I understand that some of the native gentlemen who are resident
in this country are apt to fall into some of the atheistic ways that
may be current in the present age. Now, we may admit that
there are many temptations to this path; nevertheless I hold
that we should really, as Christians and as Englishmen, warn
our native fellow-subjects in this country that the British people
will, in the mass, give no countenance to what passes for “free-
thought” or atheism in their Indian fellow-subjects. They will
not, indeed, press the natives to become Christians, as the adoption
of Christianity must be the result of private conviction. They
will even acknowledge thankfully the religious sentiment which
pervades many of the new sects among the Hindus which are
rising into prominence, the Brahmos and others. They will
sympathize with the moral, intellectual, and spiritual views, the
religious aspirations and difficulties of their Asiatic fellow-
subjects; but to anything like atheism they can never lend
their countenance. Our native fellow-subjects may be certain
that, despite all the alleged tendencies of the nineteenth century,
there is as much religious earnestness now in Britain as in any
preceding century, and in many important respects much more
than there ever has been, enough to justify the assertion that
in the main the British are a religious and God-fearing people.
I hope I may be excused for having so unreservedly stated
the dangers that beset an Association like this; and now I
proceed, in the briefest and most rapid manner, to recapitulate
some important matters to which our attention should be
constantly directed, and upon which our gaze should ever be
fixed. These subjects are, first, material, and, secondly, moral
and social.
Now, among the many objects of material importance to
India, the first appears to me to be the application of British
capital to the development of the resources of the country. This
188
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
J
application of capital will be partly private and partly public
(that is, expended some by individuals or corporations, and
some by the Government), and it should be our endeavour to
gather up the threads of all valuable information which may be
interesting to the individual capitalist and to the moneyed
classes who are likely to invest some of their accumulated
savings in the improvement of India. One great application
of capital will be that on the part of the Government. The
Government capital will be utilized largely for purposes of
irrigation; and we who have lived in India can never do wrong
in keeping the claims of irrigation constantly before the public
of England and the Government of India, more particularly
as experience shows that this is a matter which the private
capitalist cannot conveniently compass. Several Irrigation
Companies have tried, and have not succeeded; and thus the
most important means for the material improvement of India, if
attended to at all, must be taken in hand by the Government.
Then as regards railways, we are assured that much has been
done by the State and much more by those justly honoured and
now historic Guaranteed Companies. This matter of railways
offers a field to which private capital may be greatly attracted, pro-
vided only the branch railways which remain to be made in the
future shall be constructed in a cheap and economical style; in
the fashion of what may be called temporary railways, which can
be worked to the benefit of the country, and at the same time
shall be sufficiently good to pay interest to the private capi-
talists who may invest in them.
Another matter which we cannot too earnestly impress on the
attention of all concerned is sanitation. This is a matter to be
advocated from Britain through British opinion. There is no
matter which more entirely concerns the physical welfare of the
Indian people; nevertheless, there is no matter regarding which
the natives of India show so little thought, and so little appre-
ciation. That being the case, it becomes the more incumbent
upon us, as civilized foreigners, to press this matter first upon
CHAP. IX. FORESTRY, AGRICULTURE, LANDED TENURES. 189
our native fellow-subjects, and, secondly, upon public opinion,
in the conviction that what England thinks to-day India will
think to-morrow, or, at least, the day after.
Further, a matter upon which opinion in India is as yet unin-
structed both among natives and Europeans, is the subject of
forestry. I rejoice that this most important matter which nearly
concerns the future climatic condition of India, and which partly
explains the sequence of droughts and famines, and the like—is
being earnestly taken up by the Society of Arts in London, and
by the Scottish Arboricultural Society of Edinburgh.
Then there is the use of manure. The great desideratum for
Indian agriculture is manure of various sorts. The soil is be-
coming exhausted, slowly and imperceptibly perhaps, but still
surely, owing to the non-application of manure for its proper
purpose. What should be used as manure is largely used for
fuel, because there is no wood-supply available; the absence of
a wood-supply arises from there being no adequate system of
forestry; and that, again, is ascribable to the want of education
of public opinion in this most essential matter.
As regards the land, there are two or three points to which
I think we should diligently attend. First, there is the ex-
tension of tenant-right. The rights of landlords, great and
small, the status of peasant proprietors, of occupancy cultivators
and of sub-proprietors, are, on the whole, well arranged through-
out India; but there still remains much to be done regarding
a class which numbers many millions-the ordinary cultivators
and tenants-at-will. Here, I say, very much remains to be
accomplished; and I earnestly hope that the advocacy of this
Association will never be wanting towards that end. Another
matter nearly concerning the welfare of the great peasant
proprietary, who form the very backbone of the country and
people, is a reform in the law of debtor and creditor. Indeed,
the peasant indebtedness, in spite of our good administration
and the improvements in property in land, is one of the
curses of the country. Although I think most highly of our
190
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
I
enlightened legislation, as a rule, and regard it as pregnant
with blessings to the people, it is very defective in this respect.
Another matter regarding which this Association might exer-
cise an influence for good, is emigration. There is no doubt that,
although India can well sustain all the 250,000,000 of people
who stand upon its surface, although she has much waste land
available, there are, notwithstanding, many districts which are
utterly over-populated, and in which the population considerably
increases every decade. These districts may well send forth
hundreds of thousands to create new Indias in the Tropics, or
to colonize in Madagascar, the West Indies, or South America.
This is a matter in which our Association may exercise a bene-
ficial influence. We may constantly obtain information regard-
ing the condition of those classes who may be prepared to send
forth labourers; that information we may constantly communi-
cate to those classes in this country who are interested in our
colonies. All those colonies which I have mentioned, and
several others, have representatives in this country—repre-
sentatives who are always inquiring about the supply of cheap
labour from India. Let us help to keep them thoroughly in-
formed on that point.
Then, again, from time to time, it may be well for us to say
something about opium. That is a matter upon which there is
a great divergency of opinion. I, for one, wholly differ from
those benevolent and excellent people who are raising an
agitation on the subject in this country; and, having observed
the use and abuse of the drug, and knowing what actually are
the habits of the Asiatic populations, whether Indian or Chinese,
I am prepared to justify our present position. One item of
Indian revenue is from opium, and it is as legitimate a revenue
as that of the English Government from the excise or customs on
wines and spirits. Again, the Chinese themselves grow the opium
poppy more largely than the Indians. If, then, we believe that
opium in moderation is no more harmful to the Chinese than
wine and beer are to the English people; if we believe that the
CHAP. IX. MORAL AND SOCIAL IMPROVEMENTS.
191
taxation levied by the Indian Government on opium, instead
of encouraging consumption, rather checks it by making the drug
dear; if we believe that nothing but harm can come to the Chinese
themselves from the destruction of that revenue--which revenue
really renders the drug expensive-then, I say, it is our duty to
lend our weight and our support to the authorities, and to make
such representations as shall bring conviction to the minds of
those classes in England who are ready to be convinced when
good reason is given them.
Trusting that you will excuse my running so rapidly over
the subjects, I will at once turn to the second division of my
theme; namely, the moral and social improvements in which our
advocacy may be beneficial to the people of India. The first
of these, of course, is education; and education is, of all others,
the most legitimate subject for our deliberations. You hear
a great deal about high education versus primary education; and
there are many people who will speak disparagingly before the
British public regarding the results of high education in India.
Let me assure you, as one who has but recently returned
from that country, that the high education afforded mainly by
the Government and partly by private institutions, chiefly
missionary, has been fraught with blessings to the upper and
middle classes of the people of India. It is not alone that
the intellects of the men, thus highly educated, have been
improved, but their moral tone has been raised, and they have
become trustworthy gentlemen. In fact, the improvement in
character, the mental and moral elevation, which have resulted
are greater than anything I ever expected to live to see. That
being the case, we should not countenance those who would
disparage the high education merely because it is wished to
advocate primary education. People in this, as in other things,
look at only one side; they perceive the benefits of primary
education, and have all their mental rays concentrated upon it,
and so they fail to perceive the benefit of high education. This
superior education is, as I have said, carried on mainly by the
1
192
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Government, but partly by private agencies. Some people think
that the private agencies, which chiefly consist of missionary
institutions, could be left to undertake all that is necessary in
respect of high education. Now, having been myself an earnest
advocate of Missions, and being necessarily very well acquainted
with all the operations of the great Missionary Societies in
India, I venture to affirm that the Missionary Societies have
done already their utmost in respect of high education,
and have not the means to do essentially more than they are
doing in this respect. If high education were left to them
alone, they would not prove equal to the task: and, therefore, if
high education is to be adequately afforded, the Indian Govern-
ment must do a great deal. It may be that the Government
operations could be improved; it may be that their assistance
is more needed in the interior of the country than in the
Presidency towns. In the interior of the country you find very
few men well educated; and the only chance of increasing the
number of the colleges in the interior of the country is by the
intervention of the Government. It is most important that
Government should not compete injuriously with private insti-
tutions; and Government does not do so. On the contrary,
the fees of the Government colleges are higher than those of
the missionary colleges, and perhaps as high as the people can
afford to pay. Throughout India the rule has been that
Government shall give one-half, and the people one-half; and
that rule, on the whole, is carried out from the top to the
bottom of our educational system. You will find that those
who receive a high education pay half of the cost. We should
be glad if they could be made to pay more; but if you make
high education too expensive in India, you will restrict it to
the well-to-do and the rich, and that, I am sure, no Indian
philanthropist would wish to do. We desire to raise up any
natives of talent to whatever class they belong, and it would
be hopeless for such men-youths of genius and of high moral
qualifications—to obtain superior education if they have the
CHAP. IX.
PRIMARY EDUCATION.
193
misfortune to be born of poor parents; and, therefore, if the
fees must be kept high, we must agitate for a large number of
scholarships to be constantly offered by the Government for
competition by the best youths throughout the whole Empire of
India, with the effect that the youth who wins a scholarship
gets his education almost gratuitously, and that, in order to win
this, he must have capacity and character above his compeers.
Nevertheless, I quite admit that the development of the grant-
in-aid system deserves constant attention on the part of the
Government and of the public.
Now, as regards primary education, no doubt that is the
crying want of India; for although there are as many as
2,000,000 of students in the schools, which may sound very
fine, yet after all it is a very small number relatively to the
number of people in India. What are 2,000,000 among
250,000,000? You have 3,000,000 of children at school in
Great Britain, where the population is not one-ninth as large
as in India; so that there is a great distinction between the
development of education in Britain and in India. Primary
education is the crux of Indian administration; you will find it
a most difficult problem that awaits solution. We are doing
our best to induce the peasants to send their children to
school; still the total result is insufficient. I fear that
before long we shall have to come to compulsory education in
some mild shape for the rural districts. It has been accepted
absolutely by every great nation of continental Europe, and
now is at work in a gentler form among the English people.
Though I do not recommend that compulsion should be at-
tempted universally in India, I do not forget that the students
-boys-come chiefly from the artisan class, and very little
from the agricultural class, and it is the agricultural class
which is most important, and which most needs education. I
am sure, then, there are many sections of the agricultural class
to whom a certain sort of compulsion might be applied, if the
Government had the moral courage to do so.
It is by an
0
194
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Association such as ours investigating these matters, and
making due representations to the public and to the Govern-
ment, that an effect will be produced on the Legislature, and
something will be done to compel the proprietary and landed
classes, at least, in India to educate their children. Much, too,
must be done towards the encouragement of vernacular litera-
ture. One of the most important problems we originally had
to solve in India was that we found no vernacular literature
worth mentioning. But within fifty years we have created
a vernacular literature, which, though it may not be fully
understood by ourselves, has been pronounced by scholars in
France and Germany to be among the greatest of the many
glories of England in the East; but much remains to be done
before all the 60,000 schools which exist in India are properly
supplied with class-books. This is a matter upon which we
can offer not only information, but also great encouragement,
to many persons in this country who may be disposed to
assist the natives of India in the direction of improving their
vernacular literature; and though the Society for Promoting
Christian Vernacular Education has, no doubt, a religious
object, with which we shall sympathize, but which we cannot
directly promote, it still must be conceded that the Society is
doing yeoman's work in the extension of the vernacular
literature of India.
Before I quit the subject of education, I must remind you
that the best opinions now concur in this,-that hitherto our
education has been too exclusively literary and philosophic, and
not sufficiently practical and scientific. We are doing much in
one or two great branches of applied science-in medicine and
in civil engineering-but there are still important fields in
which much remains to be done, especially in those sciences
-like chemistry, botany, mineralogy, geology, and physical
geography-which have an obvious practical value. Above all,
there is agriculture. I suppose there is no matter so important
for the future welfare of India as the diffusion of agricultural
Ї
CHAP. IX.
INDIGENOUS ART IN INDIA.
195
education; and if we are to apply anything like compulsion
upon the agricultural classes, in respect to having their children
educated, we must take care that the primary instruction shall
be of a practical character; and if so, above all things, it must
be agricultural. Nothing would exert so powerful an effect as
a reason for our having to take any stringent or compulsory
measures as the certainty that agriculture was the first and fore-
most subject of the national education.
Further, we may do much as regards rendering the industrial
arts of India popular, and respected by our fellow-countrymen
in England. There was a danger at one time lest, while exhi-
biting to the natives the fruits of European art and culture,
we should choke and stifle their own. That danger, however,
has been overpassed, and now the real merits of Indian art are
beginning to be appreciated in England. It is even recog-
nised that, despite all the advantages which our Western civi-
lisation has given us, we are really, as artists, not equal,
nationally, to the Indians, the Chinese, or the Japanese; setting
aside, of course, the individual artists of genius who may be
among us. This is a field in which our Association may still
do much to gradually enlighten our English fellow-countrymen
respecting the artistic tendency of the natives hereditarily
transmitted among them from generation to generation, and
respecting the many beautiful fabrics of India.
Lastly, I should like to remind you that whatever progress
we have made as regards the instruction of boys and men, the
progress is extremely small as regards women and girls. But
while I am not very sanguine of our making much additional
way and further progress with men and boys without compulsion,
yet I am very sanguine of great voluntary progress among the
girls and women of India. That is one of the things in which
I believe we shall see a great change in the next generation;
and English ladies may exercise a graceful and beneficial in-
fluence in that direction. This is a matter in which the first
spring and impulse must be given from England, and among
o 2
196
CHAP. IX:
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the many important needs of India, none is more important
than this. It is quite within the power of the ladies of England
to exercise a direct and powerful influence in the education of
their Indian sisters; and if we, as an Association, constantly
urge the claims of this subject upon the attention of the many
benevolent and highly-educated ladies in England who are
willing and anxious to do some good and work some benefit for
humanity, we shall have an increasing number of ladies going
out to India to carry the influences of education into the homes
of Indian ladies-that is the Zenanas where the ordinary school-
mistress, and, still less the schoolmaster, can hardly ever reach.
In connection with education, there is still a subject of great
importance. Although religion is a matter in which we can
undertake no direct interposition, nevertheless, I can assure you
that while Christian Missions are distinctly religious, and have
avowedly a Christian character, they are, on the whole,
thoroughly popular with the natives of India; and this seems
to teach us that the more we advocate the claims of our own
religion, the more we show ourselves determined to abide by its
dictates, the more we are respected as a nation by the millions
of people whom Providence has committed to our charge.
While religious matters, however, are beyond our province as an
Association, yet the social, moral, and political effects of the
Missions have great claims on our advocacy.
: Another subject of importance is the improvement of the
arrangements for the admission of natives into the Covenanted
Civil Service; and this is a matter which will have the sym-
pathy of members of the Association. It has been too much
accepted as an axiom in India that the natives, when highly
educated, are fitted for the judicial service, but not for the ad-
ministrative, or the highest branches of administration. Our
object should be to render the natives fit to be administrators
and we shall not, in my opinion, have done our duty until we
make them so fit. We have already turned out completely
educated natives in some branches of natural philosophy and
;
CHAP. IX. TEACH NATIVES TO BE ADMINISTRATORS.
197
law. Especially in law have we succeeded: we have made them
effective advocates, and upright, discriminating judges. We
have remaining the duty of rendering them able magistrates
and first-rate collectors; and, I repeat, we shall not have done
our duty by them until we have made them administrators.
This is a point on which our rule compares unfavourably with
native rule. Somehow native rule elicited the administrative
genius which exists among the natives, and we may hope so to
arrange our education as to produce similar results and train up
native statesmen. Another thing of importance is to encourage,
as much as possible, the assignment of honorary public offices
to native gentlemen. The idea of a benevolent despotism-that
everything shall be done for the people, and nothing by the
people-is not the object of such a Government as ours. Every-
thing, indeed, should be done for the people, but we should
induce the people to do as much as possible for themselves, and
make them feel their responsibility for it. And that can best
be effected by constantly inducing natives of character to under-
take honorary offices-to serve as honorary magistrates, as
judges of conciliation courts, as jurymen, and the like; to sit
on school and road committees, and to be municipal commis-
sioners. The more we do in that direction the more we shall
be carrying out the true principles of moral education, which
not only seeks to discipline the intellect, but also to form the
character. Above all things in respect to honorary offices, we
should encourage what may be called the principle of the elective
franchise, and provide that candidates be elected by the vote of
their countrymen. That principle has long obtained in the
municipality of Bombay; and, seeing that, some years ago I
determined to carry it out in Calcutta. There was much oppo-
sition at the time, but the elective system has triumphed, the
object being to make the educated Bengalese of the middle classes
take an interest in the affairs of the capital city, and elect men
of character and independence to fill the honourable office of
municipal commissioner. And the more we carry out that
198
CHAP. IX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
principle in every part of the country the better it will be for us
and for India. I rejoice to observe it stated that the Govern-
ment of India, in connection with the development of provincial
finance, will encourage the Local Governments to associate with
themselves, in the work of local financial administration, native
gentlemen elected by the voice of their fellow-countrymen. It
would be, I believe, a desirable thing for men to be elected in
the same way to seats in the Legislative Councils, instead of
being appointed as they are now. The difficulty would be to
find constituencies, but this might be arranged. Men thus
elected would have a greater interest in their work, and would
speak with greater weight in the Councils. There could be no
danger in this, because it does not follow that you need give
any majority to them. Government may still retain, as now—
and it must do so for a long time to come an absolute majority
in the Legislature for its own officers; but there is no reason
why there should not be an influential minority composed of
native gentlemen of first-rate character and status, elected by
their countrymen.
Before I conclude let me mention one thing which we should
avoid. Nothing is so dangerous to the welfare of India as that
our dealings with our Indian fellow-subjects should become
matters of party strife in England. Formerly these matters
were quite free from such strife; but within the last ten years
there seems to have been a great and regretable deterioration
in that respect-so much so, indeed, that it is difficult to
find important Indian matters which have not become more
or less tinged with the kaleidoscope of party. I hope the
Association will keep its non-political character, and continue
to advise the natives of India not to allow their affairs to be
mixed up with either of the contending parties in English
politics; for if they espouse one party, they are apt to be dis-
credited with the party they do not espouse. They should
remember, amid the ebbing and flowing, the surging and falling,
of the tide of English opinion, that their object should be, to
CHAP. IX. PARTY SPIRIT IN INDIAN POLITICS.
199
remain on friendly terms with both parties, in the trust that,
whatever party is in power, that party will be doing its utmost,
as it has hitherto done, for the general welfare of the Indian
people.
In conclusion, there is one duty we should constantly per-
form; that is to hold out the hand of fellowship to every
native gentleman who visits this country. There are already
in London, Oxford, and elsewhere some clubs and institutes
which offer them a home, such as the Northbrook Institute in
London, established under Lord Northbrook's auspices, and the
Institute at Oxford, organized by the exertions of our friend
Professor Monier Williams,-both which institutions were in-
augurated by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. It should be our
pride and duty to offer information to our native visitors,
and to place at their disposal the results of our know-
ledge; for such knowledge must be regarded in connection
with the best interests of India. We should strive, by these
and other means, to create a favourable impression on the
minds of our Indian fellow-subjects, who visit our shores,
by making their associations with England happy, so that
they may carry back with them to India pleasing recollec-
tions of English people and things. We shall thus produce
impressions which will be favourable to us as a nation, and
tend to render us popular in the Eastern Empire. I am sure
that those of us who have spent many of their best days in
that distant country still look back to it with fond recol-
lections; and though, while we were in the country, we saw
the faults as well as the merits of our native fellow-subjects,
now that we have left the country, the memory of the faults
has faded, while the remembrance of the merits and virtues
becomes brighter and stronger.
200
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER X.
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.
M
State of Indian finance - Public debt — Works of material improvement
Their remunerative character Condition of the people - Absence of
Poor-laws - Physique of the peasantry-Dangers always threatening
India- Impossibility of European colonization in India - Nevertheless
large field for employment of Europeans Practical instruction needed
for them Landed estates held by them in the interior Industries
under their direction - Tea, coffee, sugar, wheat, rice, cinchona, tobacco,
malt liquor, jute, flax, hemp, coir, silk, indigo, vegetable and mineral
oils, skins and horns — Working of coal and iron-Doubtful prospect
of gold-mines - Forest produce-Competition to be expected from
natives in trade and industry - Purchasing power of the rupee
Rise of prices and of wages simultaneously-Capacity of the empire to
absorb new capital -- Railways, canals, and staple industries —— The direc-
tions in which new capital will probably be required - Annual drawing
of capital from England to India.
PART I
[Speech delivered before the Royal Colonial Institute, in London,
December 1880.]
I HAVE the honour at this moment of speaking before a large
number of gentlemen who have been taking part in the Govern-
ment of the various Colonies and possessions which make up the
British Empire in the world; also many gentlemen who have
been or still are engaged in the numerous affairs and various
kinds of businesses in which the British Empire is concerned.
Well, then, gentlemen who have governed our dependencies,
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CHAP. X.
SOUNDNESS OF INDIAN FINANCE.
201
gentlemen also who have taken part in the concerns commercial
and industrial of those dependencies, you are, as I understand,
anxious to hear something regarding the Government, and the
affairs, industrial and commercial, of what I venture to think is
the greatest dependency of them all, in fact, perhaps the greatest
foreign empire which has ever been seen in ancient or modern
times. But we sometimes hear in these days that this splendid
dependency is verging upon insolvency. I am far—and those
who think with me are far-from complaining when gentlemen
in this country,-learned and accomplished both in statistics,
economy, finance, and administration-make observations of
this character, because such observations constitute warnings of
the dangers which lie before an Empire—a distant alien Empire
like that of India-and warnings also against the pitfalls into
which the administrators of that Empire are likely to be
betrayed. But still the effect of such observations is to throw
us back, as it were, upon our haunches, and make us consider
whether the finances of India are sound or not. Now, in the
first place, let me assure you that they are sound.
You hear of deficits, annual deficits, year after year. But
these are technical nominal deficits, and are hardly deficits at
all in the proper sense of the word. These merely arise because
the sums spent by the Government upon the improvement of
the country, upon canals and railways, are included in the
ordinary finances. But, in no other country in the world are
such charges included in the ordinary finances; on the contrary,
they are excluded; and that being so, there is in India no
deficit whatever; on the contrary, there is an exact equilibrium
established between income and expenditure. Upon the
finances of the last twelve years there has been actually a slight
surplus; and thus it goes on, a little deficit one year with a
little surplus another; and, when you come to draw out the
threads of a series of years, there comes out a slight surplus.
Then the revenues are said to be inelastic; well they are
inelastic as compared with the elastic revenues of England; but,
202
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
nevertheless, they are growing and increasing. The incidence
of taxation is excessively low, when you take it per head of
population, it is as low as taxation can possibly be, if there is
to be any taxation at all. Then, the army expenditure is not
excessive; it does not amount to above one-quarter of the
annual receipts. Or it may be said to bear a proportion of
about one-fourth or one-third, accordingly as you choose to take
the total of the revenues proper or the total receipts of all kinds.
It does not exceed the proportion which the defensive expenses
of any one of the great Powers of Europe bear to the general
finance of that Power. Therefore the army in India costs about
as much as it costs in all other civilised countries-that, and
no more. The civil expenses are not outrunning the constable;
they are kept well in hand, and, while they are rather diminished
in all those respects which affect Europeans, they are slightly
increased in other respects, but merely for the sake of giving
the natives better pay and better preferment. But even then,
so correct has been the management, there has been no real
increase on the whole, savings being balanced against augmen-
tations. Then public works have, no doubt, been carried out to
a great extent; the Government has invested 125,000,0007.
sterling upon railways, of which about 93,000,0007. have
been expended by guaranteed companies, and the rest directly
by the State.* Upon the whole of that concern taken
together—some railways paying more and some paying less
-upon the whole they are paying about 5 per cent., and
this notwithstanding the many new railways which have
just been opened, or are not quite completed, and which
have not yet got their traffic developed. You hear much
about canals. Well, we have the finest irrigation canal system
to be seen in the world. Whether it is equalled by the
canal system of the Babylonians in the days of Nebuchad-
nezzar, or of Alexander the Great, I hardly know; but even
* These figures have, of course, risen somewhat during the three years
which have elapsed since this speech was delivered.
CHAP. X.
PUBLIC DEBT OF INDIA.
203
been canals to
There have been
in Mesopotamia there could hardly have
surpass the canals now to be seen in India.
20,000,0007. sterling spent upon them, and upon that six per
cent. is being paid now; and if that is so now, you can judge
what will be obtained a few years hence.
Then you will ask, how about the Public, or National Debt?
The Debt stands at about 150,000,000l. sterling.* But that in-
cludes all that has been spent upon the State railways which I
have been describing, and also upon the canals; it likewise in-
cludes large sums of money which have been spent for the relief
of the recent famines. So that if you deduct this sum, and take
the debt which has really been spent upon actual war, upon
military operations, and the like, which corresponds to the Public
Debt of the European Powers, the Indian Debt is just about
equal to two years' revenue. That is not an excessive incum-
brance; that will not sink the Imperial boat, nor drag the
Empire into ruin. Further, what is the condition of that debt?
The rates of interest have been repeatedly reduced of late years.
They have been reduced from five to four-and-a-half, and even
four per cent., and the Fours once rose to 105, or five per cent.
premium, though they have since fallen. The Fours and a Half,
however, still command a premium; and, altogether, if you
look at the quotations-the financial quotations of the world-
you will find that the Indian Government is now borrowing at
a rate which is the most favourable in the world—next after
that of England itself. Well, then, you hear also that this
Public Debt is not raised locally-not in the country, not from
the natives, but in England. It is perfectly true that the debt
for the guaranteed railway was entirely raised in this country,
but exclude that and exclude also the public debt that has been
raised in this country, then you will find that of the remaining
debt, which has been raised in India, of which the interest
is payable there, and which amounts to about 60,000,000.
* This is exclusive of the 93,000,000l. mentioned above, as expended on
guaranteed railways.
204
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
J
sterling, one-third is held by natives. Thus a sum of about
20,000,000l. sterling is invested by the natives of India in
British securities-that is, securities of the Indian Government.
That is not a bad sum for the natives to have invested; and
they would have invested much more if it had not been that the
Government have been constantly reducing the rates of interest
on account of the increase of competition. The natives used to
lend us money at five or five and a half per cent., but, as you
know, money can be raised at four and four and a half per cent.
in London, and therefore the Government raise it there. Other-
wise the natives would have held still more stock than they hold
now. Still they have subscribed about 20,000,000l. sterling,
and are still lending us about 2,000,000l. a year on an average
for carrying on our public works; and the other day when a sum
of 2,000,000l. was wanted for the service of the year, no less
than 23,000,0007 were tendered-that is to say people offered to
lend us 23,000,000l. when we only wanted 2,000,000l.; and out
of that 23,000,000l., 9,000,000l. were offered by the natives
of India. Then, you are told that we must add to that
150,000,000, which I mentioned as the Public Debt of India,
the debt for the guaranteed railways. Well, add that, and it
makes another 93,000,000l. But what is the effect? The effect
you will find to be, that upon the total of what I may call the
debt thus consolidated, the interest would not be above two
and a half per cent. upon the whole. I should like to know
whether there is any other Government upon earth that is paying
so little as two and a half per cent. on its National Debt.
Perhaps the Dutch Government is not paying more than this,
but its debt is limited. So that, on the whole, if you take the
debt in that way it is in one of the most favourable positions in
the world, if not actually the most favourable. Well, then, so
much for the finances. If these propositions which I have
stated are correct-and I say you will find that they are
absolutely correct in all essentials (I have recently verified
them all)—then you can judge for yourselves, gentlemen,
СПАР. Х.
CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
205
regarding the great dependency of India, as to whether its
finances are in a sound state or not.
Then perhaps you would like to know next the condition of
the people of India. It is said sometimes that they are gradually
starving, and are gradually becoming poorer and poorer every
day. Well, of course they are poor upon an average of the entire
population. But the wealth of India is vast in the abstract;
relatively it is not vast, because the population itself is so vast.
The trade is in one sense great, but it is not really so very
great; indeed, relatively to the mighty population it is some-
what small. Nevertheless, the progress of the nation can only
be measured or gauged by a reasonable comparison of the people
at one time in reference to another-at one age or one era in
reference to another age or another era. Then, according to
that standard, I say the people are advancing. The population
is being, no doubt, at times reduced by famine; nevertheless,
after making abatements for that, the population will be found
to be increasing. The people are increasing and the cultiva-
tion is increasing. The trade is increasing immensely, both in
the foreign or external trade, and the domestic or internal trade.
The dwellings of the people are being improved; the interior of
their homes is being made brighter and their condition happier.
The people have better houses-better built cottages—better
furniture, and better domestic utensils than formerly. Their
industries—their ancient industries-are, despite some losses,
on the whole on a par with the industries of the palmiest days
of the Mogul Empire; on the other hand, a number of new
industries never known before are being introduced by the aid
of steam and machinery. Their property is secured to them in
a degree never seen previously. Formerly there was doubt
whether the land belonged to the people or not.
It was
generally considered to belong to the Government; but now
a proprietary title, from one end of India to the other over this
vast area of the country, has been created or recognised for their
benefit by the British Government. Justice is administered in
+
→
206
СПАР. Х.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
such a manner that every man feels secure of reaping what he
has sown, and of enjoying the fruits of his labour, and a sense
of moral independence is growing up among the people. The
food supply is said to be sometimes deficient; but it is impos-
sible to understand an abstract proposition of that nature in
face of the known facts that people are storing food to the
extent of millions of tons annually for their sustenance in time
of drought; and, besides that, are exporting hundreds of
thousands of tons annually to Europe and to the Colonies.
Wages are rising. There are no doubt many poor; there are
many beggars pursuing mendicancy as a profession, I am sorry
to say, in India, and statistically it is known that there is, at
least, a million of them, taking the whole empire together.
Still they are all sustained without any poor-rate or any poor-
law organisation for that purpose; and in that respect India
sets a good example to even the most civilised nation. Then,
as to the people being starved or impoverished, would you be
surprised to hear that there are many millions of them that are
on an average taller if not stouter than we are? There are
many millions also who are somewhat gaunt, somewhat thin;
and there are some hundreds of thousands that are stunted in
growth. I want to know whether that description does not apply
also to some of the most strong and robust nations of Europe.
And remember, pray, that the Government of India-if you
take military inches in the ranks as at all a test of the stature
of the people—could be backed to put into the field more
tall battalions, as regards inches if not chest measurement,
probably than any other Government under the sun. If all
these economic facts are demonstrable, as I conceive they are,
then on the whole the material condition of the people is
tolerably satisfactory. I am far from saying it is perfect or
all that we should desire; but I say that the state of the people
is as good as can reasonably be expected considering their past
history, their climate, and their physical surroundings.
Now I do not pretend to give you a rose-coloured picture.
CHAP. X.
DANGERS INHERENT IN INDIA.
207
I admit that notwithstanding these considerations there are at
least four or five dangers which always overhang us, and which
we see no immediate chance of removing. First, no doubt, and
foremost of these difficulties is the periodical recurrence of
famines. Beyond question we do have famines at least once in
every decade. Secondly, there is a constant liability to financial
derangement by reason of the exchanges. Silver, as you know,
fluctuates in value considerably. Just now it is very low as
compared to gold; that is a great trouble to the Indian Govern-
ment, which has to make large payments to England in
silver which is measured by a gold standard. This fact does
seriously derange the calculations of Indian financiers, and we
cannot help it. Thirdly, with respect to the death-rate of the
Indian population, it is no doubt high-there is no denying
that. That is to say, if 2 per cent. or 2 per cent. or some-
thing under 3 per cent. of population is to be considered a
favourable or a normal death-rate according to the statistics of
the most civilised countries, then it must be admitted that the
death-rate of India is something over 3 per cent. I say some-
thing over-I know it is over 3 per cent.-but how much no
one can tell, because our vital statistics are imperfect, and
therefore I can only say that the death-rate is over 3 per cent.
There is no doubt that the surroundings of the people are
insanitary, that there is a great deal of infantile mortality, and
a great many diseases amongst the adults. There is no ques-
tion that impure drinking water and want of proper sanitary
arrangements near their dwellings do affect the health of the
people. Fourthly, there is the constant political agitation and
ultimate financial disturbance caused by the war cloud which is
always rolling from the direction of Eastern Europe towards our
Afghanistan frontier. Until that cloud shall disappear, if it ever
shall—but I must not enter into that subject now-but until
that disappears we have constant danger or trouble from that
quarter. Fifthly, in a foreign country, and an alien and a distant
Empire like India, you must expect that there are elements of
208
СНАР. Х.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
[
political danger. The mass of the people, I state without hesita-
tion, are contented and loyal. I cannot say anything too good
of the people of India in that respect. Considering that they are
aliens, and that we are foreigners, I do not think any other people
on earth would behave as well as they do in this respect. Never-
theless, I do not want to land you—I was going to say in a fool's
paradise-I do not want to land you in what the natives call
a green garden," which is an expression that is equivalent to
the château in Spain. I do not want you to suppose that there
is no danger at all; on the contrary, there are many dangers.
We, by our system of education which we have introduced, and
our Western ideas, and various other influences of the nineteenth
century, are indirectly causing the popular religion to be under-
mined, and that of course sets the ancient priesthood against
us. There is an old feudal aristocracy which flourished in the
days of war and revolution, which cannot get on and flourish
equally well under a settled and civilized Government like ours.
So there is another class against us. Thus, in our own British
Indian territory, we have several classes against us. There are
next the Native States. I am not alluding to them as being in
any way disloyal; on the contrary, India is an Empire—in the
sense in which Rome was—that is to say, there are vast British
territories, and there are a number of feudatories and native
allies scattered throughout the Empire which are loyal to the back-
bone; and it was partly owing to that fact that we got through
the war of the Mutiny (in 1857) as well as we did. We owe
our victory-under Providence-at that time to our strong right
arm, no doubt; but even the British bayonets would not have
been finally efficacious if there had not been a great conservative
party in the country, which mainly centered in the Native States.
Thus I have now put that part of the case fully before you.
You can see the dangers, you hear the objections, and you hear
the answers to them, you also perceive what are the elements
of security. So much for my brief discourse, addressed to those
who have been concerned in government and administration.
CHAP. X. NO CHANCE OF COLONISATION IN INDIA. 209
I will now offer a few remarks to the gentlemen-my Colonial
fellow-countrymen-who are concerned in industry and com-
merce. You will naturally ask me to give you some idea of
the products, the industries, and the commerce of India; also
some idea as to what sort of field they offer for the employment
of young Englishmen. I take it that one of the burning
questions of the day to British fathers is, What are we to do
with our sons? I say that India will help very much if the
subject is approached in the right way.
First, let me remind you that you cannot colonise India in the
way you have colonised Australia, South Africa, North America,
and the like. If you say, granted, you cannot colonise the
plains of India, but you can the Himalayas-I am afraid not.
A certain experience shows that the European race will not sur-
vive more than two or three generations in these eastern longi-
tudes, or in these southern latitudes, whichever way you like to
look at them. It is the latitude and the longitude together that
produce certain climatic effects which are absolutely fatal and
inimical to our Anglo-Saxon race; and therefore, if you were to
send father and mother and family to India, or a number of
families constituting a small population of that kind, in the
course of two or three generations that race would become
nearly extinct. That is a physical fact in the first place; and
secondly, even if that were otherwise, it is quite impossible in
such a climate for a European as a labouring man to compete
with the natives, because he would be undersold and underbid
in every way, and in the end he would find nothing to do.
Therefore you cannot colonise in that sense; but in another
and equally good sense you can settle in the country. You
must no doubt come home to Europe from India during the
evening of life, and, above all things, a man, woman, boy, or
girl, must spend the morning of life in this European climate.
But the middle of life may be spent perfectly well in India,
and you may bear the brunt and the heat of the day, and come
Р
210
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
back tolerably fresh to your country and address your country-
men as I address you this evening.
Although a man cannot work with his hands alone, I may
remind you, to make the subject clear, that some men work with
their hands and others work with their heads, and others work
with both together. An European man cannot work with his
hands alone in India; but he can work to a great extent with
his hands and head together as a skilled labourer. More parti-
cularly he can work well with his head, can direct, control,
and exert authority. He can exercise over the natives in
industry and commercial pursuits that power of command
which has never failed an Englishman in any exigency where
it has been tried. But in order to do that his habit of mind
must be suited for his business. He must, as a European, if he
is to live in India at all, live more or less as a gentleman, but
he cannot afford to live as a prince. His habits must not be
grand, but simple-that is to say, he must manage to live
cheaply and economically. That you will think is a truism. But
it is no truism at all; it is a sad warning which has to be given.
No doubt hundreds of commercial and industrial enterprises have
failed because our young friends have forgotten that principle.
They have gone out—having been brought up in simple homes
in this country, where they were taught economical habits, and to
work-they have gone out to India where they think they are to
live entirely as gentlemen. They build fine houses, or the firms
out there build the houses for them. Thus great personal ex-
penses are incurred, and then, of course, the concern is found
not to pay. But it would have paid right enough if it had been
administered in the frugal manner in which similar concerns
are administered at home.
Then the education of these young men must be good, of
.course; but still it must be practical. I do not disparage
classical, literary, and artistic education; it is the only education
I ever received myself, and I am duly thankful for it. But
CHAP. X.
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR INDUSTRIES.
211
something besides that is wanted for the affairs with which I
am now dealing. For, in future, in these lines of life, every
man's education must be technical and practical; and he
must not only be taught the theory of a business or trade,
but must learn something of the working of it in this country
before he proceeds to India. You may think that this also
is a truism; but it is no truism at all. It is a solemn fact
that scores of concerns have failed simply because men have
thought it required no particular training or professional edu-
cation to become a planter of tea, coffee, or indigo. Afterwards
it is found that the tea does not fetch a good price because it
has not been properly prepared for market. The coffee simi-
larly fails, or the plants wither. But why, simply because
gentlemen went out from this country to undertake those diffi-
cult businesses without any previous proper training, or without
that sort of education which would qualify them for such kinds
of trade. Thus you understand that a man who has had merely
a general education, would not have had that education which
enables him to take to agriculture in India as a planter. Thus,
the sort of man to go out to India is he who has had plain
practical industrial instruction besides general education.
Now, as regards the general trade of the country, as you pro-
bably know, it is very considerable. So rapid is the increase of
trade in Australia that you would not be surprised to hear that
the trade of India is computed to exceed 100 millions sterling in
value per annum; one year it got up to 120 millions;* but in
good average years it has been 105 to 110 millions, and the
greater part of that trade might be in the hands of Europeans,
as it was once in their hands. This is the trade which belonged
to the East India Company; but it is fast falling into the hands
of natives. They are outdoing us, no doubt, in economy of
management. They are becoming better educated; they are
establishing their branches in London, in New York, and many
other cities; and they are gradually getting their share of the
* In a subsequent year it has amounted to 140 millions.
P 2
212
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
trade. Still there is a great opening for young Britons,
a much larger opening than they avail themselves of, for em-
ployment in the general business of commerce. I say almost
the whole of this great trade which I have described to you
might be in the hands of Europeans if they could only manage
to outstrip the natives in the competition. It is rather, perhaps,
an extraordinary thing to hear that natives are so rapidly
competing with us in this respect. Remember I am not
talking of manual industries, but of regular mercantile business,
and of natives who establish themselves at the centres of trade
at the principal marts of the Presidential towns, exactly in the
same way as Englishmen might settle themselves down. The
natives organise, buy produce up country, arrange for its
being brought down to the coast, and for its being sent to Eng-
land. All this class of business is now done immensely by the
natives, and year by year in an increasing degree. So that if
this is a fact, and I say it is a demonstrable fact, you will
see there is a great opening for young Englishmen to compete
in that branch of business.
Then, with regard to the productions; they are enormous, as
you are aware. The natural products of the woods and forests
and the wilds of India are multiform and various. The agricul-
tural produce is some of the most extensive in the world. The
manufactured produce is also very considerable. We are justly
proud of the pre-eminence of Great Britain in manufactures.
Would you be astonished to hear that there are scores of articles
which India makes and exports to other countries? Now, I
deliberately say, without exception, that there is not one of these
things in which the management and direction might not fall
into the hands of Europeans if they were qualified; and that,
in every instance where the European got the command, there
would be an improvement in the staple and in the manufacture.
Nevertheless, almost the whole of this trade, or a greater portion
of it, is in the hands of the natives. The trade, also, is not
only very extensive externally, but it is most extensive inter-
CHAP. X.
INLAND NAVIGATION.
213
nally. Why, the railways alone carry backwards and forwards
8,000,000 of tons of produce annually from one part of the
country to the other. The boat traffic, the river navigation of
the interior of India, rivals that of China, and is perhaps the
most extensive in the world. The boats are to be numbered,
not only by tens, but even by hundreds, of thousands. It
is excessively difficult to state the number of boats as they
go backwards and forwards from one station to another up and
down the rivers. But the river kingdom of Eastern Bengal,
and the navigation of the great rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra,
and the like, is superior, I believe, to that of any other river
in the world, the Mississippi and the Yangtsze Kiang hardly
excepted. Therefore, you see what an important field there
must be in all this for the employment of Europeans if they
would set to work and win the position which they might
assume in that country.
Land holding might be attempted by Europeans to a limited
extent only, because the natives are like the Irish in one
respect, in that they cling very much to their homes, and it is
difficult to find any land to be purchased. But, even then,
land might sometimes be purchased to a considerable extent,
provided always that this were done in an economic spirit. I
have known many estates in Bengal which have been held by
Europeans, and, afterwards, the European families have fallen
into poor circumstances, and their property has passed into
other hands. But it is due to the old complaint. They begin
by building fine houses, large enough for English noblemen,
with very nice parks, and all that sort of thing; and then the
estates will not pay for all that. But if they had lived as small
squires do in England, their estates would have kept them in
tolerably easy circumstances.
But let us turn for a moment to some of the great products
of India. In the Eastern Himalayas, in Eastern Bengal, in
Assam, in the Panjab, and in other places, you will see beauti-
ful tea-gardens picturesquely situated, the houses high up and
214
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
•
well placed; although the gardens are low down and in rather
hot valleys, still the houses are nice and cool up above. They
are charming places in every sense of the word. Hundreds
of your countrymen are following the profession of tea
planters there; and these gardens may yet be indefinitely
multiplied. There are upwards of half a million of acres
growing tea now in those regions, and the export of tea alone is
thirty-four million pounds (lbs.) annually, and all that has been
the work of only the last few years. You see, therefore, what
an opening there is for young men, provided they learn their
work and practise their profession. Then, let me ask you to turn
your eyes to the Western mountains on the Malabar Coast,
down towards the lower part of the Indian Peninsula, especially
to the southern part of that range, including the hilly district
of Wynaad, the mountains of the Nilgiris, and the hills of
Cûrg and Mysore. There you will find what are now almost
the finest coffee-gardens in the world. Perhaps I may hardly
say the finest in the world, because they are equalled by those
of Ceylon, but still as fine as any in the world, producing a
coffee which has superseded the old Mocha coffee of Arabia, and
affording spheres of labour to young Englishmen. But here,
again, the number of tea and coffee companies that have gone into
liquidation and been broken up, with hopes blasted and fortunes
wrecked, is something painful to contemplate, and the reason is
that men have sometimes undertaken to manage these affairs
who have no proper professional education for the work.
Before I pass from that I may remind our Australian friends
that many of the Indian coffee planters believe that they will
before long be emigrating to Australia, and they will make
fresh coffee plantations there; and as regards tea, it is the hope
of all the tea-planting interest of India that they will have a
great market for tea in Australia.
Now, another industry is that of sugar. The sugar of India,
if well refined, would be inferior to no sugar in the world; but
the cultivation is not all that it might be. The manufacture,
CHAP. X.
EXPORT OF WHEAT FROM INDIA.
215
and the refining especially, of the sugar is anything but good.
Nevertheless, some European firms have established themselves
in India, and do a very prosperous business by sugar refining.
There, again, is an opening for young men.
Well, we hear a great deal of the wheat of India, which is
large in the total quantity produced. Take the produce of the
United Kingdom at 10,000,000 quarters-well, then, the wheat
crop of India is not less than 40,000,000 quarters; and in good
years it is as much as 50,000,000 quarters-five times the yield
of the United Kingdom. Then the quality is extremely good;
the upper valley of the Ganges, the valley of the Nerbadda river,
in the centre of India, are wheat producing countries, and the
export is rapidly developing itself.*
Then there is rice, as a staple produce of India, and more par-
ticularly a staple of British Burmah, since the annexation of
that country within the last twenty years, and the delta of the
Irawady, where the rice trade has sprung up wonderfully.
That is almost entirely at present in the hands of Europeans.
But it is to be apprehended in the course of a short time that
the old story will be repeated-the natives will find out the
ways and the habits of the trade, and will begin to elbow the
Europeans out of it; but at present the Europeans have got it
nearly all their own way.
Next, there is the chinchona, that produces the famous
febrifuge. Considering you have an immense population of
250,000,000 living in a generally feverish and malarious
country, you can imagine what a market is opening for the
consumption of the bark which is a prophylactic against fever.
The Government has established plantations among the Nilgiri
hills in the South, and among the Himalayas in the North—
beautiful plantations, and in most picturesque localities, all
requiring European management.
Tobacco in India is extensively grown; but again the old
story is repeated-it is inferior to that of Manilla and South
* This was said at the end of 1880; since then the exportation has
increased in the most satisfactory manner.
216
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
America, because it is not skilfully cultivated in India nor
properly prepared. That manufacture really awaits the entry
of Europeans into the business. The Government itself is so
alive to this that it has been making experiments, and sub-
sidising one or two European firms, in order to see what they
can effect in this matter.
So, again, with malt liquors, we flatter ourselves that we are one
of the best beer-producing communities in the world; but would
you be surprised to hear that barley is sent from this country to
India, turned into malt out there, the yeast being obtained locally,
and the beer manufactured in the Himalayas ?
Then carry your minds for a moment right up to the north-
eastern portion of India, and bear in mind the boat traffic which
I have described to you in the upper valleys, where is produced
the Corchorus capsularis, as botanists call it, commonly called jute.
Thence it is sent down in boats throughout these great arterial
rivers and their branches right down to Calcutta. There it is
manufactured along the banks of the Hughly at Calcutta: where
you may see rows and rows of factory chimneys towering into
the skies like forests on both banks of the river, for the manufac-
ture of the jute. Formerly the jute used to go to Dundee to be
manufactured, now it is largely manufactured at Calcutta.
Lately the Indians have begun to get a share of the manufac-
tures into their own hands; but in the main the companies,
directors, managers, and foremen are Europeans. And the
concerns may continue to be guided by Europeans unless the
natives acquire knowledge of the business, and thus virtually
carry off the chief prize in the competition. Now, where is this
jute going to? Why, to Australia, to Eastern Asia, to Siam, to
China, but more particularly to Australia; and what is most
interesting of all, going to the United States of America. It is
sent now past China and Japan, right across the Pacific to Cali-
fornia and to San Francisco. At this time there is probably no
foreign name more familiar to the inhabitants of Calcutta than
San Francisco. So much for jute. The same may be said of
flax. India is essentially a flax-producing country, that is to
*
CHAP. X.
SILKWORM OF THE EAST.
217
say, it produces the linseed plant. But this plant, which yields
the flax, is grown almost entirely for the sake of the seed, not
for the sake of the stem or the fibre, because it requires a great
deal of culture and management and manufacturing skill to
arrange all that; and there is no European in the business;
but if Europeans do take to the business, there is nothing to
prevent India competing with Russia and other flax-producing
countries. Exactly the same story may be told of hemp and
coir, which latter is a most important fibre, and makes the
very strongest cables and most unbreakable sort of rope; and
there is no country that can compete with India in that
respect, for this reason-the fibre is got from the husk of the
cocoa-nut. Ceylon, no doubt, produces cocoa-nut, but nothing
surpasses the cocoa-nut of the delta of the Ganges and the coast
of Malabar, and the quantity is immense.
Next, silk is produced from two kinds of worms; one feeds on
the mulberry which is the best kind; the other feeds upon various
other trees which grow wild in the forest. The mulberry-fed
silkworm was the worm which was most esteemed in Bengal in
the days of the East India Company, but latterly China has
successfully competed with us in India; and so has, until
recently, Italy. Our silk exportation mainly depends upon the
question whether there has been a good crop in China and Italy;
whenever there is a failure of crops in those two countries we
have a good export trade of silk from India. At present, then,
our Indian silk trade is somewhat precarious. But there is a
new silk trade coming up-viz., that of the silk produced by
the worms which feed upon the trees that grow wild in the
forest, which is called "tusser "; and there is no country
which can compete with India in that respect. There are
specimens of it being made and sent to Paris and other prin-
cipal centres of art and industry in Europe, and it is found to
produce beautiful fabrics at a cheap cost; and if this should
succeed, there will be another industry opened out for young
men from England.
218
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
ן
:
Well, leaving the fibrous substances which I have touched
upon, and the agricultural produce also, may I say a word or
two upon the dyes? Let me ask you to carry your imagination
back for a moment to the fine estates and properties belonging
to your countrymen in Behar. Formerly, indigo was produced
from Bengal; and it has been ruined there for the last twenty
years, because it could not be produced at prices which would
prove remunerative in Europe. You see all sorts of chemical
blues are being discovered in Europe-beautiful blues of course,
but not very lasting-whereas nothing in the world equals in
richness and in durability the blue of the Indian indigo. Well,
this competition of what I may call these meretricious chemical
blues kept down the price of the indigo. Then the prices of rice
and the like rose. So the cultivators of Bengal refused to cultivate
indigo at unremunerative prices, and the indigo planters could
not afford to give better, and discontinued the business; thus
in the course of half a dozen years there fell to the ground what
was once a great European industry. The indigo of Behar, how-
ever, still thrives, and scores of young Englishmen may continue
to find employment in it, provided that such concerns be
economically conducted. But if the indigo planters are to be
like fine country gentlemen of the olden time, and are to have
estates with country seats and the like, then the indigo may
not suffice to maintain their position.
::
In order to avoid fatiguing you, I must run rapidly over the
remaining products. The subject is extensive and interesting.
There is the oil, the common oil of India, that will not employ
Europeans but the cocoa-nut oil of India is largely exported to
Europe, and I believe when it arrives there it is called olive oil!
But the mineral oils of India may largely employ Europeans, if
what I hear is correct regarding the mineral oils of America,
which are said to be on the decline. Then up jumps the kerosene
oil of India. Thus there are mineral oils springing up in Assam
and Burmah, of course under European direction.
One word regarding the cattle of India. Notwithstanding
CHAP. X.
COAL MINES AND COLLIERIES.
219
what may be said about their destruction by famine, there are
still untold numbers of cattle in India, and the consequence
is that there is a trade in horns and skins, of which enormous
quantities are exported abroad. Then comes the question of
curing the skins, which is one of the things that Europeans
will understand better than the natives, and which Europeans
might teach natives to do. Consequently there rise up tanning
concerns in Northern India, employing Europeans, and so a
great leather trade springs up. At present, you perhaps imagine
that England is the only country that can make harness pro-
perly. Would you be astonished to hear that the harness for
the cavalry and artillery is now being made by Indians from
Indian leather, of course under European direction? Then the
wool of India is not of course a large article of export, as we in
England get our foreign wool from Australia. But there, again,
is a trade in which Europeans may be most advantageously
employed. Certain wools in India can only be produced
there: they are the peculiarly fine and soft kinds from the
Himalayas and the great uplands of Central Asia. That wool
trade ought to be in the hands of Europeans. So with camel's
hair; that is an article in which hardly any country, except
Arabia, can compete with us; an article also which might
afford excellent employment for Europeans.
Then you come to minerals. I have not time to mention to
you all the coal mines, but you are aware that there are
extensive coal mines in India now-not indeed having a great
output, like those of the collieries of England, but still extensive
coal mines-up to which railways are being made in the western
parts of Bengal, in the Panjab, in the Nerbadda valley, in the
Nagpur province-all those countries produce coal; and here
an extensive number of natives are employed, of course under
European direction. Then the iron trade of India. The iron
manufactures are extensive: and now that European companies
are being formed for the carrying on of iron works, that business
is beginning to prosper.
220
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
I must briefly allude to gold. Great hopes are, of course,
entertained by many people about that, but I do not wish to
lead you to entertain expectations in that respect which may
not be realised. There are most interesting gold formations
which have been discovered on the western or Malabar coasts,
and the survey reports have been extremely favourable. But
the superficially accessible metal has been apparently extracted
already in former ages, by mining operations of which traces
are extant; and so the cream, as it were, may have been pre-
viously skimmed off. Then it has to be seen whether the
gold which yet remains is in great quantities, or whether
it can be extracted in a manner that will make it pay. There
is reason to fear that it will not be extracted easily, and
there will not be gold diggings as there were in Australia
in the manner which you understand. The extracting of the
gold will be done, if done at all, by a comparatively delicate
process, which requires a good deal of capital. There will
also be many difficult questions regarding the royalty and
the rights in respect to these minerals. There will be much
trouble and negotiation and the like, so that, one thing taken
together with another, it is, as yet, extremely doubtful whether
these gold discoveries will come to much. Of course, every
one in India hopes they will lead to success-a matter of great
importance to the country, as it might affect favourably the
difficulty about silver.
Then I might say a word about chemicals. Saltpetre is one
of the most important. That is produced extensively all over
India; and I believe nearly all the saltpetre used in this
country comes from India; and you will see that this is
a matter in which Europeans might be employed. Borax, also,
can be got as well from the Himalayas or the countries beyond
as it can from Italy.
Further, there is forest produce; and I believe, if any of our
naval friends were present, they would say that the teak of
* This unfavourable anticipation has been confirmed by subsequent events.
CHAP. X.
ART PRODUCTS OF INDIA.
221
the Indian forests is not to be surpassed by any wood anywhere,
and that will be confirmed by the highest authority-namely,
the British Admiralty. There are the sandal wood and the
ebony of India, which are also among the best in the world.
We have the nuts called Myrobalans, which are most useful in
commerce, and are largely produced in the forests of India.
There, again, are fields for the employment of Europeans. The
india-rubber of India is probably superior to that of any other
country; it is very imperfectly developed, merely from the
want of such skill as Europeans can bring into play.
Lastly, the art products are most numerous, such as shawls,
carpets, pottery, inlaid wood, together with horn, ivory, and the
like. The opinion has been gaining ground in Europe, espe-
cially since the last Exhibition at Paris, that nothing can be
made in Europe that exceeds in beauty and real merit these art
products of India. Then, if these sorts of products are to find
their way into all the markets of Europe, manifestly there ought
to be Europeans in the business; and young Britons, before
going to India to join such business, ought to be posted up in
all these things, in order to discern what are the best articles of
the kind in India, and send them thence to the markets of the
world.
In addition, a word might be said about model farms, only
time does not permit. Agricultural education is amongst the
burning questions of India, and as soon as such education spreads
there will be model farms everywhere under European direction.
Wherever European skill has been applied to cattle breeding in
India, under the direction of Government, marked success has
been obtained, as might be expected from the aptitude which
Englishmen always show in this work. Horse breeding I am
afraid we shall not make much of in India, for the conviction is
gaining ground that we cannot compete with the beautiful
horses which are coming by many hundreds every year from
Australia, Persia, and Arabia.
I have not said anything about cotton, there is hardly time;
222
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
but you are well aware that there are cotton factories for
cleaning, weaving, and spinning; and that these Indian-made
cotton fabrics are, in some ways—not in all respects, but
in a limited respect-competing with the fabrics of England.
Here, of course, is much employment for Europeans.
As to the mechanical arts, why imagine all the different
factories I have described; imagine, also, all the various work-
shops which exist-the workshops for the railways, the work-
shops for the canals and the public works for the Government.
Imagine, further, that there are many hundreds of locomotive
engines in India, and there are many thousands of wagons and
trucks, and the like. All these require repairing or putting
together, or making up, and such things give employment to
large numbers of Europeans. Then, with regard to public
works, we have 10,000 miles of railways open; we have 8000
or 9000 miles of principal canals, with branches, making up in
all, 15,000 miles of canals. Take those two kinds of works
alone. Consider the number of roads, and bridges, and barracks,
and public buildings, and all the magnificent structures arising
up in the Presidential towns and the like; and imagine what
important public works are springing up in India, the whole of
which must give employment to European engineers, assistant
engineers, overseers, artisans, and mechanics. True there has
been a sudden reduction of establishments which have thrown
some young men—I will not say thrown them out of employ-
ment-but induced the Government to retire many officers, and
that, no doubt, has cast rather a damper upon the spirits of
engineers. Nevertheless, we have an excellent college at
Cooper's Hill, near London, for training civil engineers for
India; and it is not likely that this great profession will be
seriously diminished in India; for, no sooner has the Govern-
ment discharged some of its engineers, than fresh requirements
arise, and it begins to regret having discharged them; so that,
the fact is, there is and always will be a great demand for
European engineers in India.
CHAP. X. SOURCES OF INDIAN INFORMATION.
223
I may be asked to specify the sources of information to
which young men intending to go to India might resort. I am
afraid, at this late hour, it would be impossible for me to go
into that question, for I should have to give an analysis
of what is a very extensive literature. There really are
publications, official, and non-official, upon every one of the
subjects on which I have touched. Volumes have been written
by private individuals, and reports without end have been
published by the Government. I might explain, if time
permitted, that there are public bodies, non-official bodies.
I speak of them as public, for they are in the nature of Corpora-
tions, although they are non-official, consisting of private gentle-
men. I allude to the Chambers of Commerce in India, and
especially the Chambers of Commerce of Calcutta and Bombay,
which are among the most important Chambers of Commerce
of the world. They are second to none in their knowledge, in
their intelligence, and in the vast store of information at their
command. But, besides that, there are extensive Trade Asso-
ciations both at Calcutta and Bombay. If time had permitted
I might have alluded to the European tradesmen class of India.
I mean tradesmen in the same sense in which tradesmen are
mentioned in England. The European tradesmen in India
are so numerous that they form associations and give annual
dinners, which are, in a small way, like the civic feasts of
London. They entertain there the principal officials. Annual
speeches are made by the highest officers in the country, which
correspond to speeches made by Ministers in London. So that
these associations have the very best information, which they
would be happy to place at the disposal of young men visiting
the country. From what can be given by these associations
and the literature of India, I imagine no man would have any
difficulty in learning all that he could be expected to learn in
England.
In reference to the remarks adverse to India made by some
of my friends, what I have to say is this, that if you bear in mind
224
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
all they say you will find that it comes to matter of opinion;
their opinion is very able and valuable, and the opinion of
native friends, whom they consult, is also valuable; but after
all they are but opinions which may differ from ours, and you
don't expect every Englishman and Native to agree about the
affairs of India any more than you can expect Englishmen to
agree about the aspect and condition of England. I hope, how-
ever, that my address has consisted of facts rather than opinion.
I have stated to you a body of facts; every financial and
economic statement I made is a fact; bear that in mind kindly,
gentlemen. They are facts irrefragable, indisputable, demon-
strable, unquestionable. And if these are the facts, it is for you
to judge whether there is prosperity or not, and whether the
country is in a safe, sound condition or not. Having stated
those facts, I leave you to judge whether they are consistent
with the adverse opinions of the gentlemen whom I have
mentioned. I will not attempt to recapitulate the points; I
only ask you, as you go away home, to remember that I claim
for my statement an absolute foundation of fact, and you will
draw your own conclusions.
To conclude, you see now in all these various respects-and
I daresay I might multiply instances—but I have given you as
many instances as your attention can bear this evening-you
can see what an immense field there is for industrial persons,
which has been open, is open, and will yet open for young
Britons in India. But, in conclusion, remember there is
this competition of the natives. There is a great system
of State education going on in India. I have not time to
touch upon the moral progress and the mental advancement
of the natives, though there I might also show as favourable
a picture as I have shown regarding the finances and the
material condition of the country. But, irrespective of the
moral progress of the natives, their intellectual and mental pro-
gress is considerable. They are becoming clever, handy fellows,
and are beginning to learn the arts and industries which have
CHAP. X. NATIVES COMPETING WITH EUROPEANS.
225
made England as great as she is. That very science which has
placed Britain in the van of the nations of the world, we are
offering to the natives, not only offering, but pressing upon
them. We are indeed making them adopt the ways of science
and civilisation. So you must expect-if any of my young
friends are present who are thinking of going to India-you
must be prepared for competition from the natives, and you
must be ready to meet them on their own ground, otherwise
you cannot possibly succeed. There will be a cry raised of
India for the Indians. Well, you would not wish a counter
cry to be raised of India for the British. The true cry, which
cry alone the Government will follow, is this-India both for
the Indians and the British alike. Let them run a race which
is to be won by the swiftest, and let them fight the battle of
emulation in which the victory will go to the strongest-not
the strongest physically, but the strongest intellectually and
morally. There is no fear that the result of such competition
will do any harm to the natives; it may do good to the British
-God grant that it may! But if it does good to the British,
that good will, in return, benefit the natives; for, invariably,
experience has proved in India that wherever Europeans have
gone and settled and flourished, those are the places where the
natives have also prospered and flourished the most. So that
in going to India, and following all the industrial and commer-
cial pursuits I have indicated, you will not only be benefiting
yourselves, and raising the status of your country, but you will
also, by the blessing of Providence, be the indirect means of
helping those who, although they are not your fellow-country-
men, are your fellow-subjects, and, like you, live under the
shadow of the gracious sway of our Sovereign Lady the Queen-
Empress of India.*
* At pp. 202–203 the preeminence of Indian Canals relates to irrigation.
The Swedish canal works are magnificent, but they are for navigation.
226
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
PART II.
[Speech delivered before the Institute of Bankers, in London,
March 1882.]
THE somewhat difficult questions which have been propounded
to me are-first, "The purchasing power of the rupee relative to
labour, produce, &c., in various parts of the Empire;" secondly,
"The capacity of the Empire to absorb new capital, and
the direction in which new capital will most probably be
required."
The first point is the purchasing power of the rupee. Now,
this sounds a formidable question, but it really refers to the rise
of prices of all the necessaries of life and corresponding rise of
wages. It also refers to the point as to whether, since the de-
preciation of the rupee about ten years ago, there has been any
special rise either of price or of wages. In the first place, it is
a notorious fact that the prices of almost all articles in India
have greatly risen. This rise, however, began in the time of
Lord Dalhousie, before the great war of the mutinies, when tens
of millions sterling of British capital began to be expended in
the country. The rise, both of prices and of wages, was not at
all arrested by the war of the mutinies, but continued rather at
an increased ratio during the period of disturbance. When the
disturbances were over, capital began to be expended more
rapidly than ever, and prices went on rising. Not only were
railways pushed on at an unexampled rate of speed, but also
many new industries under European guidance, and with the
resources of European capital, were introduced into the coun-
try, so that by the time of the viceroyalty of Sir John Lawrence,
afterwards Lord Lawrence, the rates both of prices and of
wages reached their culminating point. Since that time both
the high rate of prices and the high rate of wages have been
maintained, but not more than maintained. The rupee, as you
CHAP. X.
RISE OF PRICES AND WAGES.
227
know, has been depreciated, but still it seems to have at least
the same purchasing power as it had before the depreciation set
in. I need not detain you as to the causes of that depreciation,
but these causes certainly set in immediately after the termina-
tion of the Franco-German War. The payment of the French
indemnity to Germany, the accumulation of silver in Germany,
and the rapid demonetization of silver were among the causes.
There are also other causes which you know have been so well
set forth in the report of Mr. Goschen's Committee. The par-
ticular point to which this question refers, however, amounts to
this: Has the rise of prices and of wages increased, since say the
year 1870 or 1871? Well, gentlemen, this is a matter of fact,
and there is no time this evening for me to prove it to you;
but I can assure you, on the whole, the best opinions in
India are to the effect that there has been no particular
rise since that time. Prices no doubt vary very much in
India. For instance, all the necessary articles of food are
almost always dear in Western India, and somewhat dear in
Southern India, and much cheaper in Northern India and in
the Panjab, and particularly also in a part of Bengal; but
Bombay is the centre of the area of dearness. With all these
fluctuations wages rise, and have risen in a corresponding
degree, though with respect to the wages there has been no par-
ticular rise since the year 1870. But the wages that have
risen are generally those which are earned by the most skilled
and industrious classes of native labourers. In the interior of
the country and in many of the villages the wages are still
lamentably low. But with the poorer classes of labourers
throughout the Empire of India wages are largely paid in kind.
Thus although the rates of wages may appear to be very low,
and, on the other hand, the prices of food may appear to be
high, nevertheless, the poorest and most helpless classes of
labourers are paid in grain, so that they at all events do not
feel specially the rise of prices. No doubt those who are paid
in cash would feel the rise of prices; but their wages are much
!
Q 2
228
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
higher now than before. If generally the price of food has
doubled, so has the rate of wages doubled for all skilled
labourers. As for all the poorest and helpless labourers it is
fortunate that they are paid in kind, for if they were not paid
in kind they would be much more pinched in these days than
ever they were before. That perhaps is as much of a general
answer as it is possible for me to give to this difficult question
in the short space of time allotted to me, especially as I must
hasten on, with your permission, to the, perhaps, more interest-
ing question which follows.
This question relates to "the capacity of the Empire to absorb
new capital, and the direction in which new capital will most
probably be required." Upon this question I must ask you
to remember that capital in India will be of two kinds: first,
that which belongs to the Natives; secondly, that which belongs
to the Europeans. Now, there have been as regards native
capital, writers in this country who labour to prove that Indian
capital is decreasing under British rule, but this view is not for
a moment accepted by statisticians and economists in India.
On the contrary, we allege that, although the outward and
visible signs of native wealth may not be so remarkable as they
were in former times, yet there are many strong salient facts
which prove that native capital must have been accumulating
and must still be increasing rapidly. For instance, there is the
fact of the increase of foreign trade, the increase of the internal
trade, and the increase of the coasting trade; there is the fact of
a great many industries in the presidency towns in which natives
are largely engaged; there is the painfully notorious fact of the
growth-the undue growth-in wealth and influence of the money-
lending class which I described to you in my other address,*
and although it is a class which must be spoken of with all due
respect before an audience like this, nevertheless there has been a
fear lest that class should become too powerful relatively among
other classes of their native countrymen. All these circumstances
* See the address comprised in Chapter XII.
CHAP. X.
OUTLAY OF EUROPEAN CAPITAL.
229
go to prove that native capital is increasing largely. Then there
is the fact of 20 millions sterling invested by the natives in
Government securities; there is the fact of the rates of interest
having diminished a great deal within the last generation or two,
probably diminished from a rate of 20 per cent. to a rate of
something between 6 per cent. and 12 per cent. All this seems
to show that money is becoming more plentiful, and conse-
quently cheaper.
However, it must be at once admitted that if the Empire is
to be developed in the future it must be mainly through the
agency of European capital. This European capital will be
laid out-first, by the Government, and, secondly, by private
bodies or individuals. But, remember, that if the capital is
laid out by the Government, that capital will in the main
come from England. State outlay in India means the outlay of
British capital. I beg you to bear that point prominently in
mind. For instance, taking the whole public debt of India
together—unproductive war debt and productive debt, which
represents the outlay upon remunerative works-taking that at
250 millions sterling, out of that less than 25 millions is owned
by natives, so that natives at the best have not more than 10
per cent. out of the total investments. Clearly, if the outlay
of capital by the Government is to continue, that outlay must
be based upon a thoroughly safe and sound national finance,
and, upon an occasion like this it seems desirable that I should
recapitulate to you the main grounds upon which the safety of
Indian finances rest.
More than a year ago—the last time I had the honour of ex-
pounding to the English public the finances of India-the case I
had to make out was this:* that upon a period of twenty years the
income of the Government and the ordinary expenditure were
upon a safe equilibrium, supported by a small surplus; that
taking one year with another upon that twenty years there was
a surplus of 1 million. It was very important to make that
11
* This alludes to the book entitled ‘India in 1880' Chapter XXVII.
230
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
A
point good, because at that time there were several public
writers, able and well-meaning, who had been trying to make
out that India was rapidly sinking into a state of insolvency.
But insolvency was not at all to be imputed; on the contrary,
there was really a small surplus. This surplus was obtained
after the Government had paid 15 millions sterling out of its
Treasury for the relief of India from the famine. Two years
have elapsed, and what is the present state of the case? I ought
to mention, that the payment of the expenses of the Afghan
war was just commencing two years ago: the payment is now
almost completed. Well, up to the close of the current official
year, the cost of that war was 19 millions sterling. Now, the
whole of that 19 millions has been defrayed without any
borrowing. I think that is a remarkable fact. How has it been
paid? Why, in the first place India paid 9 millions out of her
cash balances for the three years ending 1880-81. Besides that,
she reduced her ordinary cash balances by another 4 millions
which makes up just 14 millions, and in addition she received a
grant of 5 millions from the English Treasury. That makes up
the.19 millions. You may have heard much of the Government
of India having appropriated certain money for the payment of
the war-expenses, which money had been raised for protective
works against famines. And in the urgency of the moment no
doubt money was advanced from the Treasury for the purposes
of the war. But within a couple of years the whole of that was
repaid to the famine account-as soon as the grant was made
from the English Treasury. Thus it is the fact that towards
the expenses of this war India contributed 14 millions sterling
out of her current revenues, and though she had in the urgency
of the time to appropriate quite temporarily the famine in-
surance money, she repaid every farthing of that the moment
she got the promised subsidy from the English Government. Sọ
you see she really has a surplus, and there is still some expense
remaining to be paid for the Afghan war; but after the
favourable Budget of which we have just received notice from
CHAP. X.
THE PUBLIC DEBT.
231
India,* one cannot doubt that the expense of the war will be
defrayed in the same sound financial manner as it has hitherto
been. Thus, at the present moment Indian finances stand in the
satisfactory position that they have still a small surplus, notwith-
standing that they have defrayed 15 millions for famine and
14 millions for war; so that this heavy war expense has been
entirely defrayed without borrowing. Now all this constitutes
a satisfactory basis upon which a Government may proceed
when it begins to lay out capital upon productive works for the
improvement of the country.
Well, as I have just explained to you, the public debt of
India really represents a large outlay of British capital. In
round numbers that debt amounts to 250 millions sterling.
Out of that about 100 millions represent payments for wars in
times past, and may be classed as non productive debt. Of the
remaining 150 millions, in round figures, 50 millions have been
spent upon State railways and canals of irrigation, and the
remaining 100 millions have been laid out by guaranteed railway
companies. The guaranteed railways and State railways
together are now paying interest at the rate of 5 per cent., and
the canals are paying interest at the rate of 6 per cent. Out of
the 50 millions you may say that a little more than half has
been spent upon railways, and a little less than half upon canals.
The railways, State and guaranteed together, are moving about
10 millions of tons of produce per annum, which you will admit
represents a great accommodation to the Indian public. The
profits upon these works are so considerable—that is to say, the
railways, both State and guaranteed, and canals—that although
the capital amount of the debt has been increasing during many
years past, nevertheless the interest charges are gradually
diminishing, that is to say, the net charges. The Government
on the one hand has to pay the interest upon the debt; on the
other hand it receives the net receipts from the works. These
* This was the Indian Budget for 1882-3 with revised estimates for
1881-2.
232
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
net receipts give an income, and as they increase the interest
charges diminish. Thus you may now say, that although the
interest on the debt is 4 per cent., nevertheless, owing to the
receipts on the other side, the real charge upon the estate is not
more than 3 per cent.; and if you take in the guaranteed rail-
ways, then, according to the least favourable calculation, the
interest charge is not more than 2 per cent., and the most
favourable calculations make it out to be not more than 1 per
cent. So that you see upon the debt proper of about 150
millions sterling the Government is, owing to its productive
public works, paying interest at the rate of about 3 per cent. ;
and upon the total debt of 250 millions, which includes the
amount of the guaranteed railways, the Government is paying
from 1 to 2 per cent. I think you will admit that if these
figures are substantiated the result is very encouraging. It will
come to this, that before long, in another generation, the
Government will be paying no interest upon its debt, or, in
other words, the interest charges will have been recovered by net
receipts, and ultimately there will be a considerable profit.
Even now, according to some very able calculations put forward
the other day by Sir John Strachey, it would appear that upon
this capital of the debt which I have just explained to you,
about 11 millions sterling nominally are being paid by the
Government to the capitalists who lend the money, which capi-
talists are mainly Europeans. Out of that sum, three millions
may be set down as the amount due on account of the non-
productive debt, which leaves eight millions. This amount is
paid by India to the British capitalists without any burden
being put upon her, while she on the contrary reaps an
immense benefit from the works themselves-a benefit as
regards her trade, her cultivation and her irrigation.
Such being the general outline of a rather large subject,
namely, the outlay of capital by the State upon India, it is
desirable that I should explain to you how far this outlay is
likely to extend in the future. Now, in the first place, you
CHAP. X.
CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAYS.
233
probably are aware that the guaranteed railways system is not
likely to be extended. The next point is that of the State
railways. The State railways in India mean railways con-
structed by the State out of borrowed capital. This system is
undoubtedly likely to be much extended. We have now
10,000 miles open of what may be called first-class railways-
Guaranteed lines and State lines taken together. By the most
limited calculation 10,000 miles are still required. Whether
that 10,000 miles will be constructed speedily or gradually must
greatly depend upon the cost per mile. You are aware that
with all their immense merits and with all the vast services they
render to the country, the guaranteed companies certainly did
incur a very liberal outlay. Their railways cost 14,000l. a mile
on the average, and in many instances they cost much more.
The State railways have been also somewhat liberal in the same
way, and have not been essentially cheaper than the others.
Then comes the question of broad gauge and narrow gauge.
Financial people desire to have the narrow gauge, because it is
likely to be cheaper, but the great railway interest, especially
the engineers and contractors and many other professional
gentlemen, were much opposed to that view, and the military
authorities joined in with them, so ultimately the broad gauge
prevailed. Still there are many instances which have lately
occurred of short lines of railway, both broad and narrow gauge,
being made for sums less than 5,000l. a mile.
An interesting question to you is the chance of railways being
made by private companies. There are several instances of that.
First of all, you are aware of the company which, under the
auspices of the Portuguese Government, is making a railway
from the sea-port of Goa to the south-west part of India. You
will remember that a company which has started under a very
able chairman, my friend General Dickens, is making railways
in Bengal. There are several branch lines also being made by
private companies. However, the success of such undertakings
will greatly depend upon the practicability of making the rail-
234
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
ways cheaply. The fact is that, once the Government with its
officers and its engineers shall grasp the fact that railways can
be made easily and cheaply, not in first-rate professional style,
but good enough for practical purposes, then there is no limit
to the extension of railway enterprise in India. What are ten,
or twenty, or fifty thousand miles of railway in such a country
as India, with an area of one and a half million square miles and
a population of 253 millions of souls, while the subsidiary lines
of road are not less than 20,000 miles? If you take the rail-
way mileage of any great country in Europe-to say nothing of
the United States of America-and compare it with India, then
India ought to have something between 50,000 and 100,000
miles of railway, and I am sure she very much needs even that
mileage. If, as I say, our engineers would only condescend to
make lines cheaply and practically useful for the purpose of
Indian trade and Indian passenger traffic, then every road
almost may be a basis, first as a tramway, and then, when
worked by the steam-engine, the tramway becomes a cheap
railroad. There are many instances of the success of this plan.
During the famine in Behar we wanted a temporary railway to
carry the Government grain to the famishing people. However
contrary these light and cheap constructions might be to profes-
sional views, we said, "It must be done;" and owing to the
urgency of the case, it was done, and was opened. It has re-
mained open ever since, greatly to the benefit of the country.
The same principle was applied during the Bombay famine.
There again we constructed what is called a chord line, between
two great lines, for the sake of the urgent traffic in food grains.
That was done cheaply, and it remained open for nine months
out of the twelve each year; that is to say, in the three months
of the flood season and during the height of the rains the line
was closed; but for nine months in the year it did yeoman's ser-
vice for the good of the country; and it was constructed cheaply.
In the same way almost every macadamized road, through the
length and breadth of the land, might be gradually utilised; and
CHAP. X.
THE CANALS OF IRRIGATION.
235
if this were done, we should have the commencement of a
thorough railway system all over the country. There is also the
case of a native statesman, the Minister of the Gaekwar of
Baroda, who declared there were no materials in his country
for the making of roads,-in fact, there was no material for
metalling; so he determined to have a railway made-which
was called a "baby railway," and which was a very cheap line,
with a very narrow gauge of 2 feet 4 inches or 2 feet 6 inches.
It was made so cheaply that some critics laughed at it; but
it did a vast amount of business, and carried passengers and
goods cheaply, easily and quickly; and its cost was within the
means of the Native State. And really, if once the Govern-
ment were to begin and work in that way, and make its engineers
apply their professional talents to that sort of business, there is
no limit to the vista of railway enterprise which opens itself
before the imagination in India.
I must turn now to the canals. The canals of irrigation will
probably continue to be made by the Government. No doubt it
is greatly to be desired that this beneficent work should be done
by private companies. You are aware of the great canal com-
panies that were set on foot in Orissa, under Sir Arthur Cotton,
and in Southern India; but from various causes, which I must
not detain you by recapitulating, neither of these companies
proved quite successful, so they ultimately had to be bought up
by Government, and the works are now carried on entirely under
Government auspices. Still there are some enterprising gentle-
men endeavouring to start companies for this purpose both in
Sind and the Panjab, and we may wish them every possible
success; but still there is a fear that even when the works are
done there will be some difficulty with respect to the payment
for the water. The payment for water for irrigation enters
greatly into the landed and agricultural systems of the country
and gets mixed up with questions of land revenue, so that it is
the opinion of the best authorities on irrigation that this is one
236
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
of those matters which must be managed by Government. But,
even if this is done by Government, still it is the London money
market which has to supply the capital. Then, you are aware,
we have already a magnificent canal system. It could be proved
statistically to be simply the finest the world has ever seen. All
other irrigation canal systems, whether ancient or modern, sink
into insignificance when compared with the canals of India. That
being the case, many of the best sites have been taken up, and the
waters of many classic rivers-the Ganges and others (I mean
with reference to sources of supply)—have been monopolised
already for the purpose of irrigation; nevertheless there are
many other noble fields for irrigation enterprise. On the east
coast several magnificent deltas are already occupied with a
reticulation or network of canals; nevertheless there are two
deltas remaining there. On the west coast, north of Bombay,
two or more deltas also remain. Out of the five Panjab rivers
two only have been utilised for irrigation, and three remain
awaiting utilisation. The Lower Indus, that now makes Sind
a lesser Egypt, and the Upper Indus have yielded up their
waters to the irrigation engineer. But there are several impor-
tant rivers in Oude from which canals may be taken. In fact, in
every part of the country there are still giant rivers which await
the invasion of the engineer. Thus on the whole, you may hope
that from time to time there will be a constant extension of
irrigation, and for that the funds will be supplied from England.
It is to be hoped that the profits upon that capital outlay will
be as great as the profits which I have been just mentioning to
you with regard to the past.
Now, I have been asked whether there is any chance of
capital being laid out upon the roads. I may at once say
absolutely none whatever." It has been determined that the
expenditure upon roads shall be incurred from the State
revenue. There would be, really, no means of securing any-
thing like a return for private capital invested for such a
CHAP. X.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
237
purpose, because experience has shown that with the habits of
the natives it is impossible to levy tolls, and one does not
therefore see how returns are to be realised.
You will ask me upon what other things has capital been,
or is being, or will be, laid out? Pray remember that there
are many valuable and interesting products upon which British
capital may be expended. In the first place there is tea. You
are probably aware that within this generation the export of tea
from India has risen from nothing to 40,000,000 lbs. annually.
The tea crop of India is worth now between 4,000,000l. and
5,000,000%. annually. The area under tea gardens is perhaps
now 200,000 acres. If you will look at the returns you will
find that several hundred thousand acres have been allotted
to various tea planters and companies; but the proposed
plantations have not yet been all cultivated, although the
Eastern Himalayas, the valley of Assam, and the upper part of the
valley of the Brahmaputra are remarkably well fitted for tea
gardens. There are vast tracts also between Bengal and Burmah
fit for tea-culture which have yet to be cultivated: thus you
may look forward for a large field there for the outlay of capital.
Then there is coffee, which grows in the south-west of India.
I am not sure that there is any likelihood of so great an expan-
sion with reference to coffee as there is in regard to the tea
plant. Then there is cinchona. That at present is a culture
which is undertaken by Government, and once the Government
shall succeed in this culture the febrifuge will be popular.
There are many parts of India where cinchona might be grown
to a vast extent and so afford quinine, or something like
quinine, for many of the millions of the people. Then there
is rice, which already largely employs European capital. At
all the great ports there are many European firms entirely
engaged in the rice trade; and at a time when some writers
were statistically proving to the satisfaction, or dissatisfaction,
of the British public that India was gradually starving. India,
nevertheless, gave a most practical refutation by persisting in
238
CHAP. X.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
exporting, even in years of scarcity, tens of thousands of tons of
rice to all parts of Europe. Now the wheat cultivation has
begun to develop itself extraordinarily, there are some persons
even beginning to say it is not American competition that we
have to fear-it will be Indian competition. Certainly within
the last two or three years the manner in which the wheat
cultivation has increased is startling. The quantities have
increased from 392,000 qrs. in 1879, to 1,300,000 qrs. in 1880,
and to 3,742,000 qrs. in 1881; while in value the amount has
risen from less than 1,000,000l. in 1879, to 7,750,000l. in
1881. Next, there is the product of indigo. That used to
take up a great deal of European capital; but the production
is declining, because it cannot be carried on profitably by
the natives now as the price of all other articles of produce
have risen so much.
Then we have the whole class of articles named fibres. There
is cotton, regarding which I need not trouble you with details;
but jute has become a great article, not only of domestic manu-
facture, but of exportation abroad, and it is probable if native
capital is not invested American will be, because a great deal of
jute from Calcutta goes to San Francisco and California. Then
there is the article of hemp, a fabric about which I cannot go
into details. But I may remind you of the textile fabrics. The
value of cotton manufactures imported into India from England
now amounts to the large sum of 26 millions sterling annually.
There has been much discussion as to whether Manchester is, or
is not, succeeding in clothing the people of India; whether she
is supplying half, or one-third, or two-thirds, of the clothing for
this vast population. I am not sure I can undertake to give
you a positive opinion as to the extent to which Manchester is
obtaining the Indian custom, but the best opinion is that
Manchester has got a large part of the Indian custom. Still
a large part yet remains for her to win, and it is likely that she
will win it now the import duties have been taken off by the
Government of India. Whether Manchester has or has not
1
CHAP. X.
MINES OF COAL, IRON, AND GOLD.
239
obtained a great part of the custom with regard to cotton manu-
factures, she has got but little with regard to woollen; but she
has acquired some hold on the market, and when once the use
of English woollens begins to increase there is a limitless field
for private enterprise. The people of India, even the poorest of
them, have their blankets; and the day will be a great day
when all the blankets for this vast population shall be furnished
from England.
Then there is a whole set of mining products-coal mines
and iron mines. The coal mines are already pretty well
worked. The iron mines were once well worked by the
natives, but have fallen away; but recently private companies
have been started for working them. Formerly there were
copper mines being worked all over the country, of which many
remains are to be seen in every district. Gold mines more
readily recur to your recollection. On former occasions I have
ventured to speak only with great caution regarding the pro-
spects of the gold mines; and I am afraid my gloomy anticipa-
tions have been unfortunately fulfilled, for these mines are not
doing much. It seems that there is yet gold, but it is deep
down and cannot be brought to the surface at a remunerative
price.
There are other things also. New companies have been
started for making paper from bamboos. There is a considerable
interest in the tanning of hides for leather, and making every
kind of article with leather. There is a company formed for
producing petroleum in various parts of Burmah. Recently
orders have been given by the Government of India, with the
approval of the Government in England, for the purchase on
the spot of all stores necessary for the public service in India.
Again, there are the interesting works of art in which natives
excel, such as pottery, the various fabrics in gold and silver
embroidery, and rich or beautiful stuffs. British capital may
be employed in importing all these articles into the United
Kingdom and introducing them to the public. To conclude the
240
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAP. X.
list of those miscellaneous articles I should mention machinery.
The use of machinery will greatly depend upon technical educa-
tion among the people of India. I am afraid education has been
defective in this respect in all parts of the British Empire. But
now that England herself is waking to the necessity of technical
education, no doubt this kind of education will soon spread to
India, and when it does, in a generation or two, there will be a
great demand for every sort of implement and machine, and if
that should be the case, you will see what bright prospects open
for the mechanical profession. The same with agricultural educa-
tion. It has been most defective in India, and that is, no doubt,
one of the defects the Government will remedy during the next
generation. Scientific agriculture in India will cause an importa-
tion of any amount of agricultural implements from England.
Before I conclude I must ask you to think of the probable
absorption of capital in the future. Well, you see that for State
purposes there will be a constant drawing, a requirement of
capital of several millions annually. All these other industries
which I have mentioned will also require several millions of
capital, so we may hope there will be a drawing of British
capital to the East of some millions annually. I am not
attempting to give you an estimate of the amount of capital
required on each one of them. It will be no use giving you an
estimate without supporting it in detail, and it would be
impossible for me in one evening, to give matters of detail
necessary to support my estimate. But you will readily under-
stand that there is a great probability of increased power of
production arising in the country, because after all, what
are the 250 millions sterling already mentioned in com-
parison with so vast a country as India? What is even the
trade? Much is said of the foreign trade of India, and it has
wonderfully increased. In this generation it has risen from
40 millions in value to 140 millions sterling annually. Perhaps
100 millions of increase in one generation is as much as could
be expected. Still the total amount of the trade is very small
CHAP. X. EXPORTS FROM UNITED KINGDOM TO INDIA. 241
for so vast a country. Besides the trade with foreign countries
there are 60 millions' value of coasting trade, and the vast
internal trade represented by the railways. But after all what
is 60 millions' worth of trade for such an extensive coast? The
coast itself, dotted with harbours from point to point, is
upwards of 1000 miles in extent. And, after all, what are
10,000 miles of railways for the area I have described?
May I mention in conclusion one or two articles, which
will illustrate to you the rapid rate of increase which has
been going on within the last 25 years? Take the period of
the war of the mutinies, 25 years ago, and think of the increase
in several important articles! At that time the English
cotton manufactures imported to India were valued at six
millions yearly, and they are now valued at 26 millions sterling.
The British metals, then, imported into India were valued at
1 millions, and they are now valued at 33 millions sterling.
Grain of all kinds, wheat, rice, and pulses (all food grains) were
then valued at three millions sterling. They are now valued
at 13 millions. The shipping at that time was stated at
2,800,000 tons, and is now at 6 million tons. These are the
imports and exports of India, but there is one more article
I may mention, namely, the export of cotton. That is supposed
to have declined in India since the American civil war, but at
the time of the war of the mutinies-25 years ago-it was
valued at 3 millions sterling annually, and now it is valued at
13 millions. Thus you see upon every one of these very
important articles there has been a very rapid increase within
the last 25 years.
Such, then, are the facts of various sorts, which I venture
to mention to you as constituting an earnest of hope for
the future, and I trust that the prospect will be satisfactory to
you, gentlemen, as men of business in London, the greatest
commercial centre of the world.
R
242
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
:
CHAPTER XI.
INDIAN FORESTRY.
Services rendered by the Society of Arts in England-Sylvan glories of
India — The cedars, cypresses, rhododendrons, and other trees of the
mountains — The palms, bamboos, and other trees of the plains - Use of
forests for economic purposes - Their climatic value - Past destruction
of Indian forests Their conservation at the present time - Large
operations of the Indian Forest Department - Good work done by
European foresters in India Services rendered by the Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society - Methods of scientific forestry - Reservation of rights
pertaining to the Natives - Services rendered to India by British arbori-
culturists and foresters.
PART I.
[Speech delivered before the Society of Arts, in London, January 1881.]
I ESTEEM it an honour to be asked to speak before the Society
of Arts, remembering as I do, in common with all English-
men, the historical and distinguished part which the Society
has played in the educational and industrial history of England
during the nineteenth century. Not only has the Society effected
much for the fine arts, of which we see traces in the room
in which we are assembled, but more especially has it done
great things in the application of science to all the varied
industries of England. It has also effected more, probably, than
any other corporation in England, for the advancement of
technical education; and in the remarks I shall make to you
regarding forests, you will find a signal proof of the mischief
which has been wrought, mainly, from the want of technical and
professional knowledge on the part of our own countrymen in
CHAP. XI.
ENGLISH ARBORICULTURISTS.
243
India regarding forestry. I feel, however, much encouragement
in addressing you this evening, when I look back on the names
of the great men who have guided the deliberations of this
Society, such men as the Duke of Norfolk in the last century,
H.R.H. the Duke of Sussex, H.R.H. Prince Albert, and now
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. We have also had and have now
on the Council of the Society men whose names are really the
property of the nation, such men as Wentworth Dilke, Lubbock,
Leighton, Siemens, Brassey and Galton. But more especially we
have had on the Council many men who have contributed much
to develop the industries of India in particular, such men as
Cole, Sykes, Birdwood, Alcock, and Cunliffe-Owen. Well then,
looking to these names of men, some departed, and others still
present among us, we ought all of us, those who speak and those
who listen, to feel the responsibility which attaches to us while
assisting in the deliberations and proceedings of such a corpora-
tion as the Society of Arts. Among its many educational and
scientific operations, arboriculture was one of the earliest.
As a remarkable instance, I may remind you that it is now
nearly 130 years since this Society began to pay attention to
forestry, an attention which remains undiminished up to the
present moment. It was soon after 1760, as you will perceive
from the history of London, written by Charles Knight, and
Davenport's history of our Society, that gold and silver medals,
presented by this Society for planting firs and cedars, were won by
such distinguished persons as the Dukes of Bedford and Beaufort,
Lord Paget, Earls Winterton, Ossory, Mansfield, and Wilton, the
Bishop of Llandaff, and the Marquis of Tichfield. There were
also men in those days whose names have been handed down in
the history of British agriculture as well as arboriculture, namely,
Curwen of Windermere, Morse and John Hutton, of Yorkshire,
and Bucknall. These men originally showed what could be
done in the way of tree plantation in Great Britain, and it is to
be hoped that they may prove to be the ancestors of a long line
of Englishmen, who from generation to generation, will dis-
R 2
244
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
tinguish themselves in arboriculture in all parts of the British
Empire throughout the world.
From this brief preface I will pass straight to the subject
of the evening, namely, Indian forestry. Now India, of course,
is not the only country in which questions regarding forestry
are becoming prominent. The mischief which has been
wrought by the destruction of forests is patent on the face
of Western Europe. The destructive floods which have
occurred in many parts of France, are directly due to the de-
nudation of the Swiss hills. In many parts of Russia the same
sort of mischief is seen by every traveller to be going on. Similar
questions are being raised in South Africa, and we hear even of
injury being feared in the United States of America. But in
Scandinavia I have witnessed with admiration the forest con-
servancy established, and fine area of forests preserved by the
Government of Sweden and Norway. The forest preserves in
Germany, too, afford us a capital example.
Now, in India the destruction has been vast. The tra-
ditions of the forests in India show how the land was once
clothed with sylvan and other vegetation, but every time in
olden days a city had to be formed or a palace erected, or in
modern days a railway to be constructed or barracks to be
built, there has been a ruthless destruction of forests. Of course
forests were made for the use of man, but they may be so cut
as to leave something for reproduction. Instead of that they
have been swept away as clean as if they had been shaven by
a razor—I speak figuratively. Well, notwithstanding this de-
struction, some forests remain, though they can be hardly said
to be more than the remnants of what once were the forests
of India. You will say, perhaps, why did not the Government
and its officers stop this devastation? They did not stop it,
simply because they were none of them properly instructed in
matters regarding forests. Such ignorance is not to be won-
dered at, considering the ignorance which has prevailed in
Europe and in other parts of the world. I know that twenty
CHAP. XI.
FORESTS IN THE MOUNTAINS.
245
or thirty years ago, when we were young men in India, we,
none of us, heard of any principles regarding forest conser-
vancy. The consequence was that forests, being remote and
difficult of access, not easy to visit or to understand, and we
ourselves being ignorant of everything regarding forestry, we
paid no attention whatever to the subject. Consequently,
whenever wood was wanted, forests were cut down by persons
who had nothing to do except to make as much profit as they
could at the present moment, without regard to the future, and
so forests have been destroyed in the most thoughtless and
merciless manner. Still, there are great mountain ranges, for
instance, the Western Ghats, which form a mountainous wall
on the western coast; the Eastern Ghats, which form a similar
range, although not so regular, on the eastern coast; two great
ranges, the Satpura and Vindhya, which unite in the direc-
tion of Bengal, and form one broad mountainous region; the
mountain ranges on the east of Bengal, separating Bengal from
Burmah; and, lastly, the great Himalayan range itself. I do
not now speak of the mountain range on the west of the
Indus, because that was originally a region mainly destitute of
vegetation, and whatever vegetation there was has long been
swept away by the action of man; so that really the great
range which separates India from Afghanistan counts for
nothing, in the language of forestry. The ranges, with which
forestry in India has to do, are the Western Ghats, the Eastern
Ghats, the Satpura and Vindhya, the Eastern Bengal ranges,
and the mighty Himalaya.
In these mountain ranges, there are numerous kinds of trees
which constitute a forest flora in themselves. It is quite im-
possible for me, within the time at our disposal, to even enu-
merate, much less describe to you, the various kinds of trees
which exist in the Indian forests; still I may mention, by
way of recapitulation, some of the most striking and interesting
trees which we have. The trees of India must be divided
mainly into two main divisions, the Himalayan division, and
246
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the division of the plains as contra-distinguished from the
Himalayan region, which latter division comprises the whole
of India proper.
Now, the Himalayan trees are allied mainly to the trees of
Europe and other temperate regions. The coniferæ, including
the great genera of firs, pines, and the like, are found all over
the Himalayas. Amongst them the queen is the cedar. No-
where in the world are such fine cedar forests to be seen as
in the Himalayas. You have some idea, in England, from
the lawns of our principal country seats, of what beautiful
shape and colour the foliage of the cedar is; then imagine
trees much grander, much finer in trunk, branch, and foliage,
with a background of everlasting snow; imagine them, too,
standing in the midst of rugged situations, and with the most
glorious surroundings. There is a further interest attaching
to them, from the way in which they are felled, and the mode
in which the logs, when felled, are transported to market. The
value of a cedar forest depends on its situation. If the trees
stand upon precipitous sites, overhanging rivers, they are felled
to great advantage. The tree is felled, and the log is shot down
the precipice into the roaring, cataract-like, torrent of the river.
The river itself acts as a carrier, and whirls log after log down to
the plains. And as the river, laden with all this freight of
cedar logs, emerges from the Himalayas, skilful native swimmers
are stationed on the bank, who dart forth and catch the logs as
they descend the stream.
Similar remarks apply to the Pinus longifolia, which is, next
after the cedar, the most valuable timber tree in the Himalayas.
In fact, in Northern India, most of the great public buildings
of the British Government, and most of the palaces of the
native princes, are largely constructed with the timber of cedar
and pine. As a matter of interest, I should not omit to men-
tion the cypress. But the cypress of the Himalayas is not the
funereal sort of tree which you read of, or see depicted, as
constituting a great feature in the cemeteries and burial-grounds
CHAP. XI.
GROVES OF YEW-TREES.
247
of the Levant or Constantinople, but is a truly magnificent
tree, growing, too, in the very midst of limestone formations.
There appear to be certain chemical elements in the limestone
which favour the growth of the tree, and the consequence is,
that the cypress may be seen fringing limestone precipices, where
you would suppose that no vegetation could possibly grow-in
places, indeed, where the only vegetation perceptible consists of
these cypress trees, springing, as it were, out of the very crevices
of the rocks. But as regards funereal aspect, the most mournful
looking tree in the Himalayas is the fir, which is named the
Abies Smithiana. That, indeed, has long, pendent foliage, of
a very weeping, pensive appearance, but still impressive and
picturesque, especially when combined with other foliage, and
more particularly, perhaps, when it is adorned by the golden
red of the Virginia creeper. Imagine the bright scarlet leaves
of the creeper winding about amongst the dark-coloured,
mournful-looking foliage of the fir, and you have a delightful
picture.
Then another tree, most beautiful in the Himalayas, is the
yew. It does not grow there singly, as it does in this country,
but in a few spots among the Himalayas it grows in a dense
forest, limited in size, but extremely thick; and nothing can
surpass, from an artistic point of view, the beautiful forms of
these dependent branches and the foliage of these yews. The
beautiful lines of Wordsworth are applicable to these yew
forests-
“Joined in one solemn and capacious grove
Huge trunks, and each particular trunk a growth
Of intertwisted fibres serpentine;
Nor uninformed with phantasy, and looks
That threaten the profane-a pillared shade.
Upon whose grassless floor of red-brown hue
By sheddings from the pining umbrage tinged
Perennially. . . . Ghostly shapes
May meet at noon-tide."
Lastly, I should mention the juniper. This tree is extremely
248
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
fine in the Himalayas; and when I mentioned to you just now
that the trans-Indus range, near Afghanistan, was almost tree-
less, I ought to have made one exception in favour of the
juniper. We hear now much of the Bolan Pass, and of Quettah,
but the only valuable timber you have near Quettah consists of
juniper forests, that grow near the summits of the limestone
formations, 10,000 or 12,000 feet above the sea, which over-
look those valleys, now so interesting to us from a political
point of view.
Then, passing from this great natural order of coniferæ, we
come to the other trees which are very familiar to us all in
this country, the ilex, the oak, and the walnut, which are found
in great abundance at Simla, where, as you know, is the resi-
dence of the Governor-General and his Council in the summer
months. Near Simla, there grows the holly. In that locality
it is not a shrub, as it is in this country, but a very fine tree
of fifty to sixty feet high. I ought also to mention the
plane tree. The plane tree is a great ornament of the so-
called happy-at all events the world-wide celebrated-valley
of Cashmir. The scenes of the poem, Lalla Rookh, were laid
in the midst of plane groves. Plane trees formed the orna-
ment of the gardens of the great Mogul on the margin of the
beautiful lake of Cashmir. The famous wooded island which
stands in the midst of the lake is adorned with plane trees; in
fact, in Cashmir, the plane is the crown and glory of the valley.
In the eastern part of Himalayas, near Darjiling, we have the
maple; also the magnolia, which is brilliant with masses of
white flower, so that it looks in the midst of summer as if
it were sprinkled with fresh snow. The laurel grows there
to a great height, not like the shrub as we see it here, but as a
great tree seventy to eighty feet high. The tree-fern is probably
the most graceful member of the vegetable kingdom to be seen
anywhere the tree-fern of the eastern Himalayas. No word-
painting of mine can give you any idea of the minutely graceful
character of its foliage, especially, too, as it is generally seen
CHAP. XI.
HIMALAYAN RHODODENDRONS.
249
with the distant background of the highest snow mountains
in the world.
Before we leave the Himalayas, I must say one word about
the rhododendrons. The discovery of the Himalayan rhodo-
dendrons is mainly due to Sir Joseph Hooker, the distinguished
director of the Botanic Garden at Kew. With great toil,
hardship and exertion, he discovered and brought to England
specimens of most of the finest species of rhododendrons. The
tree does not grow there in shrubs as you see in this country,
but attains a height of twenty to thirty feet. Its flowers, seen
in its native habitat, are almost as large as a man's head. The
leaves found on the trees there are twelve to thirteen inches
long. The branches and the trunk are permeated with a sort
of red colouring matter, so that the whole of the tree seems
ready to burst out with red; anything more magnificent, in the
botanic kingdom, than the appearance of this tree cannot be
imagined. It is generally found in the midst of very rocky
scenery: it flowers with great abundance, at altitudes of 12,000
to 13,000 feet, and that generally at a season in May and June,
when the long winter of those regions has hardly passed away,
so that the rich flowers are faded and bleached, in a day or two
after blooming, by the masses of fog and driving rain, and
sometimes even of sleet, to which they are exposed.
So much, then, for the trees of the Himalayas. I regret that
time does not admit of my dilating more fully upon them.
I must pass rapidly on to the trees of the plains. The first I
shall mention of course is the teak, or Tectona grandis, which is
the queen of trees in the plains, just as the cedar is the queen
of trees in the mountains. The teak is said by enthusiastic
foresters to possess every virtue of which wood is capable. It is
good underground, it is good in the water, it is good in the
burning sun, it is good everywhere, and under all cirumstances.
It carves well; it is light, it is durable; it will stand wet, and
is seldom affected even by insects. It is used, as you know,
largely by the British Admiralty. Its appearance always attracts
250
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the eye of the observer, on account of the arrowy manner in-
which it shoots up. Even the young tree, which is hardly a
foot or two above the ground, always looks like an infant
giant, or a young Hercules, amongst trees, by the striking
manner in which it rises from the ground and seems to aspire
upwards.
Then there is the sal, or Shorea robusta, which has been
called the iron-hearted Sal, on account of the great strength and
durability of the wood; but it has not nearly so many virtues as
the teak, especially in that it is very heavy. But its appear-
ance is fine, with a tall, straight trunk, and branching head.
It is to be found in the greatest perfection near the source
of the Nerbadda, near the point where the two ranges of the
Satpuras and Vindhyas unite. Next I should mention the
two finest kinds of the natural order of the Terminalia. First,
the arjuna, or anjun, is remarkable for the beauty of its trunk,
which can only be likened to a great marble pillar. The trunk
is absolutely white, bright and smooth, generally growing
amidst rocks, on the margin of streams, and in a very hot
climate. The trees I have hitherto been describing grow in
the cool, but this tree grows in the midst of the greatest heat.
The other kind of terminalia is the Pentaptera tomentosa, or
sāj. That is the very opposite in appearance.
Instead of
having a white and smooth trunk, it has a black and rough
bark, and, as the two trees often grow in juxtaposition, the
effect is as though you saw a pillar of smooth white marble
and a pillar of black rough stone placed close together. Then
there is the Pterocarpus marsupium, or bije sal, also a tree with
a black-looking bark. In contradistinction to them, I may
mention the salai, or Boswellia thurifera, commonly called the
frankincense-tree. I have just mentioned the bije sal, which
has a rough, black bark, and, in contrast to that, I mention
the salai. Instead of black bark, it has white bark; instead of
a straight trunk, it has a winding, bending, straggling trunk,
with branches thrown out in a kind of weird, wayward manner.
CHAP. XI.
WOOD FOR BOAT-BUILDING.
251
The salai, in the hot weather, when the leaves are off, may be
called the ghost which haunts the forests of India.
The trees which I have just mentioned grow always on the
lesser mountain ranges of British India, as contra-distinguished
from the Himalayas; but I must now mention some of those
which grow in the plains proper.
First of all there is the babul, or Acacia arabica. That is the
one tree which is universal in India, and is used almost for every
purpose that can be useful in the daily lives of the natives. Then
there is the mango-tree, which is known, of course, on account
of its fruit, and which furnishes a staple article of food to the
mass of the people. But it is also valuable for timber. It is
found in fine avenues on the side of the roads, and in sacred
groves near to the Hindu temples. Then we have the sundar
tree. You have often heard of the Sunderbunds, that great,
semi-marine forest which grows on the low, sandy region near
the mouth of the Ganges. They are called the Sunderbunds,
but that name is really derived from the sundar, which is the
principal tree in that part of the forest, extending for thousands
of square miles. In that forest, the most remarkable tree is the
sundar, from which most of the country boats of Bengal are made.
As you may have heard, the river traffic in Eastern Bengal is,
perhaps, the most extensive thing of the kind in the world. The
network of rivers are navigated by hundreds of thousands of
boats. The boats there are to the inhabitants what carts and
wagons are to the inhabitants of other countries; and nearly all
these countless boats are made from the sundar tree, which
grows in the forest, near the mouth of the Ganges.
Next we have the different kinds of fig tree, or Ficus. There
is, first of all, the ordinary Ficus, which is known popularly
throughout the world as the banyan tree. That is the tree under
the shades of which whole regiments have been occasionally
encamped. It is the tree which you have read of in Milton,
and the works of several modern poets. Its beauty consists in
the manner whereby it throws down tendrils from its branches,
252
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
which take root in the earth and form fresh trunks; so that a
finely-developed banyan tree looks like the interior of a great
Gothic structure. The tree has its colonnade, its arches, its
aisles, its naves, and its transepts. Its roof consists of the
densest foliage, so that the perspective view, taken in the inte-
rior of one of these great banyan trees, is, perhaps, the finest
sylvan subject which the artist can possibly have for his brush
or his pencil. Then there is the pipal, which is called Ficus
religiosa, and is to be found near every Hindu temple. It is
remarkable for the manner in which its branches entwine them-
selves amidst the masonry. You know the old song-
Creeping where no life is seen,
A rare old plant is the ivy green."
Similar to this is the Ficus religiosa. It is always to be found
in the midst of ruins; in fact, it is one of the causes of old
buildings becoming ruins, for once it insinuates itself into the
building, it gradually works its branches and its tendrils through
all the interstices of the masonry, until possibly the whole
structure is embraced in its fatal grasp. The building then
becomes like a human being seized by a boa constrictor, or like
the Laocoon encircled in the folds of the Python. Lastly, there
is the Ficus elastica, or india-rubber tree, which many ardent
foresters believe will, ere long, more than rival the india-rubber
trees of South America.
Then there is the bamboo, the beautiful feathery bamboo,
which affords the means of constructing almost all the huts,
cottages, and villages of the inhabitants of Bengal. But, besides
what may be called the domesticated bamboo, there is the wild
bamboo of the forests of Central India, which is truly a lovely
tree. A single shoot of wild bamboo has been shown at an exhi-
bition, to the height of 80 or 90 feet, with a little flag at the top.
These bamboos, too, generally overhang the pools of rivers, so
that taking these tall, beautiful, graceful bamboos, bending
over the stream, and the reflection in the stream-together
:
CHAP. XI.
THE COCOA-NUT TREE.
253
forming almost an arch in appearance-a more picturesque
object can hardly be conceived.
Lastly, we come to the palm. The first of the palms to
be mentioned is the date-palm, that is the kind which is known
to poetry as the feathery palm. Our Indian date-palms are,
no doubt, not so fine as those of the valley of the Nile, or those
on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, which run into the
Persian Gulf. Still, next after these, our Indian palms are the
finest to be found. Sometimes they grow singly, but often
they are to be found in great clusters, and often in long, straight
avenues. Then we have the Palmyra palm, with broad fan-like
leaves, just like a human hand stretched out. It is, perhaps,
more noxious than beneficial, for from it some of the strongest
spirits in India are distilled. I shall conclude my mention of
trees by describing the cocoa-nut. Now, the cocoa-nut, probably
taking it all in all, is the most useful tree of all the trees in
India, for it is commonly said-and truly said-that the cocoa-nut
will provide everything which a human being needs physically.
It will give him the most nutritious food, slightly oleaginous,
perhaps, but still very strengthening; it will also give him the
sweetest and most delicious drink; it will afford him everything
that he can require for clothing; it will furnish him with roofing
for his house; and it will give him not only the roofing, but the
rafters. It will supply timber for the pillars upon which the
edifice rests, and it will also give him the best material for rope.
Thus there is hardly a want of man in the vegetable world
which is not supplied by the cocoa-nut, and the cocoa-nut of
India is second only to that of Ceylon, if, indeed, it is second.
It grows in the greatest abundance all along the Malabar coast
of India. There the cocoa-nut tree constitutes a little freehold,
a distinct property, for actually the land revenue in some
districts is based upon the cocoa-nut trees.
That is to say, a
man and his family get their living and pay their revenue out
of a few cocoa-nut trees, so valuable is each tree.
Now, I wish I could dwell much longer on all these beautiful,
254
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
interesting, and useful kinds of trees in India. I have hoped to
induce you to feel an affectionate interest in them, to love the
forests, so that they may live in your imaginations as they are
living in mine. But I must pass on to the question of how all
this vast national wealth should be preserved.
Before doing so, I must first say something as to the reasons.
why the trees are valuable. They are valuable for two main
purposes, one economic, and the other climatic, and I will touch
upon each of these subjects separately.
Now, the
First I will allude to the economic purpose.
preservation of forests is desirable for the sake of conserving
the great wealth with which Nature has endowed India for the
use of man. There are no less than 37,000,000 of inhabited
houses in British India, and I need not say that for every one of
those houses wood is required. The majority of these 37,000,000
houses are constructed mainly of wood, so you can imagine from
that what an enormous demand there must be, in the vast
British Indian population of 200,000,000 persons, for timber for
house building alone; besides, there are 50,000,000 of inhabi-
tants of Native States. Again, most of the domestic implements
of the people are made of wood. No doubt, implements of
various metals are being substituted for implements of wood,
but, still, wood enters more largely into the consumption of the
Indian population than that of most populations in the world
for domestic implements. Among agricultural implements,
take ploughs for instance, there is no accurate return of the
number of ploughs in British India, but the best returns show
at least 8,000,000 of ploughs. That, probably, is much below
the mark. If you consider that there are not less than half a
million villages, if there are 10 ploughs to a village, that would
give 5,000,000; if there are 20 ploughs to a village, that would
give 10,000,000; and if, which is much more likely, there are
30 ploughs to a village, that would give, perhaps, 15,000,000.
From these facts you can judge what an enormous demand there
is for wood, even for implements of agriculture. Then there
CHAP. XI.
MANURE MISUSED FOR FUEL.
255
are the carts. It is almost impossible to give any idea of the
number of carts. There is no proper return of them, but they
must be counted also by many millions; and as for the boats,
in some parts of the empire they are also to be numbered by
hundreds of thousands. Then, also, there is the consumption of
fuel. Now, to meet the demand for all the purposes I have been
hitherto mentioning, wood is somehow found from the forests;
but, for fuel, there is, in most parts of India, an absolute want
of wood, and the consequence is that the people use for fuel the
cow-dung which ought to be used for manure. You hear very
much in India of the gradual exhaustion of the soil. I hope
(and that is all we can say) that the exhaustion is very gradual.
It certainly does appear, from many proofs, to be very slow.
But, at all events, the gradual exhaustion of soil is to be feared,
unless the people can find some better means than they have at
present for obtaining manure. At present, much of the natural
manure of the country is being used for burning, and you can
thence understand what a grave disadvantage is inflicted upon a
country from the want of forest conservancy. In fact, the
agriculture of the country is suffering greatly from this cause.
You will readily perceive how numerous and extensive the
markets must be for timber and fuel, how difficult it is to keep
them adequately supplied, and yet how fatal to the country it
would be if they were to become depleted. Without a system
of State conservancy, the forests would shrink and shrink, while
population increases; materials in wood and timber would
become scarcer and scarcer; the price of fuel would rise, so as to
press heavily upon the poorer classes.
But there are other purposes, namely, the climatic. Many
people think the droughts with which India is periodically
visited arise from the destruction of forests. Too much, perhaps,
must not be made of that cause. There is a certain amount of
evaporation from the Indian Ocean, there are masses of clouds,
and they must condense somewhere, so the total rainfall of the
continent of India cannot possibly be affected by forests; but
256
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
گرتن
the distribution of the rainfall is probably very much affected.
The clouds pass over the dry plains, and go straight on to the
mountains. They arise in the Indian Ocean; the first obstruc-
tion they meet with is from the wall of hills along the western
coast, but, passing over this wall of hills, they sweep over the
dry plains of India, and then they meet with the Satpura and
Vindhya ranges which I have described. They are stopped
there; they condense on these ranges, and then cause torrents of
rushing streams to arise and swell the rivers. Thus the clouds
return back to the plains in the shape of floods, sweep away the
railway viaducts, carry roadways to destruction, and so effect
numerous damages. Now, a great deal of these floods might
have been avoided, had the clouds been arrested in their course
over the plains, and this arresting can only be brought about, in
the opinion of the best judges, by the preservation of the forests.
If the forests exist, a cool surface is presented to the clouds,
which causes them to stop and condense into rain, and drop fat-
ness on the earth. If there are no forests, the clouds pass on in
the upper stratum of the air, until they are stopped by the hills.
The same description applies to Bengal; the vapours arise
from the Bay of Bengal, are swept over the plains of Bengal,
and are stopped by the great mountain ranges which divide
Bengal from Burmah; or, again, they pass over the upper
valley of the Ganges and Jumna, until they are checked by the
Himalaya.
Time does not admit of my properly entering into this
meteorological subject, but you will see, from these main facts,
how very probable it is that the existence or non-existence
of forests may greatly affect the distribution of the rainfall.
If there are no forests, the probability is that at one time there
will be droughts, and at another time immoderate rains, for a
period of floods almost always follows, according to past expe-
rience, a period of drought. Thus it is to the forests we must
partly look for being blessed with the early and the latter rains
in due season.
CHAP. XI.
GRASS FOR PASTURAGE.
257
I proceed to another point with regard to climatic influences,
viz., the retention of moisture. There is no doubt that forests
produce this result very considerably. If the vegetation is
destroyed, the streams run dry unseasonably, and the wells have
but a scanty supply of water. If the vegetation is preserved,
the excessive moisture of the rainy season is stored by a natural
process, for the use of man during the dry season.
More espe-
cially is this important in those parts of India where canals
have been constructed. Some of the canals of India are drawn
from rivers which have their source amidst the Himalayas, in the
perpetual snow, and for them forests are not of great importance.
But many of the canals of India are drawn from rivers which
rise in the mountain ranges of India itself, and if these moun-
tain ranges are denuded of vegetation, the streams which feed
these precious canals will all run dry in seasons of drought.
If, then, we are to maintain our great canal system in full
efficiency, we must preserve the forests near the sources of
those rivers.
One more point with reference to climatic considerations, and
that is the preservation of pasturage. The cattle in India have
too much food at some seasons, and too little food at other
seasons, and the consequence is that the animals, which have
been suffering from depletion or inanition during the dry
months, are apt to surfeit themselves as soon as the vegetation
bursts forth into life upon the commencement of the annual
rains. Now, the object is, by preserving forests, to preserve also
the grass during the dry seasons. If there is a certain amount
of vegetation, the grass is sheltered from the burning sun, and
will thrive and afford fodder for cattle, whereas, if all the vegeta-
tion is swept away, grass will not thrive. For that reason,
many experienced men think that more ought to be done in the
plains of India for the establishment of what are called com-
munal forests, and that every village, or cluster and circle of
villages, should be induced or compelled to organize itself
or to combine themselves for the establishment of communal
$
258
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
forests, which shall afford a certain amount of timber and fuel,
and shall also preserve the grass for the cattle.
These are the main reasons, in brief, why the preservation of
forests is a matter of such vital importance and national concern
in India.
I then come to the measures to be taken for preserving these
forests. I have sorrowfully admitted to you the neglect on this
subject, which has prevailed in former years. Nobody is more
zealous than I am in vindicating the character and conduct of
our Government and officers in India, but I must admit that in
respect of the preservation of forests, we have not, until within
the last twenty years, done as much as it behoved us to do.
I attribute that not to any wilful neglect, but simply to the fact
which I stated at the outset of my speech, namely, a want of
knowledge. It is the deficiency of technical education on this
subject which has caused the partial destruction of these great
sources of national wealth-a wealth too, which, as you see, is
essential to the well-being of the country. But, of late, we have
been mending our ways in that respect, and we have established
a highly organised department of forestry. We now have a
large staff of trained forest officers. I wish I could add that
they had been trained in this country (Great Britain). You
may have seen lately that there is a project for establishing a
forest school in England, in connection with the forest of
Epping; and now we hope to have a forestry class attached
to the College of Civil Engineering at Cooper's Hill. Hitherto,
however, our British forest officers have been trained, not in
their native country, but in France and Germany; and we must
acknowledge the great debt we owe to our gallant neighbours,
the French, for the excellent forest school of Nancy, which has
given us many English officers for the benefit of the Indian
forests. Still, there is no reason why forestry should not be
taught in England or Scotland as well as anywhere else. You do
not require a very large or extensive wild forest, in order to learn
the principles of forestry. Any of the numerous woods and
CHAP. XI.
AREA OF PRESERVED FORESTS.
259
covers which adorn the undulating valleys of England would do
perfectly well for instructing Englishmen in the art of forestry,
to say nothing of the woods which may be found in Scotland or
Wales. But, at all events, it matters not so much where the
men are instructed, as that they should be well instructed some-
where; and I am happy to state that we have now a Forest
Department of India which, in respect of scientific, technical,
and practical knowledge, is second to no similar department in
any country.
;
Now, you will ask, what exactly does this great department
do? In the first place, the remaining forests-I must call them
remaining forests, because you see how the ancient forests of
the country have been destroyed-are divided into two great
categories. They are divided by law (for the matter has received
careful attention from the Indian Legislature) into two classes
firstly, "reserves," or the forests which are absolutely guarded;
and, secondly, "protected" forests, which are imperfectly
guarded and preserved. To give you any idea of the extent of
these forests, I must mention to you the area in square miles, and
you will find that at first sight this area does present a respect-
able aggregate or total. In the Panjab there are now 4000
square miles; in the North-West Provinces, 3000; in Bengal,
9000; in Assam, 7000; in the Central Provinces, comprising
the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, which I have mentioned
several times, 20,000; in Berar, 5000; in several miscellaneous
districts, 1000; in British Burmah, 2000; and the Burmese
forests are probably the best in the empire. All these make up,
for the Bengal Presidency, a total of 51,000 square miles. To
this you must add 13,000 square miles for Bombay, and 5000
for Madras, which make up a grand total of 69,000 square
miles, or, say in round numbers, 70,000. This sum total will,
ere long, be augmented, because there are many thousand squarc
miles yet to be marked off in British Burmah, and, I believe,
there are some thousands of square miles also to be marked off
in southern India, within the limits of the Madras Presidency,
s 2
260
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
so that, I dare say, within a few years, we shall have not less
than 100,000 square miles of forest in India, which is a figure
worthy of being mentioned before a distinguished Society like
this. But it were vain, if I were to lead you to believe that
the whole of this area, of 70,000 square miles, is properly
protected; I am afraid that the greater portion of it is imper-
fectly protected; but still, nearly half is really well preserved;
and the Famine Commission, in the very careful report they
have recently made on the resources of India, say that 25,000
square miles are thoroughly guarded and preserved; but at all
events, the whole of this great area is, more or less, under some
protection and supervision.
The Forest Department, as above described, manages directly
all the forests technically described by law as "reserved," and
supervises the management by the ordinary civil officers of the
forests technically described as "protected." From these
forests, the markets for timber and fuel are largely supplied.
The proceeds for all British India amount to about three-
quarters of a million sterling annually, and the expenses to half
a million.* Thus, the department defrays all the charges for
the conservancy, and yields a small revenue to the State.
Many articles of wild forest produce, such as gall-nut and
sandal-wood, are sent to the great marts for exportation abroad.
Besides the area of forests, as above set forth, there are
extensive areas of jungle of equal, probably more than equal
extent, left in the hands of the people, under the terms of the
Land Revenue Settlement. From these jungles most of the
local wants of the country, as above mentioned, are supplied.
The first-class timber markets are, however, supplied from
the "reserved" forests, and the second-class timber markets
from the "protected." From both kinds of forests excellent
fuel is obtained.
The railways were at first worked with wood fuel; but coal
* Since this speech was delivered these amounts have increased by
20 per cent.
CHAP. XI.
PRACTICES INJURIOUS TO FORESTS.
261
is largely used, now that the mines are being opened. With
a good conservancy system, however, there ought not to be any
apprehension on account of wood being consumed by the
railways. For forests could, in many places, be formed all
along the lines of railway, and would supply fuel, while
improving the country.
Then the question arises as to what does this preservation
and guarding consist of, and to what intents and purposes are
the forests protected? They are first protected as to the matter
of wood-cutting. Timber is intended for the use of man, and the
object is not to preserve the trees for ornament, but for utility.
As soon as a tree has attained its utmost development, and
grown to its full height, it is fit to be cut, and ought to be cut;
and in many cases the trees grow so thickly together that
thinning of them is a positive benefit to the vegetation of
the forest. So, then, the restrictions upon wood-cutting are
not made absolute, but are instituted in order to insure that
a certain number of trees shall always be left for reproduction.
The next point is to regulate the practice of what is called
"rab." Now, rab means this, that the new shoots and sprigs
of the trees are burnt, and their ashes are used for manure.
You will readily understand that such ashes contain many of
those chemical constituents which are needed for manure,
especially where much of the natural manure of the country,
viz., the cow-dung, has been used for fuel. Now, this practice
of cutting the sprigs of trees, and burning them to ashes for
manure, is a practice which, if not regulated, will cause great
damage to the forests; but, nevertheless, to a certain extent it
is necessary.
Then another matter is the prevention of the jungle fires.
These fires are partly accidental and partly intentional. When
they are accidental they present some of the most magnificent
spectacles you can possibly figure to yourselves. I, myself, and
many other people in India, have been sometimes out at night
in the midst of these fires, and you then see some of the
262
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
grandest, if not, perhaps, the most alarming sights you ever
witnessed. The way in which the devouring element rushes
over the country, travelling sometimes at the rate of several
miles an hour-the wild animals fleeing before it in terror, the
native inhabitants of the forests sometimes even being caught in
the flames and being burned to death, poor men, and occasionally
even mounted Europeans having to gallop away to escape from
the vast rushing conflagration-all these things constitute a
wonderful sight. Then the burning trunks of the trees form as
it were pillars of fire, the clumps of bamboos rattle and crackle
just like the roll of musketry, the sound of the falling forest,
and the roar of the flames is not unlike the resonances of
artillery or the thunder of Heaven. Again, the manner in
which some of the trees smoulder is quite wonderful. Stories
are told of trees sometimes burning for many months together,
and one I heard of, or rather read of, as having burned for three
years consecutively. First, the trunk smouldered, then the fire
got to the roots, and gradually burned through the radicles for
months and months together.
Now, you will readily imagine what mischief is caused by
such conflagrations as these spreading over many square miles.
Yet the cause of the accident is often trifling, a wayfarer light-
ing his pipe, a labourer cooking his dinner (after the Oriental
fashion) in the open air. With a system of conservancy, these
accidents are minimised, or almost prevented altogether. With-
out such a system, they become terribly frequent.
But the fires are also intentional, and are lighted up every
year to insure the plentiful growth of fresh green grass for the
grazing of the cattle. Of course, to some extent, that is per-
missible, and the hills at the back of Bombay, in the months
of April and May, are lighted up at night with a splendid
illumination. In fact, so popular is the practice, that, when-
ever there is any political disturbance anticipated, the natives
say “the fire will be out on the hills," and from that figure of
speech we understand that a disturbance is brewing.
CHAP. XI.
AGRICULTURAL SAVAGERY.
263
There is another way in which the burning of the fires is in-
tentional, namely, this, there are many wild hill tribes who carry
on their agriculture, not by means of ploughing, but by means
of burning trees, and letting the ashes lie on the ground until the
rains come.
Then the rains descend on the virgin soil, which,
fertilised by the ashes of the burnt forest, produces abundant
crops without any further labour whatever. This, of course, is
an utterly barbarous practice. No doubt the localities are often
very steep, and it is not so easy to plough as it would be in
the plains, with these sharp gradients. Nevertheless, the prac-
tice arises from ignorance on the part of the people and from
their want of agricultural capital. The object of the British
Government is to wean these poor people from the barbarous
practice, to reclaim them from the habits of agricultural savagery,
and to make small advances of money to them for purchasing
ploughs and plough-cattle, and so teach them to depend on
settled agriculture rather than on these wasteful destructive
fires.
Then, another purpose to which the forest conservancy is
directed is the preservation of the grazing. If the cattle are
allowed to wander unchecked in the jungle, they will eat a little
and destroy very much; that is to say, they will tread down and
trample and destroy uselessly ten times as much as they con-
sume for food. The object, therefore, is to restrict the grazing
by means of a sort of block system, that is to say, to allow
the cattle to graze in certain blocks or areas of forest range, and
to prevent them grazing in others. The block or area is protected
from grazing for a few years; and afterwards when its vegeta-
tion has grown up, then the cattle may be admitted to graze
safely. Of course cattle must have pasturage, and the object
should be to provide pasturage ground sufficient for their real
consumption, but to prevent them from needlessly destroying
the vegetation.
It is this useless destruction of the pasturage, from want of
conservancy, that renders the country so destitute of fodder
264
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
whenever drought occurs. It is essential to husband the spon-
taneous fodder of the country, as a resource to be available in
time of need.
In all these matters you may readily perceive that questions
arise regarding the restriction of the rights of the people, and
there is, to some extent, a slight contest always going on between
the forest officers and the ordinary civil officers of the Govern-
ment. The forest officers, of course, are zealous for preserving the
forests, and the civil officers naturally protect the rights of the
people. The object is to maintain a judicious compromise. The
people who sparsely inhabit the forests have been accustomed to
cut, burn, and destroy somewhat recklessly, and they cannot
speedily be reclaimed from these evil habits. This can only be
done by degrees. But while, on the one hand, their reasonable
rights are protected, on the other hand, they must not be allowed
to destroy forests altogether, otherwise there will be no corpus,
as the lawyers say, on which any rights are to be founded; the
whole property of the country will be destroyed, the natural
wealth will vanish, and there will be nothing for anybody to
have rights in at all. So that, in a judicious gradual and con-
ciliatory manner, forests must be preserved, while a fair and
equitable consideration is given to the well-established customs
of the country, notwithstanding that these customs are, to some
extent, objectionable.
The "reserved" and "protected" forests, technically described
above, have been adjudicated, after inquiry, to be the property
of the Government. Full provision is made by law for deter-
mining disputes between the people and the Government
authorities regarding the ownership of the forests, and the
boundaries are defined of the jungles which belong to the State
and to the natives respectively. An ample quantity of the jungle
has everywhere been marked off as belonging to the people, and
within that area no restrictions are placed upon the natives.
The restrictions exist only in those forests which from time
immemorial have belonged to Government under native dynasties
CHAP. XI.
WISE USE OF FORESTS.
265
as well as under British rule. Within some of the Government
forests, especially in the technically "protected" forests, sub-
ordinate rights are found to pertain to the natives, under the
Government as lord of the manor. These rights are also
investigated under the law, and defined.
Thus no just cause of complaint whatever is allowed to exist
on the part of the people against the forest system, though there
is no disguising the fact that many would desire to cut down the
State forests at their will for immediate gain, without any care
for the future.
There are certain things which in all countries are recognised
as pertaining to the business of the State, or rather public
authority, such as the coinage, the post-office, the electric tele-
graph, besides the important departments of sanitation, education,
and the like. In some great branches, the State, if it does
not directly undertake the management, does yet interfere con-
siderably, notably in the case of railways. Now, in India at
least, forest conservancy is to be classed in this category. There
are many things in which private enterprise is better than State
action, but forest conservancy is not one of these. The saddest
experience has shown that if forests are left to private action
unrestricted, they will be destroyed. Hundreds of tracts are to
be seen in India, now bare and barren, where forests and vege-
tation once abounded, and might again abound under a proper
system of conservancy. Hundreds more of tracts exist where
the denudation has occurred within the present generation.
Sadder still, in many places the mischief is irreparable, because
the soil has been, after the loss of its vegetation, washed away
by the action of rain. If left to themselves, the people would
work out the forests to destruction, just as a spendthrift lives
on his capital; in homely phrase, they would kill the goose
which lays the precious eggs. The true object of conservancy
is to preserve the forests as an inestimably valuable capital with
which Nature has endowed us, and to draw from these, for the
use of the people, interest, in the shape of timber, fuel and other
266
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
produce judiciously cut or felled, and grass or fodder grazed
according to a scientific system. It is this which is now being
done effectually, though but too tardily, in India. If forests are
worked without any State supervision, they are exhausted, and
nothing is left for reproduction. If they are worked by the
State, then some trees are always left to keep up the vegetation.
I have now touched on the nature of the forests, on their
value, climatic and economic, upon the means which should be
provided by the legislature and the executive for preserving
them, and the objects to which that preservation is directed.
Before resuming my seat, I would desire to re-call to the grate-
ful recollection of patriotic Englishmen, the names of some of
our countrymen who have most distinguished themselves in
respect of forest conservancy in India, but I must first mention
two distinguished Germans. It has always been the pride of
the Indian Government to attract to its service eminent men of
other nations, and amongst its best servants is Dr. Dietrich
Brandis, who has done more for forest conservancy than any
other person who could be named; for not only has he organised
a system which is scientific and practical, but he has also con-
tributed much to the botanical science in India, and is the
author of an excellent work, entitled, "The Forest Flora." Next
after him I would mention his distinguished countryman, Dr.
Schlich, who, for a long time, was Conservator of the forests of
Bengal and Assam. I would mention Dr. Cleghorn, Dr. Stewart,
Mr. Beddome, and Maj. Campbell Walker, all in Madras; the
late Dr. Dalzell of Bombay; Col. Pearson and Capt. Forsyth,
of the Central Provinces. Capt. Forsyth was one of the men
who worked so hard in the forests, that I may say he almost
laid down his life for their sake, and has left, as the memorial
of his labours, one of the most charming books on forestry that
has ever been written. In Burmah, the forest department has
been well represented by Messrs. Seaton and Ribbenthorp.
Then I may mention the two zealous officers who are now
carrying on forest conservancy under great difficulty in the
CHAP. XI.
SERVICES OF FOREST OFFICERS.
267
Bombay Presidency. These are Mr. Shuttleworth and Col.
Peyton. Lastly, I would particularly mention a member of the
Covenanted Civil Service, Mr. Baden Powell, in the Panjab.
These are the men who have struggled to preserve our forests
through evil report and good report, with a considerable measure
of success, and who have, from their sense of public duty, from
their regard to the welfare of India, and from their love of the
forests, borne much hardship, endured many toils, and risked
their health. Some even have lost their lives in the service of
the forests of India.
It is a cause of thankfulness that scientific and practical
forestry is taking a hold upon the public mind in India. The
European civil officers of the Government are beginning to
understand the subject, and to co-operate with the regular forest
officers. Schools of forestry for the natives are being established.
In conclusion, this subject is worthy the best attention of such
a body as the Society of Arts. The Society has influenced
Englishmen in many directions, and there are few directions in
which the influence of so learned, influential, and practical a
body can be more beneficially exercised than in furthering the
interests of forest conservancy in India.
PART II.
[Speech delivered before the Scottish Arboricultural Society, at Edin-
burgh, October 1881.]
I HAVE great pleasure in speaking before this Society at this
meeting under the presidency of Mr. Hutchison of Carlowrie, a
gentleman who, by promoting the objects of this association, has
rendered, I venture to say, a national service to Scotland and to
the Empire, and who has by many instructive and interesting
writings illustrated its proceedings. I am proud also to think
268
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
that among the members of this association is Professor Balfour,
a man who is venerated in all botanical circles throughout the
British Empire, and whose books are read, not only in his native
country, but also in the far distant region of India, sometimes
by foresters amidst the snows of the Himalaya, and sometimes
in the torrid zones of central and southern India. But, gentle-
men, I have another reason for pride in addressing this associa-
tion, because, in common with many other visitors, I have been
delighted to observe the progress it is making within the last
twenty years. It appears to have risen in numbers from 200
members to now nearly 800 members, and even this very day
upwards of fifty new members have been admitted. Now these
growing numbers afford a proof of the interest which has been
taken in Scotland respecting the subject of arboriculture, and I
am sure that your influence must spread with advantage through-
out the Empire. But, gentlemen, Scotland is a country that has
long been in the van of improvement in this respect. In the
last century such distinguished names as Athole, Belhaven,
Haddington, and Sir James Hall of Dunglass, illustrated the
history of forestry in North Britain; and in the nineteenth
century we have first of all among arboriculturists the illustrious
name of Prince Albert, whose august example has been followed
largely by the nobility of Scotland, among whose honoured names
may be mentioned Breadalbane, Mansfield, Fife, Sutherland,
Seafield, Stair, and lastly, the lamented name of Airlie, who
was mentioned to you by our noble president (the Marquis
of Lothian) at our meeting this day. In fact, it may
be said that the nobility of Scotland, have been in the
very van of practical improvement in this respect. But be-
sides the nobility we have distinguished commoners such as
Mactier of Durris, Gordon-Cumming, Macpherson Grant,
Menzies, Mathieson, Fletcher, Duncan of Benmore, Fowler of
Braemore, and many others. Lastly, you have the lamented
name of Adam of Blairadam. His death, his untimely death, in
the midst of a career of usefulness, was lamentable in many
CHAP. XI.
SCOTTISH FORESTERS.
269
departments, but to none was it more lamentable than to that
of forestry, because there is no part of India, let me assure you,
where there remains so much to be done in this respect as in
southern India comprised within the Madras Presidency. And
there was a hope that Mr. Adam would have taken to Madras
that practical knowledge which he acquired on his own estates. I
myself recollect the interest with which some years ago I went
round with him the noble woods he and his forefathers had
planted at Blairadam. It is to be hoped that his successor—
Mr. Grant Duff who as a good Scotchman must be imbued
with Scotch ideas regarding forestry-will follow the example
begun to be set by Mr. Adam-an example too early closed.
But in conjunction with these gentlemen we should remember,
and the general public should remember, the names of good
sound practical foresters who have managed the woods on the
great estates of the Scottish noblemen-such names as McCor-
quodale on the Mansfield estates, McGregor of Ladywell, Grant
Thomson on the Seafield estates, David Scott on the Moray
estates, Dewar on the Lovat estates, Dunn on the Buccleuch
estates, and France on the estates of Sir George Clerk of Peni-
cuik. These gentlemen possess many of the qualifications
required for the work of forestry in India, and it is to be hoped
that some systematic instruction in forestry, both for Great
Britain herself and for her numerous dependencies, may be set
on foot.
Thus I venture to hope that an important and extensive
public opinion is growing up, at least in North Britain, in
favour of the preservation of forests, not only in Scotland,
but in the colonies, and more especially in India. For
let me assure you it is always the case in India that light
is shed on the Empire by public opinion in the United King-
dom. It is public opinion which is wanted to stir up the minds
of our legislators and our statesmen in this most important
respect. Forestry, recollect, is a subject comparatively novel.
A few years ago it was but little understood, and even now, you
270
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
well know, as practical men, that a great deal has to be learned
by us all, and more especially by the governing classes. And
therefore it is to be hoped that a substantial support will be
given by public opinion in this country to the government of
India in overcoming all obstacles that still lie in the path of
improvement in forestry. I congratulate myself on having this
opportunity of bearing testimony before such an important body
as the Scottish Arboricultural Society in behalf of these forests,
in which, as a well-wisher of India, I take a deep interest.
And I do hope that your action, in its moral effects, will produce
a reflex action upon the authorities of these far distant regions
to which I am about to invite your attention.
Now, gentlemen, after this brief preface, let me remind you
that the forests of India are varied and extensive. I doubt not
that you bear in mind, as educated Scotchmen, the general out-
lines of the geography of that vast continent. Remember that
it is usually compared to an inverted triangle, of which two
sides are bounded by the sea, and the base by the Himalaya,
the apex being near Ceylon. Well, then, in the first place
the forests of India lie in the Himalaya. But in the vast
continental triangle that lies below that unrivalled range of
Himalayan mountains, there are several subordinate ranges.
So bear in mind that in the centre of India there lies a great
mountain mass, consisting of two main ranges—the Vindhya
and the Satpura hills. And next, down the western coast.
of the triangle, there extends one long line of mountains
called the Western Ghats; and on the eastern coast a lesser
line of mountains, called the Eastern Ghats. Kindly keep in
your memory these five ranges of mountains--the Himalaya,
the Vindhya, the Satpura, the Western and the Eastern Ghats
--and you will have a sufficient idea in your own minds of the
forests of India.
Remember, too, that the forests of India were once almost co-
extensive with the country itself. But they have been destroyed
through many centuries-first by the natives of the country. It
CHAP. XI.
RECKLESS CUTTING OF FORESTS.
271
is a most unhappy fact that, with but few exceptions, the natives
have no feeling of affection for trees and forests. They seem
to look upon them as common enemies almost to be destroyed.
They are indeed very fond of planting trees in their own
court and backyards, or in the immediate neighbourhood of
their villages. They also plant groves for sacred purposes, and
preserve them with religious care from century to century.
They likewise plant a few other groves for fruit-bearing and the
like, and in this respect many of the groves are justly cele-
brated. But the natives of India are a non-foresting people,
and they will not only fail to take care of forests, but will destroy
them, believing in a certain stupid way, that they are thereby
benefiting the land. That is a great difficulty with which we have
to contend. But we British people have been very much at fault
also, in respect to these Indian forests. During the early days
of British rule we rivalled-quite unintentionally-but still we
rivalled the natives in our destructive power. We allowed
forests to be cut down and swept away as clean as if the country
had been shaved with a razor. We did not do this ourselves,
but quietly allowed, in our carelessness, every kind of contractor,
native or European, to commit this destruction. Well, then,
after a time, perhaps first of all in the enlightened reign of the
great Lord Dalhousie, some efforts were made for forest con-
servancy. If there was any Governor-General who was the
originator of forest conservancy more than another, it was that
distinguished statesman. But after his time there came the
convulsion of the Indian Mutiny, and the era of the construction
of railways. And then I must confess that we did sin, even in
the light of knowledge, for we allowed European contractors to
commit the same destruction that native contractors had, for
so many generations, committed. Thus again, many square
miles of splendid forests of teak and sal were swept clean away
with the besom of destruction. New brooms, indeed, sweep
clean, and the new broom in this case was the railway
contractor; so once more these splendid forests continued to be
272
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
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destroyed. After the Mutinies, Lord Canning's administra-
tion had hardly time to do much for the forests, nor had
Lord Elgin's. It was reserved for my old master, John
Lawrence (afterwards Lord Lawrence), to take up the work
which had been begun by Lord Dalhousie; and from that
day to this there has been no Governor-General who has
not done much for the forest conservancy of India. But
remember that the fatal phrase "too late" must be inscribed
over many of the preservative and conservative measures which
we are now undertaking. A vast amount of mischief has been
done which cannot be remedied for several generations to come.
Still a large field remains in which the beneficial influence of
forest conservancy can be practically exerted, and there much is
being done.
You may ask, "How comes it I have such a sorry story to
tell regarding the interests of forest conservancy in India?"
I yield to no man in the pride and satisfaction with which
I look back on the achievements of my countrymen in the
East, and few persons can have a higher estimation than I
have of the condition and the progress of the Indian adminis-
tration. But I am bound in conscience to admit before every
assembly of my countrymen, that in respect of forest conser-
vancy we have lagged behind, and that our failures and short-
comings in that respect do constitute one of the few blots upon
the past history of the British rule in India. And what is the
cause of this? It is simply ignorance. It is want of instruc-
tion and education in these matters; and also the sluggishness
which accompanies uninstructed public opinion. But this fault
is now being remedied. When I went to India, I had never
heard of forest conservancy, and no kind of instruction or pre-
paration was given to me in that respect. Whatever I have
learned regarding the forests of India, I had to acquire for
myself, despite every obstacle and discouragement. And that
was the case with all my brother officers of that period, and it
is still too much the case with regard to many officers sent
CHAP. XI. RESPONSIBILITY OF RULERS FOR FORESTRY. 273
forth to the East. You can understand that if the rulers have
no proper idea as to the value of forest conservancy, they are
not likely to overcome the obstacles which stand like lions in
the way of all improvement. Every prejudice which an Asiatic
population feels in this matter has to be encountered. That is
a very grave affair which we must deal with considerately, for
fear we should create popular discontent. But, although that is
a very important thing, still it must be faced for the sake of an
object sufficiently important, and by judiciously considered
measures it must be gradually overcome. Unless, however, the
rulers feel in their own mind a due sense of the importance of
the matter, they will not have a vivid apprehension of these
affairs, nor will they deal with difficulties with becoming energy.
It is owing to the want of instruction on these subjects that the
grievous national losses, to which I have referred, have been
inflicted indirectly upon India. Therefore it is that I hail
most heartily the formation of your important Association
in Scotland, through whose means instruction will gradually
permeate all the influential classes here, and from them will
reach the equally influential classes abroad.
May I remind you for a moment, as practical men, what are
the consequences which have arisen, and will continue to arise
for some time to come, from the destruction of forests. In the
first place timber and fuel are scarce in a country which
needs those articles to a peculiar extent. The scantiness and
dearness of these most necessary articles affect the prices
generally of all the necessaries which are required by the
poor, and consequently their normal poverty is aggravated.
Wood is an article which, in the absence of iron, is peculiarly
necessary in a country like India. In the north of India,
indeed, the native houses and cottages can be constructed of
earth; and there, wood is not so much necessary. But in the
east, west, and south, wood and timber are absolutely neces-
sary for house-building. And I need hardly add, that in every
part of the country it is required for boats, carts, ploughs, and
T
274
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
But,
a hundred domestic, agricultural, or commercial uses.
what is more important still, a vast people requires a mass
of fuel for fires to warm their houses in the winter time, and
at all seasons for cooking purposes. That is a simple thing
to say. No doubt, there are scientific men who tell us that in
the future our meals are to be cooked and our firesides warmed
by electricity. Well, gentlemen, that sort of millennium may
be reached in Scotland or in England in our day. Yet it
will be centuries, or generations at the least, before anything
of the kind will be reached in India. Therefore, the people
'must have some fuel with which to cook the countless numbers
of meals which have to smoke every day for so vast a popula-
tion as is contained in India; and if they cannot get wood for
fuel, they must use something else. And what is that some-
thing else? Why, nothing less than the manure. The dung
of cattle is in most parts of India extensively used for fuel. As
Scotch agriculturists you readily see what a great detriment
that is to agriculture. You hear that the soil is being gradually
exhausted. I hope that it is not being rapidly exhausted, but
I think the proof is undeniable that some process of exhaustion,
however imperceptible, is setting in, and if it does set in, the
main cause must be the want of manure. Now, under these
circumstances, and with a vast population to be fed by
indigenous agriculture, is it not ten thousand pities that
the people should be obliged to use for fuel that which is
wanted for manure, simply because our enlightened govern-
ment has for several generations failed to preserve those
beautiful forests, with which a gracious Providence once
endowed India?
But, there are economic reasons in connection with the
forest conservancy affecting the wealth of the people, and
these reasons are more particularly felt in the northern and
eastern, than in other parts of India. It is for the sake of
these economic reasons affecting the national wealth, that
forests are wanted to be preserved in northern and eastern
CHAP. XI.
CLIMATIC VALUE OF FORESTS.
275
India. But there are climatic reasons as well as economic
reasons, and these climatic reasons are severely felt in southern,
central, and western India. These exist in those parts of
the continent, in addition to the general economic reasons
applicable, more or less, to the whole of India. I need
not detain you as a body, consisting partly of scientific men,
and partly of experts, by any very long description of the
scientific theories whereby forests are considered to affect the
climate. I don't suppose that in a country like India the
existence or non-existence of forests can possibly affect the total
rainfall of that vast continent. You can imagine that in
islands like our own the existence or non-existence of forests
may possibly affect the total rainfall. The clouds from the
Atlantic, if not arrested in their course by forests in Great
Britain, may pass over to Scandinavia. But you understand
that nothing of that kind can possibly happen in India. There
the vapours come from the southern ocean, and if they are not
arrested in their aërial course somewhere over the continent,
they pass on to the Himalaya, and there they must stop. That
stupendous range of mountain peaks is a real barrier to their
progress; if not condensed previously, they must stop there,
and in the shape of floods return to the plains; so that the total
condensation and precipitation of vapour cannot possibly be
affected. But it does not follow from this, that the forests have
no effect. Because if the clouds are not condensed in the
Himalaya, they must be condensed somewhere else on the
continent. And the somewhere else may, for the convenience
and happiness of man, largely depend upon the forests. More
particularly too, the season of condensation may be affected
by the forests. If you have forests in abundance, you may
hope to have the early and the latter rains in due season.
If you have not, you may have drought, to be followed by
unseasonable rain; so that in the words of the prayer-book,
you will be "plagued with immoderate rain.”
We hear much of the earth being modified by human action.
T 2
276
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
We may humbly believe that a good Providence arranged all
terrestrial conditions rightly and for the best; but we, in our
short-sightedness, grievously interfere with all the arrangements
of Nature. Can we wonder, therefore, if we are punished by
alternations of drought and inundation?
That meteorological theory as to Indian seasons has been
greatly discussed. There is a department at Bombay of scien-
tific men who have given guarded utterance upon this subject.
You know that scientific opinion as a rule is very judicial. But
still when the scientific men in Bombay have explained to us
their theory on these matters, the result has always been that in
their own phraseology and terminology, they have given us an
explanation which comes to much the same result as that which
I have given you. You have present to-night, I believe, a great
meteorological authority, your excellent and distinguished
member Mr. Buchan, and I am sanguine if you ask him he
will corroborate-perhaps in different terms and in much better
language than I have used-the general theory which I have
ventured to propound, which is certainly believed by many
scientific authorities in India, and which is confirmed by every-
day experience. We see these two things invariably linked
together, on the one hand deforesting and drought, on the
other hand forests and abundant rainfall. Now, when you see
things chained together, or following each other in unvarying
sequence by some unseen mysterious force, you naturally fall
back on the theory of cause and effect. Thus we in India, in
common with all other nations, maintain that forests do affect
the rainfall, although we endeavour to avoid attributing any
undue effect to this or to any one particular cause.
But surely
our experience in India is borne out by the experience of every
other country in the world. I need not recapitulate all that
the best authorities in Great Britain have said regarding the
effect of forests, even on the climate of Scotland. The injury
done to the climate of the south of Europe by the cutting down
of the forests is a matter of notoriety. Every Spaniard, Italian,
CHAP. XI. EVIL EFFECTS FROM DEFORESTING.
277
and southern Frenchman will tell you the same story.* We
hear the same tale, again, from Cyprus. What-under centuries
of misrule now, as we hope, to be remedied by British adminis-
tration—has ruined the fertility of that classic isle, once the gem
of the Mediterranean? The destruction of the forests first by
felling and then the injury to young trees by the unrestricted
browsing of goats. Then in the East it is notorious that many of
those famous lands, which once maintained mighty nations, are
now almost uninhabitable or incapable of maintaining more than
the scantiest average of population per square mile. What has
become of the regions of Nebuchadnezzar, of Cyrus, of Alex-
ander, and all those other persons of sacred writ or classic story?
Everybody now sees that no such population, no such wealth
could possibly be sustained in these lands at the present day as
in the times when they arose to historic fame. And without
attributing an excessive causation to forests, one cannot doubt
that the deforesting of these once richly-wooded regions has had
much to do with the destruction which we see so widespread
to-day. Every mountain-range in these regions is as bare as
the bones at which the lions have been tearing. Similar expe-
rience has been brought to us from South Africa and from
Australia; and now, although North America possessed the
finest forests in the world, we are beginning to hear a similar
tale from that continent also. In Canada the deforesting is
* For instance, see the following quotation, extracted from Murray's
Handbook of France:'-" After crossing a high ridge the road descends by
a gradual sweep into the valley of the Durance, which it reaches by zigzags
at the foot of a precipitous mountain, le Morgon (7632 ft.). The valley
hereabouts is a scene of desolation: the turbulent river rolls along a furious
flood of muddy water, undermining the loose shaly rocks composing its sides,
strewing the bottom with rubbish, and constantly forcing its banks. The
road is frequently swept away by inundations, and for some distance is
carried along temporary causeways. All this waste and ruin has been
caused by the reckless cutting down of the forests on the high mountains.
The Government have come to the rescue, and have taken measures at
great outlay to regulate the torrents, avert the landslips, and replant the
forests. Such works may be seen near Embrun."
278
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
causing public anxiety, and forestry associations are being
formed there. I say, then, that as reasonable men you will
not doubt that the forests, or rather the want of forests, must
be affecting the climate of India.
But irrespective of this, there are other effects produced by
the destruction, or, on the other hand, by the preservation of
forests. In the first place, the air is kept comparatively moist
by the presence of woods, by the vast expanse of foliage which
is presented by the forests. That again acts upon the clouds,
and surely it must be the cause of condensation. Then what
is even more important, the moisture which does exist in the
country is retained by means of forests. You cannot doubt that
the streams and the rivers have their fountain heads kept moist
by the trees, which fountain heads will be gradually dried up if
the trees be destroyed. The sources of streams and rivers have
in India a significance of which we have hardly a practical idea
in Great Britain or even in Europe. Because recollect we are
in India dependent greatly on artificial irrigation. We have
an ancient system of canals, which system has been mightily
developed by the British Government. Some of the canals
derive their water from the Himalaya, or from streams which
are fed by the everlasting snows of the mountains. No doubt
these canals are comparatively independent of the forest. But
with these exceptions all the great canals of India, which give
life to so many millions of people, are really dependent on
streams which have their sources in the hills, which must be
clad with forests, if these sources are to be preserved. If you
allow the woods, the forests, the vegetation to be destroyed, then
the sources of these streams which feed the canals will be sub-
jected in a mitigated degree to the very uncertainties of climate
which we have been deploring. There is, therefore, a most
potent, cogent, and peculiar reason in India for preserving the
forests, which are the sources of our streams.
Then if we do not preserve the forests, there is another evil
which happens. I have shown you how the clouds, if they are
CHAP. XI.
VIOLENT INUNDATIONS.
279
not condensed, pass over the plains and become condensed on
the hills. What follows? Violent rain falls in buckets-full, in
tremendous torrents, and thus awful inundations occur. Down
come the floods, sweeping away not only the precious soil
which would have sustained vegetation and cultivation, but also
tearing up the works of man-such as bridges, buildings, dykes,
and the like. Not only are enormous volumes of water wasted
by rolling along to the sea, but with the water is carried débris
which had formed part of the resources of nature and of the
useful works of man. All these terrible consequences arise
from our shortsightedness in respect to the preserving of vege-
tation. There is yet another evil, namely that of denudation.
In many parts of India the country is mountainous, or at least
undulating. The hill-sides consist of the precious humus or rich
soil overlying masses of rock. The trees with their network
of roots form a great binding agency to keep the soil together
and prevent it being swept away from the rocky surface.
If
these trees are destroyed, the torrents fall and carry away the
humus. The sides of the hills become perfectly bare, barren,
and inhospitable. Still a further evil happens; sometimes great
artificial lakes are fed by streams that come down from the hills.
If the forests are preserved these streams roll down their waters
in a gradual measure, the tanks are kept filled, there is no
silting up, and no inundations to destroy the dams, dykes, and
embankments. If the forests are destroyed, down rush the
streams in destructive floods, carrying away a mass of earth and
débris, causing a dreadful silting up of the tanks, and sometimes
even bursting dykes and embankments altogether. The list of
evils is yet not exhausted. In a dry country like India a
plentiful supply of water is wanted, not only for drinking, but
for the purposes of washing and ablution. If we have little
vegetation, there will be a corresponding diminution of the
water supply; and of all causes which produce cholera, epidemic
sicknesses, and destructive ailments of that kind in India, the
deficiency of the water supply is not only the greatest, but is
=
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280
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
perhaps equal to all the other causes put together. Now that
water supply, so vitally important, is largely dependent on these
forests-whose cause I am pleading before you.
Then there is another matter-that of pasturage. You have
heard of the countless herds and flocks on a thousand hills in
India. Whenever drought threatens, mortality first shows itself
in the cattle. The destruction that happens from devastating
murrains is deplorable. All this arises from a deficiency of
pasturage. The natives as a rule, are very unwilling to restrict
the pasturage of their herds. Nevertheless, if the herds are
allowed to wander at their will over the grazing-grounds,
they will destroy and trample down much more than they eat.
Unless something is done to restrict the grazing—not in its total
quantity, but to restrict it in such a way as to prevent the cattle
grazing in particular places until vegetation has grown up—
following, in fact, the block system-the pasturage will be
destroyed. The block system means this, that in a given area
a certain number of cattle are allowed to graze, and when they
have cropped the herbage on one block they are taken to the next.
Young trees are thus preserved from the browsing of goats and
cattle. If this system were carried out, there would be plenty
of grazing for all the cattle that exist, and double their number,
while young plantations would be permitted to grow up undis-
turbed. If something is not done in this direction, there will be
a perpetual want of proper sustenance in ordinary times, and an
utter want of food in seasons of drought, so that the cattle will
be always thin and out of condition, even in good years, and
emaciated well-nigh to death in every year of drought.
These are the grounds on which I venture to urge that a
proper system of forest conservancy is absolutely necessary. Let
me point out to what extent that necessity has been recognised
by the Government in India. Your excellent Chairman, Mr.
Hutchison, was kind enough to tell you that the Indian system
of forestry was the best in the Empire. I am afraid that is a too
generous recognition of what we have been able to do. I fear it
CHAP. XI. PROPORTION OF FORESTS TO WHOLE COUNTRY. 281
is far from being so good as Mr. Hutchison has been led to
suppose. Nevertheless it is considerable. For, in the first place,
we have now 25,000 square miles of forests in India that are
regularly preserved, and about 50,000 square miles of forest
which are imperfectly preserved, total, 75,000 square miles.
Now, gentlemen, in Scotland I believe that you reckon your
forests by acres, but the forest area in India is so vast, that
to reckon it in acres, would lead us to very tall figures
indeed, and therefore we are obliged to reckon it by the
square mile.
But observe that British India (exclusive of
the Native States) has an area of one million square miles,
and the 75,000 square miles of forest represent just 7 per
cent. of that area. Or if you choose to reckon only the 25,000
square miles that are properly preserved, that will give 24 per
cent. on the total area of one million square miles. Or if you
like to take it in acres, according to the Scotch plan, then you
have forty-eight millions of acres preserved, of which sixteen
millions are perfectly preserved, even in the manner which might
be approved by those practical Scotch foresters whom I have
been mentioning to you this evening. Let us compare, for one
instant, these figures, with the results which have been men-
tioned with so much pride and satisfaction by your Chairman in
some of his admirable addresses. Mr. Hutchison makes out,
that though there has been a regrettable falling off in the forest
area of Scotland within recent years, that is, as against 900,000
acres of wood forty or fifty years ago, we have 750,000 acres, or
three-quarters of a million acres under wood. Now that gives
3 per cent. upon the total area of twenty million acres in Scot-
land. I have taken these twenty millions from the last edition
of the Statesman's Year Book; so that on the whole India
compares favourably with Scotland as regards the total area
of forests, taking together the forests perfectly and imperfectly
preserved, but compares unfavourably with Scotland in respect
to the area of perfect preservation.
But such a large total as 75,000 square miles, or forty-eight
282
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
millions of acres will appear to you extraordinary, and you may
say, "Just give us one or two details of these enormous
figures, and let us see how you get them." Well, let me
explain to you how this area is obtained province by province.
You are doubtless aware that India is an Empire divided
into many provinces, under several separate local governments
and administrations. Here are the figures for each. In the
Panjab there are 4000 square miles of forest; in the North-
West Provinces 3000; in Bengal 9000; in Assam 7000; in
the Central Provinces 20,000; in Berar 5000; and miscel-
laneous 1000; in Burmah, which comprises probably the best
forests in all Asia, 2000; total 51,000 square miles. You
have to add 13,000 for Bombay, 10,000 for Southern India
and the Madras Presidency, and so you get the large total of
75,000 square miles or forty-eight millions of acres. Besides
these, there is a vast extent of what are called local forests which
are not preserved, but which are left by the Land Revenue
Settlement in the hands of the people. And from the descrip-
tion I have given you of the habits of the natives, you can
imagine how these are treated. They are indeed battered and
knocked about. Of course some trees do yet survive in these
local forests, and on the Darwinian principle of the survival of
the fittest, they do exist in a precarious sort of way.
With this large area, you, as practical men, will ask me, "of
what does the conservancy consist?" The conservancy is of
two kinds, general and special. The general conservancy,
which is applicable to all kinds of forests, consists in guarding
against fires. These fires are of two kinds, accidental and in-
tentional. The accidental fires are truly tremendous. The com-
monest form of accident arises from a man lighting his pipe and
dropping some sparks. Once the conflagration is set up, then
many of the wonderful and thrilling incidents which you have
read in books of travel in regard to the firing of the American
prairies, are applicable to these Indian forest fires. I was out in
one of them during the dead of night, and it was only owing to
CHAP. XI,
FIRES IN THE FORESTS.
283
the fleetness of my horse that I escaped. The wonderful noises,
the crackling of the dry bark of the trees sounding like
musketry, and the flight of all kinds of animals from the swift
rush of destruction, form a wonderful experience. But there
are intentional fires which are quite as destructive as the acci-
dental ones.
Nothing is so common as for the natives to burn
the tall grass at certain seasons, in order to promote the growth
of the young herbage. And then the whole hill-sides are lighted
up, affording a glorious spectacle from the point of view of the
ordinary spectator, but saddening to the forester. There is
another thing: in many hill regions the lazy people, sooner than
plough their cleared land, cut down the forests, burn the wood on
the spot, and then spread the ashes all over the surface. Then
as soon as the rain falls, they cast the seed over the soil, and so
they are saved the trouble of cultivation. Another way is this:
in many parts of the country the people cut off all the young
shoots from the trees and burn them for the manure. If you
remonstrate with them, and tell them that if they will cut off
branches, they should leave the young wood and prune the older
branches, you are told that the young shoots are the richest-it
being meant thereby, that these are filled with all the chemical
constituents necessary for fertilisation. Thus they obviate the
necessity of using any more expensive manure. It is against all
these kinds of destruction that the forest officers have to wage war
as best they can, with the support of the magistrates and the
civil authorities. Of course there is a general guardianship
against illicit cutting and the like, on which I need not detain
you. But there are also the special operations of conservancy.
Now let me assure you, practical experts, that each and all
of the measures you adopt in Scotland are adopted in the spe-
cially protected forests of India. Think for a moment, Scotch
foresters, what are your ordinary operations? I believe they are
first enclosing, fencing, and draining the land for planting;
second, planting; third, thinning and pruning; fourth, utilising
limbs and branches for crate wood and the like; fifth, felling;
284
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
$
sixth, barking; seventh, leaving some standard trees for
reproduction; eighth, gathering the produce, fruit, cones, seeds,
nuts; ninth, sawing and manufacturing; tenth, rearing and
propagating in the nurseries. There may be possibly some other
operations which suggest themselves to experts, but I believe I
have enumerated the principal of your operations. Now let me
assure you, gentlemen, that every one of these things is done, and
done over that area of 25,000 square miles or sixteen millions
of acres.
The special conservancy which I have just described
to you, is carried on in what are called the reserved forests, and
the general protection which I have sketched to you in what are
technically called the protected forests. The names "reserved"
and "protected" are technical, and are embodied in the forest
legislation for these special purposes. Thus you see our system
has a sound legislative basis and a positive legal sanction.
There is one remark I have to make in regard to planting. I
know that in Scotland great importance is attached to it. Some
importance is attached to it in India also. We have some
splendid plantations of teak in Burmah and Malabar. These
plantations have an immense value. I observe in one of Mr.
Hutchison's reports that the woods on Lord Mansfield's estates
are estimated at a quarter of a million sterling.
You can
infer from that what would be the capital value of our great
teak plantations in India. No doubt it is not so much plant-
ing we look to, as preserving the natural forests and the spon-
taneous vegetation of the country. The area is too vast to be
affected materially by anything we can do in the way of plant-
ing. Therefore our national object is to preserve that which
we have already. Still, as a matter of public policy, and as a
valuable investment of capital, we have got plantations also.
But there is one particular kind of plantation which we hope to
establish, especially in northern India, and that is what we hope
to call the communal plantation connected with every village. I
have explained to you that the cattle suffer from scantiness of
herbage in the hot weather. If such communal plantations can
CHAP. XI.
POPULAR RIGHTS IN FORESTS.
285
be established in every parish, there will be some preservation of
the vegetation for the grazing of the cattle during the hot season.
One word more, mainly on the preservation of what are called
popular rights. The existence of these popular rights has proved
a considerable obstacle towards the proper conservancy of forests.
We know how justly jealous the British Government is of every-
thing that pertains to the rights of its native subjects. Still I am
sanguine that by the equitable arrangement that has been made
under the laws passed for forest conservancy, the rights of the
people are being respected-not indeed so much as they them-
selves would demand, but as much as reason and justice can
properly require. You must understand that the natives them-
selves are ignorant and prejudiced on this subject. They hate
everything new, and they are but too much disposed to regard the
efforts which Government makes for preserving the forests as
against their interests. Nevertheless, it is the duty of the civil
officers to thoroughly explain these matters and overcome the
dissatisfaction and reluctance which the people feel in obeying
the forest laws; because we must remember that the people, if
left to themselves, would simply work out their own destruction.
What is the use of talking to them so much about their rights
in the forest, when really their destructive habits will sweep
away what the lawyers call the corpus of the case, that is to
say, the property involved in the case will become so valueless
that it will not be worth disputing about? So then we must, in
a considerate manner, satisfy them in regard to the importance
of the measures which we are undertaking; and I am sure that
if our civil officers are properly instructed in all matters con-
nected with forests, and have a due appreciation of the importance
of the subject, they will, in all instances, be able to make a
satisfactory compromise with the people-preserving the popular
rights on the one hand, and on the other, those national interests
which are essential to the very existence of the country.
I must ask you to recollect that the area of 75,000 square
miles above stated is the property of Government, and has
286
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
been adjudged to be so by formal proceedings. Over and above
this area, the local forests have been adjudged to be private
property. But in some of the forests which are Government
property, various privileges are recognised as pertaining to the
people, and in other Government forests even rights have been
adjudged to them; while many of the best forests are absolutely
in the hands of the Forest Department.
One word as to the financial results. You will be happy to
hear that already the Government of India is deriving a consider-
able income from these forests. The gross proceeds amount to
750,000l., say three-quarters of a million sterling per annum ;
and the expenditure amounts to half a million, giving a net
return of 250,000l. to the public treasury. So that after all the
forests of India do even more than pay their own way.
Now I have concluded this exposition of the forest policy of
India and some of its results. Allow me to refer to some of
the good men and true, Scotch countrymen of yours, by whom
these results have been achieved. You must not be nation-
ally jealous, when I assure you that the man to whom, if
any one is to bear it, must be accorded the proud title of the
father of Indian forestry, is not a Briton at all but a Prussian,
and that man is Dr. Brandis. Another man, Dr. Schlich, à
countryman of Dr. Brandis, is second only to him in the success-
ful efforts he has made for Indian forest conservancy. We are
always glad to welcome these foreign gentlemen into the British
service. We have, as a nation, a wonderful faculty for as-
similating all these foreign elements into the body politic-on
this one condition that they do something for the glory and
greatness of Great Britain. I will not detain you by giving
you a list of the Englishmen or Irishmen who have done some-
thing for Indian forests, but I will do myself the pleasure of
mentioning to you the names of some distinguished Scotchmen.
And first of all I commend to your grateful recollection the
honoured name of Dr. Cleghorn. Having done service for
many years to the forests of India, he has returned to Scotland
CHAP. XI. NECESSITY OF FORESTS FOR INDIA.
287
to plead their cause before his countrymen; and he has also
been among the most learned, intelligent, and practical supporters
of the Scottish Arboricultural Society. Besides him I will
mention Dr. Stewart and Mr. Dalzell, Captain Forsyth, and
Major Campbell-Walker, all good Scotchmen. I may men-
tion to you Dr. Brandis' work on the "Forest Flora of India”
as instructive for your leisure hours, and I would commend
Captain Forsyth's charming book from which you will learn all
about the camp life in India, and receive a striking narrative as
to the wild sports of the East. I may also mention two practical
foresters who deserve a place in the Indian forest valhallah,
namely, Ferguson of Malabar and Ballantyne of Berar.
Recollect, in conclusion, that this policy of forest conservancy
really is vitally important to India in the sense in which it is
hardly so vitally important to any other nation. If in Great
Britain you do not choose to preserve your forests, if you think
they do not pay you, you can deforest, and nothing very dreadful
will happen to your favoured lands; for you have still your
insular position; you have still got that mysterious agency, the
Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, which moderates your climate, and
keeps it comparatively temperate. If you have no wood at home
you may get it from other places, from Scandinavia, from Fin-
land, from Germany, or from a country still more important,
namely Canada. If you don't choose to preserve your forests
at home, other nations will preserve wood for you. If you
think conservancy does not pay you, they know that it pays
them to conserve for you. That is all very well for you in
Europe, but you cannot follow out a policy of that kind in India.
For remember you have an enormous population there—now
upwards of 250 millions of people. You cannot find wood and
fuel for these people unless you preserve your indigenous forests
in India. If India does not preserve wood for herself, whence
is she to import it? Is she to import it from those great
central regions in Africa which Livingstone explored? The cost
of transport effectually forbids that. Is she to import it from
288
CHAP. XI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
•
•
Arabia? Why, Arabia has not a stick to support herself with
except palm-trees, which she wants for food. Persia has no forests
except those which were judiciously alluded to to-day by your
noble president (the Marquis of Lothian), namely the forests on
the hills which face the Caspian, and which are so far inland
that the hope of getting them to the Oceanic coast, or to any
sea except the Caspian, is out of the question. Central Asia
is equally destitute. China has an enormous population, and
more than plenty to do with all the wood she can produce.
So, then, you have nothing to fall back upon except Burmah,
Assam, and Cochin-China. These countries would afford you
some wood, but it would be very expensive, and when got it
would prove utterly insufficient for the wants of India. Re-
member that there are 37 millions of inhabited houses in
India, the greater part of which are constructed of wood.
There are perhaps 15 millions of ploughs, all made of wood.
The number of carts I cannot give you, but they would amount
to several millions. And as for boats-the inland naviga-
tion of India is, next after the Southern States of North
America, among the greatest in the world. I have no time to
give you any idea of the magnitude of that navigation, but it
depends upon hundreds of thousands of boats, the building of
which has to be maintained by the indigenous forests of the
country. So that unless India preserves her own forests, she
must suffer, sooner or later, a national misfortune. I trust that
from any such direful consequence as this she will be preserved
by the Government of India, with the support of a national and
instructed public opinion in Great Britain.
In conclusion, India has great claims on the British nation,
and these claims are rapidly increasing. From the last census
it appears that she has added 11 million every year to her
population, or 12 to 13 millions every decade of industrious
subjects to the Empire of Queen Victoria. And of all sec-
tions of the British nation there is none on whom she has
greater claims than on the Scotch. There are more old Anglo-
CHAP. XI. SERVICES OF SCOTLAND TO FORESTRY.
289
Indians residing in Scotland than in any other part of Great
Britain, and I am sure that Scotland will remain in the very
front in all that relates to the welfare of the Indian people.
I am likewise sure that if by means of this Association and
the general advocacy and agitation of these subjects, she shall
succeed in placing forest conservancy in India on a sound moral
basis—I mean that basis which results from enlightened public
opinion-she will add one more leaf to that laurel wreath which
encircles her brow.
U
290
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER XII.
MONETARY PRACTICE AMONGST THE NATIVES OF INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the Institute of Bankers, in London,
May, 1881.]
Ancient gold-mines of India Hindu currency originally in gold-Silver
currency of the Muhammadans — Extraordinary number of native mints
Variety of native coins-Double standard in India up to 1835 - Single
standard in silver subsequently - Hoarding in specie by the natives
Capital consisting of precious stones - Primitive barter still going on
Payment in kind Circulation of cowrie shells-Probable amount of
silver circulating in India — Probable amount of gold - Importance of
native bankers as forming a class — Native Bills of Exchange - Savings-
banks-Want of life insurance.
I HAVE been asked to speak before you regarding the general
monetary practice amongst the natives of India, with some
estimate of the use and probable future absorption of silver as
coin; also to give an account of such practices amongst the
natives as have a banking character, and lead up to the larger
banking operations of the country.
This comprehensive question divides itself naturally into three
parts. The limited time at our disposal, and the largeness of
the subject, prevent my dilating upon many of the graphic, pic-
turesque, and almost poetical details which I should have liked
to indulge myself in and you also. If I should linger on the
picturesque portion I should not have time to dwell upon the
solid facts which I am bound to bring under the notice of a
body of experts such as the members of this Institute. There-
fore, bespeaking your indulgence so far, if I seem to pass hastily
|
CHAP. XII.
ANCIENT HINDU COINAGE.
291
over details, I shall at once proceed to the subject matter of my
address. I will begin by treating of the first of the three parts
into which it divides itself.
"The GENERAL MONETARY PRACTICE amongst the NATIVES of
INDIA."
But
Now you will doubtless be aware that the ancient coins and
numismatics of India form an historical record of priceless value,
and have rescued from oblivion many dynasties and long lines
of kings, which would otherwise have been forgotten.
passing by that interesting and brilliant topic of the numismatics
of India, I may remind you that among the original Hindus in
the southern part of India coinage was in gold, because in the
south of India they had gold mines-the very gold mines, indeed,
about which in recent days we have heard so much, Indeed, the
reason why there is so much uncertainty as to the profit to be
derived from the re-opening as it were of these gold mines, is
because the ancient Hindus worked out for their gold coinage
all the accessible veins of precious metal, leaving the more deeply
sunk veins to be worked with the assistance of our modern mining
engineers. The Hindus in the north of India had gold as well,
but there they had a silver coinage also, because they obtained
silver from Central Asia, across the Himalayas, and in the
Himalayas themselves. When the Muhammadan sovereigns
came to power they developed the silver coinage and retained
the gold coinage, and they further paid great attention to
copper coinage.
According to English laws one metal is legal tender to any
amount, and another metal is legal tender to only a limited sum.
In ancient and medieval India the relative value of coins of each
metal was fixed by the State, and all were legal tender virtually
without any formal limitation. Each Native ruler in India, upon
his accession to the throne, instituted a new coinage, recalling
U 2
292
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
as much as he could the coinage of his predecessors, and charging
some discount called "batta" upon the new coinage. There
were a great number and variety of mints in medieval India.
Each Native State had several mints, and, as there were some
hundreds of States, if I said there were a thousand mints I should
not be far wrong. Equally there was a great variety of coins,
and looking at an old table of coins the other day, I counted a
hundred coins of gold, 300 of silver, and 50 of copper. The
money-changers used this multifarious currency for their own
benefit. Moreover, there was a practice whereby the money-
changers became the contractors in the Native States for the
mint, thereby acquiring the entire control over the mintage of
the country. Thus they were able to have frequently a fresh
coinage, actually yearly, again charging the old "batta" or dis-
count. The troubles to which the public were thus exposed
under the later dynasties of Native rule, before the appearance
of the British Government, were indescribable and endless.
These troubles continued during the early part of British rule
until, by the celebrated regulation of 1793, the East India Com-
pany put an end to the legal currency of the multiform Native
coinage. They then instituted the gold mohur and the sikka
rupees. These were practically legal tender to an unlimited
amount, their relative value being fixed by law. This system
lasted until 1835, when silver was declared to be the sole legal
tender to an unlimited amount.
Therefore it may be interesting to recall the fact, that under
every Native monarch, and also after the establishment of
British rule, until the year 1835, India had what was prac-
tically a double standard. But in the year 1835 silver was
declared sole legal tender to an unlimited amount, and thence-
forward gold pieces were coined only for the purpose of general
convenience, without being a legal tender at all. The Govern-
ment, however, made a concession in favour of the gold coins,
to the effect that they should be received in the public treasuries
in payment of revenue; and with certain modifications the
1
CHAP. XII.
HOARDING, SPECIE, BULLION, JEWELS.
293
arrangement has lasted up to the present time. In the year
1865, about the time of the crisis of the American Civil War,
proposals were made for making gold the sole legal tender
to an unlimited amount, and practically demonetising silver.
These proposals were originated before the well-known depreci-
ation of silver set in. This depreciation has placed all proposals
of that character out of court. The recent tendency among some
thinkers in India is again towards the bi-metallism of former
times. But this tendency has not found favour with the
Government. Before leaving this part of the subject, I should
remind you that the many hundreds of native mints were
abolished by British rule, and the British mints have since
been reduced, first to three and now to two, so we have now
only two mints in the whole of British India.
The possibility of a political revolution occurring is always
present to the monetary and financial mind of the people of
India. The consequence is, that their coinage is used partly for
purposes of circulation and partly for hoarding. I think, as you
will see presently, that silver is hoarded almost entirely in specie,
and gold is hoarded partly in specie but chiefly in bullion. The
reason of hoarding in specie is that the man, who hoards, con-
siders that the stamp, image and superscription upon the coin
constitute a certificate of its value. The amount of unused
capital thus existing in India is almost melancholy to contem-
plate. Then the natives of India have many other uses for gold
and silver besides circulation and hoarding. I wish time
permitted me to give you many of the graphic and interesting
details which might be given regarding the manner in which
these humble natives use gold and silver for domestic purposes,
ornamentation, and personal decoration. The hoarding is not,
however, confined to the precious metals. The natives of India
are very fond of using precious stones for hoarding, and a man
considers his little fortune locked up in so many diamonds and
emeralds. It is to be borne in mind that they import jewels
but little into India, and that some of the best diamond mines
ht
294
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
are in India, and perhaps the finest ruby mine in the world is in
Burmah, while the Indian waters have some of the largest pearl-
fisheries on the face of the globe. The necessity for precious
metals for circulation is but slightly diminished by the use on
the part of the natives of the Government paper-currency, repre-
sented by fourteen million pounds sterling. The natives of
India, however, do invest largely in Government securities.
They hold 20,000,000l. of that class of stock; and it is remark-
able that both the larger kind of Government notes and Govern-
ment securities, that is to say, scrip-paper, are used to some
extent for the further purpose of hoarding.
races.
Then, in some respects, the necessity for circulation in specie
is reduced by the primitive barter, which is very common in the
country. I admit that there are no recognised standards of
barter in India such as there have been among some aboriginal
Nevertheless there is an immense extent of this barter
going on—that is to say, the poor people in villages take little
articles, which they make with their own hands, to the rustic
fairs, and therewith purchase food and grain. In ancient India,
again, a great deal of business was done in kind. The land
revenue was collected in kind; the rent was paid to the landlord
in kind; the wages of the agricultural labourer were given again
in kind. This system of course reduces the necessity of gold,
silver, or paper for circulation. In many British districts, how-
ever, it is ceasing altogether, and is lessening in the Native
States.
Lastly, there is a medium of circulation represented by cowrie
shells, which are imported to India from the Bay of Bengal.
3200 go to the shilling, and 266 to the penny; so you can
imagine the extent to which this shell circulation supersedes
copper. You will remember that the natives are a poor people
and are very thrifty, looking to the narrowest margin of profit
and loss. These shells have a very large circulation. Never-
theless, the British Government has succeeded in introducing
a successful copper coinage, though its circulation is some-
CHAP. XII.
MAIN ECONOMIC FACTS.
295
what impeded by the various customs which I have just men-
tioned. I have now said as much as time will permit in regard
to the monetary practices of the natives of India.
'Some ESTIMATE of the USE and PROBABLE FUTURE ABSORPTION
of SILVER as COIN."
I thus come to the most difficult and important part of the
question, and I must preface my answer by reminding you of a
few salient, statistical, and economical facts relating to India.
First, the Indian national income, assessable to income-tax,
somewhat on the same principle as that which exists in England,
amounts to not more than a hundred millions sterling. You
doubtless remember, as I am addressing experts, that in the
United Kingdom 570 millions sterling of income are assessable
to income-tax, and the rest of the income of the nation is con-
jectured at 700 millions more, making a total of 1270 millions.
Apply that principle to India and you will get 100 millions
assessable to income-tax, and say 150 millions pertaining to
the humbler classes, and that will give 250 millions in all.
The external trade of India with foreign countries amounts, on
the average, to 125 millions sterling a year, with a tendency to
increase considerably. The value of the internal trade is probably
greater still, but I regret to say that in this respect the statistical
department in India is not sufficiently advanced to be able
to furnish the value in figures. The State revenue amounts to
about 65 millions sterling a year, of which 43 millions only
represent the actual taxation, and of that amount six millions
(net) are paid by the Chinese for opium. The ordinary expendi-
ture is about the same in amount. The Government now keeps
a cash balance in its treasury of 13 to 16 millions sterling.
When I was finance minister the cash balance used to be from
17 to 22 millions sterling. The greater part of that is hard cash,
kept under lock and key in the Government treasuries of the
296
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
country, but a portion of it is in the three Presidency Banks.
The population of India numbers 203 millions in British territory
and 50 millions in the Native States-253 millions altogether.
Now, in such a country under these general economic condi-
tions, what may we believe to be the amount of silver coin in
actual circulation? The best opinions in 1850 put this circula-
tion at 150 millions sterling, and the best opinions now, in 1881,
would put it at 200 millions. As a check upon these calcula-
tions, I have ascertained that the coin issued from the Indian
mints during a period of thirty-five years averaged eleven
rupees per head of the whole population, which amounts to just
220 millions sterling. You may ask me why I do not put that
as the total circulation? Now, nobody believes that the silver
circulation is really 220 millions, and we account for the differ-
ence between the 200 millions circulation and the 220 millions
coinage, by putting it down as part of the vast amount which is
known to be hoarded by the people of India.
Remember that gold does not help the circulation. Gold coins,
as I shall show you presently, are, indeed, issued from the mint.
They are not circulated, they are only hoarded. Copper also does
not help much. We have only got four millions sterling worth
of that coin. The Government note circulation to some extent
supplies the place of precious metals, but the total amount of
notes in circulation is only 14 millions. It will at once sug-
gest itself to you that Native bills of exchange supply the
place of circulating medium. I shall presently show you that
these bills of exchange, though their total cannot be accurately
stated, must be vast in amount.
With such a circulation the question arises, what is the
amount of precious metals which India possesses? Now, I think,
that India has at least 333 millions of silver, and 122 millions
of gold-total of precious metals, 455 millions sterling. Of this
amount I shall presently show you that 255 millions sterling of
silver have been coined, and three millions of gold, by British
coinage from the British mints-total, 258 millions coined. Thus
CHAP. XII.
AMOUNT OF PRECIOUS METALS.
297
you will perceive that while on the one hand this coinage of
258 millions exceeds by 58 millions the highest estimated
amount of circulation, namely, 200 millions, it is, nevertheless,
197 millions less than the quantity of precious metals which is
possessed by the people of India.
You will ask how do I make this out-333 millions of silver
and 122 millions of gold. I must trouble you with a few
details of calculation under these headings. The silver im-
ported into India is partly fine and partly specie, or coins of
other nations. Since 1835, which you remember is the year
of silver being declared the sole legal tender, 237 millions
sterling of silver have been imported, that is to say net, less
export, and 255 millions have been coined, and that is an
excess of 18 millions. How are these 18 millions supplied?
Why, they are taken from the former British coinage anterior to
1835. We know that 22 millions of that coinage have been re-
coined. That is more than enough to account for the difference.
Of the former British coinage, from 1793 to 1835, the amount
was 70 millions. Deduct 22 millions re-coinage, and there are
48 millions of that coin still out in the hands of the people.
But in 1793, 70 millions could not possibly have represented
the total circulation in silver, which must have been at least
100 millions; therefore, 30 millions of that amount must still
be out. Thus we have 255 millions of silver new coinage, 48
millions of former British coinage, and at least 30 millions of
old native coin still out-total 333 millions. Besides this there
is a balance of old silver importations, of which no one can give
any estimate.
During this century there has been a great importation of
gold into India. The gold imported from 1793 to 1835 amounted
to 8 millions, and from 1835 up to the present time to no
less than 104 millions, that is to say, the total importations
amount to 112 millions. The coinage from 1793 to 1835
amounted to 13 millions, and from 1835 to 1880 to 3
millions-total 16 millions. This being deducted from 112
298
СПАР. ХІІ.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
millions leaves 96 millions of gold uncoined in the hands of the
people. Or, if you take the British period since 1835, there
will be 104 millions imported, 3 millions only coined, leaving
101 millions of that in the hands of the people, which is either
uncoined altogether or is coined in the Native States. Then
you should allow for the old gold coin current in India before
1793. There must be at least 10 millions of that still out in
the hands of the people. Thus, 112 millions, plus 10 millions,
brings you to the total of 122 millions. Besides this, there is
a balance of old importations, of which no estimate can be
given.
It was fully explained in the report of Mr. Goschen's Com-
mission on the Depreciation of Silver, that the purchase of bills
of the Secretary of State for India in this country does pro tanto
diminish the remittances of silver to the East. Two hundred
and twenty-six millions sterling have been obtained in this
country by these bills, or Council drafts as they are called, and
they would have been much greater if it had not been for the
raising of 97 millions in England for the construction of the
guaranteed railways.
51
In regard to the question of the "probable future absorption
of silver as coin" in India, you will find that the amount coined
---255 millions sterling-in the last forty-five years just gives an
average of 5 millions annually. In quiet years the coinage
amounted to from 2 to 3 millions, and in brisk years to from
10 to 15 millions-such as in the brisk years of the war of the
mutinies, of the cotton famine, and the American Civil War. The
variations from the slack years to the troubled years have been
tolerably uniform. Thus, you can believe that if things remain
quiet in the country, India will absorb about three millions
sterling worth of silver per annum; but if there should arise
wars or famines, or if some article which is much wanted in
England and is obtained from other countries, should suddenly
fail, and India could supply that, then she will draw silver to the
East to the amount perhaps of ten or fifteen millions per annum.
CHAP. XII.
NATIVE INDIAN BANKERS.
299
Such, in brief, is my answer to that difficult question about the
probable absorption of silver in India.
"An ACCOUNT of such PRACTICES amongst the NATIVES of INDIA
as have a BANKING CHARACTER, and lead up to the larger
BANKING OPERATIONS of the COUNTRY."
I come now to the third and last part. In the first place,
among the Natives of India there are no banks of deposit as
you understand them, where depositors place their money and
upon which they draw cheques. The natives, as a rule, never
draw cheques of this kind. It may perhaps be regarded as an
instance of mutual distrust between man and man. But the
native bankers do an enormous business in advancing money in
large and small sums upon the security of landed property.
This system is among the necessary consequences of the
property in land that has been recognised and virtually created
by the British Government. Hence, however, arises that
indebtedness among the peasant proprietors of India of which
you have heard so much, and which has caused considerable
trouble. Also the natives have a great banking business in
connection with general trade and agricultural produce. In this
country, as we all know, every tenant-farmer has his accom-
modation from the county bank; but in India every landlord
and every peasant proprietor, and almost every cultivator hy-
pothecates some of the standing crops to the village bankers,
and receives accommodation thereon, and if he clears his
account in the year he is free, but if the account runs on
at usurious interest he becomes considerably indebted. This
being the nature of the business, how many people should
you suppose are concerned in it? There are no less than 3
millions of adult males engaged in commerce in British India,
out of whom 118,000 adult males are bankers proper, 110,000
are money lenders, and 21,000 are money changers-total,
300
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
249,000. Deducting the money changers, that leaves about.
225,000, or a quarter of a million adult male bankers, which
constitutes banking as a large profession. There are at least half
a million villages in India, and that is giving about two bankers
to every village or parish. You will ask at once how in the
world are 225,000 adult male bankers to find business? These,
at the rate of an hundred customers each, would require 25
millions of customers, that is to say 25 millions of accounts.
This seems to be a large number of accounts; but you will find
that the numbers of people always run so high in India, that
even this great number seems to be not at all improbable. There
are 33 millions of adult males engaged in agriculture, of whom
there are 7 million proprietors, and 26 million cultivators.
Thus you will see there are plenty of customers for the quarter
of a million of bankers. Besides there is a large residue from
among the 3 millions of adult males engaged in commerce.
I should add here that the rates of interest upon loans used
to be in India very usurious, chiefly owing to the badness of
the security, and ranged at from fifteen to twenty-five per cent.
Now, under British rule, with good security, they range much
lower, that is, only from six to twelve per cent.
It remains for me to explain to you some of the practices of the
Native bankers in respect to the general trade.
Native bankers have a system of bills of exchange which are
known locally by the name of hundy. These hundys are written
not only in a distinct language of their own, but have also
a distinct character, that is distinct letters of their own, so that
the chances of forgery or any malpractices are greatly dimi-
nished. They have a system of technical terms almost exactly
corresponding with those with which you are all familiar; and,
in order to prove to you that it is no imagination of mine,
I may mention some of the technical terms. For instance
"Darshani"
"first of three
means "at sight," "Khokha" means
copies of bills of exchange;" "Pênth" means "second bill;"
"Parpênth" means "third copy of bill of exchange:" "Jawabi
་ ན་
CHAP. XII.
NATIVE BILLS OF EXCHANGE.
((
Anth "
301
means "dis-
These hundys, I assure
Hundy" means "a letter of credit;'
count;" and "Arath" means "credit."
you, circulate from one end of India to the other, that is, from
the Himalayas down to Ceylon, and some Native merchants
can give you a draft upon any place in the world, upon Con-
stantinople, upon the Levant, upon London, and now, I almost
regret to say, upon New York,* and they have long been able to
do so upon San Francisco. Of course, the total amount of
these hundys depends upon the internal trade, the value of
which, as I have before said, cannot be exactly estimated;
but if I were to say that an amount of from fifty to an
hundred millions sterling worth of these hundys must be in
circulation in India at one time, I should hardly be guilty of
any exaggeration.
Thus, you see that if I am asked whether this part of the
question at all leads up to the idea that there is great room for
development of banking in India, then I am afraid I must
answer in the negative, because the Native system is so ramified
and extended, that there does not appear to me to be much
room for European banking as generally understood. There are
savings-banks in India established by the Government, and,
although only 4 per cent. interest is allowed, there are already
three millions sterling of deposits, mainly Native, which amount
is likely to increase. The amount of each single deposit is
limited, otherwise the total would be vastly greater than it is.
There are several European exchange banks in the country, and
the shareholders are almost entirely European. There are also
three Presidency banks in India, and in them many of the
shareholders are natives. The Presidency banks keep the cash
reserves of the other banks, in the same way as the Bank of
England keeps the cash reserves of all the other banks in the
country.
* That is to say, some of the Indian trade, which used to be arranged
through England as an entrepôt, is now being done directly between India and
the Continent of Europe, or the United States.
302
CHAP. XII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
With regard to the native bankers, these form generally an
entirely separate class. No doubt, in most instances, their
business is managed with skill and ability. As a rule, bankers
and money-lenders of India form separate guilds from generation
to generation. Hitherto they have borne, I must say, an excel-
lent character as regards commercial honour and credit, though
they certainly have the reputation of being grasping and usurious
in dealing with the humbler classes of their fellow-country-
men. Formerly they used to be remarkably free from speculative
tendencies, but since we have carried to India the blessings of
civilization, they have in some instances taken to speculation,
and some of the most desperate gamblers in the market of
speculation are to be found among the natives of Western India.
I have one word only to add here, namely this; you often
hear that benevolent persons have propounded schemes whereby
savings-banks might be established by the State, which banks
might also grant advances to peasant proprietors and cultivators,
and the prospect has, at first sight, a practically beneficent aspect.
But I may tell you at once, after much inquiry, that we have
found all these schemes to be futile. It would not be in the
least possible for Government to undertake such a business.
We have even inquired of European banks in the country, and
they have refused to undertake it. This, then, concludes my
answer to the third and last part of this question.
I am conscious that I have given you but a very small
and imperfect reply to searching and comprehensive queries,
and I shall conclude by urging just a few measures upon you,
in which an Institute like this might beneficially influence
public opinion. I would recommend you to encourage, as much
as in you lies, the improvement in India of the law of debtor
and creditor, the extension of savings-banks, the permission for
natives to subscribe even very small sums to State loans, on the
model of the French Government, and after the model which
virtually has been introduced by the present Postmaster-General,
Mr. Fawcett. I would urge the extension of the system of
CHAP. XII. LIFE INSURANCE FOR THE NATIVES.
303
money orders, whereby the natives may be induced to use the
British Post Office and other public departments for remitting
their money. Also I would recommend that the system of life
assurance by the State should be instituted. This will not at all
interfere with private insurance companies in India, who chiefly
have business either among Europeans or among Anglicised
natives. Still, if the natives at large are to take to life insuring
they will trust nothing short of the Government itself, and con-
sidering the priceless benefit of the habit of thrift which would
thus be introduced, I think it is one of those things which the
State might fairly undertake. By urging these and other
kindred measures, you will not only produce a good monetary
and financial effect, but you will also bind the natives by new
ties to the British Government, and you will give them a sub-
stantial stake in the permanence and stability of British rule.
304
CHAP. XIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER XIII.
COOPER'S HILL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.
Beauty of landscape around Cooper's Hill - Establishment there of College
for Civil Engineering Enlargement of the original design - Adapted
both for England and India National advantage of technical education
in civil engineering-Peculiar advantages offered by a college of this
description Character of professional instruction afforded therein.
I DESIRE to include in this collection of essays a brief description
of the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, inas-
much as I have special facilities for doing so, being Chairman
of the Board of Visitors appointed by the Government to super-
vise the course of study pursued there, and to advise regarding
the internal management.
The situation of Cooper's Hill is both beautiful and interesting.
The place stands on high ground about 200 feet above the
valley of the Thames, overlooking the right bank of the river,
about twenty miles from London, and four miles from the stone
at Staines, which marks the limits of the old jurisdiction of
London City over the Thames. The name is derived from the
Cooper's Company, one of the historic Livery Companies of
London, and the almshouses of the Company still exist in the
neighbourhood. Within a reasonable distance are situated many
spots of classic interest in English annals. There are, St. Anne's
Hill commanding a famous prospect, and the retreat of Charles
James Fox-the churchyard, with its old yews, where Gray
composed his elegy-the spot where Herschel erected his 40-foot
reflector-the monastic remains of Old Windsor-the spot where
CHAP. XIII. CLASSIC SPOTS NEAR COOPER'S HILL.
305
Falstaff is supposed to have been thrown into the river-the
Bells of Ouseley, mentioned in the 'Merry Wives of Windsor'-
King John's hunting lodge-the beautiful Burnham beeches-the
village of Horton, where Milton's mother lived, and where the
poet composed some of his immortal works. Windsor itself is
only five miles distant, and the nearest entrance to the Great Park
is close at hand. The royal Castle forms a conspicuous object in
the view. More particularly the college site directly overhangs
the plain of Runnymead and Longmead, almost level with the
river, where the king and the barons were encamped before
Magna Charta was signed. Amid-stream is the island called
after that event, having a house wherein there still stands the
stone table on which the king's signature was affixed to the
Charta.
Besides the historic there are also literary associations. In
the seventeenth century Sir John Denham spoke of Cooper's Hill
as the Parnassus of England. His verses received high com-
mendation from Dryden; and from among them the following
lines may be quoted:
"My eye descending from the hill, surveys
Where Thames among the wanton valleys strays.
*
O, could I flow like thee, and make thy stream
My great example, as it is my theme,
Though deep yet clear, though gentle yet not dull,
Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full."
Pope also in his 'Windsor Forest' wrote,-
"On Cooper's Hill eternal wreaths shall grow
While lasts the mountain, or while Thames shall flow."
Whether the poet's vision of future glory for Cooper's Hill
was ever realized, certainly wreaths of which he little dreamed
are gathering around this classic spot. For here has been estab-
lished a college which affords the best example yet seen in the
X
306
CHAP. XIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
United Kingdom of a comprehensive effort in the cause of
technical education in civil engineering. If this effort shall
prove successful, a living fame will accrue to this spot such as
will surpass all its previous associations and traditions.
It is generally assumed that, as compared with the nations
of continental Europe, perhaps even with the United States of
America, England is backward in technical education. In this
assumption it is probable that allowance is not sufficiently made
for the technical instruction that is afforded in most of the
private establishments at the industrial centres of England. If
a résumé were made (and it would prove extremely interesting)
of these efforts on the part of individuals, of firms, and of cor-
porations, the sum total would represent a national effort that
might astonish those who are ready to pass a hasty condemna-
tion on English progress. Much excellent instruction in en-
gineering is also given at the universities, the colleges, and other
educational institutions of the kingdom both old and new. Still
at these institutions engineering is taught in combination with
other subjects. The whole strength of the establishment is not
bent upon engineering exclusively, nor is the student obliged to
devote himself to that alone. Doubtless the engineering in-
struction which he receives is excellent so far as it goes, but there
remains doubt whether it will send him forth as a complete
engineer theoretically at least, and fully equipped professionally
all round. Again, if it be admitted that the instruction given
in numerous private establishments is equivalent to what would
on the continent of Europe be termed sound second class in-
struction, still it is hardly possible for private firms to organize
technical colleges of the superior class. For such an organi-
zation a large expense is needed, and a concentration of effort,
such as can be compassed either by a great association like an
university, or by the State itself acting on behalf of the nation.
It is by such means that the famous college of practical science,
which exists largely for engineering but for other branches
CHAP. XIII.
CIVIL ENGINEERING COLLEGE.
307
besides, namely, the Polytechnicum at Zurich, has been organ-
ized and maintained for Switzerland, and that similar institu-
tions have been established in France, Belgium, and Germany.
This, too, is the principle present to the minds of those who
have sustained the English college at Cooper's Hill.
The idea of this college originated with the Government of
India, which in 1871 set up the institution for training young
civil engineers for the department of public works in India
only. This purpose was well fulfilled for several years. But
it was found that owing to reduction in the Indian establish-
ments, the demand for India alone would hardly suffice for
maintaining the college in full vigour. The Government
therefore decided, in 1880, to throw the institution open to
all comers. By this arrangement all qualified applicants would
be admitted as students. It was expected that some of these
would proceed thereafter to India according to the require-
ments of the public service in that country, and some would
follow the profession of a civil engineer in the United Kingdom
or in the colonies, or in foreign countries of Europe and
America.
In order that the collegiate system might be rendered fully
suitable to the requirements of the profession at large, a Board
of Visitors was appointed by the Government to consider and
report upon this matter. Upon this Board there sit the Presi-
dent and past Presidents of the Institute of Civil Engineers,
together with eminent officers who have served in the Public
Works Department of India, such as General Richard Strachey,
Colonel Henry Yule, and General Dickens, or in the general
administration, as Sir Barrow Ellis. To these has been
added one whose name will command the confidence of the
scientific world, Sir William Siemens. The Board has within
the last two years carefully examined every branch of the
collegiate instruction, the descriptive engineering, the archi-
tecture, the surveying, the applied mechanics, the experimental
}
x 2
..
}
308
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAP. XIII.
physics, the chemistry. It advised the Government to strengthen
the instruction in the purely scientific branches, the physics and
the chemistry especially, by an augmentation of the practical
instruction in the laboratory. It also supported the College
authorities in asking for increased accommodation for geo-
metrical drawing and for testing machinery. The object was
to render the students thoroughly acquainted with the forces of
nature and with the substances that are essential to material
undertakings. These several recommendations were accepted
by the Government, and the education is as good as the Board
can for the present make it, though the highly qualified
members will doubtless from time to time suggest further
improvements.
As the college must be self-supporting the fees have been so
regulated as to cover the educational expenses. The Govern-
ment indeed advances the funds, but does not expect ultimately
to incur any loss. Nor does it contemplate setting up this
college in unreasonable competition with other institutions by
means of State funds. As the college is to be strictly self-
supporting, whatever competition it produces will be reasonable
and healthy. At the same time the fee for each student, 175l.
to 1807. per annum for a course lasting three years, does not
seem unduly high in comparison with the average cost in
England of professional education. The income thus accruing
from a complement of 120 to 150 students will cover the
expenses which have been carefully calculated.
The Government have been wise in their selection of the men
who are to be at the head of the College. The first President
was Colonel Chesney, R.E., well known in India as an able
engineer in the field, and in England as an author of graphic
power. After him came Sir Alexander Taylor, whose name is
inscribed in the proudest roll of those who by science and
valour helped to wrest Delhi from the grasp of the mutineers
in 1857.
CHAP. XIII.
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION.
309
As yet the yearly applications for admission are satisfactorily
numerous. At present it is understood that many of the best
young men contemplate proceeding to India if they can obtain
appointments there-probably because engineering employment
is at present somewhat slack in Europe.
The point, then, of real novelty and interest is to observe how
many young men go to the college who have no thought of India,
but contemplate working in England or elsewhere. If young
men thus disposed are to resort in satisfactory numbers to the
college, it must be that they expect to reap advantages there-
from during their future career in the profession at home.
The question then for them or for their friends to ask them-
selves is, whether the professional education in the college is
better than that which can be obtained elsewhere? The value
of technical education, during the most receptive time of life,
say from eighteen to twenty-one years of age for such a profes-
sion as that of civil engineering, will not be doubted, and is too
obvious to need exposition. The real questions are whether the
instruction at the college is of a first-rate kind, and whether
equal advantages can be obtained elsewhere ? Now let the
points be recapitulated.
Here is a college founded and started under generous auspices
with a liberal outlay of State capital. The British Government
of India has colossal interests at stake in its public works. It
has therefore the strongest incentive to secure well-educated
engineers. It possesses immense resources for so arranging its
plans that this object shall be secured. It has accordingly
deemed that this college does answer this purpose. It bears
favourable testimony to the ability evinced on actual service by
the men who have received their training there. Consequently
there is the weightiest authority to attest the actual efficiency
of the institution. The college authorities, the president, and
the professors, are sure to be persons of the most competent
stamp. The course of study has been revised by a board of
visitors of whom the majority are scientific men.
The technical
310
CHAP. XIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
instruction has been reviewed, in reference to professional
requirements, by the Board, among whose members there are
gentlemen of the first standing in the engineering profession of
the United Kingdom. This instruction may prove to be yet
susceptible of improvement, but presumably it is the very best
that can now be devised. To the prosecution of this course
three years must be exclusively devoted by the students. Nor
is the intellectual training alone regarded. The moral training,
the discipline, the thoughtful tuition, which so greatly conduce
to forming the character of youths, fitting them to achieve victo-
rious success, whether in the engineering profession or in any
walk of life, are here secured. The traditions of the place, though
happy, are also salutary; its influences, though encouraging
and exhilarating, have a steadying and sobering effect. These
in brief are the advantages which this college, primarily designed
for the sake of India, incidentally offers to the youths who are
destined for the engineering profession at home.
It is for the young men and their friends to reflect whether
these advantages are not, in the United Kingdom at least,
unique. Much excellent instruction in engineering is given
at the universities, the colleges, and other institutions in
the kingdom, both old and new. Much training, theoretical
and practical, is afforded in private establishments. But those
who are interested in these matters may be asked to consider
where else, in the United Kingdom, does an institution exist
which is designed exclusively for civil engineering, and what
other college has such a course of study as Cooper's Hill, to
which course the whole time of the students must be devoted
for three years? Upon the answer which the public voice may
give to these vitally important questions must the success of
this college depend. The students who do not proceed to India
must, after leaving the college, doubtless seek employment in the
many private establishments of the United Kingdom. If they
prove to be better trained professionally than other young men,
they may have a chance of obtaining more favourable terms
CHAP. XIII.
PROSPECTS OF STUDENTS.
311
than might otherwise have been obtainable, and they will be
more likely to become immediately useful. There must yet
remain the question whether the Cooper's Hill system will
render them thus qualified. This can be decided by the future
only. All that we can now say is this, that the system probably
will have such an effect, having been expressly designed for
that purpose by some of the most competent persons in the
country.
312
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER XIV.
PAN ISLAMISM OR POLITICAL MUHAMMADANISM.
[Reprinted from the 'Evening News,' London, July 1882.]
Predominance of England in the Muhammadan world-Number of her
Muhammadan subjects as compared with those of Muhammadan Powers
Character and disposition of Muhammadans generally — Muhammadans
in British India - In Afghanistan-In Central Asia-In China - In
Persia-In Arabia - In Turkey-In Egypt Attitude of England
towards the Muhammadans, first, as a Christian Power-Secondly, as
a civilizing Power.
THERE has been for some years past, and there still is, a stir
among the Muhammadan nations of the world. It is called
"Pan-islamism" by Europeans: the word "islam" meaning the
Muhammadan religion. As is well known, the Slavs of Europe,
or their political leaders, have recently been writing and speak-
ing of "Panslavism." This implies a general union among the
Slavs living in Russia, in Austria, in European Turkey. In the
same way "Pan-islamism" implies a general union among
Muhammadans dwelling in the various countries of Asia and in
some parts of Africa. This Pan-islamism, then, is a real move-
ment, though perhaps it has not gone very far as yet. But no
man can say to what lengths it may go. At all events, it
deserves the watchful attention of Englishmen. For England,
herself a Christian Power, has now more Muhammadan subjects
than any Muhammadan Power in the world. Englishmen may
perhaps be surprised to hear that, but it is the case. While
Britain has been busy with her fields and her factories, her
CHAP. XIV. MUHAMMADAN BRITISH SUBJECTS.
313
In
trade, her ships, and her colonies,-her sons have, within the
last generation, raised up for her a dominion among the Asiatic
Muhammadans. In the presence of that Anglo-Muhammadan
dominion, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia, the Grand
Sherif of Mecca, must droop their flags. There are in India,
Ceylon, and other British possessions, 50 millions of Muham-
madan subjects or feudatories of the British Queen.
Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and other places there are 10 millions
more under the political control of England. On the whole,
then, the Anglo-Muhammadan dominion includes about 60
millions of souls. As compared with that, the other Muham-
madan Powers of Asia have altogether only 32 millions.
This is exclusive of China, which has a body of Muhammadan
subjects whose numbers are not exactly known.
In Egypt
and the rest of Africa there may be several millions of
Muhammadans.
But it may be said that the mere numbers of the population
prove little.
What is the power and wealth of the Anglo-
Muhammadan dominion as compared with that of the other
Muhammadans? Well, as regards power, it is impossible
to distinguish the Anglo-Muhammadan power from that of
Britain herself. To describe the effective might of such a
power, as compared with other nations, might savour of national
vanity. We need not, therefore, dwell upon that. But as
regards wealth we may remark that the agriculture of the
Muhammadan peasantry of India, the navigation in the hands
of her Muhammadan sailors and boatmen, the trade conducted
by her Muhammadan traders, greatly exceed anything that can
be shown by any other Muhammadan nation-indeed, by all
other Muhammadan nations together.
Moreover, the Anglo-Muhammadan population is increasing
fast, whereas in Turkey and Persia it is understood to be
decreasing.
In all the counsels of political Muhammadanism, then, the
British Sovereign is entitled to a place in the very first rank, as
314
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
representing the dominion over the largest and richest Muham-
madan population in the world.
In India the mass of the Muhammadans are peaceful, indus-
trious, and loyal. It is well that Englishmen should realise
this great fact. But it is also necessary for them to remember
that among these generally sober-minded Muhammadans there
are many persons of a different stamp. These are bigoted, even
desperate; and nothing that we can offer will pacify them.
Therefore Muhammadan troubles have from time to time arisen
in India. The assassination of Chief Justice Norinan at Cal-
cutta, and of Lord Mayo at Port Blair in 1872-73, are instances
fresh in the public memory. Bad as these events were, even
worse things might possibly happen if England were to fall
asleep. But if she remains wakeful they may, under Provi-
dence, be prevented.
It may then be asked, Why are the Muhammadans bestirring
themselves in these days, and what is it that they are thinking
about?
Well, outside India, they feel that they are politically decay-
ing. They are generally disposed to shut their eyes to that
which is disagreeable. But they can no longer help seeing the
strides which the Christian nations are making in wealth,
power, and civilization. Thus they dread the advance of
Christendom. The leaders among them look back wistfully
to the great days when the Crescent drove back or bore down
the Cross in many of the fairest and holiest regions of the earth.
When the Cross rallied under Christian warriors, such as Charles
Martel of France and John Sobieski of Poland, and stopped the
Crescent in its career, they comforted themselves with the
thought that South-Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, and a
goodly part of Asia still remained to Islam. They perceive,
however, that within the last hundred years the Christian power
has been making inroads upon Muhammadanism in all direc-
tions. Yet some of them have been trusting that Allah and
their prophet Muhammad would somehow draw once more the
CHAP. XIV.
THE MUHAMMADAN RELIGION.
315
flashing scimitar to scatter the unbelievers. Others of them,
again, who do not rely upon divine interference, have been
dreaming that destiny (Kismet) would at last set all things
right. Now, however, they are becoming aroused by the idea
that Christian influence and authority are drawing so near as
to threaten the very existence of Islam itself. The alarm is
gradually growing in their minds. This alarm refers in the
first place to their political power, but in the second place to
their religion also. Possibly they might view with some sort of
patience the loss of mere earthly dominion. But in their minds
worldly power cannot be quite separated from religion. They
all, from the highest to the humblest, revere their faith as pure
and lofty. In fact, like many other faiths, it has in practice
been often clouded over with mummery and superstition. Still
there remains something of grandeur about it. In the hearts of
its followers it is associated with splendid and glorious memories.
Its triumphs of war, in politics, and in art, its efforts even in
the cause of science, are well known to the upper classes, and
are dimly understood by the multitude. It was skilfully con-
trived by Muhammad, its founder, to appeal forcibly to the notions
and sentiments of hot-blooded races dwelling in sunny climes.
Though it is really opposed to human progress, though it blights
the prospects of civilization, and stunts the growth of society-
yet it reigns in the affections of many millions of bright-eyed
and strong-handed men. Such men will turn out to fight for it,
and in the excitement of action will face death on its behalf.
They used in former times to make converts by the sword;
indeed, no religion has ever spread itself so much by force and
indirect pressure as theirs. Strangely enough they continue to
gain men over (though by gentler means) to their faith in Africa
and in Eastern Asia.
The question then arises as to whether the Muhammadans
have anything like a policy, while raising this movement of
Pan-islamism. Is this stir merely a breeze ruffling the surface
of the political waters, or does it portend a real storm? The
J
316
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
answer depends, no doubt, largely on the conduct of the Western
Powers. The Muhammadans have certainly got a general policy,
which is this, to resist the further encroachments of the Christian
States, to hold at least their own, and to keep what remains to
them of the broad regions that submitted to the Prophet of
Arabia. We must acknowledge, too, that this is reasonable in
theory. In practice, however, a great power, such as theirs once
was, does not yield to dangers from without so long as it is solid
and prosperous within. It is the canker eating into the vitals
of the State that makes them yield to foreign pressure. The
Muhammadans probably are well aware of this also. They
know that somehow their body politic is becoming feeble; that
their lands are becoming less productive, that their cultivation
is shrinking, that their flocks and herds are lessening. They
see that famines come and decimate the people sadly, and that
afterwards the population does not recover. They feel that
there is something fatally the matter with them, but cannot
make out exactly what it is. The feeling is aggravated by the
sight of neighbouring nations in blooming health and vigorous
life. All this is enough to make them despair, and at times
they must be somewhat downhearted. But at bottom they are
brave; and, while preserving an apathetic appearance, they have
an enthusiasm burning within them. If common sense were
joined to this enthusiasm, they would soon learn to set their
social house in order, to give light and liberty to the people, to
secure to every man the fruits of his toil whether of brain or of
hands, and to spread abroad that sort of useful knowledge which
makes people thrifty, self-reliant, and intelligent. If this lesson
did not come to them by inspiration, they might gather it from
the example of several among the Christian nations. They
would doubtless wish to do this if they could, but they do not
know how to set about it. So they drift on towards political
ruin. Meanwhile they are becoming very uneasy under the
prospect, and are thinking that some plunging struggle must be
tried. Instead of looking their misfortune quietly in the face,
CHAP. XIV.
POLITICAL MUHAMMADANISM.
317
and devising really workable remedies, they seem to believe
that the first thing needful is to restore the energies of their
religion. Reformations of sorts are thus undertaken. The
Wahhabi revival in Arabia, of which the public has heard much,
was an attempt of this nature. It is likely that similar move-
ments may arise in various quarters; indeed, they are springing
up already.
There might, then, be a rising in the Muhammadan world,
outside the Anglo-Muhammadan dominion above described.
Such a combined movement would manifestly affect British
interests. It would of itself be serious indeed; still England is
quite mighty enough to withstand or overcome it, if only she
were left to herself. But would she be let alone? Obviously
not. Other Christian powers would be naturally jealous of her
acting singly. They would lift up their voices and put in their
claims. Thus political complications would arise. In the
midst of such complications any rash proceedings on the part
of one or other of the Christian Powers might bring on a deadly
quarrel within Christendom itself about the affairs of the
Muhammadan world. That would indeed be an unseemly
spectacle to be exhibited by Christianity in the presence of
the heathen.
Such is the outline of political Muhammadanism on the
whole, or "Pan-islamism," as it is beginning to be called. This
outline touches on the broad features of Muhammadanism as
it exists in Asia and Africa. I now propose to deal somewhat
more in detail with Muhammadanism in each of the principal
countries where it prevails.
First let us take that division of the Muhammadans which is
numerically the largest of them all, namely, the Indian. Under
British rule these Indian Muhammadans have been beaten in
the intellectual race by their Hindu fellow-subjects. For the
first generation or so after the introduction of British rule the
Muhammadans got on well in the public service, having more of
readiness and vigour than the Hindus. In the next generation
318
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
there came a system of national education and competitive
examinations. Then the Hindu youth, being more patient and
studious, had altogether the best of it. Thus the Muhammadans
found themselves to be fast slipping out of the position they
had so long enjoyed in the administration of the country.
Seeing this, they have begun to exert themselves more than
formerly respecting their schools and colleges. Still they have
much way to make up before they can come abreast of the
Hindus. In the larger operations of commerce they never have
been equal to the Hindu caste which combines the functions of
money-lender and traders. But in the lesser business of trade,
and especially in retail dealing, they always excel. They are
probably among the best pedlars in all Asia. For agriculture
they effect but little in most parts of the country. But in some
parts, as in the Panjab, they do something considerable. In
eastern and northern Bengal, too, they do very much indeed.
Englishmen, perhaps, do not ordinarily realise that many articles
coming from that quarter to Europe, such as jute, safflower, rice,
are produced by Muhammadan hands. This Muhammadan
peasantry is rising in a humble but solid prosperity, and is
growing in numbers more rapidly than the population of any
other part of the Empire. Their temper, though generally good,
is excitable. I have known them listen to the voice of agrarian
agitators, threaten their landlords, demand a general lowering of
rent, surround with angry crowds the offices of the land agents
and the like. But with promptitude and firmness on the part
of the Government such movements are always kept within
bounds. As boatmen on inland waters, too, these Bengali
Muhammadans are excellent, and the traffic which they thus
conduct is enormous. As seamen, on the coasts or on the ocean,
they are the principal class employed. They supply the crews
to the vessels of steam navigation companies. If ever England
decided to have some ships of war with European officers and
native crews (for service in Eastern waters), the Muhammadans of
the Bengal and Bombay coasts would be the men for this work.
4
CHAP. XIV.
PRIESTLY FANATICISM.
319
In regard to religion, the Indian Muhammadans preserve
their faith despite all the efforts of the Christian missionaries.
Some few converts are made from Muhammadanism. But the
great numbers of native Christians, in whom Christendom thank-
fully rejoices, belongs to tribes other than Muhammadan. One
reason of this, no doubt, is the comparative purity and sim-
plicity of the doctrines of Islam. The Muhammadan priest-
hood continues to be thoroughly organized, although the British
Government stands quite aloof from the organization.
of the religious endowments, granted by former Muhammadan
Sovereigns, are respected and maintained by the British. Still,
the priestly classes are fanatical and often fierce. We must hope
that a kindly policy will conciliate many of them. Nevertheless,
we must be prepared to find that some of them are implacable,
and will not accept us on any terms whatsoever.
Most
Politically, the Muhammadan peasantry are for the most part
well affected. Among the upper classes some are singularly
loyal, and play a truly honourable part towards us. Others,
again, are in quite the opposite way. Among these last there
are at least a few very dangerous characters indeed. They stir
up mischief of the worst kind on every opportunity. A religious
revival in Arabia--a war in Turkey—a rumour of a war in
Europe-a trouble in Africa-will give the cue. Hardly a year
passes without small conspiracies of sorts being hatched in some
part or other of the Indian Empire. The British authorities,
being accustomed to the thing, take it coolly, adopt their
precautions, and say nothing about it. Thus the Government
pursues its course of national improvement, quite unmoved.
It is fair, perhaps, to add that the Muhammadans are not
alone in this kind of mischief. Other Indian tribes occasionally
try their hand at it also.
The Indian Muhammadans will probably be found to enter-
tain a profound veneration and a keen sympathy for the Sultan
of Turkey. They do not care equally for the Afghans. On the
contrary, they thought that in the last war the Amir of Caubul
320
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
turned rather against the Sultan and leaned towards Russia.
They were displeased at seeing the Sultan's envoy go from Con-
stantinople to Caubul and return without being able to arrange
any alliance with the Amir.
They still trust that England must, for her own sake, if not
for any other account, continue to sustain the Sultan. Their
spirits will droop if this hope shall be shaken.
Let us next glance at the Afghans. They have been said by
some authorities to be democratic, whatever that may mean:
They certainly hate authority of any kind. They cannot hang
together for any purpose of politics or of war. They form little
societies among themselves like clans. Then every clan will
insist on being a law to itself and of doing as it likes. What
they all like best is this to quarrel, kill, and plunder, accord-
ing to the impulse of the time. Such a people is never formid-
able politically of itself. But it may be as a double-edged sword,
as a sharp-pointed lance, for a temporary purpose in the hands
of a designing and organising Power. Why this people has
such a strange character we cannot now pause to inquire. But
obviously the rugged and isolated nature of the country is one
of the reasons. Meanwhile, this people is ungovernable-
indeed, untameable for the most part. It may be kept with
difficulty in a loose union under one Amir as head. Yet it will
always be trying to split itself up into several petty States.
But though untameable in most parts, it is tameable in some.
For instance, had the British Government seen fit to hold
Southern Afghanistan, the measure could have been accom-
plished in the end with firmness and patience. Trouble here
and there would have arisen at first, but success would have
rewarded perseverance. Trade would have grown, and cultiva-
tion would have spread. Regions which were once gardens, but
are now half-desolate, would have been re-peopled gradually.
With all his bloodthirstiness and general naughtiness, the
Afghan as a farmer and cultivator is second to few in the world.
As a fruit-grower on a large and varied scale he will not be
CHAP. XIV.
CENTRAL ASIA.
321
beaten by any European. If a jury of British farmers were
deputed to inspect the irrigated fields near Caubul and Candahar,
they would be amazed at the number of crops that are raised on
the land during the year, and the manner in which the powers of
the soil are kept up under all this cropping without exhaustion.
Next we may note how Russia fares with her new dominions
in Central Asia. Remembering their own troubles in
Afghanistan, Englishmen at first imagined that Russia was
unconsciously preparing for herself a hornet's nest in Central
Asia, that is, in Kokhand, Bokhara, and Khiva. But she
apparently escapes being stung. She thoroughly understands,
in these regions at least, the lesson of religious toleration. She
pays some attention to education. She overawes with military
force all disturbers of the internal peace. This force costs her
much more than the revenue of the territory can afford. Yet
she is consolidating a real dominion in this quarter. Politicians
will justly dread the possibility of such a dominion being made
a basis of movements hostile to England. Nevertheless, humanity
will rejoice at the civilization which is gradually replacing
barbarism there.
The same remarks may be applied with still greater force to
the most recent acquisitions of Russia in the Turkoman country
under Skobeleff. The conduct of these Turkomans, who dwell
near the north-eastern border of Persia, has long been a disgrace
not only to Muhammadanism, but also to humanity in the
nineteenth century. To describe the horrors of the slavery
practised by these Turkomans would require the tongue and pen
of Wilberforce or of Brougham. Doubtless the evil will be
checked, if not finally stopped, by the Russian domination. We
may well wish that England had insisted on taking her share in
this good work. Many will think that it was as much the
concern of England as of Russia. There may, indeed, have
been political or ambitious motives at work. Yet we must
acknowledge that the prevention of Turkoman misdeeds will be
a boon conferred upon humanity by Russia.
Y
322
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
There are many Muhammadan subjects of China dwelling at
Yarkand and elsewhere in Central Asia. They shook off the
Chinese yoke for a time. Then the British Government made a
commercial treaty with them, in order to support them in their
independence. But shortly afterwards China re-asserted herself,
and after a sharp and sanguinary fight brought them back into
her fold, where they now are. Within China proper there is a
considerable Muhammadan population. Their real character is
not certainly known. But the best opinion seems to be that
they are not politically important and not likely to join in
Muhammadan movements.
We have now to turn for a moment towards Persia. The
Shah of Persia must be rolling his anxious eyes first in this
direction and then in that. Northwards he looks to Russia,
southwards to England. The success of Russia in the Turkoman
country must have deepened his impressions regarding Russian
ambition. The Persians as Shiahs form a great religious sect,
and cling with superstitious devotion to their tenets. Still
they are regarded by the Muhammadan world at large as
sectarians, perhaps even as heretics. This affects the cordiality
of their relations with Turkey. Thus one may wonder how
Persia can really join in Pan-islamism; also, how Pan-islamism
can practically work while so large a member as Persia is left
out. By all accounts the Persian population is declining.
The authentic stories of the late famine are quite heartrending.
The administration is feeble, and the public treasury is too poor
to afford material enterprises. But without such undertakings
no nation can in this age either make its way or hold its own.
From the north under Russian auspices, and from the south
under English auspices, Persia might be traversed by roads
and railways; irrigation works might be renewed in various
districts; gradually the forests (long since destroyed) and the hill
vegetation might be restored. With all this, the independence
of the Persian State and Sovereign might be reasonably
preserved. Meanwhile, however, poor Persia remains land-
CHAP. XIV.
CHARACTER OF THE TURKS.
323
locked, unimproved, and stagnant. In a progressive age like
this, nothing is more dangerous nationally than stagnation.
The dangers which threaten un-improved Persia do not affect
Arabia, to which we must next allude. Arabia is, from the
nature of its territory, isolated. It may, therefore, go on for a
long time without improvement in the modern sense of the
term. In this generation, at least, the Arabians have given up
dreaming of foreign dominion. Their Wahhabi reformers did
indeed not long ago imagine that the faith, as handed down
fresh by the Prophet, might be revived. With such a revival,
the old sovereignty was to be re-established, as they thought.
The Wahhabi State, however, contents itself at present with
managing the central uplands of Arabia. According to the best
evidence this plateau is flourishing. Mecca and Medina are
thronged with pilgrims from India and Persia, who take
advantage of the British shipping which navigates the Indian
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. Thus the British
name becomes indirectly popular with pious Muhammadans.
The Arab tribes near Aden are disposed to fall under British
protection. Thousands of Arabs, too, enter the military service
of some of the Native States of India.
Regarding the Turks there have been doubts in the English
mind as to whether these people are good or not. Well, they
are really good. All accounts agree respecting the merits of the
ordinary Turk. He is brave, patient, enduring, truthful, and
honest. In bodily strength he is surpassed by few races on
earth. But he is lazy in mind and un-enterprising. Under
superior leadership he might become formidable politically, but
not otherwise. Such leadership is not likely to be supplied
from his own nation. The official Turks are, owing to a vicious
system, exposed to much temptation. They have generally an
indifferent, and often an evil, repute. Among the upper class,
or Pashas, there are some men of a patriotic stamp, who are
personally trustworthy, and would not stoop to corruption.
Such men, however, are sometimes narrow-minded and im-
Y 2
324
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
practicable. They seem to think that Turkey is declining, not
because she cannot march with the age, but because she has
strayed too far into European ways. Such persons would think
that the only chance for saving the State is to revert to the
practices and institutions of past centuries. The priestly classes,
though much more tolerant than they once were of other
religions, are yet bigoted at heart. They feel dread lest the light
of modern civilization should be brought to bear on their system.
They have the control of the national education, which they
render as unscientific as they can. Being, of all Muhammadans,
the nearest to Europe, they apparently believe that European
freedom will never agree with the principles of Islam. This
belief is shared by the Turkish nobility. The Sultan is the head
of the Faith in Turkey. Many Turks would like to see him
made the head of the whole religious community of the
Muhammadan world. Thus he would become a sort of Vicar
of the Prophet upon earth. Such men do not wish the Sultan to
be supreme and absolute as a ruler. They that think he ought
to be hedged in by powerful advisers, priests and nobles. The
State being thus composed should, in their ideas, have absolute
authority over the people. They set their faces against every
sort of reform, fearing lest it should lead to representative
institutions after the European model. Some of them are
actuated by sordid motives, and support the old system for their
own gain. Thus the prospect of reform in Turkey is quite
clouded over. Meanwhile, the unreformed state of the country
is dangerous to the stability of the Turkish Empire.
There remains but one Muhammadan country to be mentioned,
and that is Egypt. Whatever may be the faults of the upper
classes, or the wickedness of the mob, the Egyptian peasantry
are quiet, industrious, and law-abiding. They were, under
Anglo-French influence, in a fair way to flourish abundantly.
That prospect is not impaired, is even improved under the
British control now existing in their country. Next after the
Muhammadans of Bengal, already mentioned, the Egyptians
CHAP. XIV.
CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM.
325
are the most capable of improvement. Their country might
become one of the few bright spots of the Muhammadan
world. But this prospect has been interrupted by a party who
call themselves National, but who really dread improvement
lest it should introduce European influence.
I have now touched on political Muhammadanism, first in
regard to the Muhammadan world on the whole, and then in
regard to each of the principal Muhammadan countries. I next
propose to consider what sort of attitude Britain ought, as a
Christian and a civilising Power, to maintain towards political
Muhammadanism.
In the first place let us reflect for a moment upon the conduct
of Britain as a Christian Power. We must, I fear, give up for
the present the hope of converting any large number of Muham-
madans to Christianity. The Muhammadan religion has not
the many absurdities about it which Hinduism, the debased
Buddhism, and several Pagan religions have. It is not likely to
yield, as some of them are yielding, to the assaults of reason.
Many parts of it are reasonable, and some parts are even noble.*
It commands many of the feelings which lie deep in the heart of
man at all times and under all climes. It has on the minds of
its followers a grasp which will not be shaken. It is not utterly
opposed to Christianity. It even regards Christianity as sub-
sidiary to itself. A thoughtful Muhammadan considers a
Christian to be much nearer to himself than the follower of
any other religion. Of course there is really a vast difference,
spiritual and other, between Christianity and Muhammadanism.
But it is not easy to illustrate and explain that difference in a
manner that shall at once strike the minds of ordinary Asiatics.
The Christian advocate soon exposes the follies and saps the
foundations of several among the heathen religions. But he
cannot deal thus easlly with Muhammadanism. Having eternal
truth on his side he must in the end prevail. Still, his victory
may not be yet awhile.
* See 'Pearls of Faith,' or selection of Muhammadan Dicta, by Edwin Arnold.
$26
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Nevertheless, England may produce a great effect on Muham-
madanism by showing the practical superiority of Christianity.
We may hope, indeed, that she has already produced such an
effect to some considerable extent. We must be prepared, how-
ever, to find that Muhammadans, like most other Orientals,
are disposed to overrate our failings and underrate our merits.
We may indeed desire that those with whom we have much
intimate concern should—
"Be to our faults a little blind,
Be to our virtues very kind."
But, on the contrary, Muhammadans are apt to be very critical
and suspicious regarding our faults, and to be unkind or dis-
paraging regarding our virtues. Still, as claiming for ourselves
superiority both in respect to our religion and our civilization,
we are bound to display, above all things, charity. Many among
us are but too ready to think ill of Muhammadans, as of all
Asiatics. This vein of thought we must admit to be wrong.
It is also impolitic; but when a thing is wrong, the argument
is only weakened if impolicy is urged in addition. We stand
in a peculiar position towards the Muhammadan world; and
that position has its peculiar duties. While performing those
duties we must be patient under misrepresentation. We must
not be disappointed if, at first, we meet with ingratitude. Still,
if we persist in well doing we shall win our way with the
Muhammadans. They will evince gratitude if we succeed in
giving them much to be grateful for. I could point to several
instances of signal gratitude and loyalty on the part of Muham-
madans who had received real benefits from the British Govern-
ment. On the other hand, it would be difficult to produce
equally signal cases of ingratitude.
Our primary care must be for those Muhammadans who are
British subjects. It is not enough to preserve order among
them, to protect their property, to secure to them the fruits of
their industry, to give them just laws honestly administered, to
CHAP. XIV.
HOW TO EDUCATE MUHAMMADANS.
327
render their taxation moderate, to develop the resources of their
territory by public works, and so on.
All this we do, not per-
fectly, indeed, but better than any native Power has ever done.
The Muhammadans may be slow to admit this, and be too quick
to carp and cavil. Still the plain fact does tell in our favour,
and is raising our repute. But, as stated above, all this, though
well in its way, is not enough for the Muhammadans who are
British subjects. It is necessary to elevate them morally and
intellectually. For this purpose the greatest agency is educa-
tion. There is more difficulty in inducing Muhammadans to
accept Western education than other Asiatic races. The
Muhammadans prefer being taught even secular knowledge by
teachers of their own faith. Though willing to learn English,
they insist on learning those languages also in which the history
of their faith and nationality is written. These predilections
should be humoured as much as possible. While a part of their
system is dying out amidst the progress of the age, some of their
old institutions survive. It is important to preserve these, and
to render them useful under the circumstances of the time. We
should further give these Muhammadans, without grudge or stint,
the benefit of all those sciences whereby we ourselves have risen
to greatness. We should even train them gradually in the ways
of self-government. In this the first step is to teach them how
to manage their own municipal affairs. The sense of possessing
rights which are really enjoyed under a settled Government,
the hope of qualifying for the exercise of political privileges,
the breadth of thought which is brought about by knowledge
and science, must all tend to elevate the individual man. It is
the aim of good government to raise every person among the
millions. It is also essential to render them all the loyal
citizens of a world-wide Empire, and the useful members of a
vast society. We must do all this courageously, without fear of
the consequences hereafter. Here, again, whatever be the mandate
of Christian charity must be the dictate of true policy.
As previously stated, Muhammadanism has much that is irre-
328
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
concileable and implacable in its religion. Still even there, if
we respect the endowments and grants made by our predecessors
for religious uses, we produce a good effect. Some endowments,
too, were made for the sake of Muhammadan education. If we take
care that these are applied to uses which shall benefit the people
under the conditions of the time, and shall also be such as the
donors would have approved, our conduct will be appreciated.
After all, the Muhammadans have always a vague fear that a
foreign Government may interfere with their religion. They
know that this is just what they themselves used to do with
their subjects of other religions. Thus it is their conscience
which now makes them timid in this matter. Experience has
probably convinced them that they have nothing to fear in this
respect from force. But they imagine that education and other
improvements will be turned into engines for moving the minds
of youth away from the faith of the Prophet. Now, we must at
all hazards communicate knowledge to them. Nevertheless, we
must let them see that no unfair advantage whatever is taken
in respect to religion. Their faith will have every reasonable
chance of holding its own or winning its way if it can. Despite
all their fanaticism, the argument that their religion has never
been interfered with, that every opportunity has been allowed
to them for maintaining their doctrines, will always carry weight
with their minds in our favour.
This generous policy on the part of England in Asia is
doing much to reconcile Muhammadan nations generally to the
growth of European influence. It may, indeed, be said that
nevertheless this influence is dreaded by them. Yes; but how
much more would it have been dreaded if our enemies had been
able to say that we interfered with religion! How easily might
political movements have then been stirred up! As it is, the
fanatics rather fear that the masses are becoming fond of the
easy life they are having under their foreign rulers.
It is but just to say that, according to the best information,
Russia is pursuing the same wise course in the several Muham-
CHAP. XIV. SELF-HELP NEEDED BY MUHAMMADANS.
329
If she per-
madan countries which have come under her sway.
severes in this, her name will become in this respect as good as
that of England.
So much for the Muhammadans who are the subjects of the
British Queen, and who, as already seen, constitute half the
Muhammadan world. Let us for a moment consider our attitude
towards the other half—that is, towards those who are not British
subjects.
In the first place, we must try to make them feel that, as a
Christian power, we are not ambitious of grasping at dominion
belonging to others. We are not consumed by "earth-hunger.”
We have enough to do in guarding from many possible dangers
the dominion which has fallen to the lot of our Sovereign and
nation. In several Muhammadan nations, not belonging to the
British Empire, British interests have sprung up. These interests
must be protected. We can never allow them to be injured with
impunity. Even then, however, our first care should be to make
the native State do its duty towards the British interests existing
within its limits. This is preferable to our undertaking to
execute the duty for ourselves. We should strive to convince
the Muhammadans that we do not look on with secret satisfac-
tion while they go the road to ruin, in order that we may step
into their places. Rather do we desire to see them properly
sustaining all the independence that still remains to them. We
may pursue our own national advantage within our proper
sphere, which is indeed large enough. We hope that they will
have the sense to promote their own true advantage within their
several spheres also. In doing this they should have the moral
support of our sympathy, and occasionally even the material
assistance of a friendly hand. But there again, such assistance
should be tendered in such a way as not to destroy their self-
reliance and their spirit of self-help. In short, let them feel that,
whether they dislike us or not, we have no unfriendly sentiment
towards them, and that we cherish for them that brotherly
kindness which is an essential part of our Christianity.
330
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Having considered the attitude of Britain towards the
Muhammadans as a Christian Power, I have now to discuss her
attitude as a civilising Power.
It has been already explained that Muhammadanism as a
religious system, over-ruling the State, has still a warm and
strong life.
But it is stagnant or retrogressive respecting
material improvement. In former centuries it did much for
science. Its scientific services in the past are often remembered
gratefully by its admirers. But nowadays it is nowhere in the
race of invention, of investigation, of discovery. In effect it is
as a dead weight of lead pressing down any attempt that may be
made for material improvement.
How, exactly,
But somehow
Now in modern times experience shows that in some countries
the white races gradually drive out the savages.
the savages become extinguished none can say.
they languish and dwindle until they die out. In the same way
a superior civilization, if brought into contact with an inferior
one, will kill it outright. If the inferior civilization is to pre-
serve its life, it must improve itself. It must work in the lines
of its superiors respecting material improvement and education.
This rule will sternly apply to the Muhammadans. Their faith
may survive, but their political system, if unreformed, cannot
live alongside the European system. Its only chance for life is
to reform itself. This truth is unpleasant to Muhammadans,
and therefore they shut their eyes to it. Thence it becomes the
duty of England, as a friendly Power, to make this point quite
clear to them. Let them, at all events, be warned, in a concilia-
tory yet in a positive manner. If they will not hearken they
will bring about their own destruction. The end may be long
delayed, perhaps, but come it must at last.
?
Turkey in Europe supplies the strongest instance. After the
Crimean war Turkey enjoyed the fairest chance of self-improve-
ment which she ever had. That chance she has flung away, and
perhaps it may never return. She possessed many provinces in
Europe. These provinces, being in the valley or basin of the
CHAP. XIV.
TURKISH MISMANAGEMENT.
331
Danube, were the finest in her whole Empire. But they
required the same sort of improvement as that which was going
on throughout most parts of Europe. As a basis of such im-
provement there were needed an honest administration and a
certain degree of constitutional liberty. Such improvement and
such liberty might have been allowed, and yet the Muhamma-
dan authority might have been kept up. But the Turks could
not, or would not, see this. They thought that if these boons
were once granted the Muhammadan authority would be gone.
They believed that their system could not live if the people
began to have a voice in the management of the national affairs.
The truth was that their system had some chance for life, if
popular concessions were wisely made. But if these were not
made, then it had no chance at all. The Turks, however, would
not yield. Doubtless there were many excuses to be made for
their conduct. Many things combined to turn them into a wrong
course. The behaviour of this neighbour and of that neighbour
was such as to rouse their suspicions and to set them against
reform. Still, to reform, or not to reform, that was the real
question which Turkey had to consider. She decided it in the
negative. Then what was the consequence? After a series of
events, now historical, she has been crippled by a ruinous war,
and has lost most of her European provinces. She has been
obliged, indeed, to part with full half of her whole Empire.
Even the half that yet remains to her is grievously enfeebled by
all that has happened. Nevertheless, all these misfortunes
might have been staved off-perhaps might have been prevented
altogether-by timely reform. No doubt, after such reform, the
Turks would have had a more troublesome time of it in the
Danubian provinces than they had ever known before. Still,
they would have continued to exist politically. But they would
not face the trouble, and consequently they have ceased to exist
in that quarter. Thus a severe lesson has been read to them.
Are they profiting by it? No; hardly at all as yet. Therefore
dangers will gradually arise of the same sort as those which have
332
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
་
already burst over Turkey with such a disastrous effect. It
would be, perhaps, unfriendly to indicate in public the nature of
such dangers. But they are arising just like clouds gathering
in the sky. The true friends of Turkey-and there are many
such friends among Englishmen-ought to warn her of this.
Perhaps they are warning her, though she does not hearken. It
is natural that she should be jealous or suspicious in respect to
foreign advice. Still, there is the truth, to which she must bend
or else be broken.
The same remarks may apply in some degree to Persia. She
has not, like Turkey, large classes of subjects claiming a reform
of the national institutions. But her administration is feeble in
the extreme, and is becoming gradually weaker. Of late there
has been much comment on the encroachments of Russia upon
the north-eastern frontier of Persia. What is the circumstance
that has most favoured those encroachments? Why, the manner
in which Persia herself has for many years past mismanaged
her own frontier. The neighbouring Turkoman tribes, that were
finally beaten by Skobeleff at the battle of Geok Tepe two
years ago, ought properly to have been Persian subjects. But
Persia found that they were hard to govern, and that their
country was unprofitable. So she left them to their own devices.
These devices of theirs did indeed prove horrid. For a regular
system was established of plundering property and of enslaving
human beings. The Turkoman horsemen used to cross over
into Persian territory and ravage whole villages, carring off
plunder on their pack-saddles, while the men and women were
fastened by the hands to the horses' tails, and so dragged into
slavery. The Persian Government did little or nothing to save
its subjects from this maltreatment. The border line offered
great facilities for defence and protection. Had a military police
been organised the mischief might have been put down. But,
being unopposed, the Turkomans grew bolder, and began to give
trouble to the neighbouring Russian authorities. Then Russia
was only too glad of a pretext for interfering. Accordingly she
CHAP. XIV.
PERSIAN PROSPECTS.
333
She
has interfered with marked effect, as all the world knows.
had, as her own officers acknowledged, ambitious motives in doing
this. That is, she desired politically to open up a possible
highway in the direction of British India. She also meant to
obtain complete control over the north-eastern frontier of Persia.
That has rendered the position of Persia lower even than it was
before, and will make her obedient to the very nod or beckon
of Russia. This fresh degradation of the Persian Government is
owing mainly to its own fault in not restraining the Turkomans.
The Asiatic neighbours of Persia are as backward and un-
civilized as herself, so they are not likely to embarrass her by
showing any superiority. But then she has two other very pro-
gressive neighbours, namely, England and Russia. She also feels
French influence in several respects. Europeans enter Persian
territory for trade or industry and lay out capital there. The same
thing is done by the Asiatics who are subjects of European Powers.
This gives some little impulse to a sluggish country. It also
adds to the responsibilities of the Persian administration. If
oppression is permitted or extortion practised, an outcry arises.
If the dissatisfaction is not removed, the quarrel ends in blows.
This is exactly the sort of case which becomes the origin of war.
Recently, as we all remember, France has by force established
her authority in Tunis. The Muhammadan Prince has been
thereby reduced to a condition of dependence. If his conduct in
these affairs be examined, it will be found that he brought the
trouble upon himself by his own misgovernment. French
interests had grown up in his territory, and French capital had
been invested therein. Had he duly protected these interests,
and preserved order throughout his dominions, he might have
saved himself for a time at least.
There is not space to examine the origin of the recent trouble
internally in Egypt. But similar causes will be found to govern
that case also.
The fact is that nearly all the Muhammadan countries are
unable to avoid contact with the progressive nations of Europe.
334
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
+
Arabia alone, being girdled by deserts, can keep herself free
from such contact, for the present at least. She may preserve her
originality and follow her own rude way for sometime to come.
The Bedouin Arabs may continue to be the free lances of south-
western Asia. Other Arabs are fond of migrating temporarily
to civilized regions for trade and for service. They keep up their
connection with their wild home in the Arabian uplands. If
they live to return to it, they doubtless rejoice to find it unim-
proved, and unaffected by the civilization that is going on in the
world around.
But the other Muhammadan nations cannot follow this course
with any success at all. They often try to do so, but the attempt
generally ends in disaster to themselves. Their geographical
situation is such as to render their isolation impossible. Their
people will be passing over in numbers to the neighbouring
nations of Europe. Similarly the Europeans will be passing
over to them. It is obvious that in these days men will be
running to and fro on the earth. This constant migration back-
wards and forwards must involve certain consequences. Mu-
hammadans who have resided abroad will often return to their
own country, bringing with them new ideas. These ideas will
relate to education, to good government, even to freedom. Euro-
peans residing in Muhammadan countries will introduce ideas
of the same character. There will further be more solid changes.
Industrial enterprise will push its way to the inviting regions of
Muhammadanism, and sometimes even to the uninviting ones.
Capital, accumulated in European countries, will be seeking
investment in Muhammadan quarters as in other foreign quarters.
This will occur as surely as water rises to its proper level.
Indeed, this must happen according to the laws of modern
society. Whether the Muhammadans like it or not, they are
powerless to prevent it. The Europeans could not prevent it if
they would, but in fact there is no reason why they should wish
to do so.
This inevitable process produces certain consequences which
1
愚
​시
​CHAP. XIV.
EUROPEAN RESIDENTS IN EGYPT.
335
the Muhammadans must face. If they fail herein, they must
fall sooner or later. These consequences are that there must be
a respectable administration for their own people, and an
ordinary degree of protection for the foreigners who are carrying
on trade or managing industrial concerns. But Muhammadan
administration, instead of improving with the times, has become
weaker than it used to be in former ages, and is often unequal to
the task of dealing with the new interests which are springing
up within its borders.
If, on the other hand, a Muhammadan Government succeeds
in governing well, according to the requirements of the nineteenth
century, it will certainly receive the sympathy of England, and
probably of other European nations also.
Muhammadans are apt to deceive themselves by reason of the
facility with which money in vast sums has been borrowed by
them in the European money markets. They may fail to pay
the interest of the debt; they may even repudiate a part of the
principal. Yet there may be no political consequences to follow,
The foreign Governments may not feel justified in interfering by
force on behalf of those who have chosen to lend their money.
If,
But the case is practically different with those who have
established interests and laid out capital in Muhammadan coun-
tries. If these concerns are injured, either from violence of mis-
rule, the case then becomes one of police management. Every
Government in all parts of the world is expected to answer for
order. If the subjects of any nation are specially maltreated
abroad, if, as it were, a set is violently made against them, a
remonstrance from their own Government is sure to follow.
for instance, the British residents in any part of southern
Europe, say at Odessa, or at Athens, or at Brindisi, or at Barce-
lona, had been suddenly maltreated or outraged, as the British
were at Alexandria in the summer of 1882, serious political
consequences would have ensued. This should be remembered
as one of the many reasons which exist to justify the vigorous
action which the British Government took in Egypt.
336
CHAP. XIV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
It is the part of true kindness, then, for Britain to do her
best in bringing these truths home to the Muhammadan mind.
She may do this in a conciliatory manner, so as not to wound
the pride of Muhammadans. Let them feel that she has no
selfish ambition; that she does not wish to annex them; that,
on the contrary, she desires to see them independent and pros-
perous. She will in every sense wish them well; but her good
wishes will be of little avail to them unless they, of their
own accord, improve themselves.*
* The observations in this chapter regarding the Turks have recently been
verified by me during a visit to Turkey.-R. T.
(337)
CHAPTER XV.
THE MAHRATTA NATIONALITY.
[Reprinted from the Encyclopædia Britannica,' New Edition, 1883.]
Native region of the Mahrattas
Originally mountaineers of the hill ranges
along the western coast of India Their physical characteristics - Their
sturdy and patriotic temper Their agricultural industry - Their landed
tenures Their condition under British rule Greatness of their past
history-Predatory foundation of their power-Unimproving character of
their rule- Establishment of the Mahratta confederation
The Peshwas,
or Brahman princes — Leading Mahratta States Their military contests
with the British power· Their incorporation into the British empire.
THE Mahrattas inhabit that portion of India which is known by
the ancient name of Mahàrâshtra (Sanskrit for the great kingdom
or region). This large tract, extending from the Arabian Sea on
the west to the Sâtpura mountains in the north, comprises a good
part of western and central India, including the modern pro-
vinces of the Konkan, Khandesh, Berar, the British Deccan, part
of Nagpur, and about half the Nizam's Deccan.
Its area
amounts to about 120,000 square miles, and its population to
about twelve millions of souls, or 100 to the square mile. The
population has increased greatly in the nineteenth century under
British rule; but there had been much decrease during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries owing to war and devasta-
tion. Frightful depopulation occurred from the famine which
was at its height in 1400 A.D., and was called the Durga Déví or
the goddess of destruction. Much mortality was also caused
by famine between 1801 and 1803. There was probably a period
Ꮓ
338
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
of high prosperity during the first centuries of the Christian era,
under a number of petty indigenous sovereigns, among whom
these wide territories had become parcelled out before the first
invasion of the Deccan by the Moslems about 1100.
The etymology of the word Mahratta (or Marhatta, as it is
written in the vernacular) is uncertain. The name does not
indicate a social caste, or a religious sect; it is not even tribal.
It embraces the people of all races who dwell in the region of
Maharashtra, both high-caste and low-caste Hindus; it is
applied, of course, to Hindus only. Thus there are Mahratta
Brahmans, next Mahratta Kumbis or cultivators, and Mahratta
Rajputs or warriors, though the latter have but a small infu-
sion of real Rajput blood. The Mahrattas, then, are essentially
Hindus in religion and in caste ordinances, not differing in
these respects from the Hindus in other parts of India. They
have a language of their own, called the Mahratti, a dialect of
the Sanskrit, and this Mahratti is a copious, flexible, and
sonorous tongue.
But the Mahrattas have always formed a separate nation or
people, and still regard themselves as such, though nowadays
they are almost all under British or Muhammadan jurisdiction;
that is, they belong either to British India or to the Nizam's
Dominions. A few states or principalities purely Mahratta,—
such as Kolhapur and some lesser states clustering round it in
the southern Deccan,-still survive, but they are under close
supervision on the part of the British Government. There are
indeed still three large native states nominally Mahratta, namely,
that of Sindhia near the borders of Hindustan in the north, that
of Holkar in Malwa in the heart of the Indian continent, and
that of the Gaekwar in Gujerat on the western coast. But in
these states the prince, his relatives, and some of his ministers
or employés only are Mahrattas; the nobility and the mass of
the people are not Mahrattas at all, but belong to other sections
of the Hindu race. These states then are not to be included in
the Mahratta nation, though they have a share in the Mahratta
CHAP. XV.
MAHRATTA BRAHMANS.
339
history, and are concerned in the extraneous achievements of
that people.
In general terms the Mahrattas, as above defined, may be
described under two main heads, first the Brahmans, and secondly
the humble or low-caste men. The Mahratta Brahmans possess,
in an intense degree, the qualities of the famous Brahman caste,
physical, intellectual, and moral. They have generally the lofty
brow, the regular features, the spare upright figure, the calm
aspect, the commanding gait, which might be expected in a
race maintained in great purity yet upon a broad basis. In
modern times they have proved themselves the most able and
ambitious of all the Brahmans in the Indian empire. They are
notably divided into two sections—the Konkanast, coming from
the Konkan or littoral tract of the west coast below the West
Ghát mountains, and the Dèshast, coming from the upland or
Deccan, on the east of the mountains. Though there have been
many distinguished Dèshasts, yet the most remarkable of all
have been Konkanasts. For instance, the pèshwas, or heads of
the Mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly
all India, were Konkanast Brahmans. The birthplaces of these
persons are still known, and to this day there are sequestered
villages, nestling near the western base of the Gháts, which
are pointed to as being the ancestral homes of men who two
centuries ago had political control over the Indian empire.
Apart from the Brahmans, the Mahrattas may be generally de-
signated as Sudras, or men of the humblest of the four great castes
into which the Hindu race is divided. But, as indicated above,
the upper classes among the Mahrattas claim to be Kshatriyas
or Rajputs. They probably are aborigines fundamentally, with
a mixture of what are now called the Scythian tribes, which at a
very early time overran India. They have but a slight admix-
ture of the Aryans, who victoriously immigrated from Central
Asia and established the Hindu system.
These ordinary Mahrattas, who form the backbone of the
nation, have plain features, an uncouth manner, a clownish
Z 2
340
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE..
aspect, short stature, a small but wiry frame. Their eyes, how-
ever, are bright and piercing, and under excitement will gleam
with passion. Though not powerful physically as compared
with the northern races of the Panjab and Oudh, they have
much activity and an unsurpassed endurance. Born and bred
in or near the Western Ghát mountains and the numerous
tributary ranges, they have all the qualities of mountaineers.
Among their native hills they have at all times evinced desperate
courage. Away from the hills they do not display remarkable
valour, except under the discipline which may be supplied by
other races. For such organisation they have never, of them-
selves, shown any aptitude. Under civilized authority, however,
they are to be reckoned among the good soldiers of the empire.
In recent times they enter military service less and less, betak-
ing themselves mainly to cultivation and to the carrying
business connected with agriculture. As husbandmen they are
not remarkable; but as graziers, as cartmen, as labourers, they
are excellent. As artisans they have seldom signalised them-
selves, save as armourers and clothweavers.
Those Mahrattas who dwell in the extreme west of Mahà-
râshtra, within the main range of the Western Ghats, and in the
extreme north of Maharashtra near the Sâtpura mountains, are
blessed with unfailing rainfall and regular seasons. But those
who dwell at a distance from these main ranges, or among the
lower or subsidiary ranges, are troubled with variable moisture
and uncertain seasons, frequently, too, with alternations of
drought and of flood. Periodically they are afflicted by scarcity,
and sometimes by severe famine. They have within the last
half century largely extended their area of cultivation. Their
industry, which is chiefly agricultural, has grown apace.
Their
tendency is undoubtedly to increase in numbers; and, despite
occasional depopulation from disasters of season, they have
increased considerably on the whole. But in some districts, owing
to the recent famine in 1877, and the sickness which ensued
when excessive rainfall followed the drought, the population is
1
CHAP. XV.
LAND TENURES.
341
at present stationary, while in others it has actually retrograded
because epidemics and plagues of vermin were added to the
misfortunes of season.
usually held on the
This tenure is now
Among all the Mahrattas the land is
tenure technically known as "ryotwari."
established under the British Government by surveying and
assessing operations comprehended under the official term
"settlement." It practically means peasant proprietorship.
The proprietor, or ryot, is a cultivator also. His holding may
be on the average twenty or thirty acres, divided into small fields.
Of these fields he cultivates some, himself working at the plough,
and his family weeding and cleaning the soil. He will also hire
labour, and thus the farm-labourers become a considerable class.
He pays to the Government direct the land tax, which is assessed
on his holding for the long term of thirty years, so that he may
have the benefit of his improvements. His property in the land
is absolute; it descends according to the Hindu law of inherit-
ance; it can be sold or otherwise transferred by private arrange-
ment; it is pledged or mortgaged for debt, and money is largely
borrowed on its security. It is liable to sale for default in
regard to land revenue; and the Government as a creditor has
the first claim. Thus, as a peasant proprietary, the Mahrattas
are in the best possible position, and have been so for many
years since the completion of the British settlement. Their only
fault is a disposition to live beyond their humble means. They
have thus been of late years led into debt, which has produced
disputes between them and the money-lenders, ending sometimes
in agrarian disturbance.
In the Konkan there are some superior proprietors termed
Khotes. With this and perhaps some other exceptions, notably
that of Nagpur, there are not in the Mahratta country many
large landlords, nor many of the superior tenure-holders whose
position relatively to that of the peasantry has caused much
discussion in other parts of India. There are indeed many
Mahratta chiefs still resident in the country, members of the
342
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
aristocracy, which formerly enjoyed much more wealth and
power than at present. They are sometimes in the position of
landlords, but often they are the assignees of the land revenue,
which they are entitled under special grants to collect for them-
selves instead of for Government, paying merely a small sum to
Government by way of quit-rent. Under them the cultivators
are by British arrangements placed in the position of peasant
proprietors. The village community has always existed as the
social unit in the Mahratta territories, though with less cohesion
among its members than in the village communities of Hindustan
and the Panjab. The ancient offices pertaining to the village,
as those of the headman (patel), and of the village accountant,
are in working order throughout the Mahratta country.
The Mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffer-
ing and misfortune. Though patient and good-tempered in the
main, they have a latent warmth of temper, and if oppressed
beyond a certain endurable limit they would fiercely turn and
rend their tormentors. Cruelty also is an element in their
character. As a rule they are orderly and law-abiding, but
traditions of plunder have been handed down to them from early
times, and many of them retain the predatory instincts of their
forefathers. The neighbourhood of dense forests, steep hill-sides,
and fastnesses hard of access, offers extraordinary facilities to
plunderers for screening themselves and their booty Thus
gang-robbery is apt to break out, gains head with rapidity, and
is suppressed with difficulty. In time of peace it is kept under,
but during war, or whenever the bands of civil order are loosened,
it becomes a cause of anxiety and a source of danger. The
women have frankness and strength of character; they work
hard in the fields, and as a rule evince domestic virtue. Con-
jugal infidelity, however, is not unknown among them, and here,
as elsewhere in India, leads to bloodshed.
The peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour, but they
have their humble ideas of gaiety, and hold their gatherings on
occasions of births or marriages. They frequently beguile their
CHAP. XV.
THE PEASANTRY.
343
toil with carols. They like the gossiping and bartering at the
rural markets and in the larger fairs, which are sometimes held in
strikingly picturesque localities. They are utterly superstitious,
and will worship with hearty veneration any being or thing
whose destructive agency they fear. They will even speak of
the tiger with honorific titles. They are Hindus, but their
Hinduism is held to be of a non-Aryan type. They are sin-
cerely devout in religion, and feel an awe regarding "the holy
Brahmans," holding the life and the person of a Brahman
sacred, even though he be a criminal of the deepest dye. They
of course regard the cow as equally sacred. There are two prin-
cipal sects among the modern Hindus-those who follow Vishnu
and those who follow Siva. The Mahrattas generally follow
Siva and his wife, a dread goddess known under many names.
The Mahratta war-cry," Har Har Mahadeo," which used to be
heard above the din of battle urging the soldiers to onset with vic-
torious élan, referred to Siva. All classes, high and low, are fond
of the religious festivals, the principal of which, the "Dasserah,"
occurs in October, when the first harvest of the year has been
secured and the second crop sown. This has always been held
with the utmost pomp and magnificence at every centre of
Mahratta wealth and power. The people frequently assemble
in bowers and harbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear
"kathas" recited. These recitations are partly religious, partly
also romantic and quasi-historical. After the hearing of them,
national resolves of just resistance or of aggressive ambition
have often been formed.
Apart from the Mahratta Brahmans, as already mentioned, the
Mahratta nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men.
Their appearance, notwithstanding jewellery and rich apparel, is
still that of peasants. There certainly are some exceptions, but
there is general truth in what was once said by a high authority
to the effect that, while there will be something dignified in the
humblest Râjpût, there will be something mean in the highest
Mahratta. Bluff good-nature a certain jocoseness, a humour
344
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
pungent and ready, though somewhat coarse, a hot or even
violent disposition, are characteristics of Mahratta chieftains.
They usually show little aptitude for business or for sedentary
pursuits; but, on the other hand, they are born equestrians and
sportsmen. As a rule they are not moderate in living, and are
not unfrequently addicted to intemperance. Instances of licen-
tiousness and debauchery have always been found among them.
They have generally sprung from a lowly origin, and they have
been proud of this fact even after attaining greatness. For
instance, three Mahratta chiefs, each of whom established a large
kingdom-Sindhia, Holkar, and the Gaekwar-declared the
lowliness of their birth. Holkar was the descendant of a shep-
herd; Sindhia boasted of having begun life by keeping his
master's slippers; and by his very title, the Gaekwar perpetuates
the memory of his progenitor having tended the cow (gàe).
Mahratta ladies and princesses have often taken a prominent
part in public affairs and in dynastic intrigues; in some
instances their conduct has been of the highest type, in others
their influence has been exerted for evil.
Though they have produced some poetry, the Mahrattas have
never done much for Oriental literature. Nor have they been
distinguished in industrial art. Their architecture in wood,
however, was excellent; and the teak-forests of their country
afforded the finest timber for building and for carving. They
had also much skill in the construction of works for the supply
of drinking-water on a large scale, and for irrigation.
races.
<
On the whole, the Mahrattas will hardly be regarded by
Europeans as being among the most interesting of the Indian
The admirable History of the Mahrattas,' by Captain
Grant Duff (1826), may possibly awaken enthusiasm, as written
under personal advantages and with a living knowledge which
will never again be possessed by a historian of the later Mahratta
times. At all events, a strange interest gathers itself around the
Mahratta history.
In the first place the Mahratta country is for the most part
CHAP. XV.
THE MOUNTAINS.
345
Some
strategically important as well as highly picturesque.
parts of the Deccan are indeed almost irretrievably ugly. The
stretches of low hill have long been disforested, and even laid
bare of lesser vegetation, and the champaign tracts are treeless
as far as the eye can reach. Still much of the Mahratta country
lies in the bosom or near the skirts of the Ghát mountains. The
geological formations may be popularly described as consisting of
trap, basalt, and indurated lava in magnificent layers. The black
precipices, scarped for thousands of feet, and striped with marks
of the layers, are superb. The summits, though generally flat
with horizontal outlines, are often broken into towers and cones.
The vapours from the Arabian Sea are propelled by the south-
west monsoon against these mountain-tops, and produce an
excessive rainfall. Hence arise a luxuriant vegetation, and the
spectacle (at certain seasons) of numerous cascades tumbling
down the perpendicular flanks of the mountains. The forests
have suffered during ages from wasteful cutting; but of late
years a system of conservancy has been established, and many
great forests remain.
The mountains stand in the midst of a fertile and populous
country; on both sides of them are rich valleys, cultivated
plains, numerous villages, and large towns. Thus insurgents or
warriors had here a complete military base, with sources whence
supplies could be drawn, and strongholds for organizing power or
for securing refuge. This hill country has been regarded by
strategists as one of the strongest, in a military sense, to be
found in India. It extends over nearly 500 miles from north
to south, and has at least 20 fortresses, which in uncivilized
warfare were virtually impregnable if resolutely defended, and
which, though of course unable to resist a scientific attack in
these times, would yet prove difficult of approach. Several of
these are surrounded with historic traditions. In former times
there was no road worthy of the name across these mountains.
No means of passage existed save steep rugged pathways for
footmen and pack animals. Within the last generation the
346
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
British Government has, in Oriental phrase, lifted up the veil of
these mountains, piercing them with well-made roads and with
railways. There are now seven of such roads, and two lines of
railway open, a third being projected. Guns and troops as well
as goods and produce can now be moved up and down these
once impassable mountains.
It is the range of the Western Ghats which enabled the
Mahrattas to rise against their Muhammadan conquerors, to
reassert their Hindu nationality against the whole power of the
Mogul empire, and to establish in its place an empire of their
own. It is often held that in India British conquest or annnexa-
tion succeeded Muhammadan rule; and to a considerable extent
this was the case. But, on the other hand, the principal power,
the widest sovereignty, which the British overthrew in India,
was that of the Mahrattas.
J
>>
During the earlier Moslem invasions in A.D. 1100 and in sub-
sequent years, the Mahrattas do not seem to have made much
resistance. They submitted to several Muhammadan kings
under the changing circumstances of those times. They were
despised by their conquerors, and were called "mountain rats
in derision. It was against the Muhammadan king of Bijapur
in the Deccan that Sivaji, the hero of Mahratta history, first
rebelled in 1657. Sivaji and his fighting officers were Mahrattas
of humble caste, but his ministers were Mahratta Brahmans.
When the Mogul empire absorbed that kingdom he defied the
emperor. He imparted a self-reliant enthusiasm to his coun-
trymen, formed them into an army, and organized them as a
political community. His mountaineer infantry, though limited
in numbers, proved desperately courageous; his cavalry was
daring and ubiquitous. Having once overcome the Hindus in
almost all parts of India, often after heroic resistance, the
Moslems had not for centuries met with any noteworthy up-.
rising. Sivaji, however, planned their expulsion, and before the
end of his restless life made much progress in the execution of
that design. The new Mahratta state which he founded was
CHAP. XV.
SEPARATE PRINCIPALITIES.
347
maintained under various vicissitudes after his death. Still
Mahratta resistance, once aroused by him, was never extin-
guished, and the imperial resources were worn out by ceaseless
though vain efforts to quell it. The great Mogul emperor's
impoverished and enfeebled successor was fain to recognise the
Mahratta state by a formal instrument. The Mahratta king, a
descendant of Sivaji, was a roi fainéant, and the arrangement was
negotiated by his Brahman minister, whose official designation
was the pèshwa. The office of pèshwa then became hereditary
in the minister's family, and grew in importance as the Mahratta
kingdom rose, while the king sunk into the condition of a
puppet. Thus the Mahratta power was consolidated throughout
nearly the whole of Mahàrâshtra under the Brahman pèshwa as
virtual sovereign, with his capital at Poona, while the titular
Mahratta raja or king had his court at the neighbouring city of
Sattara. Despite his political insignificance, however, the raja
was still venerated as the descendant of Sivaji.
Then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from
among the ruins of the Mogul empire. Thus Raghuji Bhônsla
established himself in the tracts lying underneath the southern
base of the Satpura range (namely Nagpur and Berar), overran
Orissa, and entered Bengal. Dammaji Gaekwar descended from
the Western Ghats upon the alluvial plains of Gujerat around
Baroda. Takaji Holkar subdued the uplands of Malwa be-
yond the Vindhya range on the north bank of the Nerbadda.
Madhaji Sindhia obtained possession of large tracts immediately
south of Agra and Delhi, marched into Hindustan, and became
virtually the master of the Mogul emperor himself. Princes of
Sivaji's own family founded a dominion at Tanjore, in the rich
delta of the Kaveri, south of Madras.
But these principalities, though really independent respecting
internal administration, and making war or peace with their
neighbours according to opportunity, yet owned allegiance to
the pèshwa at Poona as head of the Mahratta body. On state
occasions, heads of principalities would visit Poona by way of
348
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
}
acknowledging the superior position of the pèshwa. On the
other hand, the pèshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his
nominal sovereign at Sattara to every important act of state.
Thus a confederation was formed, of which the Brahmin pèshwa,
or head, was at Poona, governing the adjacent territories, while
the members belonging to the lower castes of Mahrattas were
scattered throughout the continent of India. Such was the
Mahratta empire which supplanted the Mogul empire. The
Mahratta power grew and prospered till it embraced all India,
with certain exceptions. Its culminating point was reached
about 1750, or about a century after Sivaji first rebelled against
his Muhammadan sovereign.
Its armies drew soldiers from all parts of India. The infantry
was not of good quality; but its cavalry was really an enormous
force, numbering fully a hundred thousand in all. The horse-
men were splendidly audacious in riding for long distances into
the heart of a hostile country without support, striking some
terrific blows, and then returning rapidly beyond reach of
pursuit. They could truly boast of having watered their horses
in
every Indian river from the Kaveri to the Indus. If attacked,
however, in a competent manner, they would not stand; and
afterwards, in conflict with the British, whole masses of them
behaved in a dastardly manner. As their ambition grew, the
chiefs began to organize their troops after the system learnt
from the English and French. In this way several Frenchmen—
De Boigne, Perron, and others-rose in the Mahratta service to
a position dangerous to the British. But the new system was
unsuited to the Mahratta genius; it hampered the meteoric
movements of the cavalry, which was obliged to manœuvre
in combination with the new artillery and the disciplined
battalions. Mahratta elders hence uttered predictions of mili-
tary disaster which were in the end more than fulfilled.
While the Mahrattas collected vast quantities of treasure
and valuables, the ordinary revenue of the confederation hardly
exceeded ten millions sterling annually. Large amounts, how-
7
CHAP. XV. THE MAHRATTA CONFEDERATION.
349
ever, were drawn by feudal tenure-holders, which never ap-
peared in the public accounts. The area and population under
the dominion or the control of the confederation could hardly
have been less than 700,000 square miles and 90,000,000 of
souls.
The rapid and amazing success of the Mahratta confederation
rendered it the largest Hindu sovereignty that ever existed in
India. But it lacked the elements of true greatness. It was
founded by plundering expeditions, and its subsequent existence
was tainted by the baseness of this predatory origin. With the
exception of the pèshwas, its chiefs were little more than free-
booting warriors, for the most part rude, violent, and unlettered.
Their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims the alter-
native of paying "chouth "—that is, one-fourth of the ordinary
revenue, or being plundered and ravaged. Thus the Mahratta
chouth came to have an ominous significance in Indian history.
Desultory efforts were made to establish a civil government,
but in the main there was no administration formed on states-
manlike principles. The pèshwas, on the other hand, as
Brahmans, were men of the highest education then possible
in India. But they were absorbed by the direction of military
and political combinations, and by intrigues for the preservation
of their own power; and, even allowing for all this, they failed
for the most part to evince the civil capacity which might have
been anticipated. While several displayed commanding abilities,
and some possessed many virtues, one only attempted to con-
duct an administration in an enlightened manner, and he died
prematurely.
+
There were at the same time powers existing in India to keep
the Mahrattas in check, and it has just been mentioned that
some parts of India were excepted from their depredations.
The British power was rising at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
The nascent Sikh power prevented Mahratta incursions from
being permanently successful in the Panjab. As the Mogul
empire broke up, some separate Muhammadan powers rose upon
350
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
its ruins. The Nizam of the Deccan established himself at
Hyderabad, comparatively near the headquarters of the pèshwa.
Hyder Ali was proclaimed Sultan of Mysore in the south.
Ahmed Shah Abdali burst upon India from Afghanistan. The
Mahrattas bravely encountered him at Panipat, near Delhi, in
1761, and were decisively defeated. The defeat, however, did
not essentially shake the Mahratta empire. It was collision
with the English that broke that wonderful fabric to pieces.
The first collision with the English occurred in 1780; it arose
from a disputed succession to the pèshwaship. The English
Government at Bombay supported one of the claimants, and
the affair became critical for the English as well as for the
Mahrattas. It was at this conjuncture that Warren Hastings
displayed his political genius and rendered signal service to his
country.
The next collision happened in 1803. The pèshwa had fallen
into grave difficulties with some of the principal members of the
Mahratta confederation, namely, Sindhia, Holkar, and the
Bhonsla raja of Nagpur. He therefore placed himself under
British protection, and this led to the great Mahratta war, in
which the Marquis Wellesley displayed those talents for mili-
tary and political combination which have rendered him
illustrious. It was during the campaigns which ensued that
General Arthur Wellesley defeated Holkar and the Bhonsla
raja at Assaye, and General Lake won the victories of
Farokhabad, Dig, and Laswari over Sindhia and Holkar. The
three confederates, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Bhonsla, concluded
peace with the British Government, after making large sacrifices
of territory in favour of the victor, and submitting to British
control politically. Thus the Mahratta empire was broken up.
It was during these events that the British won the province of
Orissa, the old Hindustan now known as the North-Western
Provinces, and a part of the western coast, comprising Gujerat.
The third collision came to pass between 1816 and 1818,
through the conduct, not only of the confederates, but also of
CHAP. XV. FALL OF THE MAHRATTA EMPIRE.
351
the pèshwa himself. During the previous war the pèshwa had
been the protégée and ally of the British; and since the war he
had fallen more completely than before under British protection
and guidance, British political officers and British troops being
stationed at his capital. He apparently felt encouraged by
circumstances to rebel. Holkar and the Bhonslas committed
hostile acts. The predatory Pindaris offered a formidable
resistance to the British troops. So the pèshwa ventured to
take part in the combination against the British power, which
even yet the Mahrattas did not despair of overthrowing. After
long-protracted menaces, he attacked the British at Kirki, but
failed utterly, and fled a ruined man. Ultimately he sur-
rendered to Sir John Malcolm, and was sent as a state
pensioner to Bithûr, near Cawnpur. Thus the last vestige of
the Mahratta empire disappeared. The British, however, released
the raja of Sattara from the captivity in which he had been
kept during the pèshwa's time, and reinstated him on the
throne. Owing to these events, the British Government became
possessed of the Konkan and of the greater part of the Deccan.
It remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining
member of the once imperial confederation. The principality of
Sattara was held to have lapsed in 1849 by the death of the
raja without lineal heirs, and was annexed by the British
Government. The Bhonsla raja of Nagpur and Berar was obliged
to surrender Berar to the Nizam, as the ally of the British, in
1803. Berar then remained under the Nizam till 1854, when
it came under British administration, though it is still included
in the Nizam's dominions. The raja of Nagpur died without
lineal heirs in 1853, and his territory, being held to have lapsed,
was annexed to the British territories. The house of Holkar
has, during the last sixty years, remained faithful to its
engagements with the British Government, and its position as
a feudatory of the empire is well maintained. In Sindhia's
territory, by reason of internal feuds, the British had to under-
take measures which were successfully terminated after the
352
CHAP. XV.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
battles of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1843. But, on the
whole, the house of Sindhia has remained faithful. Sindhia
himself was actively loyal during the war of the mutinies.
The Gaekwar gradually fell under British control towards the
close of last century, and his house has never engaged in hos-
tilities with the British Government. The Gaekwar Khande
Rao signalized himself by loyalty during the troubles con-
sequent on the mutinies of 1857. His successor, Malhar Rao,
was deposed by the British Government on account of gross
mal-administration. An adopted son has ascended the throne
recently. The expèshwa lived to old age at Bithûr, and died in
1851. His adopted son grew up to be the Nana Sahib, of
infamous memory, who took a leading part in the war of the
mutinies.
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W&A.K. Johnston. Edinburgh
Paul Casunkinal Society 1382
( 353 )
CHAPTER XVI.
BIRTHPLACE AND CRADLE OF MAHRATTA POWER.
[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London,
February 1882.]
Imperial achievements of the Mahratta nation— Sivaji the founder of their
power — His birth, education, and early habits-Amasses plunder in
mountain fastnesses Openly defies the Muhammadan Power after
assassinating its Envoy - Revenges his father's wrongs Performs exploit
against Muhammadan Viceroy — His escape from Delhi - Retakes the
Lion's Den fortress - His reign and death-Situation of his tomb-
National spirit aroused by him Political control subsequently established
and maintained by the British.
THE subject of my speech this evening is the geography of the
birthplace and cradle of Mahratta power. This geography is
in the first place illustrated by a map, which has been prepared
by the Society's draughtsman, Mr. Sharbau; it is further illus-
trated by a series of pictorial illustrations, prepared by my
brother, Lieutenant George Temple, R.N., and enlarged from
sketches made by me upon the spot.* Though the subject of
my speech will be partly political, still it will not infringe
upon the rules of this Society, and it will after all be in a great
degree geographical, because its object will be to show you how,
owing to the peculiar geographical features of the country, a
despised and abject race rose to dominion over what has subse-
quently become the British Empire in the East.
At the time of which I speak, just over two hundred years
* These have been engraved, much reduced, for this report of the speech,
by Mr. Whymper.
2 A
354
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
ago, about the year 1650—that is, a hundred years before the
battle of Plassy, and two hundred years before the war of the
Indian Mutiny-the Mahrattas had been subjected for full five
hundred years to the Muhammadans.
to the Muhammadans. They were an aboriginal
race, of very humble, I may say unprepossessing, aspect; rather
short, clumsy, mean-looking little men: they were thoroughly
despised by their Muhammadan conquerors, who called them
the mountain rats. But the hour came for them to rise, and with
the hour came the man, and the leader. Owing to the extraordi-
nary advantages offered them by the country in which they dwelt,
they, in a short time, rose victoriously against their foreign rulers
the Muhammadans. They first dethroned the Great Mogul in his
imperial palace at Delhi; they fought the Afgan and Persian
invaders of India; they worried the Portuguese at Goa; they
threatened even the early British Governors of Bombay: they were
visited by European embassies in some of the hill forts depicted
in our illustrations; they obtained a dominion from Cape Comorin,
near Ceylon, right up to the Himalayas. They truly boasted
that their cavalry watered their horses in the river Kaveri, not
far from Ceylon, and as far as the Indus opposite Peshawur.
They fought the English in many stand-up fights. They even
threatened us to such a degree that we had to build a ditch
round Calcutta to defend ourselves from them. You have often
heard Calcutta called the City of the Ditch: against whom was
that ditch constructed? It was against the Mahrattas. Such,
then, was the splendid imperial position obtained in the course
of one century by this abject, despised race. And what was the
cause of this astonishing success? It was, first, the martial
quality fostered by the mountains, and in the second place the
immense military and political advantages offered by the moun-
tain fastnesses and strongholds. Such is the main topic upon
which I shall offer you historical, pictorial, and topographical
details.
I must first ask you carefully to consider the map prefixed to
this address. You will observe the western coast with the
CHAP. XVI.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
355
great city of Bombay. That coast district is called the Konkan.
Then you will perceive a long line of dark mountains running
from north to south: those are the Western Ghats. To the
east of these Western Ghats you will see the country called
the Deccan, the capital of which is the city of Poona. Now
I must remind you of the contour and configuration of this
remarkable country. Taking it from west to east, you will
first observe the coast-line, then there is a great wall of moun-
tain, 2000 feet high on the average, rising in its peaks up to
5000 feet. From this average altitude of 2000 feet there
gradually slopes eastwards the plateau of the Deccan, so that
the Konkan being on the level of the sea, there is a wall of
mountains, and above that there is the great table-land of the
Deccan, 2000 feet above the sea, gradually becoming lower as
you proceed eastwards. Then notice exactly the line of the
Western Ghats. I have explained to you their altitude, 2000 feet
on the average, rising up to peaks of 5000 feet.
I must ask you to remember these details, because upon such
remembrance will depend the interest with which I hope you
will follow the stirring scenes I am about to describe. Then the
geology is very remarkable. Time does not permit me to explain
the various processes of geological denudation which have caused
these hills to present the form of a great wall-literally a wall.
The wall may be broken; it may be in sections; but, after all,
a wall it is, and a wall it will remain, I suppose, to the end of
the world. The geological formation is of the plutonic kind,
commonly called trap: in many parts it consists of layers of
indurated lava. The importance, politically, of these mountains
is in this wise: first, they nourish a resolute, enduring, daring,
I may say audacious spirit among their inhabitants; secondly,
they offer strongholds and fastnesses to which these inhabitants
can resort whenever they are pressed by an enemy; and thirdly,
and perhaps most important, they lie between fertile countries.
The country to the west, the Konkan, is one of the most fertile
parts of India and one of the most densely inhabited. The
2A2
356*
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
}
country to the east, the Deccan, is also fertile and populous.
Consequently, the men of the hills can make rapid raids for
marauding or plundering purposes, just as the eagle swoops
from its eyry upon the quarry. After these sudden descents
they can rapidly carry off plunder, treasure, and the like, to the
hills, and once they are there it is very difficult to approach
them. They are, therefore, able readily to establish a predatory
power which cannot be extirpated or exterminated. You will
perceive what immense political advantages these mountains
offer, and how it is that they become truly the cradle of great-
ness, power, and empire.
This being the physical, topographical and political character
of the hills, I have to remind you that the leader of the Mahrattas
and the founder of their empire was Sivaji. I particularly beg
you to remember the name in order that you may follow the
stories I have to tell. Recollect that Sivaji flourished a little
over two hundred years ago, one hundred years before Clive won
the battle of Plassy, two hundred years before the Indian Mutiny.
I am anxious to impress these facts well upon your minds, in
order that you may follow my narrative.
After this preface, I will ask you to go straight to the pictorial
diagrams. The first illustration to which I shall invite your
attention (No. 22) is the hill fort of Junnar, where Sivaji was
born. I should explain that the hill itself is called Sewnar, but
nowadays takes the name of Junnar, from the town which lies
at its base. You will see the town in the illustration, on a plain,
and you will note rising above it precipitous mountains. You
will also see Junnar clearly marked upon the map just behind
the main crest of the range. It is the first instance which I
have to mention of those peaks of 4000 or 5000 feet which I have
already alluded to. You will see what a rugged precipitous
place this is, and what a fitting spot it was for a hero to be born
in. I must ask you to remember Sivaji's father, Shahji, because
I shall have to mention that person hereafter. I must ask you
also to remember that Sivaji's mother was a Mahratta lady of
CHAP. XVI.
SIVAJI'S EDUCATION.
357
remarkable spirit and energy. Presently I shall have to say
more about her.
Sivaji's education was, in the modern sense of the term, rather
neglected by these parents, that is to say, he was never taught
to read and write. Though in after years he became the
sovereign of a great kingdom, he never could put the sign
manual to his decrees. But he had an education of a different
kind, in those days a much more practical education, for he was

FIG. 22.-JUNNAR; THE BIRTHPLACE OF SIVAJI.
he
taught to be a splendid shot with the gun and with the bow;
was a wonderful rider; and he learnt from poetical recitations
all about the ancient history and the religion of his country.
He used to hear of these things from the recitals of bards and
people of that kind who sang before him regarding all the heroes
of the Hindu race. Thus his mind became imbued with lofty
notions of Hindu nationality, and with that spirit of patriotism
which urged him to resist the foreign rulers, the Muhammadans.
H
1
358
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
t
Among his equipments and accoutrements there were three
things which I must select for mention. The first was what
is called the tiger's claw. This was an iron instrument
as near as possible like the claw of a tiger, with very sharp
points, which could be fastened inside the palm, so that a man
might have the claw inside his hand, and yet show the outside,
and nobody would suppose there was anything in it. Another
thing was his sword, which was called Bhawani, after the name
of a Hindu goddess; it really was a fine Genoa blade. The
third article was a coat of mail which he would wear generally
under a cotton dress, and in hot weather under a muslin dress;
so that he would appear to be a very mild character indeed,
though in reality underneath the cotton folds there was this
famous sword, which was to the Mahrattas what the sword of
King Arthur, "Excalibur," is in Tennyson's poetry, and inside
his hand there was the tiger's claw. I beg you particularly to
remember these three articles of equipment.
There were two persons among his attendants whom I must
mention. One was the tutor named Dadaji, an old Brahman,
with whom Sivaji was left, when Shahji, the father, went to the
wars, and the mother was carried off into captivity by the
Muhammadans. Then Sivaji and his tutor took a certain house
in the city of Poona. I must ask you to remember that house
particularly, because you will hear more of it presently.
Next, among his henchmen and attendants was a man
named Tannaji Malusra. I will only ask you to remember
Tannaji, because Malusra is merely the name of the village
which gave birth to Tannaji, as brave a man as ever adorned
the annals of the Mahratta race. Malusra is just the sort of
village to give birth to a hero. Its frowning rocks, its lofty
trees, its flowing brooks, in fact everything about it, con-
spired to fill the imagination with heroic ideas.
Such being Sivaji's education and early surroundings, I must
ask you to bear in mind that in those days this part of the
Mahratta country was in the Muhammadan kingdom of Bijapur.
CHAP. XVI.
PREDATORY POWER.
359
Now Bijapur was a magnificent city; its ruins are among
the finest in the country. It still has a dome which is the
marvel of architects, admitted to be the finest dome or cupola
ever yet constructed by any nation. Thus Bijapur was then the
Muhammadan capital. Well, Sivaji's father had a large grant
of land from the Bijapur sovereign. The father having gone to
the wars, Sivaji, who was then a young man, and his tutor were
left in charge of this property. Then Sivaji began to plunder.
FIG. 23.-TORNA; WHERE SIVAJI STORED HIS Plunder.
He would rob neighbouring villages, and thus get a little
money and valuables together, which he would store in the
fort of Torna, depicted in our illustration (23). Torna is
a highly picturesque place, built just upon the crest of the
range; in the distant background of the sketch you will see
another hill, to which I shall have to ask your attention im-
mediately; that is the hill of Rajgarh. Sivaji first stored his
plunder at Torna; and this really formed the original accumula-
tion of money with which he began his political and military
**

:
!
IT
360
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAP. XVI.
operations. But Torna was a large open hill on the top, steep
at the sides no doubt, but it had a very large and flat summit,
and therefore was not perfectly defensible against regular troops.
So, after a time, when Sivaji became more ambitious, he aban-
doned Torna and went to the neighbouring hill of Rajgarh, the
に​遊
​བ
FIG. 24.-RAJGARH; THE HILL OF THE KINGDOM.
top of which he thoroughly fortified. Rajgarh forms the subject
of our illustration (24). The summit of the hill seen in the
distance in the preceding illustration (23) is this same Rajgarh ;
you see the strongly fortified site represented in the illustra-
།

CHAP. XVI.
a noose.
POLITICAL ENTERPRISE.
361
tion (24). Now, Rajgarh means the Hill of the Kingdom.
Torna is a common local name; Sivaji gave no royal name to
that, because it was only a place for storing plunder. But as
he grew a little bolder and richer, he fortified Rajgarh, and gave
it the ominous name of the Hill of the Kingdom. It was then
that he conceived the idea of establishing a dominion. It was
about the time when he was occupying Rajgarh that Dadaji, the
tutor, became rather old and timid, and he said to Savaji, "You
are only knocking your head against a rock by attempting to
resist the Muhammadan power; you are putting your neck into
For God's sake give these things up and live quietly
on your estate. Obey your father, who is a worthy servant of
the Muhammadans in the wars, and do not think of these
ambitious things." Sivaji merely smiled and said, "I know my
own business." Dadaji afterwards became sick, and drew near
to his end; and when the shades of death began to gather about
him, and his brow became cold and clammy with the sweat of
approaching dissolution, he sent for his young master and said,
"I now see it is no good offering you advice to keep quiet.
After all, take the advice of an old man on the brink of the
grave, and fulfil your destiny! Go in at the Muhammadans;
I hate them more than you do; go in and win. Only remember,
if you win, to think of your own religion; remember your
ancestral gods; consider the Brahmans and the priests, and
cherish the Hindu religion. Drive these Muhammadans back
into Central Asia, and once more let it be India for the
Hindus."
I am not exaggerating ; some such speech, as I have
described to you, was uttered by Dadaji on his death-bed to
Sivaji; and I can hardly imagine a more fit subject for an
historical picture than this Dadaji on his death-bed giving
advice to the future hero and the coming king to fight the
battles of his country. The breath was hardly out of the body
of Dadaji when Sivaji began to fulfil that behest, and the first
thing he did was to take the fort of Sing-garh. When I say he
1
362
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
took it, I believe that he really won it by bribery, and that
he gave some of his hoarded plunder to the Muhammadan
commander, and so obtained the surrender of the hill. In those
days it was called by another local name, with which I shall
not trouble you; but Sivaji, having obtained possession of the
hill, gave it the name of Sing-garh, which means the Lion's Fort.
However, he did not mean that: he meant the Lion's Den. I
shall have a good deal more to say about Sing-garh presently.
Now I must ask you to turn to illustration 25. Sivaji, having
made up his mind to rebel against the Muhammadan power,
which was then represented by the kings of Bijapur, the then
king of Bijapur called him to account for his conduct. Sivaji,
of course, gave evasive answers. A council of war was there-
upon held at Bijapur as to what should be done. A Muham-
madan commander, named Afzal Khan, stood up before the
king of Bijapur and said, "O King, if you will give me
2000 horse and 5000 foot, with some artillery, I will go against
this mountain rat" (as Sivaji was called), "and within two
months I will bring him before your Majesty in an iron cage.”
Well, the order went forth, and Afzal Khan marched leisurely
from Bijapur towards Partabgarh, which at that time was one
of Sivaji's forts. Sivaji had moved to Partabgarh from Sing-
garh, and was there when this Bijapur expedition was launched
against him. When Afzal Khan approached the place (Partab-
garh), Sivaji sent some ambassadors in unpretending guise, and
said, “I hope you are not thinking of making war against me:
I am a very humble person: if you will only come to visit me
in my fort any morning, you will see what a quiet creature
I am, and I shall be able to give satisfactory explanations, and
show that I am, as I ever have been, a loyal subject of the king
of Bijapur." Afzal Khan thought that, after all his warlike
preparations, he was going to have a walk over; so he said to
Sivaji, "Well, the only objection I have to coming to your fort
is the character of the hills, which are very steep, and the forest,
mark you, is uncommonly thick and impervious; I do not see
CHAP. XVI.
HISTORIC FORT OF PARTABGARH.
363
how I am to get through it." Sivaji said, "Do not trouble your-
self about that; I, your slave, will cut a road through it to the
foot of Partabgarh, my humble abode." The Muhammadans
agreed to this apparently amicable proposal. The rough places
over the mountains were made smooth for them, and a very
convenient path was cut for them. When they got to the foot
of Partabgarh, a fine broad place was cleared by the Mahratta
woodsmen for the encampment of the Muhammadan army.
They were made as comfortable as possible; but remember that
they were surrounded by rocky hills and thick forests, and
inside the thickets Sivaji's marksmen lay hid in ambush.
Having got them there, Sivaji formed a plan for murdering
the Muhammadan commander and surprising his army. The
project was to induce Afzal Khan to come with a single
attendant to meet Sivaji just outside the gates of Partabgarh,
and then Sivaji would gladly hand over the keys. Sivaji said,
"I will come with just one single attendant, and I hope your
Highness will honour me by doing the same: you can easily
kill me if you like." The Khan said he would be very happy
to do as he was requested.
I must ask you to observe the configuration of Partabgarh,
as represented in our illustration (25). You see that, on
the crest of a lofty eminence, there stands a towering fortress.
Partabgarh is in the dip of the Western Ghât range. There is a
dip, then the great fort, a dip, and then the range goes on again.
The fort stands up boldly against the horizon. In the back-
ground on the left is a distant view of the Arabian Sea. I ought
to mention that from all these high points on the Western Ghats
you have a splendid view over the sea. In the morning, the
time which our illustration represents, the sea is like a pale
sea-green lake; in the afternoon it glitters radiantly towards
the declining and setting sun.
I am afraid that the drawing cannot possibly represent fully
the beauty of the scene, but you will readily see that it is
a place of consummate beauty. There it was, on this autumn
364
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
morning, in this fair scene of nature, that the desperate and
bloody deeds meditated by Sivaji were carried out. Now, in
the evening before the meeting, Sivaji's nerve failed him. I do
not quite know why, but all men of this kind are a little
superstitious, and suffer qualms of conscience, and he felt rather
uneasy about the crime he was to commit in the morning.
So he went to the little temple at the top of the hill, and asked
his mother to meet him there. He laid his misgivings, his

4
FIG. 25.-PartABGARH.
Nin
ре
forebodings, before her, and asked her in a filial way for her
maternal advice. He said, "Shall I really kill this man in
the way I have planned; and when I have killed him, shall
I really order all my men in the thickets to fire upon the
Muhammadan encampment?" And she said, "Yes; I have in
this very temple consulted the goddess Siva, the goddess of
destruction, remember, after whom you are named." She said
she had seen a vision, and the goddess had commanded her to
2
CHAP. XVI.
REVOLT BEGUN BY MURDER.
365
see that not one Muhammadan, if possible, should escape alive.
Then she said to him, "Now, my son, you act worthily according
to your mother's advice, and take my maternal blessing." Then
she solemnly gave him her benediction. Of course, after that
he felt a little more comfortable in his mind, and gave the
orders to his men.
*
I have explained to you that the Muhammadans had been
enticed to go through the thicket. They had had an encamping
ground prepared for them in the middle of the forest. In that
forest lay concealed all Sivaji's mountaineers, several thousand
of these Mahrattas. Their orders were that as soon as a signal gun
should be fired from a bastion of the fort—the forest all around
being alive with men-the Mahratta troops were to fire upon the
Muhammadan army. These orders were delivered with coolness
and precision by Sivaji after he had received the maternal bless-
ing, that is, early in the night. In the morning the Muhammadan
commander, Afzal Khan, came forth from his encampment, and
marched up to the rendezvous, the place marked by a greystone
tomb in the foreground of our illustration, where he was murdered,
as I shall explain to you. Sivaji also advanced from the fort.
The gateway from which he issued is marked on the illustration
as a little dark spot in the wall. As he came, the Muhammadan
commander and his followers said," What a mild, humble-looking
person he appears." He advanced with a sort of hesitating step, as
if he were a timid man. With him there was only one man, but
that one man was the redoubtable Tannaji whom I have already
mentioned. As he came on, the Muhammadan commander ad-
vanced to meet him with a single attendant as agreed; and in that
sort of patronising way which Muhammadans of rank have, held
out his arms to embrace him, with, "Hot morning, Sivaji," &c.
Then Sivaji bowed his head humbly beneath the Muhammadan's
arms, and drawing close up to his body, with the tiger's claw
already described, he dug into his victim's bowels: then out
came the dagger, followed by one desperate stab: then out
* See the graphic work by Meadows Taylor, entitled 'Tara.'
366
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
flashed the sword, that Excalibur I have previously described. I
need not say that the Muhammadan and his single follower
were very soon despatched by Sivaji and Tannaji, especially as
Sivaji had underneath his muslin garment the coat of mail
already mentioned. Thus was the deed done. That very tiger's
claw, that very sword, that very coat of mail, that very muslin
dress, are to this day religiously preserved from generation to
generation by the Mahrattas, and it is unpleasant to see the
veneration with which they are regarded. I assure you, never
were the sword, or the hat, or any of the relics of Napoleon or
Frederick the Great of Prussia venerated so much by the French
or Germans, as these relics of Sivaji are to this day by the
Mahrattas. Thus fell the Muhammadan commander:
He was
buried where he fell, and the Mahrattas had the grace afterwards
to build a tomb over his remains the 'tomb which you see
sketched in the foreground of the illustration. As the Khan fell,
the signal gun was fired from the bastion; then of course the
Muhammadan army, who were at breakfast in the encampment,
were fired upon from all sides by the Mahrattas concealed in the
forest; and you can imagine the destruction, the struggle, the
misery, the flight, which ensued. From that moment I need
not say that Sivaji became an open rebel against the Muham-
madans; and this event has always since been remembered in
Indian history as the first blow struck by the Hindu nationality
against the Muhammadan conquerors.
The next point in Sivaji's history to which I have to ask
your attention is connected with the illustration (26), which
is that of the fortress of Vishalgarh. The sketch which served
as the original to the illustration, was taken in the height
of the rains, just after one of the violent showers that caused
the brilliant cascades to go tumbling over the precipices.
Now, bear in mind that Sivaji had become, by the event I
have just described, an open rebel against the Muhammadan
power. Well, the first vengeance of the Muhammadans fell
upon Sivaji's father, Shaji, already mentioned, who was quite

FIG. 26.-VISHALGARH.
368
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
guiltless of the crimes which his son had committed. He
greatly regretted all that had happened, and made every
possible apology, but the Muhammadans would not listen to
such excuses, and ordered him to be seized. It was rather
difficult to seize a man of that kind; however, the seizure was
arranged through the agency of another Mahratta named Baji,
who had an estate at a place called Madhol. Baji showed a
friendly demeanour towards Shahji, and asked him to an enter-
tainment at Madhol. Shahji came, suspecting nothing, and was
seized, and sent to the Muhammadans at Bijapur. He was con-
fined in a dungeon, and threatened with all manner of dreadful
things-that his eyes should be put out, that his tongue should
be cut to pieces, and similar inflictions, after the fashion of those
days. However, the dutiful son, Sivaji, gave up some of his
hoarded plunder, and bribed the Muhammadan gaolers. So
Shahji got out of gaol, and fled, but in flying he sent a message
to Sivaji, and said, “Sivaji, if you love me, pay that fellow
(Baji) out." Sivaji replied, “Never fear, sir; you will visit me
some day, and then you shall hear all that I have done to him.”
Soon after this the Bijapur king determined to send another
expedition, this time against Vishalgarh, where Sivaji then was,
hoping that it would be more successful than the last against
Partabgarh. The command of this expedition was given to this
very Baji. The troops were to move out towards Vishalgarh,
and Baji, naturally enough, went on ahead of his army, and
thought he would spend two or three pleasant days at home at
Madhol. Intimation of this came to Sivaji at Vishalgarh, and
he then determined upon one of his daring marches.
Madhol is just 100 miles from Vishalgarh, and although a
very uninteresting town, is strongly fortified, with a high wall of
black stone all round it, I should say about 60 feet high. You
will observe, marked with a dotted line on the map, the road to
it from Vishalgarh, which indicates the straight manner in which
Sivaji marched to it. For really in these rushes and dashes Sivaji
flew very like an arrow from a bow, or a shot from a cannon.
!
CHAP. XVI.
.
SIVAJI'S SWOOP.
369
One fine morning Sivaji and a picked body of horse and foot
appeared before Madhol, quite surprising the Madhol people.
How Sivaji got over the 100 miles in so few hours it is diffi-
cult to say; but certainly he appeared early in the morning,
as I well ascertained on the spot from the Madhol people,
for the tradition of course still survives. He himself started
not later than the previous afternoon from Vishalgarh. I
suppose the only way in which he could have got there was
this, that he ordered men to assemble in the wild country at
different points beforehand (on a certain night in the dark half
of the moon, as their expression was). They would go unob-
served and concentrate at different places on the line of march,
Sivaji remaining at Vishalgarh, and all the world supposing that
he was up in his mountain fastness. He would then start in
the afternoon, ride rapidly say for 50 miles, get to the rendezvous
at 8 o'clock, and would accomplish the rest of the march during
the night; and so he appeared before Madhol in the grey of the
morning. His men were excellently good hands at escalading;
they thoroughly understood rope ladders and grappling irons,
and so they climbed the wall in no time; and the Muhamma-
dans in Madhol were completely surprised. In a few moments
Baji's palace was surrounded; he himself was dragged out,
and brought before Sivaji. Out flashed the Excalibur, and down
dropped Baji's head upon the ground. There was no more
bloodshed, but then began one of the most relentless and ruth-
less plunderings of which the Mahratṭas were ever guilty, and
which is remembered vividly by the Madhol people to this
very day, as I can personally attest. In about two hours the
whole of Madhol was cleaned out absolutely, nothing remained.
Sivaji went off with the jewels, the coins, and the fine articles,
all fastened on to the saddle-bows of his cavalry; and he
returned straight to Vishalgarh.
This was a very unpropitious beginning for the Muhammadan
expedition against him, and I need not trouble you with the
military particulars of all that followed. However, Vishalgarh
2 B
370
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
was not taken, and Sivaji remained entirely master of the
situation.
I have mentioned that Shahji, the father, obtained his liberty,
and somehow in a short time managed to make peace with the
Bijapur king, and to visit his son at Vishalgarh. He had not
seen this redoubtable, this tremendous son of his, since he left
him almost an infant in his mother's arms at Junnar, so of
course the meeting between the son and the father was rather
touching. Sivaji, this truculent fellow, came forward to meet
his father. The father was riding upon a fine horse; the son
would not ride; far from it. He went forth on foot several
miles from the fort to meet his parent. He would not sit down
in the paternal presence, and he humbly related to his father
how he had fulfilled his behest, and had with his own hand cut
off that treacherous Baji's head, and scrupulously plundered
Madhol to the last farthing. He hoped, as he had received his
mother's blessing last time, to receive his father's blessing this
time, which I need not say was abundantly given him. But the
father being of a practical turn of mind, criticised Vishalgarh,
and said it was not a very advantageous position; he thought
that it might be commanded and taken by the Muhammadans,
and suggested to Sivaji that he should establish his fortress in a
better situation, indicating Raigarh, which you will see on the
map. So Raigarh afterwards became the seat of the Mahratta
kingdom. From that place went forth decrees which had validity
right over the continent, and the establishment of Raigarh was
due to the sagacious father who visited his son at Vishalgarh
after this Madhol affair.
I must now call your attention to illustration No. 27, which
represents Sing-garh, already mentioned. You will see the city
of Poona in the middle distance, with the river in the fore-
ground. From this river are drawn many fine canals for
irrigation, involving geographical problems with which I have
not time to trouble you. In the distance stands up like a rigid
square, Sing-garh, or the Lion's Den.
CHAP. XVI.
LION'S DEN FORT.
371
At the time which the narrative has now reached, the
Bijapur kingdom had been subdued by another Muhammadan
power, which was no other than the Mogul Empire. Therefore
to the king of Bijapur had succeeded the Great Mogul, and the
Great Mogul had a viceroy at Poona. The city of Poona was
then regarded like Peshawur in our days, as an important fron-
tier position. The Western Ghats were to the Moguls what
the North-Western frontier is now to the British, and Poona
was to them just what Peshawur is to us; so they had a
Muhammadan viceroy at Poona supported by a force. Sivaji, on

FIG. 27.-DISTANT VIEW OF SING-Garh.
the other hand, was at Sing-garh. The viceroy considered that
Sivaji was a very dangerous neighbour, dreaded that something
awkward would happen, and took particular precautions that
no armed men should be admitted into Poona, which happened
to be at that time an open city. Sivaji nevertheless determined
to do a daring deed which should flagrantly insult the Muham-
madan viceroy. His idea always was to do an audacious
thing which should have a great moral effect on the whole
of the country round, and in that way to flout the Muham-
madan authority. He acted as follows. As he could not get
በዞ
2 B 2
372
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
into the city armed, he managed to go apparently unarmed, with
some thirty followers. He, and they of course, had arms con-
cealed under their cotton dresses. He joined a marriage proces-
sion which was entering the city, and thus contrived in disguise
to enter unobserved with the crowd. The bold project was facili-
tated by the fact that the Muhammadan viceroy had taken up
his viceregal quarters in the very house in which Sivaji had been
brought up, under his tutor Dadaji. I have already spoken to
you about that house; and I told you that a tale would hang on
it. In consequence of this, Sivaji thoroughly understood the
ins and outs of the dwelling. Mixing with the crowd he and
his thirty followers entered the city and remained quiet till
the dead of the night. He knew a particular way through the
kitchen window, whereby an entrance for armed men could
be found; and thus got within the dwelling. The viceroy, of
course, according to the Muhammadan fashion, was sleeping
with his staff on one side of the house, and the ladies of
the family were sleeping on the other side; so, after Sivaji
and his men had entered by the window, they had to pass not
far from the ladies' apartments, and one of the ladies heard the
sound of men moving. She instantly shrieked. The shriek
reached the viceroy and his staff; but before they could do
much, Sivaji and his men made a rush and were on them. The
viceroy was in such a hurry that he was jumping out of the
window; and as he had got his right hand on the window-sill
letting himself down, Sivaji came up with the Excalibur and
just cut off his fore and middle fingers. The viceroy naturally
let himself down extremely quick after that; and immediately
afterwards there was a row all over the city. Sivaji and his
men had decamped in the darkness and confusion; and, arrived
at the outside of the town, gave notice to others of their party,
who had planted beacons from point to point on the way to
Sing-garh, to pass on the signals for illuminating the peak of that
hill-fort. Sing-garh is a very conspicuous object from Poona,
and thus the inhabitants learnt at midnight that the redoubtable
*
.
2004
CHAP. XVI.
SIVAJI'S EXPLOIT AT POONA.
373
Sivaji had found his way into the viceregal palace, had cut off
the viceroy's fingers, and was illuminating Singgarh in honour
of the event. This was a thoroughly insulting mode of pro-
cedure, recounted in after times with glee by the Mahrattas.
The next morning the viceroy sent his Afghan cavalry against
Sing-garh. You may imagine the sort of swaggering way, the
proud, bombastic manner, in which the Muhammadan cavalry
would behave, stroking their beards, twirling their moustachios,
and saying they would soon bring Sivaji back in chains, and so
forth. The cavalry went, and approached Sing-garh. Of course
there was a puff of smoke from the top; then a cannon-ball in
the middle of a squadron of horse. Presently from behind a
rock, or tree, a little spit from a Mahratta musket, and a Muham-
madan saddle was emptied. In a very short time the cavalry
came back utterly crestfallen, with half their number killed or
wounded, and the Muhammadan viceroy the next day sent in
his resignation to the Emperor. He could not possibly have
signed it, because he had lost two fingers of his right hand.
This was an insolent exploit, which is to this day freshly remem-
bered by the Mahrattas.
I shall have to revert to Sing-garh directly; meanwhile I
ask your attention to Bowragarh, depicted in illustration 28.
Bowragarh is one of the grand situations on the crest of the
Western Ghats, from which you have a distant view of the setting
sun over the sea. It was in that neighbourhood that some of
Sivaji's piratical exploits by sea were performed. He was great
not only on land but at sea. He used to plunder all the rich
flourishing seaports on the coast, and carry the plunder, as usual,
to the hills. On one of these occasions, while he was sailing with
all his plunder from one part of the coast to the other, he was
overtaken first by contrary winds, and then by a severe storm,
and he became extremely indisposed. It is an extraordinary
thing, but after this, for a time, he quite lost his nerve.
The Muhammadan Emperor having heard of the manner in
which his viceroy had been insulted, sent a large force of Rajpût
f
I
374
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
!
soldiers against Sivaji. There again Sivaji was a little super-
stitious. He had a kind of fear of these Rajpûts as being high-
born warriors. The Mahrattas are low-caste men themselves,
and they have a veneration for upper-caste Hindus. He was
rather afraid of the redoubtable Rajpût soldiery, and was very
much indisposed by the storm at sea. So he lost his resolution
and determined to surrender a number of his forts. Among

ނކ
FIG. 28.-Bowragarh.
others he surrendered this very fort of Sing-garh, after which he
went up to pay his respects to the Muhammadan Emperor at
Delhi. The Emperor detained him on various excuses, and then
subjected him to confinement. However, he soon escaped. He
used to have capacious baskets of fruit and flowers sent to and
from his place every day, and one fine morning he put himself
into a basket and was carried out under the belief that the
basket contained nothing but fruit and flowers. Outside
the city he met the redoubtable Tannaji. Thence he and
Tannaji escaped in disguise, and actually walked all the way,
** *
CHAP. XVI.
RECAPTURE OF LION'S DEN.
375
hundreds of miles, from Delhi to Poona. After that they
declared that they would rebel openly and for ever against the
Great Mogul.
Recollect that Sivaji had just before given up Sing-garh, but
he was still at Raigarh, already mentioned. His aim now was
to retake Sing-garh, and the retaking of that place was entrusted
to Tannaji. It was planned that Tannaji should escalade
Sing-garh with a thousand men. If he succeeded in taking the
place, he was to light the thatch of a storehouse which was on
the top of the fort. This burning thatch making a flame would
be seen from Raigarh, and Sivaji would know that Sing-garh
was taken.
Tannaji, with his thousand picked men, advanced against
Sing-garh. When I say "advanced," I mean that what they
really did was this: the men in the different villages got orders
to rendezvous at the foot of the Sing-garh precipice. I know
that precipice well, and so do many other Englishmen, and
it truly is an awful place. For hundreds of feet this black trap
rock forms an absolute wall as straight as possible. Well,
Tannaji had the ladders of rope and the grappling irons with
him, and with these rope ladders up they went. There are
many military men present, and I put it to them whether that
is not a very daring, dashing thing to do, and whether it could
be surpassed by any troops in the world. Alexander and his
Macedonians used to do something of the same kind.
In this way Tannaji and 300 out of the thousand ascended
the rock. Why he took only 300 men with him I never was
able to ascertain; but it was a somewhat unfortunate arrange-
ment. At any rate, he left 700 men under the command of his
brother as a reserve, with instructions to move up if they
should have an impression that anything was going wrong.
So Tannaji and his 300 men reached the top in the dead of the
night to surprise the Rajpût garrison. When they had climbed
to the top they were quite unobserved, but somehow one of the
soldiers of the garrison suspected he heard something, so he
376
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
peered about, and came quite close to them. A deadly arrow
answered his inquiry, but as he fell dying he uttered a cry. This
cry alarmed the sentinels, and in an instant a blue light was
lighted, which displayed Tannaji and his 300 men. Of course
there was nothing for it but to go in at the fast-mustering
garrison. Tannaji charged them, and was immediately killed.
Seeing him killed, the men lost heart, and tried to get back to the
ladder and down the precipice again; but the sound of firing had
alarmed the reserve, and every one of them had come up also.
They met the 300 retreating. Then Tannaji's brother showed
himself a worthy brother. He made a speech to the men, which
is not a bad specimen of Mahratta military eloquence, and I will
endeavour to repeat it to you. He said to them: "Come, men,
you must go on, for I tell you I have cut the ladders; there is a
precipice behind you, and there is the enemy in front; moreover,
there is among the enemy the dead body of your common
father." I should mention that it is usual for Mahratta
troops to style their commander their father. He added:
"If you do not rescue the body it will be buried by low-caste
men."
This was an argument which was irresistible to Mahrattas;
they rushed on with their war-cry and overcame the Rajpûts.
Some of the Rajpûts were killed, but the greater part of them
jumped over the precipice, and there they lay, mangled bodies,
at the bottom. The signal fire was then lighted with the
thatch of the store-house, and Sivaji at Raigarh knew that
Sing-garh was retaken.
The authentic tradition is that when, next day, Sivaji heard
that this fort had been recaptured at the price of the life of
Tannaji, he burst into passionate wailing and lamentation.
I cannot possibly attempt to reproduce it, but you can imagine
the sort of language which a man of that fiery passion and
energy would use. He said something of this kind: "The lion's
den is taken, but the lion is killed; what have I gained by
winning a fort and losing such a man as Tannaji?" Such was
CHAP. XVI.
SIVAJI'S FORTRESS PALACE.
377
the end of the life of the bravest and most faithful of Sivaji's
dependants.
This completes the story of the adventures of Sivaji and
his followers. I hope I have made it clear how the rugged
nature of the country fostered this daring, this gallant spirit
both in master and in men.
The next illustration (29) represents Raigarh. By the map
you will perceive that this place is situated on the western or

FIG. 29.-RAIGARH.
Konkan side of the mountain range. The enemy of the
Mahrattas was on the east; therefore, for a Mahratta fastness it
was a great thing to be on the west of the range, for this military
reason, that this arrangement placed the crest of the range,
the high peaks, and the rugged mountain roads, between the
Mahrattas and the enemy. Therefore Raigarh, according to the
sagacious suggestion of Sivaji's father, was occupied as the last
and the greatest of the Mahratta strongholds. There it was that
378
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
Sivaji established himself finally as sovereign of Western India.
You will observe the way in which the place is arranged. In
the foreground there is a little lake or tank on the summit of
the mountain. This sort of lake is constructed in this wise.
You first try to hit upon some point where there is likely to be
a spring, some point on the top of the mountain, but which has
some higher peaks near it; consequently the water collecting
from the higher ground will form a spring. Then over this
spring you make a quarry, whereby you obtain the stone for
your palace or your fort, and with the same operation you
excavate an artificial tank to secure your water supply. The
ascent of Raigarh is exceedingly steep. Of all the ascents I
have ever made in India, the Himalaya included, that of
Raigarh is the worst. It is not only that the side is very steep,
but the heat is most trying. If you ascend any other peak on the
crest of the range, you do so from a tolerably good climate, but
in ascending Raigarh you have to start in the heat from the
level of the sea.
It was here that Sivaji established his dominion and reigned.
Here, too, he died at the early age of fifty-three, after having
rebelled, plundered, fought, and ruled for about thirty years.
In this fort he collected the wealth and riches of half India ;
treasures in Spanish dollars, sequins, and the coins from all
southern Europe and all Asia. Here, after his early death, he
was succeeded by a son, who committed horrible crimes, and
who died an equally horrible death.
On the top of Raigarh is the tomb of Sivaji. You may be
aware that the Mahrattas do not bury their dead; no Hindus
do; they practise cremation, and the ashes are buried in the
tomb. I myself on one November day carefully examined
the tomb of Sivaji. You may think I am romancing, but those
who know that part of the Deccan will bear me out when I say
that, at that season of the year, there is a particular blue flower
-I have forgotten its name-of the most tender and delicate
beauty; it grows on all parts of those hills where the soil
CHAP. XVI.
SIVAJI'S GENIUS.
379
is rich. I suppose they put rich soil over the tomb of Sivaji,
for when I was there it was one mass of these tender blue
flowers. A more poetic contrast you can hardly imagine, than
that a bloom of such exquisite delicacy should be covering
the grave of a man so desperate and violent, yet so great and
statesmanlike, as Sivaji. Thus the hero was buried on the
summit of his hill, commanding a view of the scenery fraught
with associations of his deeds, and within sight of the Torna
and Rajgarh, where his dominion was founded, and which he
loved so well.
Sivaji was not only a bold man, such as I have described
him, but he had peculiarly the power of arousing enthusiasm
in others, and he was the man who raised an abject, subject race
from nothingness up to empire. If it had not been for him
there might have been no Mahratta uprising; but that uprising,
on the other hand, would never have been possible if it had not
been for the rugged and mountainous country which forms the
subject of our geographical lesson this evening. But, besides
that, Sivaji was a great administrator: he founded many in-
stitutions which survived for more than one century, during
which his successors enjoyed imperial power; and the official
titles of all his state departments and departmental officers
are preserved among the Mahrattas to this day. So much for
Sivaji and his biography.
I will ask your attention now, in conclusion, to the two
pictorial illustrations numbered 30 and 31. The first of these
(30) represents the scenery of Mahabaleshwar (Arthur's Seat),
the summer residence of the Bombay Government and its prin-
cipal officers, and of the ladies and gentlemen who form the
society of Western India. It is close to Partabgarh, which I have
already described, in the midst of the Mahratta country; and
now, where all these desperate deeds were committed of old,
there are picnics, while Badminton, lawn tennis, and the like
are being played. You will see that along the rocks there are
traces of the indurated lava lying layer upon layer, one over
لمز
380
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
the other. The whole is, as it were, a series of regular horizontal
stripes from end to end. In the middle distance there stands
up the very Partabgarh which I have been describing to you
this evening, and in the distance, as usual, there is the Arabian
Sea.

FIG. 30.-ARTHUR'S SEAT AT MAHABALESHWAR.
The
The last illustration (31) represents the Bhore Ghat incline,
the view being taken at the height of the rainy season.
Western Ghats, rising straight up from the sea-coast, catch
all the clouds and vapour as they rise; which clouds are
condensed into torrents, buckets, sheets of rain; and thus after
CHAP. XVI. RAILWAYS THROUGH MOUNTAINS.
381
one of these rain-storms the whole mountain-side is covered
with waterfalls and cascades. It is through or along the
mountain-side that the railway runs with magnificent engineering
works; and this brings me, in conclusion, to the great difference
there is now in the state of things in these Western Ghats as
compared with Mahratta times.
I have shown you how difficult, in a military point of view,
was the topography of these mountains. Now the British are
FIG. 31. THE BHORE GHAT INCLINE,
penetrating them in every direction with roads and railways.
First of all, consider the roads. Where before there was a
rugged mountain pass which a mule or a pony or a single
pack-bullock could just laboriously ascend or descend, there is
now a regularly engineered road with complete gradients, levels,
zigzags, and the like, up which wheeled carriages pass by
hundreds and thousands during every traffic season, and by
which also artillery can move. Thus you see what a great
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382
CHAP. XVI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
political engine one of these roads is. Consider for a moment
the number of roads the British Government has made in these
hills. I will enumerate them to you as they are marked on
the map. First, there is the Thall Ghat Road; next the road
opposite Junnar; the Bhore Ghat Road; the road opposite
Rajgarh; the road opposite Partabgarh; those opposite Vishal-
garh, Goa, and Karwar; so that you see we have pierced these
mountain fastnesses by what may be called the resources of
civilisation. Besides these, we have two lines of railway, one
running from Bombay by the Thall Ghat towards northern
India, the other from Bombay by the Bhore Ghat towards
Poona and the Madras coast; besides which a third, under the
auspices of a British Company, with the assistance of the
Portuguese Government, is about to be made from the coast at
Goa eastward. In this way the arrangements of the British
Government are very different from, and I hope vastly superior
to, those of its Mahratta or Muhammadan predecessors.
Lastly, the spirit which I have been describing to you, as
prevailing among the Mahrattas in the Muhammadan times,
survives to this very hour. These qualities depend upon the
topography and the physical surroundings. To this day the
Mahrattas are within sight of these everlasting hills, and
they have the same spirit and courage as their forefathers.
You say, "Have we had any recent proofs of this?" Well,
we had some very unpleasant proofs so recently as 1879;
for, would you believe it, owing possibly to the excitement
caused by the war in Turkey, possibly also-one cannot tell
exactly-in consequence of the occurrences in Africa, a certain
amount of excitement arose among the Mahrattas: plundering
began exactly in the same way; though we had an army and
all our modern resources at Poona, nevertheless gang-robbery
set in; men of rank were murdered, large quantities of property
were carried off right up to these very hill fastnesses which I
have been describing to you, and I assure you it took all we
knew in the Bombay Government to put that affair down in
CHAP. XVI.
POLITICAL LESSON.
383
the course of two or three months. Some leaders came forward;
regular bandits were organised. One of these actually called
himself Sivaji the Second.
On the other hand, these Mahrattas are good men in their
way. You cannot altogether blame them for asserting their
nationality now and then; but as long as you manage them
well and assert your physical and moral superiority, they are
thoroughly brave fellows, and will do your work for you. We
must remember that the races who once furnished the soldiers
of Sivaji, and who used to be called the Mawulis of the Deccan
and the Hetkaris of the Konkan, are now wearing the British
uniform, and that the descendants of Sivaji's soldiers have
carried the British standard, not only in India and Afgha-
nistan, but also in Persia, in Abyssinia, in China, and in the
Mediterranean.
In conclusion, let me say that I want you to carry home not
only a vivid idea of this beautiful scenery, but a geographical,
a political, and an historical lesson. The lesson is that human
character is greatly formed by physical surroundings; that so
long as we choose to hold empire over such a country as that of
Western India, we must be vigilant, and must figuratively, as
well as actually, keep our powder dry; that if we are vigilant
our empire is safe, and that if we are neglectful it is in danger.
For depend upon it, if any serious blow were to be struck at our
power by sea or land in any part of the world, excitement would
once more arise among these very Mahrattas. Therefore, gentle-
men, I hope, as members of the Royal Geographical Society, you
will realise this lesson, that geography has its noblest function
in describing the theatres of human action, and that he who
would understand history aright must have a sound basis of
geographical knowledge.
384
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER XVII.
PERSONAL TRAITS OF MAHRATTA BRAHMAN PRINCES.
[Paper read before the Royal Historical Society, in London,
June 1883.]
Death of Sivaji, the founder of Mahratta power His son Sambhaji comes
to a tragic end-- Adventures of the next king, Raja Ram— Degene-
racy of his successor Shao- Origin of the Pêshwas as hereditary Prime
Ministers The Mahratta confederation Character of the Pêshwas
as Brahman sovereigns Vishwanath the first Pêshwa - His suc-
cessor Baji Rao I. the Brave-Third Pêshwa, Balaji the Great - Next
Pêshwa, Madhu Rao the Good - Succeeded by Naraen Rao, who was
murdered while young-Raghunath, the uncle, disputes the succes-
sion — British interference in Mahratta politics Madhu Rao Naraen
next Pêshwa-Baji Rao II. the Bad Last of the Pêshwas Great-
ness of the Pêshwa dynasty Conduct of Brahman sovereigns in the
diplomatic, the military, the civil, and the ceremonial branches of their
administration.
THE essay which I am about to read should be taken as a con-
tinuation of a speech delivered by me before the Royal Geogra-
phical Society in February, 1882, regarding the "birthplace and
cradle of Mahratta power." The subject of the speech was
in a great degree geographical, and the intention was to show
how history is affected by geography. The subject of this essay
is an analysis of human character as exhibited in vast spheres of
action. Nevertheless, for a due understanding of the men it is
necessary to bear the geography in mind, for the significance of
the events cannot be apprehended without a general idea of the
physical surroundings.
The characters now to be summoned before you in historic
CHAP. XVII.
SIVAJI'S BAD SUCCESSORS.
385
order were once the ruling spirits of the Mahratta dominion.
The origin of that dominion was in all respects strange, and in
some respects romantic. The organisation, thus established,
ultimately spread all over India, which then probably comprised,
as it certainly now comprises, one-seventh of the human race.
The importance of the subject should induce us to observe the
men who were the instruments of such national achievements
as these.
The life of Sivaji, the founder of Mahratta dominion, has been
set forth in the speech. This address refers to those who came
after him, inheriting his idea, preserving its power, and extending
its effect for weal or woe, but, alas, more for evil than for good.
Just two hundred years ago, that is in the spring of 1680,
Sivaji died in his fortress-palace at Raigarh. As already de-
scribed, he had run the most successful career ever displayed by
a Hindu in war and politics within the time of authentic
history. The ultimate inheritors of his power were equally
successful; but they, though men of his nation, did not belong
to his lineage, nor even to his caste. The successors of his line
and race mounted his throne only to prove their degeneracy.
Of these lineal successors the first, Sambhaji, began and
ended his reign under circumstances indeed awful. Immediately
after being installed in royal authority at Raigarh, he called his
widowed stepmother before him, loaded her with insults, and
ordered her to death by starvation in a dark dungeon. He
caused one of his father's trusty lieutenants to be flung from
the precipices of Raigarh, and another to be tied to the feet of
an elephant. These horrible executions were even exceeded in
horror by the end which befell himself. After leading his
troops in the wars then pending with the Moguls and the Portu-
guese, after wielding his father's famous sword in battle at one
time, and at another time pursuing his foes with cavalry into an
estuary till his horse swam in the rising tide-he succumbed to
intemperance. One evening, while drunk with ardent liquor, he
was surprised and seized by a party of Moguls in the garden of
2 c
386
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
his summer-house at the foot of the Western Ghât Mountains.
By the irony of fate he was dragged up the rugged roadways
and along the undulating plains, which were the very scenes
of his mighty father's exploits, till he reached the camp of the
Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb. The enforced sobriety of this
melancholy march settled his resolve to die with words on his
lips of rage against his captors. When offered mercy by the
emperor, he refused in terms of studied insultas coming
from a Hindu captive to a Muhammadan conqueror—and was
straightway led forth to have his eyes seared with red-hot iron,
and his tongue cut out.
The next or second successor was Raja Ram, also a son of
Sivaji. His heritage in Western India was overrun by the
Moguls, and he had to fly to Southern India in disguise, accom-
panied by a little party of followers, whose names are famed in
Mahratta history, and who braved questioning by torture in
order to screen him in a hair-breadth escape when suspicion of
his rank had been aroused by the fact of his feet being washed
by a servant. Arrived in Southern India, he set up a phantom
court within a fortress there. Beleaguered by the Mogul troops,
he again escaped, passing through their very lines at night, and
took the field at the head of a Mahratta army. But he died at
an early age from the rupture of a bloodvessel, caused by over-
exertion on horseback during a protracted march-leaving a
memory stained by one crime only. For he procured, on the
lonely bank of a hill-stream, the assassination of Santoji, one
of his staunchest followers, who was the most dashing officer
that ever commanded that Mahratta cavalry which next, after
the Mongol cavalry, was the most wonderful known in the
annals of war.
Thus the immediate successors of Sivaji led lives both rough
and short. The third, Shao or Sahû, passed through a long life
of pampered idiotcy, having failed to inherit either the genius of
his grandfather or the brute courage of his father. As the infant
son of Sambhaji, he was after his father's fall, carried off to the
Mogul camp. Having tragically executed the father, the Mogul
CHAP. XVII.
ORIGIN OF THE PESHWAS.
387
emperor was kind to the child in a peculiar manner, causing
him to be nurtured in the companionship of slaves, and under
the enervating influences of the seraglio. During the changeful
politics of that day Shao was released, and ascended the Mahratta
throne as a feudatory of the Moguls, whom his grandfather had
spent a lifetime in defying. He reigned a fainéant, as a puppet
of those about him, and was afflicted by an hallucination
respecting a faithful dog that had saved his life in a tiger-hunt.
He would seat the animal on the throne beside him, place his
own turban on its head, sit bare-headed in its presence, and
have it carried with pomp in a sedan-chair. During his lucid
intervals, however, he emitted sparks of a strange wit. Among
his witticisms there was one which became historic, and bore a
marvellous significance. He once said that the Mahrattas had
reconquered India from the Muhammadans, and handed it over
to the Brahmans. This saying of his is the key to the main
portion of the address which I am now delivering.
During Shao's reign, the ministry led the armies, conducted
the diplomacy, administered the provinces, distributed the
rewards. The head of the ministry was the Pêshwa, one of the
several functionaries instituted by Sivaji himself. The word
pêshwa is of Persian origin, and signifies "the foremost”: in
Mahratta politics it is equivalent to prime minister or premier.
The Pêshwaship, or premiership, became hereditary, and lasted
for five eventful generations. The Mahratta kingdom founded by
Sivaji in Western India was not the only one. Several other
kingdoms were subsequently founded by Mahratta chiefs. These
chiefs combined in one confederation under the Pêshwa as
hereditary minister of Sivaji's kingdom. Thus the Pêshwa
administered directly that particular kingdom, and directed the
federal affairs of the confederated Mahratta kingdoms, which in
their totality bore the general name of the Mahratta Empire.
During the wars which led to the establishment of the British
Empire, the negotiations were conducted with the Pêshwa. Thus
it was the Pêshwa, as the representative Mahratta, with whom
2c2
388
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Warren Hastings or the Marquis Wellesley contended in the
Cabinet, and Lake or Arthur Wellesley in the field, while the
Mahratta sovereigns of Sivaji's line were guarded in a palace-
fortress as the shadows of a great name. But such was the
respect paid to hereditary status, even in an age of violence,
that each Pêshwa on his accession had to receive investiture
from the titular king descended from Sivaji.
Now, while the Mahratta chiefs were men of a humble and
unlettered caste, the Pêshwas were Brahmans of the highest and
most cultured caste. The Pêshwa family sprang from a little
village, which may still be seen nestling near the base of the
Ghât mountains in the littoral tract known as the Konkan.
This family founded and preserved for more than one hundred
years a dynasty, which presided over the fitful fortunes of India,
and of one among the most populous empires in the globe. This
then was a Brahman dynasty, and as such was perhaps unique
in the diversified history of India, almost all, if not absolutely
all, other dynasties having belonged to lesser castes or races.
Consequently the individuality, the character, the idiosyncrasy
of these persons--who were quite different from all other Indian
sovereigns, and who also became bound up with the fortunes of
British dominion-must have a peculiar interest for English
students. I proceed then to sketch the characteristic traits of
the several Pêshwas. As there were seven of them in succession,
the portraiture of each one must be brief. In Indian history
Brahmans appear as men of letters in the council-chamber, as
financiers or administrators; but though potential factors, even
arbiters, in politics, they are generally found to be wire-pullers
exercising covert authority. In this crucial instance of the
Mahratta Empire, they are seen to be the ostensible leaders
everywhere, whether indoors or out of doors, and to be the
possessors of overt responsibility. In this exalted capacity,
then, what manner of men did they prove themselves to be?
That is the question to be answered in the following review.
Irrespective of early Pêshwas, who were only ministers, the
CHAP. XVII.
VISHWANATH, FIRST PESHWA.
389
founder of the hereditary Pêshwaship was Balaji Vishwanath,
who was appointed Pêshwa in 1714, and whom, to prevent con-
fusion of names, I shall call Vishwanath. He was more like a
typical Brahman than any of his successors. He had a calm,
comprehensive, and commanding intellect, an imaginative and
aspiring disposition, an aptitude for ruling rude natures by moral
force, a genius for diplomatic combinations, a mastery of finance.
But having an over-refined physique and delicate health, he
shrank from contact with the violence of those scenes in which
his imperial ambition constrained him to mix. Among other
defects, his horsemanship was timid and awkward, and that was
a real misfortune in the Mahratta dominions. Nevertheless his
political destiny propelled him into affairs wherein his misery
must have been acute. He had a sharp brush with the pirates
on the coast near Bombay. Once in the uplands of the Deccan
he was captured, and subjected to the Mahratta discipline of a
horse's nose-bag, full of glowing ashes or of hot pepper, being
fastened over his nose and mouth. Once he eluded capture by
hiding for several days in the wilderness. More than once he
was threatened with death, for which he doubtless prepared
himself with all the stoicism of his race, when a ransom oppor-
tunely arrived. At length, in 1720, he was deputed as plenipo-
tentiary to Delhi, to wring by power of menace and argument
from the Moguls a recognition of Mahratta sovereignty. During
these complex and far-reaching negotiations his sensitive nerves
were shaken by civil broils and street tumults. However, he
carried victoriously all his diplomatic points, and brought back
to Western India a political instrument which is one of the
most noteworthy state documents in Indian history, and consti-
tuted the Magna Charta of Mahratta dominion. Regarding this as
his political testament, he took leave of his countrymen, simply
saying that his health was feeble. With not more dignity did
Cardinal Wolsey lay his bones in the monastery, than did this
Brahman Pêshwa proceed towards his country seat to sink into
premature death, with the consciousness that a Hindu empire
1
CHAP. XVII.
390
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
[
had been erected over the ruins of Muhammadan power, and that
of this empire the hereditary headship had been secured for his
family.
He was succeeded in the Pêshwaship by his eldest son, Baji
Rao I., to whom he had given that manly training, the want of
which he knew to have been a grave drawback in his own
career.
Baji Rao I. then, as the second Pêshwa, entered on his
imperial duties in 1721. His position was environed with
difficulties; the new-born empire had to be consolidated and
developed; the Mahratta confederation, full of discordant
elements, had to be held together; the Muhammadans, still
retaining many parts of India, had to be kept at arm's length;
the Hindu spirit had to be sustained after the shock of a recent
invasion from Persia. For such an hour Baji Rao was quite the
man. In the first place he possessed all the special qualities of
his caste; he had an imposing aspect, an engaging manner,
a winning address, a scheming mind, and a fertility in resource.
He frequently displayed a commanding eloquence that fired
the patriotism of his countrymen during success, and raised
their drooping spirits under reverse. In that age there was no
such device as verbatim reporting, but some of his outbursts
are known to have been fine and grand. His correspondence,
too, was considerable, and fragments of it remain, enough to
show that some of his despatches must have been almost as
impressive as his speeches. Though inferior to his father in
business and finance, yet he had been a confidant in the
negotiations conducted by the first Pêshwa. He was thus able
to gather up, unravel, and hold together the scattered or com-
plicated threads. With these, which may be called indoor
qualifications, he combined perfectly the outdoor qualifications
essential to his position. As a rider he was hardly to be sur-
passed in a country where horsemanship was regarded as the
first of accomplishments. His métier was perhaps that of a
cavalry leader, but in battle he would be with the infantry also,
CHAP. XVII,
BAJI RAO I.
391
and was ready to supervise siege operations as well. Though
far from being foolhardy, he was ever forward in action and
eager to expose himself under fire if the affair was arduous.
He was inured to fatigue, and prided himself on enduring, while
supreme chief in his political or military capacity, the same
hardships as his soldiers and sharing their scanty fare. If they
had to subsist on parched grain carried in their pouches, and
munched as they rode along, he would insist on doing the
same. He was moved by an ardour for success in national
undertakings, by a patriotic confidence in the Hindu cause as
against its old enemies, the Muhammadans, and its new
rivals, the Europeans, then rising above the political horizon.
He was distinguished by a toleration the reverse of Brahmanical.
Besides his Brahman wife, he married a Muhammadan, whose
son he brought up in the mother's religion. He lived to see his
Mahrattas spread terror over the Indian continent from the
Arabian Ocean to the Bay of Bengal. Entangled incessantly
in military and political combinations, he heeded the civil
administration but little. He strove in a general way to find
administrators who would maintain the institutions of Sivaji,
but that was all. If he possessed any constructive ability in
these matters, he never allowed himself any opportunities of
showing it. His state finances were left in a straitened con-
dition. He died, as he had lived, in camp under canvas
among his men; and he is remembered to this day among
Mahrattas as the fighting Pêshwa, as the incarnation of
Hindu energy. His death, like that of his father, was pre-
mature, no doubt owing to ceaseless exposure under the
vicissitudes of a tropical climate.
His eldest son, Balaji Baji Rao, obtained the succession as
third Pêshwa in 1740. To prevent confusion, I shall abbreviate
his name to Balaji.
The accession of Balaji to power was signalized by financial
worry. The disorder of the finances has just been mentioned,
and it will be readily understood that the public creditors were
392
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
legion. Some of them resolved to subject Balaji to the famous
process of “Dharna," whereby they sat fasting at his gate,
enforcing by rigid Hindu custom a similar abstinence on him.
The scandal, as well as the inconvenience, of this procedure
being immense, the treasury pledged its credit to raise a loan
for liquidation.
Balaji's character was formed on the same lines as that
of his father, and his disposition moved in the same direc-
tion. But, though a man of skilful address, of influence in
council, and of ability in the field, he was inferior to his father
both as a soldier and as a politician. He well knew how
to utilize the talents of those about him, and some of his
greatest successes were won for him by his lieutenants. Still,
he was ever to the front, organizing or supervising, and he
saw the Mahratta power attain its zenith. It was under him
that the Mahratta cavalry, fully one hundred thousand strong,
could truly boast that they had slaked their thirst in every
stream that flowed between Cape Comorin and the Himalayas.
But he did not take, perhaps he was not capable of taking, any
steps for rendering this widely-extended dominion advantageous
to the people. He allowed Mahratta rule to continue to be
what it had been from the first, more an organization of plunder
than a system of administration. It was indeed the most
unimproving rule on a gigantic scale that has ever been seen in
India-a country which at various epochs can afford many
instances of misgovernment. Personally, he was unscrupulous,
in this respect morally inferior to his father and grandfather.
There is a strange instance of this in the manner whereby he
worked with Brahmanical persuasiveness on the superstitious
pride of a royal Hindu widow, inducing her to burn herself on
her husband's pyre, in order that she might be removed out
of his way for a political purpose. In his private life there was
a coarse wildness specially unbecoming to a high-caste man.
After a career in his estimation brilliant, the end came to him
in sadness. When the Afghans advanced from Afghanistan
CHAP. XVII.
BALAJI PESHWA.
393
upon Delhi, he sent the flower of the Mahratta army to oppose
them. At the head of that army were his trusty cousin and his
eldest son. His father, in like emergency, would himself have
gone with the troops of the first line, but he remained with the
second line encamped in Central India. While in camp in wait
for tidings, he intercepted a banker's private messenger, who
was the bearer of a letter which indicated, by metaphors
relating to jewellery, that something serious had happened
to the Mahratta host. Among other enigmatical expressions
there were these words: "Two pearls dissolved." The Pêshwa
must have asked his beating heart what this could mean. But
the enigma was soon solved sadly for him. The dissolution of
two pearls signified that his son and cousin had been slain in
battle. In due course official details reached him, telling how
the Mahrattas, having been cooped up in their entrenchment
at Panipat, near Delhi, till they were nearly starved, had
clamorously rushed forth to fight, and had been ridden down
or crushed by the superior weight of the Afghan soldiers and
the Turkoman horses. He retired to his tent literally with a
broken heart. Unable to withstand his chagrin, he marched
homewards to Poona and died in the temple he had previously
built on the margin of a lake. The fact that such a man should
thus be mortally affected by a not irretrievable disaster, may
seem strange to us in hardier climes. It is to be accounted
for by the nervous sensitiveness produced in him by tropical
conditions, and other instances of the tendency are to be found
in the Pêshwa dynasty.
He was succeeded in 1761 by his second son, Madhu Rao, as
the fourth Pêshwa, then only seventeen years old.
Now, in some of the characters just depicted there has been
found virtue of the secondary type, energy, courage, enthusiasm,
patriotism, and the like; but in none of them is to be seen
virtue of the purer, nobler, loftier quality. In the character
now to be described there is virtue of the best stamp.
Mahdu Rao, then, the young Pêshwa, was, it will be remem-
394
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
bered, brought up as a Brahman of the bluest blood. In his faith
he was sincerely devout, so much so that, when engaged in
state affairs, he sometimes caused embarrassment by retiring
for the mystic meditation prescribed by his religious rules.
While thoroughly realizing the responsibilities of his position,
he was deferential in his manner towards older men; but still he
never let them forget his sovereign rank. His temper, though
hot, was generous; if treated with any disrespect, on account of
his youth, by rough Mahratta councillors, he was prompt to
resent; but when he felt himself to be wrong, he was anxious to
make reparation. In such moments he would use the language
of friend to friend rather than that of sovereign to subject. For
a short time he was under the political tutelage of an uncle,
Raghunath, whom he knew to be clever and unprincipled.
From such leading-strings he soon emancipated himself, and, by
the time he was twenty-one years of age, he had become the real
controller of his imperial affairs, whether military, political, or
civil. He had already distinguished himself in battle, personally
rescuing his uncle from a critical situation. In trying moments
he evinced not only presence of mind, but also a proud con-
sciousness that by him an example should be set to all around.
He chose ministers with discrimination, some of whom justified
his choice by their subsequent achievements. He enforced
strictness in the service of the state, and strove to procure
honesty so far as that was procurable in a corrupt age. If an
instance occurred of bad faith in high places, he would denounce
it with a frankness surprising to those who lived in evil times.
Though obliged to keep the uncle out of positions which
afforded opportunities of doing harm, yet he showed the utmost
consideration towards his relative. When two of his officers,
during a siege, wanted to fight a duel over a quarrel, he told
them instead to scale the deadly breach, promising to decree in
favour of the disputant who should first plant the national flag
upon the rampart.
He was the first Pêshwa who bestowed assiduous care on
7
CHAP. XVII.
MADHU RAO THE GOOD.
395
the civil administration, not attempting innovations, but in-
sisting on time-honoured institutions being made practically
efficacious, instead of being treated as good in theory but
defective in practice. His care extended to the fiscal, the
judicial, and the general departments. All men in his day
knew that the head of the State was personally master of
the work, was the friend of the oppressed, and the foe of the
oppressor, was anxious to extend a charitable equity to all
alike, and was choosing agents who would carry out his
beneficent orders. His thoughtfulness and considerateness
were untiring, and were often shown in a signal or graceful
manner. For instance, he conferred benefits upon the
descendants of the cavalry leader Santoji, already mentioned as
having been assassinated by Sivaji's successor, in order that
such tardy justice as might be possible after the lapse of a
generation should be done. All the while he was engaged in
war and politics. He had to hold his own against the Nizam
of the Deccan; to drive back Hyder Ali, of Mysore, afterwards
famous in British annals; and to retrieve that disaster at
Delhi which had grieved his father to death. While greatly
superior to his predecessors as a civil ruler, he was not inferior
to them as a warlike commander. While he was present in the
field, the army of Hyder Ali, that had become the scourge of
Southern India, was more than held in check. His lieutenants
were just retrieving the Delhi disaster, when his own health,
always delicate, gave way.
Soon the good officers throughout the empire, who had been
appointed by him, were dismayed by the news that he was
sinking under incurable consumption. Anticipating death, he
adjured his uncle to protect the next Pêshwa, who would be
a boy, to avert disunion from the reigning family, and save
the empire from distraction. What reply he received we
know not; at all events, he was allowed to die in hope; we
shall soon see how cruelly that hope was belied. True
to the habits of his race, he retired to a rural village near
396
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Poona, and died quietly in the twenty-eighth year of his
age, during the autumn of 1772; and that village is to this
day regarded by the Mahrattas as one of the most classic spots
in their historic land. His childless widow, to whom he was
devotedly attached, burnt herself with his corpse, to satisfy
her grief as well as to obey the behests of her religion. This is
an instance of those who are virtuous in their joint life, and
to whom death brings no separation.
That Madhu Rao, a Hindu prince, should have done so much
in so brief a life as his, under such disadvantages and despite
such temptations-that before being cut off in the heyday of his
career, he should have evinced such capacity as this, not only in
affairs susceptible of management by youthful genius, but also
in matters ordinarily demanding the experience of riper years-
is truly astonishing. Indeed he is for ever to be revered, as the
model prince, the "flos regum," and as one of the finest cha-
racters that the Hindu nationality has ever produced.
Dying childless, he was succeeded by his brother, Narâen Rao,
as the fifth Pêshwa, then only eighteen years old.
But Narâen Rao was, a few months after his investiture and
installation, assassinated in broad daylight within his own palace
at Poona, vainly clasping his arms round the neck of a faithful
servant. The uncle, Raghunath, already mentioned, being present
at the murder, might have saved the victim, but would not;
and indeed his conduct was so dastardly as to cause suspicion
of privity to the design. The murdered youth left a widow, who
shortly afterwards gave birth to a son.
This son was, while yet an infant, proclaimed and invested as
the sixth Pêshwa, under the name of Madhu Rao Narâen. He,
like his father, scarcely reached the age of manhood. During
his minority the affairs of the Pêshwaship were piloted through
endless shoals and breakers by a helmsman of wondrous skill
and resourcefulness, the famous minister, Nana Farnavîs. But
the minister's mind was absorbed in a never-ceasing combat
with political conjunctures. Though most competent to deal
1
CHAP. XVII.
MADHU RAO NARAEN PESHWA.
397
with emergencies and to baffle intrigues, though methodically
industrious in business, he did little or nothing for the civil
administration which had been so much improved during a
recent reign, and which consequently relapsed into its pristine
inefficiency.
Meanwhile the boy Pêshwa was growing up. During boyhood
he showed signs of an ardent and generous disposition, and
his fondness for wild sports gave promise of a military capacity
like that of his ancestors. He was present at a battle between
the Mahrattas and the Muhammadans, wherein both sides
behaved feebly. The Mahrattas, however, gained the advantage,
and began to boast of victory, but he reproached them for
boasting, and lamented that the standard of merit should
have fallen so low as to justify exultation over a paltry success.
Having attained the age of twenty, he longed to act for
himself in his sovereign capacity, and chafed under the strict
though necessary control still maintained over him by his
constitutional advisers. There is an oil-picture extant, repre-
senting him seated on his cushion of state, and gazing with
expectant curiosity into the grave, careworn, and lofty coun-
tenance of the great minister. He had indeed attained his
majority according to Hindu law. But at that moment the
Mahratta Empire was menaced by perils from without and by
factions from within. The minister and his colleagues justly
decided that the handling of a complex mechanism could not
be entrusted to a wayward and impetuous youth. But the
young Pêshwa could see only with the eyes of unsatisfied
ambition. He forgot that through weary years this sagacious
minister had guarded the throne against foreign and domestic
foes, had prevented the powerful members of the Mahratta con-
federation from reducing the Pêshwa to a condition as insigni-
ficant as that of Sivaji's descendants, had frustrated the diplomacy
of the French, had resisted the rising power of the British. He
thought merely of breaking loose from the political tutorship of
his minister.
398
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
While in this mood he became affected by the super-
sensitiveness characteristic of his race. Impatient of his
powerless position, and aggrieved by a durance which was but
imaginary, he refused to appear at the ceremonies and state
functions at which his presence as Pêshwa was needed. In
seclusion he brooded desperately over his fancied wrongs till he
resolved on self-destruction. Yet he thought that before dying
he would for once appear in all his glory. So during the
autumnal festival at Poona, the greatest of the social and
religious occasions of the Mahratta year, he rode in the morning
along the line of his troops on parade. In the evening he held
a state reception with the utmost splendour. Shortly after-
wards he deliberately threw himself from the balcony of his
palace. On being lifted up with fractured limbs from the
marble floor, he bequeathed with dying breath the succession
to his favourite cousin, Baji Rao II.
This event happening in 1795 was the second tragedy which
had been enacted within the palace of the Pêshwas at Poona.
This beautiful structure saw two of its masters, father and son
in succession, die a violent death in the flower of their age. It
was a noble edifice, built of teak-wood beautifully carved. It
thus constituted one of the finest specimens of timbered archi-
tecture in India, and around it were gathered the threads of
imperial affairs and the associations of history. It survived till
the other day, when just four years ago the torch of an incen-
diary was treacherously applied to it, and the old woodwork
burnt like tinder.
Among the troubles, which beset the minority of the late
Pêshwa, was a disputed succession. The uncle, Raghunath,
was actually proclaimed Pêshwa, but was never acknowledged
as such by the Mahratta nation. He induced the British to
interfere in support of his rival claims, and to justify that
interference, obtained enough support from some of the
members of the Mahratta confederation. It was this inter-
ference on his behalf that led to the extension of British power
CHAP. XVII.
BAJI RAO II.
399
in Western India, and drove a wedge into the heart of the
Mahratta Empire. He is the man who figures in those trans-
actions during the time of Warren Hastings, which led to what
is known as the first Mahratta war. He possessed military
virtue, and the power of inspiring some of his immediate fol-
lowers with a devotion of which extraordinary instances are
recorded; but he was otherwise destitute of merit. Suffering
many vicissitudes, he once took refuge with the British, and
once was imprisoned by a Mahratta chief. At length forced to
live in seclusion on the banks of the Nerbadda, he died from
ennui and humiliation while yet in the vigour of his life. He
was the instrument of various crimes in which his wife was the
prime mover. This princess had remarkable abilities perverted
to the pursuit of ambition by criminal means. She affords one
of the numerous instances of Mahratta ladies acquiring wonderful
influence in public life-of whom some worked eminently for
good and others for evil. She was the mother of Baji Rao II.,
cousin of the late Pêshwa, and to this son were transmitted her
own evil qualities. He, then, is the Baji Rao II. to whom the
dying Pêshwa bequeathed the succession.
He was the seventh and was also, as will presently be seen,
the last in the line of the Pêshwas. A brief description of
him will conclude the portrait-gallery which I have been ex-
hibiting in this address.
In most of the preceding characters there have been interesting
traits; in some there have been elements of greatness; in one
there has been absolute virtue. But in the picture now to be
drawn of Baji Rao II., the shadows will prevail, scarcely relieved
by a ray of brightness.
During the early years of his reign, that is, from 1795 to
1800, the reins remained in the able hands of his minister,
the Nana Farnavîs already mentioned. But the administration
was engrossed by war and politics, then urgently pressing, and
extended to nothing beyond. In all that related to civil affairs
or to the progress and contentment of the people, it was feeble
400
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
when not actually harmful. It lost all vestige of honesty and
efficiency after the death of the great minister in 1800.
The Pêshwa Baji Rao II., thus left to his own evil devices,
took men of the vilest character into his counsels. He
personally set the worst example. With some noteworthy
exceptions, the private life of his predecessors had been respect-
able; but his conduct was scandalously vicious. Under a hand-
some aspect and a polished manner, he concealed a cruel and
revengeful temper. He would sit in the balcony of his palace
and watch barbarous sentences executed. It need hardly be
added that he was a master hand in deceit, and betrayed his
supporters all round. He was innately skilful in ingratiating
himself with others before they discovered his real disposition.
Manliness had generally been possessed by his race, but he was
at heart a coward. He was miserably superstitious, and the
neighbourhood of Poona is still shaded by groves which he
planted in expiation of his crimes. He was tormented by the
ghost of the murdered Pêshwa, whose murder he ascribed to his
father and mother, the uncle and aunt of the victim. He
possessed only one of the attributes of his ancestors, namely,
eloquent persuasiveness. When, as a youth, he wished (for
some selfish purpose) to stimulate into madness the morbid
self-consciousness of his cousin, the late Pêshwa; when he
essayed to make Mahratta chiefs believe in him, despite un-
toward appearances; when he tried to cajole Arthur Wellesley
or to mislead the British envoy, the famous Mountstuart El-
phinstone; when he strove to lull the British force at Poona
into a sense of security that might precede swift and treacherous
destruction; when he sought favourable terms from his captor,
Sir John Malcolm;-his command of touching and impressive
language never deserted him.
He was
one of those men who, judged by their own
conduct, seem to be devoid of conscience, and are found to
distinguish between right and wrong only by the language they
use regarding the conduct of others. His political position was
CHAP. XVII.
LAST OF THE PESHWAS.
401
always critical, and its successive crises could hardly have been
surmounted even by virtue and genius. But he infinitely
aggravated its inherent difficulties. He contrived to set the
great feudatories of the Mahratta empire against himself and
his favourites. He threw himself into the arms of the British,
and entreated their support. When that support was rendered,
he enjoyed its advantages for a time with much satisfaction;
but soon he tired of it and intrigued against his allies. Finding
that intrigues were unavailing, he compassed the secret destruc-
tion of his benefactors, including Mountstuart Elphinstone the
envoy and the British force cantoned near Poona according to
formal treaty. With this view, he strove to corrupt the native
soldiers of the British force, and thought he had succeeded;
but this project was frustrated by the fidelity of the men.
Having laid his train, as he supposed, completely, he sent a
private message to two European officers, for whom he had an
old kindness, warning them to secure their own safety, as their
countrymen were going to be destroyed to a man. This friendly
intention on his part throws just one gleam of light over the
blackness of his character. It was an anxious moment for
Mountstuart Elphinstone. The terrace in his official residence
near Poona may still be seen where he paced during the
watches of the night, straining every sense in the direction of
the city, and awaiting the attack which at daybreak would be
delivered against his little force with what might prove to be
overwhelming numbers. The attack, however, failed as utterly
as it deserved to fail. This decisive action is known to history
as the battle of Kirki, and was fought in October, 1818.
Standing in the balcony of the temple set on a hill near Poona
-the very place where his grandfather Balaji expired, as will
be remembered-Baji Rao II., the last of the Pêshwas, saw the
charges of his half-disciplined multitudes repulsed by a little
force under the guidance of British skill and valour. From
that moment nought but flight and ruin remained to him.
His territory then passed under British rule, and became that
2 D
402
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Deccan of the Bombay Presidency regarding which so much
has been heard in British annals. Ultimately captured, after
many arduous adventures, he was sent to reside as a state
prisoner, under easy restraint and with a liberal pension, on
the banks of the Ganges, in British territory, at Bithur near
Cawnpore. He was devoid of the honourable sensitiveness
that had characterized his ancestors, and lived to a childless and
dishonoured old age, in an obscurity which made people forget
the historic associations with which his life had been con-
nected. He died in 1851, and left an adopted son, who became
the Nana Sahib so infamously known during the Indian
mutinies in 1857.
Thus seven Pêshwas have passed under review between
1714 and 1818, just a century. Of these sovereigns two died
before really attaining manhood; three were great; one was
both great and good, but he, too, died before his greatness was
fully developed; and one was utterly bad. Hence we see that the
line of the Pêshwas produced four great sovereigns in succession
of the Brahman caste, namely, Vishwanath, reigning from 1714
to 1720; Baji Rao I., reigning from 1721 to 1739; Balaji,
reigning from 1740 to 1760; and Madhu Rao, reigning from
1761 to 1772. Inasmuch as the Brahmans have preserved
purity of descent more than any race on earth except the
Jews, as they established several thousand years ago an intel-
lectual superiority over their countrymen which has been
transmitted through many generations, it might be expected
that Brahmans attaining to sovereignty would evince a marked
capacity in their imperial position. Accordingly these four
Pêshwas fully realized this expectation. None of the many
lines of Hindu sovereigns in India has ever shown a series of
sovereigns equal to the Pêshwas. The historical student will
immediately inquire whether four sovereigns equal to them can
be found in any of the Muhammadan dynasties of India. It
may be answered that in one only can a parallel be seen, namely
the dynasty of the Great Mogul. The four Mogul emperors,
I
CHAP. XVII.
GREATNESS OF THE PESHWA DYNASTY. 403
Akber, Jehangir, Shah Jehan, and Aurangzeb were as great
as the four Pêshwas; and of these Akber was both great and
good.
In India the capacity of a sovereign is to be observed in
the four main departments of state, the political or diplomatic,
the military, the civil, and the ceremonial. Now, Brahman
sovereigns would be sure to be adepts in political combina-
tions and in diplomatic management.
The Pêshwas were
such adepts to a degree hardly to be surpassed in any age
or country. The effect of their whole bringing up was to
endue them with an ability to contrive or design, and with an
insight into the thoughts, sentiments, passions, or foibles of
others. Regarding war, whether in military administration, or
in strategy, or in the command of troops in the field, it might
have been anticipated that they, as Brahmans, would prove
deficient. On the contrary, however, in each and all of these
respects they proved themselves to possess the brain to control,
the courage to execute, the fortitude to endure. In the civil
administration it might have been supposed that they would
evince a decided superiority to all other princes. Being
essentially educated and lettered men, raised mentally much
above the level of their countrymen, and endowed with all
the culture known to their age, they ought to have con-
solidated the institutions of their country, imparted an
impulse to administrative business, and promoted the education
of the people. On the contrary, however, three out of the
four great Pêshwas failed to do any of these things with
efficiency, partly because they were preoccupied by war and
politics, but partly because they wanted the philanthropic and
enlightened disposition for the doing. The fourth began to do
all these things nobly well, and would have done much more
had his pricelessly valuable life been spared. He, too, was
immersed in war and politics; and the fact that he nevertheless
attended to the civil administration shows that, where the will
exists, there is a way for a ruler to attend to all branches of
2 D 2
404
CHAP. XVII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
his work alike. In the ceremonial department, which is
peculiarly important in an eastern country, it might have been
foreseen that Brahmans, being gifted with beauty of appearance,
dignity of mien, excellence of manner, and power of elocution,
would hold their courts with becoming grandeur.
Pêshwas certainly did with consummate effect.
This the
On the whole, while unsparingly indicating the misdeeds or
shortcomings of these several characters, I have striven to do
justice to their merits. It is essential that Englishmen, when
judging the native Indian character, should be alive to its virtues
as well as to its faults. If we are to improve upon the rule of
preceding dynasties, whether Hindu or Muhammadan, if we
are to govern the natives successfully, we must, while striving
to correct their faulty side, learn to appreciate that virtuous
and most interesting side of theirs which a civilized administra-
tion will develop.
( 405 )
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT AMONG THE BRITISH IN INDIA.
[Speech delivered before the Temperance Association at Liverpool,
February, 1881.]
The liquor laws of India Question of temperance among Europeans generally
in the East-Among sailors in Indian ports—Among European soldiers
in India - Sailors' homes and soldiers' recreations - Temperance move-
ment in the capital cities of India - Order of Good Templars in the East
- Statistics of temperance in India - Temperance essential for sportsmen
and travellers Special danger of intemperance in the tropics — Experience
derivable from military history and scientific exploration.
I HAVE been asked to speak before you on the subject of
Temperance, and I will take up that portion of the subject
which relates to the welfare of your countrymen in the East.
Happily the matter-however important it may be in some
parts of Asia, for instance, China-has not greatly affected the
natives of India. The excise laws in India are framed to
repress the consumption of drugs and spirits, while raising the
revenue. Faults sometimes occur in this, as in all other human
arrangements; but wherever the excise has been found inci-
dentally to encourage intemperance, a remedy has been applied.
With the Europeans in India, however, the case is somewhat
different. You can but too readily imagine that with them the
same tendency to indulge in alcoholic drinks is developed there
as here in Britain. A century ago this tendency was excessive;
the authentic accounts of the harm and the scandal, which used
thence to arise, afford encouragement in that they show how
406
CHAP. XVIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
great an improvement has been effected in recent times. We
must be thankful for the change which, in this respect, has
come over the manners of Europeans in the East, both in the
upper and in the humbler classes. Still the memory of past
intemperance clings to the European name in the East, tarnish-
ing the brightness of an otherwise brilliant escutcheon, and
lowering the grandeur of a mighty prestige. Moreover, despite
all the improvement which may be justly claimed, there is
unhappily enough of intemperance still perceptible to sustain
the evil memory I have alluded to. Thus, intemperance is still
regarded, though in a mitigated form, as the national vice of
the British in the East. It is still one of the things which has
to be inquired about in the character of an applicant for
employment; it is still one of the points towards which the
apprehensive glance of the employer is turned. After all the
abatement and diminution that can be fairly estimated, there is
yet very much to be lamented, and there is but too large a
scope for the work of temperance advocates in the East.
Here, at Liverpool, your thoughts will naturally turn in the
first place towards the sailors of that mercantile marine, which,
centred in this the largest port in the world, is the very life of
the Eastern seaports. Well, as regards temperance or intem-
perance, you know that to our sailors the well-known line is
peculiarly applicable-
"Cœlum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt."
In former days there were many allurements offered to
thirsty sailors coming ashore under a hot sun, by the taverns of
Calcutta or Bombay, punch-houses as they were called ap-
parently from punch the drink, with tempting maritime names
like "The White Cloud," and so on. In those days as nowadays
it was necessary to let the men go ashore; but whenever they
went, almost all of them (doubtless with some honourable
exceptions) fell more or less into mischief from intemperance.
This mischief was reckoned as among the inevitable contin-
#
CHAP. XVIII.
SAILORS' HOMES IN INDIA.
407
gencies, necessarily inherent in the nature of things. Indeed
there was but too much reason for this view, inasmuch as when
a man landed on a tropical strand he really needed something
to drink, and he could not obtain beverage anywhere, save in
places that lured him to intemperance. For this state of things
the responsibility in part rested with the authorities and with
the leaders of society in those days, inasmuch as no better
places of resort were provided. But of late years institutions
named "Sailors' Homes" have been provided at the principal
Eastern seaports. The Sailors' Home at Bombay was in-
augurated during the visit of His Royal Highness the Duke of
Edinburgh, and that at Calcutta by the late Lord Lawrence.
These homes are truly fine structures, architecturally attractive
to the eye of the passer by-which externally is an important
feature. Internally they are spacious, convenient, clean, and
salubrious. Their scale of expenses is in all respects adapted
to the humble means of the seaman. Their influences and
surroundings are calculated to wean men from evil and lead
them towards good. They answer nearly all, if not absolutely
all, the objects which the advocates of temperance have at
heart. They do not indeed fulfil all the requirements of
the total abstainers, because they have "bars" where liquor is
sold, under well-supervised regulations that guard against and
effectually prevent intemperance. They are thus frequented by
many men who buy liquor at the "bars" in strict moderation
and remain in a well-arranged home, but who in the absence of
such “bars” would go to taverns for liquor immoderately, and
would remain there in disorderly surroundings. At all events
public opinion is not yet ripe for prohibiting "bars" in Sailors'
Homes, though it ensures the existing "bars" being maintained
on temperance principles. Now these homes have proved quite
successful. They do not as yet attract all the sailors, of whom
some still resort to the taverns. But they secure very much of
the seamen's custom and proportionately diminish the business
of the old taverns. Every man who resorts to the "homes
is
J
A
408
CHAP. XVIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
so far kept out of harm's way. Owing to this and to other causes
there has been, and is still going on, a happy improvement in
the habits and customs of seamen at the Eastern seaports.
Similarly with the European soldiery in the East, all the
moral and material improvements of recent years tend to check
the intemperance once so fearfully prevalent, and to promote
temperance. With this view the old rules and practices
regarding the canteens and the serving out of spirits to the men
in quarters, on the march, or on service, have been revised. The
access to the native liquor shops has been rendered more difficult
than formerly. Endeavour has been made to prevent it alto-
gether, but seldom with complete success. In former days one
cause, among others, why the men resorted to places affording
temptations to intemperance was the want of recreation grounds
during the daylight and of reading rooms during the dark hours.
Nowadays recreations of all sorts are provided out of doors, and
indoors there are reading rooms, well-stocked and well-lighted.
Both indoors and out of doors soldiers' industries are encouraged,
and periodical exhibitions of their handiwork are held. The
improved education of the men before they enlist, and the
instruction compulsorily afforded to them after enlistment, have
caused the British soldiery to be a body of men educated at
least in an elementary degree. All this disposes them to follow
those pursuits and to frequent those places, which instead of
alluring people to mischief, offer inducements towards those
things that are good, among which things temperance is in the
foremost rank. Those who, seeing the European soldier in India
as he now is, remember what he was, say, thirty years ago, are
from the bottom of their hearts thankful.
Nevertheless, it must be sorrowfully admitted that intemper-
ance still exists in the European army of India. Military crime,
as it is technically termed, is not indeed prevalent, but there is
much more of it than, all circumstances considered, we should
expect to find. Now of that crime the greater part is directly or
indirectly caused by drink. There is no statement more fully
CHAP. XVIII.
TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT IN THE ARMY. 409
attested by the best military authorities than this, by such men
as Lord Napier of Magdala, Lord Strathnairn, Lord Wolseley.
If it were not for drink, the amount of military crime in the
European army of India would be small and insignificant.
Whatever be the merits or demerits of the native soldiery, it is
allowed on all hands that their conduct is exemplary. One cause
of that happy result is this that their national habits indispose
them to intemperance and predispose them to temperance.
Thus, when all allowance has been made for the effect of recent
improvements, there remains the solemn and melancholy fact
that, in the course of a year or two, thousands of European
soldiers have been sent to prison, or otherwise punished, who
never would have fallen into trouble but for drink. Hundreds
of soldiers nurtured in the quiet happy homes of Britain and
brought out to India at a heavy cost to the State-who in
the ranks would be of value to the public service-are languish-
ing in military prisons, because they had yielded to drink, and
so drifted into the evil courses that flow therefrom. Irrespective
of moral and political advantages, it would financially pay the
Government to incur considerable expense in order to prevent
the waste of public resources thus caused through intemperance.
But, besides efforts by the State, there is much of persuasion,
of indoctrination, of exemplification, which can be effected only
by private exertions and by benevolent agencies. In this respect
the Temperance movement is by no means backward in its work
among the soldiery. Indeed the abstainers are constantly
preaching total abstinence among the men, and enrolling fresh
members in their ranks. In the European forces of India there
were, in 1875, 4350 men who had joined this movement, and of
these the greater number had taken the pledge of total abstinence.
By 1880 this number had risen to 10,880, an increase by more
than double in five years. The last-named number is equal to
one sixth of the total forces. Further, in each of the three Pre-
sidencies into which India is divided, the European section of
the army has temperance associations allied with, though actually
410
CHAP. XVIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
distinct from, the total abstinence societies. In the Presidency
of Bengal there are fifty-seven of such associations, in that of
Madras twenty, in that of Bombay twenty-three. Each of these
associations may have from fifty to 100 members. This move-
ment, in combination with all the improved surroundings which
I have mentioned, is producing an excellent effect.
Thus, one way and another, the military service is becoming a
far more desirable profession than it used to be, and much better
calculated to attract young men of fair character and ability.
Indeed, a youth born in humble circumstances at home, and by
nurture or education inclined towards good, might enlist in the
army and proceed to India. Arriving there, he would find
abundant influences tending towards the good ways in which he
had been brought up, and supporting him in his resistance
against evil. He would have ample scope for his abilities,
and he would fast rise in the service. He would have oppor-
tunities of laying by money in the soldiers' savings banks, which
are established in every military station and cantonment.
The Temperance movement in India is happily not confined to
the European army. It has extended to the Europeans who are
there called civilians in contradistinction to the soldiery. Thus
in Calcutta the Temperance societies have 560 members, in
Bombay 600, in Madras 200. For the Europeans in India
generally, there is a League having 500 members, and an Order
of Good Templars having 1000 members. The figures are rela-
tively more important than they might at first sight appear to be,
because the civil population of Europeans is both scanty and
scattered.
On the whole, taking the European soldiers and civilians
together, it is probable that the members of Temperance associa-
tions, under one form or another, in India, are not less than
16,000. This result is fraught with blessings to our countrymen
generally in the East, and will help in lessening (though hardly
in removing) that which unhappily is a blot on our national
character.
CHAP. XVIII. TEMPERANCE NEEDFUL FOR ENERGY. 411
Influential meetings are often held, and are largely attended,
not only by the friends of the movement, but by strangers who
go to listen. Though I do not myself belong to any of the
Temperance associations, yet I have sometimes attended on these
occasions, and both at Calcutta and at Bombay I have addressed
meetings-not so large indeed as the vast Liverpool meeting
before which I am now speaking-but still very considerable
both as regards numbers and earnestness.
On such occasions, indeed, I cannot undertake to present the
higher considerations relating to this grave matter, which con-
siderations can be better urged by reverend gentlemen who will
speak with religious authority, or by those who devote them-
selves to the subject. I can only state, when specifically
requested to do so, the arguments which occur to the mind of
one who has seen service and gone through hard work.
Now, as a practical fact, there is no doubt that in the East
those who are to endure the stress of hot weather, the rapid
alternations of heat and chill, of drought and damp; who are
to preserve freshness under long-sustained fatigue; who are to
maintain a sturdy spirit, a steady nerve, a brightness of mind,
despite bodily exertion and physical exhaustion; who are to
stand severe intellectual strain with brain-force unimpaired by
tropical conditions—must be, if not absolute abstainers, yet very
temperate, must take very little wine, still less of ale (for what
is called beer in India is really bottled ale), and of spirits the
smallest modicum diluted in water. Such persons-who include
nearly all, if not absolutely all, the men who in the East are
successful in war, politics, administration, trade, industries,
learning, literature-are actually examples of temperance "in
excelsis," although they do not join temperance associations.
Though they do not preach yet they practise, and their conduct
perhaps has more effect on the community and gives more solid
support to the Temperance movement than anything they could
say or write. Doubtless there may be exceptions to the rule
which I have indicated, though I doubt whether the exceptional
412
CHAP. XVIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
cases to the contrary, which might be adduced, would stand
close criticism. But the rule, as a general fact, stands as clear
as noonday throughout the East.
Again in the East there are two pursuits so interesting as
almost to constitute professions, namely, sport and travel.
These are peculiarly attractive to the manhood of Britain,
because they exercise body and mind together, and demand all
sorts of capacity. They involve exposure generally, risk often,
and danger sometimes. For these temperance is essential;
indeed they can hardly be pursued without it. The fact of
there being a spice of danger in most Eastern sports, renders
them attractive. But if the danger is to be surmounted, there
must be that absolute coolness which belongs only to the
temperate. Wounds or other injuries are sure to be suffered;
for rapid and complete recovery, in an eastern climate, that
bodily condition is needed which, again, the temperate alone
possess. The best books that are published regarding the wild
sports of the East, usually contain specific warnings to young
sportsmen on this head, and remind them that if they are to
spear the boar as he rushes, or take sure aim at the tiger as he
bursts forth, or come to close quarters with the bear, or bring
down the chamois and the wild sheep on dizzy heights-they
must be strictly temperate; and that unsteadiness in these
critical moments may cause not only failure but even disaster
and death. Again, whenever a small party of travellers under-
take a really arduous march in the Himalayas or other moun-
tainous regions, they form necessarily a little temperance league
among themselves, for they will probably carry with them
neither wine nor beer, but only some spirits to be diluted with
the water of mountain springs; and for stimulants they will
rely mainly on tea or coffee.
But besides the cases of everyday life in sport or travel, there
are numerous instances to be found in contemporary history.
Consult the journals of celebrated travellers in Asia, and you
will find that after their dire fatigues, in great altitudes, in
CHAP. XVIII.
AILMENTS OWING TO ALCOHOL.
413
blinding storms, in ice and snow, in utter exposure all day, in
the slenderest shelter at night, in acute distress from rarefied
air—the stimulant they crave is not liquor but tea. Examine
the reports made by surveyors who have for scientific explora-
tions made the highest ascents ever attempted in mountain
ranges, or the records left by those who are the martyrs of
science, and after labours nobly borne have left their bones
in places almost inaccessible-and you will read the same
story.
Doubtless, in small quantities, beer may be wholesome enough
in the East as elsewhere, wine in moderation may be a harmless
luxury, or may have the dietetic advantages which Liebig
ascribed to it, and spirits may at times be medicinally useful.
Still there is the limit of moderation which is but too likely to
be overstepped, and the line of safety which is but seldom
observed. If the history of Indian pathology could be exactly
written, many ailments attributed to climate would be found
attributable to causes alcoholic rather than climatic. I wonder
how many inflamed livers, ascribed to the tropics, how many
so-called sunstrokes, are really due to alcohol, not perhaps
taken in excess, but merely absorbed in minute quantities
from day to day.
Lastly, if historic works on recent wars be consulted, it will
be found that in Afghanistan, Europeans, frost-bitten, half-
frozen, worn out with toil, hunger and anxiety, have been
recruited, not with liquor, but with tea; and that in Abyssinia
European troops, accidentally deprived of the commissariat rum
ration, have marched and worked all the better without it, and
have been improved in health for the want of it.
Though keenly alive to the evil produced by intemperance in
the United Kingdom, greater probably than that produced by
all other causes put together, and to the excellent effect pro-
duced in counteraction by the temperance movement in its
various forms, I will leave these matters to be treated by other
speakers who are more qualified than myself by experience and
شيف الو
414
CHAP. XVIII.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
special knowledge. But as regards Oriental experience, I have
thought it my duty to comply with the request that I should
say what I know as a man of the world from a practical point
of view, in the confidence that considerations relating to the
welfare of our fellow-countrymen in the East, will be acceptable
at the great port of Liverpool, where countless eastern interests
are concentrated.
( 415 )
CHAPTER XIX.
PRINCIPLES OF BRITISH POLICY IN EGYPT.
[Reprinted from the Contemporary Review' for October 1882.]
Relations of England towards the Muhammadan world -Sovereignty of the
Khedive and suzerainty of the Sultan in Egypt Accord between
England and the European Powers - Dismantling of Egyptian forts
Reduction of the Egyptian army - Reorganization of the Egyptian
troops - Reformed police - The Bedouins to be kept in check — Retention
of the British garrison-Civil government of Egypt - Maintenance of the
British Control - Representative government among the Egyptians
Judicial administration-The Public Debt of Egypt-Suez Canal to be
used by England in war and peace-Hydraulic works of improvement
in the valley and delta of the Nile.
THE object of this article is not to discuss the causes which led
to the British military operations in Egypt,* but to examine
the principles which should guide British policy when these
operations have been crowned with success. Having extin-
guished by force the rebellion of Arabi and his party, England
has for the moment a commanding opportunity; then how ought
she to make use of it? That is the question.
Now this question is doubtless engaging the anxious attention
of nearly all the Muhammadan world, that is, the Muham-
madans in Turkey, in Persia, in Arabia, in Afghanistan, in
India, in Northern Africa. There are still two important bodies
of Muhammadans, namely, those dwelling in Central Asia, who
* It will be seen that this article was written before the fall of Tel-el-
Kebir, but its main purport is still applicable.
416
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
are under Russian domination, and those inhabiting certain parts
of the Chinese Empire, whose political thoughts can hardly be
gauged. It is probable, however, that the Chinese Muham-
madans do not trouble their minds on the subject. After all
abatements, the number of Muhammadans who are seriously
exercising their minds in this matter, must be great, comprising
as it does a total population of nearly one hundred millions.
There is no need for pausing to show how England has under
her direct administration or her political control about half of
this large aggregate. Her interest, then, in the Muhammadan
world, if judged by the numerical standard of a census, would
appear to be much greater than that of any other Power. Thus
she has every motive to conciliate the Muhammadans, inducing
them to confide in her benevolent will and loyal intentions.
It is important to bear this in mind when considering the
main questions as above set forth. In reference to that question
the first point is the maintenance of Muhammadan sovereignty
and rule in Egypt. From the outset, then, the British autho-
rities have proclaimed the maintenance of Muhammadan rule as
represented by the Khedive. On his part the Khedive has
commanded his subjects to loyally co-operate with the British
authorities, and has declared Arabi a rebel in arms against his
lawful master. The Sultan of Turkey is prepared to issue a
proclamation to the effect that Arabi is a rebel. Further, to
the Sultan there is allowed the option of sending a body of
Turkish troops to co-operate with the British in Egypt at the
seat of war. These proceedings certainly set England right
with the Muhammadan world at large, and place her in the
position of one who is battling for her Muhammadan allies
(the Sultan and the Khedive) against an insurrectionary
party. It also establishes the contention that Arabi is a rebel,
notwithstanding any sentiments of nationality or feelings of
fanaticism which may temporarily have gathered round him.
There has undoubtedly been much in his conduct to attract the
admiration and sympathy of many classes among Muhammadans
CHAP. XIX.
SOVEREIGNTY AND SUZERAINTY.
417
generally. It is therefore of much consequence to so arrange
the language of proclamations or other authoritative proceedings
that he may be made to stand in his true position, namely, that
of an insurgent against his legitimate lord. This is apparently
being done quite effectually, and will produce a favourable effect
upon Muhammadan opinion everywhere.
Happily the Khedive stands well in British opinion, as
having played an exceptionally difficult part with loyalty
and fidelity. But this public opinion has been dubious re-
specting the Khedive's suzerain, the Sultan of Turkey. On the
one hand, all Englishmen who are acquainted with Constanti-
nople, will considerately make allowance for the Sultan on
account of the cruel difficulties which environ his political
position. On the other hand, there is no disguising the violent
probability that the recent troubles in Egypt have been indi-
rectly encouraged by some classes in Turkey, and even fomented
by some parties there. It were superfluous to recapitulate the
reasons why the conduct of the Turkish Government during
some stages of the negotiations is held to have been unsatis-
factory, and to have been guided by the idea of impeding or
retarding the British operations. These circumstances have
injuriously affected Turkey's position, though it may yet be
retrieved by behaviour which shall be worthy of acceptance as
clearly good. If, then, it shall be found possible, with political
consistency, to overlook the Sultan's shortcomings in the past,
with a view to his co-operation in the immediate future, and
thus to maintain the recognition of his suzerainty over Egypt-
this will have a good effect upon the Muhammadan world, or
more particularly upon that part of it with which England is
directly concerned. The Sultan indeed holds a very high
position among Muhammadans, though it is well to avoid
making too much even of that position. He being (as will be
readily remembered) of the Sunni sect, Persia, being of the
Shia sect, will not pay reverence to him. Afghanistan too,
as was proved by the experience of the last Afghan war, regards
2 E
418
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
him but little. Still his office and person are venerated by most
among the influential Muhammadans of India, his prestige is
still maintained in Turkey, and probably there is a religious
party on his side in Arabia. If then England shall find herself
able, with the approval of Europe, to set the Khedive on a throne
of real power, and to preserve the suzerainty of the Sultan, she
will be held by the Muhammadan world to have done well. It
would be a mere truism to state how many contingencies may
hinder the accomplishment of any such design, as of many other
good and wise designs.
Next, in the future settlement of Egypt it will be most
desirable to obtain, not only the formal acceptance but also the
cordial approval of the European Powers, and to avoid anything
which may even bear the semblance of lawlessness or violence.
Besides the high considerations which are too manifest to need
recapitulation, it may be remarked that any step which should
deviate from the comity of nations or from the best principles
of international law, would be likely to produce bitter conse-
quences hereafter. Aggressive ambition, on the part of one
great Power, arouses similar tendencies among other Powers. It
is obvious that there are several, perhaps many, Oriental regions
which offer temptations and enticing opportunities to one or
other of the great Powers for that sort of interposition which
ultimately leads to domination. Though England is far from
claiming any exclusive interest in the East, where other Powers
also have interests, still such movements may prove embar-
rassing more or less to her, and occasionally might even be
dangerous to her legitimate interest. She should therefore
eschew giving the least encouragement to them by any example
in her own conduct. If after being compelled to draw the sword
in a just quarrel, and having secured advantages in Egypt of
which the equitableness is unquestionable, England shall abstain
from undue self-aggrandizement, shall carry with her the senti-
ments of the European Powers, and shall show that her work
is done, not only for her own interest but for the interest of
CHAP. XIX. REVISION OF THE EGYPTIAN ARMY.
419
others also,—for the sake of the native ruler of Egypt, of the
Egyptian people, and of all Europeans, to whatever nation
belonging, who may carry on trade or industry in the Nile
valley, then she will possess an additional vantage-ground in
political controversies hereafter. Her objections will continue
to carry the moral force which happily they have always com-
manded, if in the future aggression shall be attempted by any
Power upon those Oriental regions which are exposed to inter-
ference or to attack. Justice in argument does not indeed
prevail invariably when such conjunctures arise, and material
as well as moral forces are called into play. Still, the Power
which has moral force on its side possesses a fulcrum which
it is advantageous to keep and disadvantageous to lose.
Then, if England, with the approval of Europe, shall maintain
the Muhammadan sovereignty in Egypt, the point will arise as
to how this rehabilitated sovereignty shall be rendered safe for
the future.
The primary step will be to secure the persons of Arabi and
of his principal supporters, civil or military. Judgment in the
case of each individual will doubtless be meted out after quasi-
judicial inquiry, and to some a punishment more severe than
banishment or imprisonment may possibly have to be awarded.
But, at the least, the leaders will have to be detained as State
prisoners for such time as may seem proper. For such detention
there are several British localities conveniently available. To
leave these men at large, or in any place from which escape
would be practicable, might jeopardize the success of military
and political results that had been won by blood and treasure.
This done, the disbandment would follow of the Egyptian
troops that had fought against us and also against their lawful
sovereign. Such a measure would, however, by no means suffice.
For there is needed a revision of the establishment to be allowed
in future to the Egyptian army. One of the fundamental causes
of the troubles in Egypt is the maintenance of an army which,
on the one hand, can never be adequate for external defence
2 E 2
420
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
against a European Power, but which is quite strong enough to
overawe the native Government and to set up an internal dis-
turbance. The Egyptian Government has for many years past
been borrowing money in the European markets, and has been
devoting a part of these funds to military armaments of various
sorts, arms of precision, cannon of modern invention, forts with
scientific engineering, and the like. These very things are now
being used against England, and most of them were made in
English factories. This, of course, is one among the many
instances which occur of the eagle being hit by shafts winged
with his own feathers. Again, though the Egyptian troops
may fight with their own unassisted courage and endurance,
still, much of their discipline, tactics, and manœuvres arise
from European training. If, then, the continuance of this
system shall be allowed after the new settlement of Egypt, the
renewal of troubles in some form is, humanly speaking, quite
probable. The occurrence will be only a question of time and
opportunity. In vain will Arabi and his kindred spirits have
been overcome. Other Arabis as bad, or worse, may arise, with
other spirits more evil still. The Khedive, then, on being
restored to real authority, should be required to reconsider
existing forts, deciding which should be dismantled and which
retained, and to revise the strength of his ordnance, so that
it should not be excessive. British consideration should be
specially given to those forts which were strongly constructed
and placed in commanding positions, and which might there-
fore prove dangerous if they fell into evil hands. The peace
establishment of the Khedive's forces, after the conclusion of
military operations, should be so limited that practically it
shall never become dangerous to order. If he be guaranteed,
as he doubtless will be, against outer foes, then his military force
for internal order should be comparatively small, and should be
composed very differently from that Egyptian force which has
evinced some prowess in contest even with British arms.
Moreover, financial necessity dictates that reform in Egypt
CHAP. XIX.
REFORM OF THE POLICE.
421
should begin with a permanent reduction of its army. In past
years the military expenses, though not extraordinarily great,
have yet been greater than the over-burdened treasury could
afford. The naval and marine expenses, too, have been con-
siderable. In future years these several expenses, if not
curtailed, would prove intolerable to an impoverished finance,
and would render both the Administration and the people
incapable of recovering prosperity, of recouping some of the
losses that have been sustained, and of bearing the additional
burdens which in several ways will be brought about by the
present troubles.
Further, the site of overgrown forces, maintained without
a definite object, is of itself provocative of mischief, in that it
fosters martial aspirations among the Egyptians, and induces
some fanatical classes to vainly imagine that their country can
withstand the demands of civilization, and resist the influences
of a progressive age.
On every ground, then, political, administrative, financial, an
excessive strength of the Egyptian army is to be deprecated.
But if that army is thus strictly limited, a really effective
police will have to be organized. Such organization should be
sufficient to strengthen the constabulary in keeping the peace,
but not sufficient to enable the men to combine for mutiny or
other disorderly purpose. The limitation of the military forces
will add much to the importance of the police.
Again the prominence of the Bedouin Arabs in the deserts
which impinge on the east side of Egypt, is a noteworthy
feature in the present troubles. Their predatory habit and
instinct have long been well known; but they are playing
a part greater even than that which would ordinarily have been
expected of them. They assemble apparently from all parts of
the desert, and hang upon the borders of the cultivated delta,
even venturing sometimes inside the inhabited tracts. Being
often well mounted and evincing the active endurance which
usually pertains to the sons of the desert, they inflict damage,
422
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
:
inspire dread, and elude pursuit. It remains to be ascertained
how far Arabi relied on Bedouin co-operation when he dared to
brave constitutional authority. Probably this reliance was
considerable, and is partly justified by the event, for the
Bedouins have proved useful allies to the rebels. The desert
tribes then, despite any chastisement which they may now
receive, will probably become more enterprising and formidable
than they were before. It may be possible to arrive at some
understanding with the head men among their tribes or clans,
and even to enlist some of them on the side of order. Under
any circumstances, it will be essential to display before them
a resolute front. At all points accessible to them, a good system
of police patrolling will be needful, while at some points mili-
tary detachments may have to be employed.
The Khedive may ask for the presence of some European
force, naval and military, for a time, to enable him to set his
house in order. England is primarily interested in providing
that the Khedive's authority, having been re-established by her
at great cost, shall not be pulled down again. In the decision
of this question the other European Powers will probably claim
a voice. As the phrase, beati possidentes, is nowadays publicly
used in Europe, it will perhaps be admitted that, if a foreign
garrison is with the consent of Europe to be temporarily main-
tained in Egypt, the troops composing it should, under the
circumstances, be British. Such a temporary British garrison
need not be large, indeed might be comparatively small, if the
Egyptian forces shall be kept at a reduced strength. The
stations for the garrison would be Alexandria and Cairo, at
both which places healthy cantonments can be found. It may
well be held that the stay of such a garrison should be as
brief as possible, if a feeling of self-reliance is to be restored to
the native government. However cautious and moderate the
diplomatic management may be, the presence of foreign troops
must inevitably detract somewhat from the nationality and
autonomy which presumably England desires to preserve for
1
423
£
CHAP. XIX.
CIVIL AFFAIRS.
Egypt. Such nationality too, while productive of moral good to
the people, is quite consistent with loyalty and fidelity towards
the Powers that have befriended and protected the Egyptian
Government. Nevertheless, for the present, the maintenance
of a British garrison in Egypt is absolutely necessary for over-
awing the fierce and unruly spirits that still lurk in all the
centres of the Egyptian population, for ensuring general
obedience to that authority which is about to be restored, for
securing the safety of the Europeans who have been wrongfully
driven away by recent disturbances, and who will be invited to
return to their occupations.
For the civil administration of the country the Egyptian
Government will require instruction and guidance. The
manner of affording such guidance will probably have to be
decided by England, after consulting the other European
Powers. Still, for conducting this administration, Egypt should
be taught to rely on itself mainly; assistance it may have
for a time, but it need not expect to be kept permanently in
leading-strings.
The principal requirements of civil administration in Egypt,
as in any other Oriental country, have sometimes been partly
fulfilled, but doubtless more often have been left unfulfilled.
They are so well known that it may suffice to recapitulate
them in a few words. In them are comprised a comparatively
honest collection of the revenues, whereby the State receives its
own fully, and the people do not pay more than is due; in
other words, the prevention of peculation, whereby the State
is cheated, while the tax-payers are overcharged; the concession
of adequate salaries and the assured prospect of promotion,
whereby, in combination with other good influences, a body
of trustworthy officials is raised up; the assessment of the
taxes on land at moderate rates for long terms of years; the
extension of the reforms which have been already begun in
the judicial system; the better diffusion of the popular educa-
tion which has existed during many generations; the main-
སྭཱ༴ ས
424
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
*J
!
!
tenance of the public works for communication and for irrigation,
wherein the Egyptian Government has of late made progressive
strides; and the undertaking of new works, for which Egypt
offers facilities not surpassed in any country of the world. It
were easy to show how all these things could be devised
for Egypt by the British Government, which has acquired a
noble experience elsewhere. But that would really imply
nothing less than British administration, which under existing
political conditions is assumed to be out of the question. The
British military operations were undertaken on the express
basis of maintaining the Khedive's authority,-in other words,
the Native Government; and that precludes the idea of British
administration, which could hardly be contemplated except
under an alteration of the surrounding conditions politically.
Nevertheless, if progress towards these administrative results or
something like them be not effected, Egypt will be in constant
danger of falling into trouble. The propelling influences of the
nineteenth century are so potent, the demands of an advancing
civilization are so inexorable, that an Oriental country in a
prominent position, as Egypt is, cannot practically stand still.
It may march in company with the age and so hold its own.
Or it may resist these complex agencies and try to stand still;
but stagnation will soon turn to retrogression, and then the
decline towards the final fall proceeds at an accelerated rate.
There are some remote or isolated countries in the East where
stagnation may endure for many generations without the
national system being broken up. But the delta of the Nile
is not one of these; and in consequence of her noble situation
(irrespective of many other causes), a national Egypt, if
unreformed, unenlightened, and unimproved, cannot last very
long. If it be desirable, as it actually is desired, to maintain
a Native Government in Egypt, then order, retrenchment,
progress, and improvement are essential conditions. It should
be the object of England, then, to teach the Egyptians how to
acquire these things for themselves.
CHAP. XIX.
ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES.
425
It would not be possible to instruct the Egyptians in the art
of government by introducing British officers into most of the
important offices in the interior of Egypt, as has been done in
British India. Such officers would doubtless effect much good,
but they would virtually do the work, and the Egyptians would
be inapt at learning so long as a foreign agency was at hand to
perform the business for them. It is the sense of responsibility
which quickens the faculties of men, and necessity is the
parent of self-help. Let the Egyptians be impressed with the
consideration that there must be a decent administration, if
they are to remain a nation, and that they must work out the
problem for themselves, then they will soon begin to learn. The
notion of a Ministry, in which each member is the responsible
Minister for some Department of State, has taken some root in
Egypt. Although some Khedives seem to have treated their
Ministers as secretaries only, still the heads of State Depart-
ments will practically be the depositaries of much real power.
Whatever may be the character of Egyptian statesmen generally,
there have been honest and capable persons among them. Here
then is a ready-made school for Egyptian statesmanship, and if
the Khedive will really search for capable men, he will doubt-
less find them more and more among the rising generation of
educated Egyptians.
Then there is the chamber of representatives, known as the
Assembly of Notables or Delegates. The institution of this
Assembly some years ago is one of the most noteworthy experi-
ments yet made in any Oriental country. Whether the mode
of election was rude and informal or not, the members were
elected. When they first met they had only a vague notion of
their future functions as virtually a controlling body in the
State. They seem, however, by degrees to have warmed to their
work, and to have passed some important votes on public
questions, which votes were respected by the executive power.
This chamber, like many other reformed bodies, must have been
paralyzed by the recent events; still its resuscitation ought to
426
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
be a primary object when a new settlement of Egypt comes to be
made. There may be difficulty in arranging an efficient system
for conducting the elections; but as the Egyptian Government
had the courage to begin some years ago, it should persevere,
when its general functions are restored after the conclusion of
military operations. As all Englishmen know, institutions of
this description do not attain any large growth in a generation,
even in a century. Still, new constitutions have a great
advantage in the dearly bought experience of the most advanced
nations. There does not seem to be any clear evidence as to
what the duties of the Egyptian Assembly have been. The
following passage may be extracted from the work of a very
competent observer (McCoan's ' Egypt as it is,' p. 117):
"In 1866, the Khedive revived the defunct Assembly of
Delegates, one of the inchoate reforms projected by Mehemet
Ali, but which had not met since his death. This germ of an
Egyptian Parliament consists of village sheikhs and other
provincial notables, elected by the communes, and assembles
once a year to receive from the Privy Council a report on the
administration during the twelvemonth. Its function is also to
consider and advise on all proposed fiscal changes, new public
works, and other matters of national concern that may be laid
before it. It has, of course, no legislative power; but in practice
its recommendations are received not merely with respect, but
are often acted on by the Government."
Now the political growth of this Assembly may be judiciously
fostered; and there is a hopeful chance of its voice being raised
on behalf of the improvements already enumerated, most of
which tell in favour of the people. It will ventilate grievances,
and will give expression to the griefs of millions who are prac-
tically inarticulate. It will operate to some extent as a check
on the corruption and peculation which are the prevailing vices
in the official circles of almost all Eastern countries, and from
which Egypt is not as yet exempt according to impartial
testimony. It will probably be jealously opposed to all expen-
暴
​CHAP. XIX.
POLITICAL REPRESENTATION.
427
diture, without much regard to the reasons which may justify
or necessitate the outlay; as experience in other Eastern coun-
tries, under foreign rule, has shown that whenever the natives
are able to make their voice heard, they object unsparingly to
the public expenses incurred by their rulers. It will be likely
to follow the same method with the indigenous ruler, in the
belief that the disposition to incur expense on improvements is
really inspired by European example. Thus its financial in-
fluence, though in many respects tending to wise economy, will
in some respects be harmful as hampering beneficent expendi-
ture on public improvement. But it is not likely in the imme-
diate future to be allowed by the Government to exercise a
Parliamentary power over the State purse. Without, however,
possessing such a power as that, it may by criticism of annual
budgets, and on other occasions, obtain considerable influence
over the finances. In British India the ultimate power in effect
rests with the Government; still, new taxation cannot be
imposed without votes by the Legislative Councils, of which
non-official persons, both European and Native are members,
and of which the debates are free and public. Though in prac-
tice the Government can appoint official members enough to
ensure a majority, still the feelings of the non-official sections
of the Councils are much regarded. A similar result would
doubtless ensue if some plan of this sort were to be tried in
Egypt. Either, as in British India, the Government might be
empowered to appoint official members; or if that were deemed
unsuitable for Egypt, the Government might retain the power
of overruling the decision of the Assembly. This might primâ
facie appear to be an arbitrary procedure; but the tendency
would be for the assembly to win its way more and more, and
for the Khedive to become less and less disposed to override its
decisions. Moreover, the freedom and publicity of its debates
would soon stamp a mark on State affairs, even though its
decisions were not final. The consciousness that men may say
publicly what they think and feel (within reasonable and well
*
428
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
understood limits) must produce among Egyptians the same
effect as that which it has long produced among European nations,
and which it is beginning to produce in British India.
Again, respecting ordinary legislation much more may be
done by the Egyptian Assembly than seems to have been here-
tofore attempted by it. There appears to be a judicial machinery
in Egypt which, if not good as yet, is surely improvable.
Whether it has any reasonably framed laws to administer, or
any comprehensive code to follow, except the Korân, may be
doubted. In many departments of social life, the Korân com-
mands the affectionate obedience of Muhammadans. But the
advance of civilisation in Egypt will be creating a host of con-
tingencies for which no system of Oriental law makes adequate
provision. This civilisation too will virtually establish a reign
of law, and participation in law-making is found in British
India to have an excellent effect on the native mind. There,
nothing is done in civil administration without law, and the
legislation is conducted in the councils mentioned above, though
a scientific shape is given to the laws by English jurists. Much
legislative experience of a peculiarly suitable kind has thus been
amassed, by which Egypt may profit, if she will.
But in a country like Egypt the enactment of laws will be
only one step in good government. Another important step is
to secure competent and honest administrators for giving effect
to the laws. Now Egyptians, if properly educated, well paid,
and placed in assured positions with favourable prospects, will
surely evince honesty and ability. This has been found the case
in British India, and a different consequence is not likely to
arise in Egypt. It must indeed involve some expense, but the
cost will be repaid a hundredfold by the results of honest
administration.
Once more, British India affords an example applicable to
Egypt, in respect to the working of the elective principle in
municipal corporations on a large scale.
Many of the great
Indian cities have their municipal affairs managed through
CHAP. XIX.
NATIVE SELF-GOVERNMENT.
429
bodies elected by the ratepayers. Notably the two cities of
Calcutta and Bombay, with a joint urban population of nearly
one and a half million of souls, have municipal corporations
consisting mainly of elected members, chiefly natives. These
two corporations together administer revenues of more than
half a million sterling annually, and levy the local taxes. At
first the ratepayers were apathetic respecting election, but by
degrees they learnt their power, and now the system is either
becoming popular, or at least mitigates the unpopularity which
at the outset attends municipal improvement among an Eastern
population.
Some administrators, possessing much old experience in the
East, may be sceptical as to the practicability of inducing a
Native State like that of Egypt to govern really well. But, in
British India, the practicability of this is nowadays satisfactorily
demonstrated. In past days, even during the preceding generation,
there was much misrule in the Native Indian States. But during
the present generation, owing to British influence, many of these
Native States are fairly governed, and some few are managed
nearly as well as the British territories. The number of States
thus ruled respectably is increasing from time to time. Indi-
vidual talent and personal originality are perhaps better educed
in the Native States than in the British territories. These States
have produced and are producing many native administrators of
an excellent type, among whom some may even be termed
statesmen. All this augurs well for Egypt, as showing that,
with some judicious guidance at first, she may ultimately
become proficient in the art of self-government.
It were needless to make more than a brief allusion to the
necessity of conciliating the priesthood and the fanatical classes
in Egypt, who muster in especial strength at Cairo with its
many mosques of historic interest or modern splendour. Much
injury would be wrought to the cause of secular progress if the
classes concerned in the religious ministrations of Islam were
to imagine that the Khedive, under foreign influence, would
I
4
430
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
gradually withdraw that countenance and support which they
have long been accustomed to receive from their rulers. There
ought, however, to be no reason for fearing any untoward conjunc-
ture in this respect. The Native Government if left to itself will
scrupulously regard the religious establishments and maintain
their endowments. No British counsellor would ever advise it
to do otherwise. The priesthood will probably claim a share
also in the national education, and that need not at all interfere
with the secular and scientific instruction. On this condition,
then, such participation may fairly be conceded to them.
There seems to be no apprehension in Egypt as to any in-
equality between Egyptians and Christians before the tribunals,
or as to any disabilities being inflicted upon Christians, such as
those which have unhappily prevailed in Turkey. In Egypt the
European community has already become an important member
of the body politic. Whether Europeans be numerously em-
ployed in the public service for the future or not, there will
probably be many Europeans engaged in trade and industrial
enterprises. The outrages at Alexandria and Tanta will have
given a shock to such undertakings, and it is hardly possible
to say whether the distressed Government of Egypt will be
able to fully pay the indemnity justly due to the sufferers,
though doubtless each European Government will do its best
on behalf of those sufferers who belong to it. Whether such
compensatory efforts be successful or not, European energy will
revive on the restoration of order. The closed factories will be
re-opened, the suspended works will be resumed, and the
external trade, already reckoned at fifteen million sterling
annually, will increase. The presence of non-official Europeans
in Egyptian jurisdiction will serve as a motive power in the
country, and will operate in favour of reform and justice. They
will form a class that must be treated fairly by the Native
Government; and the Egyptians in general, observing this, will
demand similar treatment, which sooner or later must be
accorded.
CHAP. XIX.
EGYPTIAN DEBT.
431
In the future settlement of Egypt the question of the public
debt will inevitably obtrude itself. At the present time the
foreign holders of Egyptian securities do not seem to attract the
sympathy of the British public. Indeed, the sentiments of
many thoughtful Englishmen are apparently adverse to the
claims of the bondholders. The terms on which the Egyptian
loans were contracted are deemed by many to have been exces-
sive, in favour of the European lenders, and against the Native
Government. Such opinions have received some confirmation
from official reports, and from other authentic or semi-official
statements. Nevertheless the Egyptian Government contracted
these obligations of its own free will and with its eyes open.
Although many abatements had to be made from the claims of
the creditors, still there was such a residuum of equity in the
matter as to induce England and France some years ago to
sanction a special arrangement being made by the Khedive.
According to that arrangement, English and French officers were
appointed by the Native Government to exercise a Financial
Control for the fulfilment of the obligations concerning the
Public Debt of Egypt. For this purpose the debt was reviewed,
and presumably reduced to the amount which, under the circum-
stances, was deemed just and suitable. The Control thus exer-
cised by foreigners, though technically limited to the management
of the National Debt, did virtually improve the civil admini-
stration of the country. However diverse the opinions of well-
informed persons may be as to the propriety of thus controlling
the affairs of the Public Debt, there appears to be a consensus
of opinion that the Control has produced immense and untold
benefit to the Egyptian people.
It will be said, no doubt, that recent events have shown how
adverse many Egyptians are to this Control. It is indeed very
difficult in an Oriental country to gauge the opinion of the
people. Two things may, however, according to Eastern expe-
rience, be surmised with some confidence-first, that the humbler
classes, cultivators, artisans and traders, will be in favour of the
432
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Control as a system which ensures to them a comparatively
just Government and moderate taxation; second, that several
classes, official or other, will be hostile to this system, because
it impedes or prevents the illicit gains which, hydra-headed, are
sure to be rife in Egypt as elsewhere in the East. These con-
siderations may perhaps be found worthy of the attention of
those who, in the first instance, are impressed with such high-
sounding phrases as "Egypt for the Egyptians," and "the
National Party.” If the Egyptian classes, from whose mouths
these cries proceed, could be exactly analysed, it might possibly
be discovered that the agitation has but a limited significance.
In this agitation there are doubtless several elements, among
which national aspirations and religious sentiments must be
reckoned; one element, however, consists of special interests
which would be deemed objectionable, and will not be avowed.
Among the enemies of the Control, and in the rebel camp
itself, there may be individuals who, however misguided have
patriotism in their hearts.
Be that as it may, there remains the fact that this Control
was deliberately sanctioned by England and France, and has
operated for several years with undoubted benefit to Egyptian
credit and to the native population. Its abandonment, then, in
the future settlement would at the least be difficult, unless
something equivalent shall be substituted. Those who have
heretofore been in favour of this Control will hardly be con-
vinced that the recent disturbances afford a justification for its
relinquishment. These events may, however, necessitate its
reconsideration and modification. The conditions of the debt
do indeed seem to have been reviewed carefully before the
Control was established, and the Egyptian Government renewed
its obligations. Still, if those whose views are entitled to respect
shall think that there is anything immoderate or injurious in
these conditions, they might be allowed an opportunity of
vindicating that opinion. Or if the Control should be found to
have in practice gone beyond its limited sphere, and to have
CHAP. XIX.
SUEZ CANAL.
433
interfered more than was absolutely necessary with the Egyptian
autonomy and administration, then the rules of conduct might
be modified. At all events if the existing control be abandoned
the British Government must see that an adequate substitute is
provided.
Lastly, as regards the Suez Canal, some eminent authorities
connected with the Canal Company seem to object to this great
work being made the base of military operations. Several
interesting arguments have been adduced in favour of that
view. But, whatever may be the value of that contention under
certain circumstances and conditions, there is no doubt that the
British Government, proceeding with the consent, indeed at the
declared request, of the Khedive, is altogether entitled to use
the Canal for suppressing by armed force a revolt in Egypt.
The British commander is acting on behalf of the lawful ruler
of the country, the Khedive, against proclaimed rebels. The
Canal is unquestionably in Egyptian jurisdiction. Though con-
structed by French genius and enterprise, and in a large degree
with French financial resources, still it belongs to Egypt, and is
in part at least sustained by Egyptian resources. The British
Government too has, as will be immediately recollected, acquired
in it a not inconsiderable share. Its channel then is legitimately
available to the Khedive and his British allies for the purpose
of suppressing a rebellion against his authority. This limited
proposition seems so clear that the bare statement of it may
suffice.
But respecting this important water highway other inter-
national questions are understood to have been raised. The
phrase, “neutralization of the Suez Canal," may sound strangely
to British ears, and there may be doubt as to its exact import.
If it mean that the Canal may be closed against British ships of
war or military transport, then it surely will not be allowed by
the British Government and nation. The reinforcements for the
British troops serving in India and other parts of Asia, the
munitions of war, the ships joining the British squadrons in
2 F
434
CHAP. XIX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Indian and in Chinese waters, pass through the Canal. The
British mail service for India, China, and Australia, and a large
part of British commerce with those regions, use the Canal
highway. Potent as these interests are in time of peace, their
cogency and urgency would be enhanced in time of war.
Manifestly England must command the freest passage during
peace, and it appears impossible that her discretion or her
action should be fettered during war. Whatever privileges
she uses ordinarily would doubtless be claimed equally by other
nations. In the event of war it were perhaps vain to anticipate
the form or forms which questions might take. The only point
that need be presumed is this, that England must be free as
regards her own action in the Canal for her military safety.
In conclusion, if hereafter the finances and resources of Egypt
shall enable the Native Government to undertake enterprises
beyond the limits of Lower Egypt, then magnificent schemes
for utilising the river-water only await the means of execution
in what may be termed the middle valley of the Nile. Beyond
that again, in the upper valley of the great river, in the basins
of the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and their tributaries, there is
a productive area abounding in natural resources capable of
sustaining a great population, but as yet scantily inhabited by
tribes who, though now fierce, are not untameable. In this
wondrous region a beneficent work can be performed, if the
Egyptian Government shall fortunately acquire the power of
performance. In this work Samuel Baker and Gordon have
been the pioneers. If it languish for a while, it may be resumed
hereafter. Then, if it be pursued to its legitimate conclusion,
the results will be the suppression of slavery and the production
of endless benefit to the human race in Northern Africa.*
* Since writing the article I have visited Egypt; and my information,
gathered on the spot, confirms all that is stated in this chapter.-R. T.
1
( 435 )
CHAPTER XX.
ASPECT OF PALESTINE IN 1883.
[Reprinted from the 'Evening News,' London, July 1883.]
Peculiar benefit from travelling in Palestine Best season for journeying
Atmospheric effects in stormy weather-Character of the scenery-
Scriptural associations of the Holy Land-Relating to the Old Testa-
ment Relating to the New Testament - Number and variety of sacred
places - Holy sentiments gathering round them Historical associations
Cave-cells and rock-hewn tombs Antiquarian remains beyond the
Jordan Phoenician remains-Greek and Roman ruins Herodian
buildings Monuments of the Crusaders' æra-Divisions of the present
population — The modern Canaanites—The Jews in the land of their
race Political considerations The Turkish administration The
Christian missionary establishments Influence of the great European
Powers.
HAVING recently returned from a pilgrimage to Palestine, I
proceed to describe briefly the aspect of the Holy Land during
the early part of the present year (1883).
C
In the first place, intending travellers would do well to
consider beforehand the object for which they undertake
a journey that, for Christians, is quite unique in its character,
being wholly unlike any other journey that can be undertaken
by them. If, after having heard reports, or seen illustrated books
regarding Picturesque Palestine,' they proceed to the Holy
Land in the same frame of mind as that in which they would
visit Italy or Greece, or even Egypt, they may be disappointed,
and may find their glowing anticipations suddenly chilled. It is
this sort of disappointment which has in Palestine been some-
#
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[
2 F 2
436
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
times called "disillusion." A little forethought would soon
convince a cultured man that brilliant expectations must not
be formed respecting the aspect of Palestine, seeing that the
Land has not any Alpine features, being in altitude of mountains
about equal to Great Britain; had never any exuberant vegeta-
tion, and has been denuded of the forests it once possessed;
had but few fine examples of ancient art, and has long ago lost
most, though not all, of the architectural monuments which
existed; in short, has all the external drawbacks which are to
be expected in a country that for ages was subject to war,
devastation, revolution, and misgovernment. If, then, a man's
mind is bent upon the glories of nature and the beauties of
art mainly, to the exclusion of other subjects, he should hardly
resort to Palestine. If he does, he will probably return declaring
that there is but little to be seen there.
But if his mind be imbued with biblical, scriptural, and
historical associations, with the sentiments relating to the
traditions of the early Christians and of the religious bodies
into which Christendom has since been divided, then Palestine
will more than repay even the utmost labour that he can
devote to its study. To him a pilgrimage to Palestine is the
most instructive and interesting task which can be undertaken
upon this earth. However wide his experience may be of
travel in various lands, it will all pale in significance as com-
pared with the experience which he will gain in the Land of
the Book. However bright his visions may be of sunny climes
in other quarters of the globe, they will be like "ineffectual
fires" after the memories which are left in his soul by the
sacred scenery.
It is from this point of view, then, that I shall endeavour
humbly to portray, with the imperfection which is inevitable,
some of the lessons to be learnt from a tour in Palestine. The
imperfection, too, is aggravated by the circumstance that, while
the subject is ineffably great, the tour must, from the character
of the climate and country, be short.
1
CHAP. XX.
TOURING IN THE HOLY LAND.
437
At the best the tourist can have only eight weeks at a time
for his tour, namely, two months in the spring and two months
in the autumn. The winter is too rainy, snowy, and tem-
pestuous for travelling, while the summer is too arid, sultry,
and feverish. Ardent travellers, braving the midsummer heat
of this land, have sometimes left their bones there. It is difficult
to choose between the two seasons of spring and autumn, each
season having its special advantages. In spring the vegetation
bursts into a brief awakening after a long slumber, the young
crops are waving in the valleys, the fruit orchards are rich
with blossom and foliage, the rugged hillsides are gay with
wild flowers. But then there is the liability to showers or
even rain-storms, that vex the traveller, who is necessarily
a dweller in tents. In the autumn, on the other hand, the
weather is much drier and more settled-a great comfort to the
tourist as he marches. But then the vegetation has become
parched, and the rich colouring of the landscape has been
reduced or lost.
It is always to be remembered that, with the exception of
some thirty miles of carriage road between Jaffa, on the
Mediterranean coast, and Jerusalem, there are no roads. The
only mode of transit is on horseback, even for ladies, though,
under unusual circumstances, a sedan chair or a litter can be
arranged for an invalid. But the whole country is threaded by
bridle-paths, which, though rocky, muddy, or steep in parts,
are quite practicable for an ordinarily good horseman or horse-
The horses, too, gallant and enduring little animals
from the regions beyond the Jordan, are all that can reasonably
be desired in respect of speed, steadiness, and surefootedness.
Complete facilities also exist nowadays on the spot for hiring
interpreters, muleteers, servants, tents, baggage animals, and for
obtaining supplies of food.
woman.
I was obliged by circumstances to essay the journey some-
what before the advantageous time—that is, during the
last days of winter and the first days of spring-and was, in
438
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
consequence, exposed to some storminess of weather and some
vicissitudes of climate. But for the consequent discomfort
(such as it might be considered) there was ample compensation
in the atmospheric phenomena which were witnessed, and in
the cloud effects setting off the sacred landscape or stirring
the imagination of the beholder. It is at such moments that
grand things are beheld. The tempest gathers up in black
masses behind Jerusalem, while gleams of heavenly light
irradiate the city; the Mount of Olives is aglow in the effulgence
of sunset; the Dead Sea in the morning is as dark as Erebus,
and at eventide is an azure-emerald expanse contrasted with
a rosy splendour upon Nebo and Pisgah; a deep gloom settles
upon Carmel, while thunder rolls around the mountain; the
great Hermon, the place of the Transfiguration, pierces the skies
with a snow-clad pyramid; the Jordan rushes along in muddy
whirlpools; the brook Kishon suddenly becomes an unfordable
torrent; the lake of Gennesareth is lashed by furious gusts into
waves like those of the sea; the hail rattles with impetuous
descent on the uplands of Galilee. It may be truly said of
those who are on the hill-tops of Palestine in bad weather
during wintry months, that they see the wonders of the Lord.
At such times the tourist should be wary; the wet rocks
may be slippery for the horses feet; the clayey soil of the
Esdraelon plain may be turned into a quagmire; the brooks
and the ravines may be surcharged with rushing water; the
shore of the Mediterranean may be dotted here and there with
treacherous quicksands. Even if the traveller passes through
all this without harm, there is always some risk of the baggage
being injured or lost. Nevertheless, English ladies year after
year successfully encounter these hardships; though delicately
nurtured at home, they march through Palestine despite the
fatigue, being doubtless sustained by the mental stimulus which
springs from surroundings of matchless interest.
It would be generally thought better to avoid journeying too
early in the year before the spring, with its comparatively
1
CHAP. XX.
PALESTINE MONASTERIES.
439
settled weather, shall have set in. For the tourist, April is, on
the whole, the best month, and constitutes for him the very
cream of the year. Then the sky, though finely diversified
by clouds, is for the most part azure; the ground is carpeted by
"the tender grass that springeth up with clear shining after
rain"; the wild flowers are seen to exceed the array of Solomon
in all his glory. Later on, the month of May is quite tolerable,
though the temperature of course becomes hotter, and the lady
traveller will become sunburnt. After that month the heats of
summer gradually supervene, until the sky becomes like brass
and the earth like iron.
Still, at the best, the tourist ought not to reckon on unin-
terrupted fine weather, and must be prepared for the discomforts
of wind and wet in very small tents. For the tents obtainable
in Palestine are not like those to which British people have
been accustomed in India, and are unavoidably distressful
during a rainfall. The question then arises whether the tourist,
under stress of weather, can find some shelter better than that
of tent canvas? Well, he usually can. The country being
interspersed with villages, some cottage can almost always be
turned into a lodging for a few hours of the night or the day,
even for ladies. But such lodgment is undoubtedly fraught
with discomfort. Far better than this, however, is the shelter
afforded by the convents and monasteries (of the Greek and
the Latin churches) which are to be found in most parts of the
Holy Land. These institutions are very hospitable to European
travellers of all races and of all religious communities. The
reception given by the abbots and friars to the way-worn or
storm-battered tourist is friendly and gracious, being manifestly
inspired by the sentiments of Christian kindness. There is in
their bearing that dignified simplicity which arises from the
contemplation of things beyond this material sphere. The
stone staircase, the long corridor, the vaulted bedchamber, are
refreshing to the eye and invite repose. Such are the conventual
buildings at Bethlehem, at Marsâba (near the Dead Sea), at
J
440
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Jericho, at Nablûs (near Samaria), at Nazareth, at Tiberias (on
the margin of the Sea of Galilee), at Acre, and at Sidon.
Among these structures, the monastery of Marsâba, built on
precipitous heights in the wilderness of Judæa, is one of the
most weird and wildly picturesque features in the land.
Hospitable kindness is also dispensed in emergency by the
establishments of the Anglican missions at Bethlehem, at
Nablûs, and at Nazareth. Mention need not in this respect be
made of Jerusalem, for there the European hotels afford ample
accommodation.
It may further be satisfactory to travellers to know that
British medical aid can be obtained at Jerusalem and at
Nazareth. In event of sickness or of accident, the sufferer or
the invalid, if on the Mediterranean side of the Jordan, can,
without any serious delay or difficulty, be brought within reach
of medical treatment locally, and then carried to one of the
points on the coast, such as Jaffa, Haifa (near Carmel), or
Beyrout, where the steamers touch from week to week. But
if he have penetrated beyond the Jordan, then he can neither
obtain aid locally, nor can he be transported easily to the coast.
Throughout the Holy Land there are places which not only
invite, but constrain the student or pilgrim to pause and linger.
But this is emphatically not the Land for him who is a lover
only of the picturesque without reference to other considerations.
Nevertheless the Land abounds with subjects in detail which
accomplished artists have deemed worthy of their pencil and
brush. There are also views which, though not at all to be
placed in the first or even the second rank of picturesqueness,
are yet absolutely fine; such as the prospect from the top of
Olivet, overlooking Jerusalem; from the mountains overhanging
the Jordan valley, near Jericho; from the heights surrounding
the plain of Esdraelon; from the beetling crags of the pro-
montories between Tyre and Sidon.
Opinions will differ as to the charm or otherwise of a sojourn
at one or other of the principal places. To many, Jerusalem,
CHAP. XX.
SURROUNDINGS OF JERUSALEM.
441
though indescribably interesting for a visit, would seem de-
pressing for a lengthened residence, as the memory of woes
unnumbered is recalled at every turn. Wandering amidst
the scenes of moral and material desolation, the pilgrim says
inwardly, Lord, how long? and wonders when the Almighty
voice, speaking comfort to the Holy City, will pronounce that
her iniquity is pardoned, and her warfare accomplished.
Bethlehem, however, standing on an eminence in the midst
of a cultivated plateau, and facing towards the blue moun-
tains of Moab that bound the horizon as with a wall, will
be admitted by all to be cheerful. Nazareth, too, nestling
beneath heights whence the eye can range from the violet-
coloured Mediterranean to the snow-white Hermon, is truly a
pleasant habitation.
The travelling arrangements of these days facilitate the journey
from England to Palestine, in a degree which would have seemed
incredible to the last generation. The easiest and the quickest
way from England is by Brindisi and Alexandria. By this route,
a traveller, leaving London with the weekly Indian mail, may
start on Friday evening and arrive at Jerusalem on the evening
of the Saturday week, which represents a journey of eight days
merely. The only fatigue is the railway journey of two days
and nights, but even then there is sleeping accommodation in
the railway carriage. The rest of the journey is by sea from
Brindisi to Alexandria, thence to Port Said (head of Suez
Canal), and to Jaffa, the port for Jerusalem. From Jaffa there
is a drive by carriage of eight hours to the Holy City.
Having thus mentioned some of the points which concern the
tourist in Palestine, I proceed to treat briefly of the biblical and
scriptural associations relating to the Holy Land.
A primary advantage of the journey is this, that thereby the
reading of learned books, which at home may seem difficult,
becomes vitalised and energised; indeed, endued with a new
light and a fresh interest. The mind is at once receptive, and
points, which were apprehended with dulness before, are now
442
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
}
vividly impressed on the imagination. However well read a
man may have previously been, he will find his knowledge
systematised and his ideas perfected by a tour in Palestine.
eye
The intending traveller ought to perform his preparatory
reading, or at least refresh his memory, and verify the facts
in his books, before he touches the shore of Palestine. Once
arrived there, he will enjoy only the scantiest leisure for study.
As explained already, climatic reasons will cause his tour to be
rapid and urgent. He will probably be riding or standing about
from morning till evening; and he will retire early to rest, as
he must rise betimes. Apart from the many works to which
learned persons refer, there are three books which a well-informed
tourist should read, in part at least, before he starts-namely,
Tristram's writings, Robinson's travels, and Thompson's 'The
Land and the Book.' He would do well to carry with him
Stanley's 'Sinai and Palestine,' and Farrar's 'Life of Christ,' as
both these books are written in a manner which fixes the
and assists the memory. If he fails to do this, he must at all
events take the Palestine exploration survey map, and one or
other of the recognised handbooks by Murray or Baedeker. The
handbook of Baedeker contains accurate information in a com-
pact form; but it is, from its nature and composition, somewhat
too condensed to be attractively interesting. The handbook of
Murray is more expansive, and is written in a literary style;
the work is the fruit of study on the spot, and affords much
delightful reading. It is therefore better suited than any other
handbook for the cultured traveller. Above all things the
pilgrim should always have in his pocket a Bible, which he
can open on the instant as he rides along, and to which he
can at need refer without dismounting from his horse. Of all
possible guide-books for Palestine, the first and the last is the
Bible itself.
At the outset the traveller will be disappointed, perhaps even
shocked, by the superstitions which have sometimes gathered
round the holiest things in Palestine. Occasionally he will be
CHAP. XX.
THE HOLY PLACES.
443
told silly tales which are quite unworthy of Christian intelli-
gence. But he can shut his ears to that which his understanding
plainly rejects, and can shake off the temporary disturbance
which may have arisen in his thoughts.
Sometimes, too, he may deplore the unseemly and violent
disputes which spring up between the members of the several
religious Orders. For instance, it is melancholy for him to see
Turkish sentries (who are necessarily Muhammadans) mounting
guard at Bethlehem over the very spot where, according to
Christian tradition, Jesus was born. On inquiry he will learn
that this strange arrangement has been rendered necessary by
the contests between some of the monks. But the unfavourable
impression will soon wear off as he observes the religious dis-
cipline prevailing in the monasteries throughout the Land, and
the quiet, saintly lives led by the monks at large.
Further, although some Holy Places are indicated by tradition
only, which cannot be precisely verified, or which are even
rendered doubtful by scientific inquiry, still an exceeding in-
terest attaches to them as being the spots venerated by devout
Christians during many centuries, and consecrated by pious
memories of many generations. For instance, some of us may
not feel assured that the place known to Christendom as the
Holy Sepulchre is actually the spot where Our Lord was buried
and rose again, still we revere the place, remembering how many
historic persons and how many pilgrims, men and women,
whose names, as we believe, are written in the Book of Life,
have knelt and worshipped there during successive ages.
The list is very long indeed of places which are mentioned in
the Bible, but which have not yet been identified by modern
research.
But apart from all places regarding which any reasonable
doubt may exist, there is quite a wealth of known sites which
are indissolubly bound up with the record of both the Old and
the New Testament. Respecting these sites there is historic
certainty based on scientific inquiry. Imperfect, then, must be
444
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
the knowledge that fails to appreciate such scenes; hard must
be the heart, and dull the imagination that is not touched by
them.
Respecting the Old Testament, the most antique site is Bethel,
a short day's march, say about ten miles, north of Jerusalem.
From the heights surrounding Bethel the spectator looks down
into the valley of the Jordan on the one side, and can just
descry the sea-line of the Mediterranean on the other. Here he
sees the eminence whence Lot and Abraham, casting their eyes
to the right and the left, decided on the division of the Land
between them. Here he sojourns close to the fountain where
the cattle of Abraham used to drink, and Sarah filled her water-
pitcher, to the spot where the Patriarch encamped, where Jacob
dreamt of the ladder ascending to heaven, and where Jeroboam
set up his unhallowed altar. Around the Dead Sea may be seen
traces of the sulphurous and bituminous elements which, ignited
by volcanic agency, destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah with almost
instantaneous conflagration, and turned the then smiling or
fertile basin of the Dead Sea into a truly death-like wilderness.
The mound may be distinctly observed, which is still called
Dothan, and which bore that name in the days when the sons
of Jacob sold their brother Joseph to the Ishmaelite caravan on
its way to Egypt. On the site of Joshua's Jericho there is a
pleasant resting-place to-day, amidst the irrigated gardens which
are but the feeble successors of the famous gardens that once
made Jericho one of the queens of the East, and the envy of
surrounding tribes. Climbing the stony heights of Ai, we may
discern the wooded hollow where the Israelite soldiers lay in
ambush before delivering their assault. At Shiloh we have the
very spot where the Tabernacle, with the Ark of the Covenant,
was set up, and near which the twelve tribes were assembled
yearly for their sacred festival. Here is a structure raised in
subsequent ages, and now ruined; a tall and aged terebinth tree
overhangs the ruins, stretching its withered arms and weeping,
as it were, with its dependent branches over the desolation of
CHAP. XX.
SCRIPTURAL SITES.
445
what once was the holiest of holies. At moonlight in Ajalon,
the moon seems to stand still over the valley once terraced with
fruit gardens, but now covered with the débris of destruction.
We may ascend the commanding hill of Mizpeh, where the
assembled Israelites elected Saul to be king, swearing fealty to
him, and the hillock of Gibeon, where Solomon received from
God the promise of wisdom and understanding. There are yet
the pools whence the greatest of Jewish monarchs brought
water by aqueducts to the Holy City. The barley crops still
grow on the very fields (near Bethlehem) where Ruth gleaned
in the lands of Boaz. The torrent-bed in the vale of Elah still
has smooth stones, of the same sort as those which David chose
for his sling in the combat with Goliath. Gilboa may be iden-
tified, where the victorious Philistines charged uphill, crushed
the Israelites, slaying both the king and the heir apparent, and
where David uttered his poetic lamentation over Saul and
Jonathan. The caves may be traced in one or other of which
Elijah received sustenance from the birds, and the brook Cherith
still runs pellucid. On the summit of Carmel is to be seen the
place where Elijah bade his servant watch for the little cloud
rising from the sea; and whence Elisha descried the Shunammite
coming across the plain to him for succour on behalf of her
lost son.
In and about Jerusalem itself, despite the superincumbent
débris, together with the confusion caused by sieges, by spoli-
ation, and by the Moslem conquest, we may perceive many
points that have been consecrated by the record of the Old
Testament. There are still to be observed the tomb of David
on the top of Zion; the hollow dividing Zion from Moriah; the
quarries whence the stones were taken for the sacred edifices;
the subterranean structures beneath the Temple itself; the
valley of Jehoshaphat and the ravine of Kidron between the
temple site and Olivet; the rock-hewn village of Siloam
the gloomy Tophet, horrid with memories of Moloch sacrifice;
the vale of Hinnom, walled in with rocks and adorned with
;;
446
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
olive-groves; the King's gardens, whereby the last of the Hebrew
sovereigns escaped for the moment from the besieging Assyrians.
From one view on the road between Samaria and Galilee we
behold a scene fraught with the memories of both the Old and
the New Testament. At one comprehensive glance the eye
takes in Carmel, Gilboa, Tabor, Little Hermon, Jezreel, and at
the same moment Nazareth, Galilee, the hills of Tiberias, with
the Great Hermon overlooking all. Perhaps there is no other
view on earth which commands so many sacredly classical
points as this.
In the Old Testament the sacred topography is set forth in
but few words, and yet with such marvellous fidelity that iden-
tification after several thousand years is satisfactorily possible.
The inspired writing, in this as in numberless other respects,
commands our veneration and serves as a model for human
thought. In the New Testament the notice of localities is not
always specific in an equal degree.
Nevertheless, if we cannot identify for a certainty the emi-
nence of Calvary, and cannot know exactly the site of the
Crucifixion, yet we have a reasonable conviction regarding the
sites of many among the events of Our Lord's life on earth. We
note, with the confidence arising from scientific geography, the
spot where He must in childhood have gone daily with His
Mother to draw water from the fountain at Nazareth; where
He received baptism from John on the bank of the Jordan;
where He endured Temptation on the arid top of a scarped hill;
where He propounded the practical doctrines of Christianity
near the Lake of Gennesareth; where He chose His disciples
from among the fishermen of the then thriving shore, whose
fisheries are now extinct; where He ministered constantly at
Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Magdala, whose sites are
now overgrown with thistles; where, standing on Galilean
uplands, He pointed to a city built on a hill; where He un-
folded the spiritual character of Christianity to the woman at
the old well (now dried up and ruined) near the base of
CHAP. XX.
SPOTS FREQUENTED BY OUR LORD.
447
Gerizim; where He laboured for good among cities freshly
embellished by Herod, Jericho (the new), Samaria, and Tiberias;
where stood His favoured village of Bethany; where, to avoid
the malice of the Jews, He rested awhile among the stony
heights of Ephraim; where, looking at the rocky eminence near
Cæsarea Phillippi (now Bânias), He declared that on Peter the
Church should be built as on a rock; where, on His last and
triumphant entry into Jerusalem, He paused at the angle of the
road whence the Temple burst into full view, and then wept
aloud over the fate of the City; where, after receiving the judg-
ment of Pilate, He moved with the death procession towards the
place of Crucifixion.
It is manifest from the configuration of the country that the
so-called roads they are really footpaths or bridlepaths-
must be the self-same tracks as those by which Our Lord
passed to and fro during His life on earth. Such are the lines
or ways which now lead, as they must have then led, from
Jericho by a sublime glen up to Bethany at the head of a long
valley commanding a prospect of the trans-Jordan mountains,
from Jerusalem past Bethel and Shiloh to Samaria, from
Shechem by Engannin and Jezreel to Nazareth, from the
heights over Nazareth by Cana of Galilee and Magdala to
Capernaum. When the traveller, passing laboriously along such
tracks from sunrise to sunset, considers Whose eyes gazed
on this landscape, Whose feet climbed these rocks and trod
this dust, Whose head bore this vertical sun or this pitiless
storm, Whose wearied limbs rested in this shade, Whose lips
drank of this rill or this fountain, Whose voice resounded
amidst this scenery, Whose words caught up every image
suggested by the habits of this people, the fruits of these fields,
the flowers of these banks, the birds of this air-then he feels his
mind lifted out of its poor self, and his "darkness lighted with
the blaze of the bright ranks that guard the eternal throne.”
Having touched on the sacred and scriptural associations of
448
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Palestine, I propose next to touch upon the secular and his-
torical, apart from the religious, associations of the Land, as
they present themselves to the traveller of to-day.
Now, in respect to ancient history, though Palestine has often
been the unhappy hunting-ground where imperial hunters have
striven for the price of dominion, though it has been succes-
sively overrun by Assyrians, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks,
Romans, it has fewer architectural remains than might perhaps
be expected by the traveller. The tribes dwelling between
the Jordan and the Mediterranean-whom the Jews dispossessed
partially, but never entirely left but few marks on the
Land. The plain of Esdraelon, the scene of the future Arma-
geddon, stretching from the base of Carmel, near Acre, on the
Mediterranean, right across to the valley of the Jordan, near
Ramoth Gilead, divides the Galilean uplands from the hilly
plateau of Samaria and Jerusalem, and is, on the whole, the
most sacredly classical plain on the earth. But it has no
architectural remains to rivet the traveller's gaze, although in
the vigorous words of Canon Farrar, "it had been for centuries
the battle-field of nations-Pharaohs and Ptolemies, Emirs and
Arsacids, Judges and Consuls, had all contended for the mastery
of that smiling tract-it had glittered with the lances of the
Amalekites, it had trembled under the chariot-wheels of Se-
sostris, it had echoed the twanging bowstrings of Sennacherib,
it had been trodden by the phalanxes of Macedonia, it had
clashed with the broadswords of Rome."
One class of objects is, however, to be found all over Palestine,
and it consists of the caves, sometimes natural, but mostly
artificial. These were occasionally excavated in order to serve
as cells for hermits. But usually they were sepulchres, and
from early ages the prevailing practice was to bury the dis-
tinguished dead in rock-hewn tombs. Here and there the
hill-sides, or the rocky flanks of mountains, are honeycombed,
as it were, with these cell-caves or tomb-caves. These excava-
CHAP. XX.
TRANS-JORDAN EXPLORATION.
449
tions are not, indeed, at all to be compared with the rock-cut
chambers of India, but are strangely interesting, and carry back
the beholder's mind to the days of old.
But, if the antiquarian remains between the Mediterranean
and the Jordan be scanty, still, beyond the Jordan, that is, on
the eastern, or Arabian, side of that famous river, they are
comparatively abundant. Here, amidst the tribes, whom the
Israelites overcame before advancing into the Promised Land of
Canaan, in the country of Nebo and Pisgah, of Gilead, Bashan,
and Rabbath Ammon, are to be seen the remnants of hoar
antiquity. Here, too, may be traced several cities evidently the
seats of a lost civilization. We are often unable to conjecture by
what race or what nationality they were founded. It is to this
region that the operations of the Palestine Exploration, having
proved very successful in the Holy Land on the Mediterranean
side of the Jordan, were recently extended. They were at the
outset resisted by the wild tribes of the neighbouring deserts,
and then were for a time suspended by the order of Turkish
authority. Such an interruption, ordered by the Turks, was
naturally very unpopular with the scientific world in England,
and occasioned some remark even in political circles. Allow-
ance, indeed, ought to be made by us for the embarrassment of
the Turks in such a case as this, for they dread the responsibility
which would attach itself to their administration if the European
explorers were murdered or outraged. Still it does seem
monstrous that in the Trans-Jordan region-which is not wholly
desolate, being partially cultivated and having even some towns
-certain wild tribes should be able to stop explorations of
high interest to the scientific public, and, what is more, to the
Christian world.
Then, adjoining Canaan, and generally within the limits
assigned by the Old Testament for the heritage of Israel, the
Phoenicians have left on the face of the country countless marks
of their mighty handiwork. These marks, if abandoned to the
ordinary process of ruin and decay, would prove to be well-nigh
2 G
X
CHAP. XX.
450
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
*
indelible. But the ruthless hand of man himself has been directed,
with inauspicious skill, to obliterate the traces of human art
and industry during the "juventus mundi." The antique cities,
with their abundant masses of masonry, have been used as stone
quarries by the builders of modern cities. The deeply-laid
foundations have been torn up, the massive bastions under-
mined, the rounded pillars overthrown, the wondrous monoliths
broken up, in order to provide materials for the structures of
to-day. Heathen temples have been rifled of their bevilled
basements, and despoiled of their tapering columns, for the
purpose of beautifying Christian churches. The spoliation is
actually stimulated by the consideration that the ancient
masonry is greatly superior to any work which is executed in
modern times. It is not so much that equal work cannot be
performed nowadays, for within certain limits, anything is
possible to engineering science, but that the cost would be
almost prohibitory.
Thus, the traveller, riding along the beautiful coast from Acre
northwards, past Tyre and Sidon, to the Lebanon, finds the
whole way strewn with monuments of ages prior to the time of
authentic. history. His eye will be caught by a fountain, or
a reservoir, or a cistern, or a terrace, or a paved floor, or a
pedestal. Here he perceives that the jutting headland of wave-
washed rocks was once crowned with summer houses for the
enjoyment of sea breezes. There he stumbles over the débris
of cities with long frontages and palatial edifices, regarding all
which there is nothing known. At every step a mysterious
voice seems whispering in his ear, "siste viator:" "stop, for thy
tread is on an empire's dust."
At Tyre he can trace the points of its strategic and com-
mercial topography; the old city built on the main land of the
coast; the tight little island which was the seat of maritime
superiority and where an almost invincible citadel was fortified;
the sheltered harbour lying between the island and the shore,
where the finest fleets of ancient commerce used to anchor; the
CHAP. XX.
TYRE AND SIDON.
451
approaches whereby Alexander the Great with his Greeks be-
leaguered and subdued the Tyrian might; the causeway which
the Macedonian besiegers piled up with earth right athwart the
strait between the coast and the island, in order that they might
pass on the final assault of the sea-girt fastness. The city site
is quite uninhabited now. But on the ground which was once
the island, and is now the little peninsula, there is a town
which, by its insignificance, mocks the pristine grandeur of
Tyre.
At Sidon, on the contrary, the traveller can find nothing to
remind him of the mighty past. A pleasant Syrian town, over-
looking a sunny strand, a modern and picturesque fortress on a
rock in the sea, connected with the town by an arched causeway,
environs of orange groves, bending with the weight of golden
fruit, and backed by the spurs of the Lebanon range-represent
that which has succeeded the Sidon which was the mother and
the queen of ancient commerce.
North of Sidon and near Beyrout, after an ascent of several
hundred feet up a hill known as that of Derah-al-Kalaat, the
traveller reaches a wonderful situation. On the summit he finds
the ruins of a Phoenician temple; its massive pediments form
a bold foreground, and its columns of amazing girth stand up
majestically against the azure sky. Whichever way he turns
he perceives a background worthy of the architecture; looking
westwards he sees at his feet, far beneath him, the promontory
and city of Beyrout projecting into the blue Mediterranean ;
looking eastwards he sees the hills, darkling with pine forests,
and surmounted by the dazzling snows of the Lebanon peaks.
Rarely is such a foreground combined with a background so
lovely and diversified as this.
At Baalbec again, at the period which intervenes between
winter and spring, when the heaviest snow usually falls, a
wondrous combination of foreground and background is to be
seen by the traveller. The ruins-which are among the most
famous of ancient times and represent structures originally
2 G 2
452
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
raised by the Phoenicians, and subsequently built over by the
Greeks and Romans-rise up magnificently in masses of reddish-
grey. In ordinary seasons, their long shadows under an eastern
sun are cast upon an arid drab-coloured ground, and their back-
ground consists of hills, bleak, sterile, with yellow ochre hues.
But the aspect of these unattractive surroundings is changed at
this particular season, when winter asserts itself strongly before
yielding to spring. Then the low hills are temporarily snow-
clad and the whole ground is whitened with snow. Consequently
the shadows of the lofty pillars are flung in dark grey upon
the snow-white ground, and the sombre mass of primeval
architecture is contrasted with a background of snowy hills
which at sunrise are lit up with a fire of golden splendour, and
at sunset are glowing with roseate tints.
After the Phoenician remains, there are monuments, though
of a lesser calibre, belonging to the Greeks and the Romans.
Following up his victory over the Persians on the banks of the
Issus, to the north of Syria, Alexander the Great marched down
the Tyrian coast. Then, having reduced Tyre, after the stoutest
resistance that he ever encountered during his world-wide con-
quests, he determined on making a military road-line along the
mountainous sea-shore. So he began a road which his successors
carried on, and which the Romans completed. This roadway
still serves for the traveller; it passes over the brows of
several precipices whose bases are lashed by the raging surf.
But though it has been left quite untouched and unimproved by
modern administration, yet so well was it engineered in classic
times, and so securely was it then constructed, that the rider of
to-day passes along it without a qualm of misgiving, despite its
apparently dangerous situation.
Next, under Roman auspices, Herod the Great became a
mighty architect. It is strange that he, a man of the vilest
disposition and the basest habits, should in this respect have
evinced taste and culture. In fact, however, his efforts in this
direction are attested by the rows of pillars on the hill-top of
1
1
CHAP. XX.
THE HERODIAN AGE.
453
Samaria, the structures on the margin of the Galilean Sea, the
buildings at Herodium near Hebron, and the remnants of the
new Jericho, where he built for delectation those palatial
summer-houses in which he closed a mis-spent life by an
agonising death.
In Herod's time, just before and after the Christian era,
Cæsarea, on the Mediterranean, just north of Jaffa (now called
Kaisariyah), Cæsarea Philippi, near the foot of Great Hermon
(now called Banias), Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee (now called
Tabariyah), Neapolis, near Samaria (now called Nablûs), were
the rising towns and the fashionable watering-places, the resort
of all who were wealthy, and the centre of all that was gay in
a pleasure-seeking age. The classic lovers of fashion in that
day little recked of the religious movement then beginning in
the neighbouring villages, which was destined to shake the
world. The architectural work, begun by Herod, was carried
on by the Romans. Of this work the half-obliterated traces
may be discerned by the traveller of to-day.
But beyond Canaan the Romans pushed their administration
across the Jordan into the heart of Moab and its adjacent
regions. There the traces are to be observed of Roman cause-
ways, theatres, aqueducts, quadrangles, fanes, and fortifications.
When rapid inroads were made upon the Roman Empire by
the followers of Muhammad, mosques were, of course, erected
in Palestine. Of these mosques one only can be placed in the
first rank, namely, the mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, built on
the very site of the Jewish Temple. This mosque-though not
equal to the fairest edifices erected in honour of Islam, such as
those at Delhi, Agra, Constantinople, Broussa, Cairo, Isfahan,
Samarcand—is yet grand in size and rich in ornament. Its
noble dome is now the most conspicuous object in Jerusalem,
just as the Duomo is in Florence. In many places there are
subterranean grottos of amazing picturesqueness, tenanted by
ascetics of Islam and visited by Muhammadan pilgrims. Some
of the Muhammadan cemeteries, too, attract the travellers'
i
L
454
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAP. XX.
attention, such as that under the walls of Jerusalem, just outside
the old enclosure of the Temple; and that established among the
ruins of Tyre, where funerals belonging to a modern civilization
are held amidst the sepulchres of antique nationalities, and the
associations of death in its various forms are perpetuated from
age to age.
When the rule of the crescent in Palestine was for a time
interrupted by the soldiers of the Cross, the Crusaders enriched
the Land with churches, chapels, and hospices, all of which are
now, with but few exceptions, in ruins. Nearly every site that
has been consecrated by the record of the Old or the New
Testament, is still marked by the remains of some edifice dating
from the Crusades. If the traveller stands on the ridge of
Bethel, or rests by the well of Jacob, or broods over the desolate
Shiloh, or mounts the hill of Samaria, there, right under his eye,
will be the fragments of hewn stones, once piled up by the pious
and heroic hands of medieval chivalry. In the neighbourhood of
Nazareth he may study the rendezvous where the last Christian
King of Jerusalem mustered his forces for the final struggle
with the Saracens-the battle-field where the European knights
in heavy armour and mounted on sluggish horses, under a fierce
sun, were beaten by the light-armed horsemen of Islam on their
swift-footed steeds-the memorable hillock where the defeated
Christians rallied round the Cross, their standard, and were
slain as they stood. He remembers, too, that this hillock is the
very place which some of the best authorities believe to be the
Mount of Beatitudes. How wonderful is the thought that this
terrific scene, for a long time fatal to Christian rule in the Holy
Land, should have been enacted on the spot where the Sermon
on the Mount was preached.
To this period pertain the monuments left by the Templars
and the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who were truly the
magnates of Christian chivalry. The ruins of the religious
buildings belonging to the Order of St. John attest the greatness
of its organization. At Ascalon, however, dedicated to the
CHAP. XX.
MODERN CANAANITES.
455
memory of the English Richard, the lion-hearted king, and at
Acre, the supreme scene of knightly heroism, there is little to
remind the traveller of that glorious history.
The Turks, after a possession of several centuries, have not
succeeded in setting up any noteworthy monuments of their rule
in Palestine.
But within the last hundred years the disputes between rival
sections of the Turkish nationality have invited the interference
of European Powers. The traveller, midway in the Esdraelon
plain, sees the place where Napoleon's troops, under Kleber,
contending against fearful odds, were victorious over the Turks.
At Acre he hears the well-remembered tale of the British
bombardment under Napier. It is melancholy for him to reflect
that amidst scenery consecrated by the Gospel of Peace, there
should have been heard the thunder of French and British
artillery.
Having thus sketched briefly the Holy Land, I shall next
advert to the people who dwell in it.
The inhabitants of Palestine to-day bear the same name as
that which is familiar to us in Egypt, that is, "fellahin," or
plural of fellah. Now the fellah of Palestine, like the fellah
of Egypt, is the peasant proprietor, the son of the soil. In
Palestine he is the descendant of the aborigines, to whom the
Old Testament has given a deathless celebrity.
Travelling in the region between the Mediterranean and the
Jordan, we behold the peasants toiling in their fields, we reflect
that they are the Canaanites of to-day, and we call to mind
the chequered fortunes which their race has undergone. Their
ancestors were the Philistines, the Amorites, and the Jebusites.
Before the Jewish invasion, these tribes worshipped their gods
with rites generally barbarous and often shocking. After that
event they were not all converted to the Jewish faith; on the
contrary, they but too often perverted the Jewish nation to
their religious practices. When the Assyrian power and the
Persian monarchy subdued their land, they were doubtless
}
456
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
as apt to follow strange deities as they had proved unwilling to
believe in the one true God. In some tracts they yielded
sullenly to the Jewish invasion, in others they were forcibly
dispossessed. But they often turned to rend their invaders, and
the chief tribe among them, the Philistines, held their own all
along the Mediterranean coast, and thus confined the Jews
to the mountainous tracts inland. With almost ceaseless
struggle they maintained their nationality until the Greek
conquest under Alexander the Great, when they, doubtless,
were obliged to add the Hellenic deities to their pantheon.
Under Alexander's successors they must have passed through a
dreadful time, dwelling on the battlefield between the Græco-
Egyptian dynasty on the Nile and the Græco-Assyrian dynasty
on the Euphrates. At length they came under the settled
sway of Rome and admitted the Latin deities to the celestial
categories. Under the Herodian dynasty they had religious
peace, and did not suffer themselves to be disturbed by the
Christian movement. When the Roman power was Chris-
tianised, they still failed to be turned towards the pure faith of
their rulers, and remained quietly in their idolatry. Their rest
was rudely disturbed by the Muhammadan irruption. Their
former conquerors had either left them to the enjoyment of
their religious observances, or had been satisfied by their
allowing to the gods of the new ruler a share in their veneration
in company with their original gods. The Muhammadan con-
queror, however, would accept no compromise whatever. Under
him the one god, absolutely indivisible, must alone be worshipped.
At the point of the sword he compelled the Canaanites to
acknowledge the unity of his god. Having accepted this faith
compulsorily in the first instance, they afterwards adhered to it
willingly and ex animo. There is something in the faith of
Islam which has always induced nations to cling to it fanatically,
although they have been brought into its fold, not by convic-
tion, but by force. Thus the Canaanites remained Muham-
madans till the time of the Crusades. Whether the Crusading
CHAP. XX.
CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE.
457
Power, having won the dominion, converted them largely to
Christianity, there is no certain knowledge, but it probably did
not. They must have suffered sadly during the final contest
between the Christians and the Saracens, and, after the utter
defeat of the King of Jerusalem and the chief of the Templars,
between Nazareth and Tiberias in A.D. 1187, they, at all events,
relapsed into Islam, in which persuasion they have remained
devotedly to the present moment.
Owing to war and misrule, their numbers have been cruelly
thinned, while the fiercer, sturdier and wilder portions of their
character have been hardened. They have independent feelings,
but are destitute of the aptitude for social organization whereby
alone their independence could be secured. The circumstances
of their country conduce to isolation; the hills hard to traverse,
and the raviny valleys tend to divide tribe from tribe, and
hinder anything like national federation. Thus they have
always been the prey of more organized races. Habituated to
resist oppression as best they might, they have had their disposi-
tion soured; and to an external observer they present a some-
what unamiable appearance. Charitable consideration ought,
however, to be given to their past sufferings and to their present
disadvantages, while their sturdy industry is always to be admired.
The traveller, to the south of Jerusalem especially, is struck
by the countless signs of former agriculture and habitation, as
compared with the waste lands and the scanty villages now to
be seen. The truth is, that those tracts where agricultural
capital is needed have become deserted or neglected; while
those tracts which can be cultivated by labour only, and without
expense, are still fertile and well tilled. In those palmy days,
when the Land flowed with milk and honey, long lines of walls,
one above the other, were constructed along the steep hillsides
with the stones that lay about in abundance. Thus terraces
were formed which gathered up and retained the productive
soil, the real "humus." Thus, too, were arranged the olive
groves, the fig orchards, the vineyards of Palestine, which made
458
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
its agriculture and horticulture famous for all ages. Those who
have seen the terraced culture in the Lebanon or in the
Himalayas, can readily imagine how beautiful must have been
the same culture in Judæa of old. But such culture as this
essentially requires capital, both to maintain the long succession
of terrace walls and to keep open the irrigation channels. With
warring and plundering, however, capital makes wings for itself
and disappears, the terrace walls become dilapidated, and the
fertilising watercourses choked up. Down come the torrents of
rain, and the water, instead of being husbanded for human usė,
proves actually destructive. For it tears up the fertile surface,
and carries off the "humus," which is no longer retained by the
terrace walls. This is the process by which the gardens of
Judæa, immortalised by Scripture, have been almost irreparably
swept away.
But in the flat vales or in the champaign, where the soil has
been from the configuration of the country, permanently main-
tained by nature, the cultivation is still excellent, and is pushed
on to its utmost limits, even to the very verge of the unculturable
waste. Thus it is that the littoral tract of Sharon, the plain of
Esdraelon, the valley at the foot of Gerizim, the plateau around
Bethlehem, the level areas amidst the Galilean hills, still
display waving harvests as of yore.
In the valley of the Jordan, and in the eastern region beyond
it, the people are the Bedouins, or the Badawis, the descendants of
the Moabites and the Amalekites, and of the tribes that mustered
under the standard of Og, King of Bashan. They have the
virtues which usually characterize the sons of the desert.
Though capable of a certain sort of self-government locally,
they are thievish in temper, and look upon their neighbours'
property as a natural hunting-ground. In their own homes
they are better cultivators than might at first thought be
expected. Beyond the Jordan, indeed, there is much cultiva-
tion and habitation to astonish those who may have regarded
that region as a part of the great wilderness.
CHAP. XX.
THE JEWS IN PALESTINE.
459
Though the Muhammadan Canaanites are not likely to be
fanatical from their own disposition, their priesthood consists
largely of foreigners from Arabia or Turkey, and these priests
communicate a tinge of fanaticism to the population in many
places, as may be perceived by every traveller.
There is still a small colony of Samaritans, who are interesting
ethnically, but are not of any national or tribal importance.
In the thoughts of those who are considering the people of
Palestine, the Jews will be uppermost. That several among
the Jewish tribes never succeeded in winning the heritage
which was allotted to them in the Promised Land under the
Theocracy, is to be understood from the language of the Old
Testament. This fact is, perhaps, best realised by those who
travel in the country. The Jews, indeed, occupied the central
territories, and possessed the general dominion of the Land; but
over many divisions of it they had only a partial hold. Their
territorial tenure having been interrupted by the captivity, was
to some extent restored under Ezra, but was again depressed
under Alexander's successors, until it was rehabilitated under
the glorious régime of the Maccabees. When they were exter-
minated or expatriated after the capture and destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus, they never returned in force to their native
Land, which must for ever be endeared to them by associations
of divine significance, and by valorous records of which even
the most permanently successful nations on earth might be
proud. Indeed, all the influences, which affected the Jews, also
cherished a patriotic valour and a poetic temperament.
They retained, indeed, a hold upon Tiberias for some centuries
after the Christian era, and in mediæval times they occupied
Safed (between Nazareth and Capernaum), both which places
they rendered illustrious by Rabbinical learning. Otherwise
they have never colonised, or reoccupied as cultivators, their
ancestral Land. There are, indeed, a few thousands of them
(the number is said not to exceed 12,000) now in the Land,
gathered in the four cities deemed holy, Jerusalem, Hebron,
460
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
Tiberias, and Safêd. These are really immigrants, in birth and
language foreigners, coming from all parts of Europe and some
parts of Asia. Many come to sojourn as pilgrims, and many to
lay their bones in the sacred soil. Their demeanour in Palestine
is instructive to the student of human nature as showing the
intensity which affection can acquire and the depth to which
sentiment can penetrate. They mourn over the ruins of
their once beautiful Safêd, crowning the most conspicuous
site in Palestine, but overthrown by an earthquake in 1837.
They love the consecrated earth at Tiberias, where the great
Rabbis of the medieval school repose. They kiss the rocks
at Hebron, near Macphelah's cave, in reverence to that tomb
of their patriarch forefather, which they are precluded by the
Muhammadans from entering. They silently approach the stones
which remain of Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem, and read the
penitential psalms of David with tears and sobs. Once a week,
on Fridays, they meet at this venerated spot to wail with
passionate lamentation, and to pray that the kingdom, of which
the monument is before their eyes, may be restored. In the
valley of Jehoshaphat the vast number of their graves compared
with the paucity of the living inhabitants of their race, shows
how for many generations they have come in the evening of life
to Jerusalem as their final resting place-vedere e poi morir.
Seeing all this, the traveller realises the fact that "to them the
very dust is dear." Indeed, it has been said of them, with literal
accuracy, that "they moisten the stones of Jerusalem with their
tears, and whiten the sides of Olivet with their tombstones."
Visions still float before the mind of Christendom respecting
beneficence to be displayed towards the Jews in their own land.
Missions have been established for their conversion to Chris-
tianity. Projects have been formed for their colonisation.
Public works have been designed with a view, among other
things, for their immigration. Long rows of cottages have been
charitably built to accommodate the poorest among them. But
whether these well-meant efforts will produce any large result,
CHAP. XX.
STRIKING SCENES.
461
no man can say. Recently, when the Jews suffered persecution
in southern Russia, and were either expelled or fled from that
land of their adoption, there was some hope that they might be
settled in Palestine. But the Turkish Government of the land
does not seem to have encouraged the plan, and failure has
ensued, be the cause what it may. Nothing, then, is occurring
as yet to lift even a corner of that veil of obscurity which hides
the immediate future of the Jewish race.
In the appearance of the people who now dwell in Palestine,
there is much to attract the poet's eye, and to employ the
painter's brush. Hardihood and endurance are stamped on the
aspect of all classes. At some places, too, there is much physical
beauty to be seen among the peasantry, as at Nazareth and
Hebron. The habits and ways of the people, assembled in
groups, are picturesque in the extreme. A painter, having a
poetic insight and a masterly hand, might be thankful to have
an opportunity of depicting the Jews pressing their foreheads
reverently against the massive remains of Solomon's Temple-
the Christians crowding the sacred bathing-place of Jordan at
Easter-tide—the Latin priests chanting mass in the dimly
lighted chapel in the subterranean tomb of the Virgin-the
worshippers of the Greek Church kissing the stone-cut grave,
where with the eye of faith they see their Lord buried—the
women drawing water at sunset from the ancient fountains of
Nazareth and Cana of Galilee the armed parties, decked with
eastern paraphernalia, winding round the base of Gerizim-the
Moslem pilgrim sinking exhausted before shrines in the cave
beneath the very site of the Temple-the caravan trending slowly
along the glorious glen that leads down from Bethany to Jericho
-the black tents of the Bedouin encampment, dotting under the
mid-day glare, the sterile heights of the Judean wilderness and
facing towards the distant mountains of Moab.
Having thus briefly described the Holy Land, its sacred and
historical associations, and the people who dwell in it, I shall,
in conclusion, advert to its political conditions.
$
462
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
The Land, it will be remembered, is under Turkish rule,
That régime has been confirmed since 1840, when England took
an active part in aiding the Turkish Sultan against the
Egyptian Khedive, and bombarded Acre with the fleet of Napier
and Stopford. Morally, then, England has been, in part at
least, responsible for the consequences resulting to Palestine
from Turkish rule. If these have not been good, they are,
perhaps, not worse than the consequences would have been had
Egyptian administration been permanently established there.
Among the many Turkish Pashas who have appeared in
Palestine, many have doubtless been fair examples of the
Muhammadan gentleman. Some, however, have exemplified
the evil effect which the uncontrolled exercise of despotic power
may have upon human nature. An instance of this forces
itself on the attention of the traveller at Acre. His eye is
caught by a mosque of some interest and beauty which is called
the mosque of Jezzâr Pasha-a strange title, for Jezzâr in
Arabic means butcher. Why, he asks, is it called the mosque
of the butcher prefect? It appears, on reference and inquiry,
that this was a real title assumed by a barbarous Turk, who with
hardihood and capacity rose to power, who gloried in deeds of
cruelty and blood, who combined fanaticism with ferocity,
performing a pilgrimage to Mecca, and finishing a mis-spent
life by building a mosque in honour of the religion which by
his conduct he had dishonoured.
During the first half of the nineteenth century much disorder
existed in Palestine; highway robbery was rife, the roads were
often unsafe even for British travellers, and instances occurred
recalling the immortal memory of the Parable which told of the
wayfarer left for dead by robbers who was tended by the good
Samaritan. English ladies occasionally underwent trouble from
thieves and danger from bandits. But within the last twenty
years the police administration has been much improved; and
travelling is now practically safe from the Mediterranean coast
to the mountain ridges which overlook the Jordan valley. But
I
CHAP. XX.
STATE OF AGRICULTURE.
463
descending thence towards the Jordan the traveller must take
with him an escort consisting of one or two Bedouins on foot,
civil, active fellows and capital guides among the mountain
paths. If he crosses the Jordan and penetrates into the
interesting regions beyond, the strength of his escort must be
increased. But if he passes beyond a certain geographical line
in those regions, then no escort that he can reasonably take will
ensure safety. In general terms it may be said that Turkish
rule answers for order with tolerable efficiency west of the
Jordan, but not to the east of the river, and that the absence
of social control in that trans-Jordan quarter is discreditable.
Indeed the slight control, which has been of late years attempted
by the Turks there, is understood to be productive of harm
rather than of benefit to the people.
The gradual growth of Christian establishments in the Land,
the rapid increase of British and American tourists, and the
augmented vigilance of public opinion, have caused the Turkish
authorities to set their administrative house in order according
to their feeble lights. It is not likely that nowadays any
flagrant instance of misrule will occur; on the contrary, there
will be found to prevail a certain degree of external propriety.
Upon a closer inspection, however, it will be seen that the
Government fails to bring into operation those influences which
cause the creation and the application of capital, or the organiza-
tion of productive labour. The old industries of Palestine have
perished or are languishing, and the elaborate agriculture, which
once adorned the slopes of the classic mountains and the ever-
lasting hills, has shrunk to a shadow of its original self. In the
great days of old, the arid portions of the landscape were
relieved by the abundant olive-groves which, unlike the sickly
grey tinted groves of southern Europe, have a rich dark green.
Of these innumerable olives, some were planted in the hill-side
terraces needing outlay of capital. Others grew at the bottom
of the valleys, and could there be maintained with but little
expense. Now those olives, which can be maintained only at
464
CHAP. XX.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
some expense, have passed, or are gradually passing, away; those
which can be maintained without appreciable cost survive, and
thus in many places there are still to be seen splendid olive-
groves yielding profitable fruit in something like the wildness
of nature. This example is typical of the condition of Palestine
generally.
""
Nothing is done for the making of roads in a rugged, but
naturally rich territory, peculiarly needing "communications
for its development; and wheeled conveyance is practically
unknown. The forests once formed a rich heritage with which
the Creator endowed Palestine; but in most parts the Land
has been deforested, and in consequence has become almost
denuded of vegetation. The oaks under which patriarchs rested
must in the fulness of time have passed away, leaving no suc-
cessors, for there is hardly a trace of them now. The woods of
Carmel and Tabor have been grievously thinned. The terebinths.
that once clothed the low hills near the mouth of Kishon are
fast disappearing. The local supplies of fuel are becoming
dearer and scarcer, and the importation of wood from without is
increasing. Those who know the wood-markets of Jerusalem
will say that the people, having used up the trunks and
branches, are now exhuming the roots! Nevertheless, there is
an extraordinary supply of fuel available within fifteen or twenty
miles from Jerusalem, if only the means of conveyance were
available. For the Jordan every winter brings down large
quantities of dead trees, great and small, which have fallen
from the sides, flanks, and spurs of the Hermon group of
mountains. The rushing water flings these trunks and branches
on the shore of the Dead Sea, where they lie and waste away,
adding an additional feature to the deathlike aspect of the scene.
The descendants of the cedars of Solomon and Hiram still exist,
but are restricted to a comparatively narrow area. The forests
of Bashan and Moab have, it is understood, been much less
destroyed, doubtless because, being east of the Jordan, they
are more beyond the reach of destructive agencies.
CHAP. XX.
EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES IN PALESTINE.
465
Nor is there anything done by the Provincial Government
for the moral improvement or for the education of the people.
Educational agencies are, indeed, at work in several parts of
Palestine, but these are under European direction and are
supported by European funds. Whether the English mission
for the conversion of the Jews does or does not effect much for
that particular object, it is certainly effective and beneficent in
educating many waifs and strays among the poorer Christian
children, and also the children of Muhammadans. In short, to
its special work it wisely adds the general work of a mission in
foreign parts. Similarly, the Church Missionary Society has
establishments at Zion, at Bethlehem, at Nablûs (near Samaria),
and at Nazareth. The Society for Promoting Female Education
in the East has an excellent institution built on the brow of the
height overlooking Nazareth, where girls of various Oriental
nationalities, both Christian and Muhammadan, are collected in
spacious and salubrious buildings. The education given there,
under the supervision of Miss Dickson, is excellent, and by
means of it seeds of good are sown among long-neglected races.
A branch institution of this society has been set up at
Bethlehem, with a fair promise of usefulness. Equally ex-
cellent, and larger in scale, are the educational institutions at
Beyrout, the Syrian Protestant College, the American Mission,
the Bible Schools under Miss Mott, all which institutions are
producing an effect upon the rising generation of Syria.
Numerous schools for religious instruction, under European
and American supervision, have been established in the interior
of the Lebanon district, in the heart of the mountains. The
educational funds in this portion of Syria, come partly from
Britain but mainly from America. The Turkish Government,
while doing nothing itself for popular education, yet offers
no opposition whatever to the operations of these foreign
agencies, and may be said to afford them some encouragement
indirectly, as it protects them from the fanaticism to which
they would otherwise fall victims.
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1
CHAP. XX.
466
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
Besides these, there are other institutions for humane and
charitable uses. An ophthalmic hospice has been established
recently at Jerusalem, under English auspices, for the curing of
the eye complaints from which the people of Palestine suffer. It
promises to be of immense service, and to illustrate the practical
virtue of Christianity.* The Edinburgh Medical Mission has an
efficient establishment at Nazareth. At Beyrout is the Institution
of Prussian Deaconesses, and there also the Prussian Hospital
is supported by the Order of St. John.
The Turkish Government doubtless regards with mixed
feelings the influx of foreigners, who come partly for touring,
but chiefly for religious or educational purposes. It cannot but
be glad of the constant flow of money from these sources into an
impoverished country. So large are the religious establishments
at Jerusalem (belonging to the several Christian communions)
that the management and custody of their funds afford employ-
ment to banking firms established for their sake alone. There
is neither trade nor industry at Jerusalem; who, then, asks the
traveller, are the customers for the bankers? and he is told, the
religious bodies. To the west of Jerusalem on the Jaffa road
an European suburb of considerable importance is growing up;
fortunately, it is on that side of the Holy City where no sacred
or historical associations exist. Prominent in this quarter is
the Russian cathedral and convent. Here, too, the several
European Powers maintain their Consulates. The English
Consul especially, Mr. Moore, is well known to all his country-
men who travel in Palestine, for the readiness and courtesy
which he displays, and for the accurate acquaintance he
possesses of the Land and the people. The growth of European
influence must work much good for the indigenous inhabitants,
and must serve as a check upon misrule, though it cannot
energise a feeble administration. Despite its material advantages,
it must in some respects be distasteful to the natural pride of
* One of the prime movers in this benevolent enterprise is Sir Edmund
Lechmere, of Worcestershire.
1
CHAP. XX.
TURKISH RULE.
467
the Turks and other Muhammadan races. Many writers, having
travelled in the country, affirm that since the era of Islam a
torpor and a decadence, unknown even in the most troubled ages
previously, have settled down upon Palestine; they mention the
cities and the towns which existed before that time, and ask,
where are all these now? Others will say that Palestine,
though she is the "widowed queen," bereft of all her best
resources, still has her inherent capabilities, which can be
developed by good government. Given, they will declare, fifty
years, nay, even twenty years, of British administration, and
the wilderness would begin to blossom like the rose. All this
may be true enough, and it may be quite right to bring out the
truth; but the inference cannot fail to be displeasing to
Muhammadans, who regard Jerusalem as second only to Mecca
itself in sanctity, and allow it to be called by no name save
Al Kuds, or the Holy.
But if the Turks can succeed in governing, perhaps not in an
enlightened manner, yet with some degree of respectability, and
in holding their empire together, they need have little fear from
British ambition in Palestine. For though the Land is intensely
interesting, it has but little value politically in comparison with
the two neighbouring countries, Egypt and Syria. The impor-
tance of Egypt to England has become too manifest to need
explanation. The importance of Syria, though lesser in degree,
is still considerable. A portion of Syria, adjoining Palestine and
surrounding the Lebanon, comprises the high road from the
Mediterranean at Beyrout to Damascus. This line of communi-
cation is very much under the influence of France, as a French
company engineered the road and maintains an efficient wheeled
traffic along it. Still, Damascus, though in itself valuable, is
hardly a goal of national ambition, for the communication
thence to the Euphrates valley is difficult. The adjoining part
of Syria, and the northernmost, which comprises the line from
Alexandretta (near the ancient Antioch) to Aleppo, leading
towards Bagdad on the Tigris, is most important to England. If
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СПАР. ХХ.
468
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
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she secures this line-which includes the best approach from the
Mediterranean to Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, thus com-
manding an alternative overland route to India, second only in
importance to the Egyptian route-she would feel less concern
in the Damascus line, and still less in the country of Palestine,
for the present at least, that is while the Turkish dominion is
preserved.
In respect to all these questions the Turkish Government
may be sure that many Englishmen, from a reasonable
regard for their own national interests as well as from loyalty
towards an old friend and ally, hope for the maintenance
of the Turkish Empire in such a tolerable condition as may
ensure stability and permanence. In other words it is hoped
that the Turks will learn to govern their widely extended
territory well enough to admit of their continuance in power,
under the conditions which the opinion of an enlightened age
will demand. But, at the best, the hope, however earnest, is
a hope only. There is in many minds much misgiving lest the
Turkish Empire should fall to pieces from its own dead weight.
We desire, indeed, that this contingency may be long delayed,
and that the Eastern Question may sleep yet awhile. But if
such a contingency were to happen, then the future of Palestine
would become a matter of anxiety to England, in common with
other Powers, on political grounds. England would feel much
less interest than some other Powers in the ecclesiastical
questions touching the Land and the Holy Places. In those
questions France and Russia would be primarily concerned, on
behalf of the Latin and the Greek Church respectively. The
memory of the dispute between the Latin and Greek monks
regarding the repairs of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
which led to the Crimean war, suggests forebodings as to what
might happen. It is thought by many that (under a contin-
gency which we hope may not happen) France would desire for
the sake of the Latin Church to hold Palestine, but Russia
would intervene. Or Russia, for the sake of the Greek Church,
CHAP. XX. LATIN AND GREEK RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES. 469
would desire to hold Palestine, but France would intervene.
In either of these events (both of which are much to be depre-
cated) it is probable that French intervention would be more
potent than Russian, as Palestine is accessible by naval force
chiefly. From any dispute of this nature between the two
Powers there would arise much anxiety to England on account
of her adjacent interest in the East. This is indeed an example
of the complications which might spring out of the Eastern
Question if that were unhappily to be opened again. That it
may yet remain closed will be the prayer of those who desire
the peace of the world.
The position of England respecting Palestine may indeed be
affected by the inchoate project for a ship canal to run from the
Mediterranean shore near Acre by the valley of the Jordan to
the Dead Sea, and thence to the head of the Akaba Gulf, a
branch of the Red Sea. This project would serve as an alter-
native route to India, and would answer much the same pur-
poses as those to be answered by a second canal through the
Isthmus of Suez. There is no space here for discussing the
geographical and engineering topics connected with this scheme.
To many earnest people the thought of Scriptural sites, Jericho,
Capernaum, Magdala, being submerged, is melancholy indeed.
Probably no insuperable difficulty will be encountered until
the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Akaba is reached, although
there is something unique in the conception of filling up the
depression of the Jordan and the Dead Sea with 1200 feet of
water, in order that the inland lake thus to be formed may be
raised to the level of the Mediterranean. The real difficulty
may possibly arise in that section of the line which lies between
the Dead Sea basin and the Gulf of Akaba; and this section
remains to be examined accurately by engineering surveys.
The result of such surveys must be awaited, before a judg-
ment can be formed regarding the practicability of the scheme.
•
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470
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAPTER XXI.
SOCIAL SCIENCE IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ABROAD.
[Presidential Address delivered before the National Association for the
Promotion of Social Science, at Huddersfield, October, 1883.]
Extent of the British Empire abroad Social science, as pursued in the
United Kingdom, is applicable to the Colonies and to the Eastern dominion
-Standard of physical comfort-Improvement of dwellings - Quality of
food supply — Purification of water—Sanitation, drainage and sewage
Vital statistics - Hospital management - Production and distribution of
wealth - The tenure of land - Emigration from India to the Colonies
Forestry and forests - Mental and moral training — National and popular
education Art culture
Art culture Ethical instruction Social organization
Law Reform - Prison discipline -Reformatories and industrial schools
Friendly societies and savings banks-Support of the destitute — The
Temperance cause -The Agents General for the Colonies - Local self-
government in the East - Conclusion.
THE subject of my address is the application of social science to
the British Empire abroad. To help us in raising our thoughts
towards the height of a great argument, let some leading facts be
called to our recollection. The area of this empire, at home and
abroad, more than 8 millions of square miles, may fail to con-
vey a definite idea; but the total of the population is instantly
suggestive, as it amounts to 315 millions of souls. This popu-
lation, too, is increasing at the rate of 23 millions annually; in
other words, by 25 millions every decade, or 50 millions in every
twenty years. The total revenue amounts to 170 millions
sterling yearly, and the external commerce of the United
Kingdom, with all its colonies or dependencies together, to
nearly 1000 millions sterling in annual value. These facts
CHAP. XXI. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 471
shew the empire to be the greatest and richest that the world
has ever seen. It may also prove to be nearly the most
numerously peopled empire as well; at all events, the number
of its people is enormous. Out of that population, about 33
millions, equal to one-tenth, are in the United Kingdom, and
therefore fall directly under the influence of social science, as
we, subject to correction, understand the term. The remainder
are either colonies, who, though giant offspring, may yet look
to the mother country for some guiding example; or else
alien, though loyal races, whom the British Sovereign has
taken under parental protection in three out of the four
quarters of the globe. From our point of view, then, each
one at home who succeeds in improving, or neglects to im-
prove, himself, will influence, for progress or for stagnation,
nine other persons his fellow-subjects abroad; every result
which we realise in the United Kingdom may be ultimately
multiplied nine times in the foreign empire; and if we were
to be nationally listless or inefficient here, then a similar
listlessness and inefficiency would settle there among vast
nationalities in scattered regions. Surely this consideration
will help us to gauge the weight of our responsibilities under
Providence, the grandeur of our opportunities, on behalf of
ourselves as forming a mighty nation, and for the sake of
other nations that are politically connected with us. Besides
those colonies that are of our own flesh and blood, and for
whom we feel as for ourselves, there are the almost countless
tribes among whom the poorest, the most abject, has a bodily
frame to be sustained, a mind to be enlightened, and a spirit to
be moved. Thus regarded, the sphere of our study is indefi-
nitely widened, and the magnitude of its scope becomes enlarged
to an extent almost indescribable.
+
In many parts of this foreign empire the British Government
leads up by its good administration towards the very results at
which our Association, in common with many other associations,
is aiming. But the administrative successes of the Government
472
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
|
alone will not suffice. It is not enough that the State should
secure external peace and internal order, should guard pro-
perty and ensure to every man the fruits of his labour, should
develop trade and promote material improvement, should enact
laws and provide a trustworthy judiciary, should diffuse a sound
education and encourage physical science-all which things are
done well on a vast scale. We all feel that something more is
imperatively needed. That something, then, is to be supplied
by those studies to which the Association gives the name of
Social Science, and to which other names have been, or may yet
be, given.
We shall immediately find that all the social questions which
have been agitated at home are, with hardly any exception,
pertinent or applicable to the foreign empire, and that some
additional questions belonging to our subject have arisen
abroad.
When recapitulating the subjects on which this Association
has spoken or written within the last quarter of a century, I
shall not presume to claim for it any undue share in the credit
of the reforms and improvements to which it has contributed
advocacy. We duly remember that the force of events and the
growth of opinion have helped to confer these benefits on
society; and that other associations besides ours have applied
their shoulders to the wheel of progress. But we can never
forget the great names that have belonged to our annals, and
we are content humbly to follow where Brougham, Russell, and
Shaftesbury have pointed the way.
The aim of our study (by whatsoever name it should be called)
is to render mankind not only prosperous materially, but also
happy and wise, as individuals and as members of an organized
community. Though we may have faith that there is a Light
that can irradiate even the darkest prison-house, still for the
most part we know that happiness and wisdom cannot be
attained without a reasonable degree of physical comfort. It is
practically vain to inculcate morality upon those who are
CHAP. XXI.
DWELLINGS AND FOOD SUPPLY.
473
huddled together in squalid tenements. It is impossible to
obtain proficiency from half-famished scholars whose brain-
power is enfeebled by hunger. The standard of physical
comfort, then, has always been kept before the student's mind,
and may constitute the primary division of my address.
Herein the foremost topic has been the improvement of
dwellings. For this object something is being attempted at
home, though we are saddened by the thought of how much
remains to be done. Now, in India or in Egypt the self-same
need presents itself to philanthropists. Amidst the villages,
the peasants pen up the cattle inside the dwelling-houses.
Amidst the largest cities, the artizans are crowded together in
the compartments of houses many stories high, wherein to all
the miseries which exist in our cool latitudes there are added
the heat and malaria of the tropics. The dwellings of the
poorest classes, close to the centres of civilization in the East
and the West, often exemplify terribly the eastern proverb that
the darkness is deepest right underneath the candle! In the
colonies, again, we hear that while the settler dwells in the
comparative discomfort of draughty huts, with chinks that
admit the outer air, he remains healthy. But when the
squatter population begins to congregate into villages, and
cottages of another sort are built, then typhus and zymotic
disease appear.
Again, the quality of food supply is a matter with which our
studies are rightly concerned at home, and this object is almost,
though not quite, equally important abroad. Respecting
adulteration of food, there is not the same temptation in the
thinly peopled and abundantly productive colonies as in a
densely peopled island like Great Britain. In the East, the
natives have not yet acquired much proficiency in that dark
science, though they might prove but too teachable if once this
black art were to gain ground at home. For instance, on one
occasion when a malignant disease broke out in the port of
Calcutta, the native contractor for the supply of water to the
474
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
shipping was found to have adulterated the pure liquid from
the waterworks with some impure fluid from the river! Still,
irrespective of what may be termed artificial evil, imagine the
natural evil to which articles of food or drink are liable in the
tropics such as the exposure of meat in the burning heat of
an Oriental city, or the fish in coast districts where fish is ex-
tensively cured, and where the curing is but too often imperfect.
If the pure and wholesome quality of food for the masses of
humanity congregated in the British metropolis is a theme for
study, equally must this be the case for a city like Bombay,
where 700,000 people are compressed into a little island
situated at some distance from the main sources of sustenance.
Again, the subtle conveyance of poison through the medium of
milk causes solicitude here. But the danger is even more
active and urgent in the East, where, from the habits of the
milkmen, the milk is but too frequently affected by poisonous
ingredients. If time permitted I could give signal instances of
valuable lives being lost from milk-poisoning, not by any evil
design, but simply through reckless ignorance.
The purification of water for drinking and for bathing has
always been among the objects of our studies, and some benefit
has accrued from persistent advocacy. There is dread lest
impurity in this element should produce untold evils in the
United Kingdom; but we know that in India it has produced
more physical mischief than any cause whatsoever, and perhaps
as much mischief as all other causes put together could produce.
In the capital cities, the Indian Government and people in combi-
nation have constructed waterworks very much after the scientific
models established in the United Kingdom, in every instance
with a marked benefit to the public health. In the lesser
towns of the interior waterworks have been or are being built;
in every case some local diseases, believed in ignorance to be
unavoidably endemic to the locality, disappear as if by magic.
Still, among the villages in a vast country, some have water
from running streams and others have not. Those which are
CHAP. XXL WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SEWAGE. 475
thus destitute add to the natural difficulty by recklessly
defiling what little water they have. Time does not admit of
my adducing instances of the epidemics traceable to the state
of the water, when the scanty tanks and wells had been reduced
to their dregs. We see at home illustrations of wells being
poisoned from sewage. I remember a case in the East where
a large garrison of European troops was decimated and dis-
organized by cholera, which, after inquiry, was attributed to
percolation from cesspools through the solid ground into the
drinking wells. In times of famine, mortality has occurred, not
only from the withering of crops, but also from the drying up
of the drinking water. The State might convey food for famish-
ing multitudes, but could not bring water for thirsty millions.
Much of this evil is preventable by water supply provided during
years of plenty, and here is a field abroad for that engineering
science which has wrought wonders at home.
It were almost superfluous to call to remembrance the
successful efforts put forth at home respecting sanitation,
drainage, and sewage. We have but lately beheld the terrible
example afforded by the cholera in Egypt. If this fell foe be
generated somewhere else than in the localities actually attacked,
and be, as it were, floating in the air, still its attack is generally,
though not invariably, attracted by insanitation or averted by
sanitation. The angel of death is, so to speak, hovering over
a doomed land, and he descends on those spots which are
the foulest. We can imagine what the physical surroundings
of the Egyptians in the cholera-stricken places must have been,
from our knowledge of the like conditions in other countries
of the East. In India the capital cities have drainage works
constructed in the manner which has approved itself to engi-
neers at home, whereon some millions sterling have from first
to last been expended, to the marked diminution (among other
things), indeed almost to the prevention, of epidemic cholera,
though sporadic cholera still appears sometimes. Drainage
works are also undertaken in all the lesser towns of the interior.
476
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
But the faults of sanitation, still remaining in the great cities
and the lesser towns, are legion; while the conduct of the rural
people in most of the villages, in the matter of sewage, is so
culpably fatuous as to be incredible to any save those who have
witnessed it. Some attempt is made to diffuse a smattering of
sanitary science among the rustics, but it is uphill work to
reclaim a population from the habits of centuries. If anything
could aggravate the regret with which this disposition of the
people must be regarded, it would be the thought that the
utilisation of sewage even in the smallest quantities is peculiarly
needed for Indian agriculture, which ordinarily is very deficient
in manure. Though much is attempted in this matter at some
central places, yet in the country generally, quantities of
sewage, which might have fertilised the fields, are left to breed
poison for man.
As the proportion of the urban population to the whole
people increases, and as the congregation of inhabitants into
dense masses proceeds apace, there is no profession more
vitally important than that of sanitary engineering. This
profession at home has attained a considerable growth, and
will thus afford the means of forming similar professions
abroad. But still the faults in domestic as well as in public
sanitation here are sometimes appalling, and cause new evils
even worse than that which the arrangement was intended to
obviate. How much more must this be the case abroad, in
the rising colonies, where towns spring up with startling
rapidity before proper arrangements can be made; in the East,
where the work has to be done through native agency under
novel conditions that breed mischief with perplexing effect.
Already in the East the fear that sanitation, while averting
some familiar diseases, is actually producing typhoid sickness,
gives rise to a prejudice among the natives against Western
sanitation. Nothing but a more rigid attention to sanitary
engineering can set this right. So frequent are the sanitary
faults of new-built houses in urban localities at home, that
CHAP. XXI. VITAL STATISTICS, HOSPITAL MANAGEMENT. 477
some authorities recommend the professional inspection of
every new house before it is occupied, and private companies
are formed for this purpose. This must be equally wanted in
the colonies, and assuredly it is needed in the capital cities of
the East.
The preparation of those vital statistics, which are essential
to good administration, is doubtless accomplished well in the
United Kingdom, perhaps in the colonies also; and the
difference in the death-rate between town and country tells
a terrible tale of the physical ills which humanity brings on
itself by the conditions of social existence. In the East, how-
ever, this work has hardly advanced beyond its infancy. It is,
indeed, hard to ascertain the facts of births, of disease and
death, for so vast a population; and as yet they are but
partially ascertained, though progress towards ascertainment is
being gradually made. For the principal centres, and for some
selected districts in the interior, the facts have become known,
and they reveal death-rates that are always higher than those of
Europe, and are sometimes miserably high.
Hospital management at home is a subject to which the
attention of this Association has been constantly directed, and
at its instance a conference of hospital authorities has recently
assembled, whose deliberations will doubtless prove fruitful in
results. This subject is of at least equal importance in the
East, where the founding of hospitals, and the opening of
provident and charitable dispensaries, are regarded by Asiatics
as among the fairest features of British rule. If at home errors
in management arise, and peculiar diseases are generated
within the very walls of these institutions, how much more
must this be the case in the East, where to inherent difficulties
are superadded the tropical conditions and the habits of an
Oriental people! I remember a
I remember a case where an Eastern
hospital, superbly constructed with a generous outlay, was
plagued with gangrene and erysipelas manifestly produced
within its precincts. At length inquiry revealed the proximity
7
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い
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478
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
of certain underground drains. On the drainage being rectified
the hospital recovered, and we all realised the scientific dictum,
“Cessante causâ, cessat et effectus.'
In all matters relating to the public health, the Eastern
nationalities must be brought under sanitary education. Unless
they learn how to save themselves, and become imbued with
a desire to practise what they learn, the utmost effort of the
State for saving them will fail. Therefore sanitation must
form a prominent branch in the national instruction, sanitary
primers must be used in the schools, sanitary regulations
elaborated by the native municipalities, and sanitary treatises
circulated, so practical that he who runs may understand
them.
Next after physical health and comfort, social science
concerns itself with the production and distribution of wealth.
In the general question relating to wealth, Free Trade and
that which is termed Fair Trade are comprised. These matters
are of peculiar interest and importance to the colonies, and
have been frequently discussed by our Association, though
they are fully dealt with by other associations whose work is
more specialised than ours. We know that as regards the
question of protection there is but one answer that can be
given by economic science.
i
But in reference to material well-being there is the subject
of the land. The study of that has always been regarded by
this Association as specially within its province. Important
as landed affairs are everywhere, to no part of the world are
they more important than to the British Empire abroad.
We see the new doctrine propounded in some, though
perhaps a very few quarters, in hostility to the existing
property in land on both sides of the Atlantic. In that view
the natural origin of landed property seems to be overlooked.
In an Oriental nation the land belongs to him who first
reclaimed it, and to his heirs or assigns. The right thus
originating in labour, industry and enterprise, descends by
CHAP. XXI.
THE TENURE OF LAND.
479
inheritance throughout the East. A man then has power to
sell or mortgage that which he or his forefather has rendered
valuable, and in regard to mortage such power is commonly
exercised. In the course of time small properties will be
thus transferred by needy owners to others, and so large
properties arise. Here, then, are an origination and a devolu-
tion, both most legitimate, and wholly opposed to the re-
volutionary ideas respecting property which are sometimes
put forth. They are by themselves adequate to account
for landed property as it exists in civilized countries, irre-
spective of the political means by which such property has
at various times and places been created. In the East, the
people, regarding this property as the most precious of their
material possessions, have often seen it threatened and over-
run by armed violence, but have clung to it with unsurpass-
able pertinacity. It has been recognised and confirmed finally
in all the regions that have come under British sway. The
legal recognition has been supported, too, with a registration
of titles officially and judicially framed, and amended from
year to year. This registration, in reference to its vast extent
and its accuracy up to date, is the finest that has ever been
framed anywhere; the Chinese registration may be as extensive,
but is not so accurate. The matter is now being considered
in the colonies, and much valuable information hereon has
been presented to this Association by colonial authorities.
Eminent among these is Sir Robert Torrens, a member of
this Association, who has devised and has been instrumental
in establishing for Australia a registration which may serve as
a model for other communities.
In some Western countries we hear of anxiety respecting
the landless classes, the millions who do not own even the
smallest area of land; in others we learn that very small
proprietors, who have nothing but land to live on, find their
livelihood beset more and more with distress. In the East
this anxiety has not heretofore been felt; the most important
J
480
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
classes are landed, and not landless, and men can live on petty
properties. The transfer and conveyance of the property have
been greatly facilitated by British rule, and that which, despite
the efforts of social science, is found difficult at home has been
rendered easy abroad. Thus in many Eastern places land is
gradually passing from the feeble and inefficient to those who
possess capital and intelligence.
But even here a danger lurks, for in the East the complete
recognition of landed property under British rule has afforded
a title, on the security of which money can be easily raised.
This facility has encouraged the peasant proprietors to borrow
much too largely. Thus serious trouble has occasionally arisen
and may yet arise. The danger has been aggravated by the
British law of debtor and creditor, and may in future be miti-
gated by an improvement of that law. This particular law,
however just in intention, works very badly, although in theory
the fault may be hard to define. I regret that time does not
allow me to do more than to mention this as a subject wherein
the Association may exert its influence for the good of our
fellow-subjects in India. The selfsame difficulty, too, is found
to exist in Egypt.
It is to be regretted that all the troubles which have arisen
in parts of the United Kingdom regarding encumbered estates
are well known in parts of India, and the Indian statute-book
has but too many instances of legislation in this direction.
The principle obtaining in the United Kingdom, whereby
landowners can be lawfully compelled to combine for executing
improvements affecting their neighbourhoods, has been applied
to the East. Indian landlords have in some remarkable
instances been thus induced to coalesce for banking off inunda-
tions or reclaiming swamps, to the benefit of their own estates
and of the community.
Besides the proprietary, almost every conceivable form of
tenancy and occupation is to be found in the East, and here is
a field of study for this Association. For large classes of tenants
CHAP. XXI. INDIAN EMIGRATION TO TROPICAL COLONIES. 481
occupancy rights have been legally secured, the power of trans-
ferring the tenancy has been acknowledged, the claim to com-
pensation for improvement has been affirmed. But the claim
can hardly arise, because practically the man cannot be evicted,
and in event of dispute his rent will be judicially determined.
There is, however, a still larger class of tenants-at-will, whose
position, though much better now than formerly, is still far
from satisfactory, and whose lot evokes the sympathy of
philanthropists in England.
Emigration from India to the West Indies and other tropical
colonies is needed not only for the colonial labour market, but
also for relieving the density of population in overcrowded
Indian districts. This gives birth to urgent questions affecting
the welfare of the emigrants as settlers, and the interest of the
colonists as employers. Regarding the comfort of the emigrants
on their long sea voyages, every arrangement is made through a
protector appointed by the Government. Similarly, encourage-
ment is given to emigration from one part of India to another,
especially those parts where new industries, such as the culture
of tea and coffee, are being developed through European
enterprise.
Time does not admit of our adverting to the landed questions
which arise in the colonies, and of which many demand a con-
sideration guided by economic science. The importance of such
matters may be imagined from a single class of cases, where
railway companies obtain large territorial concessions of lands
adjacent to the line, or lines, which lands are sold to great land
companies who are ultimately to settle colonists thereon. Other
examples might be adduced, such as the difference between the
systems of leasing and of free-ranging in the cattle ranches of
North-west America, and the project for storing the water of
rivers in the interior of Australia.
Before quitting this part of my address, I would say a passing
word on forestry and the preservation of forests, a matter which
deserves the study of this Association as vitally concerning the
2 I
482
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
ད་
material welfare of India and of the colonies. The destruction
of forests has caused anxiety in India, in Cyprus, in South
Africa, in Canada, in the West Indies. I have no space here
for describing the great department of forest conservancy in
India-established too late for those fine forests which are gone
irreparably, but still in time to save those which remain-or
the preservative measures which are being adopted in the
colonies. But the point which I would press upon you is this,
that the destructive effects from which we have narrowly
escaped-if, indeed, we have altogether escaped-are due to
the fact that formerly educated people did not sufficiently
think upon the importance of forests, not only for the national
wealth, but also for the tempering of the climate and the reten-
tion of moisture in hot countries. Consequently there used to
be much ignorance respecting the forests, an indifference to
their injuries, and a too facile yielding to the obstacles which
retarded their preservation. Even now it is only by rousing
public attention at home, by discussions in our Association and
other associations, that persevering energy in preservation can
be secured abroad.
Having thus considered the primary subject of physical
comfort and material well-being, we pass on to the central
subject of this address, namely, mental and moral training.
Now, this Association has repeatedly discussed all that
relates to national and popular education. It has treated of
the questions whether education should be afforded to the poor
gratuitously by the State, as is done in America, or whether
some payment should be exacted from the parents, as in the
United Kingdom-whether the schools under voluntary organ-
ization are preferable to schools under public management,
as the Board Schools-whether the system of grants-in-aid by
the State to private schools, according to the method known
as payment by result, is to be encouraged. All these questions
are, of course, equally applicable to the colonies. It is note-
worthy, too, that they have all arisen in the East. In the two
Į
CHAP. XXI. EDUCATION AND SCHOLARSHIPS.
483
most populous countries of Asia, namely, China and India, we
must remember that while the Chinese Government from
ancient times has attended to education in a degree never sur-
passed in any age or country, the various native Indian
Governments, with few exceptions, neglected this subject
utterly. Even the British Government hesitated for more
than half a century to essay the task. But within the present
generation the Government has grasped this matter with its
wonted vigour. Consequently all the questions above men-
tioned, and other kindred questions, have arisen and are still
being agitated in the East. It is there held that while the
State may properly defray educational charges for direction and
organization, and contribute at the outset something towards
the education itself, still the parents must pay all they possibly
can, the principle of gratuitous education being rejected, and
that the State contribution should take the form of grants-in-
aid to private institutions. The policy is to render education
self-sustaining, and to teach the parents to draw upon their own
resources rather than upon the public taxes.
To this important principle there is a special exception,
which has been advocated by this Association, and has been
fully admitted in the East, namely, the system of free scholar-
ships. The generous idea, in the United Kingdom, is that the
boy of genius, springing from the humblest origin, should win,
by competition in a primary school, a free scholarship that
shall maintain him in a school of the next grade above, where
he may win another scholarship to maintain him in a superior
school, and so on till he reaches one of the universities, where,
again, he may win the highest academic honours, which finally
may prove the passport to success in any of the great profes-
sions. This idea has also found the strongest possible expression
in the United States. It is equally current in the East; and
every Asiatic subject of the British Crown has the selfsame
chance proffered to him-a beneficent chance of which the very
humblest are availing themselves to the happiest extent.
J
21 2
484
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
1
/
We all know the good effect at home of the compulsion,
gently and indirectly applied to parents who neglect to send
their children to school, so that most children of a school-
going age are under instruction more or less. The gradual
and cautious application of this principle is wanted in the
East, where only a portion of the children are at school, and
where the majority, despite the efforts of the authorities,
stay away.
Among our Asiatic fellow-subjects it is peculiarly necessary
to add physical science to the instruction already given in
literature and philosophy, and to diffuse generally a scientific
spirit. In this respect the State education has heretofore been
defective, but, despite obstacles, there is a resolute attempt
being made to remedy this defect.
The extension of technical instruction at home has long been
advocated by this Association. In common with others, we
thankfully note the progress which is beginning in the United
Kingdom, of which the institution founded by the Livery Com-
panies of London, the Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, and
the technical school of which the new building is about to be
inaugurated at Huddersfield under royal auspices, are recent
examples. Notwithstanding the apparent backwardness of
Great Britain in this respect as compared with the continent of
Europe, it is probable that a vast amount of instruction is given
in private establishments which never appears in returns or
reports, while on the continent the technical teaching always
pertains to a State or to a public corporation, and is conse-
quently reported. If any one were to prepare from private
information an account of all the technical instruction arranged
by masters and by firms in our manufacturing districts, he
would render a public service. Be this as it may, there is no
doubt that in the East technical education is a crying want,
which is as yet but partly satisfied; except in medical instruc-
tion, where the success has been signal, and in civil engineering,
where success is beginning.
CHAP. XXI.
MORAL TRAINING.
485
Art-culture has always been advocated by this Association as
a fitting crown to the educational system. It is naturally much
needed in the colonies, young, bustling, pre-occupied communi-
ties, where no classes have leisure. It has in the East presented
problems as yet unsolved. The Asiatics have an indigenous
art, which, though not scientifically directed, is yet, in genius,
in perception, and in sentiment, peculiarly their own. This
exceeding merit arises from the hereditary character of Eastern
art, and the transmission of qualities from father to son, through
many generations of artists. If we were to teach our art to the
natives exclusively, they might be in danger of losing their
own, which, so far as it goes, is better than anything that we
can teach them, and which is indeed to be reckoned among the
beautiful possessions of the human race. Still we can teach
them one thing, which through all the preceding ages they have
never learnt, namely, drawing objects correctly, whether figures,
landscape, or architecture. Such drawing tends to rectify some
of their mental faults, to intensify their powers of observation,
and to make them understand analytically those glories of
nature which they love so well.
From mental exercise we pass on to the still more important
branch of moral training. This is a matter which during recent
years even up to the present moment has engaged, and is engaging,
the anxious attention of thoughtful and earnest people in the
United Kingdom. There is no apprehension, on this head,
respecting schools under private or voluntary organization, and
we may trust that there will be no real ground for such appre-
hension in the schools under local public management, as the
Board schools. But it is remarkable that this very apprehension
has arisen in the East. Although indigenous education used
certainly to be defective in this respect, yet the natives nowa-
days, if they cared to speak their mind, would say that in the
schools under British rule sufficient care has not been directly
paid to this matter. They would admit that indirectly, by
instruction in the literature, the history, the civilization of the
486
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
West, much moral teaching is conveyed. They would, indeed,
be not unwillingly compelled to such admission by the example
of good conduct and improved disposition among those of their
countrymen who had received this instruction. They would,
however, wish that to this were superadded more of direct and
formal instruction in ethics. Nothing would more tend to
popularise Western education in the East than a conviction in
the Asiatic mind that such education necessarily comprises
a regular course of moral culture.
But moral culture extends in the East, as elsewhere, far
beyond the schoolroom. There especially is it conveyed by the
entire work of that Western civilization which permeates the
action of the State in legislation, in the administration of the
law, in the organization of the public service, in the adjudica-
tion of landed tenures. Above all is it communicated by the
example of those Europeans who are truly representative men,
and illustrate by their life and conversation the blessing
offered by that civilization of which they are the harbingers.
We are not wanting in reverence to religion when we refrain
from adverting to religious considerations respecting the East
or other regions of the world, inasmuch as social science has
always regarded these considerations to be above and beyond
its sphere. Happily in the East, as even in the remotest parts
of the earth, the Christian missions have done and are doing,
with entire devotion, that which could not properly be under-
taken by the State or by any secular organization.
""
Before quitting this division of my address it may be appro-
priate for me to say a word on female education. Although no
question regarding what at home are termed "women's rights
is likely to arise in the East, yet the position of Hindu widows
claims the sympathy of the lady members of this Association.
The legal difficulty is indeed removed respecting the re-marriage
of widows, yet social prejudice is stronger than law, and their
condition is generally miserable, as child-wives are often
widowed in childhood. Still, if they remain unmarried they
CHAP. XXI.
LAW REFORM.
487
may be employed as mistresses in the girls' schools which are
being established in such numbers as to portend in the next
generation a revolution which, though gentle, will affect
Oriental society to its foundations. An impetus and a fitting
direction can be imparted to this gracious movement of female
education by British ladies at home, who may be stirred by the
discussions on this subject to proceed themselves as Mary
Carpenter proceeded-or induce other ladies to proceed, to the
East, where their presence may diffuse light amidst the secluded
apartments of their Asiatic sisters.
I have now completed the primary and the central divisions
of this address, namely, physical comfort and material well-
being, then mental and moral training. I proceed thence to
the concluding division, namely, social organization as appli-
cable to the empire abroad.
This concluding division manifestly comprises law reform,
the advocacy of which has always been a peculiar province of
this Association. Most of the legal matters in the United
Kingdom to which attention has thus been turned, such as
commercial regulations, bankruptcy, partnership, juries, transfer
of land and registration of titles, charitable trusts, law reporting,
are all applicable to the empire abroad. The European
jurists and legislators in the East have laboured in these very
matters, which are seldom or never provided for by Asiatic
codes, and their labours have been essentially lightened by the
work of reformers at home. The projects of digests and of
codification, which have been strenuously advocated at home
with but an imperfect success, have, partly through this very
advocacy, been perfectly carried into effect in the East.
Indeed, enlightened, comprehensive, and searching legislation,
well digested, consolidated, and codified, with the co-operation
of eminent jurists in the United Kingdom and practical law-
makers abroad, has become a leading characteristic of British
rule in the East, until to every section of that vast administra-
tion both stability and continuity have been legally secured.
488
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
In the colonies the law reforms projected in the mother
country are more easily carried into effect, because in those regions
the social ground is less cumbered by the fragments of legal
structures that have become dilapidated or have crumbled into
ruins from disuse. Thus the hearts of reformers are more often
cheered by progress in these new countries than in the old
country. Moreover, those young communities have at their
disposal experience dearly bought elsewhere with untold trouble,
as a free gift to them from the past, and have no antecedent
obstacles to hinder them in profiting thereby. From them,
therefore, reformers at home have welcomed, and expect yet to
welcome, novel suggestions in many branches of legislation.
Respecting the execution of the law, this Association has
humanely advocated improvements in prison discipline in the
United Kingdom, and has fearlessly grappled with the moral
questions comprised therein. Now, every one of these multi-
farious matters concerns the colonies, and the remarkable
reports transmitted from Victoria, regarding the prisons there,
attest the colonial ability in this department. But more especi-
ally does this subject affect the East. The difficulties connected
with prison management in our northern latitudes are but too
well known. Infinitely are they aggravated in the East by the
conditions of a tropical climate. The prison reformers in the
East are almost disheartened when they see that, despite
augmented ventilation, enlarged space, carefully adjusted tasks,
a generously calculated diet, and surroundings superior to any-
thing that the prisoners could ever have had in their domiciles
the prisons are often unhealthy, the normal death-rate is
high, and epidemics baffle preventive skill, mainly owing to the
depressing effect of incarceration upon the spirits of Asiatics,
and the mischief generated in a tropical atmosphere by any
congregation of human beings. The same question which
arises at home regarding the classification of prisoners, the
solitary confinement, the cellular plan, the good behaviour
system, the educational instruction, the treatment devised for
CHAP XXI. REFORMATORIES AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. 489
inspiring the wretched with remorse for the past and with hope
for the future, is agitated in the East also. An additional
difficulty has existed there, in that prisoners used to work on
the roads by what was known as outdoor labour. The reformers
caused indoor labour to be substituted. But the principle of
indoor labour, though accepted at home long ago, was tardily
accepted abroad, and is still regarded jealously by opponents.
Again, the discussion at home regarding the rules under which
tickets-of-leave should be allowed to prisoners under penal
servitude, was followed by a similar discussion regarding the
convict settlements on the islands in Eastern seas.
Reformatories and industrial schools have long engaged the
attention of this Association. After these institutions had been
established abroad, the authorities in the East lost but little
time in adding reformatories to the category of pending improve-
ments. There was, however, among the Indian authorities
unnecessary hesitation in adopting the principle that reforma-
tory discipline should be applied not only to those children who
have been convicted of crime, but also to those who are igno-
rantly moving in vicious grooves that can have but one ending,
namely, a criminal course.
Looking back to the eloquent addresses that have been
delivered before this Association regarding the past state of
crime and the criminal law even in Western countries, we may
feel thankful in considering the humane wisdom of the penal
code which has been given to the East, and the suppression of
organized crimes which has been effected there by British jurists
and administrators. But despite recent efforts, a good police,
such as we happily have in the United Kingdom, is still one of
the unaccomplished reforms of India.
The discussion regarding the public prosecutor in the United
Kingdom is equally relevant to the East, not so much perhaps
regarding the capital cities as the interior of the country,
where unwillingness to prosecute is a peculiarity of the natives,
and where consequently a special burden is thrown upon the
authorities.
490
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
The recent growth of manufactures in the East has caused
questions to arise regarding factory legislation. Although the
factories are managed, on the whole, considerately in respect
to the native workpeople, yet the risk of over-exertion in
the close air of crowded buildings, in a heated and humid
atmosphere, makes it necessary to protect young people of both
sexes, and may render it desirable to extend the protection to
adults also.
The organization of thrift has been advocated by members
of this Association in common with other philanthropists in
the United Kingdom. The result of our friendly societies-
if only, through the action of the Legislature and the force of
public opinion, they shall be well managed—will be one of the
monuments of our national greatness. So also our savings banks
are progressing apace, both those which exist under the auspices
of the State, and those which are organized through private
agency, of which the Penny Bank in this county of York—
with its million and a half sterling, deposited in small sums by
a million of depositors-is a signal instance. Still the average
saving per head is less among us than among some Continental
nations. Now in the East, although the form is different, the
principle is the same. The natives are in several respects
unthrifty and extravagant. Their expenditure on marriages,
on festivals, and other social occasions, is commonly more than
they can afford, and among the poor leads to embarrassment.
Native reformers have urged, with but a modicum of success,
a relaxation of the old customs which impose this burden.
Savings banks have been established in all parts of the country
by the Government, with a beginning of success auguring well
for the future. The establishing of life insurance for the natives
with the assistance of the State has been recommended (though
in vain), as calculated not only to encourage thrift, but to bind
the people with fresh ties to British rule.
The discussion regarding charitable endowments in the
United Kingdom has extended, though in a much smaller
shape, to the East. There was a signal instance in Bengal of
CHAP. XXI. POOR LAWS, ORPHANS, TEMPERANCE.
491
an endowment, which had become practically ineffective, being
applied to educational purposes in a manner consonant with
the general intention of the founder, and approved by the
community concerned.
The question regarding the property of married women,
which was recently determined at home, and in which this
Association took a most active part, has during ages past been
settled in the East. Ancient Hindu lawgivers, in Sanscrit ter-
minology, enacted effective safeguards for this object in favour
of the wife. The Muhammadan law of dowry is celebrated as
being particularly severe upon the husband.
It is a happy circumstance that the discussions so rife at
home regarding the Poor Law have no bearing on the East,
because there the poor do not require any public organization
for their relief in ordinary times. During scarcity or famine,
the infirm and destitute must indeed be sustained by the State,
but on the cessation of the extraordinary distress they revert to
their normal sustenance, which is afforded by private charity in
their villages or parishes. The people of India have indeed
their poor always with them, but the fact that ordinarily they
do by voluntary and private action sustain the miserable
without any State intervention or legal compulsion, redounds to
their national honour.
As a consequence, the nurture of orphans by parish au-
thorities, which causes grief to philanthropists at home, never
occurs in the East. The orphans find foster parents, or else are
received into the orphanages under private management, which
have been organized there like the orphanages in the United
Kingdom, of which there is a remarkable instance at Halifax,
near the place of our present meeting.
The laws relating to the sale of intoxicating drinks, to which
this Association, in conjunction with other bodies, has con-
sistently attended, affect the colonies in common with the
United Kingdom. Happily they are less important in the
East, as Indian people are seldom intemperate; although,
492
CHAP. XXI.
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
while I write, in one part of India at least, a question is arising
which resembles the question of local option at home. But
among our European soldiers and sailors in the East, the very
bulwarks of our power, the question of Temperance assumes the
highest importance. In no part of the British army are Tem-
perance associations more efficient than in the European forces
of India, to the marked diminution of military crime. In no
ports of the British Empire are Sailor's Homes more conducive
to the seaman's welfare than in Calcutta and Bombay.
The idea prevalent in the United Kingdom of forming
associations for the promotion of the public weal, has been
extensively imitated or adopted in the East. There also
associations exist, not indeed so well-informed and influential
as the Association which I am addressing, or as other societies
which might readily be named, but still full of interest, as
conducing to the moral culture, and above all to the self-
education, of the Eastern people. In almost every district the
educated natives organize societies for the advancement of
objects bearing on social science. I myself have had to deliver
an inaugural address to a Social Science Association formed by
the natives of Bengal for their own improvement.
The presence in London of an Agent General, for each colony
in the empire, may be utilised by this Association, as by all
other associations that take a brotherly interest in colonial
progress and happiness, for the acquisition of knowledge bearing
upon the interest of the colonists-so far as that can be furthered
by public opinion at home-and upon the good relations which
we are all anxious to preserve between the mother country and
the offspring of whom she is justly proud.
The example largely set in the United Kingdom of voluntary
service, in civil affairs, rendered to the country by classes and
by individuals, has been urged with some effect on our fellow-
subjects in the East. The natives, becoming members of legis-
lative councils, municipal commissioners, electors in municipal
elections, school committee-men, jurors in criminal trials, asses-
CHAP. XXI.
SUMMARY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.
493
sors in civil causes, and honorary magistrates, are learning to
take some interest and pride in the administration of their own
country. This tendency will be further strengthened by the
recent scheme for extending self-government under an elective
system for the administration of the local funds in the Indian
districts resembling the English counties. This scheme, though
in some respects constituting a new departure, is in most
respects an expansion of that which had previously existed.
Thus glancing at the principle of local self-government in
the East, subject always to British control, I must conclude
this, the last division of my address.
I have now touched upon the application of social science
to the British Empire abroad in the three main divisions,
namely, physical comfort and material well-being, mental and
moral training, social organization.
I trust that the extension of our horizon, and the indica-
tion of many matters needing reform abroad, may not have
bewildered you. For while unreservedly noting the evils
which demand your attention, I have also adduced, for your
encouragement, examples of blessings already produced.
My general summary will be followed by able addresses
in each of the five departments into which this Association
is divided. Papers will be read to you throwing light on some
of the subjects mentioned in my address, and on many others
besides, such as public prosecutions; the law of marriage and
divorce; reformatory and industrial schools; the sale of poisons;
the preparation for technical instruction; the higher education
of those who have left school; the physical health of scholars ;
the spread of zymotic disease from infected food; the opening
of museums and art galleries on Sundays; the application of
art to textile manufactures. The names of those who will
address you during this meeting constitute a guarantee that the
time-honoured traditions of the Association will be thoroughly
maintained.
But we must to-day lament that these traditions will no
494
ORIENTAL EXPERIENCE.
CHAP. XXI.
**v.
more be actively sustained by two members of the Associa-
tion who were among its ornaments, namely, William Farr,
and Alexander Patrick Stewart. By the students of statistical
science throughout Europe, William Farr was reckoned as
among its foremost pioneers and its greatest expounders. By
the medical profession Alexander Stewart was regarded as an
accomplished worker, and by all men as a devoted advocate of
hygiene.
Now let me finish, as I began, by reminding you that divers
races in far off countries look to public opinion in the United
Kingdom for direction in the higher paths of their social ex-
istence. It is for you to help in the formation of that opinion,
which will be to them a beacon light for encouragement and a
pole-star for guidance. Your countrymen abroad, indeed, possess
originality of mind and energy of disposition, but amidst the
distractions of a stirring life, the exhausting effects of torrid
heat, and the obstacles to constant intercourse of thinker with
thinker, they cannot elaborate schemes of progress with the
efficacy which you, with your countless advantages, can command
at home. But if you work out beneficent thoughts to sound and
practical conclusions, you may be sure that the sentiment,
which gathers strength here in Britain, will rapidly spread to
the East and to the West. Thus the good seed sown at home
may, by the Divine blessing, grow into a tree of wisdom
overshadowing that Empire upon which the sun—the sun of
benevolence and of charity-never sets.
FINIS.
( 495 )
INDEX.
ABBOTT.
ABBOTT, James, explorer, 7, 16
Abies Smithiana, 247
Abode of snow,
5
Aborigines, Indian, 160
Abraham, site at Bethel, 444
Abyssinia, 383
Acacia Arabica: see Babul.
Acre convent, 440, 469
history, 455, 463
Adam, Mr., arboriculture, 268, 269
Aden, 18
tribes near, 323
Administration, civil, Egypt, 423
Admiralty, British surveys, 4, 21
teak, 220, 249
Adulteration of food, 473
Afghan war, 7, 94, 114, 383
payment for, 230
Afghanistan, assigned districts, 98, 107
boundary of, 105
desert of, 98
dynasty, 111
frontier, 207
geography, 2, 3, 16, 20, 21
population, 313, 415
southern, 93, 108, 115: Pref. vi.
surveys, 6, 7
under Mongols, 33
use of tea, 413
view of, 109
Afghans, 319, 392, 393
cultivators, 320
political temper, 320
Africa, south, 209
forests, 244, 277, 287
social science, 482
African tribes, 157
Afzal Khan and Sivaji, 362, 363
his tomb, 366
is assassinated, 366
Agent General, colonies, 492
Agra, under Mahrattas, 347
AMERICAN.
Agriculture, India, 212
education, 195, 240
in mountains, 263
Ahmed Shah at Panipat, 350
at Candahar, 111
Ai in Palestine, 444
Airlie, Lord, arboriculture, 268
Ajalon, vale of, 445
Akaba gulf, 469
Akber, emperor, 403
Albert, Prince, H.R.H., Society of Arts, 243
arboriculture, 268
Alcock, Rutherford, Japan, 12
- Society of Arts, 243
Alcoholic drinks, India, 405
Aleppo, 467
Alexander the Great, 33, 113
at Tyre, 451
in Palestine, 456
Alexandretta, 467
Alexandria, British garrison, 422
outrages, 335, 430
route to Jerusalem, 441
route to Palestine, 441
Al Kuds, Moslem name for Jerusalem, 467
Allahabad, 30
Altai border, 67
depression, 3
description, 13
- lakes of, 3
mountains, 2, 14, 21, 25, 26
ranges, 27, 28
surveys, 38
uplands, 27
Amalekites, 458
America, South, emigration to, 190
education, social science, 482
North, forests, 277
North colonisation, 209
American Civil War, cotton, 241
missions, India, 141, 143, 155
missions, Palestine, 465
496
INDEX.
AMERICAN.
American silver, 293
tourists, Palestine, 463
Amir of Caubul, 319
Amorites, 455
Amûr region of, 35, 44, 60
resources, 30
་
river, 3, 13, 14, 56
Anam in Cochin China, 8
Anatolia, 17
Anglo-Indians, 185
Anjun tree, 250
Anth discount, 301
Antimony in mid Asia, 37
Anville: see D'Anville.
Arab tribes, 18, 33, 323
Arabi of Egypt, 415, 416, 420
detention, 419
Arabia, 4, 17, 20, 21, 415
southern, 4
Arabian geography, 18, 21
horses, 36, 221
politics, 323
sea, 337, 345
wood, 288
Arabic language, 147
Aral drainage, 3, 30
sea, 2, 15, 20, 32
Aral-Caspian basin, 33
Ararat, mount, 17
Arath credit, 301
Arboriculture, Society of Arts, 243
see Scotland.
Arboricultural: see Scottish.
Archipelago, eastern, 19
Arconati Visconti, 18
Arctic circle, 14
ocean, 2, 3, 33
shore, 4, 21
Argandab river, 94, 111
Ariana, 31, 59
Aristocracy, native, 208
Arjuna tree: see Anjun.
Armenia, 2, 13, 17
Armies, Mahratta, 348
Army, Egyptian, 419-421
European, India, 408, 409
Arnold, Edwin, on Muhammadans, 325
Art, ancient Indian, 485
culture, social science, 485
education, India, 195
galleries, 493
in China and Japan, 195
industrial, India, 195
products, India, 221
textile, 493
Arthur's seat, India, 379, 380
Aryan Mahratta, 339
Ascalon, 454
Asia, area of, 1
coast of, 4
BALLANTYNE.
Asia, divisions of, 3
drainage of, 2
geography of, 1
Asia Minor, 2, 17, 20, 21, 33, 59
Asiatic coast, 20
continent, 3, 23
ranges, 5
rivers, 2
Assam forests, 259, 282, 288
mineral oils, 218
tea, 213, 237
Assembly of notables, Egypt, 425, 426
Assigned districts, Afghan, 98, 107
Association: see British, see also Social Science.
Assyrian excavations, 18
power in Palestine, 455
Athole, Duke, arboriculture, 268
Atkinson, traveller, 14
Atlas de la Chine, 9
Attok, 45
Augustine, St., College, 138, 149
Aurangzebe, emperor, 386, 403
Australasia, 19
Australia, 209, 211, 214
water storage in, 481
Australian horses, 221
jute, 216
land registration, 479
tea trade, 214
BABER, emperor, 113
geographer, 11
Babul tree, 251
Bactria, 33, 59
Baden Powell, forester, 267
Baedeker, Palestine, 442
Bagdad, 467
Bahmo, 11
Baikal lake, 31
Baji, enemy of Sivaji, 368, 369
Rao I., 390, 391
his reign, 402
Rao II., 398
proclaimed Peshwa, 399
his end, 402
his reign, 400, 401
Baker, Samuel, Egypt, 434
Bakkar on Indus, 95, 96
Balaji Baji Rao: see Balaji.
Vishwanath: see Vishwanath..
Peshwa, 391-393
reign, 402
Balfour, botanist, 268
Balkash drainage, 3
lake, 31
Ballantyne, forester, 287
༑
INDEX.
Bamboo paper,
tree, 252
Banias, 447
see Cæsarea
BAMBOO.
239
Bankers' institute, London, 226
Indian, commercial character, 302
native Indian, 292, 300
number, business, 299, 300, 302
Bankruptcy law, social science, 487
Banks, European, India, 301
Presidency, 301
Banyan tree, 251
Baptist missions, 155, 156, 159
Missionary Society, 155: Pref. viii.
Barakzai dynasty, 111
Baroda Mahratta, 347
see Gaekwar.
Barracks, India, 222
Barter in India, 294
Bashan, 458
forests, 464
Basevi, explorer, 6, 38
Batta, Indian coinage, 292
Bauhinia, 72
Beatitudes, Mount of, 454
Beaufort, Duke, arboriculture, 243
Beddome, forester, 266
Bedford, Duke, arboriculture, 243
Bedouin, 11
character, 334
Egypt, 421, 422
encampment, 461
escort trans-Jordan, 463
Palestine, 458
Beer, Himalayan, 216
Behar, 5, 175
indigo, 218
railway, 234
Behring strait, 4
Beke, explorer, 19
Belgium technical education, 307
Belhaven, Lord, arboriculture, 268
Bellew, traveller, 7, 16
Beluchistan, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 20, 21
boundary of, 107
plain of, 103
population, 313
Benares, 175
Bengal, 5, 71
coal, 219
eastern navigation, 213, 251
endowment, 490
forests, 259, 282
indigo, 218
Mahratta invasion, 347
Muhammadans, 318
products, 213
proprietors in, 124
railways, 233
rainfall, 256
BOGLE.
Bengal, social science, 492
tea, 213, 237
temperance, 410
Berar forests, 259, 282
Mahratta, 337
Raghuji's kingdom, 347.
transferred to Nizam, 351
Bethany, 447, 461
Bethel, site, 444
Crusader remains, 454
Bethlehem convent, 439
cultivation around, 458
mission at, 465
situation, 441
Turks at, 443
Bethsaida site, 446
Beyrout port, 440
institutions at, 466
missions at, 465
road to Damascus, 467
situation, 451
Bhawani Sivaji's sword, 358
Bhewsa lake, 80, 81
Bhonsla: see Raghuji.
Bhonsla defeat at Assaye, 350
subsequent position, 351
Bhore Ghat incline, 380-382
road, 382
Bhutan, 71, 80
Bible schools, Syria, 465
guide-book to Palestine, 442, 443
sites, 443
Biblical associations, Palestine, 441
Bidantso lake, 88
Biddulph, explorer, 6, 38
General Sir M., 105, 110
Bijapur Deccan, 346
city, 359
kingdom, 359
Shahji's prison, 368
Bije sal tree, 250
Bills of exchange, native, 296, 300
drawn by Secretary of State, 298
technicalities, 300
Bimetallism, India, 293
Bird, Miss, authoress, 12
Birdwood, Society of Arts, 243
Bithur, near Cawnpur, 351, 352
Blackwater lake, 88
Blakeston, traveller, 11
Blanford, geologist, 17, 71, 76, 78, 83, 92
Block system grazing, 263, 280
Blunt, Lady Anne, 18, 19
Board of visitors, Cooper's Hill, 307
schools, 482
Boards, district in India, 121, 122, 127
local, in future, 129
Boats: see Navigation.
Boaz, fields of, 445
Bogle, traveller, 10, 37, 71, 91, 92
497
2 K
498
INDEX.
BOKHARA.
CANAANITES.
Bokhara, 16, 321
Bolan pass, 102–104
route by, 106
Bolshev, traveller, 13
Bombay municipality, 119
aggregation of people, 474
city temperance, 411
elective system, 123
forests, 259, 282
hill fires, 262
meteorology, 276
Presidency temperance, 410
railways, 234
sailors' home, 407, 492
Borax, Mid-Asia, 32
India, 220
Borneo, 19, 157
Boswellia thurifera: see Frankincense.
Botta, explorer, 18
Boulger's History of China, 48
Bourdon: see Ujfalvy.
Bowring mission, 8
Brahman Mahratta caste, 338, 339, 343
Déshast, 339
Konkanast, 339
Mahratta princes, 384, 387, 388
Peshwa, 347
Peshwas, 388, 389, 391, 402-404
Sivaji's ministers, 346
Brahmans: see Mahrattas.
Brahmans of Benares, 175, 176
Brahmaputra, 2, 5, 21, 30, 38
navigation, 213
-tea districts, 237
Brahmo sect, 135, 177
belief, 178, 187
Somaj, 153
Brandis, Dr. D., forester, 266, 286
Brassey, Society of Arts, 243
Breadalbane, Lord, 268
Brian Hodgson, 5
Brigandage in China, 51
Brindisi route to Jerusalem, 441
British Association, 1, 23, 46: Pref. vii.
Admiralty, 4, 21
Christian attitude, 325–329
Consular Service, 17, 19
dominion, India, 170, 171
empire, 4
extent of, 470
India, 4
power, India rise, 349
rule, India, 178
safety, 178, 183
see Empire.
see Muhammadans.
surveys, 4
territories, 5
tourists in Palestine, 463
Brougham, social science, 472
Brunton of Japan, 12
Bryce, traveller, 18
Buchan, meteorologist, 276
Bucknall, arboriculture, 243
Buddha incarnations, 41
Buddhism, 40, 46, 53, 65
debased, 325
in Sikkim, 73
prospects of, 146, 159
Buddhist convent, 32
architecture, 73
monastery, 60
Buddhists, 41, 60, 69
Bul-tso lake, 32
Burckhardt, geographer, 18
Burma, 11, 20, 29
forests, 259, 284
mineral oil, 218
rice, 215
tea districts, 237
Burnaby, traveller, 15, 17
Burnes, Alexander, 7, 16
Burton, traveller, 18, 19
CADASTRAL survey, 4
Cæsar, Chinese, 48
Cæsarea Philippi, 447, 453
on Mediterranean, 453
Cairo, British garrison, 422
priesthood, 429
Calcutta, 68
city, temperance, 411
elective system, 123
jute factories, 216
municipality, 119
Oxford mission, 139, 149
sailors' home, 407, 492
threatened by Mahrattas, 354
-water supply, 473
Caldwell, bishop, 139
California jute, 238
Caliphs of Islam, 175
Calvary site not known, 446
Cambodia river, 3, 8
county, 29
delta, 8
shores, 4
surveys, 20, 21
Cambridge mission to Delhi, 139, 149
Camel, wild, 37
hair, 219
Campbell of Darjiling, 69, 75, 92
Walker, forester, 266, 287
Cana of Galilee, 447, 461
Canaan, 449
Canaanites, 455, 456
Muhammadan, 459
INDEX.
499
CANAANITES.
Canaanites, present character, 457
Canada forests, 277, 287
social science, 482
Canal: see Grand.
project, Palestine, 469
see Suez.
Canals in China, 50
future for India, 236
irrigation in India, 202, 222
sources of, 257, 278
Candahar, 7, 95, 96, 98, 101
condition of railway project, 115
cultivation near, 321
distance from Indus, 94, 113
first sight of, 111
important position of, 110
last look at, 113
railway towards, 93-115
view of from Khojak, 108
Cane, missionary, 139
Canning, Earl, 272
Canterbury, college at, 138, 149
Canton for the Sung, 58
for the Ming, 63
Cape Cormorin, 33
Capernaum site, 446, 447, 469
Capital application of, 187, 188
absorption of, 227–229, 240
drawing of for East, 240
in India, 226
Carey, missionary, 155, 160
Carmel, Mount, 438, 445, 448
forests, 464
panorama, 446
Carnè, traveller, 8
Carpenter, Miss, 487
Carpets, 221
Carts, India, 255, 288
Cash balance, Indian treasury, 295
Cashmir, trees of, 248
Caspian, 2, 15, 16, 20, 57
basin, 20
drainage, 3
forests, 288
Caste of converts, 134, 151
power of, 160
Cattle, Indian, 218
pasturage, 257
ranches, America, 481
cultivation near, 321
Caubul, 6, 21, 320
Caucasia, 13, 14, 20
Caucasus, 2, 13, 14, 20, 21
Indian, 21
Cavalry, Mongolian, 34, 36, 386
Mahratta, 348, 354, 386, 392
Caves, cells, and tombs, Palestine, 448
Cedar, Indian, 246
Palestine, 464
Cemeteries in Palestine, 453
Census, Indian, 288
CHINESE.
Central Asia, plateau 23-42, 46: Pref. vi.
passage to, 110
politics, 321, 415
water channels, 96
wood, 288
provinces, India, self government, 128
forests, 259, 282
Ceylon, 3, 4, 5, 20
cocoa-nut, 217, 253
coffee, 214
surveys, 6, 21
Chaman military post, 108
Chambers of commerce, India, 223
Changu Kang, mount, 79, 80, 90
Chapar mountain, 98
rift, 101, 102
Charitable trusts, social science, 487
Cherith, brook, 445
Chermside, consul, 17
Chesney, Colonel, Cooper's Hill, 308
Chesney, F. R., geographer, 18
Chihaltan legend, 104
China, 25, 28, 29, 33
climate, 1
conquest of by Mongols, 47
empire of, 4
ethnology of, 47
forests, 288
geography of, 11, 20, 21, 44
jute, 216
Muhammadans, 313, 415
proper, 8, 10
silk, 217
wall: see Great.
China's sorrow, 50
Chinchona Indian, 215
Chinese empire, 3, 4, 8, 9
army rules, 49
border, 8
brigandage, 51
"Cæsar," 48
canals, 50
coast, 4, 8, 21
colleges, 49
corruption, 52
dominion in mid Asia, 39
education, 52, 483
emperor, 51
empress, 52
geography, 9
history, 43-67: Pref. vii.
land tenure, 50, 479
legislation, 49, 50
literature, 49
lowlanders, 33
mountain chains, 38
payment for opium, 295
people, 28, 29
plains, 32
2 K 2
A
500
INDEX.
1
CHINESE.
Chinese population, 29, 54, 156
ranges, 21
rebels, 8
rule in Tarim basin, 39
social movements, 53
statistics, 49, 65
stimulants, 190
traders, 54
village communities, 50
Chinghiz Khan, 33, 35, 39, 41
invades China, 55
memory, 60
Chokham lake, 78–81, 90
Chola range, 71-73, 76, 80, 87, 88
gneiss, 78, 81
lake, 76, 79, 81, 83
pass, 75, 76, 86, 88
peak, 82
Cholera in Egypt, 475
- in India, 473-475
Chomnaga valley, 75, 76, 81
Chorazin, site, 446
Chord line railway, Bombay, 234
Chouth, Mahratta, 349
Christian missions, 10
natives: see Converts.
see Religious.
Christianity in China, 65
among Muhammadans, 315, 325
in India, 137, 146
need for, 148, 168, 169
progress, 178
Christendom contests, 317
Chumalari, mount, 85, 86, 90, 91
Chumbi valley, 71, 72, 78, 80, 86, 90
Church of England, 131
Church Missionary Society, 138
Cilicia, 17
Circulation: see Gold, silver, copper, paper,
cowrie.
Civil engineering: see Cooper's Hill.
laws in China, 49, 50
Service: see Covenanted.
Cleghorn, forester, 266, 286
Clerk, Sir G., arboriculture, 269
Climatic importance of forests, 254, 255, 275
Coal, Indian, 219, 239
Cochin China, 4
forests, 288
country, 8
shores, 4
surveys, 20
Cocoa-nut, 217
its uses, 253
Codification, India, 487
Coffee, Indian, 211, 237, 481
temperance, 412
Coir, Indian, 217
Cole, Society of Arts, 243
College: see Cooper's Hill.
COUNCIL.
Colleges in India, 192
Collins of America, 14
Colonial: see Royal.
Colonies, 200
Agents-general, 492
land registration, 479
land questions, 481
law reforms, 488
social science, 470–494
Colonisation fails in India, 200
Commercial regulations, 487
Comorin: see Cape.
Communal plantations, 284
Communities, village in, China, 50
in India, 124, 342
Mahratta, 342
Maine, on, 50
Competitive system, China, 49
Compulsory attendance at school, 193
system, 484
Concessions of land, colonial, 481
Conciliation Courts, 196
Conder, explorer, 19
Confederation, Mahratta, 339
Confucius, 53
Congo valley, 157
Conifer, 246
Conolly, Arthur, 7, 16
Conservancy: see Forestry.
Constantinople, bills on, 301
Consular service, 17, 19
Contemporary Review, 116, 415: Pref. viii.
Converts, Indian, 132, 134
castes of, 134, 151
census of, 165
good character, 136, 137, 150
Muhammadan, 319
observances, 161, 162
Convents, Palestine, 439
Convict settlements, 489
Cooper, murder of, 11
Cooper's Hill engineering college, 222, 258, 484
character of instruction, 308
near Runnymead, 305
now open to all comers, 307
origin and progress, 304–311
originally for India, 307
prospects, 309
situation near Windsor, 305
Livery Company, 304
Copper, India coinage, 291, 294, 296
Corchorus capsularis: see Jute.
Corea country, 11, 48
Corruption in China, 52
Cottages: see Dwellings.
Cotton, Indian, 221
factories, 222
goods import, 238, 241
Sir A., canals, 235
Council drafts: see Bills.
bat ou
1
+
INDEX.
501
COVENANTED.
Covenanted Civil Service, 196
Cowrie shell circulation, 294
Crawfurd mission, 8
Creditor: see Debtor.
Crime, India, 489
military, temperance, 408, 409
Criminal law, 489
Crowfoot, missionary, 138
Cunliffe, Owen, Society of Arts, 243
Cûrg coffee, 214
Currency: see Gold, silver, copper, paper, cowrie.
Curwen, arboriculture, 243
Cypress, Indian, 246
Levantine, 247
Cyprus, 20
forests, 277, 482
DADAJI, tutor of Sivaji, 358
dying speech to Sivaji, 361
Dadar at Bolan, 101
Dalhousie, Marquis, 226, 271, 272
Dallet, missionary, 11
Dalzell, forester, 266, 287
Damascus, position, 467, 468
Dammaji Gaekwar, 347
Danube, 56
Turkey, 331
Danubian provinces, 331
D'Anville, cartographer, 9
Darjiling, 68, 69, 71, 83, 91
trade of, 73
trees near, 248
Darshani, bill, 300
Dasht-i-bedaulat, desolate plain, 103
Dasserah Mahratta festival, 343
Davenport, Society of Arts, 243
David, missionary, 10
David's tomb, 445
Davis in Cilicia, 17
Dead Sea drainage, 3
aspect of, 438
canal project, 469
shores, 444, 464
Death rate, India, 207, 477
De Boigne in Mahratta service, 318
Debt, public, India, 203
amount of, 231
condition of, 204
interest on, 231, 232
raised in England, 203
Debtor and creditor law, 189
social science, 480
Deccan, British, 337
annexation, British, 351, 402
events, 389
Nizam's, 337
Moslem invasion, 338
EDEN.
Deccan, Mahratta, 338
- uplands, 339, 355, 356
Deficits, Indian, 201
Deforesting, 276, 277
Palestine, 464
Delhi, mission to, 139, 149
Mahratta events, 393, 395
Mahratta negotiations, 389
Sivaji's escape from, 374
under Mahrattas, 347
Delmar Morgan, traveller, 10, 37
Deltas, Indian, irrigation, 236
Denham, Sir John, verses, 305
Depreciation, silver, 227, 298
Derah-al-Kalaat remains, 451
Desgodin, missionary, 10, 37
Deshast Brahmans, 339
Dewar, forester, 269
Dharna Mahratta, 392
Diamond mines, India, 293
Dickens, General, railway, 233
Cooper's Hill, 307
Dickson, Miss, Palestine, 465
Dîg battle, 350
Discipline: see Prison.
Dispensaries, social science, 477
District officers: see European.
Ditch, historical, Calcutta, 354
Dobendi or Dopenti peak, 82, 83
Donovan: see O'Donovan.
Dori river, 110
Dothan, Palestine, 444
Double standard, India, 292
Dowry, law of, 491
Drainage: see Sanitation.
works, social science, 475
Drinking water, 207, 279
purification, 474
Du Halde, 9
Duncan, arboriculture, 268
Dundee jute, 216
Dunn, forester, 269
Durance in France, forests, 277
Dûrga Devi famine, 337
Dust storm at Khojak, 108
Dutch, 11
Dwellings of poor, 205, 207
home and abroad, 473
Dyes, Indian, 218
EAST India Association, 184-199: Pref. viii.
its duties, 185
Company, 211
Economic value of forests, 254, 274
Economy: see Political.
Eden mission to Bhotan, 5
502
INDEX.
#
EDGAR.
FAMINE.
Edgar of Darjiling, 92
Edinburgh, H.R.H., Duke of, 407
address at, 267
medical mission, Palestine, 466
Education, agricultural, 240
ancient China, 483
compulsory, 192
engineering, 484
female, 163, 195
for Europeans in India, 210
high, 191, 192, 493
in China, 52
in Great Britain, 193
India, 193, 483
medical, 484
modern Palestine, 465
primary, 191, 192
see Female.
see Technical.
state, India, 162, 208
Egypt, 157: Pref. vi.
armaments and forts, 420
army, 421
British action in, 335
cholera, 475
civil administration, 423
condition of, 325, 333
European garrison, 422, 423
financial control, 431
importance to England, 467
internal legislation, 427
judicial administration, 428
local self-government, 429
material improvement, 434
Muhammadan rule in, 416
non-official Europeans, 430
policy in, 415-434
political representation, 425, 426
progress essential, 424
so-called national party, 432
sovereignty and suzerainty, 419
Egyptian desert, 11
dwellings, 473
peasantry, 480
police, 421
rule in Palestine, 462
Elah, David's stream, 445
Elbruz mount, 14
Elective principle, India, 122, 125
for Egypt, 426
India, social science, 493
Electric telegraph, Japan, 12
― over Indus, 96
Eleuth tribe, 39
Elgin, Earl, 272
Elias: see Ney, Elias.
Elijah's cave, 445
Ellis, Sir Barrow, 98, 307
Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 6
in Deccan, 400, 401
Embankments on Indus, 95
Emigration from India, 190
social science, 481
Emperor in China, 51
Empire, British, 200, 201
Encumbered estates, 480
Encyclopædia Britannica, 337: Pref. viii.
Endowments, Muhammadan, 328
social science, 490
Engannin, Palestine, 447
Engineering: see Cooper's Hill, see Sanitary,
see Education.
Engineers, civil, for India, 222
England, 19
-in Egypt, 415, 418, 419
English: see England.
books, 20
collision with Mahrattas, 350
financial control, Egypt, 431, 432
surveys, 15
surveyors, 37
Epping forest, 258
Erman of Siberia, 13
Esdraelon plain, soil, 438
battles, 455
cultivation, 458
description of, 448
view of, 440
Ethics: see Moral.
Euphrates, 456, 467
basin, 16
river, 18
upper, 17
European consulates, Palestine, 466
army, India, 408
British subjects, India, 117
district officers, 117
influence in China, 65
temperance, 409
temperance, India, 405-414
travellers in Asia, 1
Europe, continent, India trade, 301
Euxine, 57
Evans, Sir Frederick, 21
'Evening News,' London, 312, 435: Pref. viii.
Everest, surveyor, 6, 38
mount, 70
Exchanges, Indian, 207
Excise, India, 405
Exhaustion of soil, India, 255
Exploration: see Palestine.
FACTORY legislation, India, 490
Fair trade, social science, 478
Famine, India, 207
commission report, 259
expenses of, 230
1
INDEX.
FAMINE.
Famine, Mahratta, 337, 340
Farms: see Model.
Farokhabad battle, 350
Farr, W., social science, 494
Farrar's 'Life of Christ,' 442
plain of Esdraelon, 448
Fawcett, Postmaster-General, 302
Fellahin, Palestine, 455
Fellowes, 17
Female education, India, 140, 153, 163, 195
social science, 486
Ferguson, forester, 287
Ferrier, traveller, 7, 17
Feudalism in China, 47, 49
its suppression, 48
Ficus, genera, 251
religiosa: see Pipal.
Field survey, 4
Fife, Lord, arboriculture, 268
Finance of India, 201, 202
improvement, 229
Financial results of forestry, 286
Finsch, traveller, 13
Fir, Indian, 246, 247
see Coniferæ.
Fires in Indian forests, 261, 262, 283
Flax, India, 216, 217
Fleet, Chinese, 48
Fletcher, arboriculture, 268
Floods, 244, 279
Food supply, home and abroad, 473, 474
—see Adulteration.
Foreign missions, America, 143
Forest flora book, 266, 287
Forest, Indian department, 258
its work, 259, 281
Forest produce, India, 220
remains, Palestine, 464
Forestry in India, 189
its importance, 242, 265
social science, 482
Forests of India, 244: Pref. vii.
their area, 259, 281
their value, 244–288
Forests, Scotch: see Scotland.
Formosa, island, 64
Forsyth, Douglas, 10, 37
Forsyth, forester, 266, 287
'Fortnightly Review,' 166: Pref. viii.
Forts, Egypt, dismantled, 420
Fortune, traveller, 11
Fowler, J., arboriculture, 268
France, deforesting, 277
financial control, Egypt, 431, 432
floods, forests, 244
forestry, 258
in Palestine, 468
in Syria, 467
in Tunis, 333
Mr., forester, 269
GHAT.
France, technical education, 307
Franco-German war, silver, 227
Frankincense tree, 250
Fraser of Ceylon, 6
Free church, Scotland, 143, 155
Free trade, social science, 478
French books, 20
government surveys, 7
see France.
surveys, 4
Frenchmen in Mahratta service, 348
Frere, Sir Bartle, 185
Freshfield, traveller, 14, 17
Friendly societies, social science, 490
Fuel supply, India, 255, 273, 274
Palestine, 464
GABET, traveller, 9, 37
Gaekwar affairs, 352
kingdom, 347
Mahratta, 338
origin, 344
railway, 235
Galilee, cultivation, 458
panorama, 446
sea, ruins, 452
uplands, 438, 446
Gall nut, 260
Galton, Society of Arts, 243
Gandamak treaty, 98
Ganges, canal, 30
canals from, 236
navigation, 213
river, 2, 5, 30
wheat, 215
Garnier, traveller, 8, 20
Gauge railway, India, 235
Gazaband pass, 105
Genghiz: see Chinghiz.
Gennesareth, lake of, 438, 446
Geographical Society: see Royal.
Geok Tepe battle, 332
Gerizim, mount, well at, 447
cultivation near, 458
people near, 461
German foresters, 24
missionaries, India, 141
Germany forestry, 258
forests, 244, 287
technical education, 307
Ghat mountains, geography, 355
Mahratta, 339, 340
503
504
INDEX.
GHAT.
Ghat forests, 245, 270
strategic situation, 345, 346
Gibbon, historian, 33
Gibeon, hillock of, 445
Gilboa, site, 445, 446
Gilghit, 6
Gill, explorer, 11
Gipmochi, mount, 88, 89
Glacial action, 84
Gnarean, mount, 76, 88
Gneiss, 78, 81, 111
Goa Mahratta history, 354
railway, 233
road and railway, 382
Gobi desert, 26, 38
--western, 3, 27
eastern, 3, 27, 28
Godwin-Austen, explorer, 6, 38
Gold coinage, 291, 292
for domestic use, 293
for hoarding, 293
India, 207
Malabar, 220
mines, 239, 291
mohurs, 292
not legal tender, 293
quantity of, 296-298
washings, 37
Golden age, India, 170
Gordon Cumming, arboriculture, 268
—, Egypt, 434
Goschen silver committee, 227, 298
Government of India, 129
see Local.
Græco-Assyrian dynasty, Palestine, 456
Egyptian dynasty, Palestine, 456
Greek church, Palestine, 439, 461, 468
remains, Palestine, 452, 453
Grain trade, India, 241
Grand canal, China, 59
Lama of Tibet, 76
Granite, 78, 107, 111
Grant, arboriculture, 268
Duff, Madras, 269
Mahratta historian, 344
Thomson, forester, 269
Grass for cattle, 257, 262, 263
Grazing, India, 263, 280
Great Britain: see Education.
Great Mogul, 113
wall of China, 32, 33, 39, 44, 48
Griffith, 5
Grove, traveller, 14
Guaranteed: see Railway.
Guerin, explorer, 19
Guiana, 157
Gujerat Mahratta, 347
British, 350
Gulistan Karêz, 106, 113
Gun slip at Khojak, 108
HINDUS.
Gwaja pass, 105–107, 110, 113
Gwal in Pishin, 98, 100, 101
— on railway line, 105
HADDINGTON, Earl, arboriculture, 268
Hague, the, 9
Haifa in Palestine, 440
Halde: see Du Halde.
Halevy, traveller, 18
Halifax orphanage, 491
Hall, Sir J., arboriculture, 268
"Har Har Mahadeo," war cry, 343
Harmand, explorer, 8
Harnai village, 98, 100
Harness, India made, 219
Hastings, Warren, 10, 71
Mahratta history, 350, 399
Hawes, of Japan, 12
Hayward, traveller, 10, 37
Hazara country, 7
Hebron, venerated, 459, 460
peasantry, 461
Helmand drainage, 3
Hemp, Indian, 217
Herat, 22
Herbert, pioneer, 5
Hermon, Great, 438, 441
Little, 446
situation, 446, 452
woods, 464
Herod, 447
his buildings, 452, 453
Herodian dynasty, 456
Herodium, near Hebron, 453
Hetkari soldiers, 383
Hia in China, 55
Hides: see Skins.
High: see Education.
Himalayan range, 4, 5, 37
Himalayas, 1, 2, 10, 20, 21, 25, 26, 67, 91
chinchona, 215
condensed clouds, 275
forests, 245
silver, 291
tea, 213
Hindu, 69
Kush mountains, 21, 22
Hinduism, state of, 147, 159
Aryan, 339
character, 180, 325
decline, 168
moving, 172
prospect of, 160
religion of Mahrattas, 338, 343
Hindus, their faith, 176, 177
their coinage, 291
compete with Muhammadans, 317, 318
INDEX.
Hindus ideas, 180
HINDUS.
law of inheritance, 341
reformers, 163, 177
widows, 486
women's property, 491
Hindustan, village communities, 342
under the British, 350
under Mahrattas, 347
Hinnom vale, 445
Historical: see Royal.
Hoang-Ho, 3, 21, 57, 63
course of, 45
delta of, 59
Hia kingdom, 55
— source of, 29, 32, 38, 45
Hoarding, India, 293, 294
Hodgson, Brian, 5
7
Holdich, surveyor,
Holkar Mahratta, 338
confederation, 350
defeat at Assaye, 350
kingdom, 347
origin, 344
present position, 351
Holly, Mid Asia, 37
Himalayan, 248
Holy Land, 19
see Palestine.
Sepulchre, 443
IRRIGATION.
ILEX tree, 248
Ili valley, 39
Imâm Mehdî, 175
Imâms seven, 175
Income-tax, India, 295
United Kingdom, 295
Indebtedness, Egyptian, 480
Indian peasantry, 480
India, British, 4
Christianity in, 131-165
duty of British towards, 184-199
forestry of, 242-289
geography, 3, 4, 5, 20, 25
history, 33
local self-government, 116–130
Muhammadan, 313, 317
office, London, 6
see Population.
religious thought in, 166–183
resources, 200–241
Indian: see Bankers.
Caucasus, 21
dwellings, 473
education, social science, 483
marine, 4
Muhammadans, 314, 317
native surveyors, 6, 10
navy, 18, 21
ocean, 2, 3, 31
ranges, 5
places, Palestine, 443
Honorary magistrates, 197
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 5, 69, 71, 75, 76, 83, 88, 92,
249
Horns trade, 219
Horse breeding, India, 221
Horse, Arabian, 36, 221
Australian, 221
Mongolian, 36
Persian, 221
Turkoman, 36, 393
Hospitals, social science, 477
Houses: see Dwellings.
Hüber, traveller, 18
Huc, missionary, 9, 10, 37
Huddersfield, social science, 470
technical school, 484
Hughly river factories, 216
Humboldt, Alexander, 13
Hundy: see Bill.
Hutchison, arboriculture, 267, 280, 281, 284
Hutton, arboriculture, 243
Hyder Ali, Mysore, 350, 395
Hyderabad Deccan, 350
rivers, 30
surveys, 5
India-rubber, 221
tree, 252
Indigo, Indian, 211, 218
Indo-European telegraph, 16
Indus river, 5, 7, 30, 94
base upon, 96
canals, 236
inundations, 95
relative distance, 113
to Candahar, 93–115
Industrial schools, 489, 493
see Reformatory.
Inshan mountains, 2, 25, 45
Institute, Indian, Oxford, 199
Northbrook, in London, 199
of bankers, London, 226: Pref. viii.
of Civil Engineers, 307
Insurance, life, for natives, 303, 490
Interest, private rate, India, 300
public debt, India, 202, 232: see Debt.
Intoxicating: see Liquor.
Inundation: see Floods.
Irawady rice, 215
river, 3, 21
-source of, 29, 38
Iron mines, 239
trade, Indian, 219
Irrigation: see Canals.
505
506
INDEX.
"ไ
IRRIGATION.
Irrigation companies, 188
Indian, 188
Irtish, black, river, 39
Islam condition, 312–336
in Palestine, 454, 457
militant, 175
Islington college, 138, 149
Issyk-kul lake, 31
Italy, silk, 217
JACOB'S ladder, 444
well, 454
Jadestone, 37
Jaffa port, 441
road, 437
steamers, 440
Jamna river, 5, 30
Jang Behadur of Nepal, 67
Japan, climate of, 1
division, 4
- geography of, 11, 20, 21
shores of, 4
Java, 11, 19
Jawabi hundy bill, 300
Jaxartes river, 3, 30
Jebusites, 455
Jehangir, emperor, 403
Jehoshaphat valley, 445
Jericho, convent, 440
gardens, 444
glen near, 447
Herod, 447
Joshua, 444
site, 469
view near, 440
Jeroboam's altar, 444
Jerusalem, aqueducts to, 445
bankers at, 466
Christian king of, 454, 457
environs of, 445
Knights of St. John, 454
missions at Zion, 465
Moslem cemetery, 453
veneration, 467
mosque at, 453
of modern Jews, 459
ophthalmic hospital, 466
remains at, 460
residence at, 441
road to, 437
storm at, 438
suburbs, 466
travellers to, 440, 441
view of, 447
Jesuit missionaries, 9
surveys, 9
Jewels, India, 293
KAVERI.
Jews at Solomon's stones, 461
missions for, 460
of middle ages, 459
of past times, 459
of present time, 460
mission to, 465
refugees from Russia, 461
Jezzar Pasha Acre, 462
Jezreel, site, 446, 447
John: see St. John.
Johnson, traveller, 10, 37
Jordan, antiquities beyond, 453
canal project, 469
country, 462, 463
country west, 455
exploration beyond, 449
near Dead Sea, 464
region east, 458
river, 19
sacred bathing place, 461
trans, region, 437, 440, 447
valley, 440, 444, 448
water, 438
Joseph at Dothan, 444
Joshua's Jericho, 444
Jubilee British Association, 1
Judæa, culture, 458
gardens, 458
wilderness, 461
Juniper, India, 247, 248
Mid Asia, 37
Junnar road, 382
Sivaji's birthplace, 356, 357
Juries, social science, 487
Jurymen, native, 197
Jute, Indian, 216, 238
Jyelap lake, 88, 90
pass, 71–73, 76, 89, 91
KAFIRISTAN, 6
Kala Abdullah in Pishin, 105
Kalipat mount, 97, 98, 100, 101
Kamchatka, maps of, 13, 21
Kanchanjanga mount, beauty, 91
granite, 78
height, 69, 70
position, 74, 76, 81
Karakoram pass, 6
range, 26
Kara Koron, 35
Karwar road, 382
Kashgar, 10, 36
Kashmir survey, 5
Katha, Maliratta, 343
Kavir, saline drainage, 3
Kaveri river, Mahratta, 347, 348, 354
き
​.
INDEX.
KAY.
Kay, missionary, 138
Kennan of America, 14
Kerosene oil, 218
Kerulen river, 35
Keshab Chander Sen, 177
Keene, Lord, 110
Khelat country, 104
khan of, 106
Khalka tribe, 40
Khan: see Khelat.
Khande Rao Gaekwar, 352
Khandesh, 337.
Khanikoff, 17
Khedive, Egypt, 416
assembly, 427
financial control, 431, 432
former reforms, 425
his forces, 420
his protection, 421
ministry, 425
political position, 417
state religion, 429, 430
Suez canal, 433
Khingan mountains, 25, 45
Khiva, 321
Khoja Amran range, 94, 104
name, 105
railway line, 107
relative distance, 113
roads over, 107
Khojak pass, 105, 107
view from, 108
Khokha bill, 300
Khorasan: Pref. vi.
Khote tenures, 341
Khoten, 10
Khushab village, 110
Khyber pass, 45
Kidron, brook, 445
Kiepert, geographer, 17
Kin in China, 55, 56, 61
Kind: see Payment.
King of Jerusalem, 454, 457
King's gardens, Jerusalem, 446
Kishon, brook, 438
woods, 464
Kismet, Muhammadan, 315
Kleber in Palestine, 455
Knight Charles, history, 243
Knights: see St. John.
Knipping of Japan, 12
Kobdo, 37
Kokhand, Central Asia, 321
Kolhapur Mahratta, 338
Konkan, 337, 339, 241
British, 351
coast, 355
Konkanast, Brahman, 339
Koran in India, 175
Koumis milk, 35
LHASSA.
Krivoshapkin, traveller, 13
Kropotkin, traveller, 13
Kshatriya, Mahratta, 339
Kublai, ruler of China, 59, 60
Knen-Lun region, 21, 29, 32, 45
minerals of, 37
mountains, 25, 26, 28
unexplored, 38
Kuku Nor, drainage, 3
lake, 27, 32
plateau, 3
Kulja, 8, 10, 37
Kumbi Mahratta, 338
Kurdistan, 3
Kurultai, assemblies, 35
Kusmore on Indus, 94
LABOUR, prison, outdoor, indoor, 489
Lacustrine system, 24, 31
Ladakh, 5
passes, 21
Lake, General, 350
region, eastern Himalaya, 68
Lalla Rookh, scene of, 248
Lama: see Grand.
Lamaism in China, 53
Land Mahratta, 311
property, origin of, 478
property, social science, 479
registration, 479, 487
revenue survey, 4
settlement, 260, 282
tenure in China, 50
tenures, India, 479, 480
Lansdell, traveller, 14
Lao, his doctrines, 53
Lao-ism in China, 65
Laswari battle, 350
Latin Church Palestine, 439, 461, 468
Laurel, Himalayan, 248
Law reporting, social science, 487
Lawrence, Lord, 226, 272, 407
Layard, explorer, 18
Lebanon, 450
missions, 465
politics, 466
Lechmere, Sir Edmund, 466
Legal tender, India, 291-295
Legislation in India, 487
internal for Egypt, 428
Legislative Councils, 198
—, India, 427, 487
example for Egypt, 427
Leighton, Society of Arts, 243
Lena river, 3, 13, 30
Levant, bills on, 301
Lhassa, 10, 32, 36, 41, 71, 73, 91
507
508
INDEX.
LIFE.
Life insurance: see Insurance.
Lincoln, meeting at, 131, 132
Lindsay at Sibi, 97
Liquor law, 491
Literature in China, 49
Liverpool Temperance Association, 405
port, 406, 414
Llandaff, Bishop, arboriculture, 243
Livery Companies, London, 484
Lob lake, 26, 27, 30
drainage, 3, 31, 32
Nor, 27
Local: see Boards.
governments, India, 119, 126, 127
see Self-government,
Loftus, geologist, 17
Logsdail, missionary, 138
London, addresses in, 43, 68, 93, 155, 184, 200,
226, 241, 242, 353, 384
homes for Indians, 199
Native bills on, 301
Native Indian traders, 210
Lopatkin, traveller, 13
Lora river in Pishin, 105, 106
Lothian, Marquis, arboriculture, 268, 288
Lubbock, Society of Arts, 243
Lumsden, Harry, 7
Lyall, Sir A., 166, 168
MAACK, naturalist, 13
Macartney map, 6
MacCoan in Turkey, 17
work on Egypt, 426
McCorquodale, forester, 269
Macgahan, traveller, 15
McGregor, forester, 269
Macgregor in Persia, 16
Machinery, India, 222, 240
Macnaghten, Sir W., 110
Macphelah, cave, 460
Macpherson, arboriculture, 268
Mactier, arboriculture, 268
Madagascar, 157, 190
Madhaji Sindhia, 347
Madhol Mahratta, 368-370
Madhu Rao Peshwa, 393–396
Naraen Peshwa, 396
his death, 398
Madras forests, 269, 282
Magdala, Palestine, 446, 447, 469
Magna Charta, Mahratta, 389
Magnolia, Himalayan, 72, 248
Mahabaleshwar scenery, 379
Maharajpur battle, 352
Maharashtra, 337, 338, 340, 347
Mahratta war, first, 401
MARRIAGE.
Mahrattas during war of mutinies, 175
armies, 348
area and revenue, 349
birth of power, 353
castes, 338, 339
collisions with British, 350
confederation, 348
country, 337
federal organisation, 387
history, 346
land tenures, 341
national character, 340: Pref. vi.
national progress, 354
nationality, 338
nobles and princes, 343
peasantry, 342
political temper, 382
Peshwa reigns, 402
several principalities, 347
strategic geography, 345
Mahratti language, 338
Maine, Sir H., works on early law and on village
communities, 50
Malabar coffee, 214
cocoa-nut, 217, 253
forests, 284
Malcolm, author, 16
Sir John, 351, 400
Malusra Tannajis village, 358
Malussovski, traveller, 37
Malwa Mahratta, 347
Manchester, Indian trade, 238
Manchu emperors, 65
degeneracy, 67
Manchuria, 8, 20, 39, 48
Russian, 13
Manchus, home of, 44
conquer China, 63
establish rule, 64-67
tribe of, 61
Mango tree, 251
Manilla tobacco, 215
Manning, traveller, 10, 37, 71, 91, 92
Mansfield, Earl, arboriculture, 243, 268
tree planting, 284
Manufactures, India, 213–219
Manure in India, 189, 274, 283
Manzoni, traveller, 18
Marco Polo, 22, 32
Margery, death, 11
Marhatta, 338: see Mahratta.
Marine, 4
survey, 4
Markham, geographer, 6, 72, 91
Marsaba convent, 439, 440
Marshman, missionary, 155, 160
Martel of France, 314
Martyn, missionary, 141
Marriage law, social science, 493
Marriage laws, India, 181
慧
​1
INDEX.
509
MARRIED.
Married women's property, social science, 491
in the East, 491
Masson, traveller, 7, 8
Matthieson, arboriculture, 268
Mawulis soldiers, 383
Mayo, Lord, 118
death, 314
Meadows Taylor, 365
Mecca, 18
- pilgrims, 323
Mechanical arts, India, 222
Medical: see Education.
Medina pilgrims, 323
Mediterranean coast, 17, 18
Asiatic, 32
expedition, 383
Mehdi: see Imâm.
Mehemet Ali, Egypt, 426
Meinam, river, 8
Mekong, river, 3, 8, 21
source of, 29, 38
Mel pass, 110
Mencius, moralist, 53
Menzies, arboriculture, 268
Merewether, Sir W., 98
Mesopotamia, 17, 18, 20, 203, 468
Metals, Indian trade, 241
Meteorologists in Mid-Asia, 38
Meteorology, Bombay, 276
Michell, book, 9
Middendorff, traveller, 13
Milk supply, 474
Minerals, Indian, 219
Ming dynasty in China, 61, 63
Mints, Indian, Native, 292
British, 293
Missionaries, India, 132
high repute, 137, 160
past and present, 138
qualifications, 149, 161
see Religious.
Missionary societies: see Religious.
Missions: see Religious.
Mississippi, 213
Mizpeh, hill of, 445
Moab, mountains, 441, 461
antiquities, 452
woods, 464
Moabites, 458
Mocha coffee, 214
Model farms, India, 221
Mogul: see Great.
empire, 205
Mogul empire, great emperors, 302
in Deccan, 346, 347
ruin, 349
Moloch, sacrifice site, 445
Moltke, geographer, 17
Monasteries, Palestine, 439
Monetary practice, India, 290–303
MUHAMMADAN.
Money-changers: see Bankers.
orders, India, 303
Mongol armies, 34
conquest of China, 47, 54
conquests, 35
food, 35
Mongolia, 8, 10, 20, 27, 28
proper, 26
specialty of, 34
Mongolian limits, 14
Mongols, the, historian of, 33
character of, 35
cohesion of, 34
decline of, 39, 40
home of, 44
Monier Williams, 199
Montgomerie, surveyor, 5, 10
Moore, Consul at Jerusalem, 466
of Caucasus, 14
Moorcroft, traveller, 7
Moral training, social science, 485, 486
Moresby, marine surveyor, 21
Morgan: see Delmar Morgan.
Moriah, mount, 445
Morier, author, 16
Morse, arboriculture, 243
Moslem: see Muhammadan.
Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem, 453
Mosques in Palestine, 453
Mott, Miss, Syria, 465
Mouhot, traveller, 8
Mount: see Beatitudes.
Mountain rats, Mahratta nickname, 346
Mountstuart: see Elphinstone.
Muhammad, prophet, 175
Muhammadan Afghanistan, 320
Arabia, 323
British, 314
cemeteries, Palestine, 452, 453
coinage, 291
conquest, Palestine, 456
dominion, 313
dowry, 491
education, 327
Egypt, 324
faith, 315
general decay, 314, 316: Pref. vi.
in Deccan, 346
Indian, 317, 318, 319
of Bengal, 318
opinion on Egypt, 415
Persia, 322
pilgrims at Jerusalem, 453
prospects, 329, 336
religion, 325
see Pan-Islamism.
sovereigns, 402
sovereignty, Egypt, 419
Turkey, 323
'T'urkoman country, 321
|
{
510
INDEX.
MUHAMMADANISM.
Muhammadanism, 146, 147
political: see Pan-Islamism.
state of, 159
Muhammadans in China, 60, 416
ideas, 180
in India, 175
Mukden of the Manchus, 61
Mulhar Rao Gaekwar, 352
Müller, traveller, 18
Municipal Commissioners, 197
Municipalities, India, 123, 197
Indian, model for Egypt, 428, 429
Murdar, mount, 104
Murray, Handbook, France, 277
Palestine, 442
Museums, 493
Mustagh, 6
Mussulmans, Indian, 167
see Muhammadan.
Mutinies in India, 174, 208, 270
effect on prices, 226
epoch of progress, 241
Myrobalans, India, 221
Mysore, 214
under Hyder Ali, 350
NABLÛS convent, 440
mission, 465
town, 453
Nadir Shah, 113
Nagpur, annexation, 351
coal, 219
Mahratta, 337
Raghuji's kingdom, 347
tenures, 341
Nana Farnavis, minister, 396, 397
his work and death, 399, 400
Sahib, infamy, 352, 402
ORISSA.
Nazareth, near Crusader's rendezvous, 454, 457
peasantry, 461
road to, 447
situation, 441, 446
well at, 446
Nebo, 438, 449
Nejd, Arabian, 18
Nepal, 5, 67, 70, 75
Nerbadda coal, 219
forests, 250
Mahratta, 347
valley, wheat, 215
New Guinea, 157
York, East Indian traders, 211
bills on, 301
missions, 143, 144
Ney, Elias, traveller, 10, 11, 37
Niebuhr, geographer, 18
Niger missions, 157
Nile, delta, 424
palm groves, 253
public works, 434
river, 419, 456
Nilgiri chinchona, 215
mountains, coffee, 214
Nimyetso lake, 86, 87, 88
Nizam of Deccan, 337, 395
Nordenskiöld, explorer, 14
Norfolk, Duke, Society of Arts, 243
Norman, chief justice, 314
Northbrook, Earl, 199
North-east passage, 14
Polar expedition, 13
North western provinces, India, conquest, 350
forests, 259, 282
Norway forests, 244
Notables, Egypt: see Assembly.
Nancy forestry, 258
Nanking capital, 55
Napier of Magdala, Lord, on Temperance, 409
Napoleon, 33
Naraen Rao Peshwa, 396
Nares, Sir George, 21
Nari, gorge, 98, 100
river, 98, 106
National: see Debt.
party, so-called Egypt, 432
Native: see Bankers.
States, India, 208, 254, 296
Navigation, India, 213, 288
river, China, 213
Nazareth, convent, 440
fountains, 461
medical institution, 466
~~ mission, 440, 465
OAK tree, 248
Palestine, 464
Objections to missions answered, 133, 145
Ob river, 3, 13, 30
O'Donovan, traveller, 15
Oils, cocoanut, 218
Indian, 218
mineral, 218
Olive groves, Palestine, 463
Olives, Mount of, aspect, 438
view from, 440
Olivet: see Olives, Mount of.
Onon river, 35
Ophthalmic Hospice, Jerusalem, 466
Opium question, 190
revenue, 295
Optimism in India, 186
Order: see St. John.
Orissa, British, 350
"
INDEX.
Orissa canal, 235
ORISSA.
Mahratta dominion, 347
Orkhon river, 35
Orphanages at Halifax, 491
India, 491
Orphan's, social science, 491
in India, 491
Ossory, Earl, arboriculture, 243
Oudh, proprietors in, 124, 175
Oxford, institute at, 199
mission to Calcutta, 139, 149
address to, 153
Oxus basin, 15
river, 3, 7
source, 26, 30, 31, 67
PACIFIC Ocean, 2, 3, 14, 30, 31, 32
coast, 32, 33
islands, 157
Paganism, 40
Paget, Lord, arboriculture, 243
Palestine, 17, 19, 21: Pref. vi.
association, 19
associations, 436
biblical associations, 441, 443
exploration, 19, 449
forests, 464
historical associations, 448-455
monasteries, 439
New Testament, 446
Old Testament, 444, 445
physical phenomena, 438
picturesque scenes, 440
pilgrimage, 156, 157
political conditions, 461–469
present aspect, 435
present inhabitants, 455-461
sacred scenery, 436
spring season, 439
time for tour, 437
Western, 19, 20
Palgrave traveller, 18
Pallander, explorer, 14
Pallas of Siberia, 13
Pallegoix, Bishop, 8
Palmer, explorer, 19
Palm tree, 253
Palmyra: see Palm.
Pamir mountains, 2, 32
border, 67
glaciers, 30
group of, 26, 27
lake, 10, 31
plateau, 3, 25
Panchayets, India, 125
Pandu heroes, 177
Pangong basin, 6
lake, 31
PESHWA.
Pan-Islamism, 312-336
definition of, 312
movement of, 315, 317
Panipat battle 350, 393
Panjab on local self-government, 127, 128
canals, 235
forests, 259, 282
races of, 340
Sikh power, 349
tea, 213
village communities, 342
Panniar battle, 352
Pan-Slavism, 312
Paper currency, India, 294
from bamboos, 239
Pariahs, India, 152
Parpênth bill, 300
Partabgarh, Sivaji's fort, 362, 363
event there, 364-366
road, 382
situation, 379, 380
Partnership law, social science, 487
Party spirit, India, 198
Pashas, Turkish, character, 323, 462
Pasturage: see Grazing.
Patèl, Mahratta, 342
Payment by results, educational, 153
Payment, rent, and wages, in kind, 294
Pearl fisheries, 294
"Pearls of the Faith," book, 325
Pearson, forester, 266
Peel, Sir Lawrence, 184
Peking, 39, 44
Kin capital, 55
seized by bandits, 62
Pelly, Sir Lewis, 18
Pemberton, 5
Penal code, 489
Penny bank, Yorkshire, 490
Pentaptera tomentosa : see Saj.
Pênth bill, 300
People, Indian, condition, 205, 206
Perron in Mahratta service, 348
Perry, Commodore, 12
Persia, 2, 3, 4, 16, 20, 21, 33, 59, 415
border of, 13
frontier, 322
Persian, horses, 221
Pan-Islamism. 322
politics, 321, 322
population, 322
prospects, 332
wood, 288
Persian-Gulf, 4, 16, 18, 21, 468
Peshwa office, 347
collision with British, 350, 351
fifth Peshwa, Naraen Rao, 396
first Peshwa Vishwanath, 389
fourth Peshwa, Madhu Rao, 393-396
hereditary prime minister, 387
511
t
512
INDEX.
1
7
PESHWA.
Peshwa, persons, 349
second Peshwa, Baji Rao I., 390
seventh, and last Peshwa, Raji Rao II.
399-402
sixth Peshwa, Madhu Rao Naraen, 396.
third Peshwa, Balaji, 391
Peshawar, 45
Pessimism in India, 186
Petermann, 10
Peyton, forester, 266
Phari, district, 86, 90
Phayre, Sir Arthur, 103
Sir Robert, 103
Philistines, 455, 456
Phoenician remains at Baalbec, 451, 452
remains near Beyrout, 451
Phoenicians, 449, 452
Physical comfort, social science, 472
science, India, 484
Pindaris, predatory, 351
Pine, Mongolian, 40
Indian, 246
see Coniferæ.
Pinus longifolia, 246
Pipal tree, 252
Piracy, Chinese, 64
Pirie, R.N., 11
Pisgah, 433, 449
Pishin, plateau, 100, 106
valley, 104, 107
Plane tree, Cashmir, 248
Plassy battle, 354, 356
Plateau of Asia: see Central.
Ploughs of India, 254, 288
Poisons, sale of, 493
Polar: see North Polar.
Polo: see Marco.
Police for Egypt, 421
in United Kingdom, 489
in India, 489
Political economy, India, 200-241
Polyakoff, traveller, 13
Poona, Peshwa's capital, 347
RAIGARH.
Portuguese Government railway, 233
Goa railway, 382
Mahratta history, 354
Panipat near Delhi, battle, 350, 393
war with, Mahratta, 385
Potanin, traveller, 10, 37
Pottery, Indian, 221, 239
Pottinger, Eldred, 7
Henry, 8
Poyarkow, traveller, 13
Precious metals: see Gold, Silver.
Prejevalsky, traveller, 9, 10, 25, 26, 37
Presbyterian, America, 143, 144: Pref. viii.
Presidency towns, India, 192, 212
banks, 301
structures at, 222
Prices, India, 227
Primary: see Education
Primers, sanitary, 478
Prince of Wales, H.R.H., Indian Institute, 199
Society of Arts, 243
Prince see Albert.
Prison discipline, social science, 488
Propagation: see Society.
Prosecutor, public, 489, 493
Protected forests, 259, 260, 263, 284
Protestant: see Religious.
Provident dispensaries, 477
Provincial services, India, 118, 119
Prussian institution, Beyrout, 466
Pterocarpus marsupium: see Bije sal.
Public: see Debt.
works in India, 202
QUEEN, empress of India, 171, 225
Quetta, 103, 105
mountains around, 105
valley of, 104
Balaji Peshwa, 392
events, 400, 401
Madhu Rao Peshwa, 396
Madhu Rao Naraen Peshwa, 396
Naraen Rao Peshwa, 396
palace at, 398
railway, 382
situation, 355
Sivaji's residence, 358
return, 365
situation, 370
Poor law, India, 206, 491
Pope, mention of Cooper's Hill, 305
Population, Chinese, 29, 54
- Indian, 234, 254, 288, 296
Porter, traveller, 19
Port Said, route for Palestine, 441
RAB, Indian process, 261
Rabbis, 460
Rabbinical, 459
Radde, traveller, 13, 14, 20
Rafailoff, traveller, 10, 37
Raghuji Bhonsla, 347
Raghunath, Mahratta, 394-396
his power, 398, 399
Raigarh, Sivaji's palace-fort, 370, 375
situation, 377, 378
Sivaji's death, 378, 385
events at, 385
INDEX:
513
BÁILWAY.
Railway, foot of Darjiling, 68
in future, India, 233, 234
in Indus desert, 97: Pref. vii.
in Japan, 12
India guaranteed, 188, 202
outlay on, 231
in Mahratta country, 382
by the State, 188, 202
work done by, 212
wood, fuel for, 260
Raj-garh, Sivaji's fort, 359, 360, 361, 379
Raja Ram, son of Sivaji, 386
Rajputs, Mahratta, 338
against Sivaji, 374
appearance, 343
garrison, Sing-garh, 375
Ram Mohan Roy, 177
Ramoth Gilead, 448
Rassam, explorer, 18
Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 7, 17, 110, 114, 185
Reclamation of land, 480
Red river, 8
sea, 4, 21
Reformatory schools, 489, 493
see Industrial.
Registration, 479, 487
see Land.
Religious missions in India, 131-165: Pref. vi.
Protestant, statistics of, 132, 133, 140, 141
effect of, 196
social science, 486
Religious missionary societies, 192
thought in India, 166-183: Pref, vii.
Rent, 294
Reserved forests, 259, 260, 263, 284
Resolutions, India (self-government), 119, 126
Revenue, Indian, 295
Rhododendrons, Himalayan, 70, 81, 89, 249
Rhubarb, wild, 37
Riad kingdom, 18
Ribbenthorp, forester, 266
Rice, Indian, 215
Richard Cœur de Lion, Palestine, 455
Richardson, traveller, 17
Richthofen, traveller, 11
Rights to popular forests, 285
Ripon, Marquis of, 119
River: see Navigation.
Roads, India, 222, 236
in Mahratta country, 382
Palestine, 437, 464
Robinson, Palestine, 442
traveller, 19
Rohri on Indus, 95, 96 ·
Roman Catholics in China, 65
in India, 141, 144
missionaries, 9
power, Palestine, 456
Roman remains, Palestine, 452, 453
Ross, marine surveyor, 21
SATTARA,
Royal Colonial Institute, 200: Pref. viii.
Geographical Society, 22, 68, 93, 353, 383,
384: Pref. viii.
Historical Society, 43, 384: Pref. viii.
Ruby mine, Burmah, 294
Rupee, purchasing power, 226
Russell, social science, 472
Russia, 20, 33, 59
Asiatic, 4, 12
in Central Asia, 321, 329
in Palestine, 468
Russian cathedral, Jerusalem, 466
forests, 244
geographers, 13, 15
surveys, 4, 14, 15, 21, 22, 38
Russians in Central Asia, 9
Ryot peasant proprietor, 341
Ryotwari, tenure, 341
SAFED, Jewish city, 459, 460
Saigon settlements, 8
Sailors' Homes, India, 407
social science, 492
St. Anne's Hill, near Cooper's Hill, 304
St. John, Knights, 454
Order of, 454
Lt. R.N., 21
Sir O., 16
Saj tree, 250
Sakkar, its position, 95, 96
-on Indus, 94
Sal tree, 250, 271
Salisbury, Marquis of, 185
Saltpetre, India, 220
Mid Asia, 37
Salwen river, 3, 21, 38
Samaritans of present time, 459
Samaria, 447, 453
Crusader remains, 454
Sambhaji, reign and death, 385, 386
--- son of Sivaji, 385
San Francisco, bills on, 301
jute, 216, 238
Sandal-wood, 260
Sanitary engineering, 476
primers, 478
regulations, 478
Sanitation in India, 188
social science, 475
Sanpo river, 10, 21, 38
Santoji, Mahratta chieftain, 386, 395
Saracens, 33
Palestine, 454, 457
Sarah, site at Bethel, 444
Satlej, river, 2, 30
Satow, of Japan, 12
Satpura forests, 245, 270
rainfall, 256, 340
Sattara, annexation, 351
2 L
514
INDEX.
SATTARA.
Sattara Mahratta Kingdom, 347, 348
Saunders, Trelawny, 2: Pref. viii.
Savings-banks, India, 301, 302, 410
social science, 490
Scandinavia, forests, 244, 275, 287
Schindler, traveller, 17
Schlagintweit, traveller, 15, 37
Schlich, forester, 266, 286
Schmidt, traveller, 13
Scholars, health of, 493
Scholarships, 483
Schools: see Board.
girls, 487
Schrenck, traveller, 13
Schuyler, traveller, 15
Schwartz, traveller, 13
Science: see Social.
education, India, 194
Scotch foresters, 286
interest in India, 289
Scotland, arboriculture, 268.
forests, 259, 276, 281
forestry operations, 283, 284, 289
see Free church.
Scott, David, forester, 269
Scottish Arboricultural Society, 189, 267
its services, 270, 273, 287
Scriptural associations, Palestine, 441
Seafield, Lord, arboriculture, 268
Seaton, forester, 266
Secretary of state: see Bills.
Seebohm, traveller, 14
Seistan swamps, 3, 7
boundary, 7
mission, 8
Self-government, local, in India, 116–130
Governor-General upon, 120
India, social science, 493
Serampore mission, 155
Services: see Provincial.
Settlement, British Mahratta, 341
—see Land.
Sewage utilization, 475, 476
Shaftesbury, Earl, 185
social science, 472
Shah: see Persia.
Abbas, 113,
Jehan, Emperor, 403
of Persia, 313, 322
Shahji, father of Sivaji, 356, 366, 368, 370
Shan Tung promontory, 59
Shao, grandson of Sivaji, 386, 387
Sharbau, draughtsman, 353
Sharon, cultivation, 458
Shaw, traveller, 6, 10, 37
Shawls, 221
Shechem, Palestine, 447
Sherif of Mecca, 313
Shiah, sect, Persia, 322, 417
Shiloh, site, 444, 4471
SIVAJI.
Shiloh, Crusaders' remains, 454
Shipping, British, in India, 241
Shuttleworth, forester, 267
Siah Koh range, 111
Siam, 4, 20
country, 8
jute, 216
river of, 8
shore of, 4
Siberia, 13, 20, 25, 28, 30, 33
eastern, 25
maps of, 13
western, 14, 20
Siberian coast, 4, 14, 21
lakes, 31
limits, 14
surveys, 38
Sibi, position of, 98, 100, 101
railway to, 97
relative distance, 113
Sidon, convent, 440
promontory, 440
coast, 450
remains, 451
Siebold, geographer, 11, 20
Siemens, Sir William, Society of Arts, 243
Cooper's Hill, 307
Sikh power, Panjab, 349
Sikka rupee, 202
Sikkim, 5, 73, 74, 91
British, 68, 70, 71
native, 69, 70, 71
Silk, Indian, 217
Siloam village, 445
Silver absorption of, 298
coinage, 291, 292
coin circulation, 296, 297
depreciation of, 298
for domestic use, 293
for hoarding, 293
India, 207
sole legal tender, 292
total amount, 296, 297
Simla trees, 248
Sind, province, 275
canals, 235, 236
Sindhia, Mahratta, 338
defeat at Assaye, 350
loyalty, 352
origin, 344
troubles with British, 351
Sing-garb, Sivaji's fort, 362
events, 373
its situation, 370, 371
recapture, 375, 376
surrendered to Moguls, 374
Siva, Mahratta, 343, 364
Sivaji, Mahratta, achievements, 346
avenges his father's wrongs, 369
character, 379
2
INDEX.
515
SIVAJI.
Sivaji, descendants, 347
education, 357, 358
establishes court at Raigarh, 378
events after his death, 385
fort at Bowragarh, 373
fort at Sing-garh, 371
founder of Mahratta Empire, 356
goes to Delhi, and escapes thence, 374
insults Muhammadans at Poona, 372
life, 385
mother, 356, 364
murders Muhammadan commander, 365
orders re-capture of Sing-garlı, 375
predatory life, 359, 360
sets up a kingdom, 361
tomb, 378
Skelton, missionary, 138
Skins trade, 219
Skobeleff, 321
Slavery, Turkoman, 321
Smith, George, explorer, 18
Snowstorm, 89
Sobieski, John, 314
Social Science Association, 470: Pref. viii.
definition of, 472
for United Kingdom, 473-492
for British Empire abroad, 470–494:
Pref. vii.
in Bengal, 492
Societies: see Friendly.
Society of Arts, 189: Pref. viii.
its arboricultural measures, 243
its technical education, 242
Society, Christian vernacular, 194
for Female Education, Palestine, 465
for Propagation of the Gospel, 131, 138:
Pref. viii.
its work, 143
Sodom and Gomorrah, site, 444
Solomon's stones, Jerusalem, 460, 461
Southampton, addresses at, 23
Sports, India, temperance, 412
Staines: see Cooper's Hill, 304
Stair, Lord, arboriculture, 268
Standard: see Double.
Stanford, of London, 12
Stanley, Arthur, 19
'Sinai and Palestine,' 442
State: see Railway.
States: see Native.
Statistics: see Vital.
Chinese, 64
missionary, 132, 133
Stewart, Dr. A., social science, 494
forester, 266, 287
General Sir D., 96, 98, 105
movements, 108, 110
traveller, in Persia, 16
Stoddard, death, 16
Stolicska, explorer, 6, 38
TECHNICAL.
Strachey, Sir John, 232
General Richard, 307
Strathnairn, Lord, on temperance, 409
Suez Canal, political position, 433
so-called neutralization, 433
gulf of, 21
isthmus, 469
Sugar, Indian, 214, 215
Sulphur in Mid-Asia, 37
Sultan of Turkey, 313
Egypt, 416, 417
his Indian repute, 320
his position, 324, 417
Sumatra, 19
Sundar tree, 251
Sunderbunds district, 251
Sung in China, 55, 56, 57
resists Mongols, 58, 59
Sunni sect, 417
Surveys, 4
general, 2-22
Russian, in Siberia, 13, 14
in Turkoman country, 22
Sussex, Duke, Society of Arts, 243
Sutherland, Duke of, arboriculture, 268
Sweden, canals, 225
forests, 244
Sykes, Society of Arts, 243
Syria, 17, 19
Syrian Protestant College, 465
TABOR, mount, 446
Takaji Holkar, 347
Takatu, mount, 104
Takla-makan desert, 28
Tamerlane, 113
Tannaji, Malusra, 358, 366
his romantic death, 376
Sevaji's henchman, 366, 374
Tanner, explorer, 6
Tanning leather, India, 219
Tangut region, 32
Tanjore, Mahratta, 347
Tanta, Egypt, outrages, 430
Tara, historical novel, 365
Tarim basin, 26, 27, 28, 36, 39
river, 27, 32
Tarns in Himalayas, 78, 83, 84, 85
Tarter cavalry, 36
Tartars, 32, 33, 44
Taylor, Sir Alexander, Cooper's Hill, 308
Tchihatcheff, traveller, 17
Tea-gardens, 213, 481
- Indian, 211, 214, 237
temperance, 412, 413
Teak, Indian, 220, 271
plantations, 284
qualities, 249
Technical education, India, 225, 484: Pref. vii.
516
INDEX.
TECHNICAL.
TYRIAN.
Technical education, continent of Europe, 306,
England, 306, 484, 493
484
Telegraph: see Electric.
Tel-el-Kebir battle, 415
Temperance Association, Liverpool, 405
civil population, 410, 411
European sailors, East, 406, 407
for European soldiers, India, 408, 409
for Eastern climate, 413
important for sport and travel, 412
movement, India, 405
social science, 492
Templars, Palestine, 457
Temple, Lt.-G., 68, 93, 353
site, Jerusalem, 445, 447, 461
Temujin, King, 33
Tenant right, Indian, 189
social science, 481
see Land.
Tender, see Legal.
Tengri lake, 32
Terebinth, Palestine, 464
Teshu Lumbo in Tibet, 41
Thall-Ghât railway, 382
- road, 382
Thames, near Cooper's Hill, 305
Theistic reformers, 163
Theists, Hindu, 178
Theosophists, 177
Thian-Shan mountains, 15, 20, 21
range, 25, 26, 27
surveys, 38
terminus, 30, 38
Thompson, explorer, 6, 33
the Land and the Book,' 442
Thrift, social science, 490
Thullier, surveyor, 6, 7
Tiberias, convent, 440
hills, 446
Rabbis, 460
town, 447, 457
Tibet, lakes of, 3
country, 9, 20, 21, 27, 46
eastern, 68: Pref. vi.
flocks and herds, 86
plateau of, 3, 10
religion of, 41
road towards, 72
ruled by China, 78
trade with, 70, 71
Tibetan upland, 25
lakes, 32
Tichfield, Marquis, arboriculture, 243
Tickets of leave, 489
Tiger's claw, Sivaji, 358
Timber, Indian, 273
Tista river, 71, 74
Tophet Vale, 445
Topographical surveys, 4
Torrens, Sir Robert, social science, 479
Torna, Sivaji's fort, 359, 360, 370
Trade: see Free and Fair.
India, coasting, 241
external and internal, 295
foreign, 240, 241
increase, general, 241
Associations, India, 223
Tradesmen, European, India, 223
Transfer of land, 480, 487
see Land.
Transfiguration, place of, 438
Travel, India, temperance, 412
Trebeck, traveller, 7
Tree fern, Himalayan, 248
Trevelyan, Sir Charles, 185
Trigonometrical surveys, 4, 20
of India, 25
Russian, 14
Tristram, explorer, 19
Palestine, 442
Trotter, explorer, 10, 15, 37
Tsaidam morass, 32
Tso lake in Tibetan, 86
Tumlong palace, 75, 76, 89
Tundra, frozen region, 30
Tung Kwan pass in China, 45, 55, 62
Tunis, position, 333
Turkestan, western, 13, 14, 16, 20
Turkey, Asiatic, 4, 16, 17, 157, 415
condition of, 324, 331
in Europe, 330, 331, 336
Turkish sentries, Palestine, 443
Turkoman country, 20, 22
horses in battle, 393
horses, 36
Persian frontier, 321, 332, 333
slavery, 321, 332
Turks, character, 323, 324
in Palestine, 455, 462
rule there, 463–469
Turner, draughtsman, 68, 93
traveller, 10, 71, 92
Tusser, 217
see Silk.
Turquoise, 37
Tycoon, the Capital of the," 12
Typhoid sickness, 473, 476
Tyre, promontory, 440
cemetery, 454
coast, 450
remains, 451
road near, 452
siege, 452
Tyrian: see Tyre.
Tobacco, Indian, 215
Tonkin, 8
,
INDEX.
UJFALVY-BOURDON.
UJFALVY-BOURDON, traveller, 15
Under-currents, Indian thought, 173: Pref. vii.
United Kingdom, drinking-water, 474
education, 482, 483
social science, 470-494
technical education, 310
United States, 143, 154, 216
forests, 244
Indian trade with, 301
railways, 234
Universities, India, 138
Ural Mountains, 14, 20, 21
Urdu camp, 35
Urt camp, 35
Urumiya, drainage, 3
Ust-Urt plateau, 20
VAMBERY, traveller, 15
Van lake, 3, 17
Vedic faith, 147
Vernacular Christian books, 194
literature, 194
see Society.
Victoria Lake, in Pamir, 31
Victoria colony prisons, 488
Vigne, traveller, 7
Village: see Communities.
Villages of India, 122
Vindhya forests, 245, 270
Mahratta, 347
rainfall, 256
Vineyards, Palestine, 457
Virgin, Holy Tomb, 461
Virginia creeper, 247
Visconti: see Arconati.
1
Vishalgarh, Sivaji's fort, 366, 368, 369, 370
road, 382
Vishnu, Mahratta, 343
Vishwanath, Peshwa, 389
reign, 402
Wall: see Great.
Wallin, traveller, 18
Walnut tree, 248
YAKLA.
Ward, missionary, 155
Warren, traveller, 19
see Hastings.
Waterfowl, 37
Water: see Drinking.
Waterworks, India, 474
United Kingdom, 474
Waugh, surveyor, 6, 38
Wellesley, Arthur, 350, 388, 400
Marquis, 388
Wellsted, geographer, 18
Wentworth Dilke, Society of Arts, 243
Western knowledge in India, 117, 179
ascendancy, 181, 183
civilization, 169, 172, 177
education, 180
ideas, 208
science, 172, 173
West Indies, 157
emigration to, 190
forests, 482
Wheat, Indian, 215
exportation, 238
Whymper engravings, 353
Widows, Indian, 163
———–—– social science, 486
Wiggins, navigator, 14
Williams: see Monier.
Wilson, Sir Charles, 17, 19
surveyor, 7
Wilton, Earl, arboriculture, 243
Winter, missionary, 138
Winterton, Earl, arboriculture, 243
Wolesley, Lord, on Temperance, 409
Wolves, white, 37
Women's rights, social science, 486
Wood, John, traveller, 7, 31, 37
uses of Indian, 273
Wool, Indian, 219
Woollen goods, 239
Wordsworth, Bishop, 131
Vistula, 33
Vital statistics, India, 207, 427
Volga, 56
Voluntary service, natives, India, 492
Works: see Public.
Wrangel, traveller, 13
Wynaad coffee, 214
WADE, Sir Thomas: Pref. viii.
Wages, Indian, 227
in kind, 227, 228, 294
Wahhabi kingdom, 18, 323
revival, 317
Wales, forests, 259
see Prince.
Walker, surveyor, 7, 38,
- see Campbell.
XAVIER, Saint, 141
YAK, Tibetan cow, 86
Yakla pass, 83-86
517
.518
INDEX.
[
YAK-TAIL.
Yak-tail emblem, 35
Yang-tsze-Kiang, 3, 11, 57, 213
course of, 45, 55
delta of, 59
importance of, 29
line of defence, 58, 59
mouth of, 64
navigation of, 213
Yarkand, 3, 8, 10, 36, 39
border, 6
depression, 3
politics, 322
Yenisei river, 3, 13, 14
source of, 30
Yew tree, 247
Yoblonoi mountains, 2, 25
York, addresses at, 1
ZYMOTIC.
Yorkshire penny bank, 490
Yule, Henry, 10, 22
Cooper's Hill, 307
Yun-ling mountains, 2, 25
Yün Nan, 57
ZAISAN, in Mid Asia, 39
Zarghun, mount, 104
Zenana missions, 140, 154, 164, 195, 196
Zhob valley, 7
Zion, 445
missions at, 465
Zungarian strait, 27, 39
Zurich, technical college at, 307
Zymotic disease, 473, 493
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