G V 837 ·B2615 ? .... A 1,009,394 ARTES LIBRARY 1837 SCIENTIA VERITAS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PLURIBUS URUM TUEBOR SI QUÆRIS-PENINSULAM-AMŒNAM CIRCUMSPICE } GV: 837 51928. BOOKS ON SPORT Each 12mo. Profusely Illustrated TRAINING FOR SPORTS. ATHLETES ALL. By Walter Camp. BASKET BALL. A Handbook for Coaches and Players. By C. D. Wardlaw and W. R. Morrison. BASKET BALL AND INDOOR BASEBALL FOR WOMEN. By Helen Frost and C. D. Wardlaw. BASEBALL. Individual Play and Team Play in Detail. By W. J. Clarke and F. T. Dawson. ATHLETIC TRAINING. By Michael C. Murphy. CAMP CRAFT. Modern Practice and Equipment. By W. H. Miller. SWIMMING AND DIVING. By Gerald Barnes. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS SWIMMING AND DIVING SWIMMING AND DIVING BY GERALD BARNES INSTRUCTOR AND COACH OF SWIMMING, UNIVERSITY OF OREGON FORMERLY SWIMMING COACH, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1922 .. COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS Printed in the United States of America Published November, 1922 PRES SCHIUNIL & B PREFACE SWIMMING instructors and coaches in all parts of the country have been more than kind in help- ing me to correct and polish this little book. I would especially acknowledge the helpful criti- cism of Messrs G. B. Affleck, International Y. M. C. A. College; Fred W. Luehring, University of Nebraska; Albert Downes, N. Y. A. C.; Harry A. Scott, University of Oregon; George Holm, Columbia University, and Dr. W. R. Morrison, University of Cincinnati. Mr. Erwin Wolfson and Mr. G. G. Kenney, divers of the University of Cincinnati Swimming Team, aided materially in outlining the latter section of this book; and to Mr. Frederick L. Howard and Mr. Victor Lamberti, I am indebted for posing for the cuts. The illustration of the various positions, especially in swimming, was a difficult proposition, and many of them are far from perfect; but in erring from the ideal, they usually show common faults to be avoided, and perhaps are just as valuable in that capacity. Other books on swimming have been constantly at my elbow, particularly L. de B. Handley's "Swimming and Watermanship" and Frank Sullivan's "Swimming Book." CHAPTER CONTENTS PART I. SWIMMING I. INTRODUCTORY • PAGE 3 II. LEARNING TO SWIM III. THE SIDE STROKE . IV. 7 12 TRUDGEON AND CRAWL V. THE RESTING BACK STROKE. VI. THE RACING BACK STROKE 17 27 32 VII. THE RACING BREAST STROKE 36 VIII. THE RACING DIVE 39 IX. THE PLUNGE for Distance . 44 X. THE TURN 48 XI. THE FINISH. 54 XII. TRAINING 55 XIII. LIFE-Saving 57 XIV. BREAKING HOLDS 63 XV. RESUSCITATION (SCHAEFER METHOD) 69 PART II. DIVING I. INTRODUCTORY II. THE FANCY DIVE. vii 75 78 vill CONTENTS CHAPTER III. THE ENTRANCE POSITION IV. THE PLain Front Dive V. THE SWALLOW (OR SWAN) Dive VI. THE BACK DIVE PAGE 82 85 86 89 VII. THE FRONT JACK-KNIFE 92 VIII. THE BACK JACK-KNIFE 95 IX. THE OPTIONAL DIVES . 98 PART III. MANAGING A SWIMMING MEET I. INTRODUCTORY II. CHOOSING OFFICIALS III. THE POOL IV. ACCESSORIES V. RUNNING OFF THE EVENTS 117 122 129 131 133 + ILLUSTRATIONS PART I FIGURE I. 2. FACING PAGE The scissors, open position Position at the end of the side stroke 3. The crawl-insertion of hand 4. The crawl-recovery of arm 5. The resting back stroke-recovery. 6. Resting back stroke-after the power stroke 7. Racing back stroke-insertion of hand 8. Racing back stroke-recovery of arm 14 14 14 14 28 28 · 28 28 [ 9. Breast stroke, power stroke of arms, recovery of legs • 36 10. Breast stroke, recovery of arms, power stroke of legs (first phase) II. Breast stroke, the glide position 36 36 12. The racing start 13. The entrance position 14. The approach to the turn 15. The push-off 16. Position after the push-off in the racing back stroke 17. Breaking the front strangle • 18. Breaking the back strangle ix ㅎㅎㅎ 40 40 40 40 40 64 64 X ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 19. The fireman's carry 20. Resuscitation, exerting pressure Resuscitation, the sudden release PART II I. Incorrect take-off position 2. Correct take-off position. 3. Entrance position (head first) 4. Entrance position (feet first) 5. The swallow dive. FACING PAGE 64 70 70 78 78 78 78 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ å å å å 90 90 6. Hand drill for swallow dive. 78 7. The jack-knife 8. The twist 9. The forward tuck. 10. The back tuck, first movement PART III Score sheet for dual meet Score sheet for more than two teams Diving score sheet incorporating Frank J. Sullivan's Page 139 Page 140 table At end of volume " PART I SWIMMING I INTRODUCTORY The benefits and advantages of aquatics are so well known and so generally admitted, that, for most of them, a mere enumeration will be sufficient. Water sports develop grace, suppleness, lung capacity, and good posture, and furnish the best all-round exercise yet discovered for both sexes, from eight to eighty. They im- prove digestion, toughen the body against colds, and supply healthy exertion from the lightest to the most vigorous; all with little danger of overstrain or injury (high diving excepted). The most vigorous efforts in the water are attended by less rise in temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate, and albumenuria, than in any corresponding exertion on land. For in- stance, comparing the 100 yard swim and the quarter mile run, events approximately equal 3 4 SWIMMING AND DIVING in vigor and duration of effort, we get the following results: B. P. Pulse Increased Increased 440 yd. run 70 mm. 63 100 yd. swim 26 mm. 46 Moreover body weight and rectal tempera- ture are scarcely affected at all by the longest and hardest of swimming contests.* Many of the above mentioned benefits come with mere vigorous playing in the water but the full joy of capable waterman- ship, the thrill of the artist, comes only to those who have perfected their strokes by hard work. This does not mean just plug- ging (for the stupid plugger, no matter how faithful, can never excel) but conscientious, intelligent, concentrated effort to get the thing right without any fooling or delay. The man who practices but half an hour a week, using his head all the time, and interested to the point of self-forgetfulness, will advance faster than the faithful plugger who spends half an hour a day reviewing past blunders in the *Published by courtesy of International Y. M. C. A. College, Springfield, Mass. INTRODUCTORY 5 present and perpetuating present blunders in the future. Let the beginner beware of bad habits. They form almost over night and stick like leeches. In swimming, as in other arts, the secret of progress is first, isolation of the difficulty, and second, concentration upon its removal. For example, the novice will make slow headway in correcting his kick while his attention is distracted by arm motion, underwater breath- ing, etc. Any element that presents difficulty should be practiced alone until the correct form has become automatic. This will be sooner accomplished if the opposite tendency is at first exaggerated. The best swimmers can coach themselves but imperfectly; there- fore seize every opportunity to swim before a competent critic, and get someone to watch you, even though you have to instruct him yourself. Constantly remind yourself that accuracy must precede speed, or failure will probably result. This rule applies for any performance of skill from violin playing and typewriting to football; and swimming is emphatically no exception. 6 SWIMMING AND DIVING In the following discussion I have tried to avoid dogmatic statements on points over which experts still disagree. Occasionally I have given two opposing, or nearly opposing theories, in the hope that the individual per- former will work out the puzzle for himself, a habit he should early acquire. 40 II LEARNING TO SWIM Learning to swim is an individual problem. The instructor who clamps a steel-ribbed sys- tem on every personality under him is as in- competent as the kindergartener who has but one inflexible method for all children. Some pupils learn quickest on the back, others on the breast or side; some must be taught to get their head under water without getting fright- ened, others are so prone to diving, and fool- ing around the bottom after pennies that they never learn a stroke that will carry them more than a few yards. There is much psychology in learning to swim, and the teacher or pupil who fails to take it into account, loses a valu- able ally. It is well to reason away the idea of danger, and to insist upon real effort, but it is also wise to respect the instinctive fear of the water, displayed sometimes even by the brave. 7 8 SWIMMING AND DIVING For the beginner, the best prescription is hard work and courage. It may seem suicidal to launch yourself horizontal in the water, but with a friend looking on and the bottom but three or four feet away, it is, after all, a reasonable risk. If you are very obviously lighter than water (which is true of few men in fresh water) it is well to begin with float- ing. Put your hands on your hips, arch your back, and have faith. If you are obviously lighter than water, your face will come up and stay above the surface, though your body may be vertical. Get accustomed to having the wavelets dash over your face or com- pletely submerging it for a moment and then learn to make slow progress by fluttering movements of the feet and hands. This ac- complished, you are ready to take up the rest- ing back stroke described below. If your specific gravity will not permit you to float easily, it is wise to begin by diving for pennies or larger objects in the shallow end of the pool. The beginner who is in constant fear lest his head go under water, will hold it too high, thus causing a more or less perpen- dicular position of the body. Such a posi- LEARNING TO SWIM 9 tion renders progress next to impossible and mere support of the body on the surface much more difficult. After the simple problem of retrieving objects from the bottom has been mastered, you will be ready to attempt the back stroke, side stroke, or crawl, described below. For those possessing good coordination, the crawl is not a unwise beginning, but in general, the side or back stroke is a better one. Every swimmer should know the former eventually as a restful distance stroke, and as an ideal foundation upon which to build the trudgeon and the crawl. Before concluding this subject, I should like to take exception to two popular methods of teaching beginners, namely, by the breast stroke and by the dog paddle. To ninety per cent of swimmers, the breast stroke is rela- tively tiresome and slow. Good swimmers seldom use it except in contests specifically requiring it. Moreover, its coordinations are more difficult and unnatural than any other stroke, with the possible exception of the crawl. Why, then, start the beginner on a stroke that is comparatively tiresome, slow, 10 SWIMMING AND DIVING difficult in coordination, and eventually rather impractical? As to the dog paddle (I know of no more accurate term), it is often a mare's nest of bad habits to anyone wishing to become a scien- tific swimmer. I have seen any number of swimmers who have mastered this perversion of the crawl, and it seems to me they do nearly everything that should not be done. Turning the face up on both sides, bringing the arms straight over like flails, rolling the body ex- cessively, scissoring on the belly and twice to the arm cycle, bending at the knees, and spreading laterally at the crotch: are some of the common faults. Perhaps the dog paddle is the quickest way to learn to keep afloat, and doubtless many good swimmers have learned that way, but why not take a few more hours and learn a stroke that will not have to be unlearned? Whatever stroke the beginner decides upon, let him resolve that his progress shall be not upward, away from the water, but forward in the water, with head low and body hori- zontal; and let him persuade himself that he cares not whether his head is above or below LEARN TO SWIM 11 the surface, so long as his feet are near the surface and he makes a few strokes in good form. Also, he should be on guard against another fatal tendency, namely, a quick re- covery after the power stroke. Any sudden forward movement of the limbs, particularly if it be under water, will not only impede progress, but usually will pull the head under water. The recovery will be discussed more fully below. At the end of every stroke, no matter in what position, the body should be straight, relaxed, and practically horizontal. . III THE SIDE STROKE THE SCISSORS KICK This kick is a fundamental of good swim- ming. It is used in the side and the trudgeon strokes, and from it are built up the trudgeon crawl and the crawl proper. It is best to practice it alone until correct form is auto- matic. Seize the edge of the pool spit trough with your left hand (if you swim on your right side) and brace your right palm, fingers down, against the side of the pool, about a yard beneath and directly under your left hand. Now straighten the arms and push the legs to within two or three inches of the surface, keeping the body directly on its side, and burying the lower shoulder and ear in the water. This position may be approxi- mated, using a dock, a float, or an upright stake for support. A little practice and slight 12 THE SIDE STROKE 13 shifting of the lower hand will render balanc- ing easy. Open the legs loosely and slowly to position of Figure 1. Try to let the water float them to this position with a minimum of effort on your part. The front (upper) leg should be flexed to nearly a right angle at knee and hip; and the back (lower) should be almost straight and in line with the body. Toes should be pointed (Fig. 1 shows wrong position of right toe) and less than a yard apart. Next, straighten both knees vigorously without changing the position of the thighs, and with- out any hesitation, snap the straight legs together like a big pair of shears, knees straight, toes pointed, and ankles together. (Fig. 2). It is important that the knees be extended before the thighs change position, but there should not be the slightest pause in this walking position, before the true scissors begins. Remember that the opening move- ment, the recovery (i. e., forward in direc- tion), should be slow, and the straightening and closing action as fast and vigorous as possible. Some instructors believe that raising the 14 SWIMMING AND DIVING bent knee adds more resistance than is com- pensated for by the increased drive of the power stroke. True there is more resistance on the front of the thigh when the knee is bent, but, on the other hand, that on the shin is practically obviated. Moreover, the vigor- ous straightening of the leg, if properly com- pleted before the angle of water is closed out, adds considerable distance to the glide. Observation shows that the vast majority of powerful scissors kicks are started with bent knees. Other teachers believe that if only the back leg is bent, much of the resistance will be avoided, but in this case, the opposing force would seem to be transferred to the rear calf. And besides, it is unlikely that the rear leg is in such an efficient position to straighten powerfully as the front one. THE ARM MOTION As the legs snap together, the lower arm is pushed forward and upward in such a way that the ear can almost rest on the shoulder. Take care to reduce resistance by keeping the elbow behind the hand. Simultaneously, the upper arm sweeps to the hip from its position by the Figure 2. Figure 1. Figure 3. Figure 4. FIGURE 1, the scissors, open position. FIGURE 2, position at the end of the side stroke. FIGURE 3, the crawl-insertion of hand. FIGURE 4, the crawl-recovery of arm. THE SIDE STROKE 15 head. This stroke is made with bent elbow, close to the body, and exactly as the legs close. Figure 2 shows body position at the end of main power stroke. This attitude should be held at least a second to permit the body to coast with the least resistance. Then as the legs drift apart, the lower arm should sweep down hard to a position well below the shoul- der, and the upper slowly resume its dipped position by the head. It is wise for beginners to keep both arms under water, taking care, however, to alternate the arm strokes. The entire body should be directly on its side, and the head in such a position that one may look back at his feet. Common Faults Opening legs lateraly as in frog kick, in- stead of forward and backward as in walking. Flexing at the hips, i. e., failure to keep the body in line with the lower leg. Try to reach backward with lower leg as this will tend to arch the back. Getting kick upside down, i. e., reaching backward with the upper instead of the lower leg. This inverted kick works pretty well 16. SWIMMING AND DIVING with the side stroke, but is a wrong founda- tion for the trudgeon and crawl. Failure to straighten the knees, especially the front one, before beginning the true scissors motion. Kicking with the lower arm stroke or with both arms instead of with the upper only. Failure to coast an instant after scissors kick. Going past closed position, i. e., crossing legs. Making the recovery too rapid or the power stroke too slow. Failure to lock knees and point toes in closed position. Kicking on the belly instead of on the side. Caused by reaching too far with upper arm. Shooting lower arm down and forward in- stead of up and forward, thus losing volplane effect. Stroking with both arms together instead of alternately. Dipping the upper hand out from the body, instead of in close to the face. IV TRUDGEON AND CRAWL SUBMERGED BREATHING After the overarm side stroke has been per- fected, and before attempting the trudgeon, the swimmer should learn under-water breath- ing. To do this, stand in three or four feet of water, bend over so that the torso is in swim- ming position, and put the face (not the whole head) below the surface. Empty the lungs through the open mouth. Then turn the head sideways, without lifting it, until the mouth is just clear of the surface. (Fig. 4.) If the expiration is continued an instant after this movement, the air passages will be cleared. Now gulp in a big breath through the mouth, turn to submerged position, and let it all out before attempting to take in more. Repeat the cycle until it becomes automatic, then combine it with the double overarm 17 18 SWIMMING AND DIVING stroke described below, or try it in actual swimming. It is sometimes helpful to close the mouth quickly just as it emerges from the water, and open it again to inhale. Common Faults Failure to time the inspiration with the turn of the head. Failure to empty the lungs under water before trying to inhale. Attempting to breath through the nose in- stead of the mouth. THE TRUDGEON When the swimmer has perfected the over- arm side stroke and submerged breathing, he will have little trouble with the trudgeon. The scissors kick is unchanged, and its syn- chronization with the arms is identical. The lower arm, however, is lifted clear of the water in its recovery, thus turning the body on the belly for an instant, submerging the face, and allowing a longer reach to the upper arm. It will be observed that this arm motion is practically that of the crawl, described be- low, except that the body is held in the side- TRUDGEON AND CRAWL 19 stroke position long enough for an efficient scissors kick, followed by the characteristic glide. The Common Faults of the trudgeon are those of the side stroke or the crawl, and also kicking before the body is well on its side. THE CRAWL If the swimmer has mastered the trudgeon, the only new element in the crawl will be the thrash kick and its relation to the arms. The kick is easiest learned and best synchronized if built up from the scissors by the addition of a flutter. This cannot be done, however, if the scissors has been learned upside down (see Common Faults of the side stroke). THE THRASH There are all varieties of crawl kicks, ranging from the four-beat to the ten-beat thrash, but the four-beat and the six-beat are the most popular. The four-beat is a good distance stroke, but the six-beat is a little faster for the average swimmer, and has the advantage of symmetry; i. e., it permits a slight scissors kick on each side, thus allowing 20 SWIMMING AND DIVING the body to travel fairly on the belly, with an equal pull to each arm. The six-beat is built up from the scissors as follows: We shall suppose that the swimmer is scis- soring on his right side. When his legs close, they are allowed to pass so that the right is in front. Figure I shows the position at the beginning of the first beat (the scissors), Fig- ure II at the beginning of the second, etc. The first beat is taken on the right side, the second and third on the belly, the fourth on the left side, and the fifth and sixth on the belly. Note that the fourth beat is a true scissors, just like the first, an impossibility in the four-beat thrash. FIG. I FIG. II FIG. III FIG. IV R L L L R R L L R FIG. V R L FIG. VI L R right side V V belly belly left side belly belly This kick should be practiced on the edge of the pool, keeping the first and fourth beats accented and distinct, as in double waltz time. When the rhythm has been mastered, the scis- sors kicks should be narrowed down to the TRUDGEON AND CRAWL 21 size of the rest (8-10 in.) and the whole cycle speeded up and smoothed off, so that the body rolls but slightly in its prone position. The thrash should be straight from the hip, with just a slight flexibility of the knees (never more than 15-20 degrees bend). The toes, pointed and turned in, should pass as close to each other as possible. Fig. 3 shows common faults: too much flexion at hip, knee, and ankle. A correct conception may be gotten by straightening the knees and trying to shake the feet off at the ankle. Practice the rhythm and form of the thrash by lying face down in the water, arms in diving position, and kicking yourself along with legs alone. Then swim the trudgeon stroke, introducing the five extra kicks, and using the original scissors, narrowed, of course, to synchronize them with the arms. Wherein lies the power of the thrash kick? Lively discussions have arisen on this ques- tion. Some say progress is due to the pad- dling motion of the soles of the feet; others, to the angle of the front of the leg on the water beneath; and still others, to the closing out of the triangle between the legs, as in the 22 SWIMMING AND DIVING side scissors. In any case, this closing move- ment should be the quick, powerful one, and its continuation into open position should be left largely to momentum. If the swimmer will start each individual kick vigorously, and yet try to keep the legs from stiffening, he may almost unconsciously pick up the correct technique. THE DOUBLE OVERARM STROKE This stroke merits considerable attention and specialized practice. Before the down- ward power stroke begins, the hand and wrist should be pushed into the water a little out- side of the median body line, with elbow high and bent about half way to the right angle, and hand in line with the forearm (Fig. 3). From this position, the hand should be swept down hard to the hip, care being taken to exert power along the whole distance. So easy is it to become careless about completing this stroke with full power that it is well, in practice, to carry it consciously a little beyond the hip, on the way up to recovery. Experts differ as to the best way of insert- ing the hand for the pull. Most agree that TRUDGEON AND CRAWL 23 the fingers should be together and the hand slightly cupped, but some believe that the palm should be turned out (as is barely hinted in Fig. 3) for easier insertion, and turned perpendicular to the line of pull only when the pull has actually begun. Of course, the palm is turned out to clear the water in re- covery, so this plan would seem merely to postpone the inward turn. Others, however, believe that the palms should be straight across the line of pull at the time of entrance, or even turned a little inward. These are largely individual differences. The impor- tant point is to have the palm square across the line of pull some time before the pull be- gins, and then to pull straight and strong, without wavering. In sprinting, the elbow should be locked, and the shoulder dropped low, and used to the maximum. In longer distances, the stroke will be longer and more relaxed if the elbow is straightened before the pull, but this straightening should not occur before the hand is submerged, or the stroke will lose in cleanness and efficiency. The six- beat kick, with its double scissors, gives this advantage to both shoulders alike. Once at 24 SWIMMING AND DIVING the hip, the whole arm and shoulder is relaxed for recovery, which is facilitated by the slight body roll to the other side. The hand is brought up along the side, in the track of the ordinary shirt seam, as though it were being neatly pulled out of a slanting hole. Then it is turned out and swung loosely forward, just clearing the surface (Fig. 4), to be cleanly buried for the next stroke. It is almost im- possible to raise the elbow and shoulder too high on the recovery, and care should be taken that the hand and forearm are submerged for the power stroke, before the elbow hits the surface (Fig. 3). Relaxed and limber shoulders are a great advantage because they diminish the necessity for body roll, and render the stroke smoother and more efficient. The greatest difficulty of the double over- arm stroke is to get the recovery loose and leisurely, the pull vigorous, clear to the hip, and yet to keep the entire cycle free from hesi- tations and jerks. The difficulty is due to the fact that one side of the body is striving for speed and power, while the other is recover- ing with ease and relaxation. This puzzling TRUDGEON AND CRAWL 25 coordination should be practiced on land, or, better, standing in shallow water with feet: well forward and upper body bent to swim- ming position. THE BODY POSITION In swimming the crawl, the back should be arched and the torso and head moved as little as possible. Avoid all wriggling in the waist region and jerking of the head. During ex- piration, the face should be buried to about the eyebrows, then, as the body rolls, the head should be very slightly turned so that the mouth may gulp a new breath in the little concavity of the water's surface behind the moving head. Some first-class swimmers keep their eyes constantly above the surface, but others find this practice a little tiresome and apt to get the body too far from the hori- zontal. Common Faults Bending the knees in the thrash. Making the thrash too wide. Spreading laterally at the crotch, so that the feet do not graze each other in passing. 26 SWIMMING AND DIVING Omitting one kick in the thrash cycle, or allowing this kick to become incomplete or powerless. Lack of balance and relation between leg and arm stroke. Dipping hands too far to the side, or cross- ing them over the head. Reaching out too far, allowing the elbow to dip before the hand. Flexing the hand at the wrist, instead of raising the elbow and shoulder to the proper angle. Swinging the straight arm to the side, like a flail, instead of raising the elbow and mak- ing full use of shoulder flexibility. Failure to get the recovery slow and re- laxed, and the power stroke swift and vigor- ous throughout its whole course. Burying the head deep in the water, and twisting it violently upward for breath. Rolling the body for arm recovery, instead of raising the elbow and shoulder. Bending at the hips and wriggling at the waist. V THE RESTING BACK STROKE The purpose of this stroke, as its name implies, is to allow the swimmer to rest, while at the same time making considerable prog- ress. It is usually the easiest stroke for the beginner to learn. THE FROG KICK Let us suppose that the power stroke has just been completed, leaving the knees straight, the toes pointed, and the ankles to- gether. From this position, the knees are raised until the angle at both hip and knee is a little less than a right angle. Figure 5 shows the beginning of this movement. Beginners should raise the knees very little until they have learned to keep afloat. Remember that this movement is the recovery and should be slow, made with the heels together and the 27 28 SWIMMING AND DIVING knees comfortably spread. It is frequently helpful to count evenly, "one, two, three," on the recovery and "four" on the power stroke, since the novice will usually make the former too rapid, and the latter too slow. The power stroke is as follows: From the raised knee position, kick out hard, straighten- ing the knees and hips and spreading the legs as far as they will comfortably go, and, with- out the least hesitation, snap the straight legs together, toes pointed, like a big pair of shears. These two movements are continuous, as in the scissors kick, and should be made with all possible speed and vigor. (fourth count), care being taken that the back is well arched and the legs are together at the end of the stroke (Fig. 6). Hold this position about a second to allow the body full benefit of the drive. To practice this kick, reach over the shoul- ders and seize the edge of the spit trough with both hands, allowing the back of the neck to brace against the side of the pool. Many swimmers prefer to use the scissors kick on the back. This is practically identical with that described in the side stroke, though Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8. FIGURE 5, the resting back stroke-recovery. FIGURE 6, resting back stroke-after the power stroke. FIGURE 7, racing back stroke-insertion of hand. FIGURE 8, racing back stroke-recovery of arm. THE RESTING BACK STROKE 29 usually a little narrower. The body is rotated slightly from the waist down to allow the kick to function properly. THE ARM STROKE Again let us suppose that the power stroke has just ended, leaving the arms straight at the sides, the palms pressed against the thighs. From this position, bring the hands up the body almost to the arm pits, letting the index fingers follow a course slightly median to that of shirt and trousers seams. This movement, of course, is slow (three counts) and almost completed before the knees begin to bend (Fig. 5). Next, throw the hands out in cir- cular fashion to about the level of the head, elbows straight and palms at right angle co the surface; then, without pause, swee them to the sides and wait a second for the glide (Fig. 6). These two movements, made as one, constitute the power stroke. All three may be practiced on land in a standing posi- tion. The frog kick, of course, finishes along with the arm stroke, though it should not commence until the hands have almost reached the arm pits. 30 SWIMMING AND DIVING THE BODY POSITION Keep the chest up, the head pretty well back, resting easily in the water, and the torso as immovable as possible. Avoid all rowing movements at the waist, and be sure that the back is arched and the body perfectly straight at the end of each power stroke. Common Faults Simply kicking backward and forward at the knees, without spreading the legs and closing out the angle of water at the end of the frog kick. Raising the knees too rapidly, thus pulling the body back and ducking the head. Failure to bend the arms for recovery, lift- ing them out of the water, or recovering too rapidly. Failure to sweep hands from head level to hips in the power stroke, and to hold them there for the glide. Stroking slightly upward with the hands. from shoulder to hip, and thus pulling the head under. Caving in at the chest and waist, letting the THE RESTING BACK STROKE 31 head come forward, and allowing the body to approach a vertical position. The body should be straight and horizontal, at least at the end of each power stroke. VI THE RACING BACK STROKE Some swimmers attain considerable speed with the frog kick and the simultaneous over- arm stroke, but the thrash kick and the alter- nate overarm generally gives more speed and better breathing. A careful study of the ceil- ing will help the swimmer to keep his course and time his turn correctly, especially in the home pool. THE THRASH Practically identical with that of the crawl, described above, except that the drive comes from the back of the leg. The thrash should be rapid, at least six beats to an arm cycle. The double scissors rhythm described in the crawl is even more valuable on the back than on the belly. This necessitates either six or ten beats to the complete arm cycle. Practice 32 THE RACING BACK STROKE 33 the thrash alone, with arms at the sides, and experiment with it for greatest speed and driving power. THE ALTERNATE OVERARM STROKE We shall begin the description of this stroke with the recovery. The arm is relaxed, and the hand is brought from the thigh up to about the waist. Here it is gradually taken from the water, following the elbow, and swung over the head, to be buried almost at arm's length, and nearly but not quite in line with the side of the body. At insertion, the palm is turned out as far as possible (Fig. 7). In the recovery, the elbow is raised high, the hand droops loosely at the wrist, and the flexibility of the shoulder joint is exploited to the limit, in order to minimize the body roll (Fig. 8). From its position over the head (Fig. 7), the hand is swept down hard to the thigh, never reaching a depth of more than six or eight inches. Meanwhile, of course, the other arm is recovering. Care should be taken to get the hands in and out of the water neatly, to keep them near the surface, 34 SWIMMING AND DIVING as in the breast stroke, and to make the arm motion relatively slower than is usual in the crawl. THE BODY POSITION The head is held further forward than in the resting back stroke, with the chin almost on the chest, and the body is allowed to sag slightly at the waist, to facilitate breathing and clean arm recovery. The torso is held as motionless as possible, as in the crawl. Fig- ures 7 and 8 illustrate a common fault with beginners, i. e., the head and shoulders are too far back. Common Faults Getting the thrash too slow, and the arm motion too fast. Faults common to the thrash, see discussion of crawl. Raising the whole arm out of water at once, thus pulling down that side of the body and splashing the face. Failure to bring the arm up the median line of body and over the face, in recovery. Rolling or wriggling the torso. THE RACING BACK STROKE 35 Leaving arm stroke incomplete or getting it too deep. Lack of relation and balance between arms and legs. VII THE RACING BREAST STROKE THE FROG KICK This kick is identical with that of the rest- ing back stroke inverted. THE ARM STROKE Let us consider the recovery just completed, and the arms stretched out in diving position, thumbs touching and palms parallel to the surface. The palms are turned out and swept powerfully down just beneath the surface, to within twelve to fifteen inches of the hip. This power stroke is made with straight arms, just as the knees are being raised in recovery (Fig. 9). While the legs are making their power stroke, the elbows are bent to allow the palms to creep back across the chest (Fig. 10) and shoot out again to diving position (Fig. 11). The final thrust to this attitude 36 Figure 9. Figure 10. Figure 11. FIGURE 9, breast stroke, power stroke of arms, recovery of legs. (first phase). FIGURE 11, breast stroke, the glide position. FIGURE 10, breast stroke, recovery of arms, power stroke of legs THE RACING BREAST STROKE 37 is timed exactly with the closing of the straight legs, and the body is held thus in diving position, to take advantage of the glide. This coordination of arms and legs is perhaps the most difficult as well as the most important thing about the breast stroke. After each ele- ment has been mastered separately, practice the combination on land until you cannot get it wrong. This may be done across an ordi- nary couch or on a stool with a pillow on it. THE BODY POSITION Beginners usually hold the head above the surface, but this is tiresome to neck and back and offers too much resistance in the glide. The face, not the head, should be submerged, except for a moment at the end of the arm power stroke, when a new breath is taken. In sprinting it is sometimes advisable to breathe only every other stroke. Try to avoid all bobbing motion and make the body cut the water as evenly as possible. This may usually be accomplished by keeping the hands near the surface, especially at the end of the stroke. It is rather unwise to turn the head sideways for breath, because this 38 SWIMMING AND DIVING movement encourages a scissors kick, which will disqualify a swimmer with a strict offi- cial. At the end of every stroke (or, strictly speaking, at the end of the kick and the be- ginning of the arm stroke) the body should be in diving position, head between arms, back arched, knees straight and together, toes pointed. Beginners always make the mistake of stroking too weakly and too often. A good swimmer, after his turn, will cover a 75-foot tank, at racing speed, in about fourteen or fifteen strokes. Common Faults Wrong coordination; e. g., armstroke and kick together instead of alternately. Failure to pause about a second at the end of each stroke for the glide in diving position. Pulling too deep with the hands, causing body to bob. Faults common to the frog kick (see above), especially failure to close out scissors with full vigor, or rapid recovery. Turning the head for breath, or breathing irregularly. VIII THE RACING DIVE Many a short race has been won on the start; therefore, the racing dive merits con- siderable time and attention. THE STARTING POSITION The starting position resembles roughly that preceding the standing broad jump. Un- til the command "Get set" the hands are rested upon the knees, but with this signal they fly back to about the horizontal attitude shown in Fig. 12, whence they are swung for- ward and upward with the spring. This motion is made with all possible vigor, ex- actly as in the broad jump, except that the end of the swing finds the hands in div- ing position, thumbs linked, biceps pressed against ears, and shoulders drawn as high as possible. It is well to toe in for the spring, as this 39 40 SWIMMING AND DIVING gives all the toes a grip on the take-off. Try for considerable height, as in the broad jump, and endeavor to hit the water as far out as possible. Just as you leave the take-off, lift the heels-i. e., arch the back without bending the knees-in order to avoid hitting perfectly flat. This manoeuver, if properly executed, raises the feet slightly higher than the head and effects a relatively clean entrance, even though you hit the water well out. It is more fully explained in the discussion of the swal- low dive. Many swimmers have found it helpful to jump toward a beam, in front of and above them at an angle of say 45 degrees. Once in the air, the body should assume the diving attitude (Fig. 13), special care being taken to arch the back, and get a concave line from hands to heels. The dive itself should be shallow, merely scooping the surface. Some of our fastest swimmers hit flat on their chests, volplane fashion, and hardly disappear below the sur- face at all, while others go two to three feet under the surface. It is customary to break in with the thrash, and then start the arm stroke, but this plan is not necessarily the best Figure 12. Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 13. FIGURE 12, the racing start. FIGURE 13, the entrance position. FIGURE 16, position after the push-off in the racing back stroke. Figure 16. FIGURE 14, the approach to the turn. FIGURE 15, the push-off. THE RACING DIVE 41 for all swimmers. Some find that the kick impedes the glide more than a swift arm stroke, made just as the hands reach the sur- face. It is well to try out the different styles with a stop watch, in the following manner: Snap the watch just as the swimmer's feet leave the take-off, and then snap it again just as his head (not his hand) passes a point, say, thirty feet from the take-off. Half a dozen times on each of several starts will probably indicate which is the fastest for the swimmer concerned. "" In the "quick" start, the interval between "On your mark" and "Get set" should be indicative of the interval between "Get set" and the gun. The swimmer should always lose his balance for the spring on "Get set,' but the equal interval system gives him some idea as to how fast to lose it. Most starters will not call a swimmer back unless he has hit the water before the report of the gun. Hence the contestant should plan to be almost in the air for the third signal. The "slow start" has now been adopted by the Intercollegiate Association and is fast gaining popularity (for fuller discussion 42 SWIMMING AND DIVING see last chapter, "Managing a Swimming Meet"). In this start, the swimmer must keep his balance until the report of the gun, but if he is not on the hair edge of toppling forward, the gun will catch him flat-footed. Practice this delicately balanced position (Fig. 12) until you can hold it five or ten seconds, and yet be ready to spring at any moment without the least loss of time. Hold- ing the hands very high in the rear will be found helpful. Common Faults Bending the knees too little, and getting a feeble spring, unaided by a powerful forward swing of the arms. Hitting the water too close in, and diving too deep. The swimmer should cover at least ten feet in his spring, and the dive should not be more than two feet in depth. Too little height on the spring. Failure to get the back arched before en- trance. This position causes the thighs to slap the surface, and makes a long, swift glide impossible. Breaking in with the arm stroke before the THE RACING DIVE 43 hands have reached the surface, or failure to judge the exact point where the glide becomes slower than the crawl. Sticking the head out, below or above the arms. Beating the gun, or getting caught flat- footed; usually caused by lack of starting practice, or failure to study the style of the starter. IX THE PLUNGE FOR DISTANCE It is difficult to understand how the plunge for distance has maintained its place so long on the swimming program, for properly speaking it is not an athletic event at all. Nine out of every ten successful plungers are mere mountains of fat who fall in the water more or less successfully and depend upon inertia to get their points for them. It is true that the plunge requires considerable study and involves a certain kind of skill and breath control, but, comparatively speaking, it is nei- ther graceful and interesting to watch nor indicative of athletic ability, placing the premium as it does upon blubber rather than upon speed, strength, endurance, and pluck. However, it varies and lengthens a short program, and affords the swimmers a much-needed rest, so let us discuss its problems. 44 THE PLUNGE FOR DISTANCE 45 The problem of holding the breath for one minute may be solved by loading the system up with oxygen before embarking. Two or three dozen deep, fast breaths, like those taken under hard physical exertion, will en- able the ordinary person to hold his breath about two minutes. It is a little more modest and artistic to go through this preparation before rather than after publicly mounting the take-off, but many consider the latter course more impressive, as indeed it is. The spring closely resembles that of the racing dive, but, as the plunger is not de- pendent on the gun, he may go through the preliminary motions at top speed, i. e., making no pause after the backward swing of the arms. The spring should be for height and distance, but the plunger may hit the water a little closer than the swimmer, because his dive must be so much deeper. It is especially important that he should arch, from fingers to toes, as the slap of a bent body, particularly in the thigh region, increases the head resist- ance materially. The dive should be from three to five feet deep, at its lowest point, say the 20 or 30 foot Um 46 SWIMMING AND DIVING mark, and the plunger should rise to the sur- face horizontally, the buttocks appearing first. If the hands and head appear first, it is an indication that speed and distance have been sacrificed to attain a steep rising angle. Ap- proximately two-thirds of the distance should be covered under water. The perfect diving position should be maintained as far as is con- sistent with relaxation and balance. Some men find it necessary to spread the hands slightly to prevent turning over. Some slight steering may be done by bending the hands at the wrists, but a more effective method is to flex sidewards at the waist. Of course the plunger should determine his course by watching the bottom of the pool. The main problem with many is to keep the feet up. All kinds of suggestions have been offered, but perhaps the most practical are as follows: Drop the head and arms as deep as possible. Arch the back. Force air into the lower lungs; i. e., expand the ab- dominal region. Practice floating near the edge of the pool, trying to relax and experi- menting with various positions to keep the feet afloat. THE PLUNGE FOR DISTANCE 47 Common Faults Those characteristic of the racing dive, especially slapping the thighs on entrance. Making the dive too shallow. Rising too rapidly, with head higher than feet. Coming up before the gun while still mak- ing progress. Spreading arms and legs. Letting the feet sink. X THE TURN Many a race has been won or lost on the turn. It is a common occurrence for a swimmer to gain one or two fifths of a second on his rival in this maneuver, and any swim- ming team that is not consistently and intelli- gently drilled on it is sure to lose points in stiff competition. The elements of the turn are: the approach, the turn proper, and the push-off. They should be practiced separately until the cor- rect form has become habitual, and next, the whole maneuver should be executed slowly and accurately, with painstaking attention to details. Only then should the swimmer strive for speed. THE APPROACH If you are versatile and quick to learn, it may be advisable to turn either way. If you do this, you will have little trouble with the 48 THE TURN 49 approach, since one hand or the other is bound to be in about the proper position. If you can turn but one way, there are two possi- bilities: a short glide (hurried by the thrash and a skulling motion of the back hand), or another short chop stroke with each arm. Only experiment and practice can determine which is better in any given case. The ap- proach in the racing back stroke presents similar problems, but here there is much more guesswork, since you can neither look ahead nor watch the cross line on the bottom of the pool. Careful observation of the ceiling will help considerably, especially when you are familiar with it. The breast stroke turn in- volves no new difficulties, the only difference being that both hands must touch. THE TURN PROPER In pools where the edge of the spit trough is but a few inches above the surface (by far the commonest variety), the quickest turn is made by seizing it with one hand and jerking the body around much in the manner de- scribed below. Since, however, all pools are not so constructed, many coaches believe this 50 SWIMMING AND DIVING to be a bad habit. Whether it is or not de- pends upon the adaptability of the man. It seems almost a sin to disregard such an oppor- tunity when it presents itself. In any case, the turn is substantially the same. Let us suppose you are turning to the left, the usual direction for a swimmer breathing on his right side. Your left hand should just graze the end of the pool, or possibly it should definitely touch it and start the deflection of the body, depending upon your personal taste or how your stroke comes out. In any case, you should be so close that your right hand can come in firm contact with the wall, just above the surface, and about in front of your left shoulder. The fingers should point to the left, and the elbow should be less than three or four inches from the wall (Fig. 14). The strong pull of your right arm, together with a sharp reverse stroke of your left, will spin your body into reverse position. Curl up tight for this movement, bring your head very close to the wall, and take care that your side, not your back, cuts the water in turning. Don't push away from the wall with the hand, and don't swim along it before turning. Come to THE TURN 51 a dead stop and try to turn "on a dime" ex- actly opposite the spot where your hand hits the wall. If this is properly done, the finish of the turn will find that hand close to the hip and ready to assist in the reverse stroke. This manoeuver is more difficult in the back stroke, but the principles are much the same, i. e., get close enough so that your elbow can almost touch the wall, roll over on the side of the hand first touching, and bring the feet to the wall about eighteen inches under the hands. Your touch or grasp on the end of the pool will be easier and surer if you attempt it only after you have begun to roll over on your belly for the push-off; i. e., when you are on your side. Both hands must touch. In all races involving more than one turn, a breath should be taken just before the turn proper. Some prefer to breathe after the turn and before the push-off, but this practice delays the average swimmer, and should not be resorted to except in long distances. THE PUSH-OFF When bringing the arms to diving position for the push-off, the hands should be flexed 52 SWIMMING AND DIVING backward at the wrist so as to give a definite reverse stroke. This motion shoves the but- tocks back to the wall and insures a strong push. At this point, or an instant before, the feet are carefully placed against the wall, a foot or so below the surface, the head and arms are buried to an almost equal depth, and the body is pushed powerfully forward (Fig. 15) just beneath the surface, and in perfect diving position (see racing dive). Practice the reverse stroke and the push-off alone until you can glide thirty to forty feet without swimming. Your head and hands should cut the surface and your arm stroke begin fifteen to eighten feet from the end of the pool. The question whether to break in with the thrash or a swift arm stroke is an individual one, as it was in the racing dive. Try both systems repeatedly under a stop watch, snapped as your head passes and return to a point twenty to thirty feet from the end of the pool. The push-off for the back stroke should be submerged and in good diving position; i. e., with the head back between the arms and the back arched (Fig. 16). THE TURN 53 Common Faults Allowing the body to float slowly up to turning position, instead of swimming up to it. Turning too far from the wall or omitting the reverse stroke. The result is apt to be a feeble push. Failure to curl up tight and bring the head pt close to the wall. Pushing slightly upward above the surface (Fig. 15) instead of straight forward, under the surface-especially in back stroke turn. Failure to assume good diving position im- mediately after push-off; e. g., letting head stick out or flexing at elbows, hips, or knees. Cutting the water with the back instead of the side. Pushing off sideways, mostly from one foot. Beginning the stroke too early or too late; i. e., missing the exact moment when the glide becomes slower than the crawl. Doing the turn too slowly and pushing off weakly. Insufficient practice; i. e., less than ten or fifteen turns per day. XI THE FINISH Like the approach for the turn, the finish presents the same choice between an extra chop stroke and a short glide with the thrash continued. The best general advice, however, is to sprint right up to the finish, as though almost unconscious of its existence. It is well to flash the touching hand high, to catch the eyes of the judges, and to avoid any uncer- tainty about the finish. Tall men have a de- cided advantage at the end of a race and in the turns. 54 XII TRAINING The fallacies of old-fashioned training rules have been so thoroughly exposed of late that much material may be omitted as obvi- ous. A fair proportion of adipose tissue is perhaps advantageous to a swimmer rather than otherwise, provided it does not cut his wind. With the exception of pastry, rich sauces, etc., he may eat a moderate amount of anything that agrees with him, provided he eats it at meal time. Most athletes eat too much and chew it too little. It is well to avoid a heavy meal within five hours of a contest or even of a swimming practice. A couple of eggs, toast, and tea make a good supper for the evening of a meet. Some good coaches forbid milk on the plea that it cuts the wind, but this is unlikely unless the fluid is taken in large quantities the day of the contest. Of 55 56 SWIMMING AND DIVING course the swimmer should refrain from alco- hol and tobacco. Other forms of athletics (with the excep- tion of wrestling and apparatus work) will not materially handicap a swimmer unless indulged in at the expense of swimming. It is well to end the daily practice with 100-300 yards at a comparatively slow crawl, with especial attention to form. This habit de- velops stamina and helps relaxation. It is unwise to swim in stiff competition or against time more than once or twice a week. The practice of soaking under a hot shower is dis- tinctly weakening and should be systemati- cally discouraged. XIII LIFE-SAVING We have so much good literature on Life- Saving, its importance, prevalent misconcep- tions about it, and common blunders in prac- ticing it, that a long discussion of the subject would be merely repetition of the obvious. There are, however, certain definite features of the game which, ordinarily, are gotten only from an instructor representing the American Red Cross or some other organization. Good instruction is not always accessible, hence this brief discussion. The first thing to acquire is a powerful kick, usually the scissors, described above in the side stroke. Learn to swim fifty to one hundred yards on your side with the upper arm motionless and out of water to the elbow, as though towing a victim, paying especial attention to the power and efficiency of your kick. Practice similarly on the back, with both hands out of water, using the scissors or 57 58 SWIMMING AND DIVING frog kick, described above in the resting back stroke. This part of the preparation cannot be overdone, because if you have the habit of a feeble, sloppy kick, it will always be re- verted to in an emergency. As to the carries, don't be content with dragging a submissive victim the bare sixty feet, with his head under water half the time. Perfect your form until you can cover con- siderably over the distance, with both your head and the victim's constantly above the surface. In practicing the breaks, choose a comparatively strong partner and urge him to hang on with a will. It is only thus that water wrestling practical for a serious encounter may be acquired. THE HEAD CARRY Approach from behind and place the palms of your hands along the victim's jawbones, from ear to chin, taking care not to strangle him. Get his body horizontal, either by pushing his back up with your foot, or by a few rapid strokes. Swim on the back, holding his head well above the surface and at arm's length. This is a good carry for a struggling victim. LIFE-SAVING 59 Common Faults Getting the grip too low; i. e., across the windpipe. Failure to get victim's body horizontal and get under way. If he is heavy in the water, it may be necessary to let your own head go under until you get him started. Bending the arms, thus getting the body in the way of your kick. THE CROSS-CHEST CARRY Approach from behind and throw upper arm over the victim's shoulder so your fingers can hold his opposite armpit. Swim on the side, holding him well up on your hip, and parallel to your own body. Common Faults Getting the hold under the near arm, or putting your hand over his shoulder instead of in his armpit. Failure to hold him high on your hip and parallel to yourself. THE TWO-POINT CARRY Assume a position facing your victim, seize his left elbow or forearm with your left hand, 60 SWIMMING AND DIVING pull his arm over your shoulder and insert your left elbow in the small of his back (vice versa if you swim on your left side). Swim forward on your belly, pushing him backward on his back. This is a comparatively difficult carry and should never be used on a victim who is the least inclined to struggle. It is chiefly useful in supporting a quiet or uncon- scious person, particularly if he wears heavy shoes that have a tendency to drag him down to the vertical. Common Faults Getting his arm too high on your shoulder and forcing your own head under. Try grip- ping below instead of above elbow. Failure to get your elbow low enough and far enough under his back to keep his feet up. THE TIRED SWIMMER'S CARRY Never attempt this unless the victim is perfectly calm and unafraid of the water, as it gives him an excellent chance for a front strangle. Let him tread water until you ap- proach him from the front, using the breast LIFE-SAVING 61 stroke. Tell him to put his hands on your shoulders, elbows straight; put his head back, arch his back, straddle your waist with his legs, and relax. Common Faults (Usually the Victim's) Pushing down on your partner's shoulders instead of letting the water support you. Failure to arch the back, raise the chest, and put the head back; this fault makes prog- ress much more difficult. THE HAIR CARRY This is perhaps the easiest carry, provided the victim is neither fractious nor bald. Ap- proach from the rear and slip one hand up the back of the victim's head, getting a hand- ful of hair at the crown. Swim on the side, towing him at arm's length. A handful of clothes at the back of his neck will do as well. Common Faults Holding the hair over the forehead instead of at the crown. Pulling the victim so close as to hinder your kick. 62 SWIMMING AND DIVING THE FIREMAN'S CARRY, WAIST DEEP IN WATER Float the victim on his back by supporting him with the left hand. Reach across his body and grasp his left wrist with your right hand. Slip your left hand down under his thighs, squat until your head is submerged, and swing him up on your left shoulder. Put his left hand between his own legs and grasp it with your left (Fig. 19). Should the victim be a woman with a skirt, her wrist may be simi- larly held outside of her left knee. method works on either side. TAKING VICTIM FROM THE WATER This Get hold of one of the victim's hands and place it over the edge of the pool or float. Put your near hand on top of his hand and climb out in the ordinary way. Turn his back to you, procure his other hand, and get hold well down on both of his wrists with your thumbs up. Stand with legs spread at the very edge, duck him two or three times to get him bouncing, and lift him to sitting posi- tion between your legs. Start resuscitation at once. XIV BREAKING HOLDS Use every precaution to avoid being caught. Approach from the rear, if possible, and get head or chest carry. If the victim turns too fast for you, dive under him, with your eyes open, and try to come up behind him. If this is impractical, the safest course is to wait until he quiets down a bit. If you are sure of your- self, however, you may approach from the front, beat down his arms, seize a wrist or an elbow, and turn his back to you. Should you get in a drowning man's grip, take a big breath and drag him under the sur- face with you. Then methodically and un- hurriedly set about breaking the hold, keep- ing your eyes open. Be sure to keep hold of your victim after the hold is broken, otherwise you may have to do it all over again. Slip into your carry before reaching the surface again. 63 64 SWIMMING AND DIVING Common Faults Failure to submerge victim. Closing the eyes. Too great haste. Remember you can hold your breath ten to twenty seconds with ease. Letting the victim loose after the hold is broken. BREAKING THE FRONT STRANGLE Put your arms over his and force his head back, either by pushing under his chin, or by hooking your thumb under his nose and push ing steadily. Next turn his head to his left with your right hand, so that his left hand will drop off first. Finally, when the hold is about broken (Fig. 17), grip his right elbow with your left hand, swing it down and across your body, and throw your right arm over his shoulder for the cross-chest carry. If you wish to swim on the other side, it is simple to change. Of course, the break is equally effi- cient on the other side. Common Faults Turning his head the wrong way, thus crossing your arms, and causing the wrong side to break first. BREAKING HOLDS 65 Failure to grip his elbow and turn him clear around. BREAKING THE BACK STRANGLE Cross your arms as he has crossed his. Sup- pose his left arm is on top; yours should be likewise. Seize his left thumb with your left hand, break the grip of that hand and grip it also with your right, as though shaking hands, keeping the original grip on the thumb (Fig. 18). Now raise both hands high over head and turn slowly to your left, keeping firm hold of his left hand with both of yours. Eventually this maneuver will bring you around behind him in perfect position for the cross-chest carry. It works equally well on the other side in case he crosses his right arm on top. The back strangle is the most dangerous of all holds, partly because it is often difficult to reach a thumb, and partly because it may strangle. Desperate measures may have to be resorted to, even a blow in the victim's face with the back of your head. Usually, how- ever, a long ducking or possibly a front somer- 66 SWIMMING AND DIVING sault will accomplish the same result. A swimmer who is reasonably active and wide- awake should not get caught in a back strangle. Common Faults Crossing the arms incorrectly; i. e., the wrong one on top. Failure to hold his hand firmly and raise it high over your head in the turn. BREAKING THE WRIST GRIP If the victim gets a wrist in each hand (which seldom occurs), break one grip first, by jerking sharply against his thumb (i. e., if his thumb is on the bottom, jerk down, and vice versa); but before breaking the second, seize that wrist with your free hand, so that he will not get away. If the grip is double on one wrist, say the right one, seize his right wrist with your left hand, and jerk sharply against his thumbs. After the grip is broken, swing your left hand sharply across your body, thus turning his back and allowing the cross-chest carry. It is often helpful to push down before jerking up, and some like to use a foot on the victim's BREAKING HOLDS 67 chest. The foot opposite the imprisoned wrist will be the more effectual. Common Faults Trying to break with a slow pull instead of a sudden jerk. Jerking against the fingers instead of against the thumbs. Failure to get your grip before breaking his. Inability to turn victim after the hold is broken. This is usually because the bodies are not close enough together. Sometimes this is the victim's fault, because in practice he tries to get as far as possible from his res- cuer instead of clinging to him as a drowning man would do. BREAKING LEG SCISSORS (FRONT) Press thumbs on his eyebrows, or hook a thumb under his nose, as in front strangle break. Push ends of thumbs hard between his ribs and twist. BREAKING LEG SCISSORS (BACK) Spread and twist his toes. 68 SWIMMING AND DIVING BREAKING TWO VICTIMS APART Usually they are holding each other with the front strangle. With both hands, seize one under the chin from behind and put your foot in the other's face; straighten your body and save only the one you have your hands This break, like all the others, should on. be made under the surface. XV RESUSCITATION (SCHAEFER METHOD) Start artificial respiration immediately. This is more important than doctors or pul- motors. Place the patient prone, left hand stretched straight over head, right cheek pillowed on the back of right hand, and blankets under chest and abdomen if convenient. Clear his mouth of mucous, mud, etc., with your finger. Kneel astride the patient's buttocks (on one knee only if desired) and place your hands, with fingers and thumb comparatively close together, two or three inches above the belt line, from the floating ribs up. The heels of your hands should be three to five inches apart and almost at right angles to his spine. Now press the hands down and slightly forward and together, with gradual force culminating in your entire weight. This movement should 69 70 SWIMMING AND DIVING come mostly from the back, with the arms held almost straight (Fig. 20), and should consume a second or two (time enough to say slowly, "Out goes the water"). After a final push, the wrists should be straightened in such a way that the hands will slip off with knuckles on the blanket (Fig. 21). This sudden release increases the suction of the flexible chest wall. After each push, the re- suscitator should rest on his knuckles for a couple of seconds (long enough to say slowly, "In comes the air"). Some operators prefer not to remove the hands when once placed. This method is not so restful, but correct enough, provided the release is sudden. Efforts should not be suspended for at least an hour, no matter how hopeless the case may seem. If others are present, they may massage the limbs (toward the heart) and apply heat to the extremities. It is practically impossible for an unconscious person to swallow, so stim- ulants are not advisable in the first stages. Some experts advise holding the patient by the heels, head downward, for a moment, be- fore beginning resuscitation; but such opera- tions as rolling him over a barrel, pulling out Figure 20. Figure 21. FIGURE 20, resuscitation, exerting pressure. FIGURE 21, resuscitation, the sudden release. RESUSCITATION 71 his tongue with a pin and string, etc., are more dramatic than effectual. Common Faults Pressing too jerkily and releasing too slowly. Using the arm muscles instead of the back. Performing the whole cycle too fast; i. e., more than 15-17 per minute. PART II DIVING I INTRODUCTORY Diving requires little or no strenuous train- ing, in the ordinary sense of the word, but in the matter of coordination and neuro-muscu- lar control it is unusually exacting. The combination of relaxation, ease and grace, with the rigidity essential to good form, is a task in itself, and the nicety involved in exe- cuting and accurately timing the more diffi- cult dives is a challenge to the brain and body of any athlete. A clear analytical mind and a native ingenuity will find considerable scope in this sport, and if the prospective diver prides himself on his courage, that qual- ity will find expression in his initial attempts at acrobatic dives or in high diving. Always bear in mind the three essentials of a good dive: height, form in the air, and entrance; and do not be content until all little imperfections are ironed out. Even expe- 75 76 SWIMMING AND DIVING rienced divers have a hazy notion of how they act in the air. Therefore, ask someone to watch you whenever possible. He may not know diving, but he can report what he sees when you tell him what to look for; and he should look for things as small as a little bend in the elbow or failure to point the toes. Do not attempt to correct everything at once. No one, while in the air, can concentrate on four or five different points. One or perhaps two is sufficient. Before beginning a dive, especially if it is a new one, think it out carefully, actually go- ing through the positions on land as far as possible. Land drills may seem needlessly stupid and theoretical to the novice, but their conscientious practice will hasten progress materially. Once on the board, however, do not form the habit of hesitation. If you are truly interested in the technique of the thing, you will not worry about possible bumps. It is well to have a cushion about a foot thick (say a bag of rags or excelsior), which your assistant can slip on the end of the board as soon as you leave it to perform a dive in which there is danger of hitting; e. g., the back jack- DIVING 77 knives, the flying dutchmans, etc. This prac- tice will not only prevent accident, but will aid your progress by increasing confidence. When the angle of spring is properly acquired, the practice should of course be discontinued. Do not neglect the required dives for the optionals. If well performed, the required dives can put thirty-five or forty points on the front of your score; moreover, they are fundamental, and will help in perfecting the optionals. If you are stiff at the waist or shoulders, stretching and bending exercises will improve your entrance and your jack. Also sprinting and jumping will increase height, a quality too often neglected. The various dives are discussed with refer- ence to a low board (22-4 feet), but almost the same principles are involved in high div- ing. Here the movements may be slower or later in starting, and the layout or the jack position often takes the place of a tight tuck. The dives should be thoroughly learned on the low board and then practiced higher by stages, particular care being taken not to relax the back or knees when entering the water from a high board. II THE FANCY DIVE THE RUNNING TAKE-OFF The diver should first standardize the num- ber and length of steps preceding the prelimi- nary jump to the end of the board. He should memorize the distance which gives him his best start, and depart from it only for a good reason. In swimming meets, he should mount the board at the extreme rear end, walk to his distance, and stand at attention until he re- ceives the judge's nod. Then let him rise on his toes and begin the dive. The steps should be two or three in number, and rather short. Some good divers take but a single step. The preliminary jump should be two or three feet long, although this distance differs with individual divers, some taking as much as four feet, others less than a foot. The 78 Figure 4. Figure 2. Figure 1. Figure 5. Figure 5. Figure 3. FIGURE 1, incorrect take-off position. FIGURE 2, correct take-off position. entrance position (head first). FIGURE 4, entrance position (feet first). the swallow dive. FIGURE 6, hand drill for swallow dive. FIGURE 3, FIGURE 5, THE FANCY DIVE 79 jump should be off one foot and as high as possible, in order to get the maximum reac- tion from the board. This does not mean that the diver should draw up his knees and stamp down. On the contrary, he should drop lightly on the balls of his feet and time his spring accurately with the rebound of the board, rotating the arms laterally and clock- wise in preparation for the "lift." It is im- portant to hold the body loose enough to spring, and yet stiff enough so that the spring of the board will not be absorbed by sloppy bending at knees and hips. The diver's body should be straight and almost vertical on completing the preliminary jump (Figs. 1 and 2), because the angle of the body deter- mines the angle of flight, and hence the height of the dive. In leaving the board, he should spring strongly and almost vertically from his toes, getting all possible lift out of arms and shoulders. Since height is so essential to good diving, it is well to preface every practice by half a dozen swallows or jack-knives in which maximum height is the main objective, and then try not to let it fall off when trying for 80 SWIMMING AND DIVING form. Many beginners make a practice of hitting the water eight, ten, and twelve feet from the end of the board. This confusion of diving with broad jumping makes good work impossible, and the habit should be broken quickly and thoroughly. The coach should insist that all dives come within the six foot mark, and in many cases, this limit should be reduced to four, three, and even two feet. A polo ball or some other floating object on the six foot line will help divers to come in close. Common Faults Running too fast and consequent loss of control, with wrong angle of leaving the board. The steps should be quick walking steps. Making the preliminary jump too low and feeble to get the full efficiency of the board. Raising the knees in the preliminary jump or in the dive itself. Stamping the board flat-footed. Leaning forward or bending at the waist in the spring. THE FANCY DIVE 81 Absorbing the reaction of the board by flabbiness at knees and hips. Improper timing: springing too soon or too late for board. Striking short of extreme end of board. Entering water too far out. III THE ENTRANCE POSITION HEAD FIRST The entrance position is fundamental to all dives and should be perfected early in the game. The thumbs are locked at arms length over the head, palms to the front, biceps pressed against ears, shoulders drawn up as high as possible, back arched, knees straight, ankles pressed together, and toes pointed. (Fig. 3.) The diver will get a good concep- tion of the position if he will rise very high on his toes and stretch his fingers toward a point on the ceiling, over and a little behind his head, taking care not to get the head so far back that the upper arms cannot press the ears. Broad-shouldered men should be particularly careful to straighten the elbows and draw the shoulders up high, as this will diminish their natural handicap in making a clean entrance. 82 THE ENTRANCE POSITION 83 The body should enter the water at an angle of from eighty to ninety degrees, and the en- trance position should be carefully maintained until the feet are under the surface or until the hands strike the bottom of the ordinary tank. Care should be taken that the feet neither underthrow (shins splashing) nor overthrow (calves splashing). Common Faults Separating hands, caused by failure to lock thumbs. Bending elbows. This fault often causes a puzzling splash in what appears to be a per- fect dive. Sticking the head out from proper position between arms. Flexion at hips, often made to avoid under- throw. This is a hard habit to break, but if the diver will assume an exaggerated arch of the back before beginning each dive, he will eventually be able to assume it in the air. Then a little more heel-lift (see swallow dive below) and the fault will be cured. Bending the knees. Separating the feet. 84 SWIMMING AND DIVING t Failing to point toes. Underthrow. Overthrow. FEET FIRST This position is used in several optional dives discussed in the following pages, and it seems logical to take it up here. It is simply an exaggerated military position: chin in, chest out, body very straight, palms pressed against thighs, and knees straight. The toes are pointed to their utmost to prevent splash in entrance. (Fig. 4.) Common Faults Holding arms overhead or away from sides. Failure to iron out all flexion at the hips. Bending knees. Twisting sideways on entrance. IV THE PLAIN FRONT DIVE The take-off is explained above. Imme- diately after leaving the board, the body is slightly bent at the hips and the arms assume entrance position (explained below). From beginning to end, the curve of the body should coincide with the curve of flight, and an entrance should be made six to eight feet from the end of the board. This is the only dive where perfect form in the air and perfect entrance do not require an arched back. Common Faults Too much flexion at hips. Jack-knife motion just before entrance. 85 V THE SWALLOW (OR SWAN) DIVE The swallow is often used as the first re- quired dive in place of the plain front. It is fundamental in its positions and should be mastered before the diver takes up the more acrobatic dives. Some men get a little more style in the swallow by running a trifle faster, making the preliminary jump a trifle longer, and entering a little farther out than is ordi- narily advisable. These differences should be very slight, however, and the entrance should never be more than six feet from the end of the board. As soon as the body leaves the board, the arms are thrown horizontally sideward with the palms up and the hands as far back of the median body line as possible. If the head is thrown back to the limit, this arm motion will expand the chest to the utmost, and give a swallowlike appearance. (Fig. 5.) After 86 THE SWALLOW (OR SWAN) DIVE 87 leaving the board, the heels are given a steady lift, which arches the back to the maximum. This arch is maintained unchanged through- out the dive. Care should be taken that this heel-lift movement comes entirely from the back and not from the knees, which should remain straight. The heel-lift is the impulse that inverts the body in the air, and unless it is learned, the diver will be forced to jack in order to affect a clean entrance. A few minutes practice on a bench or chair back will be very helpful. (Fig. 6.) Put the weight on the hands, jump slightly, and arch the back with speed and vigor, being particular that the chest is out, the knees straight, and the toes pointed. This movement is very powerful, and can turn the body through three hundred and sixty degrees (see front somersault), so there is no excuse for breaking the arch to get a clean entrance. The air position (Fig. 5) is held until just before entrance, when the hands sweep quickly to the locked thumb position, and the head goes forward just enough to nestle between the biceps (Fig. 3). 88 SWIMMING AND DIVING COMMON FAULTS Improper position of the arms: too far for- ward, not horizontal, etc. (Fig. 5 shows arms raised a little too high toward head.) Failure to get the head back as far as it will go, in air position. Insufficient arch (very common; Fig. 5 shows too little arch in hip region). Jack-knife movement just before entering. Underthrow. Too little heel-lift. Overthrow. Entering too far out or too much heel lift. Faulty take-off or entrance. (See "Com- mon Faults" under those heads.) 4 VI THE BACK DIVE When the judge nods, the diver should walk to within a foot of the end of the board before turning around, as it looks awkward to back into position. (This rule applies to all dives with a backward spring.) He should then place his hands on his hips or stretch his arms horizontally in front of him, and get good balance on the extreme end of the board, with heels extending over the water. The spring should be straight up, and as high as possible. At the point of greatest height, the head should be thrown back, the chin as high as it will go, and the back arched to the limit. These movements should be simultaneous and performed with all possible speed and vigor. From this point on, the back dive is a waiting game. The diver should not break his arch nor try to see where he is going. The arms may assume the entrance position (Fig. 3) 89 90 SWIMMING AND DIVING on the spring or just before the entrance. Both forms are good. The entrance should be within five feet, the closer the better. It is profitable to remark that the turning impulse in the back dive comes from the head throw, not from the heel-lift as in the swallow. In the vigorous arch at the zenith of his flight, the diver should strive to bring his head down to meet his heels, rather than his heels up to meet his head. If the arch starts from the heels, it will tend to turn the body in the wrong direction. The back dive is a difficult compromise between rigidity and relaxation. If the diver is too loose, his toes will not be pointed and his knees and elbows will surely bend. If he is too rigid, he cannot get a good arch, and arch is everything in the back dive. Common Faults Falling backward or "sitting in" the dive instead of springing straight up. common.) (Very Arching before highest point of flight. Failure to get head back as far as it will go. Figure 7. Figure 9. Figure 10. Figure 8. FIGURE 7, the jack-knife. FIGURE 8, the twist. FIGURE 9, the forward tuck. FIGURE 10, the back tuck, first movement. THE BACK DIVE 91 Bending elbows and knees: relaxing before entrance is complete. Breaking the arch. Failure to point toes. Letting head stick out from between arms. This is not a bad fault in the back dive, but it causes a slight splash. Entering too far out: caused by "sitting in" the dive. Overthrow. Not common on a low board unless the entrance is too far out or the arch is broken. If Underthrow. The diver must put more vigor in his head throw and arch more. this be impossible, let him enter a trifle fur- ther out. Twisting. A bad habit, usually contracted by trying to see the water. A bigger arch will often cure it, or following with the eyes an imaginary line along the ceiling. In stubborn cases, let the diver twist the other way, i. e., watch the wall to which he usually turns his back. VII THE FRONT JACK-KNIFE The regular take-off is used except that the body is nearer the vertical on leaving the board and the entrance is very close. The rules set a six foot limit but for the best form, it is well to come within three. It is often advisable to slow up the take-off and shorten the preliminary jump. At the zenith of flight, the hands should slip neatly down to the in- steps or toes, care being taken to keep the head back, the knees straight, and the toes pointed. The jack position (Fig. 7) is held for a frac- tion of a second, and then the body is opened to entrance position (Fig. 3). It is advisable for beginners to take definite hold of the back of the ankles in jacking, thus insuring a com- plete jack. If they never give up this habit, they will be none the worse divers. There are two opinions as to what consti- tutes the most graceful jack-knife. Some like 92 THE FRONT JACK-KNIFE 93 leisurely movements, especially in the opening out; others prefer that each position be held as long as possible and that the changes be executed with speed and snap. It is well to consider the individuality of the diver in mak- ing the choice. Many find the jack-knife a hard proposition to master. The following land drill will prove helpful. Draw a chalk line on the floor to represent the end of the board. Make a standard take-off, including preliminary jump, and land in approved position, toeing the line. Hold this position an instant with- out jumping and then snap quickly to perfect jack position. From jack position, snap to (head first) entrance position (right side up, of course). Practice this drill until all three positions can be perfectly and successively executed in the space of a second. Then try the actual dive, forgetting everything but the perfect and accurate performance of the land drill. Common Faults Forgetting height in eagerness to jack. Entering too far out. (Very common.) 94 SWIMMING AND DIVING Jacking before zenith, causing overthrow or loss of height. Incomplete jack: touching thighs or shins instead of toes. A competent judge will mark down heavily for this fault. Bending knees in jack. Failure to point toes in jack position. Failure to assume complete entrance posi- tion with head between arms. Underthrow. Caused by insufficient vigor of movements, or by bringing the feet up to meet the hands instead of the hands down to meet the feet. Overthrow. Perhaps the diver is entering too far out, jacking too soon, or ducking his head slightly. If not, let him bring his feet part way up to meet his hands, or let him open out of his jack more slowly. VIII THE BACK JACK-KNIFE The approach is like that of the back dive. The preliminary position is similar except that the thumbs are locked and the arms are stretched at the angle which affords the best balance and snap for the jack, usually a little below the vertical. There are some judges, meticulous about gymnastic form, who will mark a man down for not holding the arms exactly horizontal, in the preliminary posi- tion. It is well to inquire about this point before a contest. It is difficult to get a good spring in the back jack, but height should be constantly aimed for. Some divers add to their height by starting with the arms at the sides, as in the front jack, and raising them in the spring. If this form is adopted, care should be taken that the knees do not bend, and that the elbows stay close to the body. Almost immediately 95 96 SWIMMING AND DIVING upon leaving the board, the hands should slip down to the ankles, and again, it is well to get actual hold of them. Avoid bringing the feet up to meet the hands, as this will slow the turn. Immediately upon completing the jack, the body is opened out into entrance position, and the head tucked in between straight arms. Remember that an incompleted jack is a seri- ous fault. The entrance should be as close as possible, within one or two feet. A heavy cushion on the end of the board (see Introductory) will give confidence, and a land drill something like that of the front jack will be helpful. Common Faults Flexion at hips in preliminary position. Cuts down height and absorbs some of the snap. "Sitting in" the dive and entering too far out. Bending knees in jack. Incomplete jack. Entering half open, without arch. Letting head stick out. Underthrow. Caused by entering too far THE BACK JACK-KNIFE 97 out, bringing feet up to meet hands, or insuffi- cient vigor of movements. Overthrow. Jack later, slow down move- ments, or bring feet up to meet hands. Twisting. Twist the other way until cured. IX THE OPTIONAL DIVES Optional dives are more or less acrobatic in character and may be logically divided into three groups: those employing the half (or full) twist, those involving one or more front somersaults, and those involving one or more back somersaults. Several dives have a com- bination of somersault and twist, but they con- tain no new principles. Accordingly, if the diver understands the technique of the twist and the two somersaults, their application to the various dives will usually be obvious. THE TWIST As the twist is the simplest maneuver of the three, it is well to attempt it first. Two warnings are pertinent here: never start a twist before leaving the board, and always complete it before entering the water. Some judges give a man zero for either of these 98 THE OPTIONAL DIVES 99* sins, and any competent official will at best give him a low mark, no matter how perfect the dive may otherwise be. In general the twist is begun at the highest point of flight, and consists of a half or full turn on the longitudinal axis of the body. This turn is initiated at the head and shoul- ders, the hips and legs following their lead in a smooth, serpentine, lazy manner. There should be no wriggling at the hips or kicking of the feet, and the normal positions and move- ments of the dive should be altered as little as possible. Fig. 8 shows the rotation carried as far as the waist. The hips and legs are about to follow, and the turn will continue until entrance. If the shoulders complete the twist, the diver need not worry about what follows. THE FORWARD DIVE WITH HALF TWIST (DOLPHIN) Here the diver simply performs a swal- low in such a way that he enters in back dive position. The arms, however, are immedi- ately raised to entrance position as in the plain 100 SWIMMING AND DIVING front dive. At the zenith, or a little before, the head and shoulders begin the twist and the rest of the body follows, without breaking the characteristic swallow arch. The diver may get this conception by trying to look over his shoulders and see his heels. The dive should be high, the entrance close (within four or five feet) and the heel-lift so regu- lated as to give the proper entrance angle. Common Faults Entering too far out and losing height. Breaking the arch and wriggling in the twist. Entering with bent elbows. Letting the feet fly apart, or crossing them. THE FORWARD DIVE WITH FULL TWIST (CORKSCREW) On a low board, most divers find it impos- sible to do this dive according to Hoyle. It seems almost necessary to start the spin im- mediately upon leaving the board, and to sac- rifice considerable height and some arch to complete the full turn. Many find it helpful to strike the board about a foot from the end. THE OPTIONAL DIVES 101 The common faults are similar to those of the dolphin, particularly too little height. THE BACKWARD DIVE WITH HALF (OR FULL) TWIST The twist will be more efficient if the arms. are raised to entrance position on the spring. Care should be taken to hold the arch, as in the dolphin. The common faults are those characteristic of the back dive and the twist. THE FORWARD JACK-KNIFE WITH HALF (OR FULL) TWIST This dive is identical with the front jack until the second movement. In opening from the jack, the head and shoulders are twisted in the characteristic manner, and the right arm (if turning to the left) is swung forcibly across the body toward the left arm pit on its way up to entrance position. The dive ap- pears simple, but is difficult to complete and perfect. Its rating is good. Very fast work is necessary for the full twist. In fact it is practically impossible to complete it in good form from a low board. 102 SWIMMING AND DIVING THE BACKWARD JACK WITH HALF TWIST The twist comes in the second movement and is practically identical with that of the front jack. Good height is especially helpful as it allows more time to complete the turn. This dive is also easy to attempt but difficult to complete properly. Hence its good rating. The half twist may be added to four other official dives: the forward somersault, the for- ward 1½ somersault, the flying dutchman, and the backward 1½ somersault. dives are discussed below. THE FORWARD SOMERSAULT These The best form of this dive is a layout, ex- actly like the swallow except that the body makes a complete cycle and enters feet first with the hands at the sides (Fig. 4). Good height and a very strenuous heel-lift are essential. If this form is impossible, a slight tuck may be introduced, though the dive is not rated high enough to warrant anything but the best form. THE FORWARD TUCK This maneuver is the basis for our second group of dives, and deserves considerable at- tention. The regular take-off is best, although THE OPTIONAL DIVES 103 some prefer to have the hands over the head, elbows slightly bent, when they hit the end of the board. This form, while effective in ground tumbling, looks a bit ungraceful in diving, and though it undoubtedly speeds up the turn, it is questionable whether the loss in height does not cancel this advantage. On the standard take-off, the hands, in the spring, should not come higher than the waist, because exaggerated arm lift tends to turn the body backward instead of forward. Just be- fore the highest point of flight (earlier if pressed for time) the tuck position is taken with all possible vigor and speed. The hands cut down hard to a grip on the lower shins, forcing the heels backward and up snug against the seat, and simultaneously the head snaps down between the knees (Fig. 9). Get the conception of everything turning forward. Bring the head down to the knees, not the knees up to the head, and cut downward and backward with the hands. Remember that the tuck cannot be too tight, for the sooner the turn is completed, the sooner the entrance position may be assumed and the more beauti- ful the dive. 104 SWIMMING AND DIVING THE FORWARD ONE AND ONE-HALF SOMERSAULT This dive is a favorite because of its spec- tacular quality and its good rating. There is a tendency to hit the board in a crouched posi- tion because of eagerness to tuck. This prac- tice invariably cuts down the height, and as the head has only about half the distance to buck down, the spin is materially weakened. Some perform this dive by jacking instead of tucking, a pretty variation on a high board, but usually inadvisable on a low one because the average diver has not time to get a perfect entrance position before his hands touch the water. A tight tuck and an early entrance position is the best general rule. Many find it impossible to get the latter in the standing 12, but this does not mean that the dive must necessarily be abandoned. With practice and careful timing, it is possible to sneak a half opened body into the water with very little splash. It is best for the novice to practice this dive (running or standing) without open- ing out. He can thus concentrate on getting maximum height and spin, while avoiding THE OPTIONAL DIVES 105 many an abdominal shock. When he gets far enough around on his second revolution to hit the water in a sitting position, he will have time for a good entrance. The entrance posi- tion should be taken with all possible speed, and the diver should try to enter his arch with the heel-lift, characteristic of the swan dive. This movement will not only improve his arch, but will tend to keep his body turning in the desired direction. When a half twist is added, opening must be made early. The double somersault involves the same prin- ciples, and a feet-first entry. Common Faults Hitting board in crouched position. Try- ing to tuck too early. Lack of height and entrance too far out. Tucking too soon. Turning the body backward by raising the arms too far or too vigorously. Pulling the knees upward instead of cutting down and back, and bringing the head down to the knees. Loose sloppy tuck. Gripping knees instead 106 SWIMMING AND DIVING of lower shins, and failing to get head way down between knees. Failure to complete entrance position be- fore entering, i. e., flexion at hips, hands and feet apart, head out, or knees bent. Underthrow. Caused by insufficient height or spin, or by straightening out too early. Overthrow. Caused by straightening out too late or bending at the knees. BACKWARD SPRING FORWARD SOMERSAULT (OR ONE AND ONE-HALF) The preliminary position is like that of the back jack, except that the hands are over the head, elbows slightly bent, as in the second form for the forward 12. The standard tuck and entrance positions are used. Get all pos- sible height and enter very close to the board. A cushion will give confidence and avoid risk. The common faults are similar to those of the forward 12. THE BACKWARD TUCK This tuck is the basis of our third and last group of dives. It involves two successive THE OPTIONAL DIVES 107 movements. The first, begun a little before the zenith, is a quick vigorous head throw and arch, both to the limit as in the back dive except that the hands, coming up powerfully on the spring, stop a little short of extended position above the head, in order to be in readiness for the second movement. The elbows should be locked about half way be- tween the straight and right angle position, and the upward and backward impulse of the arms should be used to its utmost. Fig. 10 shows the first movement and also a very common fault, i. e., the head is forward, chin on chest, instead of far back to aid in the turn. The second movement is a sharp flexion at the waist, aided by the hands, which cut down to the lower shins and pull the knees up to the chest. Notice that the resulting position is exactly like the forward tuck (Fig. 9) except that the head is still back. The means of attaining it, however, are very different. In- stead of bringing the head down to the knees, we bring the knees up to the chest, for the spin is in the opposite direction; and instead of checking the upward motion of the arms (hostile to the forward turn) we give it all the 108 SWIMMING AND DIVING scope and vigor possible. The tuck is opened into the head-first or feet-first entrance position. In learning the above manœuver, the fol- lowing land drill will be helpful. Stand stiff- legged, lock elbows at about 135 degrees, and try to lift the body a couple of inches off the floor by sheer force of the upward arm swing. The hands should start from in front of the hips, circle inward slightly and then upward to a little above the head. Only practice can clarify this explanation. The movement should be vigorous but the muscles should not be unduly tensed. Next, spring strongly upward with the legs, simultaneously with the arm movement, trying to get all possible height. Finally, spring upward as before, and at the point of greatest height, raise the knees to the chest and cut the hands down to the lower shins, releasing in time to avoid a fall. Notice that only one element of the backward tuck is omitted, i. e., the head throw and arch, which cannot be included without a somer- sault or a bad fall. After the diver has mastered this drill, he should try a back somer- sault off the board, or better yet, in the gym- nasium tumbling belt. THE OPTIONAL DIVES 109 THE BACK SOMERSAULT The preliminary position is like that of the back dive, except that the hands are in front of, instead of on, the hips. Care should be taken not to bend forward as this spoils the jump. The spring is practically vertical, and with it the hands go up, the head is thrown far back, and the back is arched. Most begin- ners are so eager to arch that they lose height. Be particular about a strong, vertical spring. The tuck position is hardly taken before it opens out into an early entrance position (feet- first). This dive is very pretty if properly done, because of the long, straight drop in com- plete entrance position. Incidentally it is about the best possible exercise for attaining control and composure in the air. Entrance should be within three or four feet, the closer the better. An easier, and perhaps a better form of the back somersault, omits the grip of the hands on the shins in the second movement. The body is simply flexed sharply at the waist, knees almost straight, and opened to entrance position, the hands coming from the upward throw, directly down to the thighs. 110 SWIMMING AND DIVING Common Faults Stooping in preliminary position. Trying to get turn too soon and sacrificing height. Entering too far out, i. e., "sitting in" the dive. Failure to get the head way back on the first movement. Many divers think the head is back when it is not. Incomplete entrance position: flexion at hips, arms flung out to the side or over the head. THE BACKWARD ONE AND ONE-HALF (AND DOUBLE) SOMERSAULT This dive is identical with the first form of the back somersault, except that the tuck must be tighter, the spin faster, and the en- trance, head-first. It is well to warm up with a few very high back somersaults, and then try the 1½ a few times without opening out. The opening out movement is exactly like the throw in the back dive, and should be done with all possible speed. This spectacular dive is rated high, and well worth the time neces- THE OPTIONAL DIVES 111 sary to learn it. The 1½ with half twist and the double somersault are additional listed dives. Common Faults Too loose a tuck. Failure to open out with sufficient speed to attain good entrance position. See also common faults of the back somer- sault and the back dive. THE FLYING DUTCHMAN SOMERSAULT (FULL GAINER) This rather sensational dive is simply a combination of the forward spring and the backward tuck, with feet-first entrance. Here it is particularly essential that the head throw be extreme, because the forward spring makes the backward turn a little unnatural. Begin- ners always make a broad jump out of the affair, and probably always will. The en- trance should be within three or four feet, the closer the better; and the diver should not allow himself to persist for days and weeks in entering too far out. A cushion will again 112 SWIMMING AND DIVING be helpful. The common faults are those of the back somersault. THE FLYING DUTCHMAN (HALF GAINER) The Dutchman is a back dive movement with a forward spring, and should be per- formed with a layout. The spring should be as vertical as possible, and at the zenith, the head and arms should be thrown back exactly as in the back dive. The arch is assumed immediately upon leaving the board, and should remain unbroken. Some divers do a pretty dutchman with an inverted jack, i. e., bringing the feet upward to the hands, and then dropping backward for the dive. The other form is usually preferred, however. This dive is a favorite optional and is rated high. It may be performed with a half twist. Common Faults Forgetting to spring, or making a broad jump. Failure to throw the head back and arch to the maximum. Wriggling and general loss of form in the air. THE OPTIONAL DIVES 113 Underthrow. Too little height, too little head throw, or entrance too far out. Overthrow. Caused by breaking the arch or working too hard in the head throw. Faulty entrance position. Twisting (involuntary). Cure by twisting the other way, as in the back dive. PART III MANAGING A SWIMMING MEET INTRODUCTORY I Financially speaking, swimming is usually a parasitic sport, getting its backing from the credit side of football, basketball, or other sources. This unfortunate situation is bound to continue until the institutions supporting swimming teams find some practical method of handling large crowds at their aquatic con- tests; because such a natatorium as the average institution can afford has proven itself totally incapable of accommodating a “paying” audi- ence. Possibly some clever engineer may solve our problem by devising a means of re- moving the basketball floor and exposing the natatorium beneath, but even such a device. might not increase the common man's inter- est in swimming sufficiently to make it a pay- ing proposition. Since swimming teams are comparatively small, and the duties of a manager not bur- 117 118 SWIMMING AND DIVING densome, many institutions find it econom- ically advisable to choose a manager from the team and thus save traveling expenses. A man so chosen is perhaps more likely to be thoroughly interested and in close touch with the general swimming situation, though less able to assist in handling some large meets in which he may be a contestant. The good old slogan "If you want a thing done well, do it yourself" is sure but slow, owing to the serious limitations of one pair of hands and one head. To be up to date, it should have the qualifying clause, "or leave it to someone who has proved himself de- pendable." Despite the assertion of cynics, these "somebodies" exist in every community, and the wise director carefully selects and trains them. Your manager should be chosen for his loyalty and capability, and then given all the responsibility he can stand. If he is of the right stuff, he will appreciate having a real job to do instead of a bevy of obvious details to perform: and you yourself will soon appreciate having someone to work with you instead of a mere errand boy. This does not mean, of course, that you should not over- MANAGING A SWIMMING MEET 119 see the whole meet yourself, and quietly check up the important features of his job until you are sure of him. The director or coach who is ultimately re- sponsible for a swimming meet, finds himself in a position where a little oversight may re- sult in great inconvenience or delay, and gen- eral misunderstanding and embarrassment. A complete list of necessary items is helpful in checking the memory, so we shall begin our discussion with such a reference list or out- line. Other details may be added in order to make the list absolutely complete for any situation. OFFICIALS Referee (may have other duties). Judges of finish (one more than number of places picked). Starter. Timers. Judges of Fancy Dive (3). Score Keeper. Clerk of Course. Announcer. 120 SWIMMING AND DIVING Clerks (to aid head timer or figure diving sheets). Water Polo Officials. (Appoint two of the above to handle plunge for distance.) THE POOL Temperature of water and room: proper ventilation. Pool ladders (remove if possible). Diving board and take-off for plunge (be sure they are in good condition). Proper seating arrangements. Tickets: change. Ropes for lanes. Rope for false start. Cord for plunge. Score board: chalk. Polo goals. ACCESSORIES : Stop watches. Towels. Massage linament. Revolver (.22 or .32 cal.) 2 doz. cartridges. Score sheets. MANAGING A SWIMMING MEET 121 Diving sheets (with values of optionals en- tered). Cardboards, clips, pencils (with erasers). Rule Book. Polo ball. Extra suits. Blankets: sheets. II CHOOSING OFFICIALS The first consideration in choosing officials should be competency. Ninety percent of all disputes, misunderstandings and hard feel- ings will be avoided if the important officials are strict, impartial, and thoroughly ac- quainted with their jobs. In addition, they should be gentlemen of such a calibre as to definitely raise the standards of competitive swimming. Theoretically they should be im- partial, i. e., not connected with or prejudiced in favor of any team; but this qualification is impractical in small towns or in organizing large meets requiring many officials. Except in the case of an old grudge between rival in- stitutions, most coaches emphatically prefer a first-rate official who is technically partial, to a second or third rater who, though im- partial, may wreck the machinery of the best planned meet. It goes without saying that 122 CHOOSING OFFICIALS 123 even a technically partial official should be avoided when convenient, and never used without the ungrudging consent of the oppos- ing team or teams. Many directors and coaches ask the offi- cials to arrive thirty or forty minutes before the meet is supposed to begin, or even sched- ule their meets early in effort to allow for the inveterate tardiness of human nature. This dodge may prove effective once or twice, but officials and contestants alike soon resent such kindergarten methods, and (like the patient to whom the doctor has lied) get the habit of discounting everything. In the end, you will get much better results if you tell the officials and contestants exactly when the meet begins, ask the former to appear ten or fifteen min- utes earlier, and then begin the meet sharp on time, changing and substituting your officials a little if necessary. This course may cause you considerable inconvenience at first, but a few examples will usually insure prompt service thereafter. The referee should be the king pin of the meet. Often he is a mere figurehead, too un- suspicious, indecisive, or ignorant to enforce 124 SWIMMING AND DIVING the rules strictly and impartially. If all the other officials are top notchers, his incom- petence may escape notice; otherwise there is sure to be dissatisfaction, and rightly so. He should watch every event closely and dis- qualify without hesitation. Only thus will the rules come to be studied and respected. The judges of finish should get in position to sight along the finish line, each picking a place: 1st, 2nd, 3d., etc. The two judges picking first should be on opposite sides of the pool. Very often the judges act as timers also, timing the places they are picking. Timers should report to the head timer be- fore the meet, compare watches (taking one watch as standard) and carefully allow for deviations. The tenth second watch is the best, having been used at the Olympics and formally adopted by the I. C. A. A. A. A. and the A. A. U. In other than dual meets, where qualifica- tion is made by time, and not by winning a heat, the head timer has a difficult and deli- cate task. He and his staff must get the exact times on the first two or three men of each heat (putting two watches on the first), and CHOOSING OFFICIALS 125 then, after the last heat, he must pick out the four or five lowest times for the final. The score-keeper or a specially appointed clerk should be at his elbow to take down times when the watches are compared. This method of qualifying by time is fairer than the heat winning method for two reasons: first, be- cause each contestant is swimming against time instead of just fast enough to win his heat, which may be a slow one; and second, because if two or three fast men happen to get in the same heat, they all may qualify for the final. The starter has the most prominent posi- tion in the meet. He should not only be thor- oughly experienced and competent but also possessed of a personality that inspires respect and confidence. He should understand men as well as guns and swimming rules. More will be said of him below. Judges of the fancy dive are far and away the hardest officials to find. Many self-styled diving judges cannot even total their scores properly, and may be seen scribbling away at their sheets instead of watching the dives they are pretending to judge. In addition to being 126 SWIMMING AND DIVING informed on the rather complex scoring sys- tem (see Swimming Guide), the diving judge should understand all the dives listed in the Guide, and have a thorough knowledge of the merits and common faults of the dozen or so most commonly performed. Diving coaches usually make the best judges. The judging of the fancy dive commonly causes more dis- satisfaction than all the other events to- gether; hence the supreme importance of se- lecting experienced men who really know their business. The score-keeper should be reasonably clear-headed and should understand the sim- ple rules of his job. He should be provided with a score sheet (see below) and should keep the score clearly chalked up on the score board as the meet progresses. He should get his information direct from the head judge or timer, and do all he can to help these officials take down times, etc. In large open meets, it is well to have a clerk specially appointed as a go-between from head timer to starter. The clerk-of-course should know as many of the contestants and their teams as pos- CHOOSING OFFICIALS 127 sible; and be thoroughly acquainted with the order of events, the arrangement of heats, etc., etc. He should be a hustler and always a step ahead of the game, preparing for trou- bles and delays before they arrive. In a well- regulated dual meet there will be almost nothing for him to do, but in a large open meet he will be the busiest man in sight, and one of the most important. Clerk-of-course is the logical job for a good manager. The announcer should possess a good voice and pleasing personality, coupled with a mind that naturally gets things straight. If not already acquainted with the contestants and their respective teams, he should famil- iarize himself with these facts. No mega- phone should be used, as this instrument so concentrates the voice that no one part of the audience gets the entire message, particularly if the announcer, like most of his tribe, has the vicious habit of waving his megaphone in the manner of a weather vane. The an- nouncer should get his information from the score-keeper and should announce the score from time to time, especially if it is close. Many crowds are very thoughtless about 128 SWIMMING AND DIVING quieting down for announcements, and often the contestants and coaches, chattering in one end of the pool, are the worst offenders. The announcer should insist upon a reasonable amount of attention before he speaks, because there is always a fair percentage of the crowd that wishes to hear the information. Perhaps a basketball whistle will prove effective, or perhaps the referee will be forced to address the audience. In any event, it should be rea- soned, coaxed, or scolded into an attitude con- sistent with a well-regulated meet. III THE POOL The water for a swimming meet should be about 74 degrees Farenheit, and the room a little warmer. It is well to have the lanes roped off, or, in case of a dual meet, a rope down the center of the pool from end to end (each team swimming both its competitors on one side). In large meets, especially when inexperienced or unscrupulous swimmers are competing, there are almost sure to be col- lisions where disqualification is a delicate proposition, and dissatisfaction an assured re- sult. Roped lanes will prevent most of this trouble, and should be more often resorted to. Some swimmers cannot hear the recall gun (particularly if it misses fire) after a false start. A rope should be ready, 20-30 feet from the start, to drop in the water across the course and prevent these contestants from wasting their strength. It is also well to use 129 130 SWIMMING AND DIVING a light cord in judging the plunge for dis- tance, keeping it parallel with the starting line and just ahead of the plunger's fingers, as he begins to reach his limit. If any seats are placed on the pocl level, care should be taken that they do not crowd the starter or the judges of finish; or place the audience where it will get unduly splashed. IV ACCESSORIES Occasionally a timer appears without a watch or with a poor one. It is well to have a couple good stop watches on hand, taking care that they be compared with that of the head timer if used in the meet. It is wise to allow one towel for each con- testant, one extra for each diver, and half a dozen extra for each team to use after swim- ming, rub-down, etc. There is no reason for being stingy with towels, but there is also no reason for giving them away as souvenirs. They should be furnished in reasonable num- bers and checked up carefully by the man- ager after the meet. Some good linament should be on hand, as massage is a decided help in reviving a swimmer for his second or third hard race. Arrangement should be made with the starter as to who shall furnish the gun and 131 132 SWIMMING AND DIVING cartridges. If he brings the fireworks, have a gun ready anyway, because his may not work. A couple of score sheets and three or four diving sheets should be clipped to cardboard backs, and a few sharpened pencils with erasers should be prepared for forgetful offi- cials. Be sure to have a Swimming Guide on hand in case the referee forgets his. Each of the divers (or his coach) should be interviewed before the meet, and his op- tionals given in order of performance, to the announcer. At the same time, the values of all these optionals should be carefully en- tered on all three sheets, under the proper names and exactly in the order of perform- ance (see below). Where this is impossible, the man who introduces the divers should clearly name the value of each optional be- fore it is performed. V RUNNING OFF THE EVENTS At present, the relay is the first event in the Intercollegiate Order of Events, a pro- gram that is hard to improve upon from the swimmer's viewpoint. The relay makes a dramatic close, however, with it high point value and sensational character; and for this reason, many prefer to place it last. Pos- sibly a few years will see it back again at the end of the list, where it is indeed a "thriller" especially when it decides the meet. Touching-off is the only new element that appears in the relay. Some swimmers prefer to be slapped on the back, but a quick firm touch on the calf of the leg is the official sig- nal in intercollegiate circles. If the "quick" start (see below) is being used in the meet, the swimmers' feet should be on the take off when he is touched-off. With the "slow" start, however, he, logically, should not be off 133 134 SWIMMING AND DIVING balance when touched, as the touch-off takes the place of the gun. The fancy dive is commonly run off in very ragged fashion, but if the divers' names and the values of their optionals are entered on all the sheets before the meet, and if the announcer has the names of the divers and their dives well in mind, the event may be handled with speed and precision. The three judges should take different positions: one on the six foot line (which should be marked on the side of the pool), another further to the rear, and the third on the other side. The announcer should introduce each dive with the name of the diver and the dive he is about to perform, particularly if it be an optional. Immediately the diver should appear on the end of the board and wait for the signal of the head judge. This official should nod, only when he sees that the other two judges are ready to observe the dive. Too often this rule is ignored, with the result that a judge or two misses the dive, and has to draw on his imagination in marking it. If the diving judges are acting in subsequent events of the meet, some capable person or RUNNING OFF THE EVENTS 135 persons should previously be appointed to total and check the sheets. Otherwise the re- sults of the dive may still be undecided when the crowd wants to go home. The races are all handled about alike, ex- cept for differences in turns, etc., thoroughly explained in the Swimming Guide. Hence we shall consider them together. The main point is an even start. At present there are two forms being used: the "quick" start, in which the swimmer's feet must be on the take- off at the report of the gun, though his body may be off balance; and the "slow" start, in which he must not lose his balance before the crack of the gun. The first is a three signal start, the second, sometimes three, sometimes two. It is well to remark that the essential difference between these starts lies not in the number of signals but in the equilibrium of the body (unstable in the first, stable in the second) at the crack of the gun. The "slow" start is at present the official one in inter- collegiate circles, but it is not practiced by all college teams nor strictly interpreted by them, even when theoretically adopted. Hence the basis for considerable difference of opinion. 136 SWIMMING AND DIVING Now, technicalities aside, the test of a good starter is this: does he get his men off together (cheats and honest ones alike) with a min- imum of false starts? Too often this salient point is forgotten in anxiety over a lot of rel- atively unimportant details like two signals or three signals, cadence or no cadence, motion of the arms, etc., etc. Frequently a contestant will protest against a starter's method (par- ticularly the "slow" start) simply because it deprives him of his ethically questionable advantage over rivals just as good as himself. Personally I believe the average starter will get the largest percentage of even starts by a strict interpretation of the "slow" start (one or two signals as the swimmers desire). It is easy and fairly accurate to deduct 1/5 of a second in comparing "slow" start records. with "quick" start records. If the starter stands at one end of the line, and just a bit in front, he can easily detect any loss of balance and withhold his fire, letting the offender fall in, and avoiding a general false start. Pro- vided the starter is reasonably alert, and the signals are not given in cadence, it is a very difficult matter to beat the gun. RUNNING OFF THE EVENTS 137 The "quick" start, on the other hand, al- most encourages the swimmer to "steal," be- cause he ought to be almost in the air when the gun cracks, and no one can blame him for wanting to be a shade ahead rather than be- hind. With the best of intentions, he could hardly be at just the right falling angle, since he does not know exactly when the gun will sound. This situation is the main fault of the quick start, and also the reason why (unlike the "slow" start) it should be given in cadence when given at all. If we expect the swim- mer to be in unstable equilibrium at the final signal, it is only fair to give him, by cadence, a very definite idea as to when that signal is coming. If he "steals" in spite of this hint, his cheating is more apt to be deliberate and he deserves the consequences. Too many starters, unduly fearing a false start, say "get set" and fire the gun almost simultaneously, thus giving virtually a "slow" start under false pretenses. The result is that next time the experienced swimmers try to leave their marks on "get set," and then there are more false starts. In conducting the plunge for distance, the 138 SWIMMING AND DIVING referee (or other official) should call off the distances while the starter keeps time and fires his gun at the expiration of a minute. Others may hold a cord if desired. The water should be kept as quiet as possible by excluding all but the plunger from the pool, and insisting that he climb quietly out the far end. If coaching as to direction is permitted, it should be done when the plunger first begins to get out of line, and by the referee only, though it can do little good if the plunger is properly watching his course on the bottom of the pool. The present A. A. U. system of having all the plunges made simultaneously is pleasanter for the audience but deprives the swimmers of a much needed rest. In this case, again, it is fairer to give the starting signals in slow cadence, so that some plunger may not be caught during expiration, and thus lose some of the minute allowed him in the water. The water polo game is often played first and last, i. e., with the swimming meet as an intermission between the halves. The referee, like the starter, should be skilful in handling men as well as in the technical difficulties of RUNNING OFF THE EVENTS 139 his job. Before the game, he should clearly explain to the two captains exactly what con- stitutes a foul; and then stick to it. Goal judges should be carefully selected, as theirs is a difficult and delicate task. SCORE SHEET FOR DUAL MEET Place Data Home Team Visitors Event Name Time Points Name Time Points Relay Fancy Dive 50 (40) yd. Breast Str. 220 yd. Plunge Back Str. Distance Distance 100 yd. Total points The points will tell the place, 1st, 2nd, or 3rd. This sheet should be filed, as it contains all important information on the meet in the most concise form. 140 SWIMMING AND DIVING SCORE SHEET FOR MORE THAN TWO TEAMS Place Yale Event Relay Dive 50 yd. Breast 220 yd. Plunge Back Princeton Date Columbia Dartmouth Cornell Name Pts. Name | Pts. Name Pts. Name Pts. Name Pts. 100 yd. Total points The points will tell the place, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th; and the times may be inserted after the winner's name. This sheet should be filed, as it contains all important information in the most concise form. م 5. 6. 66 TOTALS PLACE NUMBER Mc Henry Name of Diver (Yale) 1. Running Front Dive 2. Back Dive Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total CHECKER Meet Date Scale of Marking on Form of Dives One to Ten 1.2 1.4 15 1.6 1.7 1.8 19 2.0 2 1 2.2 2.3 2.4 1. 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 1.5 1.8 2.1. 2.25 2.4 2.55 2.7 2.85 3. 3.15 3.3 3.45 3.6 2. 2.4 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4. 4.2 4 4 4.6 4.8 25 3.0 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 5. 5.25 5.5 5.75 6. 3. 3.6 4.2 4 5 4.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.25 5.6 4. 4.8 5.6 6.0 6 4 4.5 5.4 6.3 6.75 7.2 5.1 5.4 5.95 6.3 6.8 7.2 7.65 8.1 5.7 6. 6.3 6.6 6.9 7.2 5. 6.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 THIS SHEET KEPT BY 6.5 6.6 7.7 8.25 8.8 9.35 9.9 6. 7.2 8.4 9.0 9.6 6.5 7.8 9.1 9.75 10.4 7. 8.4 9.8 10.5 11 2 JUDGE 7.8 9.0 10.5 11.25 12.0 10.2 10.8 11.05 11.7 11.9 12.6 12.75 13.5 8. 9.6 11.2 12.0 12.8 13.6 14.4 THIS SHEET CHECKED BY 8.5 10.2 11.9 12.75 13.6 14.45 15 3 9. 10.8 12.6 13.5 14.4 15.3 16.2 6.65 7. 7.6 8. 8.55 9. 9.5 10. 10.45 11 11.4 12. 12.35 13. 13.3 14. 14.25 15. 15.2 16. 16.15 17. 17.1 18. 7.35 7.7 8.05 8.4 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.8 9.45 9.9 10.35 10.8 10.05 11.0 11.55 12.1 12.6 13.2 13.65 14.3 14.7 15.4 15.75 11.5 12 12 65 13.2 13.8 14.95 15.6 16.1 16.8 14.4 16.5 17.25 18. 16.8 17.85 17 6 18.4 19.2 18.7 19.55 20.4 18.9 19.8 20.7 21.6 9 5 11.4 13 3 14.25 15 2 16.15 17.1 18.05 19. 19.95 20.9 21.85 22.8 10. 12. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19 20. 21. 22 23. 24. Dane (Princeton) Benjamin Kazanjian (Yale) (Princeton 3. Back Jack Knife 4. Running Jack Knife 1. Voluntary Dive 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 2. 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 3. 4. : 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.0 3 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.9 Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of This diving score sheet, incorporating Frank J. Sullivan's table, has been recently devised by Mr. Jack Cody, Instructor and Coach of Swimming at The Multnomah Athletic Club, Portland, Oregon: and is printed here with his kind permission. Its good arrangement and general clearness obviate many difficulties in scoring the dive. The values of the optionals are shown entered as they should be before the meet. Difficulty TABLE FOR SCORING DIFFICULTY OF DIVES Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total Form Rating of Difficulty Total : THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN GRADUATE LIBRARY 144 J. DATE DUE ! UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 04974 8893 DO NOT REMOVE OR MUTILATE CARDS